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http://exposinghearingaids.org/truth-about-hearing-aids/ | Home Hearing Aids Hearing Aids All hearing aids come with a 45 - Day money - back guarantee and are fit by a local hearing care professional . After purchase , an appointment will be made with a local professional for fitting . A recent hearing test by a licensed professional is required . If you do not have a recent audiogram , one will be provided before the fitting . Sort By : Oticon Oticon Opn Choose Options Phonak Phonak Audeo $ 1,899.99 Choose Options Phonak Phonak Bolero $ 1,799.99 ReSound ReSound LiNX 3D Chat or call for price ReSound ReSound LiNX Quattro Chat or call for price Signia Signia Ace Primax $ 1,299.00 - $ 1,799.00 1 2 3 Next | [
"Hearing Aids",
"custom-programmed",
"ReSound"
] |
http://expressdigest.com/serena-williams-apology-tennys-sandgren-disgusting-remark/ | Serena Williams apology Tennys Sandgren disgusting remark Surprise up and coming tennis - pro Tennys Sandgren ’ s Australian Open wins have been overshadowed by his ‘ alt - right ’ tweets , and , has he caught the ire of tennis great Serena Williams . Sandgren , an ardent Trump supporter from Tennessee , ‘ cleaned ’ his Twitter account on Tuesday as it became more about his apparent alt - right political beliefs than his game as he dove into this year ’ s Australian Open , which saw him ranked No . 97 , but on Monday he upset world No . 5 Dominic Thiem in five sets . However , one tweet in particular caught the attention of Serena before he wiped his Twitter , that was shared during one of her matches in 2015 . The up and coming tennis pro shared a video of Serena yelling at Roberta Vinci at the 2015 US Open with the word ‘ disgusting . ’ As he started his Melbourne match , Serena tweeted a subtle dig with ‘ Turns channel , ’ on Tuesday . Scroll for video Serena Williams slammed up and coming tennis pro Tennys Sandgren ( left ) after she saw a dig he made at her over Twitter in 2015 in which he called her ‘ disgusting ’ Serena first tweeted ‘ Turns channel ’ as Sandgren started his match at the Australian Open A day later Serena tweeted this directly at Sandgren calling on him to apologize Meanwhile Sandgren went on to lose his quarterfinals bout to South Korean Hyeon Chung 6 - 4 , 7 - 6 ( 5 ) , 6 - 3 . Sandgren told ESPN his decision to wipe his Twitter , was for a ‘ clean start . ’ He explained in the interview that he deleted all of his tweets not because it ’ s ‘ something that I ’ m really necessary embarrassed about , ’ but because he thought that ‘ creating a version of a cleaner start is not a bad call . ’ And , he added in an interview Tuesday , speaking on his now deleted content : ‘ [ It ’ s ] not really specific ‘ alt - right ’ content that I deem of value . I think that ’ s very incorrect , and I do n ’ t find information like that to be of value or to hold on to any of those things . ’ On Wednesday Serena tweeted again , this time directly at Sandgren writing : ‘ I do n ’ t need or want one . But there is a entire group of people that deserves an apology . I cant look at my daughter and tell her I sat back and was quiet . No ! she will know how to stand up for herself and others - through my example . ’ Sandgren had also tweeted about believing in the Pizzagate conspiracy theory . He tweeted , according to Deadspin ‘ sickening and the collective evidence is too much to ignore , ’ and that he believes the mainstream media is n ’ t covering Hillary ’ s involvement in Satanic rituals because ‘ they are concocting a way to make it sound not so bad . ’ Some of his recent tweets included re - tweets of white nationalist Nicholas Fuentes , who in turn called Sandgren a friend on Twitter . Fuentes marched in the deadly Charlottesville alt - right rally . After his Wednesday loss , Sandgren started his post - match press conference reading a statement from his cellphone , lashing out at the media for taking away from the game , and instead discussing his perceived alt - right leanings during his unexpected run at Melbourne Park : ‘ You seek to put people in these little boxes so that you can order the world in your already assumed preconceived ideas . You strip away any individuality for the sake of demonizing by way of the collective . Serena holding her baby Alexis Olympia Ohanian Jr . She was pregnant with Alexis during the Australian Open . Tweeting directly at Sandgren that she had to address him calling her ‘ disgusting ’ in part for her daughter ‘ With a handful of follows and some likes on Twitter , my fate has been sealed in your minds . To write an edgy story , to create sensationalist coverage , there are a few lengths you would n ’ t go to to mark me as the man you desperately want me to be . ‘ You would rather perpetuate propaganda machines instead of researching information from a host of angles and perspectives while being willing to learn , change , and grow . You dehumanize with pen and paper and turn neighbor against neighbor . In so doing , you may actually find you ’ re hastening the hell you wish to avoid , the hell we all wish to avoid . ‘ It is my firm belief that the highest value must be placed on the virtue of each individual , regardless of gender , race , religion , or sexual orientation . It ’ s my job to continue on this journey with the goal of becoming the best me I can and to embody the love Christ has for me , for I answer to Him and Him alone . I ’ ll take questions about the match , if you guys do n ’ t mind . Thank you . If you have any questions about the match Read more at DailyMail . co . uk Comments are closed . | [
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http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/agriculture/enterotoxemia-overeating-disease-of-sheep-and-goats-8-018/ | Extension Contact your local county Extension office through our County Office List Online Directory CSU Extension - A division of the Office of Engagement . Providing trusted , practical education to help you solve problems , develop skills and build a better future . Established 1912 Home Topic Areas Ask an Expert Publications About Us News Español Store Enterotoxemia ( Overeating Disease ) of Sheep and Goats – 8.018 Print this fact sheet by D . Van Metre 1 ( 5 / 2010 ) Quick Facts … Entertoxemia is a frequently severe disease of sheep and goats of all ages . Causative bacteria are present in relatively low numbers and appear to be in a relatively quiescent state in the normal , healthy animal . Treatment may not be successful in severe cases . Prevention of enterotoxemia is far more likely to be successful than trying to treat the disease . Enterotoxemia is a frequently severe disease of sheep and goats of all ages . It is caused by two strains of bacteria called Clostridium perfringens – the strains are termed types C and D . These bacteria are normally found in low numbers in the gastrointestinal tract of all sheep and goats . If that is so , when and why do they cause disease ? These organisms are normally “ laying low ” in the small and large intestine – that is , they are present in relatively low numbers and appear to be in a relatively quiescent state in the normal , healthy animal . What appears to trigger them to cause disease is a change in the diet of the animal . Most commonly , the change that triggers disease is an increase in the amount of grain , protein supplement , milk or milk replacer ( for lambs and kids ) , and / or grass that the sheep or goat is ingesting . Collectively , these feeds are rich in starch , sugar , and / or protein . When unusually high levels of these nutrients reach the intestine , Clostridium perfringens undergoes explosive growth , increasing its numbers rapidly within the intestine . As the organism grows in number , it releases very potent toxins ( bacterial poisons ) that harm the animal . These toxins can cause damage to the intestine as well as numerous other organs . This can result in fatalities , particularly in the non - vaccinated animal or in the newborn lamb or kid whose dam has not been vaccinated . The signs of enterotoxemia in sheep and goats include : • The animals may abruptly go off of feed and become lethargic . • Affected animals may show signs of stomach pain , such as kicking at their belly , repeatedly laying down and getting up , laying on their sides , panting , and crying out . • Diarrhea may develop ; in some cases , there is blood visible in the loose stool . • Animals may lose the ability to stand , lay on their sides , and extend their legs , with their head and neck extended back over their withers . This posture is caused by the effects of the toxins on the brain . Death commonly occurs within minutes to hours after this sign is seen . • Because enterotoxemia can progress so quickly , animals may be found dead with no previous signs of disease . Treatment Treatment of enterotoxemia may not be successful in severe cases . Many veterinarians treat mild cases with analgesics , probiotics ( gels or pastes with “ good bacteria ) , oral electrolyte solutions , and antisera , which is a solution of concentrated antibodies that neutralize the toxins that these bacteria produce . More severe cases may require intravenous fluids , antibiotic therapy , and other types of supportive care , such as supplemental oxygen . Prevention Prevention of enterotoxemia is far more likely to be successful than trying to treat the disease . Vaccination Vaccination is the cornerstone to prevention of this disease . For sheep and goats , there are multiple vaccines available that induce immunity to the toxins generated by types C and D . Because tetanus is also an important disease to prevent in sheep and goats , many veterinarians recommend that sheep and goats be vaccinated with a vaccine that also induces protection against tetanus . These vaccines are often termed “ three - way ” vaccines because they induce protection against the three bacteria involved : Clostridium perfringens type C ( enterotoxemia ) , type D ( enterotoxemia ) and Clostridium tetani ( the bacterium that causes tetanus ) . Adult sheep and goats : When initiating vaccination for a given sheep or goat , all enterotoxemia / tetanus vaccines require two doses to induce effective immunity . These doses are usually administered 10 to14 days apart . Once each adult sheep or goat has received these two doses , repeat vaccination should occur at least once per year . Many veterinarians recommend that ewes and does be vaccinated roughly one to two months ahead of the anticipated birthing date , in order to maximize the amount of antibody present in the For juvenile and adult sheep or goats fed diets rich in grain or allowed to graze lush pasture , more frequent vaccination for enterotoxemia may be warranted ; some producers immunize these higher - risk animals two to four times per year to achieve adequate protection . Keeping the mothers well - vaccinated is the best way to protect newborn animals against this disease , as the antibodies to the bacterial toxins are transferred to the newborns in the colostrum ( first milk ) . Obviously , you need to ensure that newborns receive colostrum for this to work ! Growing babies are typically vaccinated for the first time at six to 10 weeks of age , and one to two repeat ( booster ) vaccinations are typically given afterwards . Consult your veterinarian to determine what vaccination strategy best suits your operation and feeding program . Feeding Strategies Smart feeding strategies will also enable you to limit the potential for this disease to affect your herd or flock . Since the causative bacteria proliferate in the intestine in response to ingestion of abnormally high levels of starch , sugar , or protein , you need to be careful how you feed certain feedstuffs that contain high levels of these nutrients , such as grains , silage or haylage , lush pasture , milk or milk replacer , and protein supplements . Complete feeds – such as pellets designed to be fed to induce gain in lambs or kids – can also When feeding these high - risk feedstuffs , divide the daily allotment for each animal into as many small feedings as is feasible ( say , three to four feedings ) , rather than providing such feeds in a single , large meal . It is also advisable to feed roughages such as hay before feeding these higher - risk feeds , simply to allow the animals to become full on hay beforehand . This helps to limit the potential for overeating on high - risk feedstuffs , such as grain . Consult your veterinarian to determine what feeding strategy Always make feed changes slowly . If you plan to increase the amount of grain fed to a flock or herd , always do so in gradual increments over several days . This helps the bacteria in the stomach to accommodate to the diet , making it less likely that the troublesome bacteria will get access to the nutrients . Make sure that you watch your animals for signs of dominance by one or more individuals – they can boss the others away from the grain and overeat ; alternatively , the shy animals can hold back from feeding and become so hungry that they For animals being turned out onto pasture after being fed hay or other stored feeds , a conservative thumb rule is to begin by allowing only about 10 minutes of grazing time on the first day . Double this with each subsequent day – it will take about a week for them to work up to a full 24 hours on pasture . Heavily milking dams may need to be fed more roughage and less concentrate to limit the excessive milk production that might endanger their offspring . Keep the feed schedule consistent to lactating does and ewes to limit fluctuations in milk volume for their nursing offspring . 1 D . Van Metre , DVM , DACVIM , Colorado State University Extension specialist ( veterinarian ) and associate professor , College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences , Clinical Sciences . ( 5 / 2010 ) . Colorado State University , U.S. Department of Agriculture and Colorado counties cooperating . Extension programs are available to all without discrimination . No endorsement of products mentioned is intended nor is criticism implied of products not mentioned . | [
"Enterotoxemia",
"Causative bacteria"
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http://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/nutrition-food-safety-health/water-soluble-vitamins-b-complex-and-vitamin-c-9-312/ | Extension Contact your local county Extension office through our County Office List Online Directory CSU Extension - A division of the Office of Engagement . Providing trusted , practical education to help you solve problems , develop skills and build a better future . Established 1912 Home Topic Areas Ask an Expert Publications About Us News Español Store Water - Soluble Vitamins : B - Complex and Vitamin C – 9.312 Print this fact sheet by L . Bellows and R . Moore ( 11 / 12 ) Quick Facts … B - complex vitamins and vitamin C are water - soluble vitamins that are not stored in the body and must be replaced each day . These vitamins are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage and preparation . The B - complex group is found in a variety of foods : cereal grains , meat , poultry , eggs , fish , milk , legumes and fresh vegetables . Citrus fruits are good sources of vitamin C . Using megadoses of multivitamins or supplements is not recommended . What are Vitamins ? Vitamins are essential nutrients found in foods . They perform specific and vital functions in a variety of body systems , and are crucial for maintaining optimal health . The two different types of vitamins are fat - soluble vitamins and water - soluble vitamins . Fat - soluble vitamins — vitamins A , D , E and K — dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the bloodstream to carry out their functions . Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver , and are not needed every day in the diet . For more information on fat - soluble vitamins , see fact sheet 9.315 Fat - Soluble Vitamins : A , D , E , and K In contrast , water - soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored by the body . Since they are eliminated in urine , we require a continuous daily supply in our diet . The water - soluble vitamins include the vitamin B - complex group and vitamin C . Water - soluble vitamins are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage or preparation . Proper storage and preparation of food can minimize vitamin loss . To reduce vitamin loss , always refrigerate fresh produce , keep milk and grains away from strong light , and use cooking water from vegetables to prepare soups . What are Water - Soluble Vitamins ? B - complex Vitamins Eight of the water - soluble vitamins are known as the vitamin B - complex group : thiamin ( vitamin B1 ) , riboflavin ( vitamin B2 ) , niacin ( vitamin B3 ) , vitamin B6 ( pyridoxine ) , folate ( folic acid ) , vitamin B12 , biotin and pantothenic acid . The B vitamins are widely distributed in foods , and their influence is felt in many parts of the body . They function as coenzymes that help the body obtain energy from food . The B vitamins are also important for normal appetite , good Thiamin : Vitamin B1 What is Thiamin . Thiamin , or vitamin B1 , helps to release energy from foods , promotes normal appetite , and is important in maintaining proper nervous system function . Food Sources for Thiamin . Sources include peas , pork , liver , and legumes . Most commonly , thiamin is found in whole grains and fortified grain products such as cereal , and enriched products like bread , pasta , rice , and tortillas . The process of enrichment adds back nutrients that are lost when grains are processed . Among the nutrients added during the enrichment process are thiamin ( B1 ) , niacin ( B3 ) , riboflavin ( B2 ) , folate and iron . How much Thiamin . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for thiamin is 1.2 mg / day for adult males and 1.1 mg / day for adult females ( Table 1 ) . These values are closely tied to calorie expenditure . Thiamin Deficiency . Under - consumption of thiamin is rare in the United States due to wide availability of enriched grain products . However , low calorie diets as well as diets high in refined and processed carbohydrates may place one at risk for thiamin deficiency . Alcoholics are especially prone to thiamin deficiency because excess alcohol consumption often replaces food or meals . Symptoms of thiamin deficiency include : mental confusion , muscle weakness , wasting , water retention ( edema ) , impaired growth , and the disease known as beriberi . Thiamin deficiency is currently not a problem in Too much Thiamin . No problems with overconsumption are known for thiamin . Riboflavin : Vitamin B2 What is Riboflavin . Riboflavin , or vitamin B2 , helps to release energy from foods , promotes good vision , and healthy skin . It also helps to convert the amino acid tryptophan ( which makes up protein ) into niacin . Food Sources for Riboflavin . Sources include liver , eggs , dark green vegetables , legumes , whole and enriched grain products , and milk . Ultraviolet light is known to destroy riboflavin , which is why most milk is packaged in opaque containers instead of clear . How much Riboflavin . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for riboflavin is 1.3 mg / day for adult males and 1.1 mg / day for adult females ( Table 1 ) . Like thiamin , these values are closely tied to energy expenditure . Riboflavin Deficiency . Under consumption of riboflavin is rare in the United States . However , it has been known to occur with alcoholism , malignancy , hyperthyroidism , and in the elderly . Symptoms of deficiency include cracks at the corners of the mouth , dermatitis on nose and lips , light sensitivity , cataracts , and a sore , red tongue . Too much Riboflavin . No problems with overconsumption are known for riboflavin . Niacin : Vitamin B3 , Nicotinamide , Nicotinic Acid . What is Niacin . Niacin , or vitamin B3 , is involved in energy production , normal enzyme function , digestion , promoting normal appetite , healthy skin , and nerves . Food Sources for Niacin . Sources include liver , fish , poultry , meat , peanuts , whole and enriched grain products . How much Niacin . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for niacin is 16 mg / day for adult males and 14 mg / day for adult females ( Table 1 ) . These values are closely tied to energy expenditure . Niacin Deficiency . Niacin deficiency is not a problem in the United States . However , it is known to occur with alcoholism , protein malnourishment , low calorie diets , and diets high in refined carbohydrates . Pellagra is the disease state that occurs as a result of severe niacin deficiency . Symptoms include cramps , nausea , mental confusion , and skin problems . Too much Niacin . Consuming large doses of niacin supplements may cause flushed skin , rashes , or liver damage ( Table 2 ) . Over consumption of niacin is not a problem if it is obtained through food . Vitamin B6 : Pyridoxine , Pyridoxal , Pyridoxamine What is Vitamin B6 . Vitamin B6 , otherwise known as pyridoxine , pyridoxal or pyridoxamine , aids in protein metabolism and red blood cell formation . It is also involved in the body ’ s production of chemicals such as insulin and hemoglobin . Food Sources for Vitamin B6 . Sources include pork , meats , whole grains and cereals , legumes , and green , leafy vegetables . How much Vitamin B6 . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for vitamin B6 is 1.3 mg / day for adult males and females through age fifty ( Table 1 ) . For infants , breast milk and most infant formulas contain enough vitamin B6 . Vitamin B6 Deficiency . Deficiency symptoms include skin disorders , dermatitis , cracks at corners of mouth , anemia , kidney stones , and nausea . A vitamin B6 deficiency in infants can cause mental confusion . Too much Vitamin B6 . Over consumption is rare , but excess doses of vitamin B6 over time have been known to result in nerve damage ( Table 2 ) . Folate : Folic Acid , Folacin What is Folate . Folate , also known as folic acid or folacin , aids in protein metabolism , promoting red blood cell formation , and lowering the risk for neural tube birth defects . Folate may also play a role in controlling homocysteine levels , thus reducing the risk for coronary heart disease . Food Sources for Folate . Sources of folate include liver , kidney , dark green leafy vegetables , meats , fish , whole grains , fortified grains and cereals , legumes , and citrus fruits . Not all whole grain products are fortified with folate . Check the nutrition label to see if folic acid has been added . How much Folate . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for folate is 400 mcg / day for adult males and females . Pregnancy will increase the RDA for folate to 600 mcg / day ( Table 1 ) . Folate Deficiency . Folate deficiency affects cell growth and protein production , which can lead to overall impaired growth . Deficiency symptoms also include anemia and diarrhea . A folate deficiency in women who are pregnant or of child bearing age may result in the delivery of a baby with neural tube defects such as spina bifida . ( Table 1 ) . Too much Folate . Over consumption of folate offers no known benefits , and may mask B12 deficiency as well as interfere with some medications ( Table 2 ) . Vitamin B12 : Cobalamin What is B12 . Vitamin B12 , also known as cobalamin , aids in the building of genetic material , production of normal red blood cells , and maintenance of the nervous system . Food Sources for Vitamin B12 . Vitamin B12 can only be found only in foods of animal origin such as meats , liver , kidney , fish , eggs , milk and milk products , oysters , shellfish . Some fortified foods may contain vitamin B12 . How much Vitamin B12 . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for vitamin B12 is 2.4 mcg / day for adult males and females ( Table 1 ) . For those over the age of fifty , the dietary guidelines recommend consuming vitamin B12 in its crystalline form ( fortified foods or multivitamin ) . Vitamin B12 Deficiency . Vitamin B12 deficiency most commonly affects strict vegetarians ( those who eat no animal products ) , infants of vegan mothers , and the elderly . Symptoms of deficiency include anemia , fatigue , neurological disorders , and degeneration of nerves resulting in numbness and tingling . In order to prevent vitamin B12 deficiency , a dietary supplement should be taken . Some people develop a B12 deficiency because they can not absorb the vitamin through their stomach lining . This can be treated through vitamin B12 injections . Too much Vitamin B12 . No problems with overconsumption of vitamin B12 are known . Biotin What is Biotin . Biotin helps release energy from carbohydrates and aids in the metabolism of fats , proteins and carbohydrates from food . Food Sources for Biotin . Sources of Biotin include liver , kidney , egg yolk , milk , most fresh vegetables , yeast breads and cereals . Biotin is also made by intestinal bacteria . How much Biotin . The Adequate Intake ( AI ) for Biotin is 30 mcg / day for adult males and females ( Table 1 ) . Biotin Deficiency . Biotin deficiency is uncommon under normal circumstances , but symptoms include fatigue , loss of appetite , nausea , vomiting , depression , muscle pains , heart abnormalities and anemia . Too much Biotin . No problems with overconsumption are known for Biotin . Pantothenic Acid What is Pantothenic Acid . Pantothenic Acid is involved in energy production , and aids in the formation of hormones and the metabolism of fats , proteins , and carbohydrates from food . Food Sources for Pantothenic Acid . Sources include liver , kidney , meats , egg yolk , whole grains , and legumes . Pantothenic Acid is also made by intestinal bacteria . How much Pantothenic Acid . The Adequate Intake ( AI ) for Pantothenic Acid is 5 mg / day for both adult males and females ( Table 1 ) . Pantothenic Acid Deficiency . Pantothenic Acid deficiency is uncommon due to its wide availability in most foods . Too much Pantothenic Acid . No problems with overconsumption are known for Pantothenic Acid . Rarely , diarrhea and water retention will occur with excessive amounts . Vitamin C : Ascorbic Acid , Ascorbate What is Vitamin C The body needs vitamin C , also known as ascorbic acid or ascorbate , to remain in proper working condition . Vitamin C benefits the body by holding cells together through collagen synthesis ; collagen is a connective tissue that holds muscles , bones , and other tissues together . Vitamin C also aids in wound healing , bone and tooth formation , strengthening blood vessel walls , improving immune system function , increasing absorption and utilization of iron , and acting as an antioxidant . Since our bodies can not produce or store vitamin C , an adequate daily intake of this nutrient is essential for optimum health . Vitamin C works with vitamin E as an antioxidant , and plays a crucial role in neutralizing free radicals throughout the body . An antioxidant can be a vitamin , mineral , or a carotenoid , present in foods , that slows the oxidation process and acts to repair damage to cells of the body . Studies suggest that vitamin C may reduce the risk of certain cancers , heart disease , and cataracts . Research Food Sources for Vitamin C . Consuming vitamin C - rich foods is the best method to ensure an adequate intake of this vitamin . While many common plant foods contain vitamin C , the best sources are citrus fruits . For example , one orange , a kiwi fruit , 6 oz . of grapefruit juice or 1 / 3 cup of chopped sweet red pepper each supply enough vitamin C for one day . How much Vitamin C . The Recommended Dietary Allowance ( RDA ) for Vitamin C is 90 mg / day for adult males and 75 mg / day for adult females ( Table 1 ) . For those who smoke cigarettes , the RDA for vitamin C increases by 35 mg / day , in order to counteract the oxidative effects of nicotine . Vitamin C Deficiency . Although rare in the United States , severe vitamin C deficiency may result in the disease known as scurvy , causing a loss of collagen strength throughout the body . Loss of collagen results in loose teeth , bleeding and swollen gums , and improper wound healing . More commonly , vitamin C deficiency presents as a secondary deficiency in alcoholics , the elderly , and in smokers . The following conditions have been shown to increase vitamin C requirements ( Table 1 ) : Environmental stress , such as air and noise pollution Use of certain drugs , such as oral contraceptives Tissue healing of wounds Growth ( children from 0 - 12 months , and pregnant women ) Fever and infection Smoking . Too Much Vitamin C . Despite being a water - soluble vitamin that the body excretes when in excess , vitamin C overdoses have been shown to cause kidney stones , gout , diarrhea , and rebound scurvy . Can Vitamin C Prevent the Common Cold ? The controversy over using mega doses of vitamin C to prevent or cure the common cold and other disorders has not been resolved . Recent studies have shown that an increased intake of vitamin C over 500 mg per day does not increase a body ’ s overall level of vitamin C . Therefore , intake over 500 mg per day may not result in any additional benefits from vitamin C ( Table 2 ) . Summary Water - soluble vitamins include the vitamin B - complex and vitamin C , and are essential nutrients needed daily by the body in very small quantities . The B - complex vitamins can be found in a variety of enriched foods like cereal grains and breads , as well as other foods such as meat , poultry , eggs , fish milk , legumes , and fresh vegetables . Vitamin C can be found in a many fruits and vegetables . Overall , in the United States deficiency is rare for B vitamins and vitamin C ; with exceptions for alcoholics , those on a low calorie diet , and the elderly . Special attention should be paid to folate ( folic acid ) intake during pregnancy , in order to avoid birth defects . Vegans should be conscious of vitamin B12 intake because it is not present in plant foods . Some conditions warrant an increase in vitamin C intake , such as exposure to cigarette smoke , environmental stress , growth , and sickness . Over consumption of the water - soluble vitamins is generally not a problem in the United States , especially if the nutrients are obtained through food . Large amounts of vitamin B - complex and vitamin C supplements and multivitamins are not recommended . Excesses of these vitamins have no known benefit . Table 1 . Recommended Dietary Intake ( RDA ) and Adequate Intake ( AI ) for Water - Soluble Vitamins Life Stage Group Thiamin B1 ( mg / d ) Riboflavin B2 ( mg / d ) Niacin B3 1 ( mg / d ) Vitamin B6 ( mg / d ) Folate ( mcg / d ) Vitamin B12 ( mcg / d ) Biotin ( mcg / d ) Pantothenic Acid ( mg / d ) Vitamin C ( mg ) Infants 2 0 – 6mo 0.2 * 0.3 * 2 * 0.1 * 65 * 0.4 * 5 * 1.7 * 40 * 6mo – 12mo 0.3 * 0.4 * 4 * 80 * 0.5 * 6 * 1.8 * 50 * Children 1 – 3y 0.5 0.5 6 150 0.9 8 * 2 * 15 4 – 8y 0.6 0.6 8 200 1.2 12 * 3 * 25 Males 9 – 13y 0.9 12 1.0 300 1.8 20 * 4 * 45 14 – 18y 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 25 * 5 * 75 19 – 30y 16 400 2.4 30 * 90 31 – 50y 30 * 90 51 – 70y 1.7 > 70y 1.7 Females 9 - 13y 12 1.0 300 1.8 20 * 45 14 – 18y 14 25 * 65 19 – 30y 1.1 1.1 14 75 31 – 50y 51 – 70y 1.5 > 70y 1.5 Pregnant 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600 2.6 6 * 80 18 1.9 600 2.6 85 85 Lactation 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 35 * 7 * 115 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 35 * 7 * 120 120 Table 1 is a summarization of the new standards for nutrient recommendations of water - soluble vitamins : The Dietary Reference Intake ( DRI ) . These recommendations meet the average daily nutritional needs of all healthy people . To ensure the needs of all in the population , the DRI usually exceeds the requirements for most people . They do not cover requirements for illness and special health disorders . RDA and AI values from the 1998 and 2000 DRI reports . 1 NE = Niacin Equivalents . 1mg of Niacin = 60mg of tryptophan ; 0 - 6mo = preformed niacin ( not NE ) . 2 At 6 months of age , infants may be introduced to solid foods while remaining on formula or breast milk . There may be some overlap in specific nutrient requirements . ( mg = milligrams , mcg = micrograms ) * AI value Table 2 . Tolerable Upper Intake Level ( UL ) for Water - Soluble Vitamins Life Stage Group Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin ( mg / d ) Vitamin B6 ( mg / d ) Folate ( mcg / d ) Vitamin B12 Biotin Pantothenic Acid Vitamin C ( mg / d ) Infants ( 0 – 12mo ) ND ND Children 1 – 3y 10 30 4 – 8y 15 40 650 Males and Females 9 – 13y 20 60 1200 30 80 800 1800 19 – > 70y 35 100 1000 2000 Pregnancy and Lactation 800 1800 19 – 50y 35 100 1000 2000 Table 2 is a summarization of the Tolerable Upper Intake Level ( UL ) for water - soluble vitamins : The Dietary Reference Intake ( DRI ) . The UL is defined as the highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population . The UL represents total daily intake from food , water , and supplements . UL values from 1998 and 2000 DRI reports . At 6 months of age , infants may be introduced to solid foods while remaining on formula or breast milk . There may be some overlap in specific nutrient requirements . ( mg = milligrams , mcg = micrograms ) ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group . Source of intake should be from food only . References Advanced Nutrition : Macronutrients , Micronutrients , and Metabolism ( 2009 ) . CRC Press , Taylor & Francis Group . Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism ( 2009 ) . Wadsworth , Cengage Learning . Biochemical , Physiological , Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition ( 2006 ) . Saunders , Elsevier Inc . Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin , Riboflavin , Niacin , Vitamin B6 , Folate , Vitamin B12 , Pantothenic Acid , Biotin , and Choline . Washington , DC : National Academy Press , 1998 . Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C , Vitamin E , Selenium , and Carotenoids . Washington , DC : National Academy Press , 2000 . Duyff , ADA . American Dietetic Association : Complete Food and Nutrition Guide . Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons , Inc . , 2006 . Levine M , Conry - Cantilea C , Wang Y , Welch RW , Washko PW , Dhariwal KR , Park JB , Lazarev A , Graumlich JF , King J , Cantilena LR . Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers : evidence for a recommended dietary allowance . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 : 3704 – 3709 , 1996 . L . Bellows , Colorado State University Extension food and nutrition specialist and assistant professor ; and R . Moore , graduate student . 3 / 02 . Revised 11 / 12 . Go to top of this page . | [
"Water-Soluble Vitamins",
"B-Complex",
"Vitamin C"
] |
http://extension.illinois.edu/beyond/directory_grasses.cfm | Shade Tolerant Ornamental Grasses and Grass - Like Plants Introduction Considerations to Match Plants to a Site Plant Directory Credits While most ornamental grasses prefer and do best in full sun locations , there are a number of grasses and grass - like plants that will provide interest to shaded areas n the garden . Tufted Hair Grass - Deschampsia cespitosa Height : 2 - 3 feet . Width : 2 - 3 feet . Bloom : silky green , May - June , maturing to yellow / gold / bronze . Notes : Dark green clump forming grass . Yellow to bronze fall color . Silky green flower panicles in spring . Best in moist partial shade . Northern Sea Oats - Chasmanthium latifolium Height : Width : Bloom : green , June - July , maturing to copper / brown . Notes : Has bamboo like appearance . Very attractive seed heads in late summer / fall . Will grow in full shade . Reseeds very heavily . Japanese Forest Grass - Hakonechloa macra ' Aureola ' 12 - 18 inches . 18 - 24 inches . insignificant green , July - August . Elegant arching clumps of lime green foliage . Reddish fall color . Slow growing . Best in part shade . Fall Blooming Reed Grass - Calamagrostis arundinacea 3 - 4 feet . none . Upright clump forming grass . Pink flower plumes in late summer early fall . Best in part shade . Sedges - Carex sp . 3 inches - 3 feet . 6 - 24 inches . Depends on species . Some have attractive bloom June - August . Numerous useful species offering interesting foliage coloration . Some are clump forming some spread readily . Tolerant also of moist to wet conditions . Best in part to full shade . Creeping Lilyturf - Liriope spicata 6 - 12 inches . 18 - 36 inches . Purple , Aug - Sept . Cultivars : ' Royal Pruple ' , ' Big Blue ' . Mounds of leathery foliage . Aggressive spreader . Flowers followed by black berries . Best in part to full shade . Greater Wood Rush - Lazula sylvatica 8 - 12 inches . 12 - 15 inches . Yellow / green , April - May , maturing to chestnut brown . Excellent for shaded woodland sites . Soft green foliage . Sweet Flag - Acorus gramineus 6 - 12 inches . 6 - 12 inches . insignificant . Cultivars : ' Ogon ' . Colorful , fragrant foliage . Best in part to full shade in moist to wet soils . Annuals for Part to Full Shade Annuals for Sunny , Dry Sites Perennials for Dry Shade Perennials for Shade Perennials for Sunny , Dry Sites Perennials Tolerant of Moist to Wet Soil Shade Tolerant Ornamental Grasses and Grass - Like Plants | [
"Grass-Like Plants",
"Shade Tolerant"
] |
http://extension.illinois.edu/firstgarden/planning/dictionary/veggies/kohlrabi.cfm | Kohlrabi comes from the German word " kohl " meaning cabbage and " rabi " meaning turnip . This unusual looking vegetable originated in northern Europe and was not known 500 years ago . Kohlrabi did not become known in the United States until 1800 . Kohlrabi tastes like cabbage but is sweeter . Plant seeds in the early spring before the heat of summer . Plant seeds in mid - summer for a fall harvest . Plant the seeds 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 inch deep . Thin the seedlings to two to five inches apart . Keep weeds out . Water well . Harvest it when the first stems are about one inch in diameter . Continue to harvest until the stems are the size of a tennis ball . Bigger stems than that get tough and woody and will not taste good . The young leaves of kohlrabi can be cooked as greens . Kohlrabi grows quickly from seed to harvest taking about 45 - 50 days . | [
"Kohlrabi"
] |
http://extension.illinois.edu/veggies/parsnip.cfm | Parsnip Parsnip is considered a winter vegetable because its flavor is not fully developed until the roots have been exposed to near - freezing temperatures for 2 to 4 weeks in the fall and early winter . The starch in the parsnip root changes into sugar , resulting in a strong , sweet , unique taste . Recommended Varieties All American Cobham Improved Marrow ( high sugar ; half - long shape ; better for heavy soils ) Harris Model Hollow Crown New varieties : Andover Lancer When to Plant Plant seed in early April or May in a deep , fertile soil that is well prepared . Because parsnip seed is very short - lived , you must obtain a fresh supply each spring . Spacing & Depth Plant seeds 1 / 2 to 3 / 4 inch deep . Because germination of even the freshest parsnip seed is often mediocre , seed thickly , at least two or three seeds per inch to ensure a good stand . Space rows 18 to 24 inches apart or plants 8 to 10 inches apart in a bed . Parsnip seed is slow to germinate and some gardeners drop a radish seed every foot in the furrow to mark the row and help break the soil crust . Once parsnip seedlings are up and growing , pull the radishes and Care Keep young parsnip plants free of weeds by shallow hoeing or cultivation . Watch for swallowtail - butterfly caterpillars , which feed on most members of the carrot family . Handpicking the caterpillars from the leaves normally gives adequate control . Water thoroughly once a week in periods of extended dry weather to keep growth from slowing in summer . Harvesting Dig the roots ( usually 1 1 / 2 to 2 inches in diameter and 8 to 12 inches long ) with a shovel , tilling spade or spading fork . Yields frequently exceed one pound per foot of row ( single roots may weigh more than one pound each ) . Common Problems Low soil fertility is a common problem . However , in well maintained garden soils adequately supplied with organic matter and fertilizer , this ordinarily should not be a problem . If plants begin to look light green or stunted during the season due to low fertility , the problem usually can be overcome by side - dressing with a complete fertilizer in late June . Avoid fertilizing with fresh clumps of organic matter where parsnips will be grown . This can cause misshapen or forked roots . Parsnips are relatively free of both insects and diseases . Questions & Answers Q . Do parsnip seeds germinate poorly ? A . Parsnip seeds germinate very slowly even under the best conditions . The seeds also lose their ability to germinate after the first year , so discard unused seeds . Sowing a few radish seeds with parsnip seeds provides early plants to mark the parsnip row so you can cultivate before the slow - germinating parsnip plants appear . Q . Can parsnips be left in the soil over winter ? A . If you leave parsnips in the soil over winter , throw a few inches of soil over the crowns after the first fall frosts . Stored starches are changed to sugar in early spring as the old plants prepare for new growth , thus roots harvested in early spring are especially tender and sweet . The roots lose flavor and become fibrous if you do not harvest them before new tops and seed stalks begin to grow . Q . Are parsnips poisonous ? A . Parsnips ( Pastenica sativa ) are not poisonous at any time during the first growing season nor after the roots have been left in the soil over winter . Top | [
"Parsnip",
"winter vegetable"
] |
http://extension.missouri.edu/main/DisplayCategory.aspx?C=13 | Beef cattle Agriculture and environment Animal health and production Livestock Plant health and production Agricultural business and policy Agricultural systems and natural resources Forestry Beef Extension Comprehensive resources for the Missouri beef industry View Program Beef Cattle Featured programs Beef Extension Comprehensive resources for the Missouri beef industry 1 Show - Me - Select Replacement Heifer Program A program focused entirely on Missouri ' s farmers to improve production through increased use of existing technology and marketing education . 2 All programs Beef Extension Show - Me - Select Replacement Heifer Program Meet the experts Craig Payne ASSOCIATE EXTENSION PROFESSOR , EXTENSION VET MED View Profile Eric Bailey ASSISTANT PROFESSOR STATE BEEF EXTENSION SPECIALIST View Profile Jared Decker ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR - STATE BEEF EXTENSION SPECALIST Jordan Thomas Assistant Extension Professor Jenna Monnig FIELD SPECIALIST IN LIVESTOCK Jim Spencer Jr . FIELD SPECIALIST IN AGRICULTURAL BUSINESS Valerie Tate FIELD SPECIALIST IN AGRONOMY Eldon Cole FIELD SPECIALIST IN LIVESTOCK Andrew McCorkill Amie Schleicher Anita Ellis Brenda Schreck COUNTY ENGAGEMENT SPECIALIST IN LIVESTOCK AND 4 - H YOUTH DEVELOPMENT Charles Ellis FIELD SPECIALIST IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING David Patterson STATE BEEF EXTENSION SPECIALIST & PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL SCIENCE Gene Schmitz Heather Conrow James Humphrey Joseph Zulovich , Ph . D . , P.E . 1 Next | [
"Beef cattle",
"Animal health",
"Missouri"
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http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G1192 | Constructing Wire Fences Richard E . Phillips Department of Agricultural Engineering This guide will provide some basic construction information to help you build a good fence . Good fences start with good materials . Corner and brace assemblies Once the fence line has been cleared of brush and other obstructions , the first step is locating and installing corners and brace assemblies . This is the most important part of the fence construction process . A fence is no better than its corners and braces . Installation of these assemblies frequently takes up to half the total fence construction time . Figure 1 shows proper construction of double - span wood - anchor post assemblies . The double span assembly is more than twice as strong as the single span and should be used whenever fence length exceeds 200 feet . A corner post will need a brace assembly for each fence line leading to it . Post depths shown in Figure 1 are minimums . Use deeper settings for clay or wet soil conditions . The proper method of securing brace wire is shown in Figure 2 . Figure 1 Double span brace post assembly . Post depths shown are considered to be minimum . Figure 2 Correct procedure for threading the nine gage smooth wire used as a diagonal in the brace assembly . When a fence is more than 650 feet between corner posts , put braced - line post assemblies every 650 feet in the fence line . A braced line assembly is the same as a single - span braced corner except that a second diagonal brace wire is used to take fence pull in the opposite direction . Steel corner post and brace assemblies are available and can be used in place of wooden assemblies . Both posts and braces should be anchored in concrete . The concrete anchor for corner posts should be 20 inches square and extend 3 - 1 / 2 feet below ground . Braces may be anchored in 20 - inch square blocks extending 2 feet below the ground . Line posts Stretch a cord or wire between the completed corner and brace assemblies to help guide the alignment of line posts . Locate line posts 15 to 20 feet apart . Use the 15 - foot spacing for steel posts or wooden posts with less than 3 - 1 / 2 - inch diameter tops . Posts may be driven or set with either power or hand tools . If you have more than a few hundred feet of fence to build , use a power driver or auger . Line posts should be set or driven to a minimum depth of 2 - 1 / 2 feet . Steel line posts must be oriented for proper wire placement when installed . Wires normally are placed on the inside , or pasture side , of the post . In some cases , however , wires may be placed on the outside of the post to improve the appearance of the fence . One example of this is where fence lines run along a highway . Installing fence on posts The last step in fence construction is installation of the wire . Use the following general procedure : Install and stretch the wire in sections running from one corner or brace post assembly to the next . Always work from the top down when installing wire ; install the top wire first , then the next highest , etc . Attach wire to the side of the post closest to the livestock being fenced except where appearance is important . Use galvanized staples or the wire clips that come with steel posts to attach wire to posts . Minimum staple size should be 1 - 1 / 2 inches . Staples should not be driven in so far that they will prevent the wire from moving without moving the post . Special instructions for installing woven wire are : Attach the end of the wire to the anchor post by removing a few vertical wires and wrapping the wires around the post and splicing them back onto themselves . Unroll wire along the ground adjacent to the row of posts and stand the roll on end at the next anchor post . Prop the wire up against the line posts . Attach the stretcher unit to the fencing . Use a single jack for fencing under 35 inches and a double jack for higher fencing . Stretch the fence slowly , making sure tension is being applied evenly to all points . Continue stretching until tension curves in the wire are straightened about one - third ( Figure 3 ) . Fasten wire to line posts starting at the end farthest from the stretcher . Fasten the end of the wire to the anchor post assembly . Figure 3 Typical tension curve in woven wire . This curve should be straightened by 1 / 3 when fence is properly stretched . Follow the same general procedure for barbed wire with these precautions : Unroll wire straight off the roll , not off the side . Stretch wire until it is fairly tight , being careful not to break it . There are no tension curves in barbed wire to aid in stretching . Wear protective clothing and use extreme caution when working with barbed wire . Gates Gates for fences may be purchased or constructed . Several plans for gates , people - passages , and cattle guards are in the Midwest Plan Service livestock handbooks . These books are available through your nearest MU Extension center . Special problems There are two problems that occur often enough to merit special attention . They are contour fencing and uneven terrain . Contour fences are most often associated with terraces . Reduce post spacing when the fence line curves to prevent wire tension from overturning the posts . Use the following procedure to determine the proper spacing : Figure 4 Method of determining curvature for contour fences . Use " distance " measurement to determine proper post placement . Stake out a smooth curve for the fence line using stakes at 14 - foot intervals . Select any three adjacent stakes on the curve and stretch a string between the first and third stake ( Figure 4 ) . Measure the distance from the string to the center stake and use the following table to determine post spacing . Distance Post spacing 4 inches 14 feet 8 inches 10 feet 12 inches 8 feet 20 inches 7 feet When setting posts on the curve , slope them outward about 2 inches . Attach the wire to the side of the post facing the outside of the curve . Posts will straighten when the wire is stretched . Crossing low spots requires special precautions to prevent post withdrawal or washout . In locations not subject to frequent flooding , use extra length posts set 3 - 1 / 2 to 4 feet deep or set posts in concrete to prevent withdrawal ( Figure 5 ) . A hinged flood gate may be used in low spots that flood or when crossing streams with fences ( Figure 6 ) . Figure 5 Line post anchored in concrete to prevent withdrawal or washout because of its gully location . Figure 6 Hinged flood gate assembly for use over streams or in gullies subject to frequent flooding . Figure 7 Method of splicing together lengths of ( a ) woven wire and ( b ) barbed wire . Maintenance A properly maintained fence will give long and trouble free service . The following items should be a part of your regular maintenance program : Repair or replace anchor post assemblies whenever they show any signs of weakness . Refasten loose wires to posts and splice broken wires as necessary . Keep the fence properly stretched . Keep the fence line clear of weeds and brush . Plan and follow a regular inspection routine to locate any needed maintenance . | [
"Constructing Wire Fences",
"brace assemblies",
"Line posts"
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http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G6201 | Vegetable Planting Calendar Page 1 of 3 David H . Trinklein Horticulture State Specialist Division of Plant Sciences Why plant vegetables ? Home production of vegetables has been increasing in popularity in recent years . In addition to saving on the family food bill , the availability of fresh , inexpensive produce from the family garden is conducive to maintaining good dietary habits by eating more vegetables . Planning is the first step in establishing a vegetable garden . Table 1 lists many of the vegetables commonly grown in home gardens , along with other information useful when planning a vegetable garden . What variety should I plant ? The varieties listed in Table 2 represent the “ cream of the crop . ” They do not include all of the good ones . In selecting varieties , we primarily consider yield , quality and disease resistance as experienced under Missouri conditions . When should I plant ? Planting dates depend on where you live . Find your county on the map in Figure 1 . Note which planting region you are in . Use the dates given for your region in Table 2 . If you live in the Ozark Plateau area , note that you use “ north ” planting dates . The higher elevation in that area results in later spring and earlier fall frosts . Some vegetables may be planted for a fall crop . When a fall crop is possible , a second set of dates is listed under the dates for spring planting . Figure 1 Missouri planting regions . Page 1 of 3 Reviewed February 2016 Vegetable Planting Calendar download this publication View reprint and copy guidelines Contents Table 1 Planning and planting guides Table 2 Recommended vegetable varieties and planting dates Feedback Use our feedback form for questions or comments about this publication . | [
"Vegetable Planting Calendar",
"home gardens",
"dietary habits"
] |
http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G6368 | Growing Sweet Potatoes in Missouri Lewis W . Jett Division of Plant Sciences Sweet potatoes are an excellent vegetable crop to include in the field or garden in Missouri . They are high in fiber and in vitamins A and C and low in fat , making them a very nutritious vegetable . Sweet potatoes are often called yams in the United States , but a true yam is a starchy , edible root botanically unrelated to the sweet potato . Locally grown sweet potatoes are becoming a popular produce item at farmers ' markets across Missouri . Transplant production Sweet potatoes are propagated vegetatively rather than by seeds . That is , seed stock is used to produce slips , or transplants . Slips can be purchased from several suppliers in the Midwest and the southeastern United States , but for larger plantings it may be more economical to purchase seed potatoes and produce your own slips . Always purchase certified or virus - indexed seedstock for slip production . Certified seed will produce the most slips per bushel and have fewer disease problems , and the sweet potatoes will be more uniform in size , shape and quality Presprouting the seed by holding the seed potatoes at 75 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit and 90 percent relative humidity for two to three weeks will increase the number of slips per seed . To minimize rotting in the plant bed , the seed potatoes can be dipped in a fungicide . The plant bed should be located in a well - drained site . Place the potatoes in a single layer 2 to 4 feet wide , and cover the beds with about 2 inches of soil . Do not bury the seed potatoes too deep . Top - dress Slips can be cut from the plant bed when they reach a height of 12 to15 inches ( Figure 1 ) . Cut hardy slips 1 inch above the soil line , and plant in the field or garden . Do not pull the slips because this will often transmit root diseases . About three cuttings can be made from the plant bed . Destroy the plant beds after you have harvested all the slips . Figure 1 Sweet potato slips for transplanting can be purchased from some seed suppliers , or they can be be produced from certified seed potatoes . Variety selection Sweet potatoes ( Ipomoea batatas Lam . ) are warm - season vegetables in the morninglory family . Sweet potatoes thrive in warm weather and are very sensitive to frost . ' Beauregard ' , ' Hernandez ' , ' Jewel ' and ' Centennial ' are suitable varieties for Missouri ( Table 1 ) . ' Beauregard ' is a high - yielding , disease - resistant variety with a light red skin and a dark , orange flesh . ' Hernandez ' and ' Jewel ' are copper to brown skinned with dark , orange flesh and perform best in sandy soils . If you desire a white - fleshed sweet potato , consider growing varieties such as ' Nancy Hall ' , ' White Delite ' or ' Table 1 Suggested sweet potato varieties for Missouri . Sweet potato variety Days to harvest Description Beauregard 95 to 100 Early maturing , light red skin . Excellent shape and yield . Good storage sweet potato . Hernandez 115 to 120 Copper skin . Does best in light - textured soils . Jewel 115 to 120 Blocky sweet potatoes with copper skin and orange flesh . Very good quality . Does best in light - textured soils . Planting and culture In Missouri , sweet potatoes can be planted in late April ( Southern Missouri ) through mid to late - May ( central and northern Missouri ) when soil temperatures are warm and all danger of frost has passed . Plants ( slips ) are planted three to four nodes deep ( 3 to 4 inches deep ) , 9 to 18 inches between plants in rows 36 to 48 inches apart . A node is a bump or swelling on the slip where a leaf was attached . Orientation of the slips is not crucial because slips can be Sweet potatoes can be planted on plastic mulch ( for example , black ) . The mulch will maintain a friable ( loose ) soil , conserve moisture , suppress weeds and increase soil temperatures . Sweet potatoes grown on plastic mulch will mature faster . Organic mulches such as straw , paper or wood chips can be used to suppress weeds and reduce loss of soil moisture . Sweet potatoes tolerate acidic soils and the soil pH can be 5.0 to 6.5 for successful growth . Before planting , phosphorus and potassium should be applied based on a soil test . Nitrogen should be applied three weeks after transplanting ( 11 ounces per 1,000 square feet ) . An additional side - dress application of 11 to 12 ounces per 1,000 square feet of nitrogen can be applied when the vines begin " running " off the beds . Avoid applying too much nitrogen to sweet potatoes . Excessive nitrogen results in extensive vine growth , but few Sweet potatoes are tolerant of drought , but for maximum yield and quality , 1 inch of water should be applied to the crop each week . Few disease pathogens attack sweet potatoes in Missouri , but insects such as wireworms and white grubs can be a problem . Weeds should be controlled until the sweet potato vines cover the bed , which occurs about six weeks after transplanting . This can be achieved though cultivation , mulching or herbicides . Harvest and postharvest handling Most sweet potato varieties are ready to harvest 95 to 120 days after transplanting . Generally the leaves turn slightly yellow when the sweet potatoes are ready to harvest . Pulling or cutting the vines two to three days before digging will toughen the skins and help reduce skinning of the sweet potatoes . A hill of sweet potatoes will yield about 2 pounds of marketable sweet potatoes and an average yield per acre of 400 bushels ( 50 pounds ) is attainable . Sweet potatoes should be harvested before the first frost in the fall . Frost will kill Sweet potatoes can be harvested by various methods . For large - scale production , a riding harvester is used to dig one or two rows at once . For smaller scale growers , a chain - driven , one - row harvester is commonly used . A turn plow will also be effective in dislodging the sweet potatoes in light - textured soils . If the sweet potatoes are in heavy soils that are dry at harvest , a light irrigation of the soil before digging will reduce skinning . Sweet potatoes should be handled as little as possible After harvest , the sweet potatoes should be cured . Curing involves placing the potatoes in a warm ( 85 degrees Fahrenheit ) , humid ( 90 percent relative humidity ) environment for about four to six days to increase sugar content , heal damage during harvest , and increase orange color of the flesh . If you wish to store sweet potatoes , place them in dry boxes or bins at 55 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit and 95 percent relative humidity until market or bedding for slip production . Do not refrigerate sweet potatoes . Sweet potatoes can be | [
"Sweet Potatoes",
"Missouri",
"Transplant production"
] |
http://extension.missouri.edu/p/WQ252 | Nitrogen in the Environment : Nitrogen Cycle Scott C . Killpack and Daryl Buchholz Department of Agronomy Your browser does not support the video tag . Nitrogen is important to all life . Nitrogen in the atmosphere or in the soil can go through many complex chemical and biological changes , be combined into living and non - living material , and return back to the soil or air in a continuing cycle . This is called the nitrogen cycle . Figure 1 Oversimplifying , the nitrogen cycle works this way . A basic look at the nitrogen cycle Plants need nitrogen to grow , develop and produce seed . The main source of nitrogen in soils is from organic matter . Soils in Missouri commonly contain one to four percent organic matter . Organic matter largely arises from plant and animal residues . The nitrogen in organic matter is largely in organic forms that plants can not use . Bacteria found in soils convert organic forms of nitrogen to inorganic forms that the plant can use . Nitrogen is taken up by plant roots and combined into organic substances in the plant , such as enzymes , proteins Plant and animal wastes decompose , adding nitrogen to the soil . Bacteria in the soil convert those forms of nitrogen into forms plants can use . Plants use the nitrogen in the soil to grow . People and animals eat the plants ; then animal and plant residues return nitrogen to the soil again , completing the cycle . Another way nitrogen enters the cycle is as inorganic nitrogen from the atmosphere and factories . The concern with these forms is that the incremental amount of nitrates they add to the nitrogen cycle may threaten groundwater . Rain storms contribute atmospheric nitrogen through rain drops that reach the soil . Legumes , such as soybeans , alfalfa and clovers , are plants that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant - usable nitrogen . Factories that produce nitrogen fertilizers add nitrogen to the soil when farmers and gardeners " feed " their crops . Nitrogen in sewage sludge from municipal waste plants can be used to fertilize farm fields . Ways nitrogen is lost to the cycle For the most part , the nitrogen cycle is soil based . Nitrogen is lost from the cycle in four ways : Denitrification Bacteria change nitrate in the soil to atmospheric nitrogen , which joins the atmosphere . Volatilization Turns urea fertilizers and manures on the soil surface into gases that also join the atmosphere . Together , these first two processes account for most of the nitrogen lost to the cycle — a concern for soil fertility . Runoff Carries the nitrogen in fertilizers and manure and the nitrogen in the soil into our rivers and streams — a concern for water quality . Leaching Carries nitrates soo deep into the soil that plants can no longer use them , producing a dual concern — for lost fertility and for water quality , as nitrates enter the groundwater and the wells that provide our drinking water . More about the nitrogen cycle The largest single source of nitrogen is the atmosphere . It is made up of 78 percent of this colorless , odorless , nontoxic gas . However , plants are unable to use nitrogen as it exists in the atmosphere . Nitrogen from the air ( N 2 ) enters the nitrogen cycle through several unique types of microorganisms that can convert N 2 gas to inorganic forms usable by plants . Some of these microorganisms live in the soil , while others live in nodules of roots of certain plants . Nitrogen also can enter the cycle from other sources besides the air , manure and decaying plant materials . Nitrogen also can enter the cycle from the application of commercial nitrogen fertilizers . Nitrogen can be lost from the cycle . It can be lost to the atmosphere , removed by harvesting crops or lost to surface water or groundwater . However it is lost , nitrogen can enter the cycle again through one of the processes discussed above or through other processes . These additional pathways of gains and losses to the nitrogen cycle are illustrated in Figure 2 . Figure 2 A more comprehensive look at the nitrogen cycle . Impact on water quality Nitrogen becomes a concern to water quality when nitrogen in the soil is converted to the nitrate ( NO 3 ) form . It is a concern because nitrate is very mobile and easily moves with water in the soil . The concern of nitrates and water quality is generally directed at groundwater . However , nitrates can also enter surface waters such as ponds , streams and rivers . The presence of nitrates in the soil are largely the result of natural biological processes associated with the decomposition of plant residues and organic matter . Nitrates can also come from rainfall , animal manure and nitrogen fertilizers . Whether or not nitrates actually enter groundwater depends on underlying soil and / or bedrock conditions , as well as the depth to groundwater . If depth to groundwater is shallow and the underlying soil is sandy , the potential for nitrates to enter groundwater is relatively high . However , if depth to groundwater is deep and the underlying soil is heavy clay , groundwater contamination from nitrates is not likely . Once nitrates get into the groundwater , the greatest concerns are for infants less than one year old and for young or pregnant animals . High levels of nitrates can be toxic to newborns , causing anoxia , or internal suffocation . Seek alternative water sources if nitrate levels exceed the health standard of 10 ppm nitrate - N . Do not boil water to eliminate nitrates . It increases nitrate levels rather than decreasing them . The most common symptom of nitrate poisoning in babies is a bluish color to the skin , particularly around the baby ' s The initial draft of this publication was written by Karen DeFelice , former associate extension agronomist ; Nyle Wollenhaupt , former state extension agronomist ; and Daryl Buchholz , state extension agronomist . This material is based upon work supported by the United States Department of Agriculture , Extension Service , under special project number 89 - EWQI - 1 - 9203 . | [
"Nitrogen Cycle",
"Environment",
"soils"
] |
http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G4020 | Agriculture Natural resources Lawn and garden Home and consumer life Nutrition and health Families and relationships Community and leadership Business and workforce Emergency management MU Extension > Publications > Publication no longer available Find publications Search MU Extension publications . Order publications Internal ordering of publications and marketing items Guidelines to reprint or copy PDF help Pesticide training manuals Free e - Newsletters Publication translations Tip of the week Wild thing of the week Recent publications Publication not found You ' ve landed on this page because the publication you are looking for no longer exists , is still in production or the Web link you just used is broken . To find MU Extension resources on your topic , you can Browse publications in the categories listed in the arch above Search publications from the link at the left Go to the MU Extension front page Contact MU Extension for help Thank you for visiting MU Extension on the Web . Featured publications Garden journal and calendar This how - to guide and information resource provides a place to keep all gardening information , plans and notes together . | [
"University of Missouri Extension",
"Publication"
] |
http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=G6560 | Home Propagation of Houseplants Reviewed by Mary Ann Gowdy Teaching Assistant Professor Division of Plant Sciences Plant pieces cut from a parent plant and rooted to form new plants are called “ cuttings . ” Use of cuttings is a simple , inexpensive way to multiply houseplants and garden plants . Many plants can be propagated by cuttings . Each new plant will have the characteristics and genetic makeup of its parent plant . Table 1 lists some plants that can be easily propagated at home and indicates the type of cutting or other suitable propagation technique to use for each . Types of cuttings Cuttings may be taken from stems , leaves or roots . Herbaceous stem cuttings , sometimes called slips , are commonly used . Popular plants such as African violet and begonia are propagated from leaf cuttings . A few plants may be propagated by cutting their long stems into segments , and others can be propagated by simple division . Herbaceous stem cuttings The type of stem cutting suitable for propagating most houseplants is the herbaceous cutting , which is made from tender growth of terminal shoots . Herbaceous cuttings are commonly used to propagate geranium , chrysanthemum or coleus ( Figure 1 ) . Cuttings taken from a rubber plant , dracaena or croton usually contain more woody tissue and are often called softwood cuttings . Techniques for taking and rooting these cuttings are the same , however . Figure 1 . Five - inch coleus stem tip cutting that contains a terminal growing point . Leaf cuttings Leaf cuttings include only a leaf blade or the blade and a portion of the petiole ( Figures 2 and 3 ) . Leaf cuttings of plants such as African violet should not be rooted with long petioles . Trim the petiole to no more than 1 / 2 inch long . If a small portion of the main plant stem containing a bud is included with the petiole , the cutting is known as a leaf - bud cutting . Use of leaf - bud cuttings is limited . Hydrangea and rubber plants , however , are sometimes started with leaf - bud cuttings . Figures 2 and 3 Violet leaf cutting without the petiole and cutting with a 1 / 2 - inch petiole . Plants from stem sections A few houseplants may be propagated by cutting 1 - to 2 - inch sections from the stem ( Figure 4 ) . These segments , without leaves , are placed in the rooting medium in a horizontal position and covered slightly . Figure 4 Stem section cutting with a prominent axillary bud . How to take cuttings Take cuttings from vigorous , healthy shoots . Most cuttings should be 4 to 6 inches long . Cut just below a node ( where a leaf is attached ) with a sharp , clean knife . Remove leaves from the lower half of the cutting . Use a rooting hormone on all except easy - to - root plants such as coleus . Rooting compounds are available from many garden supply stores , mail - order seed and nursery companies , and mass merchandisers . Carefully use the hormone as directed . Keep cuttings clean . Do n ’ t place cuttings in dirty containers or on dirty tables . Containers A 6 - to 8 - inch plastic pot filled with quality potting soil can be used to root several cuttings . Place the pot in a large plastic bag , and seal the bag to maintain high levels of humidity ( Figure 5 ) . Do not place the bag in direct sunlight . Figure 5 Large zip - type plastic bag secured at base of pot with a rubber band . Rooting materials Clean , coarse , construction - grade sand is suitable for rooting many cuttings ; however , it needs to be heat - sanitized prior to use . It is also excellent mixed with an equal volume of peat moss . Vermiculite is a lightweight material used for rooting . It holds water well and promotes root growth . Perlite is another excellent propagation material . It is lightweight and provides good aeration for rooting . Perlite makes one of the best rooting materials when mixed with an equal volume of peat moss . Do n ’ t use field soil as a rooting medium . It packs too tightly when wet and is prone to develop diseases . Compressed peat pellets are available for seeding and can also be used for rooting cuttings . The pellets expand rapidly when soaked in water . Place them in plastic bags after soaking and draining ; insert a single cutting in each pellet and close the bag at the top . No additional watering is necessary until the cutting is rooted and the bag opened . Cleanliness Pots , medium and equipment used for rooting cuttings must be clean and sterile . Pots should be washed thoroughly using a household cleaner and disinfectant . Tools should also be washed in such a solution or dipped in alcohol . Any rooting medium that is not known to be sterile can be moistened and heated thoroughly in an oven at 150 to 200 degrees F for 20 to 30 minutes . Peat moss , vermiculite and perlite do n ’ t need sterilization when new . Inserting the cutting Promptly place the prepared cutting in the rooting material . Stick the base of the cutting 1 or 2 inches deep , depending on the length of the cutting . Firm the medium around the base and settle the medium by watering . Care of cuttings Never allow the propagation medium to dry out during the rooting process . Because the cuttings have no root system , high humidity must be maintained at all times . Clear plastic is inexpensive and easy to use for covering the cuttings . A plastic bag slipped over a pot is simple and airtight . Support the plastic with wire loops or stakes if necessary to keep it from resting on the leaves . Never place a plastic - covered container in direct sunlight . Heat will build up under the plastic and burn the foliage . Care of rooted cuttings The time needed for cuttings to form roots differs greatly among plants . Check the cuttings occasionally by carefully removing a few from the medium . When a cutting has roots at least 1 inch long , transplant it into a separate container . The move from high humidity and moist rooting conditions to lower humidity and drier soil is the most critical step in successfully growing new plants from cuttings . Closely monitor the young plants the first few weeks after the move . A good potting medium designed for houseplants is suitable for potting newly rooted cuttings and can be found at local garden centers or mass merchandisers . After a cutting has become established in the medium , apply a soluble houseplant fertilizer according to directions . Then fertilize at monthly intervals . When the cutting is growing vigorously , normally in spring and summer , fertilizer may be applied every two weeks . During the winter , fertilize once a month . Division Division is the easiest method of multiplying plants that naturally produce offsets or basal shoots . These new shoots usually have a few roots and can be separated and planted individually ( Figure 6 ) . Figure 6 Spider plant offset from the parent plant . Layering Layering is a method of rooting a new plant while the stem is still attached to the parent plant . This easy propagation method can be done in the home without special equipment or structures . The four layering techniques — simple , tip , air and compound — are discussed in detail in MU Extension publication G6970 , Home Propagation of Garden and Landscape Plants Figure 7 Air layering steps Remove strip of bark around the branch . If stem is weakened by the cut , use a stick splint for support . Cover with a ball of moist sphagnum . Wrap a piece of clear plastic around the branch and tie at each end . Air layering Remove all leaves several inches on each side of the point where the layer is to be made . From the center of the layering area , make a slanting cut upward an inch or more in length and about halfway through the branch . A preferred method of wounding is removing a strip of bark 1 / 2 to 1 inch wide around the branch ( see Figure 7 ) . Apply a rooting hormone to the wounded surface or cut . If a cut has been made , do n ’ t let it heal . Instead , insert a small piece of wood such as a toothpick in the cut to keep the wound open . Take a handful of unmilled sphagnum moss that has been soaked in water and squeeze out excess water . Pack the moist sphagnum around the branch to cover the wound . Cover the ball of moist moss with clear plastic wrap ; an 8 - by 10 - inch sheet is generally large enough . Wrap the plastic around the moss so that it overlaps and will not allow the moss to dry out . Clear plastic permits you to see when roots have developed . Secure the plastic at each end with electrical tape , string , plant ties or other convenient fasteners . It will usually take a month or more for roots to appear . Compound layering Compound layering is suitable for long vines that may be alternately covered and exposed . Wounds should be made on the lower portion of each curve . For more information , see MU Extension publication G6970 , Home Propagation of Garden and Landscape Plants After rooting , the vine can be cut into segments , each containing its own roots . Care after rooting Root systems of newly rooted layers are small in relation to the canopy . After the new plants are severed from the parent plant and potted , the humidity must be kept high . Enclose the new plants in a loose , clear plastic bag for the first week or until they are well established and do not wilt excessively . Propagation techniques for selected houseplants Table 1 . Propagation techniques for selected houseplants . Audio files Your browser does not support the audio tag . This rubber plant cutting was a terminal cutting , which means it was taken with a functional growing tip . It was rooted in clean sand . Your browser does not support the audio tag . This rooted leaf and petiole of a peperomia has a new plant developing from the petiole . Begonia leaves can produce new plants not only from the petiole , but also from cuts made in the leaf veins . Some tropical plants such as sansevieria can be propagated using leaf pieces . This piece has roots developing at the base . With stem cuttings , plants such as the dracaena shown can produce both roots and new shoots . Propagating many tropical houseplants is easily done with good potting soil and a plastic bag . The bark on this rubber plant is being removed in a cylinder around the stem . This makes it unable to move sugars down the stem , but water and nutrients can still move upward . Sphagnum moss will keep the damaged area moist and protect new roots as they form . Properly wrapping the damaged area will retain the necessary moisture . For this completed air layering procedure , some leaves were removed to provide enough room for the operation . The sphagnum moss has been removed to show the beginning of root formation at the top of the wrapped area . After you see roots , you may remove the cutting from the parent plant and pot it . | [
"Home Propagation of Houseplants",
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http://extension.nirsoft.net/ps | .ps Extension - List of programs that can open .ps files In the following table , you can find a list of programs that can open files with .ps extension . This list is created by collecting extension information reported by users through the ' send report ' option of FileTypesMan utility The product name , description , and company name are taken from the version information of the .exe file . The ' Actions ' list is taken from the context menu items added to Explorer by the specified program . The ' Popularity ' column displays one of the following 4 values : Low , Medium , High , and Very High , which is determined according to the number of users that sent the specified record . EXE Name Product Name Description Company Actions Popularity AcroDist . exe Acrobat Distiller for Windows Acrobat Distiller Adobe Systems Incorporated . Abrir con Adobe Acrobat Distiller 9 Very High acrodist . exe Adobe Systems Incorporated . Open with Acrobat Distiller 6.0 Low CorelDrw . exe Corel Graphics Applications CorelDRAW X6 ( 64 - Bit ) Corel Corporation Import , Open , Print , PrintTo Low Doro . exe CompSoft Doro Doro CompSoft convert to pdf FreeOpener . exe Free Opener Free Opener open FreePDF . exe FreePDF FreePDF - PS nach PDF Konverter shbox open gimp - 2 . 6 . exe Medium gimp - 2 . 8 . exe GNU Image Manipulation Program GNU Image Manipulation Program Spencer Kimball , Peter Mattis and the GIMP Development Team High gsview32 . exe open , print gsview64 . exe open , print i_view32 . exe IrfanView 32 - bit IrfanView 32 - bit Irfan Skiljan Medium i_view32 . exe IrfanView IrfanView Irfan Skiljan Very High i_view64 . exe IrfanView 64 - bit IrfanView 64 - bit MediaInfo . exe MediaInfo notepad . exe Notepad Microsoft Corporation notepad . exe Bloco de notas Microsoft Corporation Bloc de notas Paint Shop Pro . exe Paint Shop Pro 8 Paint Shop Pro 8 Jasc Software , Inc . Open PDFCreator . exe PDFCreator PDFCreator pdfforge http : / / www . pdfforge . org / Open , Crea file PDF e Bitmap con PDFCreator High psview . exe vlc . exe VLC media player VLC media player the VideoLAN Team Add to VLC media player ' s Playlist , Play , Play with VLC media player vlc . exe VideoLAN Team Play xnview . exe XnView XnView for Windows XnView , http : / / www . xnview . com In the following table , you can find a list of file types information that is associated with .ps extension . Type Name Description Perceived Type ContentType DLL / EXE File DLL / EXE Details Popularity VLC Media Player application / postscript BIF Image application / postscript xnview . exe XnView for Windows , XnView , http : / / www . xnview . com IrfanView PS File i_view64 . exe IrfanView 64 - bit , Irfan Skiljan AcroDist PostScript File _PostScript . ico AcroDist IrfanView EPS File IrfanView 32 - bit , Irfan Skiljan Postscript image _PostScript . ico AutoCADPostScriptSupport AutoCAD PostScript Support acadficn . dll acadficn , Autodesk , Inc . AutoCADPostScriptSupport IrfanView EPS File IrfanView 32 - bit , Irfan Skiljan DWGTrueViewPostScriptSupport DWG TrueView PostScript Support dwgviewrficn . dll aoemficn , Autodesk , Inc . FreeOpener Free Opener association free_opener_128 . ico FreePDF GIMP - 2.0 - ps PostScript , Encapsulated PostScript gimp - 2 . 6 . exe GIMP - 2.0 - ps image IrfanView , Irfan Skiljan GIMP - 2.8 - ps Postscript imageres . dll Windows Image Resource , Microsoft Corporation GIMP - 2.8 - ps PostScript , Encapsulated PostScript gimp - 2 . 8 . exe GNU Image Manipulation Program , Spencer Kimball , Peter Mattis and the GIMP Development Team IrfanView . EPS IrfanView , Irfan Skiljan IrfanView . EPS IrfanView PS File IrfanView . PS PaintShopPro8 . Image Paint Shop Pro Image _C3EF9CB7_27C6_4BBE_B600_402AF1BD8EBB PostScript PostScript PDFCreator . exe PDFCreator , pdfforge http : / / www . pdfforge . org / PDFCreator , pdfforge http : / / www . pdfforge . org / PostscriptDocument Postscript Document psview . exe PSfile PostScript File gswin32 . exe psfile gsview32 . exe ps_auto_file SageThumbsImage . ps CorelDRW . exe CorelDRAW X6 ( 64 - Bit ) , Corel Corporation VLC . ps VLC media file ( .ps ) VLC media player , VideoLAN Team Registry keys related to this extension HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ .ps HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ AcroDist HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ AutoCADPostScriptSupport HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ DWGTrueViewPostScriptSupport HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ FreeOpener HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ FreePDF HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ GIMP - 2.0 - ps HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ GIMP - 2.8 - ps HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ IrfanView . EPS HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ IrfanView . PS HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ PaintShopPro8 . Image HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ PostScript HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ PostscriptDocument HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ PSfile HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ ps_auto_file HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ SageThumbsImage . ps HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT \ VLC . ps Links to other Web sites .ps information on www . fileinfo . com .ps information on filext . com .ps information on file - extensions . org Search more extensions information : If you are looking for information about another extension , you can try to find it in the following alphabetic list : A | B | C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Others | [
".ps files",
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http://extension.psu.edu/animals/beef/production/articles/basic-beef-production-guidelines | Home | Basic Beef Production Guidelines Basic Beef Production Guidelines Raising beef cattle can be a profitable enterprise . However , there are several management skills that each beef producer should have to be successful . Save For Later Print Articles Updated : July 2 , 2012 Each beef cattle enterprise has different resources : land , labor , capital , feed and management . To raise beef cattle profitably , you must manage these resources to maximize returns . Below are some guidelines to make this enterprise successful . Where Can I Get Information ? A large amount of information is available on beef production through books and magazines . With the electronic age , you can also access information over the internet from many universities and in particular , their Extension systems . For copies of printed information , you can also visit your local Extension Office . Other suggestions for developing a working knowledge of beef production are to join a local beef producers organization and visit with other local producers . Most producers are more than happy to share their knowledge . Be sure to visit their operations also for ideas on handling , management , and breeds . Another important person to gain knowledge from is your veterinarian . Discuss health concerns and management suggestions with your vet . What Type of Cattle Should I Raise ? Normally , the sole source of your income from a beef operation will come from the calves produced each year . So , it is important that your cows produce a calf at least every 12 months . Be conscious of selecting as well as keeping good productive cows who will produce a calf every year without assistance , maintain their body condition without becoming overly thin or fat , and raise a calf with an average weaning weight that meets your goals . Other considerations to make when choosing cows are the breed and what type of operation ( Breeds of Beef Cattle Beef cattle are generally divided into two different groups : maternal breeds vs . terminal breeds . Generally , maternal breeds are known for their milk production and mothering ability while terminal breeds are known for their growth and meat producing ability . As with anything in life , there are some exceptions to this rule . Some breeds are also known as dual purpose breeds because they combine muscling for meat production with excellent maternal characteristics . For more information on breeds of beef cattle , visit the Oklahoma State Beef Breeds Directory . Crossbreeding can help you to combine the best attributes of individual breeds into one package . Choose traits that are important to you and then seek a breed or a crossbred that exhibits those traits . Type of Operation Before you get started in the beef business , you will need to ask yourself what type of operation you would like to run . Some of the typical options are cow / calf , backgrounding feeder calves , or feedlot . The cow / calf producer keeps a herd of cows to produce calves . The backgrounder buys weaned calves and turns them out on pastures until they reach 800 to 900 pounds . The feedlot operator purchases weaned calves or backgrounded calves and feeds them to market weight . If you choose to become a cow / calf operation , you will also need to decide whether you would like to run a purebred or a commercial operation . A purebred operation typically raises cattle of one breed . Often a purebred operation will have all registered cattle that can also be sold through purebred sales . A commercial operation may have unregistered purebred cattle or they may have crossbred cattle . Commercial producers can have the benefit of hybrid vigor which is simply the ability of crossbred offspring to increase in productivity over the average of the breeds Many purebred sales are held across the country throughout the year . Sales may offer only one breed or they may offer a large variety of breeds for sale . Also , you may want to become familiar with trends in the beef industry when choosing breeding stock . Choose bulls that will compliment the outstanding traits in your cows and improve their weaknesses . Cows for a commercial operation can be bought at a purebred sale and then used in a crossbreeding program or you can contact individual producers to buy larger numbers of heifers that could be purebreds or crossbreds . Another option is to buy animals through an auction barn . Be aware however , that you are more likely to buy problem cattle through an auction barn . Unless a producer sells all his calves through the auction , he may be selling only cull calves . Beef producers who purchase calves to background or place in a feedlot often purchase calves directly from a cow / calf operator . They may also purchase calves through feeder calf sales . Most buyers will pay more for calves that have been weaned , dewormed and vaccinated because the likelihood of calves getting sick is greatly reduced . Beef Operation Management Management of a beef operation depends largely on the interests of the producer as well as the resources available such as land , feed , facilities , and others . Management systems will vary depending on the climate . Operations that have hard winters will want to provide access to shelter for the cows during extremely cold weather and during periods of cold rain . Facilities Facilities for beef operations will vary from fencing to barns , sheds or shelters . Again , facility requirements will depend on whether your operation runs cattle only through the summer months or all year . Any operation should have some type of handling system that allows a producer to easily catch and restrain an animal for routine health care procedures . The handling system should include a corral system with a chute that leads to a head - gate . A beef facility may also need feeding facilities . This could be as simple as a mineral feeder for a backgrounding operation . Or , it may include barns and grain and hay feeders for the cow / calf operation . In addition , a feedlot operation will need to account for adequate bunk or feeder space for the number of animals that are being fed . A general rule of thumb for feeder space is to provide 18 to 22 inches for calves up to 600 pounds , 22 to 26 inches per head for calves 600 pounds to market weight , 26 to 30 inches per head for mature cows , and 14 to 18 inches per head for calves . If you have feed available at all times , these sizes can be decreased . Equipment Regardless of what type of operation you run , you will need to keep a certain amount of equipment on hand . Some of the smaller equipment that you would need might include syringes and needles along with medications for treating sick animals and halters for restraining those animals . Large equipment needs will depend on your type of operation . If you plan to grow your own feeds , you will need a tractor and the various planting and harvesting equipment . For operations with pastures , you should have a brush hog or some type of mower to clip off the seed heads of pasture plants to keep them growing in a vegetative state . ( A pasture plant will stop growing once it has produced seeds for the year . ) Feed Requirements Beef cattle will have varying requirements depending on their age and stage of production . Calves will need a higher level of nutrition to allow for their growth , while mature dry cows will need a relatively low level of nutrition . Pregnant cows in the last third of pregnancy require more nutrients than dry cows . Feed requirements also increase for cold weather and especially for cold rains . Calves can be creep fed before weaning by setting up an area accessible to only the calves . The creep feed may contain grain , hay or both . Creep rations can vary greatly depending on the price of grains . The protein requirement decreases as the calves mature . For example a creep ration for nursing calves could start at 18 % protein . Near weaning time ( generally around 6 to 8 months of age ) the level can be reduced to 14 % . This level can be maintained until you stop feeding grain daily . This will depend on what type of operation you have and how much importance you put on maximum growth . Backgrounded calves often receive only pasture . This allows them to grow slowly until the fattening phase when they are in a feedlot . The purpose of backgrounding is to add weight to calves using a cheap feed source . Because these calves are older they are much less likely to become sick once they enter a feedlot . Typically these calves have also been through a rigid preventive health program . Mature cows should receive adequate nutrition so that they gain weight during the last third of pregnancy . The protein level for cows is not as important as the energy . The body condition of cows at calving has a large impact on their ability to rebreed . Therefore , cows that are thin going into the winter months may need higher quality hay or possibly grain to help them improve their body condition for calving in the spring . Bulls can be fed similar to cows . When they are young and growing or while they are in production ( breeding cows ) they will need higher quality feed . Bulls should be in good body condition at the start of breeding season to insure adequate sperm production for breeding the cows . Breeding Season Breeding seasons will vary depending on when you want your calves born . Many producers will breed cows to calve in the spring so that they can take advantage of the flush growth of spring grass . Other producers may breed cows to calve in the fall for the same reason . Regardless of when the calves are born , the bull should be allowed to run with the cows for a specified period of time , typically 60 to 90 days . This allows you to feed all your cows as one group , wean calves at the same When breeding cows you will need to consider how many bulls can cover the number of cows you plan to breed . A mature bull will be able to cover up to 30 cows on average . For yearling bulls , decrease the number of cows to 20 . In preparing bulls for breeding season , they should be in good body condition , not overly fat or thin . Many producers use artificial insemination or A.I. to breed their cows . This practice allows them to use very high quality bulls that they may not otherwise be able to afford . These cows can be bred through visual identification of cows who are in heat or cows can go through an estrus synchronization program so that all the cows are bred at the same time . This allows a producer to time the breeding as well as when he expects the cows to calve . Be sure to have a back up plan or a " clean up " Regardless of whether the cows are bred naturally or through A.I. , a producer can use performance data to help select bulls to mate to certain cows . This information tells a producer what to expect for birth weights , weaning weights and yearling weights . This information can also predict milk production in females as well as carcass characteristics in feedlot cattle . Calving Season Producers have different methods for calving cows . In general , you will need to decide if you want to calve the cows outside on pasture or inside the barn . The time of year that you calve will determine to some extent where you calve . Cows calved in the colder part of winter or during periods of cold rains should have those calves inside to decrease the chance of losing calves . Keep in mind , however , that inside calving can increase the incidence of calf scours ( diarrhea ) . warmer times of the year , cows can calve outside on pasture . Be sure to observe the cow and her calf to make sure the calf is receiving adequate amounts of colostrum , the first milk that is rich in antibodies that protect the calf against sickness . Weaning Time Most calves are weaned at 6 to 8 months of age . You can increase the weaning weights of your calves by deworming them 1 to 2 months prior to weaning . In addition , calves will be less stressed at weaning if they have access to dry feed , either hay or grain prior to weaning . Health Programs The old adage " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure " is very true in the cattle business . Time and money spent preventing diseases is much less costly than treating the disease once it occurs in the herd . Calves should be dewormed one to two months before weaning and then vaccinated for IBR , PI3 , and BVD as a minimum . Vaccination programs will often include HS ( haemophilus somnus ) , BRSV ( bovine respirator syncytial virus ) , pasteurella haemolytica , Lepto , and clostridia . Mature cattle should receive an Where Can I Sell My Calves ? Two of the easiest places to sell your calves are through a local auction barn or through a local feeder calf sale . This is always a gamble because you never know what you will receive for your calves . Sometimes that gamble can work in your favor as well as against you . When taking calves to the market , look for those times of the year when demand is high and you are more likely to receive higher prices . For example , early fall and early spring are good times to sell your calves . Other options for selling calves are to develop your own direct market . This might be selling freezer beef , breeding stock , or feeder calves to a feedlot . Other options are to produce a value - added product such as beef stew or market your beef through your own restaurant . Producing a unique product can also develop niche markets . Be sure to check on any government requirements for selling processed products . Or , you may want to focus on organic beef or grass fed beef . Use your ingenuity to come up with your own Closing Thoughts Whether you raise purebred breeding stock or commercial cattle for market , you will need to sit down prior to getting started and make some decisions . Spend some time thinking about what you would like to do as well as developing a business and marketing plan . Developing the plans will help you to focus on the goals you wish to achieve as well as provide a valuable source of information to lenders if you plan to borrow money . | [
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http://extension.psu.edu/animals/poultry/topics/general-educational-material/the-chicken/history-of-the-chicken | Home | History of the Chicken History of the Chicken Domestication of the chicken dates back to at least 2000 B.C. and their ancestry can be traced back to four species of wild jungle fowl from Southeast Asia . Save For Later Print Articles Updated : December 15 , 2011 However , the Red jungle fowl ( Gallus gallus or Gallus bankiva ) is the most commonly found wild species in the world today and is considered the main ancestor of the domestic chicken . The chicken belongs to the genus Gallus of the family Phasianidae . Domestic chickens are simply classified as Gallus domesticus . The sport of cockfighting had tremendous influence not only in the domestication of the chicken but also on the distribution of fowl throughout the world . After centuries of selection and breeding for numerous extremes , chickens now exist in many colors , sizes and shapes . There are more than 350 combinations of physical features known today . In 1873 , the American Poultry Association was organized for the purposes of adopting standards of excellence and establishing a way of classifying the various breeds . Although the purebred poultry industry served as the foundation for the development of the commercial industry , the two industries soon developed very different types of domestic fowl . While the purebred exhibition industry continued to select and breed fowl for standard conformations and plumage colors , the commercial industry developed specialized hybrids for meat and egg production . Today , the two industries are very different : The purebred fowl of today are basically the same as they were 100 years ago and are mainly raised as a hobby ; whereas , the commercial poultry industry has developed into | [
"Chicken",
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http://extension.psu.edu/business/ag-alternatives/livestock/beef-and-dairy-cattle/feeding-beef-cattle | Home | Feeding Beef Cattle Feeding Beef Cattle Beef cattle feeding is possible on small and part - time farms , but the cost of feeding drops significantly as the size of the operation increases . Download PDF Save For Later Print Purchase Print Articles Updated : January 29 , 2014 In This Article Starting a Beef Feeding Enterprise Facilities Grazing and Backgrounding Purchasing Feeder Cattle Health Maintenance Program Nutrition Environmental Impacts Risk Management Sample Budgets Sample Budget Worksheets Initial resource requirements for slaughter - beef production For More Information Websites Authors Beef Cattle in feedlot Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available . Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video . The United States is the leading beef producer in the world . Between 24 and 27 billion pounds of beef are produced annually in the United States . Beef consumption has been gradually decreasing since the 1970s , when it was over 70 pounds per capita , to less than 55 pounds today . While domestic consumption has been declining , foreign demand has been very strong with the U.S. exporting record amounts of beef in recent years . Traditional cattle - feeding enterprises grow weaned calves ( 450 to 600 pounds ) and yearling steers or heifers ( 550 to 800 pounds ) to slaughter weights of 1,100 to 1,400 pounds . Cattle - feeding operations exist in all regions of the United States , but most large operations are in the Great Plains from Colorado and Nebraska to Texas . Most cattle - feeding operations are relatively small . Over 95 percent of all operations have fewer than 1,000 head , but these small feedlots market around 15 percent of the cattle fed each year . In Cattle feeding is a high - risk business . During some years , an operation may not recover out - of - pocket costs . The beef industry is very cyclical and cattle prices can fall dramatically when beef operations reduce herd sizes because of drought and the high cost of feed . Entry into the cattle - feeding business usually has few restrictions . Although facilities range from small lots with a few head to modern facilities with more than 50,000 head , there are economies of scale in cattle feeding . The cost of feeding per animal drops Starting a Beef Feeding Enterprise Thorough planning and preparation are essential for you to have a successful beef - feeding operation . Operators should determine where they will obtain feeder calves , which feeds will be required to finish the cattle to desired market weights and grades , and what type of shelter will be needed ( because most feedlot cattle are on hand over the winter months ) . Feeders also should design a health program in cooperation with a veterinarian , decide what the starting and slaughter weights and grades should be , and assess marketing alternatives . Visit successful cattle - feeding Facilities Various materials can be used for feedlot fences , including boards , wire panels , high - tensile wire , and steel cables . Barbed wire is not recommended . A seven - or nine - wire high - tensile fence is one of the most economical barriers . Another effective fence is a combination of high - tensile wire ( which can be electrified ) with three or four 2 - by - 6 - inch planks spaced between the wires . Housing for feeder cattle does not have to be extensive or weather tight - - open - sided sheds and more completely enclosed structures are equally effective . Younger cattle require more shelter than older cattle , especially for protection from winter winds . All facilities should be designed for the number of cattle fed and include a good manure management program . Most feedlots use concrete feed bunks that allow cattle to feed from one or both sides , although feed bunks of treated lumber also can be used . Feed can be delivered through a mixer wagon , conveyor with a belt or chain , or a bucket loader . To reduce mud , use concrete pads for areas around waterers and feed bunks . Mounds that are 3 to 5 feet high offer cattle relatively dry ground to rest on . The feedlot area should be well drained with topsoil removed to expose clay or other fairly impervious surface . Regardless of the type of feedlot surface , it must be cleaned periodically . The facilities should be designed to prevent manure runoff into steams or other waterways . Retention lagoons and diversion ditches should be planned with the advice and approval of regulatory agencies . Grazing and Backgrounding Some cattle feeders purchase lightweight feeder calves ( 350 to 550 pounds ) , graze them during the spring and summer , and then finish them in the feedlot starting in late summer or fall . Backgrounding is a special type of program that usually combines pasture systems and lightweight cattle . These cattle require extremely good nutrition , management , and health programs , but backgrounding can be profitable . Well - managed , high - quality pastures can be used effectively with these type of cattle . More information on grazing and backgrounding can be found in Beef Purchasing Feeder Cattle Anyone purchasing feeder cattle must keep up - to - date on market conditions . Graded feeder - calf sales are held in both fall and spring ; some feedlot operators use cattle brokers and tele - auctions to obtain their feeder cattle . Feeder - cattle prices can fluctuate considerably in almost every season of the year . Higher - grade feeder cattle sell for a higher price per pound than lower grades . Lighter - weight cattle of the same grade cost more per pound than heavier feeder cattle . Although feeder grade is not supposed to be Feeder - cattle purchases represent a large part of costs for feeding cattle . Many feeder - cattle producers offer cattle that have been weaned and vaccinated and received booster vaccines for respiratory disease , the primary health problem encountered in feeder cattle . The objectives for purchasing feeder cattle are to buy calves that have the genetic ability to grow and add sale weight , efficiently convert feed to weight gain , have a high potential for reaching " Choice " quality grade after feeding , and stay healthy during feeding . Feeder cattle are usually sorted by breed Health Maintenance Program Because preconditioned and heavier feeder cattle tend to have fewer health problems , purchasing preconditioned calves can be a good investment for the cattle feeder . Preconditioning includes weaning 21 to 45 days before shipping , vaccinating for diseases prevalent in the area , dehorning , castrating , implanting , treating for external and internal parasites , and starting the cattle on grain - based feed from a feed bunk . If heavier cattle are used ( 700 pounds or more ) , preconditioning is not as important . Because respiratory and enteric ( digestive ) diseases can affect cattle Nutrition Cattle weighing 700 pounds or more should be fed a ration containing 11 percent crude protein in a ration composed of grain ( usually corn , but barley and wheat are often also used ) , protein sources , and roughage . Larger - framed cattle tend to require a ration with a higher percentage of grain to achieve the same carcass quality grade as cattle with smaller frame sizes . Therefore , the ration that is fed depends on the type of cattle and the desired market grade . The weight and grade required by the market receiving the The feeding system for a cattle - feeding enterprise should remain flexible . For farmer - feeders , corn silage and occasionally hay crop silages can be incorporated into the feeding program . The extent that forages contribute to a ration is determined by the price of feed grains or food processing by - products with equivalent feed value . Increasing forages in the diet of feedlot cattle will generally increase the cost of weight gain ( due to slower weight gain and higher carrying costs ) when grain prices are reasonably low . Specific ration composition is determined by Performance enhancers such as growth - stimulating implants can also be used . Research has shown that they provide the greatest return of almost any feedlot practice with complete safety to consumers . The final market for your beef and consumer acceptance , however , will dictate whether you should use performance enhancers . Environmental Impacts In the normal course of operations , farmers handle pesticides and other chemicals , may have manure to collect and spread , and use equipment to prepare fields and harvest crops . Any of these routine on - farm activities can be a potential source of surface water or groundwater pollution . Because of this possibility , you must understand the regulations to follow concerning the proper handling and application of chemicals and the disposal and transport of waste . Depending on the watershed where your farm is located , there may be additional environmental regulations regarding erosion control , Risk Management You should carefully consider how to manage risk on your farm . First , you should insure your facilities and equipment . This may be accomplished by consulting your insurance agent or broker . It is especially important to have adequate levels of property , vehicle , and liability insurance . You will also need workers ' compensation insurance if you have any employees . You may also want to consider your needs for life and health insurance and if you need coverage for business interruption or employee dishonesty . For more on agricultural business insurance , see Agricultural Business Second , check to see if there are multi - peril crop insurance programs available for your crop or livestock enterprises . There are crop insurance programs designed to help farmers manage both yield risk and revenue shortfalls . However , individual crop insurance coverage is not available for all crops or livestock enterprises . If individual coverage is not available for what you produce , you may be able to use the AGR / AGR - Lite program to insure the revenue of your entire farm operation . To use AGR - Lite you must have five years of Another way to manage risk in the livestock industry is by forward contracting through the futures market . You can use the futures market to both " lock in " your cost for purchased feed and the price you receive for your livestock . The idea behind forward contracting is to reduce income variability and set a price well in advance of when the animals are sold . Waiting until the sales date to determine the price for your cattle involves much risk . Although you may receive higher prices in some years , lower prices are also a distinct Sample Budgets Included in this publication are three sample budgets summarizing costs and returns for feeding beef cattle . The first is for feeding steers ; the second is for feeding heifers ; and the third is for feeding yearlings . These budgets should help ensure that you include all costs and receipts in your calculations . Costs and returns are often difficult to estimate in budget preparation because they are numerous and variable . Think of these budgets as an approximation and make appropriate adjustments using the " your estimate " column to reflect your specific production conditions . Additional livestock Enterprise Budget Analysis You can make changes to the interactive PDF budget files for this publication by inputting your own prices and quantities in the green outlined cells for any item . The cells outlined in red automatically calculate your revised totals based on the changes you made to the cells outlined in green . You will need to click on and add your own estimated price and quantity information to all of the green outlined cells to complete your customized budget . When you are done , you can print the budget using the green Print Form button at the bottom of Sample Budget Worksheets Sample Slaughter Heifer Budget Sample Slaughter Steer Budget Sample Slaughter Yearling Budget Initial resource requirements for slaughter - beef production Land : less than 1 acre Labor : 4 hours Capital : Feeder steer : $ 850 - 900 Feeder heifer : $ 775 - 850 Yearling : $ 800 - 850 Existing buildings , improvements , and fencing : $ 100 - 125 / animal For More Information Becker , J . C . , L . F . Kime , J . K . Harper , and R . Pifer . Understanding Agricultural Liability . University Park : Penn State Extension , 2011 . Comerford , J . W . , L . F . Kime , and J . K . Harper . Beef Backgrounding Production . University Park : Penn State Extension , 2013 . Comerford , J . W . , L . F . Kime , K . E . Knoll , and J . K . Harper . Dairy - Beef Production . University Park : Penn State Extension , 2008 . Greaser , G . L . , and J . K . Harper . Enterprise Budget Analysis . University Park : Penn State Extension , 1994 . Kime , L . F . , J . W . Adamik , E . E . Gantz , and J . K . Harper . Agricultural Business Insurance . University Park : Penn State Extension , 2004 . Thomas , H.S . The Cattle Health Handbook . North Adams , Mass . : Storey Publishing , 2009 . Thomas , H.S . Storey ' s Guide to Raising Beef Cattle . 3rd ed . North Adams , Mass . : Storey Publishing , 2009 . Websites Iowa Beef Center Oklahoma State University Ohio State University : Cattle Handling and Working Facilities Scoring Cows Can Improve Profits L - 292 Penn State Animal Science University of Missouri Authors Prepared by John W . Comerford , associate professor of animal science ; Lynn F . Kime , senior extension associate in agricultural economics ; and Jayson K . Harper , professor of agricultural economics . This publication was developed by the Small - scale and Part - time Farming Project at Penn State with support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture - Extension Service . | [
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http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/water/drinking-water/water-testing/pollutants/corrosive-water-problems | Corrosive Water Problems Corrosive water can dissolve metal plumbing components causing unsafe levels of copper and lead and pinhole leaks . Save For Later Print Articles Updated : October 29 , 2015 The Problem Many homes have pipes , solders and / or plumbing fixtures made from copper , lead or other metals . Corrosive water can sometimes dissolve enough of these metals to create both aesthetic and health - related problems in drinking water . In certain cases , corrosion can be severe enough to cause leaks in the plumbing system . Corrosive water can dissolve high concentrations of copper from pipes and fixtures . Copper can cause bluish - green stains in sinks and a metallic taste to water , especially with water in contact with pipes for several hours ( overnight ) . Corrosive water can also dissolve lead from solders joining copper pipes or occasionally from lead pipes . Lead was a common component of solders used in plumbing systems until it was banned in 1991 . If your home was built prior to 1991 and has a metal plumbing system , it is likely that some lead is While most corrosive water problems occur with metal plumbing systems , corrosion of plastic PVC plumbing components is also possible resulting in dangerous amounts of vinyl chloride in drinking water . This usually only occurs when inferior plastic pipe that was not approved for drinking water systems has been used . Approved plastic pipe is directly stamped with a " NSF " ( National Sanitation Foundation ) seal on the side . Approximately 60 % of the wells , springs and cisterns serving individual homes in Pennsylvania have corrosive water . Corrosive water tends to be most common in northern and western Pennsylvania where more acidic groundwater is prevalent although areas underlain by Triassic shales in southeastern Pennsylvania also produce corrosive water . It is least common in the agricultural valleys underlain by limestone but the sandstone ridges between these valleys often yield corrosive water . Cistern water can also be quite corrosive unless it is stored in an unlined masonry cistern . Detecting Corrosive Water Problems In some cases , it may be obvious that you have corrosive water based upon symptoms exhibited by your water . You may notice the telltale bluish - green stains in your sinks , metallic taste of the first water out of the tap , or small leaks in your metal plumbing components . In addition to these symptoms , water testing can be used to measure the level of corrosivity of your water and to determine if metals like copper and lead are above recommended or health - related standards . Symptoms of Corrosive Water Bluish - green stains in sinks Metallic taste to water , especially first water in the morning Small leaks in plumbing system Many characteristics of water determine its corrosivity including pH , calcium concentration , hardness , dissolved solids content and temperature . Water that is soft and acidic ( pH < 7.0 ) tends to be more corrosive but the generally accepted measures of water corrosivity are the stability or saturation indices . These indices use chemical characteristics of the water , such as hardness and pH , to estimate the corrosiveness of the water . The Langelier Saturation Index ( LSI ) is the most common and the index for which there is a secondary drinking water standard . Negative An alternative to measuring corrosivity is to test directly for products of corrosive water such as lead and / or copper . Unlike testing for most water pollutants , testing water for lead and copper is normally accomplished by collecting the first water out of the drinking water tap in the morning ( also known as the " first - draw " water ) . Copper and lead concentrations are usually highest in the first water out of the tap since this water has been in contact with the plumbing for a longer time . Metals concentrations from corrosion will Contact a certified commercial water - testing laboratory to arrange to have your water tested for corrosivity , copper , or lead . You can find a list of state accredited water testing labs on the PA Department of Environmental Protection website . On that website , page down to the " Search Environmental Laboratories " and click on the " Quick Reference List " . You can sort that list of labs by county and choose a Commercial or Academic lab . Drinking Water Standards Because corrosive water is not a drinking water concern by itself , there is only a recommended or secondary drinking water standard that water be noncorrosive ( i.e. the LSI should be greater than zero ) . However , the by - products of corrosion ( principally copper and lead ) do have drinking water standards . Copper has a secondary drinking water standard of 1.0 mg / L because it causes a bitter , metallic taste to water and a blue - green stain in sinks and bathtubs . Copper also has a primary drinking water standard of 1.3 Lead is a more serious health concern in drinking water . It has a primary drinking water standard of 15 micrograms per liter ( ug / L ) or 15 parts per billion ( ppb ) . Long - term exposure to lead concentrations in excess of the drinking water standard has been linked to many health effects in adults including cancer , stroke and high blood pressure . At even greater risk are children , whose rapidly growing bodies absorb lead more quickly and efficiently . Lead can cause premature birth , reduced birth weight , seizures , behavioral For more information , see Lead in Drinking Water Solving Corrosive Water Problems Problems with corrosive water can be solved using a variety of approaches . These include replacement of plumbing system components , treating water to make it less corrosive , or reducing the products of corrosion such as lead and copper . Each approach has advantages and disadvantages that must be considered when solving a corrosive water problem . Plumbing System Replacement Since corrosive water attacks plumbing system components , one way to correct the problem is to install plumbing components that are resistant to corrosion . Most often this involves replacement of copper pipe or substandard plastic pipe with approved plastic PVC pipe . Approved plastic pipe is directly stamped with " NSF " ( National Sanitation Foundation ) and " Drinking Water " on the side . Water Treatment to Reduce Corrosivity Treatment units such as neutralizing filters or chemical feed systems can be installed to reduce water corrosivity by adding alkaline chemicals to the water . Since corrosion affects the entire plumbing system , these treatment devices are installed where the water enters the home to treat all of the household water ( Point - of - Entry or POE ) . Acid neutralizing filters are very simple water treatment units that are intended to increase pH and add calcium thereby decreasing corrosivity . They consist of a tank filled with calcium carbonate ( limestone ) chips , marble chips , magnesium oxide , or other alkaline material . The acid neutralizing filter is usually installed after the pressure tank . Raw water flows through the tank and as it contacts the media , its pH is increased and corrosivity decreased . It is important to note that this process will increase the hardness of the water but this is necessary for Frequent maintenance is required for neutralizing filters . The tank must be routinely refilled with neutralizing material as it is dissolved . The rate of refilling can range from weeks to months depending on the raw water corrosivity , water use , and the type of neutralizing material . Backwashing is recommended to remove trapped particles and oxidized metals unless a sediment filter is installed ahead of the unit . Corrosivity can also be treated by injecting a sodium hydroxide or soda ash solution using a chemical feed pump before the pressure tank . This treatment system is simple and inexpensive and it does not increase water hardness . Since the unit is installed ahead of the pressure tank , there is no reduction in water pressure that sometimes occurs with neutralizing filters . There is significant maintenance including filling solution tanks and maintaining the feed pump . Soda ash is preferred over sodium hydroxide because it is safer to handle . Sodium hydroxide is extremely caustic and must be Reducing Metals Concentrations In many cases , water corrosivity is not severe enough to cause leaks in the plumbing but it does cause increases in copper and / or lead in the water . In this case , various options are available to reduce or eliminate the metals from the drinking water . Since copper and lead normally accumulate in drinking water as the water sits in contact with the metal plumbing , the most simple and inexpensive solution is to flush your plumbing system by running the water for one minute before drinking the water . This draws fresh water from the pressure tank or well that has not had sufficient contact with the plumbing system to accumulate metals . Flushing is only necessary if the water has been in contact with the plumbing for at least one hour . If you choose this method , you should collect a water sample If excessive lead and copper persist after flushing , or if flushing is an undesirable method , there are numerous alternatives for reducing lead and copper in water . Unlike the neutralizing filters and chemical injection units discussed above that treat all of the water entering the home by preventing corrosion of metals , these units are smaller point - of use ( POU ) devices that remove the metals at individual taps . Distillation , reverse osmosis , and activated alumina filters are all acceptable methods but they will generally only treat enough water for drinking and cooking during More Information For more discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of treatment equipment and for guidance on equipment selection , consult Tips for Buying Water Treatment Equipment Prepared by Bryan R . Swistock , Extension Associate , William E . Sharpe , Professor of Forest Hydrology , and Paul D . Robillard , Associate Professor of Agricultural Engineering | [
"Corrosive Water Problems",
"telltale bluish-green stains",
"metallic taste"
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http://extension.psu.edu/plants/nutrient-management/educational/soil-fertility/managing-phosphorus-for-crop-production | Managing Phosphorus for Crop Production Phosphorus is a macronutrient that plays a number of important roles in plants . It is a component of nucleic acids , so it plays a vital role in plant reproduction , of which grain production is an important result . It is also critical in biological energy transfer processes that are vital for life and growth . Adequate phosphorus results in higher grain production , improved crop quality , greater stalk strength , increased root growth , and earlier crop maturity . For over one hundred years , phosphorus has been applied to crops as fertilizer — first as ground bone and now as some chemical reaction product of ground rock . Yet , for all that experience , its management can not be taken for granted . Phosphorus is not lost into the atmosphere — rarely does it leach beyond the reach of roots — and its availability to crops can be accurately estimated by soil testing . The challenge is that phosphorus is a macronutrient in plants but behaves somewhat like a micronutrient in soils . The concentration of soluble phosphate in the soil solution is very low , and phosphorus is relatively immobile in the soil . That is important because crops take up phosphorus only from the soil solution . The crop depends on replenishment of the soil solution with phosphate from the other In addition , the manager needs to consider possible " side effects " of crop production ; specifically , nutrient pollution of streams or other surface water near crop fields . Water can be polluted with phosphorus primarily as a result of erosion and runoff of phosphorus in the soil or phosphorus applied either from fertilizer or manure . The amount of phosphorus lost due to runoff of manure , fertilizer , or soil may be relatively small as far as fertilizer costs are concerned . However , these small losses may have serious effects on the quality of water Availability of phosphorus to crops In general , crop use of any nutrient depends on a two - step process : soil supply of that nutrient in an available form , and uptake of that available nutrient by the crop . There are certain constants involved that the crop manager can not change . Selecting among the options presented by nature constitutes management . Soil supply Figure 1 shows an overview of the behavior of phosphorus in the soil . The soil solution is the key to plant nutrition because all phosphorus that is taken up by plants comes from phosphorus dissolved in the soil solution . Because the amount of soluble phosphorus in the soil solution is very low , it must be replenished by as many as 500 times during a growing season to meet the nutritional needs of a typical crop . Although very little phosphorus is in the soil solution at any time , there is a large amount of phosphorus in Figure 1 . Behavior of phosphorus in the soil - plant system . Organic phosphorus availability depends on microbial activity to breakdown the organic matter and release this phosphorus into available forms . Thus , availability of organic phosphorus is very dependent on conditions in the soil and on the weather , which influence microbial activity . The mineralization of organic phosphorus to inorganic forms is favored by optimum soil pH and nutrient levels , good soil physical properties , and warm moist conditions . The inorganic phosphorus is bound with varying adhesiveness to iron and aluminum compounds in the soil . Replenishment of the soil solution with phosphate from inorganic forms comes Crop Uptake Crop response to phosphorus depends on the availability of phosphorus in the soil solution and the ability of the crop to take up phosphorus . The availability of phosphorus in the soil solution has already been discussed . The ability of a plant to take up phosphorus is largely due to its root distribution relative to phosphorus location in soil . Because phosphorus is very immobile in the soil , it does not move very far in the soil to get to the roots . Diffusion to the root is only about 1 / 8 of an inch per year Agronomy Facts # 51 , " Starter Fertilizer . " Managing Soils for Phosphorus The availability of phosphorus to crops is more than just having phosphorus in the soil . It will depend on soil pH , how supplemental phosphorus is applied , crop root growth , and the other management factors that influence root growth . Soil Test The most important tool in phosphorus management for crops is a soil test . Soil testing reveals soil pH , the soil phosphorus level , and determines the recommended application amount of phosphorus for the crop to be grown . Consistent and representative soil sampling is very important for correct interpretation of soil test results . Take as many cores as practical . Sampling depth is extremely important for both pH and phosphorus , especially in reduce and no - tillage systems where there is little or no mixing to homogenize the soil . In Pennsylvania , the recommendation is There is no specific " available " fraction of phosphorus in soils . The available phosphorus is what is in solution plus what can be expected to become soluble from minerals and organic matter over the growing season . Therefore , soil tests can not extract the exact available amount from the soil , but rather an amount that reflects what might become available . Research on Pennsylvania soils is then used to interpret the amount extracted by the soil test in terms of what is required for optimum crop production . This research has shown that on our soils Agricultural Analytical Services Laboratory Web site . Table 1 . Typical crop nutrient removal for phosphorus . Crop ( Units ) Per unit yield of P 2 O 5 Typical yield per acre Removal for given yield lb / A P 2 O 5 65 % moisture . For legume - grass mixtures , use the predominant species in the mixture . 10 % moisture . Includes straw . Corn ( bu ) 0.4 125 ( bu ) 50 Corn silage ( T ) 1 5.0 21 ( T ) 105 Alfalfa ( T ) 2 , 3 15.0 5 ( T ) 75 Cool season grass ( T ) 2 , 3 15.0 4 ( T ) 60 Wheat rye ( bu ) 4 1.0 60 ( bu ) 60 Oats ( bu ) 4 0.9 80 ( bu ) 70 Barley ( bu ) 0.6 75 ( bu ) 45 Soybeans ( bu ) 1.0 40 ( bu ) 40 Small grain silage ( bu ) 1 7.0 40 Phosphorus Materials The common phosphorus fertilizers , their sources , and some important properties are listed in Table 2 . Table 2 . Description of common phosphorus fertilizer materials . Material Analysis Comments Calcium orthophosphates Manufactured by treating rock phosphate with acid Ordinary superphosphate 20 % P , 90 % water soluble , 8 – 10 % sulfur Not used anymore in commercial crop production . Replaced by triple superphosphate Triple superphosphate 46 % P , 95 % water soluble , no sulfur Common material used in no - nitrogen blends Ammonium phosphates Manufactured by reacting anhydrous ammonia with phosphoric acid Monoammonium phosphate MAP 52 % P , 11 % N , 100 % water soluble Very high phosphorus analysis . Excellent material for use in starter fertilizer Diammonium phosphate DAP 46 % P , 18 % N , 100 % water soluble Most common phosphorus fertilizer . Used extensively as the basis for blended fertilizers Ammonium polyphosphate Solid : 55 % P , 11 % N Liquid : 34 % P , 10 % N Liquid form is very common N and P fluid fertilizer Miscellaneous phosphates Rock phosphate Very low water solubility 27 – 45 % total phosphorus recommended for soluble P fertilizer Must be finely ground to be effective . Increase rate 3 to 4 times that Inorganic Phosphorus Fertilizers By Pennsylvania law , mineral phosphorus materials sold as fertilizer must be labeled with the percentage " available phosphoric acid " , which is defined as the amount of fertilizer phosphorus that dissolves in neutral ammonium citrate . This analysis must be given as a percent P / A ) in the material . Fertilizers do not really contain any P / A ) but this expression is a carryover from past analytical methods . Fertilizer recommendations are also given as pounds of P / A ) per acre and are based on the amount of this " available phosphoric acid " that should be available to the crop over the period of the growing season . Mineral phosphorus materials that have not been reacted with acid , such as raw rock phosphate and basic slag materials , must also be labeled with the total P equivalent and the material ' s degree of fineness . The phosphate availability of phosphorus materials that have not been reacted with acid is low , as the availability then depends on reaction in acidic soil , particle Immediate phosphorus availability can be defined by the percentage of the available P that is water - soluble . This is not a labeling requirement , but it is described for various materials in Table 2 . A high percentage of water solubility is important for short - season , fast - growing crops , crops with a restricted root system , crops receiving a starter fertilizer application , and crops grown in a low phosphorus soil where less than optimum rates of phosphorus are applied . Where the importance of high water solubility , or quick reaction in the Although the calcium orthophosphate fertilizers are manufactured by reaction with an acid , they do not acidify the soil . The ammonium phosphates and the ammoniated superphosphates , on the other hand , do ultimately have an acidic effect on soil because of the ammonium nitrogen that they contain — not because of their phosphate content . The physical form of the applied phosphorus does not make any difference to the plant if the materials have similar chemical properties . The same reactions eventually occur in soil whether liquid or solid fertilizer is applied . Though all of the phosphorus in true solution fertilizer will be water soluble , the same materials applied in dry form are just as efficient . Manure Phosphorus Average manure phosphorus values for various animal types are shown in Table 3 , but however good the averages are , the manure phosphorus content on individual farms may vary considerably from the average . The true value can only be known by manure analysis . Table 3 . Average manure P analyses . ( Actual analyses vary considerably from farm to farm . Manure analysis is strongly recommended . ) Dairy Lactating cows 4 lb / ton or 13 lbs / 1000 gal Dry cows 3 lb / ton Calves and heifers 2 lb / ton Poultry Broilers 75 lb / ton Layers 55 lb / ton Turkeys 80 lb / ton Swine Gestation 35 lb / 1000 gal . Lactation 20 lb / 1000 gal . Nursery 40 lb / 1000 gal . Farrow to feeder 35 lb / 1000 gal . Grow finish 55 lb / 1000 gal . Phosphorus in animal wastes is generally less water - soluble than fertilizer phosphorus . However , over a normal growing season the availability of manure phosphorus is usually similar to fertilizer phosphorus and can be substituted on a 1 to 1 basis . Even so , manure is not a substitute for starter fertilizer because it ordinarily has a lower water - soluble phosphorus content . As long as physical losses do not occur , handling or application methods do not affect phosphorus content or availability . Figure 2 . Imbalance between crop nutrient requirement and manure nutrient content . Phosphorus from manure applications can be a potential pollutant . There are several reasons for this . First , as livestock and poultry farms have become more intensive , greater amounts of feed are imported onto the farms resulting in accumulation of excess nutrients in manure beyond what can be used by the crops on the farm . Even when there is no overall excess of nutrients on the farm , application of manure nutrients is commonly done based on meeting the nitrogen requirement of the crop with the nitrogen content of the manure . Since the relative amounts of Ultimately we need to move toward a better overall balance that minimizes the application of excess nutrients . In the meantime , management strategies are being developed to help farmers make decisions about when , where , and how to apply their manure to maximize the agronomic and economic benefits from the manure nutrients and minimize the potential environmental impact . Since the major losses of phosphorus from fields is through runoff and erosion , best management practices that reduce these processes can be very helpful in minimizing the environmental impact of the excess phosphorus that is applied . An Finally , there are interactions between phosphorus and other nutrients that can affect crop production . When the ratio of phosphorus to zinc ( Zn ) in a soil becomes excessively high , a phosphorus - induced Zn deficiency may result that can limit yield . However , few cases of Zn deficiency are found in Pennsylvania in spite of many corn fields testing high or excessive in phosphorus . Manure application that results in soil phosphorus buildup also contributes Zn to the soil . Therefore , phosphorus - induced Zn deficiency is usually only seen when excessive soil phosphorus Placement Because of phosphorus immobility and soil fixation , placement of fertilizer phosphorus can affect its availability to plants . Fertilizer that is broadcast and plowed down is mixed uniformly with a large amount of soil . Thus , the probability of root contact with the fertilizer is maximized . At the same time , though , added fertilizer is in greater contact with absorbing surfaces in the soil , thereby increasing phosphorus fixation . When the fertilizer is applied as a concentrated band , contact with the soil — and thus fixation — is minimized . However , lack of Placement limitations imposed by sod crops and no - till culture often result in an accumulation of nutrients near the soil surface ( Figure 3 ) . Provided proper residue management is practiced , corn root distribution appears to respond to differences in soil moisture and nutrient location in no - till culture with greater root density within the surface 6 inches of soil ( Figure 3 ) . Nutrient uptake of surface - applied fertilizer equals or exceeds uptake under conventional till management . Figure 3 . Distribution of soil test ( Bray I extractable ) phosphorus after two years of different tillage practice and rooting pattern in conventional and no - till corn . ( Source : J . K . Hall , The Pennsylvania State University ) Is band or broadcast application the better method ? The answer to this question depends mostly on the soil phosphorus status . On soils with optimum to high levels of phosphorus , banding has less advantage and broadcast applications are generally adequate ( sometimes superior to banding ) . Row crops in general , and corn in particular , appear to yield better when soils contain relatively high levels of phosphorus throughout the rooting profile . In tests with the recommended phosphorus application split between band and broadcast , versus all by one method , the maximum yields have been obtained with a combination . The advantage to building Small grains , on the other hand , have limited rooting systems and thus less capacity to explore soil . In addition , they are short - season crops and often grown in cooler temperatures . Therefore , phosphorus placement seems more critical for small grains than for row crops and perennials . Greater yield response to banded phosphorus is common , especially on low phosphorus soils or soils with a greater ability to fix phosphorus . Recommendations of incorporated broadcast phosphorus for small grains have frequently been higher than if the phosphorus were banded , because higher soil phosphorus Starter Fertilizer Starter fertilizer is a specific band application at a specific time . Even if you are planning to broadcast the majority of the required phosphorus as fertilizer or manure , a banded starter application may be important for spring - planted crops , particularly corn . Limited root growth — combined with cold and wet soils early in the season , especially in notill fields — reduces the availability of phosphorus and the plant ’ s uptake ability . Early plant vigor , and final yield , are often improved by starter phosphorus applied close to seedling roots , even O if placed 2 by 2 inches from the seed . High water solubility of the starter phosphorus source is important , and the ammonium phosphates meet that criteria as well as supplying N . However , diammonium phosphate ( DAP ) reacts with soil water to produce ammonia , that which can be toxic to seedling roots . Therefore , the rate of DAP used as a starter source of N and P should be kept low and placement should be at least 2 inches from the seed to be safe . The best time to think about starter fertilizer for alfalfa establishment is in the years before rotating a field to alfalfa . Yield response to starter fertilizer is most likely when the alfalfa seedlings will be stressed by low fertility level or by adverse soil or moisture conditions . High soil phosphorus level is required by the forage , so plan ahead by building phosphorus levels into the optimum range during the last year of corn , and soil test in the fall prior to alfalfa establishment . If fertility is optimum by planting time , starter fertilization can usually Agronomy Facts 51 " Starter Fertilizer " for more detail . Summary Crop phosphorus nutrition depends on the ability of the soil to replenish the soil solution with phosphorus as the crop removes it and on the ability of the plant to produce a healthy and extensive root system that has access to the maximum amount of soil phosphorus . There are many good fertilizer sources of phosphorus , and manure is an excellent source of phosphorus for crops . Application of fertilizer and manure must be done to maximize the chemical and physical availability of the phosphorus to crops while minimizing the risk that the phosphorus might be lost to the Recommendations Test soil to determine pH and phosphorus levels and lime and fertilizer recommendations . Use lime to raise and maintain soil pH in the range 6.0 to 7.0 . Match the phosphorus fertilizer to the crop , soil phosphorus level , and purpose of the fertilizer . Use a starter fertilizer when planting in cold , wet soils — particularly when soil tests are not high . Account for the phosphorus in manure and recognize that excess phosphorus may be applied with manure ; try to balance this over the crop rotation . Let soil phosphorus levels , crop , and soil characteristics guide your decision on fertilizer and manure rates , timing , and methods of application . Use best management practices to reduce erosion and runoff to avoid phosphorus losses and to protect water quality . Prepared by Douglas B . Beegle , professor of agronomy , and Philip T . Durst , former extension associate . Download Publication Managing Phosphorus for Crop Production ( PDF ) Order Publication Title Managing Phosphorus for Crop Production Series Agronomy Facts 13 Code UC055 Cost Free Order This publication is available in alternative media on request . | [
"Managing Phosphorus",
"macronutrient",
"biological energy"
] |
http://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C1012&title=Identification%20and%20Control%20of%20Spring%20Dead%20Spot%20in%20Georgia | Identification and Control of Spring Dead Spot in Georgia Circular 1012 View PDF picture_as_pdf Causal Agent And Disease Cycle Symptoms Disease Management Summary Spring dead spot SDS is a persistent and destructive disease of bermudagrass Cynodon sp in Georgia The disease can be problematic on lawns landscapes golf courses bermudagrass greens tees and fairways and sports fields The disease is particularly prevalent and damaging in north Georgia especially in the Piedmont region However SDS can be observed throughout the state after harsh winters and in areas where bermudagrass has been exposed to freezing temperatures for extended periods of time The disease has also been observed in zoysiagrass although less frequently Causal Agent And Disease Cycle Ophiosphaerella korrae O narmari and O herpotricha are the causal agents of SDS O korrae is the most common pathogen in the southeastern United States while O herpotricha and O narmari are more common in the western United States Gaeumannomyces graminis var graminis is also suspected to be associated with SDS in the southeastern United States These fungi are active in the fall and spring when cool moist conditions exist They do not kill bermudagrass directly instead they make turfgrass more susceptible to cold and freezing injury by feeding on roots rhizomes and stolons Spore production is thought to be rare for O herpotricha but more common for O korrae therefore spread of these fungi primarily occurs through movement of infected plants or infested soil by equipment people animals and running water Infection of the turfgrass begins when soil temperatures are less than 70 F Typically in Georgia infection of susceptible grasses begins in late September or early October and will continue as long as soil temperatures are above 50 F Fungal growth and plant infection can resume at these temperatures in early spring coinciding with bermudagrass transitioning from winter dormancy also referred to as green up Symptoms Figure 1 Spring dead spot symptoms Multiple circular patches of dead bleached grass are evident in the spring Grass at the center of the patches is completely deteriorated and usually colonized by weeds Sharp edges between dead and healthy grass are observed once turfgrass greens up in spring Photos by Alfredo Martinez As turfgrass greens up welldefined circular patches of dead bleachedout grass are noticeable in affected areas Figure 1 Noninfected bermudagrass resumes growth accentuating the infected areas Roots rhizomes and stolons are sparse and darkcolored necrotic Figure 2 Leaves become bleached gray and strawcolored Recovery from the disease is slow Because the turfgrass in affected patches is dead the primary means of recovery occurs by spread of stolons into the patch Because recovery is dependent on lateral infill of surrounding bermudagrass symptoms can remain visible well into the growing season If not managed properly these patches may reappear in the same Figure 2 Dark brown to black roots and rhizomes of SDSaffected bermudagrass top Compare with healthy rhizomes and roots bottom Photo by Alfredo Martinez Figure 3 Weeds often fill the voids caused by SDS patches Photo byAlfredo Martinez Disease Management Cultivar Selection and Cultural Practices The primary cultivars grown and used in Georgia eg Tifway TifSport Tifton 10 Celebration etc have shown susceptibility to SDS However SDS tolerance has been enhanced through breeding Most tolerant cultivars eg Patriot may still get the disease but not as severely In general cultivars with more cold tolerance have less SDS than noncold tolerant bermudagrasses On sites where SDS has been a chronic problem conversion to a tolerant cultivar is an option for disease management Complete control of SDS in a single growing season is uncommon It typically takes two to four years of proper cultural management and fungicide applications before acceptable control can be achieved This has led to SDS becoming one of the more difficult diseases for growers to manage on an annual basis Cultural practices that improve the coldhardiness of bermudagrass can be particularly effective for managing SDS Proper use of nitrogen fertilizers is important because high nitrogen levels can reduce the winter hardiness of bermudagrass It is recommended that no more than pound of nitrogen per 1000 ft 2 be applied after midSeptember Potassium applications in the fall September or October that total 1 pound of K2O per 1000 ft 2 can be helpful in improving the winter hardiness of bermudagrass and thus reduce SDS severity Potassium applications should be applied based on soil test results A neutral to slightly alkaline soil pH has been linked to increased SDS severity Maintain soil pH at 58 to 62 Use acidforming fertilizers on sites with near neutral to alkaline pH Apply iron manganese and other micronutrients based on soil test results Any soil condition that reduces bermudagrass root growth such as compaction excessive thatch in and poor drainage can also increase the severity of SDS Core aeration and other practices that reduce soil compaction and encourage the production of new roots can be helpful in managing this disease Chemical Control Timing selection and application of fungicides are important for preventative management of SDS Research has shown that one application of fungicide in the fall when soil temperatures are between 60 and 80 F provides the best control of SDS When disease pressure is high growers may want to make two applications If a second application is necessary it should be made four to six weeks after the first application when soil temperatures remain between 60 and 80 F for complete meteorological information see httpwwwgeorgiaweathernet For improved results it is recommended that fungicides be applied at high spray volumes 50 gal 1000 ft 2 andor immediately wateredin There have been mixed results from turfgrass managers around the state regarding chemical control of SDS Those who have seen good results say they spray preventative fungicides that target SDS each year and have been doing so for several years Therefore it is important to keep in mind that controlling SDS takes time and usually can not be obtained in a single season A complete list of fungicides formulations and product updates for SDS can be found in the annual Georgia Pest Management Handbook and the Turfgrass Pest Control Recommendations for Professionals httpwwwgeorgiaturfcom Some fungicide options are exclusively for golf course settings Always check fungicide labels for specific instructions restrictions special rates recommendations followup applications and proper handling Summary Spring dead spot continues to be a major problem for turfgrass managers in Georgia It is one of the more difficult diseases to manage because acceptable control is usually not attained in a single season Soil conditioning and proper nitrogen and potassium fertilization are important cultural practices that can help reduce SDS If acceptable control is not achieved with cultural practices one or two fungicide applications in the fall may be necessary References Butler EL and Tredway LP 2005 Turfgrass Managing Spring Dead Spot in Hybrid Bermudagrass Factsheet NC State Couch HB 2000 The Turfgrass Disease Handbook Krieger Publishing Company Malabar Florida Hagan A 2000 Control of Spring Dead Spot and Bermudagrass Decline Publication ANR 371 Alabama Cooperative Extension System Smiley RW Dernoeden PH and Clarke BB 2005 Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases Third edition Smith D L and Walker NR 2009 Spring Dead Spot of Bermudagrass Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet EPP 7665 Tredway L P TomasoPeterson M Hunter P and Walker N R 2008 Spring Dead Spot of Bermudagrass A Challenge for Researchers and Turfgrass Managers httpwwwapsnetorgpublicationsapsnetfeaturesPagesBermudagrassaspx 1 Associate Professor and Turfgrass Pathologist Plant Pathology Department 2 Graduate Assistant Crop and Soil Sciences Department 3 Associate Professor and Turfgrass Specialist Crop and Soil Sciences Department Status and Revision History Published on Nov 29 2011 Published with Full Review on Nov 30 2014 Faculty Alfredo Martinez Professor and Extension Plant PathologistTurfgrass Small Grains NonLegume Forages Plant Pathology Clint Waltz Extension Specialist Turfgrass Crop Soil Sciences Have a question Contact your local UGA Extension office to find out how our team of county agents can assist you Set County Preference | [
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http://extranet.cccco.edu/HBCUTransfer/Agreements.aspx | HBCU Transfer Agreements Our agreement with the 37 HBCU partners means that California community college students are now guaranteed transfer to any of these campuses should they complete the academic requirements which are similar to those required by University of California or California State University for transfer Click on a HBCU link below for more specific requirements to be eligible for guaranteed admission to a participating HBCU Alabama State University Benedict College Bowie State University Clark Atlanta University Fisk University Grambling State University Kentucky State University Lincoln University of PA Philander Smith College Stillman College Texas Southern University Virginia State University West Virginia State University Alcorn State University Bennett College Central State University Dillard University Florida Memorial University HarrisStowe State University Lane College Mississippi Valley State University Shaw University Talladega College Tougaloo College Wiley College Arkansas Baptist College BethuneCookman University Claflin University Edward Waters College Fort Valley State University HustonTillotson University Lincoln University of MO North Carolina Central University Southern University and AM College Tennessee State University Tuskegee University Xavier University of Louisiana Alabama State University doc pdf Back to Top Alcorn State University doc pdf Back to Top Arkansas Baptist College doc pdf Back to Top Benedict College pdf Back to Top Bennett College doc pdf Back to Top Bowie State University doc pdf Back to Top BethuneCookman University doc pdf Back to Top Central State University doc pdf Back to Top Claflin University doc pdf Back to Top Clark Atlanta University doc pdf Back to Top Dillard University doc pdf Back to Top EdwardWaters College doc pdf Back to Top Fisk University doc pdf Back to Top Florida Memorial University doc pdf Back to Top Fort Valley State University doc pdf Back to Top Grambling State University doc pdf Back to Top HarrisStowe State University doc pdf Back to Top HustonTillotson University doc pdf Back to Top Kentucky State University doc pdf Back to Top Lane College University doc pdf Back to Top Lincoln University of Missouri doc pdf Back to Top Lincoln University of Pennsylvania doc pdf Back to Top Mississippi Valley State University doc pdf Back to Top North Carolina Central University doc pdf Back to Top Philander Smith College doc pdf Back to Top Shaw University doc pdf Back to Top Southern University and AM College doc pdf Back to Top Stillman College doc pdf Back to Top Talladega College doc pdf Back to Top Tennessee State University doc pdf Back to Top Texas Southern University doc pdf Back to Top Tougaloo College doc pdf Back to Top Tuskegee University doc pdf Back to Top West Virginia State University doc pdf Back to Top Virginia State University doc pdf Back to Top Wiley College doc pdf Back to Top Xavier Univeristy of Louisiana pdf Back to Top | [
"HBCU Transfer"
] |
http://extraterrestrials.wikia.com/wiki/Alien_Autopsy | in : Cases Hoax Cases Alien autopsy Edit Share Alien autopsy A still from the film of the alleged alien . Date June 2 , 1947 Location Undisclosed Notable eyewitnesses None Alleged alien ( s ) involved Grey Status Proven a hoax The alien autopsy , also known as Alien Autopsy : Fact or Fiction , was a hoaxed video of a group of people preforming a medical examination on a grey alien released by Ray Santilli in 1995 and was sold to various television networks and broadcasted in more than 32 countries . Santilli claimed that he received the footage from an unidentified former military cameraman who chose to remain anonymous , and that the alien itself was recovered from the site of the 1947 Roswell UFO crash . Santilli also claimed that the film was taken on June 2 , 1947 . The video is a black and white , poor quality , 17 - minute film . In 2006 , Santilli finally admitted that the film was not authentic and was a recreation of footage that he supposedly viewed in 1992 , which became " unusable " by the time he made his film . Santilli claims that a few frames of the original film were embedded in his film , but never specified which ones . Despite Santilli ' s confession that the footage was a hoax , many true believers are still enormously convinced that the alien autopsy video is based on a real extraterrestrial autopsy . Notes On August 28 , 1995 , Fox television first aired the alleged alien autopsy footage under the title Alien Autopsy : Fact or Fiction This film was featured in the five - DVD video The Alien Files : UFOs Under Investigation in the section " UFOs , lies , and videotapes " . The original film was said to have never been turned over to the U.S. Air Force , yet the packaging that the original reels are sealed in bears the Air Force stamp . However , the stamp was not made official by the president at that time . References ↑ http : / / en . wikipedia . org / wiki / Alien_autopsy ↑ The Alien Files : UFOs Under Investigation Gallery Alien Autopsy The restored footage . Alleged Alien and UFO Sightings , Encounters , and Abductions Betty and Barney Hill abduction Buckingham Park UFO Chile UFO Denver Alien Dysart UFO Hill 611 UFO crash Lubbock Lights McPherson Tape Metepec Alien Phoenix Lights Roswell UFO crash Russian UFO crash Reed Case Skinny Bob Travis Walton abduction Categories Cases Hoax Cases | [
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http://extratv.com/2013/11/14/adam-levine-is-proud-of-his-victorias-secret-angel-behati-prinsloo/ | Celebrity News November 14 , 2013 Adam Levine Is ‘ Proud ’ of His Victoria ’ s Secret Angel , Behati Prinsloo Singer Adam Levine was front row center to gaze at his lovely fiancée , model Behati Prinsloo , as she walked the 2013 Victoria ' s Secret Fashion Show runway . An eyewitness told UsWeekly . com that Levine and fellow Maroon 5 band members " stood and cheered for Behati when she walked by . He was a proud fiancée . They were the only group going really crazy for any model . Behati would look over and blow him a kiss . " Levine has been at this Victoria ’ s Secret rodeo before . In 2011 , he escorted ex - girlfriend Anne Vyalitsyna down the runway . The two split in 2012 . The rocker then briefly dated Sports Illustrated model Nina Agdal . [ photo : Getty ] “ The Voice ” mentor , 34 , became engaged to 24 - year - old Prinsloo this summer . # TopStories # TrendingStories # CouplesNews # AdamLevine Comments Around the Web | [
"Adam Levine",
"Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show",
"Behati Prinsloo"
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http://extratv.com/2015/06/25/howard-sterns-wife-beth-reveals-the-real-reason-behind-his-agt-exit/ | Celebrity News June 25 , 2015 Howard Stern ’ s Wife Beth Reveals the Real Reason Behind His ‘ AGT ’ Exit Getty Images Howard Stern will have more time for his family after he wraps this season of “ America ’ s Got Talent . ” Stern revealed to his SiriusXM satellite radio listeners on Wednesday that he will not be returning next season to the hit NBC competition show . The radio and television personality said , " I told them , this is my last season . ” He continued , “ I am going through my own career evaluation right now … I ' m just too f * * * ing busy . " Stern ’ s wife , Beth Ostrosky Stern told “ Extra ” today that his additional time will be spent with her . Beth revealed , “ Howard told me he wanted more free time to be with me . ” Howard also teased on his radio show that he may have another TV gig lined up , “ I have a new great opportunity . ” While it is unclear what that opportunity may be rumors are already swirling that another famous judge , Simon Cowell may take his chair on “ AGT . ” Meanwhile his current “ America ’ s Got Talent ” co - stars do n ’ t believe that he is really going to leave , host Nick Cannon talked with “ Extra ” at NBC ’ s Summer Press Day yesterday , he said , “ [ Howard Stern ] says that all the time … Next your gonna tell me Santa Claus is n ’ t real . ” Mel B added that she was going to strap him to the desk . Watch NBC ’ s “ America ’ s Got Talent ” Tuesdays at 8 PM . # TrendingStories # CelebrityNews # HowardStern # BethOstrosky # Television Comments Around the Web | [
"Howard Stern",
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http://extratv.com/2016/01/12/patti-labelle-has-a-new-man-and-hes-30-years-her-junior/ | Celebrity News January 12 , 2016 Patti LaBelle Has a New Man and He ’ s 30 Years Her Junior ! Facebook Singer Patti LaBelle is reportedly dating a much younger man ! DailyMail . com reports that the Godmother of Soul , 71 , has been dating drummer Eric Seats , 41 , for more than a year . A source revealed , “ She tried to keep it quiet , but everyone around her has figured things out now . She ' s completely smitten with him and they spend so much time together . ” [ Facebook ] That time included hanging together over the holidays . Patti and Eric hosted Thanksgiving at her home in Philadelphia with guests like Lee Daniels , Questlove and viral video star James Wright Chanel , who sent Patti ' s pie sales soaring . The couple then spent Christmas on a yacht with songwriter Denise Rich , followed by a quiet New Year ’ s Eve dinner with friends . [ Facebook ] While Seats moved to Philly to be closer to his girlfriend , the drummer is now in Japan touring with Lalah Hathaway . The musician has also toured with big names like Stevie Wonder , Mary J . Blige and Missy Elliott . LaBelle was previously married to Armstead Edwards for 31 years . The couple split in 2000 . # HookupsAndBreakups # TrendingStories # PattiLabelle # CouplesNews Comments Around the Web | [
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http://extremebballskills.com/quadriceps-and-hamstring-exercises/ | Quadriceps and Hamstring Exercises Quadriceps , Hamstrings ( also , gluteus and calves ) : The quadriceps ( the muscles on the front of your thigh ) are the most important muscles in sports . They determine how fast you run , how high you jump , and how hard you can push . Coming in second are the combination of hamstring and gluteus ( butt ) muscles . The quads are big muscles so they take a lot of effort and time to strengthen . The videos below illustrate some great exercises to safely strengthen your quads and how to stretch them during the cool - down phase of exercising . Some require special Two things to especially note : Since you ’ re focusing on a particular muscle group you should always allow a day between exercises for these muscles to rest and repair . Everyone , but especially girls , should include hamstring exercises ( the muscles on the back of your thigh ) to balance out the strength of your quads . Strong quads and weak hamstrings is often the cause of ACL tears in girls who play basketball . For this reason some hamstring exercises have also been included at the end of the list Note that you gluteus ( butt ) and lower leg ( calve ) muscles will also get a workout as they support the quads and hamstrings in each exercise . Prerequisites : How to Warm Up How to Stretch These exercises will work your quadriceps , and hamstring muscles . Quadriceps Exercises : Safety Tips Beginner ’ s Squat Squats Lunges Squat Jumps Wall Sit Cool - Down Stretches If you have access to additional equipment : Balance Squats Step Ups Box Jumps Leg Presses ( avoid the leg extension machines in weight rooms since they can over - stress the tendons of the knee ) Hamstring Exercises : Swiss Ball and Hamstring Curls Office Chair Torture Link to this post ! | [
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http://eye.osu.edu/ | Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Science Advancing ophthalmology through clinical care , research and education The Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Science prides itself in providing state - of - the - art patient care , education and research to achieve its mission : To prevent and cure blinding eye disease and improve quality of vision . Patients receive the latest examination and diagnostic techniques , both medical and surgical . One of the department highlights includes the Robinson Imaging Center that offers the latest in imaging technologies Top - Ranking Education Programs The department ’ s three - year residency program and fellowship programs are among the most competitive in the country . Global Outreach The Department of Ophthalmology & VIsual Science has established a tradition of global outreach over the past decade , providing sight - restoring eye care for hundreds of people in Ghana , Nicaragua , Peru , Ethiopia , Haiti and India . Cutting - Edge Technologies and Clinical Trials Our faculty , fellows and residents are involved in emerging technologies and breakthrough research and clinical trials Helpful Links Imaging Technologies Global Outreach Project Department History 2017 Fall Newsletter Contact | [
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http://eyecare-sc.com/irmo | Eyecare Center Irmo 7455 Irmo Drive Columbia SC 29212 Phone 8037812212 Hours Mon Tue Thu Fri 830 am 500 pm Wed 830 am 600 pm Closed for lunch from 1230200 Locations 506 Lexington HWY Suite A Chapin SC 29036 United States Leaflet Map data provided by Internet Brands Chapin Monday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Tuesday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Wednesday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Thursday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Friday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Saturday Closed Sunday Closed Irmo Office Monday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Tuesday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Wednesday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 600 pm Thursday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Friday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Saturday Closed Sunday Closed Newberry Office Monday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 530 pm Tuesday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 530 pm Wednesday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 500 pm Thursday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 530 pm Friday 830 am 1230 pm 130 pm 530 pm Saturday Closed Sunday Closed Exclusive Offer | [
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http://eyedoctor.co.za/ | Book for A FREE Lasik laser screening suitability consultation Laser Eye Surgery Most LASIK patients notice a significant improvement in their vision soon after surgery Retinal Surgery The retina is a thin sheet of light sensitive nerve tissue lining the inside of the eye Cataract Surgery A cataract is the clouding of the natural lens in the eye Glaucoma Surgery Several types of glaucoma including openangle and narrowangle glaucoma Strabismus Strabismus is a condition where your eyes dont look towards the same object together Pediatric ophthalmology Children experience a variety of eye problems many quite distinct from adult eye diseases The Practice Established in 1990 by Dr Louis Boezaart the practice is situated in Bellville in the northern parts of the Cape Town metro pole right next to the Louis Leipold Mediclinic The practice covers the whole spectrum of ophthalmology including refractive problems laser refractive surgery cataracts retinal diseases glaucoma oculoplastics pediatric ophthalmology diabetic related eye problems etc Only state of the art diagnostic and surgical equipment are used putting patient care on par with international standards All surgery is done at the prestigious Cape Eye Hospital situated only 800m from the practice The Doctors Dr Japie Grove Ophthalmologist Dr Francois Joubert Ophthalmologist Dr Christa Joubert Ophthalmologist | [
"consultation"
] |
http://eyeexamcost.com/lenscrafters-eye-exam-cost/ | Lenscrafters Eye Exam Cost When you need an eye exam , lets face it , there are so many different options of eye care chains in America , each with their own advantages and disadvantages . You have Lenscrafters , Pearle Vision , America ’ s Best , and many , many more . Lenscrafters have been in operation since 1983 , so for over 25 years they have been providing exceptional service and products to the people of America . They have grown to become a very large chain of stores , and so there is a very high chance that there is a Lenscrafters store close to you . In having your eye exam at Lenscrafters , you can get a great deal and receive a thorough eye exam with exceptional service . In order to save Lenscrafters eye exam is to have optical insurance , although this may not be the best option based purely off your own personal circumstances . Eye Exam Costings You obviously got to this page to find out Lenscrafters eye exam cost . The Lenscrafters eye exam cost for a basic exam sits at around $ 60 mark . This price is slightly pricier than at other chains , but also cheaper than some others . Also , this cost does not take into account things such as coupons . The eye exam cost at each individual Lenscrafters store is not the same , but instead they each have individual pricing . Because of this , I highly recommend you visiting multiple stores in your area to make sure you are getting the best deal possible ( try to get your closet store Lenscrafters coupons , which can be found by visiting the Lenscrafters coupons website , as these coupons can save you a significant amount of money . You can find links to additional eye exam coupon providers here Lenscrafters coupons . Weigh up the pros and cons of insurance though before purchasing it . If your eye exam differs slightly in any way from a very basic exam ( e.g. contact lenses exam ) , be prepared to cough up a little more cash . Variations of the basic eye exam can cost around $ 30 more , but once again is different in each store you visit . Related Tagged with Eye Exams At Lenscrafters Free Eye Exam Lenscrafters Lenscrafters Contact Lenses Exam Cost Lenscrafters Eye Exam Price ← Previous | [
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http://eyelashmites.blogspot.com/2012/05/eye-mites-symptoms-and-treatment-for.html | Eye Mites , symptoms and treatment for human eye mites Demodicosis Mites on eyelashes called Demodex can be found on the skin of many humans . These skin parasites are so tiny that you will need a microscope to see them . But , even though it is microscopic , the presence of mites in the eyelashes gives people extensive itching especially at night . Therefore , if you have large number of demodex mites on your eyelashes , they will let you know about it with a feeling of itching and skin crawling . So , what is the reason why some people have the demodex mites in the eyelashes and others do n ' t . Besides use of bad ( chemical ) cosmetics , eyeshadows , mascara etc . , the most common and known reason is our immune system . When it starts to decline , it opens up the gate and gives the green light for the mites to multiply its population without supervision . The supervision by our immune system that is . If left unsupervised , the mites begin to increase population . But the demodicosis ( unsupervised growth of demodex mites ) does not start from the eyelashes . Eventhough it is possible that the epicenter of demodicosis was on or near the eyelashes or eyebrows , most likely demodex started to built its colonies somewhere else on facial skin first and then crawled to the eyelashes and eyebrows . Unlike scabies for instance ( other skin parasite ) who can not stay on facial skin , the demodex mite love it . It feeds on sebum therefore the facial skin with large sebaceous glands is the perfect environment for demodex mites If you have demodex in the eyelashes or you think you do , you need to see a doctor . If left without treatment , the eyelash demodex mites can cause permanent loss of eyelashes and other negative side effects . на 08 : 19 Отправить по электронной почте Написать об этом в блоге Опубликовать в Twitter Опубликовать в Facebook Поделиться в Pinterest Ссылки на это сообщение Создать ссылку Следующее Предыдущее Главная страница | [
"Eye Mites",
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http://eyelink.com/blog/b_48386_how_much_does_orthok_cost.html | Silicon Valley Eye Physicians Diseases that Can Be Diagnosed with an Eye Exam The doctors at Silicon Valley Eye Physicians discuss the common diseases that can be diagnosed with an eye exam . Moshe Mendelson , OD Oct 05 , 2018 LASIK Side Effects Patients can learn about the LASIK side effects that can be expected following treatment at Silicon Valley Eye Physicians . Moshe Mendelson , OD Sep 14 , 2018 LASIK Recovery Timeline At Silicon Valley Eye Physicians , we have provided detailed information about the LASIK recovery timeline . Jun 21 , 2018 Welcome To Our Blog Welcome to our Blog Feb 06 , 2018 Popular Tags All Posts by Month Atom RSS Locations We have 2 locations in the Silicon Valley area . View Locations Get In Touch | [
"Silicon Valley",
"Eye Physicians"
] |
http://eyes.emedtv.com/ketotifen/what-is-ketotifen-used-for.html | What Is Ketotifen Used For ? What Is Ketotifen Used For ? Ketotifen fumarate ophthalmic solution ( Alaway ® Zaditor ® Zyrtec Eye Drops , Claritin Eye ) is an eye medication used for treating eye allergy symptoms . It particular , it is approved for treating eye itching caused by allergies due to the following allergens : Pollen Ragweed Animal hair Animal dander . Although ketotifen eye drops were once available by prescription only , they are now available without a prescription . Allergy symptoms can affect various parts of the body , including the eyes . Eye allergies are known medically as allergic conjunctivitis because the allergic reaction occurs in the conjunctiva ( the thin layer the covers the white part of the eye and the inside of the eyelid ) . Symptoms of eye allergies may include : Itchy , red eyes ( or pink eye Burning or stinging of the eyes Watery eyes Puffy , swollen eyelids . Combined with strategies to minimize a person ' s contact with allergens , allergy treatment can make life bearable for even the worst allergy sufferer . Treatment often includes allergy eye drops , such as ketotifen . Unlike with decongestant eye drops ( such as many other over - the - counter eye drops ) , you can use ketotifen long - term without the risk of actually making the redness and swelling worse after you stop the medication . | [
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http://eyes.emedtv.com/macular-hole/macular-hole.html | Macular Hole What Is a Macular Hole ? A macular hole is a tiny break in the macula , which is located in the center of the eye ' s light - sensitive tissue called the retina . The macula provides the sharp , central vision we need for reading , driving , and seeing fine detail . This condition can cause blurred and distorted central vision . Macular holes are related to aging and usually occur in people over age 60 . Understanding the Eye In order to understand a macular hole , it is helpful to understand the parts of your eye involved with sight . These structures include the : Cornea Iris Pupil Lens Macula Retina . Your cornea is a thin , clear layer on the outside of your eye . The iris , or the colored part of your eye , is a muscle that controls the amount of light going through your pupil - - the round opening in the center of your eye . Behind the iris sits the lens , which is just larger than your pupil . The iris is enclosed by a thin , clear capsule that holds the lens in its proper place . When light enters your eye , the cornea and lens form the light rays into a beam of light that is focused directly onto your retina , the light - sensitive tissue at the back of the eye . The retina instantly converts light , or an image , into electrical impulses . The retina then sends these impulses , or nerve signals , to the brain through the optic nerve . The optic nerve is a bundle of more than one million nerve fibers connecting the retina to the brain . The macula is located in the center of the retina . It is made up of millions of light - sensing cells that help to produce central vision . Most of the eye ' s interior is filled with vitreous , a gel - like substance that fills about 80 percent of the eye and helps it maintain a round shape . The vitreous contains millions of fine fibers that are attached to the surface of the retina . | [
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http://eyesfl.com/blog/are-you-seeing-flashing-lights-what-could-they-mean/ | Blog Patient Connection Card Winner – March 2019 Congratulations to Morgan Brockhoeft , Optical Assistant at our Lakeland Highlands location . He is the winner of our Patient Connection Card drawing for the month of March ! Keep up the great work Morgan ! Posted in News and Events | April 5 , 2019 Employee Excellence Award Winner – April 2019 Congratulations to Marilyn Narvaez , Ophthalmic Tech at our Haines City location for winning our Employee Excellence Award for the month of April ! She was nominated for being very helpful , thoughtful , polite and an all - around excellent employee . Amazing job , Marilyn ! Posted in News and Events | April 4 , 2019 April – Sports Eye Safety Month Each year , an estimated 30,000 people are treated for sports - related eye injuries according to data from Prevent Blindness . The number of sports - related injuries has been on the rise in recent years . Sports - related injuries can range from corneal abrasion and bruising in and around the eye to more serious , vision - threatening injuries , such as retinal detachment , internal … Read More Blog | March 27 , 2019 Employee Excellence Award Winner – March 2019 Congratulations to our Employee Excellence Award Winner for March , Victoria Machicote , Special Testing at our Sebring location ! Victoria was highly nominated for her willingness to always help where needed , her great personality with co - workers and patients , and for her pride in her work . Awesome job , Victoria ! | March 8 , 2019 We Love our Patients ! A very grateful cataract surgery patient of ours gave these beautiful flowers to the staff at our Sebring location as a thank you . A very sweet gesture ! We are truly blessed with wonderful patients ! | March 7 , 2019 « Previous Posts | [
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http://eyesofthebeast.com/2016/05/how-to-tame-friender-the-mechano-wolf/ | Hunter Pets How to tame Friender the Mechano Wolf May 5 2016 bendak 19 Comments I think its safe to say that Friender the mechano wolf is the first legitimate taming challenge discovered in Legion We have Treble and Rush which are found via track hunting but Friender is something completely new Shout out to Kyfus who was the first Hunter to discover this one When Blizzard first announced mechanical pets they specifically mentioned a mechano strider challenge in Gnomeregan So far we havent seen that one specifically but its possible that Friender is the end result of that original idea He should be tameable once the 70 prepatch goes live before Legion To begin make sure you can actually tame a mechanical pet Gnomes and Goblins can do so innately but other races must obtain a MechaBond Imprint Matrix from their local engineer Unfortunately engineers wont be able to craft this until Legion so only Gnomes and Goblins will be able to do this in the prepatch Secondly the buttons can only be used by level 100 players Step 1 Head to Gnomeregan Thats in Dun Morogh for your Hordies out there Head inside go down the elevator then take instance portal The Engineering Labs is deep into the instance follow the maps above to get there Once youre in the labs youll see Friender sleeping in the middle of the room He cant be tamed yet Time to do a few puzzles One of the button puzzles Step 2 Button Puzzles There are three button puzzles that all must be solved to activate Friender There is a 6 7 and 8button puzzle on the north south and west walls of the labs It doesnt matter which order you do them in All the puzzles start in different states every time you reset the instance so there is no way to provide an exact guide since it will be different every time Clicking a button will flip the current state on or off of the left and right buttons in addition to the one you clicked The goal is to light up all of the buttons A trick I learned is to pick the first unlit button and click the one directly to its right Keep moving right doing the same thing If you reach the end of the line of buttons loop back to the beginning Its simpler than it looks Once you get inside to try it it shouldnt take more than a few minutes I solved the puzzles a halfdozen times now and on two of my resets I was unable to solve the 8button puzzle I think this could be a bug Simply resetting the instance and trying again gave me a new starting state that I was able to solve Step 3 Taming Friender Once you complete the 3 puzzles Friender will wake up and start running a circle around the labs Stay near the edge of the room and you wont aggro him Friender is immune to crowd control and will pretty much oneshot you if he gets close The key is to pop your Aspect of the Turtle the new Deterrence right before you cast Tame Beast The channel time for Tame Beast is fast enough that youll be fully protected as long as you cast them back to back And thats it If youre curious Friender is a reference from an anime series called Casshan There is a blue robot dog named Friender in it apparently I guess Blizzard only has so many blue robot dogs they can pull from eh Treble and Rush the other two mechano wolves discovered so far are references to Mega Man There is also green and orange mechano wolves in the game files which I expect to become pets at some point 80 Challenge Tames Friender Gnomeregan Hunter Pets Legion Legion Hunter Pets Mech Pets MechaBond Imprint Matrix Mechanical Mechanical Pets Mechano Wolf Previous Post The Legion has not claimed me Next Post Legion First round of number tuning for Hunters 19 thoughts on How to tame Friender the Mechano Wolf bendak May 7 2016 at 308 pm He does scale down to 100 I havent leveled any lowbies on alpha to check but I assume it will scale down so people doing gnomeregan at the appropriate level could tame it NazzyDragon NazzyDragon May 7 2016 at 314 pm When you have time please check For those of us who never get into betaalpha lol Madostar July 1 2016 at 621 am He is present on the ptr atm and he is tamable so yeah he will be in the prepatch Tyler Ellyson May 13 2016 at 107 am If that bastard does one shot any hunter then I gotta say hell be the strongest challenge tame in the game Matt May 20 2016 at 645 pm pop aspect of the turtle and tame it very easy Lawld May 31 2016 at 312 pm there is alreadly a 1 shot pet in the firelands its the blue spider maaksel May 19 2016 at 1151 pm I just went and grabbed him Hardest part was GETTING there Wish he stayed as big as he did when tamed when I hearthstoned back to Dalaran he shrunk about half the size Ricardo Ishiy June 19 2016 at 722 pm Hey whats the name of your transmog bendak June 19 2016 at 908 pm Thats just leveling gear from Legion Darkynhalvos June 21 2016 at 1043 am Would be amazing if there was some sort of puzzlesolver where you could enter what sequence you see in front of you and it would tell you the steps to take That 8button one is nothing short of severely frustrating Synapse August 15 2016 at 304 pm Its actually very easy The key is to use the outsides and activate chunks of 2 on the outside edge or 3 in the middle You can hit deactivated buttons Slingshot July 4 2016 at 838 pm I usually do the 8button puzzle first 7button second and the 6button last It is easier that way Mothraguy July 20 2016 at 1109 am I cant press the god dammed buttons bendak July 20 2016 at 1155 am Looks like there is a level 100 requirement to press them for some reason Pg August 4 2016 at 255 am Did this today worked perfectly 6 mech pets in the bag Comment on this post This site uses Akismet to reduce spam Learn how your comment data is processed | [
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http://eyesonthebay.dnr.maryland.gov/mbss/SA_spec6.cfm?species=FALLFISH | MBSS Navigation : Back to StreamHealth Map About the MBSS Stream Waders Volunteers Data Search Fish Distributions Your Feedback FALLFISH Semotilus corporalis The Fallfish is a member of the Minnow family ( Cyprinidae ) . The male fallfish may build a large nest of gravel over 3 feet high to protect its mate ' s eggs . The map below shows presence ( green circles ) of this species in the 1995 - 2002 MBSS dataset . Illustration by Dave Neely Distribution of Fallfish in Maryland ( MBSS data ) : The MBSS has collected the following fishes in the family Cyprinidae : Common Name Genus & species Blacknose dace Rhinichthys atratulus Bluntnose minnow Pimephales notatus Central stoneroller Campostoma anomalum Common carp Cyprinus carpio Common shiner Luxilus cornutus Creek chub Semotilus atromaculatus Cutlips minnow Exoglossum maxillingua Eastern silvery minnow Hybognathus regius Fallfish Semotilus corporalis Fathead minnow Pimephales promelas Golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas Longnose dace Rhinichthys cataractae River chub Nocomis micropogon Rosyface shiner Notropis rubellus Rosyside dace Clinostomus funduloides Satinfin shiner Cyprinella analostana Spotfin shiner Cyprinella spilopterus Spottail shiner Notropis hudsonius Goldfish Carassius auratus Silverjaw minnow Notropis buccatus Striped shiner Luxilus chrysocephalus | [
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http://eyesteve.com/residency-application-interview-travel-cost/ | How Much Will it Cost to Apply for Residency and Travel to Interviews ? 30 Jun 2014 eyesteve 2 21672 Every year about this time , fourth year medical students realize they will soon be submitting residency applications and ( hopefully ! ) be invited to interview at residency programs around the country . One of the most common questions surrounding residency applications is how much one might expect to spend on application fees and travel costs to interviews . It is critical for medical students living on a tight budget to examine their finances and forecast approximate costs of residency interviews in order to save gradually or apply for additional loans to finance their application , interview , and Published literature is fairly scarce regarding the costs associated with residency applications and travel to residency interviews . Many reasons for this paucity exist , most significant of which is the variability in numbers of programs to which applicants apply , relative geography of potential programs to home location , and most obviously , preferred travel accommodations among residency applicants . Ophthalmology residency applicants face yet another challenge during the fall - winter months known as “ interview season , ” in that applicants must secure a PGY - 1 ( post - graduate year 1 ) internship position in NRMP match in addition to an ophthalmology residency match through the SF Match . A 2008 study examined 287 applicants to Urology residency during the 2006 application cycle , asking participants to respond to an 8 - question online survey . Respondents were found to have attended a median of 12 residency interviews and spent a median of 20 days on the road . The median total cost of the interview process ( excluding residency applications ) was $ 4000 or $ 330 per interview . Out of my own curiosity , and in an effort to provide future applicants with at least a detailed cost breakdown of my residency application , interview , and travel costs , I have analyzed my interview - season costs and present them to you here . Before we get to the numbers , here are a few assumptions and points to consider as you look at my costs . I attended 13 ophthalmology residency interviews , 8 transitional year internship interviews , and 3 preliminary medicine interviews . I applied all over the country for ophthalmology with no regional preference whatsoever ( did n ’ t get much love from the West Coast , interestingly , despite being from the West ) . I did have a slight regional bias toward applying to transitional year internship programs in the Midwest which I felt were still very strong programs but in locations perhaps perceived by many to be less than tropical in order to maximize my chances of matching at All 24 interviews were completed between October 29th and December 21st . In order to fit in so many interviews in such a short amount of time I was on the road / traveling for 38 out of 53 possible days . I am on the cheap - end of travel accommodation preferences , and tried to find the cheapest hotels , rental cars , etc . and grabbed food at the local grocery store or pocketed extra food from the continental breakfast to save a few bucks here and there . Surprisingly my food costs were quite low , largely because I stayed at hotels with breakfast and was often provided lunch and / or dinner by the program on interview day . I stayed with family / friends for six interviews and was able to avoid traveling to several internship interviews by completing the interview on the same trip as the residency interview . I interviewed in twenty cities and took nineteen one - way flights , a 10 - day rental car road - trip , and one Amtrak train ride between interviews . I preferred rental cars to taxis both for cost savings and to be able explore the cities more easily before / after interviews . The cost of applications depends on the number of programs to which you apply . See the specific NRMP and SF Match sites describing their respective application fees . For those going into ophthalmology , see the related eyesteve article which shows the average number of programs to which applicants applied from 2004 - 2014 . Okay , now for the figures and data . Below is a map of the cities to which I traveled for interviews . Keep in mind that Salt Lake City ( in blue ) was home base at that time , with very few interviews ( 2 , both at my home program ) within a day ’ s drive , requiring me to fly much more extensively than others in more travel and geography - friendly locations near multiple programs . Below is a pie chart representing my total residency application and interview costs . I track my finances using mint . com , which is linked to all of my accounts , so this data should be a very good representation of my application and interview costs . And here is a pie chart representing the breakdown of interview transportation costs , which represented just under 75 % of my total application and interview costs . A few key takeaways : Start making plans and saving for residency applications and interview to travel as early as possible . There is no excuse for not having sufficient funds to travel to sufficient interviews to match . Increase the amount of student loan aid you receive in years 1 , 2 , and 3 to have enough cash on hand at the beginning of year 4 when applications and interviews begin . Are you already taking out maximum student loans ? Apply for residency / relocation loans , ask your rich uncle , borrow from your parents , or find some other means Previously published literature in the journal Ophthalmology indicates applicants in the 2011 match cycle who interviewed at 11 programs or more had a > 90 % chance of matching . Apply to enough programs to interview at approximately 11 , but avoid interviewing at many more than 11 as your chances of matching do not increase and additional interviews will just leave you with unnecessary debt and burnt out for the interviews at your preferred programs . The Urology article cited above from 2006 data suggested that applicants spent a median of $ 330 per interview . If you look at my total costs ( $ 8,067 excluding applications ) and consider I attended 22 interviews , my per - interview travel cost was $ 367 , very similar to the median cost per interview in the study . I recommend using $ 350 per interview in your financial forecast and simply multiply by the number of total interviews you plan to attend to arrive at your total estimated cost for traveling to and from residency interviews Please let me know if you found this financial breakdown useful and best of luck in the match ! application interview NRMP Ophthalmology residency travel | [
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http://eyewiki.aao.org/Abducens_nerve_palsy | Abducens nerve palsy Enroll in the Residents and Fellows contest Enroll in the International Ophthalmologists contest Residents and Fellows contest rules | International Ophthalmologists contest rules Original article contributed by Dimitra Triantafilou , CO Donny W . Suh , MD , FAAP All contributors : Centrael Tyson Evans , MD Donny W . Suh , MD , FAAP John Davis Akkara MD and Sachin Kedar MD Assigned editor : Ashwini Kini , MD Review : Assigned status Up to Date on January 27 , 2015 . Abducens nerve palsy DiseasesDB 2868 ICD 10 H 49.2 MedlinePlus 000690 Contents hide 1 Disease Entity 1.1 Disease 1.2 Etiology 1.2.1 In pediatrics 1.2.2 In adults 1.3 Risk Factors 2 Diagnosis 2.1 History 2.2 Physical examination 2.3 Signs 2.4 Symptoms 2.5 Clinical diagnosis 2.6 Diagnostic procedures 2.7 Laboratory test 2.8 Differential diagnosis 3 Management 3.1 General treatment 3.2 Surgery 3.3 Surgical follow up 3.4 Complications 3.5 Prognosis 4 Additional Resources 5 References Disease Entity Strabismus / ocular misalignment Disease Abducens nerve palsy is the most common ocular motor paralysis . The abducens ( sixth ) cranial nerve controls the lateral rectus muscle , which abducts the eye . Abducens nerve palsy causes an esotropia due to the unopposed action of the antagonistic medial rectus muscle . The affected eye turns in toward the nose and is unable to abduct properly . The deviation is constant and is usually greater at distance fixation than at near . The esotropia is also worse when the patient is looking toward the affected side . Etiology In pediatrics Congenital . Palsies can occur , albeit rare . Can sometimes be associated with birth trauma and with neurological conditions such as hydrocephalus and cerebral palsy . Acquired . Acquired abducens nerve palsies in childhood can be due to neoplasm , trauma , inflammation , and idiopathic etiologies . Nontraumatic acquired sixth nerve palsies may be due to benign recurrent sixth nerve palsy , elevated intracranial pressure , or pontine gliomas . Benign isolated abducens nerve palsy can occur in childhood following ear or throat infections or viral illness . Trauma , secondary to open or closed head injuries The trauma causes indirect pressure on the nerve , which is very susceptible to trauma as it passes over the apex of the petrous temporal bone to the cavernous sinus . In addition , traumatic abducens nerve palsy can occur secondary to bruising and / or hemorrhage causing pressure on the nerve . Closed head trauma may cause elevated intracranial pressure and secondarily produce a sixth nerve palsy . In addition , the instance of sixth nerve palsy after apparently trivial head trauma raises suspicion about a possible underlying intracranial tumor . Pontine glioma . Brainstem gliomas are particularly common in the pediatric population , and more than 80 % arise from the pons with the peak age of onset between 5 - 8 years of age . Presenting symptoms include ataxia , disturbance of gait , and unilateral or bilateral abducens nerve palsy . Elevated intracranial pressure Elevated intracranial pressure can result in downward displacement of the brainstem , causing stretching of the sixth cranial nerves which are tethered in Dorello ’ s canal . Elevated intracranial pressure in children can occur secondary to a variety of different causes . , including shunt failure , pseudotumor cerebri , posterior fossa tumors , neurosurgical trauma , venous sinus thrombosis , meningitis , or Lyme disease . Intracranial tumor Posterior fossa tumors , such as pontine glioma , medulloblastoma , ependymoma , cystic cerebellar astrocytoma can produce unilateral or bilateral abducens nerve palsies in children . Skull base tumors ( meningioma , chordoma , nasopharyngeal carcinoma , metastasis ) predominate in the adult population . Abducens nerve palsy can also present as a postoperative complication after resection of posterior fossa tumors in the pediatric population . Meningitis Hanna and others found abducens nerve palsy in 16.5 % of patients with acute bacterial meningitis . Cranial nerve palsies in this setting tend to be multiple and bilateral . In adults Microvascular ischemia . Trauma . Idiopathic . Less likely : Multiple sclerosis . Neoplasm . Stroke . Sarcoidosis / vasculitis . Increased intracranial pressure . Giant cell arteritis . Lesions . Lesions causing abducens nerve palsy are usually classified by the location of the lesion . Fascicular . Demyelination , vascular disease and metastatic tumors are likely causes of fascicular damage . Lesions in this area can cause Foville ’ s syndrome . Foville ’ s syndrome ( damage to the pontine tegmentum ) is classified by partial sixth nerve palsy , ipsilateral facial weakness , loss of taste in the anterior portion of the tongue , ipsilateral Horner ’ s syndrome , ipsilateral facial sensory loss and ipsilateral peripheral deafness . Lesions in the fascicular area can also cause Millard - Gubler syndrome , which is a result of damage to the ventral pons , is characterized Peripheral . Causes of peripheral nerve damage include closed head injury , compression , and bacterial infection of the inner ear . Localized compression can be caused by a primary pituitary tumor , craniopharyngioma or meningioma . Metastatic tumors and aneurysms involving the basilar artery can also cause an abducens nerve palsy . Risk Factors Inflammatory and microvascular conditions are risk factors for abducens nerve palsy . Some risk factors include multiple sclerosis , encephalitis , meningitis , cavernous sinus thrombosis , hypertension , hypercholesterolemia , aneurysm , diabetes , arteriosclerosis , and birth trauma . Diagnosis History The history of the pattern of onset and associated symptoms can be very important in determining the etiology of an abducens nerve palsy . Sudden onset of abducens nerve palsy suggests a microvascular etiology . Conversely , slowly progressive onset suggests a compressive etiology . Subacute onset suggests a demyelinating process as a possible etiology . Associated pain suggests a microvascular etiology . If a patient has a lesion causing the abducens nerve palsy which affects other structures in the brain , other neurologic signs may be present ( see Symptoms section ) . Physical examination All patients with presumed abducens nerve palsy need a complete ophthalmologic examination , including visual acuity , binocular function and stereopsis , motility evaluation , strabismus measurements at near , distance , and in the cardinal positions of gaze , measurement of fusional amplitudes , cycloplegic refraction , and evaluation of ocular structures in the anterior and posterior segments . Precise assessment of ductions and versions , as well as precise orthoptic measurements in lateral gazes are helpful in determining incomitance associated with abducens nerve palsy . Slow saccadic velocity in side gaze may be present and is helpful with Signs Because the greatest motility deficit occurs on attempt to abduct the palsied eye , palpebral fissure widening upon abduction may be seen with maximal abduction effort . The patient may also present with a head turn toward the affected eye , to keep their eye opposite the field of gaze of the affected lateral rectus muscle and thereby avoid or minimize diplopia . Diplopia is the most common symptom . Patients will have horizontal uncrossed diplopia which is greater at distance than at near . The diplopia is also worse in the direction of the palsied muscle and gets better in the contralateral gaze ( incomitant ) . In recent onset palsies , the deviation measures greater when the paretic eye is fixating and smaller when the nonparetic eye is fixing ( primary and secondary deviations ) . In cases of abducens nerve palsy due to raised intracranial pressure , patients may experience associated symptoms of headache , pain around the eyes , nausea , or vomiting . Associated pain suggests a microvascular etiology . If a patient has a lesion causing the abducens nerve palsy which affects other structures in the brain , other neurologic signs may be observed . If the etiology of the abducens nerve palsy is a brainstem lesion affecting the sixth cranial nerve fasciculus , there may be associated ipsilateral facial weakness , contralateral hemiparesis , or sensory abnormalities . If the abducens Clinical diagnosis There is a limitation to abduction in the affected eye . Abducens nerve palsy causes an esotropia due to the unopposed action of the antagonistic medial rectus muscle . The affected eye turns in toward the nose and is unable to abduct properly . The deviation is constant and is usually greater at distance fixation than at near , and also greater when the patient is looking toward the affected side . Diagnostic procedures There is no universal consensus about diagnostic relevance of MRI in abducens nerve palsy . In general , if unilateral abducens nerve palsy presents acutely , MRI should routinely be performed , especially if there is no evidence of microvascular etology . Some clinicians prefer to routinely perform MRI in all patients with abducens nerve palsy , even with evidence of vasculopathy ( Bendszus et al . 2001 ) . Another study by Murchison and others in 2011 analyzed cost - effectiveness of MRI imaging as it related to lesions found and affected courses of treatment , and determined that Laboratory test Complete blood cell ( CBC ) count Glucose levels Glycosylated hemoglobin ( HbA1C ) Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and / or C - reactive protein Fluorescent treponemal antibody - absorption test , VDRL or RPR Lyme titer Glucose tolerance test Antinuclear antibody test Rheumatoid Factor test MRI is indicated for the following : Patients younger than 45 years Associated pain or other neurologic abnormality History of cancer Bilateral sixth nerve palsy Papilledema Patients younger than 55 years with no vasculopathic history In the event no marked improvement is seen or other nerves become involved An LP can be considered if MRI results are negative . Differential diagnosis Differential diagnosis for abducens cranial nerve palsy includes Duane ’ s retraction syndrome ( Types 1 and 3 ) , congenital esotropia , thyroid eye disease , spasm of the near reflex , longstanding esotropia with medial rectus contracture , ocular neuromyotonia , and lateral rectus myositis . An abduction deficit can be produced by orbital disease , such as a blowout fracture with entrapment of the medial rectus muscle , or by neuromuscular disease such as ocular myasthenia gravis or Miller - Fisher syndrome . Clinical assessment for orbital , neuromuscular , and brainstem disease is the first step Management General treatment Treatment depends on etiology of the abducens nerve palsy . In general , underlying or systemic conditions are treated primarily . Most patients with a microvascular abducens nerve palsy are simply observed and usually recover within 3 - 6 months . Treatment for the diplopia associated with abducens nerve palsy can be managed with prisms , occlusion , botulinum toxin , or surgery . Occlusion using Bangerter filter or pirate patch can eliminate diplopia and confusion , prevent amblyopia or suppression in younger patients , and decrease the possibility of ipsilateral medial rectus contracture . Base - out Fresnel prisms Surgery Strabismus surgery can be performed for persistent abducens nerve palsies that demonstrate stable measurements over 6 months period . Forced duction test is performed in the office or in operating room in order to assist with surgical planning . Often , a resection of the affected lateral rectus and recession of the ipsilateral medial rectus ( recess / resect or “ R and R ” procedure ) is performed . Alternatively , a resection of the affected lateral rectus with a recession of the contralateral medial rectus may be performed . Various forms of transposition surgeries can be considered . Jensen , Hummelsheim , Augmented Hummelsheim with resections + / - Foster modifications , Knapp ' s procedure are some of the examples . Botulism toxin can also be used as a temporizing treatment . Surgical follow up Patients must be managed closely postoperatively , and any residual diplopia can be managed with prisms . Complications The most likely complication following surgical correction of abducens nerve palsy is the risk of over - or under - correction , which can be managed postoperatively with prisms . Prognosis The prognosis for sixth nerve palsy depends on the underlying etiology . Rush and Younge reported a recovery rate of 49.6 % in 419 nonselected sixth nerve palsy cases , and a higher rate of 71 % in 419 patients with diabetes mellitus , hypertension , or atherosclerosis . Additional Resources American Academy of Ophthalmology . Neuro - ophthalmology / Orbit : Abducens nerve palsy Practicing Ophthalmologists Learning System , 2017 - 2019 San Francisco : American Academy of Ophthalmology , 2017 . References Bendszus M , Beck A , Koltzenburg M , et al . MRI in isolated sixth nerve palsies . Neuroradiology 2001 ; 43 ( 9 ) : 742 - 745 . Murchison AP , Gilbert ME , Savino PJ . Neuroimaging and Acute Ocular Motor Mononeuropathies . Arch Ophthalmol . 2011 ; 129 ( 3 ) : 301 - 305 . Thurtell MJ , Tomsak RJ , Daroff RB . What do I do now ? Neuro - ophthalmology . Oxford , New York ; 2011 . Von Noorden GK . Binocular Vision and Ocular Motility : Theory and Management of Strabismus , Third ed . Rush JA , Younge BR . Paralysis of cranial nerves III , IV , and VI . Arch Ophthalmol 1981 ; 99 : 76 – 79 | [
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http://eyewiki.aao.org/Endophthalmitis | Enroll in the Residents and Fellows contest Enroll in the International Ophthalmologists contest Residents and Fellows contest rules | International Ophthalmologists contest rules Original article contributed by Sami Kamjoo , MD All contributors : Alan Palestine , MD Jennifer I Lim MD Dr . Kabir Hossain Koushik Tripathy , MD ( AIIMS ) , FRCS ( Glasgow ) Robert F . Melendez , MD , MBA Sami Kamjoo , MD and Vinay A . Shah M.D . Assigned editor : Jennifer I Lim MD David C . Gritz , MD , MPH Review : Assigned status Update Pending on February 11 , 2019 . Endophthalmitis Hypopyon with hazy media DiseasesDB 30828 ICD 10 H 44.0 Contents hide 1 Definition 2 Types of Endophthalmitis 2.1 Exogenous 2.2 Endogenous 3 Acute Postoperative Endophthalmitis 3.1 Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study ( EVS ) 1 3.1.1 Symptoms 3.1.2 Signs 3.2 Epidemiology 3.3 Evaluation 3.4 Presenting Visual Acuity 3.5 Differential Diagnosis of Acute Endophthalmitis 3.6 Testing 3.6.1 Ultrasound Evaluation 3.6.2 Microbiological Characteristics 3 . 6 . 2 . 1 Obtaining Specimens for Microbiologic Studies 3 . 6 . 2 . 2 Method of Obtaining Samples 3.6.3 Vitreous Specimen 3 . 6 . 3 . 1 Specimen 3.7 Treatment 3.7.1 Pars Plana Vitrectomy 3 . 7 . 1 . 1 PPV – obtaining sample 3 . 7 . 1 . 2 Immediate PPV vs . Tap & Inject 3.7.2 EVS Limitations 3.7.3 Intravitreal Antibiotics 3 . 7 . 3 . 1 Complications of Intravitreal Antibiotics 3.7.4 Systemic Antibiotics 3.7.5 Corticosteroids 3.7.6 Reinjection 3.7.7 Considerations of reinjection 3.8 Outcomes and Risk Factors for Poor Outcomes 3.9 Virulence 4 Chronic Postoperative Endophthalmitis ( > 6 weeks ) 4.1 History 4.2 Clinical features 4.3 Treatment for Chronic Cases 5 Filtering Bleb - Associated Endophthalmitis 6 Post - Trabeculectomy Endophthalmitis Treatment 7 Endophthalmitis after Intravitreal Injection 8 Non - infectious Endophthalmitis after Triamcinolone Injection or intravitreal anti - VEGF ( aflibercept ) [ 2 ] 8.1 Management options 9 Traumatic Endophthalmitis 9.1 Etiology 9.2 Risk factors 9.3 Workup 9.4 Treatment considerations 9.5 Prophylaxis after Penetrating Trauma 10 Endogenous Endophthalmitis 10.1 Etiology 11 Management of Endogenous Endophthalmitis 12 Conclusions 13 Additional Resources 14 References Definition Endophthalmitis is a purulent inflammation of the intraocular fluids ( vitreous and aqueous ) usually due to infection . Serious intraocular inflammatory disorder resulting from infection of the vitreous cavity Progressive vitritis is the hallmark of any form of endophthalmitis Histologically : massive infiltration of the vitreous cavity with inflammatory cells Types of Endophthalmitis Exogenous Acute Postoperative Chronic Postoperative Traumatic Filtering Bleb - Associated After Intravitreal Injections Endogenous Acute Postoperative Endophthalmitis Refers to infectious endophthalmitis shortly after ocular surgery Most present within 1 - 2 weeks , usually 3 - 5 days after the surgery . Initial symptoms : rapidly progressive , including pain , red eye , ocular discharge , and blurring Common signs : decreased visual acuity , lid swelling , conjunctival and corneal edema , anterior chamber cells + fibrin , hypopyon , vitreous inflammation , retinitis , and blunting of red reflex Retinal Periphlebitis – earliest sign Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study ( EVS ) EVS evaluated only the patients with acute endophthalmitis occuring within 6 weeks of cataract surgery or secondary intraocular lens implantation . Symptoms 94.3 % reported blurred vision 82.1 % red eye 74 % pain - It is important that almost 25 % patients did not have pain . 34.5 % swollen lid Signs 85 % hypopyon - Fifteen percent patients may not have a hypopyon . 79 % hazy media 26 % LP vision only When there is a doubt between post - operative inflammation and endophthalmitis with severe haze in the ocular media , or vitreous opacities clinically the possibility of an infection should be given priority . Epidemiology Acute postoperative endophthalmitis is the most common form of endophthalmitis Following cataract surgery 0.08 % - 0.68 % Rates increasing since clear corneal incisions Highest risk after 2ndary IOL ( 0.2 - 0.367 % ) , and lowest after pars plana vitrectomy ( 0.03 - 0.046 % ) . Vitreous acts as a culture medium for micro - organisms , and hence after pars plana vitrectomy , the rates of endophthalmitis is least . Evaluation Suspect in any eye with inflammation greater than the usual postop course Associations : Wound leak or dehiscence - especially a leaking small incision cataract surgery ( SICS ) wound Suture abscess Vitreous incarceration in the wound Eroding scleral sutures used to fixate IOLs Presenting Visual Acuity HM vs . LP - Important Pars plana vitrectomy recommended in patients with visual acuity of light perception ( LP ) . Hand motion ( HM ) or better , tap and inject intravitreal antibiotics . Source : https : / / www . eyeworld . org / When measuring VA , the technique of differentiating LP vs . HM vision is most important EVS gave the standard criteria to evaluate visual acuity in endophthalmitis : ' If no letters could be read on the ( ETDRS ) chart at 4 m , then at 1 m , vision was tested for the ability to count fingers . If the patient was unable to count fingers , vision was tested for the ability to recognize hand motions . For this , the patient ' s opposite eye was occluded , and a light source , such as a lamp used for near vision , was directed from behind the patient to the examiner ' s hand that either was stationary or was moved at one motion Differential Diagnosis of Acute Endophthalmitis Occult retention of lens cortex or nucleus Hypopyon uveitis ( Behcet ’ s or rifabutin ) Inflammatory reaction to intravitreal drug Blebitis Keratitis Toxic anterior segment syndrome ( TASS ) Rapid onset ( w / I 12 - 24 hours , limbus to limbus corneal edema ) Increased intraocular pressure Absent vitreous inflammation Iris damage Repsonse to steroid Testing Ultrasound Evaluation Should be performed if significant media opacification prevents adequate view of the fundus Findings c / w endophthalmitis : Dispersed vitreous opacities with vitritis Chorioretinal thickening Rule out : RD or choroidals , dislocated lens material , retained foreign bodies Retinal or choroidal detachment are poor prognostic factors . Microbiological Characteristics Bacteria are the most common infecting agents Causative organisms represent bacteria from patient ’ s own periocular flora , introduced during surgery . In cases of intravitreal medication associated endophthalmitis , causes include oral flora ( treating physician or patient ) or drug contamination . It is important therefore for these injections to not speak or to cover the treating physician with a mask and to ask the patient not to speak or use a drape . In the EVS , 94.2 % of culture - confirmed cases involved GP bacteria 70 % were GP , coag - negative staph ( Staph epi ) Obtaining Specimens for Microbiologic Studies In the EVS , vitreous samples yielded positive cultures more often than aqueous samples Aqueous samples were the only source of positive culture in 4.2 % of eyes Can obtain at the time of PPV , if indicated Method of Obtaining Samples Eye surgically prepped with povidone - iodine 5 % solution Surgical drape , lid speculum 30g needle attached to TB syringe limbus for A / C tap , without collapsing A / C Obtain 0.1cc Vitreous specimen , obtain by either vitreous needle tap or by vitreous biopsy with a cutting / aspirating probe Vitreous Specimen After conjunctival incision ( if 20g ) , a vitrectomy probe attached to a TB syringe is inserted into the vitreous cavity through a sclerotomy placed 3 - 4mm posterior to limbus Approx 0.1 - 0.3mL of vitreous is removed from the anterior vitreous cavity by using the automated cutting mechanism of the probe and slow , manual aspiration . Alternate method : vitreous needle tap – is performed by inserting 27 to 22g needle attached to a TB syringe into the vitreous cavity through the pars plana ( pull plunger back first to break the vacuum before inserting into the eye ) . Slowly aspirate . If no fluid vitreous can be obtained with a needle tap , a vitreous biopsy must be performed instead to avoid aspirating formed vitreous Specimen Culture inoculation by the surgeon within minutes of obtaining specimens is ideal to maximize recovery of the organisms A spinal needle should be used to inject the specimen deeply into liquid media Gram stain , culture ( aerobic , anaerobic , and fungal ) Antibiotic sensitivities ( although in the EVS , Vanco and amikacin empiric tx covered 99.4 % of all infecting organisms ) More recently , polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) testing is being used more frequently to identify suspected pathogens in the sample . PCr testing requires the physician to specify the suspected organisms when requesting the test . Treatment Pars Plana Vitrectomy Advantages : reduction of infecting organisms , toxins , inflammatory materials , and opacities . Allows collection of samples Disadvantages : Need for sophisticated equipment and the need for an OR . Vitrectomized eyes have more rapid clearance of intravitreal antibiotics In inflamed , aphakic , vitrectomized rabits , intravitreal vanco and ceftaz half - lives are 7.5 and 5.1 hours , respectively , compared to 31.4 and 10.1 hours , respectively , in inflamed , phakic nonvitrectomized rabbits PPV – obtaining sample Standard 3 port setup A vitreous sample of 0.2 - 0.5mL is first obtained without infusion using gentle manual aspiration into a syringe with a high cutting rate Infusion is then initiated and core vitrectomy performed The A / C is cleared for visualization as necessary In most cases , IOL need not be removed In the EVS , attempts were made to clear 50 % or more of the vitreous Also in the EVS , no attempt to induce a PVD if none was previously present Immediate PPV vs . Tap & Inject In the EVS , patients who presented with LP only visual acuity had a significant , threefold improved chance of obtaining 20 / 40 vision after immediate vitrectomy ( 33 ) compared to tap and inject ( 11 % ) 56 % of obtaining 20 / 100 or better after immediate PPV compared to 30 % after tap HM or better vision no significant difference between the treatment groups in final visual acuity ( consider earlier PPV for diabetics ) EVS Limitations Results may not apply to endophthalmitis after other ocular surgeries Such as bleb related endophthalmitis or chronic postoperative endophthalmitis Pts with NLP or significant opacification of A / C obscuring iris tissue were excluded from the study . Therefore severe infections or viruluent organisms excluded Unknown whether PPV is superior in these circumstances Intravitreal Antibiotics Current recommendations for empirical therapy ( bacterial ) Vancomycin 1.0 mg / 0.1 mL Ceftazidime 2.25 mg / 0.1 mL Amikacin 400 ug / 0.1 mL for Penicillin ( PCN ) allergic pts ( although usually can still inject Ceftaz since there is low cross - reactivity between cephalosporins and PCN ; keep in mind that most PCN " allergies " may not really be an allergic reaction ; also low systemic absorption from ocular injection ) 4th generation fluoroquinolones – unclear400 ug / 0.1 mL of gatifloxacin or moxifloxacin Fungal : Amphotericin B 5 - 10 ug / 0.1 mL Complications of Intravitreal Antibiotics Corneal opacification and retinal toxicity Retinal toxicity with aminoglycosides , most notably gentamicin ( even as low as 0.1mg ) - macular infarct Less common with amikacin and tobramycin Amphotericin B – can also cause retinal toxicity HORV ( rare ) Systemic Antibiotics Usually too slow to enter the eye in adequate concentrations In the EVS , there was no difference in VA or media clarity with or without intravenous antibiotics ( amikacin plus ceftazidime or amikacin plus ciprofloxacin ) when given in addition to intravitreal antibiotics However , did not have available newer 4th generation fluoroquinolones with better ocular penetration . Systemic ceftazidime , cefazoline , ciprofloxacin , gatifloxacin 3 and moxifloxacin has been shown to penetrate the blood ocular barrier efficiently . Corticosteroids Goal is to modulate the host inflammatory response to the infection and minimize ocular damage from this response . Avoid when fungal infection is suspected . Intravitreal corticosteroids ( dexamethasone ) is controversial 2 retrospective nonrandomized studies showed 20 / 400 or better vision was obtained more in pts who received 400 ug adjuvant intravitreal dexamethasone Randomized , prospective trial of 63 pts showed in no difference in VA at 12 weeks Another retrospective , nonrandomized trial of 57 patients showed worse VA Reinjection A minority of patients will require further treatment , mainly for worsening ocular infectionIt typically requires more than 24 hours to observe an improvement in the clinical appearance after initial treatmentIn many cases , the treated eyes look somewhat worse 1 day after treatment before improving subsequently Considerations of reinjection Should be considered if the infection fails to stabilize or improve more than 48 hours after the first injection Based on consensus view , the EVS protocol recommended reinjection if the infection was worsening at 36 - 60 hours after initial injection Often , 36 hours after treatment , culture results are available Decision to reinject antibiotics should not be taken lightly , since repeat injection may increase risk of retinal toxicity 100 % retinal toxicity rates with 3 intravitreal doses of 1mg vanco combined with 400ug amikacin or 200 ug gent in rabbit eyes Patients with no culture growth , equivocal growth , or coag - negative staph had a 5 % rate of additional procedures , compared to 30 % in pts with cultures that grew GN or other GP organisms Outcomes and Risk Factors for Poor Outcomes The most common cause of visual loss in the EVS was attributed to macular abnormalities , such as ERM , macular edema , pigmentary degeneration , and ischemia Strongest predictor of poor visual outcome was light perception only vision Other risk factors : older age , DM , corneal infiltrate or ring ulcer , compromised PC , low or high IOP , APD , rubeosis , and absent red reflex Virulence Coag - negative Staph were most likely to obtain 20 / 100 final VA or better ( 84 % ) Higher virulent organisms , such as Staph aureus , streptococcal species , and GN ( Pseudomonus ) organisms were associated with worse visual outcomes Chronic Postoperative Endophthalmitis ( > 6 weeks ) History Usually manifest several weeks or months after surgery Less common than acute variety Organisms isolated are less virulent bacteria and fungal 63 % P acnes , 16 % S epidermidis , 16 % Candida parapsilosis Clinical features Pain or discomfort may not be present . Inflammation can be initially steroid responsive but recurrent after steroid taper Fungal infections paradoxical worsening with steroids Frank hypopyon is often absent Granulomatous uveitis with large precipitates on cornea or IOL White intracapsular plaque with P acnes Stringly white infiltrates and “ fluff balls ” or “ pearls - on - a - string ” near the capsular remnant are characteristic but not pathognomonic for fungal Treatment for Chronic Cases Obtain A / C and vitreous samples Identification of infectious organism is key in management of these infectionsIntravitreal antibiotics However , Vanco is often inadequate for P acnes Often need PPV and removal of capsule with IOL Filtering Bleb - Associated Endophthalmitis Occurs as a result of pathogenic organisms gaining entry to intraocular tissue through the conjunctival filtering bleb Mean time b / w surgery and endophthalmitis is 19.1 months ( range 3 - 9 years ) 0.2 – 9.6 % of glaucoma filtering procedures Increased incidence with use of antifibrotic agents Thin , cystic , avascular conjunctiva Blebitis – if no uveitis or vitritis Post - Trabeculectomy Endophthalmitis Treatment If only blebitis conservative tx with systemic and topical fortified antibiotic therapy If the vitreous is clear , examine thse pts frequently , treating for endophthalmitis if vitritis or acute hypopyon develops Needle aspiration of the bleb is not advised Studies suggest possible benefit from PPV Endophthalmitis after Intravitreal Injection Increasing use of these agents , therefore concern for risk of endophthalmitis Like acute postop endophthalmitis , coagulase - negative staphylococci is the most common cause No infectious agent is identified in many cases Triamcinolone acetonide crystals can migrate into A / C and mimic hypopyon 1.4 % / injection for IVK 0.2 % / injection for ranibizumab Intravitreal triamcinolone may play a role in endophthalmitis potentiation Non - infectious Endophthalmitis after Triamcinolone Injection or intravitreal anti - VEGF ( aflibercept ) Crystals in A / C or vitreous cavity can be difficult to distinguish from inflammatory reaction Use gravity - induced shifting of layered material and absence of A / C flare or fibrin as a sign of a non - inflammatory cause Triamcinolone crystals may shift from the inferior anterior chamber angle when the pt is placed on his or her side , a phenomenon that does not occur with sticky , fibrin - laden material in a true inflammatory hypopyon Management options Close observation , topical steroids alone , oral levofloxacin alone Traumatic Endophthalmitis Approximately 25 % of endophthalmitis cases After open globe injury , chance of developing endophthalmitis is approx 7 % Injuries including IOFB have higher rates Risk factors Other risk factors : dirty wound , lens capsule rupture , age > 50 , delayed presentation of more than 24 hours after injury Bacillus and Staphylococcus are common in penetrating trauma with IOFB Workup Primary repair and removal of IOFB as soon as possible Exclude the possibility of occult , retained IOFB CT scan with thin 1mm cuts Obtain cultures Intravitreal Vanco and Ceftaz Some advocate Gent + Clinda for synergistic effect against Bacillus and Staph Treatment considerations Application of EVS may not be appropriate , due to different organismsIn severe cases , vitrectomy should be strongly considered Some authors advocate therapeutic vitrectomy in all cases of traumatic endophthalmitis Others suggest performing vitrectomy only if pts do not respond after 48 hours or rapidly deteriorate in the first 24 hours following intravitreal antibiotics Post - traumatic endophthalmitis has worst visual prognosis than other categories Prophylaxis after Penetrating Trauma Clinical evidence not established Some authors advocate intravitreal antibiotic administration in all cases of penetrating trauma Others recommend administration in the presence of risk factors ( 2 of 3 : dirty wound , lens breach , or delay in closure over 24 hours ) Systemic antibiotics : Intravenous cefazolin ( 1g every 6 hours for 48 - 72 hours ) followed by an oral agent such as gatifloxacin or moxifloxacin for 7 days Endogenous Endophthalmitis Originates from sources within the body 2 - 8 % of endophthalmitis cases Pts usually have underlying disease : History of recent intravenous infusion , DM , HIV , IV drug abuse , renal failure on dialysis , cardiac disease , malignancy , immunosuppressive therapy , or indwelling catheters Liver abscess is the most common extraocular foci of infection , followed by pneumonia , endocarditis , soft tissue infection Management of Endogenous Endophthalmitis Cultures are essential and may be lifesaving Vitreous sample should be obtained in all cases ID of causatic organism is made by systemic culture of blood , urine or CSF in 75 - 80 % of cases In contrast to postoperative endophthalmitis , systemic antibiotics are central to the treatment of endogenous endophthalmitis Focal chorioretinitis and associated mild vitritis can respond to systemic therapy alone Conclusions Early diagnosis and treatment with antimicrobial therapy are critical Usually diagnosis must be made on clinical grounds Treat with empirical therapy , usually Vanco + Ceftaz if bacterial EVS showed that PPV was of benefit in pts with endophthalmitis following CE / IOL or secondary IOL placement who presented with LP only visual acuity Although the role of vitrectomy in other forms of endophthalmitis is less clear , it remains an accepted adjunct to intravitreal antibiotics for tx of moderate to severe cases Additional Resources American Academy of Ophthalmology . Core Ophthalmic Knowledge : Endophthalmitis Practicing Ophthalmologists Learning System , 2017 - 2019 San Francisco : American Academy of Ophthalmology , 2017 . References Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study Group . Results of the Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study . A randomized trial of immediate vitrectomy and of intravenous antibiotics for the treatment of postoperative bacterial endophthalmitis . Arch Ophthalmol 1995 ; 113 : 1479 – 1496 . Endophthalmitis , a review of current evaluation and management . Lemley et al . Retina 27 : 662 - 680 , 2007 Das T , Sharma S ; Hyderabad Endophthalmitis Research Group . Current management strategies of acute post - operative endophthalmitis . Semin Ophthalmol . 2003 ; 18 ( 3 ) : 109 - 115 ↑ Andreanos K , Petrou P , Kymionis G , Papaconstantinou D , Georgalas I . Early anti - VEGF treatment for hemorrhagic occlusive retinal vasculitis as a complication of cataract surgery . BMC Ophthalmol . 2017 Dec 6 ; 17 ( 1 ) : 238 . doi : 10.1186 / s12886 - 017 - 0632 - y . PubMed PMID : 29212481 ; PubMed Central PMCID : PMC5719895 . Witkin AJ , Chang DF , Jumper JM , Charles S , Eliott D , Hoffman RS , Mamalis N , Miller KM , Wykoff CC . Vancomycin - Associated Hemorrhagic Occlusive Retinal Vasculitis : Clinical Characteristics of 36 Eyes . Ophthalmology . 2017 May ; 124 ( 5 ) : 583 - 595 . doi : 10.1016 / j . ophtha . 2016 . 11 . 042 . Epub 2017 Jan 19 . PubMed PMID : 28110950 . ↑ Grewal DS , Schwartz T , Fekrat S . Sequential Sterile Intraocular Inflammation Associated With Consecutive Intravitreal Injections of Aflibercept and Ranibizumab . Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina . 2017 May 1 ; 48 ( 5 ) : 428 - 431 . doi : 10.3928 / 23258160 - 20170428 - 10 . PubMed PMID : 28499055 . | [
"Endophthalmitis",
"intraocular fluids",
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http://eyewiki.aao.org/Evisceration | Evisceration Enroll in the Residents and Fellows contest Enroll in the International Ophthalmologists contest Residents and Fellows contest rules | International Ophthalmologists contest rules Original article contributed by Helen Merritt , MD All contributors : Anna Murchison , MD , MPH Brett Davies , MD Cat Nguyen Burkat , MD FACS Helen Merritt , MD Margaret L . Pfeiffer , MD and Monte A Del Monte , MD Assigned editor : Brett Davies , MD Review : Assigned status Update Pending by Anna Murchison , MD , MPH on June 11 , 2018 . Contents hide 1 Introduction 2 Background 2.1 Indications 2.2 Contraindications 3 Surgical Technique 3.1 Special Considerations 3.2 Choice of Immediate versus Delayed Implant 4 Evisceration versus Enucleation 4.1 Advantages of Evisceration over Enucleation 4.2 Disadvantages of Evisceration over Enucleation 5 Complications 6 Acknowledgements 7 Additional Resources 8 References Introduction Evisceration is a surgical technique by which all intraocular contents are removed while preserving the remaining scleral shell , extraocular muscle attachments , and surrounding orbital adnexa . The surgery often includes placement of an implant into the evisceration cavity to maintain appropriate orbital volume . Background Evisceration was first described by James Bear in 1817 as a technique utilized after expulsive hemorrhage during iridectomy . Noyes and Mules respectively added to this technique in the late 19th century when describing this approach to treat ocular infection and first reporting the placement of an orbital implant . Indications Endophthalmitis Penetrating ocular trauma Blind , painful eye Contraindications Known or suspected intraocular malignancy Phthisis bulbi and microphthalmia ( relative ) Evisceration may be more difficult in cases of phthisis bulbi or microphthalmos due to a lack of sufficient scleral shell volume to adequately encase the implant . While enucleation is generally the preferred surgical choice in these patients , several modified evisceration techniques have been described whereby the globe is divided by various types of posterior or equatorial sclerotomies , allowing the placement of a larger implant in these cases . Another popular technique was also described by Long in 2000 in which a posterior sclerotomy was created , the optic nerve transected , and the orbital implant placed behind both the posterior and anterior flaps of sclera . This allows for even up to 22 - 23mm implant sizes ; and the benefit of two layers of sclera over the anterior face of the implant decreases dehiscence and implant exposure . As reported by Burkat et al , the larger size implants also minimize the appearance of the anophthalmic socket ; in particular , decreasing the superior sulcus hollowness , decreasing upper eyelid ptosis , and providing more orbital volume overall . Surgical Technique Careful pre - operative evaluation should be performed to ensure there is no intraocular malignancy in the operative eye when planning an evisceration . If there is no view to the posterior pole , B - scan or CT scan should be used to rule out malignancy . Correct laterality of the evisceration must be carefully confirmed prior to initiation . Evisceration may be performed under general anesthesia , or in some cases , intravenous , monitored sedation . Retrobulbar administration of anesthetic with epinephrine is often given to reduce intraoperative bleeding and postoperative pain . The patient is appropriately Local anesthetic may be injected subconjunctivally to demarcate available conjunctiva and Tenon ’ s capsule and aid in hemostasis . Alternatively , several drops of 10 % topical phenylephrine can be applied to the ocular surface before the procedure to provide hemostasis . A 360 - degree conjunctival peritomy is then made at the limbus before utilizing Wescott scissors to undermine the conjunctiva and Tenon ’ s capsule in a careful anterior dissection . A full - thickness incision is then made at the limbus so that scissors may be introduced to excise the cornea in a circumferential manner . Figure 1 : Intraoperative photos showing excision of the cornea , placement of the implant after removal of intraocular contents , and meticulous closure . Absolute or 70 % alcohol may then be instilled to denature and remove all remaining uveal material and microorganisms from the scleral shell . Some surgeons , however , prefer to avoid this practice arguing that it may create additional irritation and edema . Care must be taken to keep the alcohol within the sclera and not contact the conjunctiva . In some cases , a posterior sclerotomy or similar scleral relaxing incisions can be made to ready the evisceration cavity and allow for a larger implant to be placed . The surgeon evaluates and chooses the best implant size to restore orbital volume while ensuring appropriate position . Some surgeons choose to further bathe the scleral shell in antibiotic solution prior to implant placement . Implant material is surgeon - dependent and includes spherical implant choices of acrylic , PMMA , silicone , Other techniques include opening the posterior sclera , releasing the optic nerve , and placing the orbital implant behind the scleral shell , and closing a double - layer of sclera over the anterior implant , as originally described by Long . This allows placement of a large orbital implant , which decreases superior sulcus hollowing and anophthalmic ptosis , which ultimately results in a better cosmetic result . This was be particularly helpful in globes that a phthisical that would potentially limit the size of an implant if placed within the scleral shell only . The anterior sclera , Figure 2 : 1 . Scleral shell . 2 . Placing the implant . 3 and 4 . Closure of scleral shell , Tenon ' s and conjunctiva . Perioperative antibiotics are often administered and are especially important in cases of evisceration in the setting of endophthalmitis . The duration of antibiotic therapy has been reported to range from 10 days to several weeks , depending on the nature of the infection . Some surgeons additionally will exchange surgical instruments and gloves prior to implant placement and closure to lessen the risk of contamination and prolonged infection . Post - operative pain can be managed by the placement of an additional retrobulbar administration of anesthetic or ethanol prior to patching . A pressure patch may be applied and kept in place for approximately 5 days following surgery . The patient may visit an ocularist for prosthesis fitting 6 - 8 weeks following surgery . Special Considerations If a scleral buckle or glaucoma drainage device is present in the eviscerated eye , it should be removed . If silicone oil is present within the eye , the limbus can be incised and the silicone oil irrigated from the eye prior to peritomy . Choice of Immediate versus Delayed Implant Some surgeons choose to place the implant in a secondary staged procedure days to weeks after the initial evisceration , particularly in the setting of acute infection , believing that the rates of implant extrusion may be higher with primary implantation at the time of evisceration . While there are no prospective , controlled trials comparing sucess , failure or complicatons with these techniques , a survey of 206 oculoplastic surgeons revealed that 46 % prefer immediate implant compared to 43 % preferring a secondary implant approach . In one retrospective study of 67 eviscerations with primary implant placement in the setting of endophthalmitis , the rate of extrusion or other complication was quite low at only 12 % . A similar prospective study where 25 of the study patients had endophthalmitis and received immediate implants had no extrusion at 37.5 months follow - up . The authors of these studies argue that because of these low rates of complications even in the setting of acute infection , a single surgery may be preferable due to simplicity and cost - effectiveness . Evisceration versus Enucleation Advantages of Evisceration over Enucleation Shorter operative time Less complex surgery More cost efficient Less disruption of orbital tissues Improved motility Less chance of spread to nervous system in cases of infection Less painful In one prospective study of 100 patients comparing evisceration with scleral quadrisection and alloplastic implants versus enucleation with hydroxyapatite implants , the evisceration group showed superior implant excursion and overall lower cost . A similar retrospective comparison of 32 patients undergoing enucleation and 52 patients undergoing evisceration at a single institution showed superior implant motility and less post - operative complications after evisceration , but revealed no statistically significant difference in the overall cosmetic outcome between the two groups . A large survey of 85 board - certified ocularists in 2003 asked to compare their experiences with anopthlamic patients reported overall better motility , lower complication rate , and best overall cosmesis in patients after evisceration when compared to enucleation . Disadvantages of Evisceration over Enucleation Risk of sympathetic ophthalmia Risk of dissemination of intraocular tumors One concern regarding evisceration is that intraoperative immunological exposure to uveal tissue may incite antigenic response in the fellow eye , increasing risk of sympathetic ophthalmia . Detailed review of the supporting evidence for this concern finds only a very small number of reported cases following evisceration . This suggests that the incidence of this entity is likely no larger than other penetrating ocular surgeries . A large survey of members of the American Society of Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery , the Uveitis Society , and the Eastern Ophthalmic Pathology Society yielded only a small percentage of 880 total recalled cases and no definitive , documented evidence of sympathetic ophthalmia after evisceration . While it has been argued that the surgical choice of evisceration over enucleation may increase risk in cases of incidental uveal neoplasm , a large study of 13,591 evisceration specimens found rate of unexpected neoplasm was only 1.95 % . The authors argue that this low incidence supports the safety of evisceration when combined with careful pre - operative evaluation . Complications Retrobulbar hemorrhage Orbital edema Dissemination of unexpected intraocular neoplasm Implant exposure Implant extrusion Common post - operative care instructions include the use of a dressing , pressure patch , and / or ice cold compresses to help with post - operative edema and comfort . Additionally , temporary tarsorrhaphy can be used to help with conformer retention and early post - operative swelling . Acknowledgements Thank you to Oculoplastics Associates of Texas , Dallas , TX for providing article images . Additional Resources American Academy of Ophthalmology . Oculoplastics / Orbit : Evisceration Practicing Ophthalmologists Learning System , 2017 - 2019 San Francisco : American Academy of Ophthalmology , 2017 . References ↑ Noyes HD . In : Report of the Fourth International Congress . London : 1872 . Aug , Discusión of E Warlomont ' s paper on sympathetic ophthalmia ; p . 27 . ↑ Mules PH . Evisceration of the globe , with artificial vitreous . Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK . 1885 ; 5 : 200 . Georgescu D , Vagefi MR , Yang CC , McCann J , Anderson RL . Evisceration with equatorial sclerotomy for phthisis bulbi and microphthalmos . Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg . 2010 ; 3 : 165 – 7 . Long JA , Tann TM , Girkin CA . Evisceration : A new technique of trans - scleral implant placement . Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg . 2000 ; 16 : 322 - 5 . ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Liu D . A comparison of implant extrusion rates and postoperative pain after evisceration with immediate or delayed implants and after enucleation with implants . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 2005 ; 103 : 568 – 91 . Su GW , Yen MT . Current trends in managing the anophthalmic socket after primary enucleation and evisceration . Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg . 2004 Jul ; 20 ( 4 ) : 274 - 80 . ↑ 7.0 7.1 Dresner SC , Karesh JW . Primary implant placement with evisceration in patients with endophthalmitis . Ophthalmology 2000 ; 107 : 1661 – 5 . 8.0 8.1 Holds J , Anderson R . Primary versus delayed implant in evisceration [ letter ] . Arch Ophthalmol 1989 ; 107 : 952 – 3 . Tari AS , Malihi M , Kasaee A , Tabatabaie SZ , Hamzedust K , Musavi MF , Rajabi MT . Enucleation with hydroxyapatite implantation versus evisceration plus scleral quadrisection and alloplastic implantation . Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg . 2009 Mar - Apr ; 25 ( 2 ) : 130 - 3 . Nakra T , Simon GJ , Douglas RS , Schwarcz RM , McCann JD , Goldberg RA . Comparing outcomes of enucleation and evisceration . Ophthalmology . 2006 Dec ; 113 ( 12 ) : 2270 - 5 . Epub 2006 Sep 25 . Timothy NH , Freilich DE , Linberg JV . Evisceration versus enucleation from the ocularist ' s perspective . Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg . 2003 Nov ; 19 ( 6 ) : 417 - 20 ; discussion 420 . Phan LT , Hwang TN , McCulley TJ . Evisceration in the modern age . Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol . 2012 Jan ; 19 ( 1 ) : 24 - 33 . Levine MR , Pou CR , Lash RH . The 1998 Wendell Hughes Lecture . Evisceration : is sympathetic ophthalmia a concern in the new millennium ? Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1999 ; 15 : 4 – 8 . Novais EA , Fernandes BF , Pacheco LF , Di Cesare S , Miyamoto C , Briccoli TA , Burnier MN Jr . A histopathologic review of undiagnosed neoplasms in 205 evisceration specimens . Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg . 2012 Sep - Oct ; 28 ( 5 ) : 331 - 4 . doi : 10.1097 / IOP . 0b013e31825ca5d8 . | [
"Evisceration",
"surgical technique",
"James Bear"
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http://eyewiki.aao.org/Interstitial_Keratitis | Interstitial Keratitis Enroll in the Residents and Fellows contest Enroll in the International Ophthalmologists contest Residents and Fellows contest rules | International Ophthalmologists contest rules Original article contributed by Elmer Tu , MD All contributors : Brad H . Feldman , M.D . Linda Rose , MD , PhD and Elmer Tu , MD Assigned editor : Review : Assigned status Up to Date on August 28 , 2015 . Interstitial Keratitis ICD 10 H 16.3 ICD 9 370.50 Defined narrowly , Interstitial Keratitis is any non - ulcerating inflammation of the corneal stroma without involvement of either the epithelium or endothelium . Practically , however , the term refers to a common endpoint for a number of diseases which primarily manifest as inflammation and vascularization of the corneal stroma with minimal loss of tissue . Diseases which also involve other layers of the cornea secondarily are also included as long as the stroma is the predominant layer affected . The underlying causes of interstitial keratitis can broadly be either infectious of immune - mediated . The stroma constitutes Contents hide 1 Disease Entity 1.1 Disease 1.2 Etiology 1.3 Risk Factors 1.4 General Pathology 1.5 Pathophysiology 2 Diagnosis 2.1 History 2.2 Physical examination 2.3 Signs 2.4 Symptoms 2.5 Clinical diagnosis 2.6 Diagnostic procedures 2.7 Laboratory test 2.8 Differential diagnosis 3 Management 3.1 General treatment 3.2 Medical therapy 3.3 Medical follow up 3.4 Surgery 3.5 Surgical follow - up 3.6 Complications 3.7 Prognosis 4 Additional Resources 5 References Disease Entity Interstitial Keratitis ( ICD - 9 # 370.50 ) Disease Interstitial keratitis is a non - ulcerating inflammation of the corneal stroma . Etiology The most common etiologies of interstitial keratitis in the United States are Herpes Simplex virus and Syphilis . Other associated bacterial diseases include Lyme disease , Tuberculosis , Leprosy , Brucellosis , and Leptospirosis . Viral etiologies include the other Herpes viruses including Herpes Zoster and Epstein - Barr virus as well as HLTV - 1 , Mumps and Measles . Onchocerciasis , Trypansomiasis , and microsporidiosis are important considerations in developing countries while Acanthamoeba may be seen more commonly in developed nations . Finally , diseases thought to be immune in nature including Cogan ' s syndrome , Sarcoid , Mycosis fungoides and contact lens associated immune keratitis are in the differential diagnosis . Bacterial etiologies : Syphilis , Lyme Disease , Tuberculosis , Leprosy , Brucellosis , Leptospirosis Viral etiologies : Herpesviridae - Herpes simplex Herpes Zoster , Epstein - Barr . HLTV - 1 , Mumps , Measles , Vaccinia , Variola Parasitic etiologies : Onchocerciasis , Acanthamoeba , Leishmaniasis , Trypanosomiasis , Microsporidiosis Immune etiologies : Cogan ' s Syndrome , sarcoidosis , mycosis fungoides , contact lens - related keratitis , intracorneal foreign body , heavy metals , autoimmune disease , e.g. , rheumatoid arthritis , granulomatosis with polyangiitis ( formerly Wegener ' s ) Overall incidence of IK is rare , responsible for only 3 % of all keratoplasties performed in the U.S. Together , Herpetic and Syphlitic disease are responsible for greater than 50 % of cases of IK in the U.S . Risk Factors The risk factors for interstitial keratitis vary according to the underlying etiology . General Pathology Intralamellar infiltration of lymphocytes with extensive neovascularization in the absence of overlying ulceration . Endothelium is unaffected early , but may experience much later decompensation with concomitant findings of stromal and eptihelial edema . Other late findings include ghost vessel formation and corneal scarring . Pathophysiology The pathophysiology of interstitial keratitis is unknown , but varies significantly by eitology . The majority of bacterial and parasitic IK is a result of direct invasion of the corneal stroma and the host ' s allergic / immune reaction to foreign antigens . The reaction is similar in viral IK with the identification of viral antigens in the corneal stroma , but whether this represents active infection is less clear . Diagnosis The purpose of the comprehensive evaluation of a patient with interstitial keratitis is to assess the degree and location of active inflammation in the cornea and elsewhere in the eye as well as to determine the underlying etiology of the disease . The comprehensive evaluation ( history and physical ) includes those components of the comprehensive medical eye evaluation specifically relevant to the diagnosis and treatment of interstitial keratitis as noted below . History Patient history includes an assessment of the acuity of a patient ' s chief complaint related to their corneal inflammation . A comprehensive medical and ocular history including previous history of Herpetic infections , other previous infections , an exposure history to insect bites , animals , environment , a travel history to endemic regions of disease , sexual transmitted diseases , trauma , contact lens wear , medication use and constitutional symptoms including hearing loss , shortness of breath . Physical examination A thorough and complete eye exam should be performed on any patient suspected of having Interstitial Keratitis . The general health of the eye should be assessed and appropriate ancillary tests should be done to assess corneal curviture , astigmatism and thickness . Visual acuity with and without current correction at distance and when appropriate at near Measurement of best corrected visual acuity Ultrasound pachymetry External examination ( lids , lashes , lacrimal apparatus , orbit ) Examination of ocular alignment and motility Assessment of pupillary function Measurement of intraocular pressure ( IOP ) Slit - lamp biomicroscopy of the anterior segment with specific reference for signs of previous inflammation , active ulceration or epithelial defect Dilated examination of the lens , macula , peripheral retina , optic nerve , and vitreous Assessment of relevant aspects of the patient ’ s mental and physical status Signs Conjunctival injection Corneal haze : diffuse , sectoral , central or circumferential White cell infiltration without significant necrosis or suppuration Stromal neovascularization Ghost vessels when the disease is quiescent Lipid keratopathy Symptoms Decreased vision highly dependent on the extent an location of involvement . Significant photophobia and pain are highly characteristic . Clinical diagnosis Interstitial keratitis is a clinical diagnosis based on the finding of a non - ulcerative , stromal keratitis . Diagnostic procedures Slit lamp biomicroscopy to determine the depth and pattern of stromal inflammation and associated ocular and corneal abnormalities Corneal pachymetry and intraocular pressure measurement Confocal microscopy in suspected cases of atypical infectious keratitis , primarily fungal and acanthamoebal Laboratory test Ancillary testing should be directed by the history and physical exam . While syphilis is a declining etiology for IK , it still represents a significant number of cases and is easily treated , making the inculsion of an RPR / VDRL + FTA - ABS / MHA - TP or equivalent tests worthwhile . Other bacterial etiologies are rare causes of IK and testing for them should be based on specific findings in either the history or physical exam which would raise a suspicion for these diseases . Contact lens wear related keratitis may be either immune or infectious Cogan ' s syndrome represents a special indication ( 50 % experience irreversible deafness ) for audiology testing with follow - up MRI scans of the inner ear looking for vestibular or cochlear inflammation if indicated . This disorder is most common in young adults and should be suspected if any hearing deficits are noted by history in a patient with mild peripheral IK . Ocular signs usually begin with sectoral conjunctival injection followed by a subepithelial , peripheral keratitis . The interstitial keratitis which subsequently develops is described as anterior stromal or superficial . They may also manifest findings Differential diagnosis Entities which cause corneal stromal clouding where the source is not primarily stromal inflammation Acute ulcerative keratitis either infectious ( bacterial , fungal , parasitic , viral ) or immune Endothelial disease resulting in secondary corneal edema or haze Traumatic corneal scarring Management The primary goals in the treatment of interstitial keratitis are to control local inflammation to prevent pain and visually significant scarring and to identify an underlying cause to reduce systemic sequelae of disease . General treatment For many common forms of interstitial keratitis , corneal inflammation represents primarily an immune response rather than an active infection . Therefore , treatment of the corneal manifestations may often occur independently or in parallel to the treatment of its underlying systemic cause . Prominent exceptions are rare forms of IK in infectious diseases as are seen in Lyme disease , mycobacterial infections , certain bacterial pathogens as well as most parasitic diseases where definitive therapy of the underlying disease is integral to safe resolution of the corneal infection . As an example , Syphlitic IK is a result of congenital syphilis in 90 % of cases and usually occurs in the pre - teen or early teen years manifesting in the majority of patients as a bilateral , painful , visually limiting keratitis . Untreated , photophobia is the most striking symptom often confining the patient to dark envorinoments until its spontaneous resolution months to a year or more later . Whether the syphilis is congenital or acquired , treatment of the systemic disease will have little effect on the corneal inflammation , but should be vigorously pursued to Medical therapy Topical corticosteroids are the mainstay of therapy for most common forms of interstitial keratitis and are effective both for alleviating acute symptoms of pain , discomfort and blurred vision and also for reducing scarring and neovasculariztion . They are the primary therapy for syphlitic IK , most immune forms of interstitial keratitis , and are used either in conjunction with antivirals ( Herpes Simplex , Herpes Zoster ) or alone in viral - mediated IK . Systemic corticosteroids are often required in the treatment of systemic manifestations of sarcoidosis and their prompt use are critical in avoiding permanent loss of Corticosteroids have a role in the local therapy of most forms of bacteria - mediated IK , but all will require specific systemic antibiotics to cure the underlying disease . With the exception of syphilis , all of the other forms of bacteria - mediated IK benefit from treatment of the underlying systemic infection . Similarly , most viral - mediated IK will respond briskly to the addition of topical corticosteroids , but may benefit from the adjunctive use of topical or systemic anti - virals , specifically trifluridine in Herpes simplex - mediated IK or acyclovir / valacyclovir in Herpes simplex and Herpes Zoster . The HEDS study specifically concluded that treatment of HSV - mediated IK resulted in less persistence / progression of disease and faster recovery than placebo , but noted no difference in visual outcome or recurrence of disease at 6 months . The addition of oral acyclovir vs . placebo in patients already on topical corticosteroids and trifluridine showed no improvement in resolution time or final visual outcome but did result in more patients experiencing visual improvement at 6 months follow - up . Prophylactic treatment of HSV stromal keratitis patients with 400mg of Acyclovir twice daily , however , resulted in a statistically significant reduction of ocular ( 14 % treated vs . 28 % placebo ) and orofacial recurrences during a 12 month treatment and 6 month follow - up Parasitic forms of IK require appropriate topical ( Acanthamoeba ) or specific systemic anti - parasitic therapy . The use of corticosteroids is controversial in Acanthamoeba keratitis ( Dart ) and is not routinely indicated in any of the other parasite - mediated interstitial keratitides . Onchocerciasis manifests as a centripetal sclerosing keratitis from the limbal migration of a filarial parasite , Onchocerca volvulus . Although there is direct invasion of the parasite , the blinding interstitial keratitis exacerbated with the effective treatment and death of the parasite is thought to be due to an immune reaction to the release of its endosymbiont Wolbachia sp . , suggesting that specific therapy against this bacteria may reduce the corneal complications . Medical follow up Patients treated for interstitial keratitis should have their corticosteroids reduced to the lowest effective dosage based on a lack of active inflammation or neovascularization on clinical examination . Patients shoud also be monitored for side effects of corticosteroid therapy including steroid - induced elevation of intraocular pressure and cataract formation . With the exception of syphlitic IK , other bacterial , parasitic and some viral IK should be monitored for response to systemic antibiotic therapy . Surgery With the exception of Acanthaomeba , the etiology of IK is either a systemic immune process , a systemic infection or , in the case of some Herpesviridae , a regional infection not restricted to the cornea . Acute surgical intervetnion in the form of therapeutic keratoplasty would not be expected to be curative , and since , by definition , interstitial keratitis is largely non - ulcerative the need for urgent tectonic keratoplasty in its treatment is limited . Optical keratoplasty does have a role once the underlying disease has been effectively controlled or treated . These patients are at elevated risk of rejection because of the history of inflammation as well as the concomitant neovscaulariztion that is characteristic of most forms of IK . Surgical follow - up Routine follow - up is essential in patients who undergo keratoplasty to ensure proper wound healing , prompt and appropriate removal of sutures and to monitor for sequelae of the surgical procedure or post - operative medications including glaucoma , cataract formation and secondary infection . Special attention in these higher risk patients is required to monitor for rejection and recurrence of previous inflammation , especially if the original cause of IK remains uncertain . Visual rehabilitation in the form of spectacle , contact lens fitting or refractive surgery is likely in most post - keratoplasty patients . Complications See surgical follow - up . Prognosis Prognosis for interstitial keratitis is good if recognized and treated early before significant corneal scarring has occurred . Because of the lack of ulceration , even with mild loss of tissue , patients can often see reasonably well after resolution of the keratitis . The prognosis for patients requiring keratoplasty is more guarded . Additional Resources American Academy of Ophthalmology . Interstitial keratitis Practicing Ophthalmologists Learning System , 2017 – 2019 San Francisco : American Academy of Ophthalmology , 2017 . References ↑ Wilhelmus KR , Gee L , Hauck WW , et al . Herpetic eye disease study . A controlled trial of topical corticosteroids for herpes simplex stromal keratitis . Ophthalmology 1994 ; 101 : 1883 – 1895 ; discussion 95 – 96 . ↑ Barron BA , Gee L , Hauck WW , et al : Herpetic eye disease study . A controlled trial of oral acyclovir for herpes simplex stromal keratitis . Ophthalmology 1994 ; 101 : 1871 – 1882 . Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group . Acyclovir for the prevention of recurrent herpes simplex virus eye disease . N Engl J Med . 1998 Jul 30 ; 339 ( 5 ) : 300 - 6 . Pepose JS , Margolis TP , LaRussa P , Pavan - Langston D . Ocular complications of smallpox vaccination . Am J Ophthalmol . 2003 Aug ; 136 ( 2 ) : 343 - 52 . Apple DJ and Rabb MF . Ocular Pathology . Clinical Applications and Self - Assessment . 4th ed . 1991 . Tu EY . Interstitial Keratitis in Principles and Practice of Ophthalmology 3e , Jakobiec ed 2007 . Tu EY , Joslin CE , Sugar J , Booton GC , Shoff ME , Fuerst PA . The Relative Value of Confocal Microscopy and Superficial Corneal Scrapings in the Diagnosis of Acanthamoeba Keratitis . Cornea 2008 ; 27 ( 7 ) : 764 - 772 . Schwartz , G . S . , A . R . Harrison , et al . ( 1998 ) . " Etiology of immune stromal ( interstitial ) keratitis . " Cornea 17 ( 3 ) : 278 - 81 . Dart JK , Saw VP , Kilvington S . Acanthamoeba keratitis : diagnosis and treatment update 2009 Am J Ophthalmol . 2009 , Oct ; 148 ( 4 ) : 487 - 499 Kiss S , Damico FM , Young LH : Ocular manifestations and treatment of syphilis . Semin Ophthalmol 2005 ; 20 : 161 – 167 . Knox CM , Holsclaw DS : Interstitial keratitis . Int Ophthalmol Clin 1998 ; 38 : 183 – 195 . Orsoni JG , Zavota L , Vincenti V , et al : Cogan syndrome in children : early diagnosis and treatment is critical to prognosis . Am JOphthalmol 2004 ; 137 : 757 – 758 . Lennarson P , Barney NP . Interstitial keratitis as presenting ophthalmic sign of sarcoidosis in a child . J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1995 ; 32 : 194 – 196 . Pearlman EaL , JH . Keratitis due to Onchocerciasis . Ophthalmol Clin 1994 ; 7 : 641 – 648 . Liesegang TJ . Corneal complications from herpes zoster ophthalmicus . Ophthalmology 1985 ; 92 : 316 – 324 . Matoba AY , Wilhelmus KR , Jones DB . Epstein - Barr viral stromal keratitis . Ophthalmology 1986 ; 93 : 746 – 751 . Herpetic Eye Disease Study Group . Oral acyclovir for herpes simplex virus eye disease : effect on prevention of epithelial keratitis and stromal keratitis . Arch Ophthalmol 2000 ; 118 : 1030 – 1036 . | [
"Interstitial Keratitis",
"corneal stroma",
"epithelium"
] |
http://eyewiki.aao.org/Medical_Management_for_Primary_Open_Angle_Glaucoma | Medical Management for Primary Open Angle Glaucoma Enroll in the Residents and Fellows contest Enroll in the International Ophthalmologists contest Residents and Fellows contest rules | International Ophthalmologists contest rules Original article contributed by Anjana P . Jindal All contributors : Anjana P . Jindal Brad H . Feldman , M.D . Carla J . Siegfried , MD and Sarwat Salim MD , FACS Assigned editor : Review : Assigned status Update Pending by Carla J . Siegfried , MD on January 20 , 2015 . Contents hide 1 Summary 2 Disease Entity 2.1 Disease 2.2 Risk Factors 2.3 Pathophysiology 2.4 Primary prevention 3 Diagnosis 3.1 Signs 3.2 Symptoms 3.3 Clinical diagnosis 3.4 Differential diagnosis 4 Management 4.1 General treatment 4.2 Medical therapy 4.2.1 Medications that suppress aqueous humor production 4 . 2 . 1 . 1 Beta Blockers 4 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 Mechanism of action 4 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 Side Effects 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 Adrenergic Agonists 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 Mechanism of action 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 Side Effects 4 . 2 . 1 . 3 Selective adrenergic agonists 4 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 1 Side Effects of selective adrenergic agonists 4 . 2 . 1 . 4 Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors ( CAI ) 4 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 1 4 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 2 4.2.2 Medications that increase aqueous outflow 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 Prostaglandin Analogs 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 Parasympathomimetic Agonists 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 4.2.3 Combination medications 4.2.4 Hyperosmotic agents 4.2.5 Summary of glaucoma medications 4.3 Medical follow up 4.4 Surgery 4.5 Prognosis 5 Additional Resources 6 References Summary According to the American Academy of Ophthalmology Preferred Practice Patterns , primary open angle glaucoma ( POAG ) is defined as an optic neuropathy with associated visual field loss for which elevated intraocular pressure ( IOP ) is a major risk factor . As a result , most of our treatment strategies are directed at reducing IOP , either with medical therapy , laser surgery , or incisional surgery , with medical therapy being the most common initial course of treatment . Two important questions often confront a glaucoma specialist when initiating therapy : Who needs to be treated ? Disease Entity Glaucoma refers to a group of disorders which causes progressive optic neuropathy with the major risk factor being elevated intraocular pressure . Glaucoma can exist at any level of intraocular pressure ; however , prevalence increases with uncontrolled IOP affecting the optic nerve and resulting in subsequent loss of visual function . Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide and the 2nd leading cause of blindness in the United States . Disease Primary open angle glaucoma is characterized by the presence of an anatomically open angle on gonioscopy ; chartacteristic optic nerve changes , such as cupping and / or thinning or the neuroretinal rim ; and characteristic patterns of viual field loss . According to the Preferred Practice Patterns of AAO , two of the three findings ( elevated IOP , optic nerve damage , or visual field loss ) must be present for the diagnosis of primary open angle glaucoma . Risk Factors Family history , Age , Race ( Increased prevelance in African American population , Ocular Conditions ( increased intraocular pressure , thin central corneal thickness ) . Other possible risk factors include : perfusion pressure , coronary artery disease , diabetes , myopia Pathophysiology Not entirely understood . Two commonly discussed theories are : Mechanical theory - direct pressure induced - damage to the retinal ganglion cell axons at the level of the lamina cribrosa . Vascular theory - microvascular changes and resultant ischemia in the optic nerve head . Primary prevention The only way we currently know to prevent and / or delay progression of primary open angle glaucoma is by reducing the intraocular pressure . Diagnosis POAG is diagnosed by taking a comprehensive history , clincal exam , and visual field testing . Optic nerve and nerve fiber layer imaging by Heidelberg retinal tomography ( HRT ) , optical coherence tomography ( OCT ) , or laser scanning polarimetry ( GDx ) can aid in the evaluation and diagnosis . Signs Elevated Intraocular pressure , corneal edema ( typically only seen with acutely elevated IOP ) , optic nerve asymmetry , optic nerve cupping , neuroretinal rim thinning / notch Symptoms Symptoms are typically only experienced with acutely elevated IOP or with advaced optic nerve damage , resulting in visual field loss . Clinical diagnosis Comprehensive eye exam including evaluation of : visual acuity , afferent pupillary defect , gonioscopy , slit lamp exam , dilated fundoscopic exam , visual field assessment Differential diagnosis Physiologic optic nerve cupping : Large optic nerves , and static appearance Congenital disc anomalies : optic nerve coloboma , congenital pit , and tilted disc syndrome Low ( Normal ) Tension Glaucoma Ocular hypertension ( high IOP in the presence of normal optic nerves and visual field ) Secondary open - angle glaucoma : e.g . pseudoexfoliation , pigmentary , steroid - induced , lens particle , etc Previous glaucomatous damage : Due to prior episodes of elevated intraocular pressure , e.g. from trauma , uveitis , steroid use , that have resolved . IOP is normal and optic nerve appearance remains static . Acquired conditions : e.g . arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy , compressive lesions such as intracranial aneurysm ( characteristic patterns on the visual field testing help to distinguish glaucoma from various neurological diseases ) Management Current treatment of glaucoma is limited to lowering the intraocular pressure to a level that will decrease the likelihood of further optic nerve damage . Many ophthalmologists initially try medical management or laser trabeculoplasty ( ALT or SLT ) if the glaucoma progression is not rapid . . If conservative therapy fails , then incisional surgery with either trabeculectomy or glaucoma drainage implant may be required . Once the decision to treat has been made , one has to determine the target IOP pressure range . Factors such as age of patient , life expectancy , and other risk factors General treatment Glaucoma clinical trials over the past 20 years have provided critically important , evidence - based guidelines in the management of patients with glaucoma . Whether treatment is provided with medical therapy , laser , or surgery , these trials have shown that glaucoma development and progression can be controlled by lowering IOP , a well - established modifiable risk factor for glaucomatous optic neuropathy . IOP lowering has been found to be beneficial even in eyes with normal tension glaucoma . The Collaborative Normal Tension Study Group found that a 30 % IOP reduction dropped the rate of progression Medical therapy The medications currently used to treat glaucoma work by lowering the intraocular pressure by two main mechanisms 1 ) reducing aqueous humor production and / or 2 ) increasing aqueous humor outflow . Medications that suppress aqueous humor production Beta Blockers Lower IOP by suppressing aqueous humor production . They inhibit synthesis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate ( c - AMP ) in the ciliary epithelium and lead to a decrease in aqueous secretion . Ocular side effects of topical beta - blockers are minor and include burning and decreased corneal sensation . Systemic side effects can be more severe . They include bradycardia ; arrhythmia ; heart failure ; heart block ; syncope ; bronchospasm or airway obstruction ; central nervous system effects ( depression , weakness , fatigue , or hallucinations ) ; impotence , and elevation of blood cholesterol levels . Topical beta - blockers have been shown to decrease HDL and increase cholesterol . Diabetics may experience reduced glucose tolerance and hypoglycemic signs and symptoms can be masked . Beta - Adrenergic Agonists Lower IOP through alpha 2 agonist mediated aqueous suppression and a secondary mechanism that increases aqueous outflow . Nonselective adrenergic agonists such as epinephrine lower IOP by several different mechanisms . Initially , a vasoconstrictive effect decreases aqueous production and c - AMP synthesis increases the outflow facility . Ocular side effects include follicular conjunctivitis , burning , reactive hyperemia , adrenochrome deposits , mydriasis , maculopathy in aphakic eyes , corneal endothelial damage , and ocular hypoxia . Systemic side effects include hypertension , tachycardia and arrhythmia . Dipivefrin is a prodrug that is hydrolyzed to epinephrine as it traverses the cornea . It has significantly fewer systemic side effects than epinephrine . The potential side effects of nonselective adrenergic agonists has led to decline in their use . Selective adrenergic agonists include apraclonidine and brimonidine ( 0.1 - 0.2 % ) with the latter having much greater selectivity at the alpha 2 receptor . Brimonidine ( 0.1 - 0.2 % ) appears to also increase uveoscleral outflow and lower IOP by about 26 % . Side Effects of selective adrenergic agonists Common ocular side effects include contact dermatitis ( 40 % with apraclonidine , < 15 % for brimonidine , and < 0.2 % for brimonidine - Purite ) , follicular conjunctivitis , eyelid retraction , mydriasis , and conjunctival blanching . Systemically , they can cause headache , dry mouth , fatigue , bradycardia , and hypotension . Long - term use of topical apraclonidine is frequently associated with allergy and tachyphylaxis . The use of brimonidine is contraindicated in infants and young children ( especially those with low body weight ) due to an increased risk of somnolence , Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors ( CAI ) Lower IOP by decreasing aqueous production by direct antagonist activity on the ciliary epithelial carbonic anhydrase . Over 90 % of ciliary epithelial enzyme activity needs to be abolished to decrease aqueous production and lower IOP . Systemic CAI include acetazolamide ( Diamox ) and methazolamide ( Neptazane ) . Topical CAIs include brinzolamide 1 % ( Azopt ) and dorzolamide 2 % ( Trusopt ) . A 14 - 17 % reduction in IOP is seen with these agents . Systemic CAIs are associated with numerous side effects , including transient myopia ; paresthesia of the fingers , toes , and perioral area ; urinary frequency ; metabolic acidosis ; malaise ; fatigue ; weight loss ; depression ; potassium depletion ; gastrointestinal symptoms ; renal calculi formation ; and rarely , blood dyscrasia . Due to the side effects of the systemic CAIs , they are most useful in acute situations or as a temporizing measure before surgical intervention . The topical CAIs have significantly fewer systemic side effects than oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and have been reported to Medications that increase aqueous outflow Prostaglandin Analogs Lower IOP by increasing aqueous outflow through the unconventional outflow pathway or uveoscleral outflow . The exact mechanism by which prostaglandins improve uveoscleral outflow is not full understood , but may involve relaxation of the ciliary muscle and remodelling of the extracellular matrix elements of the ciliary muscle . These agents have been shown to increase the outflow by as much as 50 % . Latanoprost and travaprost , and bimataprost ( prostamide ) , represent the newest , the most effective , and most commonly used class of medications . Latanoprost 0.005 % and travaprost 0.004 % are pro - drugs that penetrate the cornea and become biologically active after being hydrolyzed by corneal esterases . Bimataprost 0.03 % decreases IOP by increasing uveoscleral outflow by 50 % and increasing trabecular outflow by approximately 25 - 30 % . Both latanoprost and travaprost reduce IOP by approximately 25 - 30 % . Ocular and systemic side effects such as conjunctival injection , hypertrichosis , trichiasis , hyperpigmentation of periocular skin and hair growth around the eyes are generally were well - tolerated . These tend to be reversible with cessation of the drug . A unique side effect is increased iris pigmentation which is thought to be secondary to increased melanin content in the iris stromal mealnocytes without proliferation of cells . This tends to occur in 10 - 20 % of blue irides within 18 - 24 months of initiating therapy , and 60 % eyes with mixed green - brown Photos Courtesy of Anjana Jindal , MD , Wills Eye Hospital Parasympathomimetic Agonists Lower IOP by increasing aqueous outflow related to contraction of the ciliary muscle in eyes with open angles and pupillary constriction in cases of pupillary block glaucoma . Topical cholinergic agonists such as pilocarpine cause contraction of the longitudinal ciliary muscle , which pulls the scleral spur to tighten the trabecular meshwork , increasing outflow of aqueous humor . This results in a 15 - 25 % reduction in IOP . The direct agents ( pilocarpine ) are cholinergic receptor agonists ; the indirect agents ( echothiophate iodide ) inhibit cholinesterase and prolong the action of native acetylcholine . Carbachol is a mixed direct agonist / acetylcholine releasing agent . Systemic side effects of pilocarpine are rare ; however , ocular side effects are common . Ocular side effects include brow ache , induced myopia , miosis ( leading to decreased vision ) , shallowing of the anterior chamber , retinal detachment , corneal endothelial toxicity , breakdown of the blood - brain barrier , hypersensitivity or toxic reaction , cicatricial pemphigoid of the conjunctiva , and atypical band keratopathy . The indirect agents have ocular side effects that are generally more intense than those of the direct agents . In addition , indirect agents can cause iris cysts in Combination medications Fixed combination medications offer the potential advantage of increased convenience , compliance , efficacy , and cost . In the US there are currently 2 fixed - combination medications on the market , ( 1 ) Dorzolamide hydrochloride 2 % and timolol maleate ophthalmic solution 0.5 % ( Cosopt , now available as generic ) and ( 2 ) Brimonidine tartrate 0.2 % , timolol maleate ophthalmic solution 0.5 % ( Combigan ) and brimonidine tartrat 0.2 % and brinzolamide 1 % ( Simbrinza ) . Prior to initiating monotherapy with a fixed - combination medication , it is important Hyperosmotic agents Hyperosmotic agents such as oral glycerine and intravenous mannitol can rapidly lower IOP by decreasing vitreous volume . They do not cross the blood - ocular barrier and therefore exert oncotic pressure that dehydrates the vitreous . Side effects associated with the hyperosmotic agents can be severe and include headache , back pain , diuresis , circulatory overload with angina , pulmonary edema and heart failure , and central nervous system effects such as obtundation , seizure , and cerebral hemorrhage . Because of these potentially serious side effects , they are not used as long - term agents . Summary of glaucoma medications Class Brand Name Strength / Concentration Dosing IOP Reduction Mechanism of Action Side Effects Bimataprost Lumigan 0.03 % qhs 27 - 33 % Increase uveoscleral outflow ; Increase trabecular outflow Increase in iris pigment ( particularly in hazel iris ) , cystoid macular edema , hypertrichosis , conjunctival injection , keratitis , and uveitis Travaprost Travatan 0.004 % qhs 25 - 32 % Increase uveoscleral outflow same as above Latanaprost Xalatan 0.005 % 25 - 32 % Increase uveoscleral outflow same as above Beta - adrenergic antagonists ( beta blockers ) Nonselective Timolol maleate Timoptic XE Timoptic 0.25 % ; 0.5 % 0.25 % , 0.5 % qd qd , bid 20 - 30 % 20 - 30 % Decrease aqueous humor production Bronchospasm , bradycardia , decrease blood pressure , adversely alter blood lipid profiles , CNS effect ( lethargy , confusion , depression ) , impotence , exacerbate myasthenia gravis , mask symptoms of hypoglycemia in diabetics Timolol hemihydrate Betimol 0.25 % , 0.5 % qd , bid 20 - 30 % Levobunolol HCL Betagan 0.25 % , 0.5 % qd , bid 20 - 30 % Metipranolol Optipranolol 0.3 % bid Carteolol ( has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity ) Ocupress 1.0 % Selective Betaxolol Betoptic 0.25 % bid 15 - 20 % Decrease aqueous humor production Less bronchospasm , but otherwise similar to other beta blockers Nonselective Epinepherine Epifrin 0.25 % , 0.5 % , 1.0 % , 2.0 % 15 - 20 % Initially , decrease aqueous production and increase outflow ; later , further increase outflow Systemic : hypertension , tachycardia , arrhythmia Ocular : adrenochrome deposits , drug allergy , follicular conujunctivitis , rebound hyperemia , cystoid macular edema in aphakia , madarosis Dipivefrin HCL Propine 0.1 % Alpha2 - adrenergic Agonists Selective Apraclonidine HCL Iopidine 0.5 % , 1.0 % bid , tid Decrease aqueous production ; decrease episcleral venous pressure Systemic : dry mouth , decrease blood pressure , bradycardia Ocular : follicular conjunctivitis , ocular irritation , pruritus , dermatitis , conjunctival blanching , eyelid retraction , mydriasis , drug allergy Highly Selective Brimonidine tartrate Brimonidine tartrate in Purite Alphagan Alphagan - P 0.2 % 0.1 % , 0.15 % bid , tid bid , tid 20 - 30 % 20 - 30 % Decrease aqueous production ; increase uveoscleral outflow same as above , but less with brimonidine Parasympathomimetic agents Direct cholinergic agonist Pilocarpine HCL Isopto Carpine Pilocar 0.2 % - 5 % 0.5 - 6 % bid , qid bid , qid 15 % - 25 % 15 % - 25 % Increase trabecular outflow Miosis ( decrease vision ) , brow ache , induced myopia and variable refractive error , exacerbate inflammation , shallow anterior chamber , retinal detachment Indirect cholinergic agonist Echothiophate iodide 0.03 % - 0.25 % 15 % - 25 % Increase trabecular outflow Above plus , cataractogenic , iris cysts in children , increase pupillary block , prolonged effect of paralyzing agent such as succinylcholine when used concomitantly Demercarium iodide 0.125 % , 0.25 % 15 % - 25 % Physostigmine 0.25 % - 0.5 % Isofluorophate 0.25 % Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor Oral Acetazolamide ( oral ) Diamox 125mg , 250mg , 500mg SR bid , tid , qid 15 % - 20 % Decrease aqueous production Parasthesia of fingers and toes , metallic taste , nausea , malaise , depression , loss of libido , hypokalemia , aplastic anemia , metabolic acidosis , kidney stones Acetazolamide ( parenteral ) Diamox 5 - 10mg / kg q6 - 8hrs ( usually used as 1 - time dose ) 15 % - 20 % Methazolamide ( oral ) Neptazane 25mg , 50mg bid , tid Topical Dorzolamide Trusopt 2.0 % Decrease aqueous humor production same as above ; Systemic side effects less with dorzolamide and brinzolamide Brinzolamide Azopt 1.0 % Hyperosmotic agent Glycerine ( oral ) 50 , 75 % 1.0 - 1.5g / kg Decrease vitreous volume Headache , back pain , diuresis , angina , pulmonary edema , heart failure , obtundation , seizure , and subarachnoid hemorrhage ; nausea / vomiting ( oral agents ) Isosorbide ( oral ) 45 % 1.5g / kg Mannitol ( intravenous ) 5 % , 10 % , 15 % , 20 % 1 - 2g / kg Medical follow up IOP must be checked after initiation of treatment to determine its efficacy . Depending on the level of IOP and extent of optic nerve damage , the IOP should be checked within 1 - 2 days or a few weeks . The use of monocular trials has been debated but there is likely a role for monocular trial to establish both efficacy as well as tolerability . Medications should also be added one at a time if possible to avoid confusion regarding efficacy and tolerability . Surgery If initial medical and / or laser therapy fails to improve intraocular pressure to an accepatble level , surgical intervention may be necessary . Prognosis Most patients with glaucoma retain useful vision for most of their lives if caught early and treatment is initiated . Incidence of unilateral blindness has been reported to be 27 % and bilateral blindness 9 % at 20 years following diagnosis . Additional Resources Boyd K , DeAngelis KD . Latisse ( Bimatoprost Ophthalmic Solution ) . American Academy of Ophthalmology . EyeSmart ® Eye health . https : / / www . aao . org / eye - health / drugs / latisse - list . Accessed March 14 , 2019 . Boyd K , McKinney JK . Glaucoma . American Academy of Ophthalmology . EyeSmart ® Eye health . https : / / www . aao . org / eye - health / diseases / glaucoma - list . Accessed March 13 , 2019 . Gudgel DT . Eye Drops https : / / www . aao . org / eye - health / treatments / eye - drops - list . Accessed March 11 , 2019 . AAO , Basic and Clinical Science Course . Section 10 : Glaucoma , 2015 - 2016 . AAO , Focal Points : Gonioscopy in the Management of Glaucoma , Module # 3 , 2006 . References ↑ Gordon MO , J.A. Beiser , J.D. Brandt , D.K. Heuer , E.J. Higginbotham , C.A Johnson et al . and Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study , Baseline factors that predict the onset of primary open angle glaucoma , Arch Ophthalmol 120 : 714 , 2002 ↑ Anderson DR , Drance SM , Schulzer M ; Collaborative Normal - Tension Glaucoma Study Group . Natural history of normal - tension glaucoma . Ophthalmology 108 ( 2 ) : 247 , 2001 Sommer AE , Tielsch JM , Katz J et al : Relationship between intraocular pressure and primary open angle glaucoma among white and black Americans . The Baltimore Eye Survery Arch Ophthalmol 109 : 1090 , 1991 Quigley HA , Enger C , Katz J : Risk factors for the development of glaucomatous visual field loss in ocular hypertension Arch Ophthalmol 112 : 644 , 1994 Nouri - Mahdavi K , Hoffman D , Coleman AL , et al : Predictive factors for glaucomatous visual field progression in the Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study . Ophthalmology 111 : 1627 , 2004 Bengtsson B , Leske MC , L . Hyman , A . Heijl and Early Manifest Glaucoma Trial Group : Fluctuation of intraocular pressure and glaucoma progression in the Early Manifest Glaucoma Trial . Ophthalmology 114 : 205 , 2007 Parrish RK , Palmberg P , Sheu WP ; XLT Study Group . A comparison of latanoprost , bimatoprost , and travoprost in patients with elevated intraocular pressure : a 12 - week , randomized , masked - evaluator multicenter study . Am J Ophthalmol 135 : 688 , 2003 Coakes RL , Brubaker RF : The mechanism of timolol in lowering intraocular pressure in the normal eye . Arch Ophthalmol 96 : 2045 , 1978 Schuman JS : Clinical experience with brimonidine 0.2 % and timolol 0.5 % in glaucoma and ocular hypertension . Surv Ophthalmol 41 : S27 , 1996 Bietti G , Virno M , Pecori - Giraldi J et al : Acetazolamide , metabolic acidosis , and intraocular pressure . Am J Ophthalmol 80 : 360 , 1975 | [
"Medical Management",
"Primary Open Angle Glaucoma"
] |
http://eyewiki.aao.org/Thygeson%C2%B4s_superficial_punctate_keratitis | Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Enroll in the Residents and Fellows contest Enroll in the International Ophthalmologists contest Residents and Fellows contest rules International Ophthalmologists contest rules Original article contributed by Adrián Mauricio Aldrete López MD All contributors Adrián Mauricio Aldrete López MD Alejandro RodríguezGarcía MD and Guillermo Mendoza Adam MD Assigned editor Alejandro RodríguezGarcía MD Review Assigned status Update Pending by Adrián Mauricio Aldrete López MD on January 27 2015 Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Classification and external resources DiseasesDB 31288 Contents 1 Definition 2 Epidemiology 3 Pathophysiology 4 Clinical manifestations 5 Pathology 6 Differential diagnosis 7 Treatment 8 Summary 9 Additional Resources 10 Definition Described in 1950 by Phillips Thygeson in a case report series Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis TSPK is an insidious chronic and recurrent disorder characterized by small and elevated oval corneal intraepithelial whitishgray opacities extending to the entire anterior surface of the cornea of both eyes Corneal lesions show a tendency for the central pupillary area distribution with mild or absent conjunctival inflammation and no association to systemic disease Epidemiology There are no specific data on the epidemiology of the disease TSPK may affect both sexes but a higher incidence has been reported in females The onset of the disease occurs between the second and third decades of life with a range of 25 to 70 years of age median 29 years It is probable that the prevalence and distribution of the disease is underestimated as few publications can be found over the past years Pathophysiology The pathophysiology of TSPK remains unknown Both viral and immunologic mechanisms have been implicated Adenovirus herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus have all been implicated as a possible causes of the disease However Braley and Alexander provided questionable results suggesting a virus may be responsible for TSPK and in 1974 Lemp et al isolated varicella zoster virus from the corneal surface of a 10yearold boy with TSPK More recent studies using polymerase chain reaction PCR were not able to detect varicella zoster virus from eyes with TSPK providing doubts this virus is a causative agent On the other hand an immune based etiology has also been proposed since the presence of the HLADR3 a classII MHC molecule associated with immune response genes and multiple autoimmune disorders Gluten enteropathy Addisons and Sjögrens syndromes systemic lupus erythematosus diabetes mellitus has been positively implicated to patients with TSPK Clinical manifestations Typical lesion in Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Image courtesy of Dr Amir A Azari Wills Eye Hospital The disease is usually bilateral but may be asymmetric Patients frequently experience photophobia tearing burning foreign body sensation and irritation during exacerbations Pain and blurry vision are also common Redness of the eyes or mucous secretion may be present The course of the disease is variable one episode can last from 1 to 2 months and the remission can take as long as 6 weeks It is believed that after 4 years the disease disappear in most cases without complications Nevertheless there are reports from patients observed over the course of more than 20 years with TSPK in a settle of a chronic use of steroids and in one case the disease lasted for 41 years Thygesons Superficial punctate keratitis with Fluoresceine staining Image courtesy of Dr Amir A Azari Wills Eye Hospital The typical TSPK is an elevated or flat roundoval shaped graywhitish lesion occupying the central intraepithelial corneal area with no underlying stromal edema or inflammation The acute lesion may stain minimally with fluorescein and may or may not stain with vital dyes rose bengal or lissamine green In occasions the lesion is described as starry and in the late stages a subepithelial scar can be noticed Around 20 of them are present in each eye but up to 50 lesions have been reported The lesions tend to disappear without leaving a trace in the course of 4 to 6 weeks Corneal sensitivity is usually preserved or slightly diminished The conjunctiva remains quiet but in a few cases redness and filament formation may also be found Pathology The histopathology of TSPK is characterized by intra and intercellular edema at the level of the corneal epithelium as well as exudates under the lesions Other abnormalities have been found in the subepithelial nerve plexus Bowmans membrane and the anterior stroma these changes are most severe in eyes with a longer duration of TSPK Under confocal microscopy keratocytes show highly reflective nuclei and cell bodies of irregular size orientation and shape These changes were present under the intraepithelial lesions and in other areas where lesions were not present They are thought to be related to the duration of the disease and were not seen in normal controls There is no evidence of the presence of inflammatory cells in the areas of corneal stroma adjacent to the intraepithelial lesions In a more recent study using confocal microscopy Kobayashi found three findings that were consistently present in all patients with TSPK aggregates of highly reflective deposits with a starburstlike appearance that might correspond with punctate lesions at the superficial and basal epithelial cell layers invasion of Langerhans cells at the basal epithelial layer and subepithelial haze Differential diagnosis Based on the clinical course and the clinical manifestations of the disease particularly the typical corneal lesions the diagnosis of TSPK should not represent a problem However there are several clinical entities that may resemble TSPK and should be considered in the differential diagnosis Staphylococcal epithelial keratitis Pneumococcal conjunctivitis Seborrheic blepharitis Keratoconjunctivitis sicca Sjögren syndrome Neurotrophic keratitis Exposure keratitis Recurrent corneal erosion syndrome Mapdotfingerprint dystrophy Viral keratitis Vernal keratoconjunctivitis Others molluscum contagiosum trauma Treatment Multiple therapeutic strategies have been tried over the years for the management of TSPK but none of them have resulted to be entirely successful Antibiotics have not been effective so far On the other hand antivirals have shown mixed results While mild improvements have been reported with trifluridine therapy idoxuridine has been shown to cause persistent subepithelial ghost opacities and scarring and is therefore contraindicated for TSPK Topical lubricants are only effective for partially relieving the clinical symptoms of TSPK On the contrary topical corticosteroids are considered as mainstay treatment for TSPK because they are highly effective in controlling both the clinical signs and symptoms of the disease although there has been a lot of nonproven speculations that they may prolong the clinical course of the disease An important point of corticosteroid treatment for TSPK is that in most cases they must be tapered gradually over a long period of time months until an infrequent but regular dose is achieved ie weekly or biweekly The goal of corticosteroid therapy is to administer the minimum dosage and strength possible to control the symptoms of TSPK Due to its therapeutic success and security profile compared to corticosteroids topical cyclosporine CsA has been proposed as firstline treatment for patients with TSPK However CsA has not been compared to corticosteroids in a controlled clinical trial for the treatment of TSPK and one well recognized inconvenience of topical CsA is stinging at instillation that may compromise therapeutic compliance Another alternative for severe TSPK is the use of extendedwear therapeutic soft contact lenses although potential complications such as microbial keratitis may occur Contact lenses improve symptoms by covering the elevated corneal lesions and nerves which are constantly in friction with the palpebral conjunctiva during blinking There have been a few case reports of TSPK patients treated with excimer laser phototherapeutic keratectomy PTK with only partial improvement of signs and symptoms but with a high rate of recurrence of the corneal lesions making it no alternative for the management of the disease Summary In summary the following recommendations have been made with respect to the treatment of TSPK The benign course of the disease requires the use of lubricant eyedrops and topical surface steroids at low and infrequent dose for prolonged periods of time with close monitoring of intraocular pressure and cataract formation Topical CsA can be used as an alternative treatment to steroids taking into account the possibility of intolerance and poor compliance issues In severe cases extendedwear therapeutic contact lenses could be used for the relief of TSPK symptoms monitoring for corneal infections and intolerance After the diagnosis is established the disease may last for many years with a clinical course characterized by waxes and weans and a tendency to disappear without clinical sequelae Additional Resources American Academy of Ophthalmology CorneaExternal Disease Thygeson superficial punctate keratitis Practicing Ophthalmologists Learning System 2017 2019 San Francisco American Academy of Ophthalmology 2017 References 10 11 Thygeson P Superficial punctate keratitis JAMA 144 1544 1950 20 21 2 Thyeson P Further observations on superficial punctate keratitis Arch Ophthalmol 66158 1962 30 31 Braley AEK Alexander RC Superficial punctate keratitis isolation of a virus Arch Ophthalmol 50147 1953 40 41 Lemp MA Chambers RW Lurdy J Viral isolation in superficial punctate keratitis Arch Ophthalmol 918 1974 Reinhard T Roggendorf M Fengler I Sundmacher R PCR for varicella zoster virus genome negative in corneal epithelial cells of patients with Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Eye 20041833045 Connell PP OReilly J Coughlan S Collum LM Power WJ The role of common viral ocular pathogens in Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Br J Ophthalmol 2007918103841 70 71 72 Darrell RW Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis natural history and association with HLADR3 Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 79486 1981 80 81 8 Tanzer DJ Smith RE Superficial punctate keratitis of Thygeson the longest course on record Cornea 1999 Nov18672930 90 91 92 Thygeson P Clinical and laboratory observation on superficial punctate keratitis Am J Ophthalmol 611344 1966 100 101 Cheng L Young A Wong A et al In vivo confocal microscopy of Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2004 323257 110 111 112 Watson SL Hollingsworth J Tullo AB Confocal microscopy of Thygesons superficial punctate keratopathy Cornea 2003222949 Kobayashi A Yokogawa H Kazuhisa S In Vivo Laser Confocal Microscopy Findings of Thygeson Superficial Punctate Keratitis Cornea 201130675680 130 131 132 133 Tabbara KF Ostler HB Dawson C Oh J Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Ophthalmology 1981881757 140 141 Nesburn AB Lowe GH III Lepoff NJ et al Effect of topical trifluridine on Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Ophthalmology 198491118892 150 151 152 Goldberg DB Schanzlin DJ Brown SI Management of Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Am J Ophthalmol 8922 1980 Gock G Ong K McClellan K A classical case of Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Aust NZ J Ophthalmol 199523767 Duszak RS Diagnosis and management of Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Optometry 2007 78 333338 180 181 182 Reinhard T Sundmacher R Topical cyclosporin A in Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1999 2372109112 190 191 192 Benitezdel Castillo JM GarciaSanchez J Effect of topical cyclosporinA on Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Doc Ophthalmol 199679331938 Forstot SL Bender PS Treatment of Thygesons superficial punctate keratopathy with soft contact lenses Am J Ophthalmol 88186 1979 210 211 Goldstein MH Feistmann JA Bhatti MT PRKpTK as a treatment for a patient with Thygeson superficial punctate keratopathy CLAO J 2002 2841723 Fite SW Chodosh J Photorefractive keratectomy for myopia in the setting of Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis Cornea 20012044256 Netto MV Chalita MR Krueger RR Thygesons superficial punctate keratitis recurrence after laser in situ keratomileusis Am J Ophthalmol 200413835078 Fintelmann RE Vastine DW Bloomer MM Margolis TP Thygeson superficial punctate keratitis and scarring Cornea 2012 Dec311214468 | [
"Thygeson",
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Advantages-of-the-Nursing-Process-in-Care-Planning&id=6120891 | Advantages of the Nursing Process in Care Planning By Iain S Surman | Submitted On March 29 , 2011 The nurse care planning process is an important aid in the treatment of patients . In turn it creates a systematic care plan approach which with the inclusion of other health care professionals allows the patients the best route to full fitness . When used effectively , the nurse planning process offers many advantages to the health care environment : It ' s patient - centred , helping to ensure that your patient ' s health problems and his response to them are the primary focus of care . It enables you to individualise care for each individual patient . It promotes the patient ' s participation in their care , encourages independence and concordance and gives the patient a greater sense of control - important factors in a positive health outcome . ( See Putting the ' P ' in planning . ) It improves communication by providing you and other nurses with a summary of the patient ' s recognised problems or needs so you all work towards the same goals . It promotes accountability for nursing activities , which in turn promotes quality assurance and quality health care provision . It promotes critical thinking , decision - making and problem - solving for the benefits of health care provision . It ' s outcome - focused and encourages the evaluation of results . It minimises errors and omissions in care planning . Basis for the nursing care planning process The nurse care planning process is based on the scientific method of problem - solving , which involves : stating the problem you observed forming a hypothesis about the solution to the problem ( ' if . . . then ' statements ) developing a method to test the hypothesis collecting the test data analysing the data drawing conclusions about the hypothesis . A scientific fact Most people use the scientific method instinctively , without being aware they ' re doing it . Simply picking out which pair of shoes best complements your favourite outfit is an exercise in the scientific method . So if you ' re familiar with the scientific process , the nursing planning process probably seems familiar . Nursing process steps . The nursing planning process encompasses five steps : assessment nursing diagnosis planning implementation evaluation Following these steps systematically in the order shown here enables you to organise and prioritise patient care in the order that is needed - especially critical for the novice nursing student . It also helps ensure that you do n ' t skip or overlook important patient information . When used correctly , the nursing planning process ensures that the care plan is revised when new problems arise or patient outcomes remain unmet . It also allows the nurse care plan to be discontinued when patient outcomes have been met . About Lippincott Williams & Wilkins - The publishers behind the Made Incredibly Easy ! Series Lippincott Williams & Wilkins ( LWW ) is a leading international publisher of professional health information for physicians , nurses , specialized clinicians and students . We offer a comprehensive line of health - science books and new media with thousands of well - known titles , from reference tools , such as Stedman ' s Medical Dictionary and Griffith ' s 5 Minute Clinical Consult , to comprehensive research and education Information for medical specialists and students . Follow us on twitter at Made Incredibly Easy ! at http : / / twitter . com / incredibly_easy ' Like ' us on Facebook at Made Incredibly Easy ! UK Editions Read more about this and the other Made Incredibly Easy ! UK Edition books in the collection at [ http : / / www . MadeIncrediblyEasy . co . uk ] Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Iain_S_Surman / 988082 | [
"Nursing Process",
"Care Planning",
"health care professionals"
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Can-I-Get-Lasik-Eye-Surgery-If-I-Am-Farsighted?&id=2624120 | Can I Get Lasik Eye Surgery If I Am Farsighted ? By Bryan Kilgore | Submitted On July 17 , 2009 So most people are hearing that lasik surgery is only good for near sighted folks . The truth about lasik surgery is really quite simple . If you are wearing corrective lenses , regardless if you are farsighted or nearsighted there is a great chance you are eligible for lasik eye surgery . We need to clear something up real quick . Just what is farsightedness ? Growing up I wore glasses , thick glasses I might add , and I was always confused as to what the difference is between nearsighted and farsighted . If you think about the names of each of these conditions , it really is quite simple . Nearsightedness is when you are able to focus on things that are near or close to you . Farsightedness is just the opposite of that ; you can focus on things that are farther away from you . Both of these conditions can be fixed with lasik surgery . There only a few cases where a person suffers from farsightedness that lasik eye surgery will not be able to help a person . Farsightedness is a little more complicated to fix with lasik eye surgery , but with the advancements in technology the lasers are calibrated different for each eye , and each condition . When the cornea flap is opened , the laser simply reshapes the eye to refocus the light directly to the retinal of each eye , and when you sit up from the table you can immediacy start to see and focus on things right in front of you . So the answer to your question , Can I get lasik eye surgery if I am farsighted ? Is Come and join me as I take you through my journey with lasik eye surgery , and see exactly how lasik works , I will discuss what to expect before , during and after the surgery . If you are interested in getting lasik eye surgery , which is I am guessing why you are here , then do n ' t let the cost of the surgery stand in your way . You can get up to 50 % off the procedure from the leading lasik eye centers in the United States , just visit LasikEyeDiscount . info [ http : / / www . lasikeyediscount . info ] , read all about the Basic Wellness program , which included a 50 % discount on , as well as discounts on hearing aids , prescription plans and more . Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Bryan_Kilgore / 371481 | [
"Lasik Eye Surgery",
"Farsighted"
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Chain-Saw-Bars---How-to-Tell-When-Yours-Needs-to-Be-Replaced&id=5839229 | Chain Saw Bars - How to Tell When Yours Needs to Be Replaced By Jack Griffith | Submitted On February 01 , 2011 If you use your chain saw at all , eventually you ' ll need to look into replacement chain saw bars . Extended use , improper bar oil application , and dropping , bending or other damage to the bar can all necessitate bar replacement . What do you need to know about bars in order to get the right one ? And how can you maintain the current bar that you have now ? This article will discuss these points . How Do You Know When You Need to Look at Replacement Chain Saw Bars ? One way to tell if your bar needs replacement is simply to look at it carefully . Is the bar visibly bent ? Does the chain slip out of its track ? Are you having issues with bar oil lubricating well ? When you look at the track on the bar , does it look worn , with the track edges clearly chipped or otherwise deteriorated ? These are all signs that your bar needs replacement . Of course , damage to the bar can occur if the saw is dropped . When cutting through large tree trunks or limbs the bar can become stuck in the saw groove , which can cause the bar to warp or bend . Do you notice your saw cutting or pulling to one side ? These can all be signs that you need a new chain saw bar . Bar oil is extremely important for the proper operation and maintenance of the saw , and if the bar oil reservoir is allowed to run dry , you can expect that you will be needing a new bar very soon . If your chainsaw gets extended use , you will want to examine your bar closely at regular intervals to watch for track wear . Since most people use a saw to cut through wood with downward motion , the bottom of the saw bar takes the most pressure , and thus show wear first . Things to Know Before Buying Replacement Chain Saw Bars It would be nice if one - size - fit all , but unfortunately this does n ' t happen with chain saw bars . There are many makes and models , and unless you ' re a professional logger who is well - versed in the many variations of chainsaws and parts , then you ' ll want to keep the same original size bar that your saw came with . However , there are after - market bar companies providing new and improved bars that can replace your current bar . For example , the Cannon Bar Works company of Canada makes replacement bars for a number of saw models , and advertise that their bars are laser cut and milled with a unique flame hardening process to provide longer bar life . To find a replacement bar , you ' ll need to know your saw make and model number . You ' ll also need to know the chain pitch and the chain gauge . Chain pitch establishes the size of the chain . Common pitch sizes include ¼ inch , .325 inch and 3 / 8 inch . The drive sprocket also has to be the same pitch as the chain . Chain gauge is basically the thickness of the drive link where it fits into the bar groove or track . Chain gauge and the groove bar gauge have to match . Common gauge sizes can be . 050 , .063 ( measured in fractions of one inch ) , and so on . You ' ll need to know these numbers before you look at new bars . Proper Care and Maintenance for Chain Saw Bars The single most important thing you need to do to maintain your bar is keep the bar oil reservoir full ! Bar oil lubricates the chain while it is moving within the groove . Always use new bar and chain oil . Do not use motor oil or bar oil that has been " recycled . " Impurities and dirt in used oil can cause damage to your chain and saw . A good rule of thumb is whenever you fill the gas tank on your saw , fill the bar oil as well . Also , make sure that your new bar , sprocket and chain are properly installed and tightened , since improper installation can increase kickback potential . What is Kickback and How Can It Be Prevented ? A new chain saw bar can be a big help in preventing kickback accidents . Kickback is generally when the chain teeth on the tip of the saw bar " grab " the wood and " kick " the bar back toward the operator . This is often a quick and violent action and can be quite dangerous to the operator . ( Imagine a saw in full power pivoting off your hands and coming right at you . ) Most chain saws have a tip guard . Some people will remove it , but it is a great safety feature ! Maintain a firm grip on the saw at all times , and make sure your saw has the chain brake intact . Avoid sawing with the tip of your saw - use the blade near the motor as much as possible . Do not saw between your feet when your standing on a log . Maintain your chain , keep it sharp . Chains that are dull are more prone to kickback . There are even chains that are called " low - kickback , " which are designed for kickback prevention . Shop online , or your local chain saw dealer can also provide you with suggestions to find the best replacement chain saw bar for your application . Jack enjoys home and family , and loves to learn and experience new things . Feel free to enjoy more of his material at Chain Saw Bars [ http : / / echochainsawsite . com / chain - saw - bar ] and Echo Chain Saw [ http : / / echochainsawsite . com ] . Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Jack_Griffith / 656027 | [
"Chain Saw Bars",
"Replacement"
] |
http://ezinearticles.com/?Exposing-The-Spirit-of-Jezebel:-10-Characteristics-of-The-Jezebel-Spirit&id=6888630 | Exposing The Spirit of Jezebel : 10 Characteristics of The Jezebel Spirit By Kimberly M Snyder | Submitted On February 21 , 2012 1 40 4 6 3 4 2 3 Who Was Jezebel ? The bible introduces us to Jezebel as the powerful & manipulating wife of King Ahab . Ahab was the king of Israel , but the Bible says Ahab son of Omri did what was evil in the Lord ' s sight , even more than any of the kings before him . Ahab also married Jezebel , the daughter of King Ethbaal of the Sidonians , and he began to bow down in worship of Baal ( The male deity of power and sexuality ) . First , Ahab built a temple and an altar for Baal in Samaria , then Ahab set up an Asherah ( The female goddess of fertility , love and war pole ) . Ahab did more to provoke the anger of the Lord , the God of Israel , than any of the other kings of Israel before him . The worship of Baal and Ashtoreth included temple prostitution where both men and women would do sex acts to raise money for religious activities in the temple . Jezebel was a Phoenician priestess who saturated Israel with the worship of Baal , Asheroth and other pagan gods . Over 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophetess of Ashtoreth served Jezebel in her abominations of sex practices during the reign of Ahab . The Jezebel spirit is a demonic spirit of perversion , lust , manipulation , mind control , witchcraft and the occult . The Jezebel spirit is a very powerful demonic spirit , but the Lord Jesus can deliver and set us free from this bondage and stronghold by bringing us into truth and light if we The Jezebel Spirit In The Church Whether we recognize it or not , we see the Spirit of Jezebel operating everyday in our workplaces , our families and sadly enough even in our churches ! When I was a young girl growing up in the pentecostal church , I was always told that Jezebel was a woman of the world who wore red dresses , bright red lip stick and who painted her nails red . This was the image of Jezebel that many of us grew up with in our minds and the image that some of us still believe to be true . Sadly there are so many pastors that are manipulated and controlled by this deadly spirit . The Jezebel spirit hates the prophet and the prophetic voice . She will do anything to discredit and kill the prophet with her murderous spirit . Jezebel is a witch and she uses her witchcraft to control and set up her kingdom within the church . You will see where this spirit will come in and befriend the pastor and his wife along with others in leadership . It never deals with the people it feels has no significance , other than to use them as her puppets and eunuchs . This spirit operates and moves like a snake and operates with the spirit of python . It will seem to be very friendly . It will charm you with gifts , generous monetary offerings and it will be available for any and everything the leader needs and wants . It is just when she has The Jezebel will always have followers or what she likes to call her children . The children are just as dangerous to the church as she is . She will use these followers to spread the venom throughout the congregation . Lies , confusion , strife , adultery , fornication , homosexuality , competition and hatred are just a few of the manifestations a church will begin to see when a Jezebel spirit is in operation a church . There have been many churches that have split and were totally destroyed by this spirit . Once this spirit has gained 10 Characteristics of the Jezebel Spirit : 1 . It seeks to gain popularity and favor with people of influential and high positions of leadership . 2 . It will seek out other individuals they feel are " weaker " to become followers of them . 3 . It is never humble . Whenever this spirit receives praise , it always responds in false humility . 4 . It is defensive and combative whenever confronted about anything . 5 . It loves to teach and seeks to gain control in every situation . 6 . It wants to be seen as the most spiritual and powerful one ~ typically loves to pray elaborate long prayers 7 . It will not submit to authority 8 . It loves to pray and impart evil demonic spirits into others especially in the church 9 . It hates the voice of the prophet and seeks to control and destroy those who operate in the prophetic . 10 . It will never repent ! Walk In Freedom The Jezebel spirit must be confronted and exposed in order to end the manipulation and rule . If you can recognize any of the characteristics of the Jezebel spirit in your life you can begin by humbling yourself and pray to God for forgiveness . Repent for any ways that you have yielded yourself to be used by the spirit of Jezebel . Begin to walk in the truth of God ' s word and the light of Jesus Christ will begin to lead you out of those dark places and your deliverance will begin a new work in you About The Author : Kimberly was called into the ministry of deliverance in April 1999 . Her desire is to speak the truth of God ' s Word to those that are in darkness and to set the captives free from Satan ' s strongholds . You can receive more powerful spiritual warfare information and resources at her website Royal Girlz . For More Info Visit : http : / / www . royalgirlz . com Article Source : https : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Kimberly_M_Snyder / 1280451 | [
"Jezebel Spirit",
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Headaches-With-Dizziness-Or-Light-Headedness---What-Does-This-Mean?&id=2298021 | Headaches With Dizziness Or Light - Headedness - What Does This Mean ? By Douglas Hanna | Submitted On May 03 , 2009 This article contains valuable information about two of the symptoms that can accompany headaches and explains what each is . It also discusses the possible causes of these symptoms and stresses the importance of discussing these with your healthcare provider . So be sure to read clear through to the end of this article so you do n ' t miss any of this important information . Headaches are bad enough by themselves When headaches are mixed with other symptoms such as dizziness or vertigo , they can be terrible . And headaches are bad enough as it is . For example , headaches accompanied by feelings of dizziness can be very frightening . However , this could be a symptom that will help you get the right diagnosis and the proper treatment . What exactly is dizziness ? The word " dizzy " describes actually two different feelings . The first is feeling light - headed and the second is called vertigo . If you want a correct diagnosis from your healthcare provider , it is important that you understand the difference between the two . Is the room spinning Do you feel as if the the room is spinning or moving around you even when you know it is n ' t ? Then this is vertigo . Vertigo is the feeling that objects are moving around you when they are actually stationary . On the other hand , light - headedness means that you feel faint or as if you might pass out - but you do n ' t feel like the room is moving or spinning . The two mean different things Depending on which type of dizziness you are experiencing with your headache , it can mean different things . Naturally , to get a specific diagnosis , you ' ll have to talk to your doctor However , here are a few things that can cause this problem . For example , migraine headaches can cause sensory problems such as vertigo . You may feel like you have a hard time walking or you may even fall . However , your dizziness could also be caused by problems in the inner ear such as a sinus infection coupled with an ear infection . What causes the feeling light - headed ? Feeling light - headed can be the result of vascular problems such as changes in your blood pressure . It can also be caused by fluid in the head causes by allergies , a cold or the flu . In addition , both headaches and dizziness can be caused if you become dehydrated . If may not be serious You may not have something seriously wrong if you are feeling headache dizziness . Your healthcare provider will be able to determine what the exact cause of the problem and be able to deal with it . So be sure to pay him or her a visit . Occasionally , these symptoms can mean that something more serious . Tests such as x - rays and MRIs can Stress and anxiety can also cause these symptoms . help diagnose the issue . Whatever you do , do n ' t ignore the problem . Getting help from your healthcare provider can help you to feel better and return to normal activity sooner . Did you know there are literally dozens of natural ways [ http : / / www . headachereliefstrategies . com / ] to treat those nasty headaches - eliminating the need to take harsh , powerful drugs ? For example , one simple way is to eat foods rich in magnesium . Magnesium is abundant in legumes , dark green leafy vegetables , whole - grain cereals and breads . You can learn nine other natural ways to tame headaches by clicking here [ http : / / www . headachereliefstrategies . com / ] . Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Douglas_Hanna / 6572 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?How-Long-Do-I-Need-to-Keep-This?---A-Guide-to-Receipts,-Statements-and-Financial-Clutter-at-Home&id=26272 | How Long Do I Need to Keep This ? - A Guide to Receipts , Statements and Financial Clutter at Home By Jill Chongva | Submitted On April 13 , 2005 3 In most homes , paper causes clutter . And it seems to mysteriously multiply by itself . But just how long do you need to keep all those receipts , bank and credit card statements and other financial papers ? Below is a handy In most homes , paper causes clutter . And it seems to mysteriously multiply by itself . But just how long do you need to keep all those receipts , bank and credit card statements and other financial papers ? Below is a handy reference that you can use for dealing with your home paper trail Toss after One Month ATM and bank deposit / withdrawal slips keep in a file folder until monthly statement received reconcile with your statement to ensure that charges and payments have been properly processed if for major purchase with warranty , staple receipt to the owner ' s manual and file for the term of the warranty if for major purchase without warranty , keep receipt if item replacement cost is higher than the deductible on your homeowner ' s insurance policy if for minor purchase without warranty , shred Cash purchase receipts enter into your chequebook or computer software to ensure that you are accounting for all your purchases if for major purchase with warranty , staple to the owner ' s manual and file for the term of the warranty if for major purchase without warranty , keep receipt if item replacement cost is higher than the deductible on your homeowner ' s insurance policy if for minor purchase without warranty , shred Credit card receipts keep in file until monthly statement received reconcile with your statement to ensure charges and payments have been properly processed if for major purchase with warranty , staple to the owner ' s manual and file for the term of the warranty Toss after One Calendar Year Bank / Financial Institution monthly statements ( unless needed for home business ) Brokerage / Mutual Fund Statements ( Monthly / Quarterly ) reconcile with your annual statement Credit card monthly statements Credit reports you should request your credit report annually to ensure that all information is accurate and up - to - date , especially with regard to accounts you have closed in the course of the year requesting this file annually helps to prevent identity theft , so you can see who has requested the report and for what purpose Monthly Mortgage Statements reconcile with your annual statement Pay stubs shred after reconciling with your W - 2 or 1099 ( US ) or T4 ( Canada ) Telephone / Utility bills Keep for 7 - 10 Years Any T4 Forms - including T4E , etc . ( Canada ) Annual Mortgage Statements Supporting documentation ( cancelled cheques / receipts / statements ) for tax returns including but not limited to : donations retirement account contributions child care receipts alimony / child support paid or received medical expenses mortgage interest property tax payments W - 2 or 1099 Forms ( US ) Year End statements from Credit cards ( if provided ) Year End statements from utility companies ( if provided ) Keep Indefinitely Adoption Records Auto / Home / Life Insurance policy information keep purchase records for as long as policy is in force Automobile Records ( ownership certificate / registration ) keep for as long as you own your vehicle if annual registration required , keep only current registration paper Birth Certificates Business Income Tax returns , and supporting documentation , if self - employed Death Certificate Divorce Agreement / Child Custody Court Orders Investment records clearly showing beneficiary information purchase records sales records Marriage Certificate Medical records Immunization records to children Military service records Pension Plan records Receipts for major home improvements / renovations Receipts for major purchases that have long life expectancy ( refrigerator , stove , freezer , vehicles ) Religious records School / Education records Tax Returns In the US , the IRS has 3 years to from the date you file your tax return to examine your return for errors and up to 6 years to audit your return if they suspect that you have underreported your gross income by 25 % or more . There is no statute of limitations on an audit when deliberate fraud is suspected . In Canada , CRA advises you to keep your tax returns , Notices of Assessment , and all supporting documentation for 6 years from the date of filing your personal income tax return . NOTE ~ I recommend keeping these indefinitely because they take up little space and can often be a valuable resource if there is any dispute over such things as income tax paid , child support / alimony paid or received and pension plan benefits . Will and / or Power of Attorney should be kept securely in a fire - proof home safe or safety deposit box at your financial institution Year End Investment account summaries Now what ? Now that you know what to keep , where are you supposed to put it all ? Set up a simple home filing system to cover the basics , and invest in a couple of sturdy cardboard or plastic filing boxes for the information you should keep log - term or indefinitely . And a final caution - when you decide that you no longer need to keep certain documents , make sure you shred them and DO NOT put them in the general trash or recycling . Sensitive financial information or personal information should always be DESTROYED to avoid any chance of identity theft that could lead to headaches greater than you can imagine . Jill Chongva is a WordPress designer , former Virtual Assistant & Life Blogger who has over 25 years experience in the Administration field . Her WordPress and marketing assistance help small business owners make the most of their message by creating branding that stands out in the crowd . Learn more at [ http : / / www . lusciouspress . com ] [ http : / / www . lusciouspress . com ] Email - jill @ lusciouspress . com Telephone 613.854.9428 Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Jill_Chongva / 5888 | [
"Financial Clutter",
"Organizing"
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http://ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Speed-Read-and-Become-a-Faster-Reader&id=1974789 | How to Speed Read and Become a Faster Reader By Trevor Johnson | Submitted On February 09 , 2009 It seems that a lot of people want to learn how to read more quickly . Speed reading has become a new niche in the multi - billion dollar self - help industry . Far be it for me to take money from the mouths of large publishing houses , but there really is no need for you to buy any of their books . You can teach yourself how to speed read . Before you start you are going to want to know what your baseline speed is . To figure that out , take a newspaper article and count the words . Next , time yourself reading the article . Cut out the article and save it , this will help you to benchmark your progress . ( Note : after a week or two you will likely have forgotten the material so it will become like you are reading it for the first time again ) . Starting out , you will need to slow down your current reading . You will have developed habits over the years that are going to hinder your practice , restructuring your reading will involve learning new habits and that means slowing down . The first step towards becoming a faster reader is to cut out the sub - vocalization . Sub - vocalizing words is what you do when you allow your mind to form the sound of the words you are reading internally . This slows you down incredibly as it requires you to stop and " say " each word individually . Next you want to do a cursory scan of the text . Here you are looking for larger , bold or italicized fonts . You want to see the landmarks that the writer has left for you to highlight key phrases . It may be that the body of the text you are reading is all in a uniform text ; in this case you are looking for repeating words . Finally , skim . You do not want to read every word . Some experts will say leap to every third or fourth word . Try out different methods ; find the one that works best for you . Personally , I look for large words when I ' m skimming . For me skimming is very close to the land marking that happens in the scanning process . To find out more about how to speed read , just click here Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Trevor_Johnson / 143711 | [
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"quickly",
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Itchy-Pekingese---Itching-Scratching-Series&id=5350298 | Itchy Pekingese - Itching Scratching Series By Rob T Hill | Submitted On November 09 , 2010 The Pekingese quite commonly gets allergic skin disease from food allergy or canine atopic dermatitis . This can lead to itching , scratching , chewing and licking which in turn can lead to secondary skin infection with bacteria or yeast . The common skin infection in the dog is caused by Staphylococcus intermedius . The common yeast infection in the dog is caused by Malassezia . In a Pekingese dog less than six months of age , there are three primary considerations . Does your dog have fleas ? This is the most common cause of itchy skin disease in dogs . Signs of fleas include flea dirt which looks like black flecks through the coat as you part the hair and fleas themselves . If your dog is scratching its back and the base of the tail , it is probably a flea allergy . Mange can cause your dog to be itchy . This is harder to diagnose and your vet would have to In an itchy Pekingese with canine atopic dermatitis , you would expect the dog to be chewing the feet constantly . Dogs with canine atopic dermatitis also get itchy rashes on the abdomen , groin , arm pit ( axilla ) and on the inside surface of the ears . The dogs get rashes on the hairless parts of the body . This is where allergens such as pollen pass across the skin . Pekingese dogs with canine atopic dermatitis have a defective skin barrier that is missing a protein called sphingosine . There are some very good natural treatments that can help with the itching , scratching dog . For a FREE " Home Diagnosis Manual to the itchy dog " and information on natural treatment that really stops your dog itching and scratching go to http : / / www . scratchingdoghelp . com For more information on treating the itchy scratching dog the natural way and to find out how to stop the itch go to http : / / www . scratchingdoghelp . com / treating_itchy_dogs . html Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Rob_T_Hill / 677125 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Keep-Your-Tattoo-Clean-and-Moist&id=2642479 | Keep Your Tattoo Clean and Moist By Ashley M Ford | Submitted On July 21 , 2009 Several people out there are still unaware that after you get a tattoo that you have to care for it . You literally have to nurse it back to health to insure that an infection does not set in . After all a tattoo is an open wound on your skin so infection can set in very easily if it is not cared for properly and not kept clean . The are several different methods that are out there to take care of your tattoo . The important thing is that you keep it clean and keep it moist . When it comes to cleaning your tattoo you just need to wash it with a gentle mild soap , like baby soap . You also need to make sure that whenever you touch it your hands are clean . Do not be rough with it , just gently wash it and pat or air dry . This needs to be done shortly after you have gotten your tattoo and at least once or twice a day while it is healing . Also beware that your tattoo may ooze some puss when you first take your bandage off . This is The second important care tip is to keep your tattoo moist . There has been a lot of talk about this one . Some people recommend the following and others do n ' t . Just go by what you tattoo artist recommends . A lot of people advice against using Petroleum - based products , simply because they do n ' t help in healing or preventing infection . Neosporin is one of the most common antibiotic ointment that is recommended , some find to preserve the tattoo ink colors well too . Some hold bacitracin as the big Your Tattoo Friend Ashley Ashley enjoys writing on her Tattoo themed blog at http : / / infinitetattoos . wordpress . com please stop by and drop a comment : ) For more information and access to over 15,000 tattoo designs online , check out Ashley ' s sponsor at [ http : / / InfiniteTattoos . com ] Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Ashley_M_Ford / 177446 | [
"Tattoo Clean",
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Latino-Baseball-Players---The-Hall-of-Famers&id=92820 | Latino Baseball Players - The Hall of Famers By Mike Arias | Submitted On November 06 , 2005 When you think of Baseball , you may naturally think of Latino professional players . We know that baseball is a major sport played in almost every Latin American country next to futbol . Almost every Dominican kid wishes to be the next Pedro Martinez or Alex Rodriguez . Same in Cuba where Baseball is also their national past time . However , the truth is that Latino players make up approximately 25 % - 28 % of the MLB players . The Dominican Republic has the most players in the MLB with 79 while Venezuela is second with 45 What most people may not know is how many Latino players are Hall of Famers . Do you ? There are only seven Latin American - born players who are in the National Baseball Hall of Fame but with so many great ballplayers currently playing this number is sure to grow . So who are these magnificent seven ? Of course , the great Roberto Clemente ( Puerto Rico ) is the most known . He was a 12 time All - Star who won four National League batting titles . In addition , he is only the 11th player to reach 3,000 career hits . Tragically , Clemente ’ s life ended at the young age of 38 in a plane crash while flying relief supplies to Nicaraguan earthquake victims . The normal five year waiting period to be considered for the Hall of Fame was waived and Clemente became the first Latin American - born player elected The other players are Martin Dihigo ( Cuba ) , Juan Mariachal ( Dominican Republic ) , Luis Aparicio ( Venezuela ) , Rod Carew ( Panama ) , Orlando Cepeda ( Puerto Rico ) , and Tony Perez ( Cuba ) . Ironically , Dihigo never played in the majors ( racism existed for Hispanics too ) but played in Mexico , Cuba , and the Negro Leagues during the 1920 - 1940 era . He excelled at every position except catcher . Dihigo was voted in 1977 by a vote of the veteran ’ s committee and became With so many talented Latino players , we will surely see more in the Hall of Fame . Mike Arias is editor of [ http : / / www . HispanicScene . com ] and President of Hispanic Scene Holdings , LLC ( [ http : / / corporate . hispanicscene . com ] ) which is an Internet holding company that owns web sites that cater to Latino market . Hispanic Scene is a portal site that provides news , articles and information about Latinos . Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Mike_Arias / 19176 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Losing-Visceral-Fat---How-to-Lose-This-Internal-Fat-in-Your-Belly-Fast&id=2130237 | Losing Visceral Fat - How to Lose This Internal Fat in Your Belly Fast By Ruben McDaniels | Submitted On March 22 , 2009 Visceral fat can be hazardous to your health since they are surrounding the internal organs . They are not so noticeable , but their effects on the body are great : high blood pressure , high cholesterol , heart problems , and even diabetes . It is usually found behind abdominal fat where most of the most important organs of the body are found . That being said , it is very important to lose visceral fats as soon as possible . Though this kind of fat is more difficult to lose than any other forms , working on the surrounding muscles can help you burn those fats away . This may call for intensive exercises like aerobics or other workouts , but it will be worth all the effort . Aside from exercise , dietary changes are at the same time needed . Lean protein sources will help you increase your metabolism . Eat fish or poultry instead of meat . Once you replace red meat with lean protein , you will lose more weight . However , when eating protein sources , refrain from frying them or loading them with a lot of shortening or salt . Reduce your fat intake . These include butter , mayo , fatty salad dressings , margarine , and shortenings . You can try lower fat varieties , but if you can avoid them all throughout , the better . Switch to dairy products that have lower fats . Milk , cheese , yogurt , and ice cream are a no - no , but if you go for low fat varieties , then that would be better . You should now give up dairy products altogether , since your body still needs the nutrients it can get from them . You may consider just eating less daily instead of having 2 - 3 servings a day . Skip your usual sugar intake . Sugar is stored in your body as fat , especially if it is not needed . Candies , chocolate bars , corn syrup , cookies , chocolate cakes , etc . can put you at a higher risk for diabetes . Limit the amount of sweets that you eat . Lastly , drink a lot of water to help cleanse your body from waste , toxins , and chemicals . Now you want to have more energy , be Healthier , look Younger , lose weight , and cleanse your body , right ? Do this with Oprah ' s Dynamic Duo of Acai Berry & Colon Cleanse by Clicking Here Now [ http : / / www . acaiberrydietbenefits . com ] ! Acai Berry is the # 1 " Super Food " because it has so many different elements that help your body , so you ca n ' t go wrong with Acai Berries & Colon Cleansing [ http : / / www . acaiberrydietbenefits . com ] . Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Ruben_McDaniels / 292961 | [
"Weight Loss",
"Internal Fat"
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Natural-Remedies-For-Centipedes---You-Dont-Have-to-Use-Harmful-Chemicals!&id=4231551 | Natural Remedies For Centipedes - You Do n ' t Have to Use Harmful Chemicals ! By Joseph Afflict | Submitted On May 04 , 2010 Natural remedies for Centipedes do exist , you do n ' t need to turn to pesticides to get rid of your house Centipedes . You need to understand that getting rid of Centipedes means destroying their habitat . Make your home inhospitable to them , and they ' ll be forced out . This can be achieved using a variety of means . Chemicals are one option , but many argue against using them inside of the home . I strongly caution giving the room a minimum of 12 hours of being well ventilated , if you decide to use chemicals . Understand these chemicals are killing large insects , they are not to be taken lightly . However , this article is about natural remedies for getting rid of Centipedes , so you ' ve already decided not to use chemicals , I applaud you ! I did n ' t use any chemicals , and I ' ve been Centipede free forever . I used to get the red ones all the time in my basement . Yes I call them the red ones , I know their Scutigera Coleoptrata , but red ones is an easier name for me to use . I definitely could n ' t forget the white ones either , in my sinks and showers ! Those made me miserable plenty of times ! Once I knew I had to get rid of them , it was just a matter of determining how . All over the internet you ' ll find the simplest natural remedies . Even the best natural remedies might not get rid of your Centipedes , but they should help . Centipedes can be a real pain to get rid of ! The most effective natural remedies for killing Centipedes are using a dehumidifier to dry out the area they inhabit , and to seal up any cracks leading into your home . Using sticky pads where you see them repeatedly can also be a huge help . Use these natural remedies , chemical free , to get rid of the Centipedes invading your home . What to tell you about me ? I grew up with house Centipedes , and I always hated them . I ' d crush them whenever I saw them , but still it would ruin my night . Their was no way I ' d get any sleep , imagining them crawling around in the dark . . So I stumbled across a small guidebook that taught me how to get rid of them easily , and without chemicals . It came with a guarantee so I checked it out . I ' ve put together a more in depth Squidoo lens that provides more details on Natural Centipede Remedies Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Joseph_Afflict / 634185 | [
"Centipedes",
"Natural Remedies"
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Omalon-Foam---What-You-Need-To-Look-For-When-Buying-New-Mattress&id=5289340 | Omalon Foam - What You Need To Look For When Buying New Mattress By Alan Cassidy | Submitted On October 29 , 2010 Memory foam is not the only foam technology creating a ruckus in the mattress industry today . Mattress buyers are now scrambling to get their hands on mattresses incorporated with Omalon foam . What Exactly Is Omalon Foam ? This foam structure looks similar to conventional foams . But unlike conventional foams , this kind of foam has undergone densification processes to make the cells longer . The elongated structure of the foam cells makes the mattress durable and a lot more comfortable . How Can This Foam Improve Sleep ? There is a reason why mattress manufacturers have started incorporating this technology in their mattresses . Here are some of its sterling benefits : 1 . It is more resilient I am sure you have heard of other foam technologies that promise to provide you with resilient structure . When we say resilient , we mean the mattress can return to its original shape even when subjected to heavier loads . However , other mattresses were not able to deliver this promise easily . This is where omalon technology comes in . Because of the large spherical structure of cells , there is more room for deflection even when it is subjected to heavier load . You have a mattress that returns back to its original shape without a hitch . The mattress is less prone to sags and depressions . 2 . It is more reactive Other foams have a board - like feel to them . Tempur foams give initial resistance . This is why people feel uncomfortable at first . You usually experience this with high - density mattresses . But with omalon structure , you will immediately feel comfortable . You would n ' t have to wait for the foam to adjust to your temperature and follow the contours of your body . 3 . You do n ' t have to " wear the mattress out first " Other firm foams need to be worn out first before they can start to feel soft and comfortable . But this mattress is made up of densified cells that are conditioned to provide immediate comfort . You do n ' t have to use the mattress for a long time to get used to it . These are just some of the reasons why this foam technology is slowly taking over the mattress scene . When buying a new bed , you would want to start looking for beds incorporated with this foam . There are mattress companies that specialize in densifying polyurethane foams . These foams are made to provide a good combination of support and comfort to the whole bed . Try using this kind of bed if you ca n ' t find the right comfort level in high - density memory foams . For improved sleep comfort , try Serta adjustable bed . Visit http : / / www . bestmattressreviews . com for more information . Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Alan_Cassidy / 367970 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Penis-Shrinking---Causes-Of-Penile-Shrinkage-And-Why-It-Needs-Help&id=6505920 | Penis Shrinking - Causes Of Penile Shrinkage And Why It Needs Help By Frank R Jemson | Submitted On August 19 , 2011 2 If a man is worried about his penis shrinking , it ' s generally quite a cause for concern . When a man is young and virile , his penis is living its best years . Sex is more fun , your penis seems to be as big and hard as it can get and you can go for longer in bed . It ' s only later on , in a man ' s late 30s , 40s or afterwards that the penis shrinking kicks in , causing much confusion , despair and even panic . The Causes Of Penis Shrinking Penile shrinkage is when you lose some girth and length from the original size of your erect penis . Men also can lose size and weight from their penis in its flaccid state . The potential causes are quite simple to understand and you can find a remedy if you apply some natural techniques . Weaker erections Quite simply , most cases of a penis shrinking are related to erections becoming less hard as time goes on . Harder erections maximize the potential of your penis and increase the size of your erect member . When your erections are hard and powerful , your penis will seem bigger . This is because it is bigger ! As a man ages , levels of the main sex hormone , testosterone , decline and he may experience weaker erections and weight gain . This is what makes the penis smaller than before . Fortunately , this process can be reversed . Poor blood circulation As the years pass , a man eats more , drinks more and sometimes smokes . The penis depends on adequate blood circulation for strong erections . Fats can build up in the blood vessels and prevent blood from reaching the penis . Smoking can restrict blood flow and affect libido negatively . A lack of erections can cause blood circulation to become weak in the penile area over time . Low testosterone The male hormone , testosterone , declines in men after the age of 30 and can reach unacceptably low levels in men with a number of negative symptoms including the penis shrinking . Steroids Anabolic steroids can cause the testicles to effectively shut down as the body starts to depend on steroids instead of natural testosterone . To some extent , penile shrinkage can also be a consequence of steroids . Testosterone treatment Men have reported that testosterone injections can cause their testicles to shut down and shrink , in the same way that steroids do . The penis and erection quality can also be affected to some extent . Solutions For The Penis Shrinking Now you know about the causes of penile shrinkage , we get to the interesting part , the solutions . You ' ll be pleased to find out that you can reverse penis shrinking and although it may take a few weeks or a couple of months , it is absolutely possible . Boost testosterone Taking a supplement for boosting testosterone naturally in your body is the first step towards growing your penis back to a healthy normal size again . Choosing a high quality supplement is a great place to start your energy back on the road to recovery and harder erections . You can also exercise . Train your muscles 3 times a week and do some cardio exercise at least 3 times per week and get out in the sunshine more often . Eat more cabbage , broccoli and cauliflower for best results . Penile Massage You may have heard of penile massage for improving blood circulation in the penile area . This is quite easy for you to do in an erect or a flaccid state . You ' ll need to massage especially around your perineum and the base of your penis , paying careful attention to increase blood flow in the penile chambers . Penile massage is great for improving blood circulation and increasing erection quality . The way you perform penile massage is very important to your penile shrinkage problem . Doing it the right way could save you weeks of penis panic . It ' s really worth paying some attention to following the methods correctly to get optimal results . Improving Lifestyle Your lifestyle can be dramatically improved by tweaking a few aspects of it and increasing vitality and health levels . This will help to boost your erections , make your penis seem bigger and help you to feel confident again . Eat more organic food and avoid packaged food that has come into contact with plastic . Some plastics actually leech chemicals which can have a dampening effect on male testosterone levels . Reduce your intake of white carbs and eat more vegetables , lean white meats , eggs and fish . Get into shape and detox your body in whatever way possible . The causes of your penis shrinking are probably more to do with male hormones rather than any disease or problem you think you may have . Address the root cause of the problem by following the above advice and you ' ll reverse your penile shrinkage in just a few weeks . This article and a free information pack to help men to improve libido naturally , can be found at Libido Male Health Resources Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Frank_R_Jemson / 1122436 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Sneeze-a-Lot?-3-Reasons-Why-You-Are-Always-Sneezing!&id=3450198 | Sneeze a Lot ? 3 Reasons Why You Are Always Sneezing ! By Ryan Shea | Submitted On December 18 , 2009 9 7 1 2 3 3 9 Do you sneeze a lot ? If so the real reason may be right under your nose , literally ! There are numerous reasons why you might sneeze a lot , but there are some major causes which until rectified may have you constantly feeling like you ' re suffering from a cold . Find out 3 very real causes for why you ' re always sneezing and get ready to start feeling better as soon as today ! 3 Reasons Why you Sneeze a Lot # 1 - Undiagnosed Intolerances / Allergies : Even if you ' ve seen a doctor and they said you are n ' t allergic according to the tests or that it ' s all in your head I would highly suggest getting a second opinion from a alternative holistic practitioner . There are numerous ways to test for allergies which includes EDS testing amongst other things . Not sure what I mean by intolerances ? They are often to things you eat every day or expose yourself to frequently that suppress your immune system or constantly create reactions in your body . The most common of which to eliminate are wheat and dairy . Do it for a week and you ' ll see huge relief ! Many times it can be as simple as that . # 2 - Sinus Infection : Often you can have a low level chronic sinus infection which you are n ' t even aware of but it constantly keeps you stuffed up . In fact if you sneeze a lot this can be a good sign that you ' re body is still aware of it and trying its best to eliminate it . The one thing you never want to jump into is taking an anti - biotic for a sinus infection until its 100 % determined to be bacterial , because most often sinus infections are fungal in nature and if you do end If this is the case that you ' ve taken anti - biotics anytime within the last several years a chronic fungal infection is often the cause of your current health problems . The next cause then of chronic sneezing is what you need to eliminate to feel better . # 3 - Candida Overgrowth : The # 1 reason many people feel sick constantly for no apparent reason is something known as a Candida Overgrowth . This fungus lives inside all of us , however in some people it grows out of control . Quite often the reason people suffer from it is due to the use of anti - biotics and both of the causes above , chronic allergies and liver toxicity . When all 3 are at play an individual will undoubtedly also develop a Candida overgrowth . The solution requires the elimination of all these factors , while doing specific cleanses and If you ' re constantly sick I highly suggest you consider taking a quick online test to determine if Candida is a major concern for yourself . Most people who begin eliminating Candida notice a tremendous change in their overall health and energy in as little as 3 days ! Candida Can Make You Sneeze Like Crazy ! Want to know if YOU have Candida ? Take our Candida Test Learn How Candida Causes Sneezing and also Find out about the # 1 Treatment for Candida Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Ryan_Shea / 260282 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Difference-Between-Trade-Secrets-And-Trademarks&id=453066 | The Difference Between Trade Secrets And Trademarks By Gregg Hall | Submitted On February 13 , 2007 Some people get confused between trade secrets and trademarks . A trademark is something that is publicly recognized and known as being officially associated with a particular company . In contrast a trade secret can be a much more broad definition and by its very name is not made public . According to the laws in most states , any device , pattern , formula , idea , or collection of information that gives the owner an advantage in the marketplace and is protected by the owner in a way that shows that it can be reasonably expected to keep their competitors or the public from finding out about it without stealing it is considered a trade secret . There are many examples I can give of trade secrets . In an actual product , a trade secret could be the way certain ingredients are combined in the formulation of a nutritional supplement . Recipes , in particular those employed at commercial restaurants , are considered to be trade secrets . One very famous one that I can think of right off is Colonel Sander ' s recipe for his Kentucky Fried Chicken . An idea for an invention that one has that they have not filed for a patent on yet would also be considered a trade secret , as are the complex algorithms that search engines like Google use to give us search results online . Trade secrets are the opposite of other types of protecting of intellectual property such as trademarks and patents . The whole idea of a trade secret is to keep it from public knowledge and it is basically something that a person or company does themselves . Your trade secret will be given protection under law until you make the information public . Companies and individuals protect information that they are unable to guard with other legal means such as patents and trademarks . There are numerous things that can be considered trade secrets . An idea that will give you a big jump over your competition in a particular market or even an idea for a piece of software or a website would also be a trade secret . Business information that you keep secret and only allow access to by employees such as marketing plans , costs , and pricing would be protected under law . According to the law , the owner of a trade secret can legally prevent employees from using trade secret information or disclosing it by binding them with confidentiality or non - disclosure agreements . They also have legal protection from people who get the information by stealing it or through industrial espionage as well as people who get the information knowing that it is a protected trade secret . The best way for a company to protect itself legally is to have employees sign a non - disclosure agreement , also known as an NDA . You should also have them signed by anyone that you do business with such as lenders and investors . An intellectual property attorney can help you with drafting this important document . Gregg Hall is an author living in Navarre Beach , Florida . Find more about this as well as trademark lawyers at http : / / www . focusonip . com Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Gregg_Hall / 24953 | [
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http://ezinearticles.com/?Understanding-Your-Insurances-RAPL-Clause&id=6504294 | Understanding Your Insurance ' s RAPL Clause By Shaun Clayborne | Submitted On August 18 , 2011 Frequently insurance companies are contacted after a claim has been processed by a consumer who feels their benefits were improperly paid when they receive Out - of - Network benefits for the diagnostic portion of their visit . This notion of an insurance company paying the higher level of benefits comes from the fact the consumer feels helpless to pick physicians that they do not have direct contact with . In the case of lab work , the patient is only able to see the blood get drawn , but normally does not take in to account the lab technician In certain cases the current health plans do implement a way of paying the higher level of benefits to a doctor that the member did not directly see in order to cover unneeded patient responsibility . This verbiage is included into a policy to help keep the rising cost of patient responsibility to member at a minimum and make the process of seeing a medical practitioner much easier . This clause does work like a well - oiled machine when it is on a policy , but you must verify the details before assuming that this is on your policy . First , not all plans are written with this clause written in them . So it is possible that your employer has opted out of this option . Next , the clause only is valid on claim done on ER , OP surgery , and IP hospital stays . RAPL would not apply to any other services . Another downfall is that it is not readily available for In the circumstance where your policy does not have the outpatient diagnostic rider on it you would then have to verify that all practicing medical personnel were part of your insurance network . Otherwise , you can / would be subject lower if any benefits for the services . Which when taking into account things like reasonable and customary or maximum non - network reimbursement can leave a member with thousands or even tens of thousands of dollars of out - of - pocket expense . To guarantee the best level of benefits you must be educated on your policy . Knowledge will guarantee that you do n ' t spend more money than is due for your benefits . Yes , the amount of work increases for you when must do to check all providers that are involved in your care . It is best to use the resources that are now provider by your insurance company to help in this lengthy process . Be involved with your health care by using website portals , call centers , and etc . . . to be Last note : This subject is also very intertwined in what type of funding is elected for by the plan . Fully insured plans that do not carry Out - of - Network benefits will most likely receive this clause as it is mandated by regulations . To find more tips join me at MedInsuranceTips [ http : / / www . medinsurancetips . com / ] Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Shaun_Clayborne / 1168113 | [
"insurance companies",
"RAPL Clause"
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http://ezinearticles.com/?What-Causes-a-Headache-Behind-the-Eyes?&id=4435280 | What Causes a Headache Behind the Eyes ? By George McKenzie | Submitted On June 07 , 2010 Having a headache behind the eyes is a relatively common problem , and such headaches happen for a variety of reasons . Most of the time , such headaches are a sign of some other problem or disorder . This problem may have nothing to do with your eyes or vision . To stop the pain , you first have to figure out where the pain is coming from . What Causes a Headache Behind the Eyes ? Here are the most common reasons most people get a headache behind the eyes . Your sinuses or an infection in your respiratory system can might be the cause . Swollen nasal passages near the eyes can put pressure on nerves behind the eyeballs when you have a cold or the flu . . Unfortunately , there ' s a possibility your headache may be caused by a tumor . Hopefully , this is not the case . But the most common problem that causes a headache behind the eyes is related to general eye health and eye conditions or disorders . Something happens that causes the lens of the eye to cast an unfocused image on the retina . When this happens , your brain automatically tightens your eye muscles in an effort to compensate . After this has been going on for a while , the eye muscles become strained , causing soreness . If this situation corrected , the muscles become even more strained and sore . There are several common vision problems that are likely to result in soreness and pain behind the eyes . The list of vision problems that are likely to produce such discomfort or pain include the following . Astigmatism - Sometimes there ' s a change in the shape of the lens , which results in a distorted image landing on the retina . Vision becomes blurry or fuzzy . You ' ll notice that people who have astigmatism sometimes have to squint a lot . By squinting , they ' re trying to force their eyes to focus . Squinting , if it ' s done often enough , overworks and strains the eye muscles . This causes pain around the eyeballs , which feels like a headache behind the eyes . Presbyopia - When we ' re young , and even in our early adult years , the lenses of our eyes are pretty flexible . But with passing time , we lose some of this flexibility . The result : objects close to us begin to lose their clarity . This is why many people need " reading glasses " as they pass into middle age . When you have uncorrected presbyopia , you will strain your eyes trying to make them focus as you read . This results in headaches in the area around the eyes . Hyperopia - This is similar to presbyopia in that images do n ' t focus correctly on the retina . They focus in an area behind the retina instead . Once again , the brain overworks the eye muscles in an effort to resolve the problem . This , of course , lead to strained muscles and soreness around the eyes . Tips for Relieving Headache Pain Many different over - the - counter medications are available that will relieve pain from a mild headache behind the eyes . Talk to your doctor or pharmacist for specific recommendations . If over - the - counter pain - relievers do n ' t work , and your headache persists for several days , call your doctor . He or she may prescribe something stronger . If your headaches are happening often , and you have n ' t had an eye exam for a while , a visit to your optometrist is probably in order . Since headaches behind the eyes are often caused by uncorrected vision , a set of eye glasses or contacts may put an end to your discomfort . Acupuncture and massage may help to some people . Short of the possibilities just mentioned , your best bet is rest and relaxation . If eye strain is the cause of your headaches , then giving your eyes a break is probably the best prescription for finding relief . For more information on topics related to this article , click on Headaches Behind the Eyes [ http : / / www . eye - health - info . info / most - common - eye - problems / headache - behind - eyes . html ] . George McKenzie is a retired TV anchor , medical reporter and radio talk show host . He is a frequent contributor to Eye Health Information [ http : / / www . eye - health - info . info / ] , a resource site about eye health and vision . Article Source : https : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / George_McKenzie / 13492 | [
"Headache",
"sinuses",
"respiratory system"
] |
http://ezinearticles.com/?What-is-MIDI-and-How-Does-it-Work-in-Electronic-Keyboards?&id=1978864 | What is MIDI and How Does it Work in Electronic Keyboards ? By Duane Shinn | Submitted On February 10 , 2009 How can one or two musicians sound like a full band ? The answer is MIDI . It ' s the abbreviation for " Musical Instrument Digital Interface . " It ' s the electronic " language " that is " spoken " between different instruments and the main device ( computer ) controlling them . Put simply , MIDI allows different instruments to communicate with one another and with a central computer . It could be compared to a group of people who all speak different languages trying to communicate . A person who speaks Spanish could issue a command in Spanish to someone who speaks French . An interface would translate that information into a code . The code would be transferred via a cable to the person who speaks French . That code would in turn transmit the original message in French . That same code could be transmitted to another person in Musical Instrument Digital Interface allows any MIDI - capable instrument to interact with any other MIDI instrument and / or computer . This makes it possible for one central computer or instrument to control every other device connected to it . The devices are connected via MIDI cables . The cables transmit the information from device to device . MIDI is most commonly associated with electronic keyboards . The reason is that keyboards were among the earliest instruments to be manufactured MIDI - capable . Electronic keyboards tend to be the preferred instrument for creating MIDI files . Keyboards are also among the simplest to use as command centers for a bank of connected instruments . Today , however , there are numerous instruments that are manufactured with MIDI interfaces . MIDI guitars and drum machines are common . Wind and brass instruments can also be MIDI capable . Musical Instrument Digital Interface is different from an audio recording . Audio recording is a replication of sound waves . A MIDI file on the other hand is actually a code . No sound waves are recorded . Instead , a file is created which contains coded information . The information can then be transferred from instrument to instrument or computer . The receiving device " reads " the code , and it is interpreted in that device ' s " language . " Let ' s use the electronic keyboard as an example . A musician could play a particular song on the keyboard . MIDI turns that music into a binary code . The code contains information on what keys were pressed . It also interprets things like : * The amount of pressure applied to the keys . * The intervals between each key pressed . * Whether the pitch changes while a key is pressed . This code can then be transferred to other devices . The same song can be then be reproduced . MIDI files can also be created on a regular computer . The files can then be transferred to various instruments . It ' s even possible to control other devices through Musical Instrument Digital Interface . A lighting system is one example of this . An entire bank of stage lights can be controlled by a computer or even an electronic keyboard . What does this mean for musicians and performers ? One person could conceivably give a stage performance utilizing multiple instruments simultaneously . This same lone musician could even be his own light technician . He can do it all and sing too by simply pressing computer or electronic keyboard keys at the right times . MIDI revolutionized the world of music and performance . The technology continues to have wide - reaching application possibilities . Its quality has greatly improved since it was first invented in the early 1980s . Today Musical Instrument Digital Interface is considered an essential part of many performer ' s and band ' s equipment . A free newsletter on piano chords and chord progressions is available from author Duane Shinn at http : / / www . playpiano . com / pianovideos . htm Article Source : http : / / EzineArticles . com / expert / Duane_Shinn / 8153 | [
"MIDI",
"Electronic Keyboards"
] |
http://eziz.org/vfc/ | California Vaccines for Children Program How the Program Works Provider Requirements General Requirements Program Participation Requirements At A Glance VFC Provider Operations Manual ( POM ) VFC Provider Agreement California VFC Program ’ s Provider Agreement Addendum Vaccine Management Plan PDF | MS Word Vaccine Management VFC Eligibility Screening & Documentation Annual Recertification Who , When , Where and What You Need to Do Training Requirement Enrollment How to Enroll Frequently Asked Questions Participation Withdrawal Request Form California Vaccines for Adults Program About the VFA Program Resources and Communications 317 for Local Health Departments Resources and Communications | [
"California Vaccine Programs",
"Children"
] |
http://f30.bimmerpost.com/forums/showthread.php?t=645870 | 02 - 08 - 2012 , 12 : 20 PM 1 7MAT New Member 7 REP 8 Posts Drives : 04 BMW M3 Join Date : Feb 2012 Location : US iTrader : ( 0 BMW INSURANCE - how much do you pay ? Is $ 1200 every 6months good for full coverage insurance with uninsured motorist , $ 25,000 property damage , $ 50,000 bodily injury , free car rental Etc . I ' m curious what do you all pay ? This year most insurance are upping there rates on bmw ' s , Mercedes etc . My rate was up about $ 400 from last year I ' m with Mercury Post year and model of your car please and insurance company if possible thanks Be a friend to everyone , never know when you may need their help . Appreciate 0 Tweet Quote 02 - 08 - 2012 , 01 : 56 PM 2 X54SiQI Private First Class 4 REP 146 Posts Drives : 12 ' X5M , 06 ' G35 , 14 ' GTR Join Date : Aug 2011 Location : Cincinnati , OH iTrader : ( 0 Garage List 2014 Nissan GTR [ 5.00 ] 2011 Lexus ISF [ 4.00 ] 2012 BMW X5M [ 5.00 ] My 2012 X5M with body injury $ 50k , property damage $ 25k , new vehicle replacement , renter car full cover fu year is $ 3006.70 with Safeco insurance member of liberty mutual . Was told I will discount on second year . 06 ' Infiniti G35 Coupe Copper 6 Speed Supercharge 498HP Full Load 14 ' Nissan GTR 12 ' BMW X5M Appreciate 0 Quote 02 - 08 - 2012 , 05 : 12 PM 3 terrapen73 Private First Class 9 181 Drives : 2016 M3 6MT Join Date : Jan 2012 Location : Raleigh , North Carolina Garage List 2016 BMW M3 [ 0.00 ] I use the Liberty Mutual BMW Performance Insurance . I pay about $ 1050 a year now for for my 2007 Z4 Coupe . I have a $ 500 deductible , $ 100k bodily injury , $ 100k property damage , and all the usual rental and towing stuff . I have been very happy with them and plan to use them when I get my new 2012 135i in April . My rate will increase to about $ 1350 a year with the same coverage on the new vehicle . I am 38 with a clean driving record in NC . 02 - 08 - 2012 , 05 : 51 PM 4 RyanBMW 51 184 Drives : 2011 F10 550i Join Date : Dec 2011 Location : Plano , TX car = 2008 E92 driver = 28 yr old Policy : Allstate full cover 30 / 60 / 30 $ 500 ded $ 520 / 6 month or $ 1,040 / year Not bad at all 02 - 10 - 2012 , 01 : 46 AM 5 j . cooper Teufel Hunden 5 61 Drives : 2007 BMW 335i Join Date : Jan 2012 Location : 29 Palms , CA 150 / month 300k / 100k with collision 02 - 10 - 2012 , 09 : 53 AM 6 Wendall * * * Major MammelToe 108 1,140 Drives : E92 M3 SG coupe Join Date : Feb 2012 Location : Orange County , CA 3 Statefarm $ 750 per 6 month premium ( $ 125 / mo ) $ 250k / $ 500k Coverage $ 250 comp deduction $ 500 collistion deduction 02 - 10 - 2012 , 10 : 15 AM 7 itrocks4u Lieutenant Colonel 258 1,908 Drives : ' 15 435ix F36 ( ' 11 328ix E90 ) Join Date : Aug 2011 Location : Toronto Wow ! Those are some nice rates . I pay premium of about $ 260 per month : Myself ( 25 ) + Wife ( 24 ) Deductible $ 1000 I think that ' s a lot . 02 - 10 - 2012 , 10 : 19 AM 8 Prazision 33 199 Drives : 2011 BMW 328xi Wagon Join Date : Mar 2011 Location : NH 1 Glad this thread was made . There are many ways to approach this . Different states have different coverage minimums , as well as based on your region rates can vary . For example paying 1200 in NYC for 6 months with full coverage would be a great rate , where as if you were paying 1200 in middle of no where PA would be considered a bad rate . There is also a factor of your driving record , other drivers , # of vehicles on the policy etc . 02 - 10 - 2012 , 10 : 21 AM 9 Prazision 33 199 Drives : 2011 BMW 328xi Wagon Join Date : Mar 2011 Location : NH also another quick piece of advise , just because Liberty Mutual says they have an exclusive BMW discount , does not even mean they are actually competitive to other carriers within the market . 02 - 10 - 2012 , 11 : 28 AM 10 Jmanscotch is a Texan 44 387 Drives : ' 09 135i - 6MT SOLD Join Date : Nov 2011 Location : Colorado Springs 6 Travelers ~ $ 425 / 6 months with the Z ~ $ 600 for both cars full coverage 25 / M with a few marks on my driving record Elevated coverage ( forget exact numbers ) and $ 500 deductible on Z and $ 250 on 1602 . - Jake 02 - 10 - 2012 , 12 : 01 PM 11 KingOfJericho Major General 929 6,221 Drives : Yes Join Date : Aug 2007 Location : CT 2010 135i Coupe [ 2.63 ] Car insurance premiums vary greatly even from town to town . It ' s completely pointless to compare rates unless you live in the same building , have the same driving record , share the same marital status , same credit score , etc . It ' s just never going to be apples to apples . One thing I will add is that it ' s totally pointless to pay up for a low deductible . You ' d be a fool to make a claim for anything under $ 1,000 anyway so why waste your money paying up ? Anyone paying to have a deductible under $ 1,000 is wasting their hard earned money . The views and opinions expressed in this post are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Bimmerpost . 2018 Jeep Grand Cherokee High Altitude Hemi | 2010 S4 Sold | 2010 BMW 135i Retired | 2006 Lotus Exige Sold 02 - 10 - 2012 , 01 : 16 PM 12 Q4P Colonel 58 2,292 Drives : Too Much Join Date : Apr 2011 Location : World Quote : Originally Posted by KingOfJericho Car insurance premiums vary greatly even from town to town . It ' s completely pointless to compare rates unless you live in the same building , have the same driving record , share the same marital status , same credit score , etc . It ' s just never going to be apples to apples . I would like to say that I agree but unfortunately there is no rhyme or reason when it comes to insurance rates , you will get what you will get . One thing I will add is that it ' s totally pointless to pay up for a low deductible . You ' d be a fool to make a claim for anything under $ 1,000 anyway so why waste your money paying up ? Anyone paying to have a deductible under $ 1,000 is wasting their hard earned money . Agree 100 % 2jZ + RB26 + 4G63 + LS9 + N54 = 02 - 10 - 2012 , 04 : 25 PM 13 M_Six Free Thinker 2,248 6,552 Drives : 2012 MB C300 4matic Join Date : Jan 2009 Location : Foothills of Mt Level 2012 Mercedes C300 . . . [ 3.83 ] About $ 450 / yr for the X5 and the same for the Z4 . $ 100k / $ 300k , $ 500 deductible . Wifey ' s Civic ( her choice of car , not mine ) is slightly less . We have our homeowner ' s through the same company , so we get decent rates . Insurance is cheap in downstate IL . We ' d be paying 3x that on each car back in MA . And as far as wasting money on low deductibles , in our case going to $ 1000 would have made very little difference in our yearly costs . Wifey just had a fender bender in a parking lot and they split the blame , so her deductible really came to $ 250 ( some weird IL law ) . If we had had a $ 1000 deductible , it would have been $ 500 . Having the deductible that high would not have saved us $ 500 in insurance payments even after all these years . Mark markj . pics " There is no shame in dropping fruit in your glass . " - UncleWede Last edited by M_Six ; 02 - 10 - 2012 at 04 : 30 PM 02 - 10 - 2012 , 05 : 18 PM 14 WestCDA Second Lieutenant 269 Drives : 2006 Z4R 3.0si Join Date : May 2011 Location : Calgary , Alberta 714.00 per year from Trafalgar , for a 2006 Z4 si . 1 million liability coverage , 1000.00 deductible on collision , 250.00 deductible on comprehensive . 1 million and 2 million are pretty common amounts for liability coverage up here - does n ' t seem to be very common in the U.S. from what ' s posted so far ? Last edited by WestCDA ; 02 - 10 - 2012 at 05 : 28 PM 02 - 10 - 2012 , 05 : 58 PM 15 e92328i998 141 Drives : 14 Silverado , 11 328i Join Date : Sep 2006 Location : Norfolk , VA 800 / 6months 2010 Tahoe and 2011 328i 28 / M and 25 / F 300k / 500k / 300k 250 comprehensive deductible and 500 collision towing and rental accident forgiveness included I have USAA and live in the Hampton Roads area of VA 02 - 11 - 2012 , 12 : 30 AM 16 terrapen73 181 Drives : 2016 M3 6MT Location : Raleigh , North Carolina 2016 BMW M3 [ 0.00 ] Quote : Originally Posted by also another quick piece of advise , just because Liberty Mutual says they have an exclusive BMW discount , does not even mean they are actually competitive to other carriers within the market . Totally true . Everyone should shop around for their best price and if you have insurance on multiple items like boats and houses too , combining the policies in one company gets you more discounts usually . I think the discount is either 5 or 10 % off the normal rate so it is not huge , but the peace of mind that comes from making sure I get an original BMW replacement part vs . some random Chinese item in an accident made it worth it . Other agencies I contacted could match their rate for me and sometimes do a little better , 50 - 60 bucks a year , but none would offer me the same deal on parts . 02 - 12 - 2012 , 10 : 55 AM 17 7MAT New Member Drives : 04 BMW M3 Location : US BMW INSURANCE - how much do you pay ? Is $ 1200 every 6months good for full coverage insurance with uninsured motorist , $ 25,000 property damage , $ 50,000 bodily injury , free car rental Etc . I ' m curious what do you all pay ? This year most insurance are upping there rates on bmw ' s , Mercedes etc . My rate was up about $ 400 from last year I ' m with Mercury Post year and model of your car please and insurance company if possible thanks Be a friend to everyone , never know when you may need their help . 02 - 12 - 2012 , 07 : 19 PM 18 Suds / M Enthusiast 126 504 Drives : M4 , A4 Avant USP , C7 Z06 Join Date : Aug 2010 Location : Lone Star State It really depends on three things : your age , your location and your driving history ( tickets / accidents ) . I would talk to friends who live in the area and decide who you want quotes from . I requote every 6 months if my rates go up . Here in Texas on 3 vehicles one driver , I pay $ 1,115 every 6 months with higher coverage limits . Coverage on the 2011 135i is $ 490 every 6 months currently . You have - to shop it . 02 - 13 - 2012 , 10 : 00 AM 19 Vigilante375 Major 94 1,159 Drives : 2012 AW 6M 135i Join Date : Sep 2011 Location : WA 2 threads on this ? 02 - 13 - 2012 , 10 : 24 PM 20 va05sti 107 Drives : 2008 335i Join Date : Oct 2011 Location : virginia beach i work for geico doing home and renters in 40 states were are a broker for the home and renters so i see all types of rates . i had my 2005 sti and now my 2008 335i comp and collision . your not only paying a for a rate but piece of mind if i you have claim . i always tell every one to shop 2 or 3 carries every 2 to 3 years is your best bet . 02 - 14 - 2012 , 05 : 11 PM 21 chmura Lieutenant Colonel 1,007 1,880 Drives : 2011 E90 M3 Join Date : Aug 2009 Location : Orange County , California I have Wawanesa Insurance . I pay $ 1,500 a year for the following cars with 100 / 250 / 300k coverage . 2011 M3 Sedan 2002 Tacoma 4x4 2001 Corolla LE 2019 M2 Competition - October 2 , 2018 ED 2011 BMW M3 Sedan Alpine White Picked up via ED 9 / 27 / 2011 & Redelivered 11 / 23 / 2011 * * SOLD * * | [
"BMW INSURANCE",
"7MAT"
] |
http://fabesnina.wikia.com/wiki/Alexandra_Shipp_/_Gallery | in : Galleries Cast Galleries House of Anubis Alexandra Shipp / Gallery Edit Comments ( 1 ) Share Little Alexandra Tweeted by " David Anders " on May 31st : " Gus ' first vet visit with @ AlexShipppp was a success . " . Tweeted by " James Shipp " : " After workout Brunch time with sissy # alexshipp # family # lilsis # love " . Tweeted by " Julia Beth Stern " 13 hours ago : " Le petite iron chef @ AlexShipppp " . Alexandra Shipp ' s new Twitter profile picture . She plays " KT Rush " on " House of Anubis " . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " @ JulBeSt and I watching a terminator reenactment last week . # ponchos " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " @ Laurenlsummers and I taking mall photos # wealwayshaveagoodtime " . Tweeted by Alexandra 9 hours ago : " Gettin wild with my # partnerincrime @ AdelaideKane " . Tweeted by " Roxy Fitzgerald " an hour ago : " @ AlexShipppp Miss you too chick ! How ' s LA ? Look what I found x " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " # nola " . Tweeted by " Brendan Hines " : " Here ' s how @ AlexShipppp gets things done " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " My first beignet ! # yum # nomnom " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " # streetcar thx for the pic @ brendan_hines " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " @ louisacburnham Sunday is now marked so I do n ' t forget to call my English soul sister on her bday . # loveyou 😘 😍 " . Tweeted by " David Anders " : " " Young Love ? Yup . " Me & @ AlexShipppp in New Orleans " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Miss Scarlet the parrot and I in # nola . Girl tried to eat my sun glasses , and I almost let her little butt do it ! " . Tweeted by " Nickelodeon " 22 hours ago : " Grooving on a Sunday afternoon & learning dance moves from @ BurkelyDuffield and @ AlexShipppp : http : / / at . nick . com / 1185s7N " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 12th : " My birthdays comin up y ' all ! # SoExcited # july16th # letthecountdownbegin " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 20th : " That moment when ur mom says smile and blinds you with the flash on her phone # iflookscouldkill " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 20th : " Happy birthday @ InShippShape ! @ JShipp5 and I lookin fly . " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 17th : " What a successful birthday " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 14th : " # universalstudios # siblings @ JShipp5 " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 14th : " # citywalk with my little bro @ JShipp5 " . Tweeted by Alexandra on July 3rd : " @ tasieD made chocolate covered strawberries for me ! ! # luckygirl " . Alexandra Shipp ' s new Twitter profile picture . She played " KT Rush " on " House of Anubis " . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 22 hours ago : " I love him . " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " Always shining @ bradleymeinz " . Tweeted by " bradley " 2 hours ago : " # barbie @ alexshipppp @ B . Rad ™ creative " . Tweeted by " bradley " an hour ago : " # summer @ alexshipppp @ B . Rad ™ creative " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " In case you were wondering what love looks like . . . " . Alexandra Shipp ' s new Twitter profile picture . She played " KT Rush " on " House of Anubis " . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Yes that ' s a Christmas bow , yes that ' s a cheetah print mock turtle neck . Deal with it . # tbt # noteethnoproblems " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " # sweetnothings # huskywhisper @ MarissaJack " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " It ' s almost like The Last Supper @ JulBeSt @ mr_maurer @ Laurenlsummers @ MarissaJack # maumaubday # greatnight " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " I moonlight most nights as a gargoyle in Hollywood # hunchback " . Tweeted by Alexandra 15 hours ago : " A long time ago I was here " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " @ AJSawyer member this one ? # takemebacktoliverpool xx " . Tweeted by " Jake Davis " 4 hours ago : " Best catch up ever ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 16 hours ago : " Oh you know just @ ImJakeDavis and I shopping on melrose . Nbd . " Tweeted by Alexandra on September 21st : " @ InShippShape @ theycallmeBK # weddings " . Tweeted by Alexandra on September 22nd : " My family in all it ' s glory @ InShippShape " . Tweeted by Alexandra on September 23rd : " This old chestnut from the # kca2013 # throwback lounging on the carpet " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " Well last night was a blast ! ! ! Look at these lovely ladies ! ! ! # tinychatlovin " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Laundry mat Sunday " . Tweeted by " Bridget Kelly " 12 hours ago : " dragged my boo @ alexshipppp out for a drank # Kims30th # LaFamilia # LA # SummerInSeptember … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 22 hours ago : " @ wheredidihear # postseason # Athletics # rocknrileys # LA " . Tweeted by Alexandra 16 hours ago : " so this is the miracle that I ' ve been dreaming of . . . so this is love . @ Laurenlsummers " . Tweeted by Alexandra 10 hours ago : " @ tasieD is my celebration in a beautiful package # love # ukbestie " . Tweeted by Alexandra on October 17th : " 14 and no idea who I am what I want . # tbt " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " @ JulBeSt Halloween " . Tweeted by " Julia Beth Stern " : " Corpse bride and little red riding hood @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra on October 27th : " @ JulBeSt Halloween # day2 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 9 hours ago : " Ok , last Halloween outfit . # chaplain " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " I found a zombie 😝 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " @ JulBeSt we also found # walt " . Tweeted by Alexandra on November 11th : " @ AdelaideKane love u " . Tweeted by Alexandra on November 18th : " Some things are hard to forget in this town " . Tweeted by Alexandra 21 hours ago : " # 15yearsstrong # yyt @ MurphyAZ I think I ' m a Scottsdale girl now " . Tweeted by Alexandra on December 10th : " @ JulBeSt well this happened last night 😜 " . Tweeted by Alexandra on December 25th : " Merry Christmas ! ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " Taking this manic Monday sloooow " . Tweeted by " James Shipp " : " Turn down for what ? ! # family # FlyingFaded # alexshipp # WeAboutToTurnThisPlaneUp @ Above the clouds … " . Tweeted by " @ MitsyRamos " 23 hours ago : " NYE @ MarissaJack @ alexshipppp " . Tweeted by " @ bradleymeinz " on January 2nd : " @ alexshipppp # girl # tbt # red @ B . Rad ™ HQ " . Tweeted by " @ MitsyRamos " on January 1st : " NYE @ MarissaJack @ alexshippp lol " . Alexandra Shipp ' s new Twitter profile picture . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra on January 30th : " Really missing # Grammys2014 at this time " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " @ JulRacula # superbowl " . Tweeted by " @ JulBeSt " 14 hours ago : " Oh hey - look what I found @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " # wcw # grammythrowback " . Tweeted by Alexandra 8 hours ago : " # starbux # letsstayup # fridayexcitment " . Tweeted by Alexandra on March 12th : " # nomakeup # nofilter # realityatitsfullest " . Tweeted by Alexandra 20 hours ago : " A birthday for the books ! Happy 88 Gram ! # familymatters " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " We ' re an item # cay4eva " . Tweeted by Alexandra 12 hours ago : " Who you surround yourself with . . . # lucky @ JulBeSt @ MarissaJack @ Laurenlsummers # carly " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Try sumthin . I dare ya . " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " I ' d like to introduce . . . . # BRUCE " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Pppssssstttttt 😝 " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Table read with the coolest guy ever ! # dryfussselfie # tablereads " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 3rd : " haleyluhoo and I werkin on # YFOM 😍 she ' s pretty , I forgot to wear makeup and look like a girl . Cool . " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 9th : " Now THIS is a dream come true ! ! # ghotsbustinsince91 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 21 hours ago : " My beautiful director Gail Mancuso ! # wrapped " . Tweeted by Alexandra 21 hours ago : " What a pleasure 😍 😍 😝 # waitress # comedicgenius " . Tweeted by Alexandra 21 hours ago : " Live studio audience say what ? ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 10th : " Dreams DO come true ! I ' m dying right now # copcrush # stablertouchedme " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " When working on a soap opera , you get to have soap opera hair 😍 😘 # days # marybeth " . Tweeted by Alexandra 12 hours ago : " Found the # comfycouch at the flea market 😍 😍 " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 29th : " She ' s white , she made me , get used to it ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " To the love of my life and the best friend a girl could ask for 😍 @ adelaidekane " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " Homer donut " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Webstagram and posted 4 hours ago : " Gettin dark ! ! # brachlife # sandyvagina # ineedbiggerboobs " . Tweeted by Alexandra on May 11th : " Happy # smothersday y ' all ! ! I was blessed almost 23 years ago to have been given to the strongest , … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 13 hours ago : " ' Make a funny face ' they said . ' Everyone ' s doing it ! ' They shouted . @ billewoodruff @ TheJasmineBurke # casttiming " . Tweeted by " @ ShilstoneScott " on June 6th : " Trailer goofballs @ AlexShipppp # drumline2 # drumline2anewbeat " . Tweeted by " @ billewoodruff " on June 6th : " Late night shooting # drumline2anewbeat w / my talented & lovely star @ alexshipppp | Making me feel " . Tweeted by Alexandra : 7 hours ago : " @ InShippShape and I being cool at a club . Happy Monday y ' all ! ! # atl # weouthere # siblings " . Found this picture on " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook page . It was posted 12 hours ago . The caption of the picture : " Alexandra Shipp @ AlexandraShipppp # Drumline2 # HouseOfAnubis " . Found this picture on the " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook page . The picture was posted on July 4th . The caption for the picture : " Alexandra Shipp @ AlexandraShipppp # Drumline2 # AlexShipp " . Found this picture on the " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook page . The picture was posted on July 4th . The caption for the picture : " Alexandra Shipp @ alexandrashipppp # Drumline2 # HouseOfAnubis " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " 😍 😝 😋 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " Last night on @ SHO_RayDonovan " . Tweeted by " @ itszbrybby " on June 24th : " Me , my sister and @ AlexShipppp 😄 # Drumline2 " . Found this picture on the Nick Asia Facebook page . The picture was posted 22 hours ago . The caption for the picture : " Wishing Alexandra Shipp from House of Anubis a very Happy Birthday ! " . P.S. Alexandra Shipp ' s birthday is n ' t until July 16th Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " Thank you everyone for the birthday wishes ! They mean so much ! Here ' s a pic of me with my manager and agent # bdaygirl " . Tweeted by " @ LifetimeTV_PR " : " Alexandra Shipp to play Aaliyah . @ AlexShipppp @ lifetimetv " . Tweeted by " @ Fenndii " 3 hours ago : " New Pic : The New Aaliyah for the Biopic Alexandra Shipp 👏 👏 👏 👏 much better " . Found this picture on " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook . The picture was posted on August 2nd . The caption for the picture : " Ca n ' t wait to see @ AlexandraShipppp portray # Aaliyah in the # WendyWilliams produced biopic ! | # AlexandraShipp # Drumline2 # HouseOfAnubis " . Tweeted by " @ laysladeo " on August 17th : " really feelin the peace and love last night ✌ ️ 💜 w / @ alexshipppp & @ adelaidekane " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Aaliyah , that ' s a wrap . So much love for my cast and crew . The support and love has been overwhelming and not gone unnoticed . " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Ready for the VMAs ! ! ! Dress : Falguni Shane and Peacock Hair : Larry Sims makeup : Heath Chanel Jewelry : XIV Carats / / Thirteen31 Shoes : Sebastian Milano " . Tweeted by " @ alice1059 " 3 hours ago : " Cool dress or just weird ? Actress Alexandra Shipp attends the # 2014VMAs this evening . " . Tweeted by " @ GossipsRTNews " 3 hours ago : " New ' Aaliyah ' Biopic Star Alexandra Shipp Hits Up MTV VMAs 2014 - http : / / curated - news . com / gossips / celebs - new - aaliyah - biopic - star - alexandra - shipp - hits - up - mtv - vmas - 2014 … " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 3 hours ago : " Love this look ! ! 😍 " . Found this picture on the " Lasting Impressions Formal Wear " Facebook page . The picture was posted an hour ago . The caption for the picture : " Did you guys see Alexandra Shipp in this Sherri Hill look alike at the VMAs last night ? Call to order your dress now ! # SherriHill # AlexandraShipp # RedCarpet # VMA # MTV # LastingImpressionsFormalWear " . Tweeted by " @ PecandOnline " 9 hours ago : " Nickelodeon Star Alexandra # Shipp To Play # Aaliyah In Upcoming # Biopic - http : / / bit . ly / 1tyoeQY - # Featured " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " I did n ' t do my hair today . . . Woops " . Tweeted by " @ Highendfashn " on July 22nd : " Alexandra Shipp , the girl playing Aaliyah in the Aaliyah movie " . Found this picture on the " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook . The picture was posted 5 hours ago . The caption for the picture : " Alexandra Shipp @ AlexandraShipppp # Drumline2 # Aailyah # HouseOfAnubis # VH1 # LifetimeTV " . From Foto 119 Photography ' s Instagram / Websta and posted an hour ago : " Alexandra Shipp @ AlexandraShipppp # Drumline2 # AALIYAH # HouseOfAnubis # VH1 # LifetimeTV " . Found this picture on " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook . The picture was posted 9 hours ago . The caption for the picture : " Alexandra Shipp @ AlexandraShipppp # Drumline2 # Aaliyah # HouseOfAnibus # VH1 # LifetimeTV " . Tweeted by " @ 1331Jewelry " on September 4th : " Loved seeing the stunning Alexandra Shipp wearing our ring at the MTV VMAs @ alexshipppp … " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Silly studio moments # Paloma " . Found this picture on " The Wendy Williams Show " Facebook page . The picture was posted 2 hours ago . The caption for the picture : " Wendy ' s Lifetime movie , " Aaliyah : The Princess of R&B , " will air on Saturday , November 15th . " . Tweeted by " @ MarcusErrico " 5 hours ago : " First look at @ AlexandraShipp in Lifetime ' s # Aaliyah biopic airing 11 / 15 . " . From " @ MarcusErrico " Twitter Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " # sundays " . Tweeted by " @ JordanCalloway1 " on September 20th : " @ AlexShipppp & myself @ the # VMAs representing # Drumline2 only on @ VH1 Oct 27th # birthdaymonth " . Tweeted by Louisa 2 hours ago : " Just another day at House of Anubis . # sibuna # TBT @ AlexShipppp " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 5 hours ago : " @ t_akino and I after my interview with @ complex ! ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 5 hours ago : " Just did an AMAZING interview for @ complex with @ kaistreets and crew 😘 😘 hair : @ tonychavezhair makeup : @ heithchanel " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " @ maylenn_nail_tech did an amazing job of course 😘 " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " @ maylenn_nail_tech @ pinkydnailz @ nailbarandbeautylounge got my nails did for my red carpet tomorrow ! ! ! Absolutely LOVE them ! ! ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 3 hours ago : " @ pablodylan # fam " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 4 hours ago : " Last night was fun ☺ ️ makeup : @ heithchanel Necklace by ERICKSON BEAMON ROCKS romper : @ BCBG hair : # NeekoAbriol " . Tweeted by " @ Zap2it " 8 hours ago : " Watch a first look at Alexandra Shipp as Aaliyah in Lifetime ' s movie http : / / zap2it . com / blogs / lifetimes_aaliyah_movie_trailer_alexandra_shipp - 2014 - 09 … " . Tweeted by " @ AwardShowUpdate " 14 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp at the 12th Annual Teen Vogue Young Hollywood Party " . Tweeted by " @ TheWrap " 2 hours ago : " Alexandra Shipp Channels Aaliyah in First Teaser for Lifetime ' s Biopic ( Video ) http : / / goo . gl / 36AeOZ " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 4 hours ago : " This # crew " . Tweeted by " @ SPINmagazine " 3 hours ago : " Alexandra Shipp is an uncanny Aaliyah in a trailer for that Lifetime biopic http : / / go . spin . com / 1ooVa9B Tweeted by " @ Zap2it " on August 20th : " Watch Alexandra Shipp in ' Drumline : A New Beat ' trailer http : / / zap2it . com / blogs / alexandra_shipp_drumline_sequel_a_new_beat_vh1_nick_cannon - 2014 - 08 Tweeted by " David Anders " on March 10 , 2013 : " Me & @ alexshipppp We fit together like Ikea Furniture " . Tweeted by " @ iLissaNJ " 4 hours ago : " The official trailer of Lifetime ' s Aaliyah : The Princess of R&B , starring Alexandra Shipp , has been released " . Alexandra ' s new Twitter icon . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Finished cleanin out the old apartment . . . Finna miss this place # exhausted " . Tweeted by Alexandra 7 hours ago : " " Drumline 2 : A New Beat " premieres on VH1 on the 27th of October ! @ AlexShipppp @ JordanCalloway1 @ NickCannon " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Had s wonderful time with leonardtheodoreroberts @ letoyaluckett and @ karenGFOX5 😘 🙏 👏 😝 # drumline2 … " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " msjuicyrsms and I being silly at HOT 107.9 in ATL ! ! # drumline2 # rickeysmileymorningshow # passthebaton … " . Tweeted by " @ _LeonardRoberts " : " Thnx Hot 107.9 for being good to a sleepless brotha ! # drumline # IHaveAFaceForRadio " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " I ' m happy ☺ ️ ATL got me feelin all nostalgic about # drumline2 and filmin out here ! Missin my crew and … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " V - 103 and me ☺ ️ I had so much fun ! ! Do n ' t forget to come to the classic tomorrow at the Georgia Dome … " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " MY crew 😘 # drumline " . Tweeted by " @ Missinfo " 13 hours ago : " Check out the trailer for Lifetime ' s Aaliyah Movie ( Starring Alexandra Shipp ) http : / / bit . ly / 1r8BhmR From " @ inshippshape " Instagram / Websta and posted 3 weeks ago : " # family # love " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " @ emceelikeme and I at # Collegefootballhalloffame # 100blackmenofatlanta WHOS AT THE GEORGIA DOME ? ! ? ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " @ doesntmatta14 and I today # alllove " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " “ @ They_ADMIREthis : Do You think the " selfie scene " is still in the movie ? ” I know for a fact that it is ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " Dress : ministryofstyle shoes : iijin loved this look for # drumline # passthebaton coming out October … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " j_anthony_bell and I bein silly ☺ ️ he ' s one of my favorites # drumline # passthebaton # ichallengeYOU " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Representin . # drumline # passthebaton 😝 last night was fun " . Tweeted by Alexandra 8 hours ago : " # passthebaton # drumline it ' s always fun running into giant cut outs of ur face 😋 " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Someone put a cool background to this ! ! # thisiswhatidowheniseeagreenscreen " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " # drumline October 27th 9pm on @ vh1 # oookillem " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " Vampire Ninja Warrior Princess j_anthony_bell you ' re amazing 😋 😍 😘 " . Tweeted by " @ thejasminebrand " 2 hours ago : " [ Pix ] ATL Football Classic : @ Ludacris , @ 2Chainz , @ LeToyaLuckett , @ lazofficial @ AlexShipppp http : / / bit . ly / ZNoxNs Tweeted by " @ billewoodruff " 10 hours ago : " # DrumlineANewBeat OCT . 27 @ Vh1 @ alexshipppp j_calloway6 @ rometrumain @ shilstonescott @ wewanttyewhite … " . From " @ drumlinelive_entertainment " Instagram / Websta and posted a day ago : " Repost from @ tauries22 Shout out to the cast of Drumline : A New Beat for coming through and supporting the Atlanta Football Classic ! # drumlineanewbeat # drumline2 # vh1 # Atlantafootballclassic # passthebaton " . Tweeted by " @ dj3two1 " 23 hours ago : " “ Drumline 2 ″ Stars LeToya Luckett , Alexandra Shipp , Ludacris & More MARCH OUT At The Atlan . . . http : / / dj3two1 . com / 2014 / 10 / 06 / drumline - 2 - stars - letoya - luckett - alexandra - shipp - ludacris - more - march - out - at - the - atlanta - classic / Tweeted by " @ blackfilm " 17 hours ago : " Pics of @ AlexShipppp @ LeToyaLuckett @ TheJasmineBurke @ JordanCalloway1 from # Drumline Sequel - http : / / tinyurl . com / or2ljja From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " Cube n Kim # NWA # STRAIGHTPUTTACOMPTON " . Tweeted by " @ lifetimetv " 19 hours ago : " Watch @ AlexShipppp chat ( and sing ! ) in support of the # AaliyahMovie . http : / / mylt . tv / 1t38RCg Tweeted by " @ ThisIsRnB " 16 hours ago : " Alexandra Shipp Talks Aaliyah Biopic Role & Controversy on ' ET ' http : / / bit . ly / 1y7Oghx Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " “ @ _Keomi_berry_4 http : / / m . youtube . com / watch ? v = JdTLa8PxsUs&feature = youtu . be … ” Thank you ! ! 😘 😘 👏 👏 " . Tweeted by " @ GirlThatsMySong " 5 hours ago : " # GirlthatsMySong @ AlexShipppp speaks on her big # Aaliyah role & the film ' s controversy on # ET http : / / bit . ly / 1w2EOYg Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " " Do n ' t worry guys , I got this " THANK YOU @ iolight 😘 👏 " . Alexandra Shipp ' s new Twitter icon . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " # girlgroup " . Tweeted by Tasie : " Taco Tuesday with @ alexshipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 13 hours ago : " Check the stick tricks on @ VH1 ' s # Drumline halftime show ! ! # PasstheBaton 😁 https : / / m . youtube . com / watch ? v = 8DmTrK - Ym98 From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 6 hours ago : " Wow it ' s a sunny day ! ! Hair : # neekoabriol makeup : @ heithchanel Tank : @ goldhawk_ skirt : @ endlessrose jewels : @ amandamarmer and @ jacquieaiche styled by @ kellybrownstyle 😘 😘 😘 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Super fun time today . Thank you so much @ YahooTV @ lilschwartzie and the amazing food trucks posted out the bldg ! 😘 😋 " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 8 hours ago : " Btw my cast is the coolest # drumline # anewbeat # castlove " . Tweeted by Alexandra 7 hours ago : " Again it ' s Alexandrrrra Shipppp , @ GavinDeGraw . Met this stud today @ extratv y ' all ! 😎 # fangirling " . Tweeted by Alexandra 10 hours ago : " Thank you @ HipHollywood and baby Charlie for a great time ! 😍 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 18 hours ago : " Me and this guy @ JordanCalloway1 in DC for @ VH1 # Drumline Who ' s tuning in ? ? " . Tweeted by " @ LeToyaLuckett " 18 hours ago : " Had fun on the Roland Martin show with my # Drumlineanewbeat cast mates @ alexshipppp @ jordancalloway1 … " . Tweeted by " @ DrumZ_R_Us " on October 16th : " S / o to @ alexshipppp reppin # snaresiphi ! Look for her in # Drumline2 and the new # aaliyahmovie … " . Tweeted by " @ LetsTalkLiveDC " 24 hours ago : " There ' s a new # Drumline coming out ! It stars @ AlexShipppp & is directed by @ billewoodruff . # TuneIn for more ! " . Tweeted by " @ CarolineTucker8 " 22 hours ago : " Behind the scenes on @ LetsTalkLiveDC @ AlexShipppp @ BillieWoodruff about Drumline : A New Beat . So much fun ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 6 hours ago : " When ur with ur cast mates and everyone ' s eyes are watering cuz that sun is 3 " away from ur scalp 😰 top&jacket&pants : @ ZARA jewels : @ fourteenkarat hair : @ larryjarahsims makeup : @ ajcrimson shoes : @ iijinLA " . Tweeted by " @ billewoodruff " 7 hours ago : " When worlds collide 🔥 Star of my movie # DrumlineANewBeat @ alexshipppp w / 🔥 star of my movie … " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " My face doe 👎 but @ inshippshape think we on the runway 😒 # nycsiblings " . Tweeted by " @ THEMARCHING100 " 5 hours ago : " Thanks to @ VH1 for the $ 10,000 donation ! Presented by @ AlexShipppp @ LeToyaLuckett and @ JordanCalloway1 ! # Drumline " . Tweeted by " @ AaliyahArchives " October 16th : " # TeamAaliyah peep this link ! Smh . . . 👉 http : / / hiphollywood . com / 2014 / 10 / exclusive - alexandra - shipp - tried - to - contact - aaliyahs - family - before - shooting - biopic / @ AlexShipppp Tweeted by " @ HipHollywood " on October 15th : " Exclusive : @ AlexShipppp tried to contact # Aaliyah ’ s family before shooting the # AaliyahMovie . http : / / hiphollywood . com / 2014 / 10 / exclusive - alexandra - shipp - tried - to - contact - aaliyahs - family - before - shooting - biopic / Tweeted by " @ DakotaLupo " an hour ago : " Right at the bottom of my hill on # Sunset , my girl @ alexshipppp just staring down traffic . Awesome . " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " # empirestateofmind 🙌 today was so fun ! ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Repost @ nylonmag 😘 styled by @ kellybrownstyle jacket : @ zara jumpsuit : # blaquelabel jewelry : @ xivkarats " . Tweeted by " @ TeshiaClashey " 2 hours ago : " Me and @ AlexShipppp at rehearsal . It was hot and rough outside ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " Good morning LA , good afternoon NY ! Off to more meetings . . . 🏃 🏃 " . Tweeted by " @ EWagmeister " 5 hours ago : " Thanks for stopping by @ AlexShipppp ! Catch her starring as Aaliyah in Lifetime ' s biopic & # Drumline on @ VH1 ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Caught up with these gorgeous gals this am @ emilylongeretta @ EWagmeister . It was fun ! Thank you @ HollywoodLife ! 💗 " . Tweeted by " @ lifetimetv " 24 hours ago : " Aaliyah was a girl you could bet on . See her rise to fame in The # AaliyahMovie on Saturday , November 15 at 8 / 9c . " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " Send me your poster pics ! ! ! I ran into # aaliyah in Time Square last night ! ! 😝 " . Tweeted by " @ kellybrownstyle " : " My beauty in blue @ alexshipppp @ Variety # powerofwomen luncheon in LA last week . Dress by … " . Tweeted by " @ JulietIzon " 3 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp Look what I saw right on 42nd Street tonight ! " . Tweeted by " @ BobbyPen " 5 hours ago : " Actress Alexandra Shipp talks Drumline : A New Beat & Aaliyah : Princess of R&B [ VIDEO ] http : / / wp . me / p3Nwtr - 1m7 From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Tonight on 107.5 in NYC with @ lennygreen was so much fun and super smooth 😘 hair : @ larryjarahsims makeup : @ ajcrimson jewels : @ xivkarats top : @ zara pants : @ jcrew " . Tweeted by " @ QUAYTHESTAR " an hour ago : " You can catch @ alexshipppp in the new Drumline : A New Beat and also portraying Aaliyah in the new … " . Tweeted by " @ UniStudios " 2 hours ago : " . @ AlexShipppp talks about her new film , " Aaliyah - The Princess of R&B " on @ ExtraTV tonight . Tune in ! # UniversalExtra " . Tweeted by " @ KikiEly " 3 hours ago : " MONDAY NIGHT THIS BEAUTY @ alexshipppp BE ALL OVA @ vh1 in DRUMLINE A NEW BEAT ! ! Tune in OCT 27th 9p vH1 … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " If only ! ! # Lookoftheday thanks to my lovely @ kellybrownstyle ! Top @ blaquelabel skirt @ ministryofstyle # OOTD 👗 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Love my # drumline crew ! Made a stop @ essencemag this afternoon . Thanks Essence for the warm welcome ! # crewlove " . Tweeted by " @ LarryJarahSims " 12 hours ago : " NYC Rockin a press day w my stunner @ alexshipppp 4 # DrumlineANewBeat . . . . # Aaliyah 🙌 💯 ✌ ️ " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " I knoooooow you see it 😝 thank you @ essencemag for hosting us today # drumline # castlove skirt : @ ministryofstyle jacket : @ motelrocks jewels : @ xivkarats hair : @ larryjarahsims makeup : @ ajcrimson styled by @ kellybrownstyle " . Tweeted by " @ blackfilm " 8 hours ago : " New Pics Of @ AlexShipppp From Lifetime ’ s # AaliyahMovie - http : / / tinyurl . com / nsccqg5 Tweeted by " @ QUAYTHESTAR " 4 hours ago : " The cast of Drumline : A new beat is here @ alexshipppp @ LeToyaLuckett @ jordancalloway1 " . Tweeted by " @ MadisonJaye_ " 3 hours ago : " Talented cast pleasure meeting . @ LeToyaLuckett . @ AlexShipppp . @ JordanCalloway1 ca n ' t wait 2see # DrumlineANewBeat " . Tweeted by " @ LarryJarahSims " : " # SlightWork w my Gorgeous @ alexshipppp and @ letoyaluckett # DrumlineANewBeat # NYC # Face ajcrimson 🙌 💯 ✌ ️ " . Tweeted by " @ LarryJarahSims " : " Cmon Curls . . . . @ alexshipppp 🙌 💯 ✌ ️ " . Tweeted by " @ LeToyaLuckett " an hour ago : " Me & @ alexshipppp promoting # drumlineanewbeat on @ pix11news this mornin in NY # passthebaton @ vh1 … " . Tweeted by " @ LeToyaLuckett " 2 hours ago : " Dressing room fun with ajcrimson @ alexshipppp & @ larryjarahsims 😘 # morninnews # Drumline # presstour … " . Tweeted by " @ GlobalVitoHH " 12 hours ago : " Big s / o to the crew from # Drumline # NewBeat @ letoyaluckett @ AlexShipppp @ jordancalloway1 make sure … " . From " Leonard Roberts " Instagram / Websta : " Four days til we hit y ' all with that new beat ! @ alexandrashipppp aka Baby Girl will not be denied ! # Drumline # passthebaton " . Tweeted by " @ KoriOnAir " an hour ago : " Thanks for the great interview @ LeToyaLuckett @ AlexShipppp ! Looking forward to # drumlinenewbeat @ LisaMateoTV " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " I passed out and woke up like this @ AJCrimson # iwokeuplikethis " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " # Daria " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " Got to take my bro to @ 106andpark with me ! ! 😘 check us out TONIGHT only on @ BET We gonna be talkin # drumline and # nickcannon " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " # Drumline & great advice from the beautiful @ LeToyaLuckett . Tune in if ya missed it @ PIX11News http : / / go . pix11 . com / 1tN8wEn Tweeted by " @ InTheFame " 10 hours ago : " Alexandra Shipp on Playing Aaliyah in the Controversial Lifetime Biopic http : / / goo . gl / nQIXag # Aaliyah " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " Two Shipps in da building ! ! ! Screening time @ VH1 # Drumline " . Tweeted by " @ GatesDigital " 3 hours ago : " LeToya Luckett talks new music , Alexandra Shipp talks Aaliyah role + ' Drumline : A New Beat ' - http : / / gatesstreetheat . com / 2014 / 10 / 24 / letoya - luckett - talks - new - music - alexandra - shipp - talks - aaliyah - role - drumline - a - new - beat / Tweeted by " @ GabrielofSFPL " 4 hours ago : " A quick # Usie moment with the beautiful @ alexshipppp ❤ ️ . Such a sweet spirit ! Catch her on ' # Drumline … " . Tweeted by " @ GabrielofSFPL " 2 hours ago : " Repost from ajcrimson Ms . @ alexshipppp # DRUMLINE # ANEWBEAT Hair by @ larryjarahsims Styled by … " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 3 hours ago : " # forrestgumpbench # viacom # drumlinepremiere " . Tweeted by " @ BigMorningBuzz " 2 hours ago : " NEVER FORGET @ AlexShipppp . NEVER FORGET ! LOL " . Tweeted by " Nick Lachey " 5 hours ago : " Who ' s ready for # DRUMLINE : A New Beat 10.27 @ vh1 " . Tweeted by " @ _Keomi_berry_4 " 4 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp Yess I ca n ' t wait . # Oct27 : - ) : - ) " . Tweeted by " @ YeahImFamous " : " Must See : @ letoyaluckett @ AlexShipppp @ JordanCalloway1 come out @ VH1 # Drumline NYC screening http : / / www . yeahimfamous . com / ? p = 100987 Tweeted by " @ TheKennyGreen " 11 hours ago : " Just screened # Drumline : A New Beat at VH1 . Great movie ! ! Go @ AlexShipppp ! Congrats again ! ! Check it Oct 27th on VH1 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 13 hours ago : " # IWillVote will you ? http : / / IWILLVOTE . COM http : / / youtu . be / nRzfdkn54b4 " . Tweeted by " @ TheKennyGreen " 11 hours ago : " Screened # Drumline at VH1 . Great movie . Great stars ! ! @ LeToyaLuckett @ AlexShipppp @ jordancalloway1 Watch Oct 27 VH1 . " . Tweeted by " @ blackfilm " 12 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp @ JordanCalloway1 and @ LeToyaLuckett talk # DrumlineANewBeat , airing tonite @ VH1 - http : / / tinyurl . com / m2egpet From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted an hour ago : " # drumline # drumlinepremiere " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " Ai n ' t no red carpet stop me from talking about this movie ! ! # loving this movie and loving my fans # shippheads who ' s watching # drumline # anewbeat " . Tweeted by " @ TheBobbyPen " 3 hours ago : " Alexandra Shipp talks playing Dani in # DrumlineANewBeat and starring in # AaliyahMovie http : / / wp . me / p3Nwtr - 1m7 Tweeted by " @ officialLogic " 6 hours ago : " I was walking thru Times Square NY , and I ran into this . . .The homie @ alexshipppp # Aaliyah Nov . 15th 8pm … " . Tweeted by " @ YeahImFamous " 2 hours ago : " First Look : BTS of @ lifetimetv # Aaliyah : Princess Of R&B http : / / www . yeahimfamous . com / ? p = 101303 @ LuBrown @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by " @ Twinkie_Byrd " 8 hours ago : " Saw My BillBoard today ! # TalentIsEternal So Thankful 🙏 # Lifetime @ AlexShipppp 💋 " . Tweeted by " @ Twinkie_Byrd " on October 30th : " I found my BillBoard ! ! Yay ! @ AlexShipppp u did good girl ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 10 hours ago : " Happy Halloween # ghettogoul makeup by _carlymarshall my talented Roomie " . Tweeted by " @ ROshirtRNoShirt " 24 hours ago : " Died a Princess , But will forever be a Queen in our hearts . iBelieve in you @ AlexShipppp cant wait to see you kill it " . Tweeted by " @ yennijazmin " on November 6th : " @ AlexShipppp Produced # Biopic as # Aaliyah # PrincessOfrnb " . Tweeted by " @ rosannascotto " 2 hours ago : " Best of luck @ AlexShipppp with # Aaliyah : The Princess of R&B # GDNY " . Tweeted by " @ MyFoxNY " : " ICYMI on # GDNY @ AlexShipppp previews her starring role in # Aaliyah : The Princess of R & B http : / / tinyurl . com / nymlqm7 Tweeted by " @ YungG_bvy " 20 hours ago : " You forgot another review @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by " @ InTheFame " 4 hours ago : " Alexandra Shipp Talks Iggy Azeala , Zendaya & New Aaliyah Movie http : / / goo . gl / o0HRss # Aaliyah # ZendayaColeman " . Tweeted by " @ InShippShape " : " Oh why hello lil sis ' s big ole head on Sunset Blvd . . . @ alexshipppp # alexandrashipp # shippheads … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " @ NickLachey too soon to come back ? I need my mug and a hug ! ! " . Tweeted by " @ WitherspoonC " 2 hours ago : " Loved hearing all the tea on the new # AaliyahMovie from @ AlexShipppp @ lifetimetv Interview coming Friday @ theGrio " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " Vest @ blaquelabel , crop top @ endlessrose , skirt @ zara # OOTD 😘 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " My number one fan , Fluffy ! " . Tweeted by " @ madzia006d " 8 hours ago : " OMG what a divine beauty @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by " @ TasiaDFan " 11 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp You look stunning as a goddess of beauty : ) " . Tweeted by Alexandra 8 hours ago : " @ NickLachey and I hangin out this morning @ VH1 @ BigMorningBuzz ! Good morning ! 🌞 " . Tweeted by " James Shipp " on October 27th : " Killin it ! # drumline @ Hollywood / Vine " . Tweeted by " James Shipp " on October 28th : " Uhhhhmazing night with the incomparable cast of # Drumline # selfie # suited # family " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " @ ajcrimson gives my face LIFE here in NYC 😍 👏 " . Tweeted by " @ djenuff " 2 hours ago : " @ alexshipppp Stops by to say " Hello " She ' s playing Aaliyah in the BioPic # goodmusic # love " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " # peoplenowbloopers # aaliyahbiopic " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " Posted up with the fun and livest audience @ 106andpark ! # everyonesaycheese 😁 " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " # whowatched @ 106andpark with these two amazing people ? ? # aaliyahbiopic " . Tweeted by " @ SoDrewski " 2 hours ago : " Say hello to the talented @ alexshipppp . She plays # AALIYAH in Lifetime ’ s Original Movie , “ Aaliyah : The … " . Tweeted by " @ 106andpark " 6 hours ago : " Get all the details on the upcoming Aaliyah biopic starring @ AlexShipppp who ' s # on106Today ! http : / / bet . us / 1xq92qe Tweeted by " @ TasiaDFan " 7 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp I can not wait to aliyah : Princess of R&B is going to hit this year ! ! ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " Come hang @ sean_dickerson # dbahollywood # supremeclientele # madenightlife " . Tweeted by " @ FifteenMinsPR " 4 hours ago : " Complex Magazine caught up with FM Client @ AlexShipppp about going from Emo Kid to Aaliyah http : / / bit . ly / 1yzPjUg Tweeted by " @ LifetimeTV_PR " 6 hours ago : " # AaliyahMovie star @ AlexShipppp with executive producer @ WendyWilliams . Tune in this Saturday , 11 / 15 at 8 / 7c ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Good morning ! Count down begins . . . RT if you ' ll be tuning in to # AaliyahMovie Nov 15th at 8 / 7c on @ lifetimetv ! 😎 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 8 hours ago : " Thank you @ LennyGreen for your kind words and beautiful flowers ! " . Tweeted by " @ 106andpark " on November 11th : " # 106andPark STARTS NOW ! ' LIKE ' this if you ' re # TunedIn with us to see Tearria Marie + Alexandra Shipp ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " Rise n shine Los Angeles ! See ya soon @ KTLAMorningNews @ samontv ! # AaliyahMovie " . Tweeted by Alexandra 15 hours ago : " “ @ Ania_Love_Ana : Mmmm Ali : D @ AlexShipppp Beautifull ” # whenyofacehurtfrmsmilingtoomuch " . Tweeted by " @ FifteenMinsPR " 18 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp stops by @ WendyWilliams show to talk about “ Aaliyah : The Princess of R&B . " http : / / bit . ly / 1yAz3lW Tweeted by " @ rapandrnb " 4 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp Speaks on " Aaliyah : The Princess of R&B " & Her Role in The N.W.A. Movie http : / / bit . ly / 1Bggr06 Tweeted by " @ ktlaENT " 12 hours ago : " Great interview with # AaliyahMovie star @ AlexShipppp . She even channeled her inner @ WendyWilliams ! " . Tweeted by " @ HeithChanel " 12 hours ago : " 🎨 💄 And she ' s ready ! @ alexshipppp for # KTLA live . @ covergirl # QUEENCOLLECTION # ALLDAYFLAWLESS # 3in1 … " . Tweeted by " @ ktlaENT " 9 hours ago : " Meet @ lifetimetv ' s # Aaliyah ! @ AlexShipppp reveals what drove her to star as Aaliyah http : / / ktlane . ws / 1sJlRrb Tweeted by " @ LiveAccess " 8 hours ago : " # NoFilter need @ AlexShipppp having fun on # AHLive set today as # AaliyahMovie premieres on @ lifetimetv tomorrow ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " Loved starting my day on @ liveaccess with @ billybush and @ kithoover and reflecting about it now 🙏 # aaliyahprincessofrandb # aaliyahbiopic Hair : # neekoabriol makeup : @ heithchanel jewels : THIRTEEN31 jumpsuit : @ bcbg @ bcbgeneration shoes : @ nastygal " . Tweeted by " @ peoplemag " 14 hours ago : " WATCH : @ AlexShipppp sharing her fears about doing the # AaliyahMovie biopic http : / / bit . ly / 1xEbhXK From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 4 hours ago : " Tell me why this # mutts cuts van brought back some beautiful dog washing days in the lot with @ BillBush & @ KitHoover at @ LiveAccess ! But today it did ! 😘 🐶 " . Tweeted by " @ LifetimeTV_PR " 12 hours ago : " Behind the Scenes with # AaliyahMovie star @ AlexShipppp at @ LiveAccess # AHLive " . Tweeted by " @ LifetimeTV_PR " 10 hours ago : " @ AlexShipppp w / @ LiveAccess @ KitHoover & @ billybush . # AaliyahMovie premieres tomorrow , 11 / 15 at 8 / 7c on @ lifetimetv ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 11 hours ago : " 😳 😳 😳 On Fridays , we take mug shots w @ accesshollywood @ LiveAccess " . Tweeted by Alexandra 11 hours ago : " Good morning with @ LiveAccess @ KitHoover @ billybush ! 😁 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 12 hours ago : " Comin at ya ! @ LiveAccess @ billybush @ KitHoover # ootd jumpsuit @ bcbggeneration shoes @ nastygal jewelry @ THIRTEEN31 " . Tweeted by " @ curlycomedy " 15 hours ago : " It ' s the amazing @ AlexShipppp of # AaliyahMovie live - streaming 8 : 30am ET on @ peoplemag home page # PeopleNow so WATCH ! " . Tweeted by " @ lifetimetv " 19 hours ago : " Less than 24 hours until the premiere of Aaliyah : Princess of R&B ! Will you be watching ? # AaliyahMovie " . From " @ lifetimetv " Twitter From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted an hour ago : " When watching my film tonight , know that I am human . Know that your words and your opinions are your own and that you may think you know , but until we speak face 2 face , you ' ll never truly know who I am . That ' s ok . I ca n ' t wait to meet each and every one of my fans one day . Because I ' m a fan of them too ! I work hard , Found this picture on " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook page . The picture was posted 20 hours ago . The caption for the picture : " # AlexandraShipp starring as # AALIYAH in # AaliyahBiopic tomorrow on # LifetimeTV " . Tweeted by " @ EminentCulture " 14 hours ago : " Aaliyah : Princess of R&B starring @ AlexShipppp premiers tonight at 8 / 7c on @ lifetimetv ! # AaliyahMovie " . Tweeted by " @ emilylongeretta " 6 hours ago : " Do n ' t forget to watch our girl @ AlexShipppp as # Aaliyah TONIGHT on @ lifetimetv # AaliyahPrincessOfRnB @ EWagmeister " . Tweeted by " @ iamvjones " 4 hours ago : " Working all week , so just getting to see one my Faves , @ AlexShipppp as Aaliyah ! Proud of her for doing the role ! " . Tweeted by " @ greensboro_nc " : " Alexandra Shipp on Making Lifetime ' s Aaliyah Biopic : The Backlash Is … http : / / nc . gs / 11dNQI1 # Entertainment " . Tweeted by " @ MrMilitantNegro " 12 hours ago : " ‘ Aaliyah ’ biopic star Alexandra Shipp : I ’ m being bullied for taking the role . http : / / thegrio . com / 2014 / 11 / 15 / aaliyah - movie - lifetime / Tweeted by Alexandra 7 hours ago : " After the party it ' s the after partyyyy @ Warwick_LA 😎 " . Tweeted by " @ iartistradio " 3 hours ago : " " What Happened When # AlexandraShipp Tried To Reach Out To # Aaliyah ’ s Family ? " http : / / buff . ly / 1sXkQMt " . Found this picture posted on " Foto One - Nineteen " Facebook page . The picture was posted on November 15th . The caption for the picture : " # AlexandraShipp @ alexandrashipppp starring as # Aaliyah in # AaliyahBiopic tonight on # LifetimeTV " . Tweeted by " @ WealthcareFGInc " on November 22nd : " @ AlexShipppp Hey sis , we met at the Howard University Homecoming . Love your acting in the Aaliyah movie ! God Bless ! " . From " @ WealthcareFGInc " Twitter From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 5 hours ago : " Hope y ' all had a wonderful Thanks Giving 🐔 # frommyfamilytoyours " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Thank you @ artisticallylit for the amazing photo ! ! 😘 😘 🙌 🙌 😍 😍 " . From " @ laurenskysummers " Instagram / Websta and posted a month ago : " " As we grow up , we realize its less important to have lots of friends , and more important to have real ones " @ alexandrashipppp @ julbest @ thegoldenhippie @ carlyy_marshall # beatfriends # drumlineanewbeat # photobooth " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Stopped by the shop in LBC to check out the new stuff by @ mookee5 😍 so much fun and such amazing … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " Since u did n ' t have ur phone on you 😘 😘 I got recognized today ! ! ! 😍 😍 😍 # imYOURfangirl nice meeting … " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " @ mookee5 @ tomalovechild imonnilongbeach ' creativity is the highest form of intelligence ' " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " @ mookee5 @ tomalovechild imonnilongbeach I see the world through light and love . The rest does n ' t … " . Alexandra Shipp ' s new Twitter icon . Follow her on Twitter at " @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " 3 Stooges 4 lyfe # family " . Tweeted by Alexandra 8 hours ago : " Happy New Year ! ! ! # 2015 " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " # firstselfieof2015 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 9 hours ago : " Me n @ billewoodruff killin da game 😘 😘 😘 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 9 hours ago : " @ heithchanel worked my face tonight 😍 I feel pretty ! ! ! Happy album release # megantranoir ! ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra 7 hours ago : " You CAN sit with us # Kallins " . From " @ supershippp " Instagram / Websta and posted 3 weeks ago : " Holiday dinner with my daughter Alexandra . Big year ahead . " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " COMING January 31st ' SURRENDER ' " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Back when I was 14 , had braces and thought it was cool to do sound checks barefoot # tbt # nofilter … " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " My current mood right now 🙈 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 5 hours ago : " # DBA # Surrender celebrate 🎉 " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Oh hay Rolling Stone Mag Grammy Party 😝 😍 🙈 😘 Top and skirt by doraabodi shoes by @ houseofcb studs … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 9 hours ago : " Me and my ' Surrender ' producer shi_muzik tonight straight bein silly ALL night ! ! 😝 … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Congrats @ thegoldenhippie on your album release ! ! You killed the night and blew EVERYONE away 👏 👏 👏 " . Tweeted by " @ BigMorningBuzz " on February 6th : " Our girl @ AlexShipppp gives us the scoop on her role in @ lifetimetv ' s # AaliyahMovie ! - - > http : / / on . vh1 . com / 1tZ5ERx Tweeted by " @ GarcelleB " on February 6th : " With the lovely and talented @ AlexandraShipp # RollingStone # GooglePlay " . Tweeted by " @ MrShannonLanier " on November 18 , 2014 : " @ AlexShipppp 4get # haters ! Onward & upward ! I ' m proud of u & so r people that really matter : ) # TooBlessedToBeStressed " . Tweeted by " @ WBLS1075NYC " on November 11 , 2014 : " @ AlexShipppp is ON - AIR NOW with The QUIET STORM w / @ LENNYGREEN ! LISTEN NOW : http : / / bit . ly / WBLSLive1 Tweeted by Alexandra 7 hours ago : " Today with bae 😍 musical creativity with summersweesingh 🎼 🎵 🎶 🎹 🎤 " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta : " Playing with my new ' Vamp ' lipstick from @ anastasiabeverlyhills 😍 💋 # nofilterneeded " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " This is sick 🙏 🙌 thank you mwanel1_l " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " For this ex - chubby AZ girl to get into shape . . . I must avoid my nemesis Mexican food . . . Thanks for … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " This guy . . . Makes my days better . Photo by @ laurenlsummers # losummsphotography " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " My cousins are some amazing people , I gotta talk ya 🙈 # whenfamilycomestotown " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " @ heithchanel What a wonderful person you are ! ! Thank you for not only working with my crazy self , but … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 10 hours ago : " I am so excited to be julbest ' s bridesmaid ! ! Jules , you are my best friend and I love you and … " . Tweeted by " @ JennaUshkowitz " 6 hours ago : " # girlsnight love you this much . | | 😍 ❤ ️ ✌ ️ 🔥 " . Tweeted by Klariza 7 hours ago : " # tbt to the days I spent everyday with these brilliant ladies @ tasieD @ jade_ramsey alexandrashipppp … " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " Beach day with # bae # Kali " . Tweeted by Alexandra 18 hours ago : " Made a few duck faces at the beach today 😘 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " Nothing makes me happier than a box of socks 😍 🙌 🙏 Thank kroooooms and stancesocks these are my … " . Tweeted by Alexandra : " When ur dad comes to town , you take him out and get him drunk . # family " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " Great workout today with @ lilbearlawson 🙌 I feel stronger every day 👏 👏 # xmentrainer And a … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 7 hours ago : " # BTS with photographer Bella Howard for @ nylonmag ! ! Thank you SOOO much for having me 🙏 😍 On … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 11 hours ago : " # PalmSprings with the hunny got me like 😊 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 6 hours ago : " @ adelaidekane did my nails . . . Let ' s just say she is n ' t going to quit her day job , do n ' t worry … " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " # Chapstick # rp my girl @ mikameans … " . Tweeted by " @ FifteenMinsPR " 11 hours ago : " Rising star @ AlexShipppp shares details on @ ComptonMovie in @ NylonMag ' s Young Hollywood Issue . On stands now ! " . From " @ FifteenMinsPR " Twitter Tweeted by Alexandra : " How crazy is this . . . So I was asked to write the name of someone who inspires me on an inspiration … " . Tweeted by Alexandra on May 9th : " My dog is so Hollywood , she dgaf about customs OR yo luggage . # canadianpuppy " . Tweeted by " @ RobbieAmell " an hour ago : " One more from yesterday . # Storm # Firestorm @ bryansinger lornegreenberg I also may have geeked out … " . Tweeted by " @ Laurenlsummers " on May 21st : " I love this picture of us ! # love # bestfriends # comehomealexandra alexandrashipppp julbest " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " # nationalbestfriendsday " . Tweeted by " @ redbullracing " on June 7th : " It was great to see the cast of X - men : Apocalypse on the grid and in our garage for the # CanadianGP ! @ XMenMovies # F1 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " # tbt # grandprix # redbull # girlgroup " . Tweeted by Alexandra on June 20th : " I was taking selfies waaaaaaaaay before they were called that . Also way before you could look at them … " . Tweeted by " @ HeithChanel " on November 18th : " Started the Morning off with this # Beauty 💄 💋 @ alexandrashipppp . ____________________________________ # skin # kettcosmetics @ kettcosmetics | | # filmstarbronzeandglow # charlottetilbury @ ctilburymakeup # loveglow # cheeks | | # eyes # filmstarbronzeandglow # liner # embark # maccosmetics @ maccosmetics # revlon # lusciousplumpingmascara @ revlon | | # lips # esteelauder # rosepetal # lipstick # maccosmetics # patentpolish # kittenish | | # alexandrashipp # makeupartist # heithchanel # motd # potd " . Tweeted by Alexandra on November 20th : " Get ready 😋 # Dude2016 " . Tweeted by Alexandra on November 17th : " # hamiltonmusical with my # 1 lisamwrightey This show is monumental for actors everywhere . It shows … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " # tbt cholkers and cheekbonez " . Tweeted by Alexandra February 1st : " # freshcut in New York working le non stop 😜 I ' ve always wanted a fade like @ inshippshape … " . Tweeted by Alexandra on January 30th : " New York with my # dude it ' s like we ca n ' t stop doin the damn thang we sumthin " . Tweeted by Alexandra on January 26th : " Spent some time with the # fam today on set 😍 hair & makeup on FLEEK @ mylahmorales BEAT my face … " . Tweeted by " @ BryanSinger " on January 22nd : " # girlpower @ oliviamunn @ alexshipppp # XMen # xmenapocalypse " . Tweeted by " @ lucyhale " on January 22nd : " Missing these babes @ alexshipppp @ awkwafina @ katprescott77 milchobration dudethemovie " . Tweeted by " @ lilbearlawson " on January 15th : " FBF - With fave mutants @ alexshipppp and @ Sophiee_Turner 👊 ❤ ️ Who else is excited for X - Men … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " # tbt @ osheajacksonjr and I shooting for @ nylonmag miss my # pic # straightouttacompton … " . Tweeted by Alexandra an hour ago : " Finally found the # Xmen POSTER ! ! ! ! ! # xmenapocalypse # thegrove " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " @ vvvmagazine # vvvmagazine @ lukeduvalphoto # lukeduval # alexandrashipp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 3 hours ago : " @ vvvmagazine # vvvmagazine lukeduvalphoto # lukeduval # alexandrashipp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " @ vvvmagazine lukeduvalphoto # alexandrashipp " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " Check out my interview with @ vvvmagazine # vvvmagazine and spread by lukeduvalphoto # lukeduval 😍 … " . From " @ dudethemovie " Instagram / Websta and posted 2 hours ago : " # dude2016 " . Tweeted by Alexandra a day ago : " # BadGirlsClub action figure edition with my PIC @ oliviamunn 😍 💪 dolls by @ mascustomfigures " . From " @ dudethemovie " Instagram / Websta and posted 14 hours ago : " # tbt # dude2016 " . Tweeted by Alexandra 2 hours ago : " # fbf hanging out with @ interviewmag talking # xmenapocalypse and # AlexandraMusic " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 7th : " Prepare for the # STORM ⚡ ️ ⚡ ️ # Xmen # Apocalypse ⚡ ️ ⚡ ️ " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 6th : " Ai n ' t nobody messin with dis clique # Xmen # xmenapocalypse # fourhorsemen " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 12th : " @ complexmag on stands NOW ! # Xmen # xmenapocalypse # alexandrashipp " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 12th : " Lookie lookie I ' m in @ complexmag 🙈 😍 😝 😈 ⚡ ️ 😘 # Xmen # xmenapocalypse # alexandrashipp " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 10th : " I love my brothers # nationalsiblingsday " . Tweeted by Alexandra a day ago : " # tbt jumping in the pool with my bestie @ julbest at her bridal shower last weekend . Ugh take me … " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 21st : " My moms already bought like a million copies ! ! @ marieclaire # alexandrashipp hair @ larryjarahsims … " . Tweeted by Alexandra 4 hours ago : " @ vernonfrancois and I getting silly at @ refinery29 # bts shot by @ emmanmontalvan styled by … " . Tweeted by " @ theblerdgurl " on April 28th : " . @ AlexShipppp is gorgeous ! @ BET # XMenApocalypse # storm " . Tweeted by Alexandra on April 26th : " @ FAULTMagazine 😍 " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Twitter From Alexandra Shipp ' s Twitter That one time @ larryjarahsims slicked me down and @ lora_arellano beat my face 💁 # fingerwave # muaextradope # sanderssweater Tweeted by Alexandra on May 19th : " # tbt to that one day I made Evan red talking about my vag going numb while I was doing stunts … " . Tweeted by " @ lilbearlawson " on May 20th : " Never been more proud of anyone , than when I am out for my run and see @ AlexShipppp EVERYWHERE ! 🙌 ❤ ️ ⚡ ️ " . Tweeted by Alexandra on May 19th : " Check out # XMenApocalypse in theaters may 27th ! Thank you for the amazing story @ EW 🙌 ⚡ ️ " . Tweeted by Alexandra on May 18th : " Go see # XMenApocalypse 😍 ⚡ ️ " . Tweeted by " @ dyrne " on May 18th : " Psst I found you @ AlexShipppp " . Tweeted by " @ YahooMovies " 5 hours ago : " “ I had to have a couple of drinks . " @ AlexShipppp on shaving her head for # XMenApocalypse : http : / / yhoo . it / 1qPCU02 Tweeted by Alexandra on June 3rd : " The verdicts in : SHE LOVED IT ! ! 🌹 ⚡ ️ # xmenapocalypse " . Tweeted by " @ NiecyNash " on June 2nd : " The calm before THE STORM hanging w / this beauty @ AlexShipppp TODAY @ TheTalkCBS ❤ ️ " . Tweeted by Alexandra on June 1st : " You ' re defiantly one of my most favorite people 👯 🌹 " . Tweeted by Alexandra on June 16th : " # tbt on set with # irvinrivera for @ FAULTMagazine " . Tweeted by Alexandra on June 16th : " # tbt to that one time a car fell on me at work # Xmen # xmenapocalypse # STORM " . Tweeted by " @ Laurenlsummers " on June 22nd : " We found a dinosaur ! # palmsprings # girlstrip # love # happy # dinosaur @ AlexShipppp @ julbest " . Tweeted by Alexandra on June 19th : " Happy # FathersDay to my amazing dad @ shipp4marketing you ' ve always gotten my weird and always gone along with it ! " . From Alexandra Shipp ' s Instagram / Websta and posted a week ago : " A little # bts of my @ fault_magazine shoot with the amazing @ graphicsmetropolis 😍 this one was # STORM inspired if u could n ' t tell 😋 ⚡ ️ " . Tweeted by Alexandra on June 15th : " Tonight when lisamwrightey and I walked around the @ vanityfair @ maxmara # WomenInFilm party and … " . Tweeted by Alexandra on October 12th : " Happy birthday my beautiful mother ! You are the light of my life and the glue that keeps our … " . Tweeted by " @ NickyWhelan " on August 12th : " Meet the 2 beautiful leading ladies of # TragedyGirls @ briannahilde @ AlexShipppp night shoots ! ! ! " . Tweeted by Alexandra on September 28th : " I got to spend the day with this serious # wcw and get interviewed for her hilarious show … " . Categories Galleries Cast Galleries House of Anubis Add category | [
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http://fable.wikia.com/wiki/Fable_Clothing | in Incomplete Articles Anniversary project Fable Clothing Fable Clothing Share This article or section is incomplete Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page This page falls under the scope of the Anniversary Update Project Detail The style of this page has been updated The page now requires checking for consistency Updated by Garry Damrau A list of clothing and armours available in Fable FableTLC and Fable Anniversary Clothing in Fable Fable The Lost Chapters and Fable Anniversary ranges from mythical armour to mage robes and even dresses In Fable The Lost Chapters the player can receive hats for doing certain quests and challenges Clothing affects 4 statistics in Fable armour value attractiveness scariness and alignment Several sets of clothing have neutral good and evil versions There are 5 clothing slots Helm Torso Gloves Legs and Feet See the gallery Contents show Fable Outfits Apprentice Outfit Apprentice Upper Robe Hooded Apprentice Upper Robe Only in TLC Fable Anniversary Apprentice Gloves Apprentice Lower Robe Apprentice Boots Villager Outfit Villager Shirt Villager Gloves Villager Trousers Villager Boots Bright Villagers Outfit Bright Villager Shirt Bright Villager Gloves Bright Villager Trousers Bright Villager Boots Dark Villager Outfit Dark Villager Shirt Dark Villager Gloves Dark Villager Trousers Dark Villager Boots Leather Suit Leather Chest Piece Leather Gauntlets Leather Leggings Leather Boots Bright Leather Suit Bright Leather Chest Piece Bright Leather Gauntlets Bright Leather Leggings Bright Leather Boots Dark Leather Suit Dark Leather Chest Piece Dark Leather Gauntlets Dark Leather Leggings Dark Leather Boots Chainmail Suit Chainmail Helmet Chainmail Shirt Chainmail Gauntlets Chainmail Leggings Chainmail Boots Bright Chainmail Suit Bright Chainmail Helmet Bright Chainmail Shirt Bright Chainmail Gauntlets Bright Chainmail Leggings Bright Chainmail Boots Dark Chainmail Suit Dark Chainmail Helmet Dark Chainmail Shirt Dark Chainmail Gauntlets Dark Chainmail Leggings Dark Chainmail Boots Platemail Suit Plate Chest Piece Plate Gauntlets Plate Leggings Plate Boots Bright Platemail Suit Bright Plate Chest Piece Bright Plate Gauntlets Bright Plate Leggings Bright Plate Boots Dark Platemail Suit Dark Plate Chest Piece Dark Plate Gauntlets Dark Plate Leggings Dark Plate Boots Dress Upper Dress Dress Gloves Lower Dress Bright Dress Bright Upper Dress Bright Dress Gloves Bright Lower Dress Dark Dress Dark Upper Dress Dark Dress Gloves Dark Lower Dress Will Users Outfit Will Upper Robe Will Users Gloves Will Lower Robe Will Users Boots Will Users Bright Outfit Bright Wizard Hat Only in TLC Fable Anniversary Will Bright Upper Robe Will Users Bright Gloves Will Bright Lower Robe Will Users Bright Boots Dark Will Users Outfit Dark Wizard Hat Only in TLC Fable Anniversary Will Dark Upper Robe Will Users Dark Gloves Will Dark Lower Robe Will Users Dark Boots Bandit Outfit Bandit Bandana Bandit Shirt Bandit Gloves Bandit Trousers Bandit Boots Assassin Outfit Assassin Shirt Assassin Gloves Assassin Trousers Assassin Boots Guard Uniform Guard Hat Guard Shirt Guard Gloves Guard Trousers Guard Boots Fire Assassin Outfit Only in TLC Fable Anniversary Fire Assassin Shirt Fire Assassin Gloves Fire Assassin Trousers Fire Assassin Boots Archons Battle Armour Only in TLC Fable Anniversary Archons Battle Helmet Archons Battle Gauntlets Archons Battle Chest Piece Archons Battle Leggings Archons Battle Boots Fable Headgear Chicken Hat Score 250 points in chicken kicking competition TLC Only Pimps Hat Have sex ten times then open the chest in the Demon Door behind the Darkwood Bordello TLC Only Bright Wizard Hat Donate a certain amount of good books to the Bowerstone South school TLC Only Dark Wizard Hat Donate a certain number of evil books to the Bowerstone South school TLC Only Holy Warrior Helm Found in a chest in the Lost Bay TLC Only Daemon Warrior Helm Found in a chest at the Archons Shrine TLC Only Archons Battle Helmet Found in Necropolis in the Silver Chest TLC Only Chain Mail Helmet Found in most armour stores Bright Chain Mail Helmet Oakvale armour and weapons shop Dark Chain Mail Helmet Twinblade s Camp in a small store chest in clifftop path Guard Hat Can be bought in the Darkwood camp or found in a chest in the Bargate Prison where you get your missing belongings Fishermans Hat Awarded after catching the biggest fish at the Fisher Creek fishing competition TLC only Redhead Wig Found in the Darkwood Bordello TLC only Jacks Mask Wearable only in Fable The Lost Chapters and Fable Anniversary Fable Anniversary Graduate Outfit Graduate Upper Robe Graduate Gloves Graduate Lower Robe Graduate Boots Scythes Charity Outfit Scythes Charity Headgear Scythes Charity Gauntlets Scythes Charity Upper Robe Scythes Charity Lower Robe Scythes Charity Boots Prophet Outfit Prophet Gloves Prophet Upper Robe Prophet Lower Robe Prophet Boots Bowerstone Guard Outfit Bowerstone Guard Hat Bowerstone Guard Gloves Bowerstone Guard Shirt Bowerstone Guard Trousers Bowerstone Guard Boots Knothole Guard Outfit Knothole Guard Hat Knothole Guard Gloves Knothole Guard Shirt Knothole Guard Trousers Knothole Guard Boots Retailer Specific Bonus Apollos Outfit Apollos Hood Apollos Gloves Apollos Shirt Apollos Trousers Apollos Boots Peirates Outfit Peirates Hat Peirates Shirt Peirates Gloves Peirates Trousers Peirates Boots Snowspire Guard Outfit Snowspire Guard Headwear Snowspire Guard Shirt Snowspire Guard Gloves Snowspire Guard Trousers Snowspire Guard Boots DLC Clothing Aeons Armour Aeons Battle Helmet Aeons Chest Piece Aeons Battle Leggings Aeons Battle Gauntlets Aeons Battle Boots Borrowed Whispers Outfit Borrowed Whispers Hat Borrowed Whispers Shirt Borrowed Whispers Shorts Borrowed Whispers Gloves Borrowed Whispers Boots Daves Hat Guildmasters Spare Outfit Guildmasters Spare Shirt Guildmasters Spare Shorts Guildmasters Spare Gloves Guildmasters Spare Boots Jack Of Blades Outfit Jack Of Blades Hooded Upper Robe Jack Of Blades Hooded Lower Robe Jack Of Blades Hooded Gauntlets Jack Of Blades Hooded Boots Lady Grey Cosplay Dress Lady Grey Cosplay Upper Dress Lady Grey Cosplay Lower Dress Lady Grey Cosplay Gloves Lady Grey Cosplay Shoes Leather Armour Suit Lions Head Helmet Mazes Lost Outfit Mazes Lost Shirt Mazes Lost Trousers Mazes Lost Gloves Mazes Lost Boots Minion Fancy Dress Outfit Obsidian Armour PreOwned Thunder Outfit PreOwned Thunder Helmet PreOwned Thunder Chest Piece PreOwned Thunder Trousers PreOwned Thunder Gauntlets PreOwned Thunder Boots Wasp Outfit Fable Clothing Fable Outfits Apprentice Outfit Assassin Outfit Bandit Outfit Bright Chainmail Suit Bright Dress Bright Leather Suit Bright Platemail Suit Bright Villagers Outfit Chainmail Suit Dark Chainmail Suit Dark Dress Dark Leather Suit Dark Platemail Suit Dark Villager Outfit Dark Will Users Outfit Dress Guard Uniform Leather Suit No Outfit Platemail Suit Villager Outfit Will Users Bright Outfit Will Users Outfit Fable TLC Archons Battle Armour Fire Assassin Outfit Headgear Bright Wizard Hat Chicken Hat Daemon Warrior Helm Dark Wizard Hat Fishermans Hat Holy Warrior Helm Pimps Hat Redhead Wig Preorder Exclusives Apollos Outfit Bowerstone Guard Outfit Graduate Outfit Knothole Guard Outfit Peirates Outfit Prophet Outfit Scythes Charity Outfit Snowspire Guard Outfit Anniversary DLC Aeons Armour Borrowed Whispers Outfit Daves Hat Guildmasters Spare Outfit Jack Of Blades Outfit Lady Grey Cosplay Dress Leather Armour Suit Lions Head Helmet Mazes Lost Outfit Minion Fancy Dress Outfit Obsidian Armour PreOwned Thunder Outfit Wasp Outfit Start a Discussion Discussions about Fable Clothing Fable Anniversary Clothing 2 messages Garry Damrau Are we going to add the additional outfits from FA to the Fable clothing page or create an entirely new page Alpha Lycos is getting the Peirat 20140124T021240Z Alpha Lycos At this point its only a possibility that Im getting the snowspire pack in the past my local EBGames store has offered preorder cont 20140124T072416Z See more discussions Categories Incomplete Articles Anniversary project Fable Clothing | [
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http://fabwags.com/ashley-nicole-pettiford-ty-lawsons-girlfriend/ | You are here : Home Basketball Ashley Nicole Pettiford - Ty Lawson ’ s Girlfriend Ashley Nicole Pettiford - Ty Lawson ’ s Girlfriend 21 SHARES 497 VIEWS This number shows the total pageviews since publishing of the article Share Tweet Subscribe Google Pinterest Troubles in paradise ? ? ? It would appear so ! That is for the couple , Denver Nuggets point Guard Ty Lawson and current girlfriend Ashley Nicole Pettiford . According to court records the item was arrested after Lawson and Miss Pettiford had a nasty fight . According to Arapahoe County sheriff ’ s officials , Lawson and his girlfriend each face charges after a fight Saturday night . You can see them in their orange suit below . Ashley Nicole Pettiford , 24 , was arrested on investigation of domestic violence - related property damage , court records state . Lawson was also arrested . The dispute happened at Lawson ’ s home and reportedly involved yelling and screaming and damaging of cellphones . The conflict “ was a mutual situation and as a result our deputies made the decision that there was probable cause to arrest both parties , ” said Arapahoe County Sheriff Grayson Robinson . Since the allegations were domestic violence , both Lawson and Pettiford were required to stay in jail until they could Ashley Nicole Pettiford is also known as Ashley Nicole King . She is a former Bad Girls Club member . According to her Facebook page her hometown is Norfolk , Virginia . She and Lawson have been dating for the past few months and everything seemed to be just fine , you can see them in pictures jet setting to various hot spots around the country so what could have sparked their brawl ? ? Well King is a bad girl after all right ! She participated in season 6 of the Oxygen network show and was also previously linked to Dwight Howard . King actually took things a little further when she twitted about Howard ’ s bed performance saying he was “ wack ” Ouch ! Classy ! Ashley ’ s man Ty , was also linked to another member of the Bad Girl Club Natalie Nunn but had since moved on to Ashley . Ty sure knows how to pick them huh ! She has made quite a splash with over 70,000 followers on twitter she describes herself as “ MsBombshell ” Do n ’ t miss the video below , it gives an idea of how good she can put on a fight ! You go girl ! 21 SHARES 497 VIEWS This number shows the total pageviews since publishing of the article Share Tweet Subscribe Google Pinterest This site uses Akismet to reduce spam . Learn how your comment data is processed | [
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http://facialsandwaxing.com/ | Facials and Waxing LLC Home Facials Waxing Body Treatments Special Offers Packages Gift Certificates Appointments Directions Client Information Products Contact Us Customer Feedback Facials and Waxing LLC wwwfacialsandwaxingcom 1626 Hendricks Avenue Unit 1 Jacksonville Florida 32207 904 5711750 In The Historic San Marco Area Hours of Operation Services By Appointment Only Monday 915 AM To 800 PM Tuesday 915 AM To 800 PM Wednesday 915 AM To 800 PM Thursday 915 AM To 800 PM Friday 915 AM To 800 PM Saturday 915 AM To 800 PM Sunday Accepted Payment Is Cash Check MasterCard And Visa April 26 2007 This page last updated on September 292016 | [
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http://facjobs.westga.edu/ | View Position Nature of Work Salary Deadline Lecturer in Finance Primary responsibilities include teaching undergraduate courses in Finance ; maintaining one of the Academic / Professional Qualifications specified in the UWG Richards College of Business Faculty Handbook ; and service to the university and community . Competitive A review of applications will begin immediately and continue until the position is filled . Appointment is for the spring semester beginning January 1 , 2019 . Assistant Professor of Anthropology / Laboratory Director Qualifying candidates for the position will have a Ph . D . in Anthropology by the August 1 , 2019 contract start date and have a specialization in southeastern U.S. archaeology , an active research agenda , curation and public outreach experience , and demonstrated excellence in teaching . Teaching will include Introduction to Anthropology ( 4 - subfield ) , Introduction to Archaeology , other general education courses as needed , and courses in the area of specialty . 54,000.00 November 1 , 2018 Art : Regular Part - Time Instructor The Department of Art is seeking regular part - time instructors . Competitive , salary higher for instructors who have terminal degree . Applications are accepted year - round . Questions and applications can be sent via email to artdept @ westga . edu . Please include “ Part - Time Teaching Application ” in the subject line of the email . Regular Part Time Instructor Biology is looking to hire regular part time instructors to teach lecture and / or labs at the 1000 - 2000 level for science and non - science majors . Competitive Applications accepted until filled Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership Tenure Track Multiple Positions • The successful candidate will assume a range of responsibilities including ( 1 ) teaching graduate courses in Educational Leadership and School Improvement ; ( 2 ) coaching and mentoring candidates in school settings ; ( 3 ) advising students ; ( 4 ) serving on doctoral dissertation committees ; ( 5 ) participating in broad - based university , college , and departmental committee work and professional service ; ( 6 ) developing and sustaining a research agenda in a chosen specialty area with sustained scholarly productivity ; and ( 7 ) teaching mostly in an online format . Competitive Applications will be reviewed beginning January 14 , 2019 and will continue until the position is filled . ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF SPORT MANAGEMENT Responsibilities include teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in Sport Management in both face - to - face and online environments , scholarly activity , and service to the Department , College , University , and community . Applications will be reviewed beginning December 1 , 2018 and will continue until position is filled . ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF SPORT MANAGEMENT Responsibilities include teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in Sport Management in both face - to - face and online environments , scholarly activity , and service to the Department , College , University , and community . Applications will be reviewed beginning December 1 , 2018 . ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Responsibilities include teaching undergraduate courses in Physical Education and Health and Community Wellness Programs in both face - to - face and online environments , scholarly activity , and service to the Department , College , University , and community . Applications will be reviewed beginning December 1 , 2018 and will continue until position is filled . Assistant Professor of Counselor Education and College Student Affairs The successful candidate will assume a range of responsibilities including ( 1 ) teaching graduate courses in BOTH Counselor Education and College Student Affairs ; ( 2 ) conducting meaningful research and scholarship ; ( 3 ) participating in broad - based university , college , and departmental committee work and professional service ; ( 4 ) advising students ; ( 5 ) supervising students in field experiences ; and ( 6 ) working collaboratively with doctoral programs in the College of Education . An earned doctorate in counseling or counselor education is required ( ABD considered ) from a Applications will be reviewed beginning January 1 , 2019 and will continue until the position is filled . Lecturer of Criminology The Department of Criminology at the University of West Georgia invites applications for one ( 1 ) full - time lecturer to begin August 1 , 2019 . The department is seeking a generalist to teach a broad range of undergraduate courses . Competitive Open until filled Chair of Criminology The College of Social Sciences of the University of West Georgia invites applications and nominations for the position of Chair of the Department of Criminology to begin July 1 , 2019 . Open until filled Assistant Professor of Criminology The Department of Criminology at the University of West Georgia invites applications for three ( 3 ) tenure - track positions at the rank of Assistant Professor to begin August 1 , 2019 . The specialty area is open . Open until filled Assistant Professor The Department of Economics at the University of West Georgia invites applications for a tenure - track position ( funds pending ) at the assistant professor level commencing Fall 2019 . Minimum requirements for this position include a completed Ph . D . in economics or related field and demonstrated excellence in teaching . The Department of Economics is located in the AACSB - accredited Richards College of Business . Faculty in the College of Business are expected to have an active research agenda leading to publications in peer - reviewed journals . Teaching responsibilities may include principles of microeconomics November 30 , 2018 Assistant Professor in Media , Instructional Technology , Tenure - Track ( 2 positions ) The successful candidate will assume a range of responsibilities including : teaching in our online M . Ed . , Ed . S . , and non - degree programs in Instructional Technology , conducting meaningful research and scholarship , participating in broad - based university , college , and departmental committee work and professional service , advising students , and serving on doctoral committees at the college level . Applications will be reviewed beginning December 1 , 2018 , and will continue until position is filled . English Part - Time Instructor The English Program is seeking part - time instructors to teach sections of courses such as English Composition I ( Engl 1101 ) and English Composition II ( Engl 1102 ) . Competitive . Salary is higher for instructors who have a Ph . D . in English . Until filled . Sections of these classes are typically available in both Fall and Spring . Temporary Part - Time Faculty ( Geography ) The position consists of teaching three 2 - hour sections of introductory level Weather and Climate Laboratory ( GEOG 1112L ) . Review of applications will begin on April 17 , 2018 and position will remain open until filled . Assistant or Associate Professor in Public History The Department of History at the University of West Georgia invites applications for a tenure - track appointment in public history beginning August 1 , 2019 , at either the Assistant or Associate Professor rank . Review of applicants will begin November 15 , 2018 and will remain open until filled Regular Part Time Instructors - History The Department of History is seeking part - time instructors to teach World History / Civilizations and U.S History courses . Competitive . Salary higher for instructors with Ph . D . in History . Until filled . Assistant Professor ( Operations Management ) The Department of Management , Richards College of Business , University of West Georgia , is seeking applications for an Assistant Professor ( tenure - track ) position in Operations Management . A review of applications will begin immediately and continue until the position is filled . Digital Media & Telecommunication Candidate should be able to teach telecommunication and electronic media ; media programming and management ; writing for digital media ; television or radio production ; and digital media content creation and distribution . Review of applications will begin September 24 , 2018 and will continue until position is filled . Nursing - Tenure Track Nurse Faculty Positions Tenure - track academic - year faculty appointments are available with a start date of January 1 , 2019 . Rank and salary are commensurate with qualifications and experience . until filled Part – Time Nursing Clinical Adjunct Faculty Positions The University of West Georgia , Tanner Health System School of Nursing seeks qualified candidates to apply as part - time nursing clinical adjunct faculty . until filled Philosophy Part - Time Instructor Philosophy Part - Time Instructor Competitive . Salary is higher for instructors who have a Ph . D . in Philosophy . Until filled . Sections of these classes are typically available in both Fall and Spring . ( 2 ) Assistant Professor - Tenure Track The successful candidate is expected to teach courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels and engage in departmental and university service activities . Open until filled 3 Tenure - Track Professors ( 2 Assistant , 1 Associate ) The Department of Psychology at the University of West Georgia invites applications for three tenure - track positions ( two at the rank of Assistant Professor and one at the rank of Associate Professor ) beginning August , 2019 . Review begins October 12 ; open until filled Limited Term Instructor of Theatre The University of West Georgia Theatre Department seeks a Limited Term Instructor of Theatre for the 2018 - 2019 academic year to teach courses in Theatre Appreciation and Oral Communication : Self Staging . Open Until Filled Part - Time Instructor The University of West Georgia Theatre Department seeks a part - time instructor to teach one to two courses in the Fall 2018 semester . Competitive . Salary is higher for instructors who have an MFA or Ph . D . in Theatre Open Until Filled | [
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http://factacular.com/subjects/Dinosaur_Names | Home Factopedia Brainoffs Rankings Community Log In You know 0 facts Dinosaur Names Your overall rating on Dinosaur Names = 0 % Your best rally score on Dinosaur Names = 0 facts Play Fact Master on Dinosaur Names Challenge Friends to a Brainoff on Dinosaur Names Play a Rally Game on Dinosaur Names 88 facts : < < Prev Next > > Acrocanthosaurus means High Spined Lizard Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 18ft , length 40ft . Framentary remains have been found in Texas and Oklahoma . Aegyptosaurus means Egyptian Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 21ft , length 52.5ft , fragmentary remains found in Egypt Aeolosaurus Wind Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 49.1ft , was common in the southern hemisphere , it had unusual tail vertebrae with long , forward pointing barbs Afrovenator African Hunter Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 10ft , length 29.5ft . Discovered in Niger in the southern Sahara Desert in Africa . It possessed 14 blade - shaped teeth . Agilisarus Nimble Lizard Herbivore , Bipedal , length 3.5 - 4ft . Alioramus Other Branch Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 11ft , length 20ft , fossils of these were found in Mongolia Allosaurus Other Lizard Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 17ft , length 40ft , found in Utah , it is thought to have been a speedy hunter Altirhinus High Snout Herbivore 7 - 8 m long . Altirhinus had a tall beak on its rounded snout and a spiked thumb on each hand . Altispinax High Spines Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 11ft , length 26.2ft , remains have been found in England and Germany Amygdalodon Almond Tooth Herbivore , Quadrupedal , length 40 - 50ft , is known as the only known Jurassic dinosaurs from South America Anatoitan Giant Duck Herbivore , mostly Bipedal , semi - Quadrupedal , stood 13.1 - 16.4ft , length 29.5 - 39.4ft , Its most distinguishing feature was its unusually long and wide duckbill , toothless over half its length , making its head more duck - like than most hadrosaurus Ankylosaurus Fused Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 11ft , length 35ft , its tough skin was covered with bony plates , and it could swing its formidably clubbed tail to rendera predator lame . Antarctosaurus Southern Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 20ft , length 59ft , it is the largest dinosaur known to have lived in the Southern Hemisphere Apatosaurus Deceptive Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 30ft , length 75ft , , its 20ft long neck supported a rather small head and its brain was about the size of a large apple Archaeopteryx Ancient Wing Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 1ft , length 3ft , identified by many to be the first bird Archaeornithoides Shaped Like an Ancient Bird Carnivore , Bipedal , length 3.3ft , is among the smallest of dinosaurs , many of its bones resemble those of modern birds Archaeornithomimus Ancient Bird Mimic Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 6ft , length 11ft , found in China , it hand three long fingers on each hand Argyrosaurus Silver Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 25ft , length 68.9ft , they lived in South America Arrhinoceratops Without Nose Horned - Face Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 7ft , length 16ft , Found in Alberta , Canada , it had a neck shield that was armed with spikes , very short nose horn with two long , slightly forward - curving brow horns Astrodon Star Tooth Avaceratops Ava ' s Horned Face Herbivore , Quadrupedal , length 6.6ft , were very small Avimimus Bird Mimic Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 3.5ft , length 5ft , fossils have been found in Mongolia and China , a small birdlike dinosaur , but was probably a swift runner , preying upon lizards and insects Bactrosaurus Bactrian Lizard Stood 8ft , length 20ft , one of the earliest known duck - billed hadrosaurs , it lived in what is now Mongolia Baharisaurus Baharije Lizard Carnivore , Bipedal , fragmentary remains were found in Egypt Barosaurus Heavy Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 40ft , length 79ft , the neck of the Barosaurus was 30ft long . Gastroliths were discovered among its bones , indicating that some of dinosaurs swalloed stones to grind food they consumed Baryonyx Heavy Claw Bellusaurus Beautiful Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , length 16.4ft Bothriospondylus Excavated Vertebrae Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 35ft , length 66ft , fragmentary remains of it were discovered in Western Europe and Madagascar Brachiosaurus Arm Lizard Its arms are longer than its legs . Brachyceratops Short - horned Head Brachypodosaurus Short - footed Lizard Brontosaurus Thunder Lizard Calamospondylus Reed Vertebra Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 3ft , length 6.6ft , a small meat - eater of uncertain identity , found on the Isle of Wight Callovosaurus Callovian Lizard Herbivore , Bipedal , stood 4ft , length 9ft , is known from incomplete material discovered in England Carnotaurus Meat - eating Bull Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 13ft , length 24.6ft , a strange - looking dinosaur with a short snout , two bull - like horns , a weak jaw and small eyes . Ceratosaurus Horned Lizard Common meat - eating dinosaur with a short horn on its snout . Late Jurassic period . Also had a very flexible tail enabled it to swim . Corythosaurus Helmet Lizard Dacentrus Sharp - point Tail Deinodon Terrible Tooth Deinonychus Terrible Claw Dilophosaurus Two - crested Lizard Dimorphodon Two Types of Teeth Long teeth in the front , small spiky teeth on the sides Diplodocus Double - beamed Dracopelta Small Shield Dragon Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 2.5ft , length 7ft , it was equipped with five different types of armour . Elaphrosaurus Lightweight Lizard Eoraptor Dawn Thief Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 20 inches , length 36 inches , is the most primitive dinosaur known - - 228 million years old . Gallimimus Chicken Mimic Also ' Fowl mimic ' and ' Rooster mimic ' . It looked like an ostrich but it was a very fast bird / dinosaur Giganotosaurus Giant Southern Lizard Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 5m , length 12.5m . Taller and longer , but slimmer than Tyrannosaurus rex , it lived millions of years earlier and in South America not North America . It had 3 fingers on its hands , not 2 like T . rex . Probably the largest carnivorous dinosaur known so far . Gravitholus Heavy Dome Herbivore , Bipedal , stood 6ft , length 9ft , was discovered in Alberta , Canada Homalocephale Flat Head Hypsilophodon High - ridged Tooth Ichthyosaurus Fish Lizard Dolphin - like reptile from the late Jurassic period , early Cretaceous period . Not a dinosaur . Iguanodon Iguana Tooth Indosaurus Indian Lizard Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 6m , length 11m teeth Kakuru Rainbow Serpent Kritosaurus Noble Lizard Herbivore , Bipedal , stood 23ft , length 30ft , had a wide , flat skull and a ridge of bone just below its eyes Maiasaurus Good Mother Lizard Herbivore , Bipedal , semi - Quadrupedal , stood 15ft , length 30ft Megalosaurus Great Lizard Large meat - eating theropod dinosaurs of the Middle Jurassic period . Bipedal . Megaraptor Huge Thief Megaraptor was a large , terrifying late Cretaceous predator with two enormous , sickle - like toe claws . It was a huge , lightly built , fast - moving , agile , bipedal ( walked on two legs ) , bird - like dinosaur . It had a curved , flexible neck , and a big head with sharp , serrated teeth in very powerful jaws . Microceratops Small - horned Head Microdontosaurus Tiny - tooth Lizard Microraptor Small Thief .3m high .8m long Microvenator Tiny Hunter Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 2.5ft , length 4ft Mononykus One Claw Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 3.5ft , length 5ft , it had a large but short forelimb with a single claw Nanotyrannus Dwarf Tyrant Carnivore , Bipedal , they are known from a single , small 22 - inch well preserved skull Ornitholestes Bird Robber Carnivore , Bipedal , stood 3ft , length 6ft , found in Wyoming and Utah , they were swift , small - headed , long - tailed dinosaur that ate lizards and other small game that it caught with its long fingered hands Oviraptor Egg Thief Pachycephalosaurus Thick - headed Lizard Pachyrhinosaurus Thick - nosed Lizard Panoplosaurus Armoured Lizard Parasaurolophus Near Crested Lizard A herbivore that walked both as a biped and a quadruped Pentaceratops Five - horned Head Pinacosaurus Broad Lizard Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 4ft , length 11.5ft , found in Mongolia and China , it had sharp pikes along its back and sides , and its tail ended in a flat bone with sharp edges resembling a double - edged stone ax . Pleurocoelus Hollow Side Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 20ft , length 29ft , they were a four - legged browser with front limbs longer than its hind limbs . Psittacosaurus Parrot Lizard Herbivore . Stood 1m , length 2m . Pteranodon Winged Without Teeth Flying reptile . Not actually a dinosaur but lived at the same time . Pterodactyl Winged Finger Rhabdodon Rod Tooth Herbivore , Bipedal , stood 7ft , length 13.1ft , known from incomplete remains Scelidosaurus Limb Lizard Spinosaurus Spiny Lizard Stegosaurus Roof Lizard Supersaurus Super Lizard Diplodocid sauropod dinosaur discovered in the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of Colorado in 1972 . It is among the largest dinosaurs known from good remains , possibly reaching 33 to 34 meters ( 108 to 112 ft ) in length , and a weight of 35 to 40 tons . Tarchia Brainy Herbivore , Quadrupedal , stood 8ft , length 20ft , these dinosaurs were distinguished by the large spikes on their sides and their clubbed tails . Triceratops Three - horned Head Troödon Wounding Tooth Tyrannosaurus Rex Tyrant Lizard King Velocipes Swift Foot Velociraptor Speedy Thief < < Prev Next > > Facts contributed by : Bowler pythondave | [
"Dinosaur Names"
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http://factcards.califa.org/mis/santaclara.html | MISSION SANTA CLARA DE ASIS Lexington Street & The Alameda ( Box 3217 ) Santa Clara , CA 95053 Established : January 12 , 1777 By : Father Junípero Serra , Franciscan missionary , President of the missions . Order : 8th of the 21 missions . Location : 40 miles SE of San Francisco at the southern end of San Francisco Bay , near a stream called Río de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe Named : For St . Clare of Assisi ( 1193 - 1253 ) , founder of an order of nuns called the Poor Clares , similar to the Franciscans . California Historical Landmark No . 338 DESIGN OF THE MISSION Church : The fifth and most important church was built in 1825 of adobe bricks , 100 feet long , 44 feet wide , 25 feet high . Tile roof . Style : Simple architecture was richly ornamented with paintings , both inside and out . Professional artist Agustín Dávila came from Mexico to design and oversee the painting . On the redwood slabs that formed the ceiling he depicted hosts of angels and saints . Designs painted to look like pillars and statues flanked the entrance . Colors were brilliant reds , yellows , and blues , dyes made from local minerals mixed with juice from the maguey cactus . Dávila directed the work of native artisans who did the painting . Walls : Wider at the bottom , narrowing to two feet thick at the top . Bell Tower A square tower built to the left of the entrance . Two of the three bells were gifts of the King of Spain in 1799 . Mission Compound : Buildings that formed the quadrangle served as living quarters for priests and soldiers , kitchens , a guardhouse , and work - shops . The Costanoan Indians at Santa Clara were good spinners and weavers , and their work was known throughout the chain of missions . They also made candles , and produced wine and brandy . This mission ' s greatest mark of prosperity was in the number of converts ; over 1,200 native workers lived at the mission . Mission Grounds : Fields and orchards produced peaches , pears , figs , grapes and grain . Nearby ranches had 5,000 head of cattle and 12,000 sheep , adding to the prosperity of the mission . A grand avenue called The Alameda , lined with a triple row of willow trees , connected the mission with the growing Pueblo ( town ) de San José de Guadalupe . The mission built the attractive avenue in an attempt to improve relationships between the pueblo and the mission . EARLY HISTORY 1776 Site chosen by Juan Bautista de Anza , at the same time as he chose the Mission San Francisco site . 1777 Cross planted by Father Tomás de la Peña , at the direction of Father Serra . Church built of logs . 1779 Second log church constructed on higher ground , to avoid flooding . 1781 Site again shifted to higher ground ; Father Serra laid cornerstone for new church . 1784 Adobe church completed , said to be the most beautiful church in existence at that time , designed by Father Murguía who also supervised the construction but died just before the dedication . Father Serra was present at the dedication on May 15 . 1794 Father Magín Catalá , called The Holy Man of Santa Clara , began his 36 years at the mission . 1812 Earthquake weakened the walls . 1818 Earthquake destroyed the church ; new church built but that too was destroyed . 1825 Fifth ( and longest lasting ) church completed and dedicated on August 11 . 1836 Mission secularized , lands taken from the Franciscans . Building continued to be used as a parish church . 1839 Bell tower , weakened by storms , replaced with a wooden tower . 1851 Authority for the church transferred from the Franciscans to the Jesuits , who founded a college there which became Santa Clara University . MISSION SANTA CLARA TODAY The natural disasters that plagued the early mission church continued into this century . As a part of Santa Clara University , the church was remodeled several times . Each time some of the original design was lost . The adobe walls were replaced with wood walls ; a second bell tower was built on the opposite side of the building ; the roof was widened . In 1926 a fire destroyed the church , erasing all of the changes . Students at the University tried to save the important furnishings from the fire . One of the bells was melted by the heat ; a second was cracked . But the one bell that survived ( a gift of the Spanish king ) was hung from a tree and rang that night at 8 : 30 just as it had every night since 1799 . Several years later , King Alfonso XIII of Spain sent a new bell . The two damaged bells were recast , In 1929 the church was reconstructed in what is called " a modern interpretation in stucco and concrete " of the 1825 church . 12,000 roof tiles salvaged from earlier missions were used in the new church , which is larger than the original . Replicas of the ceiling paintings have been done . The exterior designs have been replaced in stone relief ( carvings ) rather than the original painted form . Over the main entrance is a statue of St . Clare , flanked by statues of St . John the Baptist and St . Francis , all carved in pearwood . The interior of the church has been redecorated in Victorian style , retaining only a little of the mission atmosphere The cross that was erected in 1777 stands ( in a protective casing ) across from the church entrance . The few adobe walls of the quadrangle remaining after the 1926 fire have been restored . The old church cemetery is now the Mission Rose Garden . Many of the plants on the University grounds are survivors of the mission days . | [
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http://facts.net/portugal/ | Portugal Facts Portugal Facts # 1 ◄ Back Next ► Fast Facts Essential Facts Interesting Facts Official Title : The Portuguese Republic Where : The Iberian Peninsula , and several Atlantic archipelagos Capital : Lisbon Second City : Porto Population : 10.46 million Ethnicity : 96.3 % Portuguese , 3.7 % Other Majority Religion : Catholicism Area : 35,672 sq . miles Climate : Mediterranean Motto : “ Esta é a Ditosa Pátria Minha Amada ” ( “ This is my happy Motherland , beloved of mine ” ) Portugal Is One of The Oldest European Countries Madeira and the Azores – Part of Portugal There are many interesting Portugal facts relating to the country ’ s official status . The country was founded in 1128 , making it one of the oldest nations in Europe . Portugal is a sovereign nation state , officially known as the Portuguese Republic . It is located in the western - most part of mainland Europe on the Iberian Peninsula , bordered by Spain to the east and north and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and west . As well as Continental Portugal , the Portuguese Republic also consists of Madeira and the Azores , the island clusters in the Atlantic . Portugal is a developed country . Portugal facts tell us about a quality infrastructure , high living standards and an advanced economy . Portugal is a member the United Nations and The European Union . Its currency is the Euro , and its official language is Portuguese . 10.4 Million People Live in Portugal Portugal facts regarding demography suggest that there are approximately 10.46 million people in Portugal as of 2013 . This population is relatively homogeneous , with 96.3 % of the populace ethnically Portuguese , and the shared language also being Portuguese . Ethnically , Portuguese people descend from pre - Celtic and Celtic people who inhabited the country before the Romans . This ancestry is very similar to other Mediterranean peoples , in particular the Spanish . As is the case across Europe , Portugal has a low fertility rate , calculated as 1.51 children per woman in 2013 . Portugal Was Part of the Roman Empire There are many fascinating Portugal facts relating to the history of the area . The region of modern Portugal was once settled by pre - Celtic and Celtic peoples , but was invaded by Rome in 219 BC . The conquest took almost 200 years , and the Romans faced rebellions from several tribes in the area . By 19 BC , however , the Roman Republic had annexed almost all of modern Portugal . The next major era after the end of Roman power was the Kingdom of the Suebi , the structure established by Germanic tribes who invaded the peninsula in the early 5th century . These tribes were the Suebi and the Vandals , along with their allies . Throughout the 6th century this kingdom flourished , but the area was eventually conquered by the Visigoths in 584 - 5 . The Visigoths then held Iberia until the 700s . Portugal Was Part of the Umayyad Caliphate for Centuries The Rise of the Caliphate Some of the most interesting Portugal facts relate to what happened after the Visigoths were defeated . In 711 the Umayyad Muslims invaded from the south , making Portugal a part of its Caliphate for well over 5 centuries . This empire was vast , stretching from the Indus River , Pakistan , across Europe to the South of France . However , just 7 years after the Umayyad conquest , Christian Visigothic rebels came together to begin what would be a long process of reconquista , or the attempt to win back the land . The Visigothic nobleman Pelagius successfully led a rebellion against the Moors in the north of the country . In 722 this part of the country became the Christian Kingdom of Asturias , with Pelagius as king . It was from here that resistance to the Moorish empire was organized , and after over 700 years , the Christians of Asturias reclaimed the land of modern Portugal . The towns and cities of the land were repopulated with Christians who had resisted conversion during the Umayyad Caliphate , and Portuguese refugees . The area was renamed the County of Portugal , after the major port city , Portus Cale The Portuguese Empire Spanned 600 Years There are numerous Portugal facts relating to the colonial period , since the country was at the forefront of European exploration and also had the longest - lived colonial empire . During the Age of Discovery , Portuguese explorers set out across the world , and made many important discoveries in this time , from the Atlantic archipelagos Madeira and Cape Verde to parts of the Africa coast . The Portuguese instigated new trade routes throughout southern Asia , including those to China and Japan . They also discovered Brazil . The Portuguese started to colonize many of these places , beginning with the conquest of Ceuta in North Africa in 1415 . One of the less pleasant Portugal facts is that the country was the first to engage in the transatlantic slave trade , taking slaves from West Africa to the New World , although the other European empires soon followed suit . Portuguese Is a Romance Language Portuguese , along with French , Italian , Spanish and Romanian , is one of the five modern Romance languages . To discuss the Portuguese language is to discuss more than just Portugal facts − it is the mother tongue of over 220 million people around the world . Portuguese is spoken in Angola , East Timor , Luxembourg , Mozambique , Namibia , Andorra , and Cape Verde among other places . The vast majority of Portuguese speakers , however , live in Brazil , where there are in the region of 200 million speakers . Portuguese vocabulary has been influenced by the history of the country and its peoples . The majority of words are Latin in origin , but Italian , French and Arabic words have also been absorbed over the centuries . Portugal Has a Mediterranean Climate There are numerous Portugal facts relating to the country ’ s geography and climate . Portugal is one of the warmest countries in Who Speaks Portuguese Europe , with an average temperature of 53.6 ° F ( 12 ° C ) in the mountainous north to over 64.4 ° F ( 18 ° C ) in the south . In warmer areas , such as the Guadiana river basin , summer highs can reach beyond 113 ° F ( 45 ° C ) . In the north , on the other hand , snowfall is common , and winter temperatures can drop below 14.0 ° F ( − 10.0 ° C ) . Each year the average rainfall varies , from less than 11.8 in ( 300 2500 - 3200 hours of sunshine each year . This pleasant climate makes it a popular tourist destination , especially the country ’ s coastal regions . Lisbon Is the Capital of Portugal The capital of the country is Lisbon , and there are many Portugal facts relating to this beautiful and cosmopolitan city . Lisbon is the westernmost capital city in continental Europe , lying on the Atlantic Ocean and the River Tagus . It has a population of approximately 552,700 . Lisbon is known for its important role in European media , arts , trade , commerce and finance . Its growing financial sector is making it increasingly important as an economic center . Lisbon is also an extremely important container port , one of the biggest on the Atlantic coast of Europe . Lisbon is known for its traditional 19th century tram system , its history of stunning architecture ( Gothic , Baroque , Modern and Postmodern designs ) and its culture of museums , universities and galleries . Portugal ’ s Second City Is Porto When it comes to Portugal facts , Lisbon is not the only city worth mentioning . The second largest city in the country is Porto . Porto is one of the oldest cities in Europe , and is located in northern Portugal on the estuary of the Douro River , where it was once an outpost of the Roman Empire . There are many Portugal facts attesting to the fact that Porto is a city of music and the arts . Many famous musicians come from the area , including Rui Veloso , GNR , Sérgio Godinho and Pluto . The city also has world famous concert halls , including the Coliseu do Porto and the São João National Theatre . In 2001 , Porto European Culture Capital . To celebrate this honor , the major new Casa da Música was designed by Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas , to further enhance the cultural arts within the city . Portugal Is a Semi - Presidential Constitutional Republic Unemployment Rate in Portugal After a 1974 military coup , Portugal began to move from a period of authoritarian rule through to a military government , and eventually to representative democracy . There are many intriguing Portugal facts about the resulting political system . Since the 1976 Constitution , Portugal has been a republic in which power is divided among 4 main bases of power − the Parliament , the President of the Republic , the Government and the courts . Each President serves a term of 5 years , and plays an executive role , while the government is led by the Prime Minister . After some tumultuous years , Portugal joined the European Union in 1986 , which helped lead it to greater global importance , both politically and economically . The Portuguese Can Be Fatalists There are many fascinating Portugal facts relating to the culture of the country . One of these facts concerns the tradition of Fatalism , or Fado . This is an attitude in music , literature and daily speech characterized by melancholy , resignation and a belief in capricious fate . In music , mournful songs about poverty or the seafaring life often express this sentiment . In speech , the interjection oxalá , meaning “ hopefully / if only ” also expresses this . Oxalá is an interesting word since it comes from the Arabic inshallah , meaning “ God willing ” . The long history of Fado culture was officially recognized by UNESCO in 2011 . Port Wine Comes from Portugal No Portugal facts sheet would be complete without a reference to the country ’ s most famous export , port wine . This drink is produced in the Douro valley , in the metropolitan area surrounding the second city of Porto , which is how it got its name . The wine itself is usually red , though white varieties are available . Its most notable feature is its sweet taste , and it is most commonly served as a dessert wine . There are more than 100 varieties of grape which can be used for the production of port . Of these , only 5 are commonly cultivated . Touriga Nacional is generally thought to be the best grape for port production , but since it is difficult to grow and produces low yields , Touriga Francesa is more commonly cultivated . You Can Hit People with Garlic on Festival Night On the 23 June each year , the city of Porto holds one of the liveliest European festivals . The Festa de São João do Porto pays tribute to Saint John the Baptist , and has been held for over 6 centuries . The party begins in the afternoon and continues through the night with dance parties , street music and the release of sky lanterns and balloons . A midnight fireworks show is followed by more partying , until young people walk to the seaside at dawn and watch the sunrise . While the festival is in honor of Saint John the Baptist , it also has a more unusual side . Elements of the festival lead back to pre - Christian traditions , and this is what leads us to one of the strangest Portugal facts − partygoers engage in Pagan - style courtship rituals . The tradition is that young men seek out attractive women , and proceed to hit them with garlic flowers or soft plastic hammers The Biggest Wave Ever Surfed Was in Portugal Portugal , as the westernmost European country , has almost 500 miles ( 800 km ) of coastline . Yet one of the lesser - known Portugal facts is just how good the country is as a surfing destination . For those in the know , Portugal is a surfer ’ s paradise , said to have 364 days of surf . In 2011 , this fact was taken advantage of at Praia de Norte , a beach near the town of Nazaré . It was here that Hawaiian Garret McNamara broke records by surfing the biggest waver ever caught , which was an astonishing 90 ft . high ! That ’ s nearly 27.5 meters ! The Portuguese Invented Piri Piri Sauce Piri Piri , also known as African Bird ’ s Eye Chili , is grown in many African countries , including Nigeria , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Mozambique . However , some important culinary Portugal facts note that it was actually the Portuguese who invented the famous Piri Piri Sauce , after discovering the ingredient during the colonial period . The ingredients of the sauce include the chilies themselves , plus garlic , onion , lemon juice , paprika and more . Nowadays , Piri Piri chicken is a very popular and delicious Portuguese dish . Same - Sex Marriage Is Legal in Portugal One of the many interesting Portugal facts relates to the country ’ s stance on same - sex marriage . Same - sex marriage was legalized in Portugal on the 31 May 2010 . This made Portugal only the 8th country in the world – and the 6th in Europe – to legalize same - sex marriage . The government decision was not without opposition however , particularly from the Catholic Church . There was also a great deal of media sensationalism around the topic . Lisbon Contains Europe ’ s Longest Bridge In 1998 , the World ’ s Fair Expo 98 celebrated the 500th anniversary of the discovery of a sea route between Europe and India , by the Portuguese Vasco De Gama . In honor of this , the Vasco da Gama bridge was built in Lisbon , crossing the Tagus River . Construction began in 1995 , and the structure was finished 3 years later in time for the fair . The bridge is the longest in Europe , measuring in at 10.5 miles ( 17 kilometers ) in length . Portugal and England Are Very Old Friends Some of the very oldest and most interesting of Portugal facts relate to the country ’ s alliance with England , which is now known as the oldest functioning diplomatic agreement in the world . The particular treaty , the Anglo - Portuguese Alliance , was signed back in 1373 , but is uniquely still in force today . The alliance ensures that both countries will defend the other in wars . This has been backed up in practice − Portugal entered World War I , and Britain entered the Iberian Peninsular War One of the World ’ s Biggest Earthquakes Occurred in Lisbon There are Portugal facts regarding November 1 1755 , which make the day memorable for all the wrong reasons . It was the religious holiday of All Saints Day , and the churches of Lisbon were filled with people burning candles . During the day , a huge earthquake struck the city , measuring at a magnitude of 9.0 . Not only did the quake directly destroy much of the city , but a tsunami followed and , even worse , the high numbers of candles lit for the religious holiday caused devastating fires across the city . In total 85 % of buildings were destroyed , and 275,000 residents died The Bertrand Bookstore , Lisbon , Is the Oldest in the World Some more positive Portugal facts about Lisbon relate to The Bertrand Bookstore , known as the oldest bookstore in the world . The store opened its doors in 1732 , and became a center for the city ’ s intellectual and artistic scene . The original building was levelled in the devastating 1755 earthquake , but the owners found new premises and business continued to thrive . The Bertrand Brothers took over the premises after a few decades and the business eventually grew into the Bertrand bookstore chain , with over 50 Portuguese stores today . Portugal Facts – Facts about Portugal Summary Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a European nation state with territory on the Iberian Peninsula , along with several Atlantic archipelagos . Portugal is a member of the United Nations and the European Union , and is known as a developed , globalized country with an advanced economy and democratic government . The majority of the populace are ethnically Portuguese , and the main religion is Catholicism . The official language is Portuguese . There are many fascinating Portugal facts relating to its high living standards , rich arts , media and entertainment culture , varied cuisine No related posts . Comments | [
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http://facts.randomhistory.com/2009/07/19_flu.html | 44 Surprising Facts about the Flu By Karin Lehnardt Senior Writer Published July 1 , 2017 The word “ influenza ” comes from the Italian influentia because people used to believe that the influence of the planets , stars , and moon caused the flu — for only such universal influence could explain such sudden and widespread sickness . [ 2 ] The English adopted the word “ influenza ” in the mid - eighteenth century , while the French called it la grippe from gripper , meaning “ to grasp or hook . ” There is also a similar - sounding phrase in Arabic , anf - al - anza , which means “ nose of the goat , ” used because goats were thought to be carriers of the disease . [ 2 ] Annual flu viruses ( not including flu pandemics ) infect up to 20 % of Americans , put 200,000 in the hospital with flu - related complications , and kill about 36,000 people . [ 3 ] The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that between three and five million people worldwide get a serious case of the regular flu each year ; tens of millions get milder cases . Between 250,000 and 500,000 people globally die of the flu every year . [ 8 ] There have been four major global flu pandemics since 1900 . The most recent pandemic is the current swine flu ( officially named “ Novel H1N1 Influenza A ” ) . The last global pandemic was the Hong Kong flu ( 1968 - 1969 ) which killed approximately one million people . The Asian flu pandemic ( 1957 - 1958 ) originated in China and is estimated to have killed between one and four million people . The Spanish flu pandemic ( 1918 - 1919 ) killed between 50 - 100 million people worldwide . [ 9 ] Flu viruses mutate each year Flu viruses can live up to 48 hours on hard , nonporous surfaces such as stainless steel and up to 12 hours on cloth and tissues . They can remain infectious for about one week at human body temperature , over 30 days at freezing temperatures , and indefinitely at temperatures below freezing . [ 3 ] Scientists believe that flu pandemics occur two or three times each century . [ 6 ] The single deadliest flu pandemic in history was the Spanish flu pandemic during 1918 - 1919 . Occurring in the three waves of increasing lethality , the Spanish flu killed more people in 24 weeks than AIDS did in 24 years . It also killed more people in one year than smallpox or the Black Plague did in 50 years . [ 5 ] At the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor , any student caught without a mask during the Spanish flu was automatically suspended , and a town in Arizona passed a law forbidding people to shake hands . [ 5 ] The Spanish flu was sometimes called “ the purple death ” because the worst symptom , signally certain death , was known as “ heliotrope cyanosis , ” when the lungs were starved of oxygen and the patient would turn purple , black , or blue . Native Americans died at a rate four times the national average from the Spanish flu . The United States government suggests citizens should have a two - week supply of water and food , a supply of necessary prescription drugs , and a supply of nonprescription drugs in case of flu quarantines or other emergencies . [ 7 ] The best thing about getting a flu shot is that you never again need to wash your hands . That ' s how I see it . - Chuck Palahniuk Novel Influenza A H1N1 ( swine flu ) first caused widespread illness in Mexico and the United States in March and April 2009 , though Mexico may have been in the midst of the epidemic some months before . The first case in the United States was confirmed by the CDC on April 15 , 2009 . [ 6 ] “ Cures ” for the Spanish flu included drinking whiskey , smoking cigars , eating milk toast , gargling with salt water , getting fresh air , and partaking of interesting concoctions like “ Grippura . ” Some doctors doused their patients with icy water while others “ bled ” their patients . Yet other doctors tried surgery by slicing open a patient ’ s chest , spreading his ribs , and extracting pus and blood from the pleural cavity ( the cavity surrounding the lungs ) , which was almost always fatal in flu victims . The Center for Disease Control ( CDC ) began referring to the swine flu as the “ Novel Influenza A ( H1N1 ) ” in an effort to protect the pork industry . [ 7 ] The 2009 H1N1 virus contained genetic elements from North American swine flu , North American avian flu ( bird flu ) , and human and swine flus typically found in Asia and Europe . The CDC says it is “ an unusually mongrelized mix of genetic sequences . ” There is some immunity to Novel H1N1 ( swine flu ) in people born before 1957 . Their immunity may be a result of a previous exposure to a related virus or to a seasonal flu vaccine . The Spanish flu killed more Americans in one year than the combined total who died in battle during WWI , WWII , the Korean War , and the Vietnam War . The Spanish flu was the single deadliest plaque of the twentieth century Like the Spanish flu pandemics of 1918 - 1919 , the 2009 Novel H1N1 flu appeared to be more serious in younger , healthy people , perhaps due to what scientists call a “ cytokine storm , ” or when the immune system overreacts and damages the body . In contrast to respirators , face masks ( surgical , dental , isolation , or laser masks ) do not form a tight seal around the face and block only large droplets , not small viruses , from coming into contact with the wearer ’ s mouth and nose . In 1976 , an Army recruit at Fort Dix , New Jersey , died of a variant of the swine flu , known as A / New Jersey / 1976 ( H1N1 ) . When another strain began circulating in the U.S. ( A / Victoria / 75 H3N2 ) simultaneously , public health officials persuaded President Gerald Ford to vaccinate 40 million Americans . The vaccinations were called off when people became concerned the vaccine was worse than the virus , especially when over 500 Americans contracted Guillain - Barre syndrome . Intensive litigation followed . [ 10 ] The H1N1 form of swine flu is one of the descendants of the complex strain that caused the 1918 flu pandemic . It is called the “ swine flu ” because the overall structure of the virus is of the type that affects pigs , though other components besides swine are in the virus structure . The “ H ” and “ N ” in H1N1 stand for Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase , which are key molecular components of the virus . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] When viruses that normally circulate in pigs infect humans , they are termed “ variant ” viruses Pigs are unusual because they can become infected with influenza strains that can infect three different species : pigs , birds , and humans . This makes pigs a perfect breeding ground for new and dangerous strains of influenza . [ 10 ] Viruses ( from the Latin virus meaning “ poison , slimy liquid ” ) are much simpler than bacteria . Viruses are just inert bundles of genetic material encased in a shell called a capsid or a fatty membrane called an envelope . The flu , for example , is caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae ( from the Greek orthos meaning “ straight ” and myxa meaning “ mucous ” ) . [ 4 ] Viruses mutate more in one day than humans did in several million years . They mutate so quickly due to their rapid rate of reproduction , their inability to fix their mutations , and their ability to exchange genes with one another . [ 4 ] Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria and can be seen only through a microscope . In 1988 , a swine flu virus killed pregnant 32 - year - old Barbara Ann Wieners after she visited a hog barn at a country fair in Wisconsin . Doctors were able to induce labor and deliver a healthy daughter before she died . Though those working with pigs and those she came into contact with tested positive for swine flu , there was no community outbreak . Virologists are not certain about the origins of the viruses , though they have three theories : ( 1 ) they started as living cells and devolved into simpler organisms , ( 2 ) they originated as primitive particles capable of replicating themselves , and ( 3 ) they were once parts of cells that broke away to evolve separately . SARS ( severe acute respiratory syndrome ) killed 774 people out of 8,000 people who have been infected in 20 countries in Asia , Europe , and the Americas . The mortality rate of SARS was 9.6 % . Air travel has significantly increased the speed with which diseases can spread . Most of the world ’ s great cities are now within a few hours of each other . As SARS showed , a virus that is in Hong Kong one day can be carried to any point in Southeast Asia within three or four hours , to Europe in 12 hours , and to North America in 18 hours . Nearly 1.5 billion passengers travel by air every year . [ 6 ] [ 9 ] Some historians blame President Woodrow Wilson ’ s ( 1856 - 1924 ) lingering case of the Spanish flu as the reason he unexpectedly caved into stringent French demands for the harsh peace terms that decimated Germany which , in turn , led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and WWII ( 1939 - 1945 ) . In 1933 , British researchers Wilson Smith , Christopher Andrews , and Patrick P . Laidlaw were the first to identify the human flu virus by experimenting with ferrets . The cost of treating annual flu epidemics , including lost wages and productivity of workers , is billions of dollars each year in just the United States alone . In the United States of America , influenza epidemics cost US $ 71 - 167 billion per year Even with today ’ s powerful antibiotics , bacterial pneumonia is the most common complication of the flu , and most flu - related deaths are due to it . Today ’ s medical historians have traced the likely beginning of the Spanish flu not to Spain , but to Haskell County , Kansas , where people lived close to their pigs and poultry . When three Haskell County boys were shipped off to Fort Riley , Kansas in late 1917 , they carried the virus with them , which spread from U.S. military bases to cities across the country . The virus then spread throughout Europe , brought over with the U.S. troops of WWI , and it returned to the United States in a much deadlier form . Thomas Francis and Jonas Salk ( who later developed the polio vaccine ) developed the first flu vaccine in 1944 . These early vaccines often contained impurities that produced fever , headaches , and other side effects . The flu vaccine in its various forms has been used for over 60 years and over 90 million Americans get a flu shot each year . The source of flu vaccines are chickens and , consequently , vaccines can be dangerous to people who are allergic to eggs . Those people should never receive the injectable or nasal spray vaccine without doctor ’ s approval . Reyes syndrome is a rare and potentially fatal disorder linked to taking aspirin during viral illnesses such as the flu . Symptoms include persistent vomiting , fever , and confusion . Liver and brain damage occur within a few days . Many doctors advise against giving aspirin to children and young people for treating the symptoms of influenza - like symptoms . Dozens of cold and flu remedies contain aspirin . Some historians believe that the Native Americans on the island of Hispaniola were hit by a swine flu epidemic in 1493 carried by pigs aboard Columbus ’ ships . In 1878 , a “ fowl pest ” disease causing high mortality rates in poultry was first identified in Italy . The avian flu can survive for three months in bird droppings ; the virus can also survive in water for up to four days In contrast to the swine flu ( H1N1 ) which reached a Phase 6 alert on June 11 , 2009 , the avian or bird flu ( H5N1 ) remained at a Phase 3 alert . The first well documented human pandemic occurred in 1889 - 90 and was called the Russian flu ( H2N2 ) and killed approximately one million people . In the mid 1930s , scientists developed a new electron microscope that enabled them to see and photograph influenza virus ( the flu was once thought to be caused by bacteria ) . In the following years , influenza types A , B , and C were isolated and identified . Type A influenza causes most human sickness and the major pandemics . Exposure to one strain appears to provide no protection or immunity to another . For reasons that are still puzzling , there was far less panic during many other great plagues of the past than there is about today ' s flus , even though they killed so many . Scholars speculate that the Spanish flu may have been overshadowed by WWI . Keyword Tags # Amazing # Educational # FactOfTheDay # Important # Interesting # LittleKnown # MindBlowing # Random # Sad # Serious # KidFriendly # SchoolProject # DiseasesandDisorders # Health # Flu # SpanishFlu # AvianFlu # SwineFlu # Influenza # Medicine # HistoryofMedicine # HistoryOfScience # Vaccines # WWI # Epidemics # Disturbing # Death # Germaphobe # Viruses # WHO # Index References | [
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http://facts.randomhistory.com/dating-and-relationship-facts.html | 76 Interesting Facts about Dating By Karin Lehnardt Senior Writer Published March 11 , 2017 Updated August 24 , 2017 Couples usually wait until six to eight dates before they are willing to enter into an exclusive relationship . [ 3 ] Speed dating , invented by a rabbi from Los Angeles in 1999 , is based on a Jewish tradition of chaperoned gatherings of young Jewish singles . [ 1 ] The most common time for breakups is around three to five months . [ 3 ] One in three teenagers have experienced violence in a dating relationship . [ 15 ] In a survey conducted by MSNBC . com and Elle magazine , more than 31 % of men said they dumped an overweight partner compared to 12 % of women . [ 12 ] Women who post a photo on Internet dating sites receive twice as many email messages as women who do n ’ t . The same study found that men who reported incomes higher than $ 250,000 received 156 % more email than those with $ 50,000 . [ 4 ] A couple will exchange house keys on an average of 12 - 14 dates On average , it takes between 12 to 14 dates before couples will trade house keys . Match . com reports that 44 % of its members in the United States have children . [ 10 ] On free dating sites , at least 10 % of new accounts are from scammers . [ 14 ] If a man ca n ’ t decide what to wear on a date , he might want to wear blue . Studies show that women are attracted to men in blue . [ 18 ] Ninety - two percent of single parents would rather date other single parents . [ 13 ] Thirty - three percent of online daters form a relationship , 33 % do not , and 33 % give up . [ 15 ] The online dating industry generates $ 1.8 billion per year and the matchmaker / dating coach business generates $ 260 million per year in the United States . [ 14 ] According to the U.S. census , there are 95.9 million unmarried people in the U.S. of which 47 % are men and 53 % are women . [ 6 ] Researchers at the University of Chicago found that people were twice as likely to find a date through friends and family than through the bar scene . [ 13 ] At 4M Multimillionaire Matchmaking Club based in Seattle , WA , clients are men who have made millions but are still single . The matchmaking service charges between $ 10,000 and $ 30,000 for men . Women pay around $ 250 to be listed as potential partners . The third week in September is National Singles Week in the U.S . [ 6 ] I ' ve been on so many blind dates , I should get a free dog . - Wendy Liebman Four out of 10 workplace dating relationships result in marriage . [ 9 ] One Manhattan matchmaker ’ s price begins at $ 20,000 . If a match ( marriage ) results , a marriage bonus is expected . In the online dating world , women are afraid of meeting a serial killer . Men are afraid of meeting someone “ fat . ” According to Ann Rule , about 3 % of men are psychopaths , of which only a tiny percentage are serial killers . [ 9 ] In a survey of 5,000 singles conducted by Match . com , 43 % said fresh breath mattered the most before a date , 17 % said stylish clothes , 15 % said sexy fragrance , 14 % said good skin , and 10 % said great hair . [ 18 ] Studies show that schools , colleges , coffee shops , and malls are all excellent places to flirt because people are more open to meeting others in these places . Poor locations are restaurants and movie theaters . During the early twentieth century , dating evolved out of a courtship ritual where young women entertained male callers under the watch of a chaperone . By the 1960s and 1970s , “ hooking up ” increasingly replaced dating , mainly because the age at which people marry for the first time had begun creeping up . [ 16 ] Typically , dating specialists suggest waiting until the third date to cook someone dinner at home . Psychologists at the University of Pennsylvania studied data from over 10,000 speed daters and found that most people make a decision regarding a person ’ s attraction within three seconds of meeting . [ 12 ] It only takes seconds to decide another person ’ s attractiveness Nearly 40 % of men do not feel confident meeting a woman for the first time . Immediately after Tiger Wood ’ s affairs became public , men looking for discreet relationships on BeNaughty . com dropped by 47.5 % . [ 7 ] Studies show that before a man even speaks a word , the way he stands ( whether he is slouching or not ) counts for over 80 % of woman ’ s first impression . Studies show that men are put off by groups of loud women . If a woman wants to get a date , she should break away from a loud group to give a man a chance to approach her . [ 17 ] Mirroring , or repeating someone ’ s body language , often impresses a date because it subtly conveys interest to the other person . One should avoid copying every move , however . [ 11 ] Bad breath and bad teeth are an instant turn - off for potential dates . If deep dental cleaning does n ’ t improve a person ’ s breath , he or she could have a stomach bacterium called H . pylori , which causes bad breath . Body language studies show that revealing areas of the body that are n ’ t usually on display ( such as the inner wrist , the inside of the upper arm , ankles , feet , inside calf muscle , and the nape of the neck ) has an immediate effect on a date and shows an instant liking . [ 11 ] Happy people attract more dates Studies show that happiness is contagious and that potential dates find it hard to walk away from happy people . One of the biggest turn - offs during a date is negativity . If you want to create an instant link with a date , say his or her name at least twice in the conversation . This shows attentiveness and connectedness . Studies show that remembering bits of information about a person and working them into conversations not only is highly flattering but also shows interest . Research has confirmed that women are more attracted to men who wear pheromone - based colognes or aftershaves such as 10X . Studies have also shown that women , who have a stronger sense of smell than men , are particularly attracted to musk and black licorice smells . Body type is important in attracting a date . Studies show that overweight individuals were perceived less favorably than thin or muscular people . Thin individuals were perceived as intelligent but fearful , and muscular individuals were perceived as being healthy , brave , and good looking . Top ten turn - offs for women include cystic acne , raggedy nails , flatulence and belching , missing teeth , body odor , bad breath , hairy nostrils , “ man boobs , ” “ goofy ” glasses , and hair “ mistakes . ” If a group of women are standing together but their eyes are wandering , they are likely to be looking for guys . If they each take a turn to break away from the group to head to the bathroom alone , they are on the prowl . If they are huddled together giggling , they are usually not interested in finding men . [ 17 ] Choosing exciting places for a first date increases the chances of the other person falling for you . There is a definitive link between danger and physical / romantic attraction . Depending on the type of women a man would like to meet , he should visit that type of clothing store . For example , if a man likes “ outdoorsy ” women , he should go to an outdoor clothing store . The appropriate time to call after meeting a man or woman is hotly debated among dating experts . Typically , the ideal time to wait to call is two to four days , though no longer than four to five days . Calling too soon can appear desperate . A woman will express interest in her date in several subtle ways If a woman is interested in her date , she will often smile at his jokes , play with her hair , fidget with an object such as a glass , blush when he pays her a compliment , pout or pucker her mouth , stumble over words , or lean in towards him . Beautiful women typically get more stares , winks , and harassment than average - looking women do , but they are also less likely to get asked out by average - looking men because those men tend to be intimated by them . When a man first approaches a woman , she will base 55 % of her initial impression of him on his appearance and body language , 38 % on his style of speaking , and 7 % on what he actually says . Worst places to go on first date include fast - food restaurants , your kids ’ birthday party or school play , your parents ’ house , strip clubs , X - rated films or swingers parties , a party where your ex will be , church activities , or window shopping . Dating specialists suggest that if a woman does n ’ t return a call after two messages , she is not interested . In American society , when a man offers his date his palm face up , he is most likely deeply attracted to the woman . In fact , a human ’ s brain is wired to respond to hand gestures and hand shapes , though the brain ’ s response depends on the man or woman ’ s culture and ethnicity . It is hard for a man to strike up a conversation if there are just two women at a social scene because he does n ’ t want the other friend to feel abandoned . So a woman who is looking to attract a date should bring two “ wing women ” with her . Statistics show that trying to get a relationship to work with an ex does n ’ t usually work . The case where it might work is if there were extenuating circumstances of the breakup , such as one of couple had been going through a family tragedy or moved . A recent AOL survey says that 40 % of women view an appropriate time frame to wait for sex as being one to three months , while 35 % of men think the third date is fine . On average , couples have sex within about four to six dates . [ 8 ] If a woman offers to pay for everything , chances are she is n ’ t that into the date . There ’ s an unspoken understanding that a man paying for everything is a form of “ copulatory gift , ” which is almost universal in all animal species . Over 50 % of all singles in America have not had a date in more than two years . Over half of all singles in America have not had a date in over two years Research shows that men know they ’ re falling in love after just three dates , but women do n ’ t fall in love until date 14 . Twenty - nine percent of Americans have had sex on the first date . [ 8 ] Eye contact , or a “ copulatory gaze , ” is a primary and powerful tool for attracting a potential date for both men and women . However , the meaning of various types of eye contact differs from culture to culture . Talking to a bartender makes a woman seem more friendly and makes it easier for a guy to jump in on her conversation . A woman can increase the likelihood of a man approaching her if she uncrosses her arms , makes subtle eye contact , and smiles . Italian food is one of the most popular restaurants for a first date . [ 2 ] Twenty to 40 million Americans have used online dating services . Nearly 50 % of online daters are aged 18 - 34 and 24 % are 35 - 44 . [ 5 ] An attractive online “ About Me ” section in your online dating profile often includes a brief description of what you are passionate about or thankful for , a couple of things your friends say about you , qualities you are looking for in a potential partner , the first thing people notice about you ( other than appearance ) , how you spend your leisure time , five things you ca n ’ t live without , and the latest good book you ’ ve read . On average , there are 86 unmarried men for every 100 unmarried women in the U.S. , though the actual numbers vary according to region . Signs that a woman is not interested in her date include avoiding eye contact , faking a smile or not smiling , leaning away , answering in monosyllables , sagging her shoulders , looking at her watch , tapping her foot , or staring blankly . A woman will give several subtle ( or not so subtle ) hints she is not interested in a date Approximately 48 % of online daters reported that their breakups occurred via email . [ 5 ] On Match . com , 132 million winks are sent out each year and members go out on a six million dates per year . [ 10 ] eHarmony . com boasts that 236 of its members marry each day , accounting for 2 % of U.S. marriages . [ 4 ] New York and Washington have the most state residents who are unmarried , 50 % and 70 % , respectively . Idaho and Utah have the most state residents who are married , 60 % and 59 % . “ Desperate ” daters are typically always available , are clingy , need constant relationship status updates , fish for compliments , drop their standards , and rationalize bad treatment . Five types of women that men tend to avoid are serial flirters , someone who talks about marriage too soon , clingy women , the party - girl , and a woman who talks too much or is drama queen . Four common date blunders include showing up late , talking about yourself too much , revealing too much about your ex , and an obvious over - eagerness . A man ’ s top dating fears include that a woman will come between him and his friends , wo n ’ t allow him free time , will turn out to be a stalker , wo n ’ t respect him , or will be too high maintenance . Five common signs a man may be cheating in a relationship are that he accuses his partner of cheating , he ’ s extremely vague , he seems to be compensating by acting extra nice for no reason , he ’ s always at work , and his partner ' s friends drop her hints . An average couple will kiss on the second date On average , daters will kiss on the second date . The curve of the counter in a bar is designed so other customers can easily “ check out ” other customers . Bars also purposely place mirrors to help create a larger sense of place and to allow a person to scope out other people behind them . Signs that a man is about to break up with a woman include that he spends less time with her , he is no longer romantic , passionate kissing turns into quick pecks ( particularly no kiss during sex ) , he fantasizes about someone else during sex , he pats her during a hug , and he tries to start fights . Humans like mystery and “ the chase , ” so do n ' t be too “ available ” to a date . Dating experts typically suggest not sleeping too early with a date because the longer the chase , the more likely love will blossom . Keyword Tags # Amazing # Educational # FactOfTheDay # Fun # Important # Interesting # LittleKnown # MindBlowing # Random # Serious # AdultFacts # KidFriendly # SchoolProject # Dazzling # Funny # Love # Relationships # Romance # Family # Dating # Divorce # Flirting # HistoryofLove # HumanAttraction # Lust # Marriage # NationalSinglesWeek # OnlineDating # Sex # Women # Index References | [
"76 Interesting Facts about Dating"
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http://facts.randomhistory.com/divorce-facts.html | 54 Interesting Facts about Divorce By Karin Lehnardt Senior Writer Published December 18 , 2016 In New York and Mississippi , a spouse can sue a third party for being responsible for the failure of a marriage in cases of what ’ s called “ alienation of affection . ” [ 12 ] It ’ s a law in Wichita , Kansas , that if a man mistreats his mother - in - law , it can not be used as grounds for a divorce . [ 12 ] In 2012 , an Italian man brought his mother along on his honeymoon . His new bride asked for a divorce three weeks later . Only two U.S Presidents have known to have been divorced : Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump . [ 16 ] The world ’ s oldest divorcées are a 99 - year - old Italian man and his 96 - year - old ( ex ) wife . He divorced her after 60 years of marriage when he found love letters she had written to her lover in the 1940s . They married in 1934 and divorced in 2011 . A prosthetic penis could cause tension within a marriage In 2008 , a woman asked for a divorce from her husband after his prosthetic penis extension snapped off during sex . In America , the divorce rate peaked at 50 % in the 1980s . While the national divorce has declined , a first marriage is still between 40 - 50 % likely to end in divorce . [ 2 ] According to U.S. statistics , if one partner smokes , a marriage is 75 % more likely to end in divorce . [ 14 ] Research shows that couples in Republican states are 27 % more likely to divorce than couples in Democratic states . Couples in Republican states have historically married younger than their Democratic counterparts . [ 9 ] In ancient Chaldea , a man could get a divorce by writing a letter to his wife ’ s father or by saying “ Thou are not my wife . ” However , if the wife ever said , “ Thou are not my husband , ” she would be immediately drowned . [ 6 ] The most commonly cited statistic states that one in every four families will face divorce . More than one million people have parents who separate or divorce each year in the U.S . [ 8 ] A divorce is like an amputation : you survive it , but there ' s less of you . - Margaret Atwood In some Native American tribes , if a man left his wife without a serious reason , he was not allowed to remain a member of the tribe . Many tribes did not allow a man to separate from his wife if they had children together . The Aztecs were never permitted to divorce . [ 6 ] In the Aleutian Islands , if a man grew tired of his wife , he would barter her for food or clothes . According to U.S. statistics , if there is a daughter and no son in a marriage , the union is 5 % more likely to end . [ 14 ] The history of divorce is in large part a history of abandoning Catholic teaching on marriage as developed in the 13th century . Simply put , the Catholic Church ’ s position stated that divorce was forbidden because a validly contracted Christian marriage could be dissolved only by the death of a husband or wife . [ 4 ] While historically the Catholic Church forbade divorce , the Pauline Privilege ( found in 1 Cor . 7 : 15 ) states that remarriage by a Christian is allowed if a Christian spouse had been deserted by his or her non - Christian spouse . A second potential exception is if a marriage had not been sexually consummated and either the husband or wife wanted to enter a religious order . In both of these instances , divorce may be granted in “ favor of the faith . ” [ 4 ] If you do n ’ t have kids , divorce is often easier legally , financially , and emotionally Couples with children have a slightly lower divorce rate than couples without children . [ 8 ] While the Roman Catholic Church historically banned divorce , Jewish and Roman law at the beginning of the Christian era were more lenient . Jewish law gave the husband extensive authority to divorce his wife if she “ found no favor in his eyes , because he hath found some uncleanness in her . ” Jewish law also gave women more rights in initiating divorce . In the Philippines , divorce is illegal . Any divorce that is conducted outside the country is not recognized within the Philippines . Burgundian law declared that a woman who tried to divorce her husband should be smothered in a mire . Divorce is illegal in Malta , a country that is controlled by the Vatican . It is one of the three countries in the world ( all Catholic ) where divorce is illegal , even if the marriage is not a Catholic marriage . [ 7 ] The 5th Texas Court of Appeals recently ruled that same - sex couples who legally marry in other states can not divorce in Texas . [ 2 ] In ancient Rome , a couple could divorce just by declaring their intent not to live together in front of seven witnesses . Divorce was common , especially in the upper classes , and a divorced woman could receive her dowry back in full . She could also regain her independence upon a divorce . However , a woman found guilty of adultery would receive just half of her dowry . The law did not recognize adultery by husbands . In America , the divorce rate for a first marriage is around 41 % . The divorce rate for a second marriage is 60 % . The divorce rate for a third marriage is 73 % . [ 9 ] Divorce rates are higher among military personnel than among civilians According to the Defense Department , the divorce rate of military couples rose from 2.6 % in 2001 to 3.7 % in 2011 . The Air Force has the highest rate of divorce out of all the services . [ 3 ] The average length of divorce proceedings in the United States is 1 year . The mean age of a woman for a first divorce is 29 years old . For males in a first marriage , it is 30.5 . For a second marriage , the mean age for women is 37 years . For men in a second marriage , it is 39.3 years . Women on average wait 3.1 years to remarry after a divorce . Men wait 3.3 years . The divorce rate for couples over 65 years old has doubled since 1980 . Western states typically have the highest marriage and divorce rates , followed by the South . The Northeast has the lowest marriage and divorce rates . According to a recent study , dancers and choreographers reported the highest divorce rates ( 43.1 % ) , followed by bartenders ( 38.4 % ) , and massage therapists ( 38.2 % ) . Rounding out the top 10 were casino workers , telephone operators , nurses , and home health aides . [ 10 ] Long hours and physical contact with someone other than a spouse can cause tension within a marriage According to 2012 U.S. Census Bureau statistics , New Jersey has the lowest divorce rate . New York , Connecticut , Delaware , and Massachusetts round out the top five lowest rates . The East coast in general has a divorce rate of less than 12 % . According to 2012 U.S. Census Bureau statistics , Nevada has the highest rate of divorce at 14.7 % . Wyoming , Florida , Kentucky , and Tennessee all have rates of divorce over 13 . % . Marriages are more likely to last longer when people marry at an older age , have a higher education , and earn more money . Among the occupations with the lowest divorce rates are agricultural engineers , salespeople , nuclear engineers , optometrists , clergy , and podiatrists . [ 10 ] A marriage in which a woman is two or more years older than her husband is 53 % more likely to end in divorce than if the husband were three or more years older or only one year younger . Women who have been diagnosed with cervical cancer are more likely to divorce , by 40 % . If a man is diagnosed with testicular cancer , the marriage is 20 % more likely to divorce . On contrast , breast cancer survivors are 8 % less likely to divorce than women who have not had breast cancer . Sometimes " more to love " is n ' t a good thing Experts note that if a spouse has gained more than 20 % of his or her body weight , divorce is more likely . [ 15 ] Having twins or triplets increases the risk of divorce by 17 % . In Japan , visitors can write their divorce wishes on a piece of paper and flush them down the toilet in the Mantokuji Temple . The temple was traditionally a refuge for women seeking to escape an unhappy marriage . [ 7 ] After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan , the country experienced an increase of divorces and divorce ceremonies . In China , when couples of the Jing people divorce , they throw away the pen and ink stone used to sign the divorce papers because they believe they contain bad luck . Islam has traditionally allowed divorce , which is referred to as talaq . However , it is considered the worst of all lawful things in the sight of Allah . The rates of divorce were higher in the medieval Islamic world and Ottoman Empire than they are in the modern Middle East , which typically has low rates of divorce . The top five reasons for divorce in the U.S. include 1 ) communication problems ; 2 ) infidelity or betrayal ; 3 ) financial problems ; 4 ) psychological , emotional , and physical abuse ; and 5 ) loss of interest . Contrary to popular belief , premarital cohabitation does not increase a couple ’ s divorce risk – if the couple intends to get married . [ 5 ] Children of divorced parents are twice as likely to drop out of high school and less likely to attend college . Kids at any age often feel uncertain or angry at the prospect of their parents splitting up White women who marry outside their race are more likely to divorce than other ethnic groups . Mixed marriages involving blacks and whites were the least stable interracial marriage , followed by Hispanic - white couples . [ 18 ] First marriages that end in divorce usually last approximately 8 years . [ 11 ] Divorced men are at an especially high risk of alcohol abuse . In contrast , divorced women ’ s alcohol consumption falls sharply after a divorce . [ 1 ] Approximately 6 % of American couples marry , divorce , and then remarry each other . [ 17 ] In 2 / 3 of all American divorces , it ’ s the woman who files for divorce . Additionally , while men are financially better off than women after a divorce , they are more likely to suffer more emotionally . [ 17 ] Asian women on average stay married longer Asian women are the most likely to be in a first marriage that lasts over 20 years . The CDC concludes that 70 % of Asian women are still in their first marriage , compared to 54 % of white women , 53 % of Hispanic women , and 37 % of black women . [ 18 ] Some researchers note that men are eight times more likely than divorced women to commit suicide . They are also twice as likely to suffer depression and heart attacks . [ 13 ] The top six signs of an impending divorce include 1 ) dreaming of life without the spouse ; 2 ) the bad in the marriage outweighs the good ; 3 ) lack of communication ; 4 ) engaging negative defense mechanisms , such as becoming overly defensive and dismissive ; 5 ) a spouse feels like he or she is the only one trying to solve problems ; and 6 ) the couple rarely , if ever has sex . Keyword Tags # Amazing # Educational # FactOfTheDay # Important # Interesting # LittleKnown # MindBlowing # Random # Sad # Serious # AdultFacts # KidFriendly # SchoolProject # Love # Relationship # Romance # Family # DivorceDay # Divorce # HistoryofDivorce # Separation # Marriage # MarriageLaws # Husband # Wife # Money # HistoryofLove # HistoryofMarriage # AmazingStatistics # Children # Index References | [
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http://facts.stanford.edu/academics/graduate | Graduate Studies Graduate education has been central to Stanford ’ s reputation for academic excellence , intellectual innovation , and entrepreneurial spirit since the university ’ s founding . In Stanford ’ s first year , 1891 , 39 men and 12 women from 19 states enrolled as graduate students , representing one of the first opportunities for graduate study on the West Coast . Currently , they constitute 57 % of Stanford ’ s overall enrollment . Today , 9,437 students are pursuing 14 distinct post - baccalaureate degrees in nearly 200 graduate programs in all seven of Stanford ’ s schools : Business ; Earth , Energy & Environmental Sciences ; Education ; Engineering ; Humanities and Sciences ; Law ; and Medicine . Stanford offers the PhD , JD , MBA , MD , and a variety of master ’ s degrees . About half of Stanford ’ s graduate students are pursuing a doctoral degree ; Stanford is consistently among the leading private universities awarding the highest number of PhDs each year . By the numbers Graduate Profile , 2017 - 18 Academic Life Stanford ’ s highly collaborative intellectual community provides an unparalleled environment for graduate study and research . Students who pursue graduate and professional degrees have opportunities to study with a wide array of faculty . Learning specialized knowledge and skills , graduate students also bring vital curiosity and new insights to the pursuit of ideas , forging new paths of understanding and discovery in uncharted terrain . Founded in 2007 , the Office of the Vice Provost for Graduate Education works collaboratively across the university , leading initiatives and providing resources that enhance the quality of graduate students ’ educational experiences and position Stanford at the forefront of innovation in graduate education . Stanford ’ s schools , departments , and faculty have considerable autonomy in shaping their graduate program requirements , allocating resources , and creating innovative learning opportunities . Graduate students engage in learning , teaching , and research that often extend beyond departmental and disciplinary boundaries , and they may study in interdisciplinary or joint degree programs that span schools . Enrollment exchange programs with the University of California , Berkeley , the University of California , San Francisco , and other selected universities around the country enable graduate students to take courses not offered at Stanford . Graduate students are encouraged to engage in a variety of professional and career development opportunities at Stanford as they develop their skills to embark on the many career paths available to them . Many graduate students have the opportunity to undertake research or teaching assistantships , where they hone their skills as researchers and teachers while also contributing to the university ’ s mission of education and research . Fellowships and Awards About 85 percent of Stanford graduate students receive financial assistance from Stanford or external sources . The Office of the Vice Provost for Graduate Education administers seven university - wide graduate fellowship programs . Having gained visibility over the past two decades , the Stanford Graduate Fellowships in Science and Engineering program annually awards three - year fellowships to over 100 exemplary incoming doctoral students in over 40 departments and interdisciplinary programs , granting Fellows autonomy to pursue research interests in specialized fields . Over the past decade , the Stanford Interdisciplinary Graduate Fellowship Program has awarded 230 fellowships to Stanford graduate students have a long history of competing successfully for national and international fellowships as well as research grants . Over 650 graduate students are supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship , a three - year fellowship awarded to the nation ’ s most promising scholars . The Knight - Hennessy Scholars program develops a community of future global leaders to address complex challenges through collaboration and innovation . Every year , up to 100 high - achieving students from around the world will receive full funding to pursue any graduate degree at Stanford , including the DMA , JD , MA , MBA , MD , MFA , MS , and PhD , as well as joint - and dual - degrees . Knight - Hennessy Scholars is the largest fully endowed scholars program in the world . Student Life Stanford offers distinctive resources for graduate students to foster a sense of belonging in our diverse community , including outstanding students from around the world . Approximately , 33 % of the 2018 - 19 graduate student population , over 3,100 students , are international students from over 100 countries . The top five countries other than the US that Stanford graduate students call home are : China , India , South Korea , Canada , and France . About 66 percent of graduate students live in university - subsidized on - or off - campus housing , and many graduate students live in nearby neighborhoods . Living in close proximity to campus allows graduate students to engage fully in Stanford ’ s vibrant intellectual community . Stanford is making a major investment in graduate housing , building a new complex with 2,400 spaces ; it is under construction and anticipated to open in 2020 . At that point 75 % of graduate students will live on campus . Graduate Admissions Admissions decisions are made by each department and program . Graduate Admissions in the Office of the Registrar provides application materials for nearly all graduate degree programs . Visit online or call ( 650 ) 723 - 4291 . See also : Graduate School of Business admissions School of Law admissions School of Medicine ’ s M.D. program admissions Last updated February 19th , 2019 | [
"Graduate Studies",
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http://facts4kids.blogspot.com/2012/06/why-does-sugar-dissolve-faster-in-hot.html | Interesting Facts for All Tuesday , June 5 , 2012 Why does sugar dissolve faster in hot water than cold water ? Sugar dissolves by water molecules surrounding sugar molecules and separting in from the rest of the solid . When sugar is added to water , energy is used up to break apart the molecules in the sugar . The water molecules then begin to spread out to make room for the sugar . This way the sugar gets dissolved in the water . When the water is hot , the sugar molecules break apart faster , and the water molecules move around the sugar faster . With increased temperature , the water molecules are moving more rapidly , increasing the speed at which hydrated sugar molecules are transported away from the solid , increasing the rate at which the solid dissolves . In cold water , this process is slow , hence the sugar does not get dissolved faster . at 8 : 12 PM Email This BlogThis ! Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Newer Post Older Post Home | [
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http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub34/item218.html | TIBETAN MONKS AND LAMAS TIBETAN MONKS AND LAMAS Studying monk Religious life in Tibet revolves around monks and monasteries The Tibetan word for monk is trapa which means student or scholar It is used to describe the three main categories of monastery residents students monks and scholars and teachers lamas Monks and lamas dont necessarily have to be celibate The religious leaders of many villages are married lamas Lamas are spiritual guides and master teachers who orally pass on complex rituals and meditation techniques to disciples They are sometimes regarded as living gods the word lama means teacher or superior one Lamas preside over important ceremonies and are believed to possess supernatural powers that can slay demons and bring good fortune blessings wealth and good health Tibetan Buddhism is sometimes called Lamanism because of the reverence given lamas Padmasambhava a Buddhist monk from India established the First Lamaic order about AD 770 Many lamas today are regarded as reincarnations of lamas who purportedly flew in from a mountaintop over a thousand years ago when several lamaseries were built in one night Tibetan monks play a major role in the lives of the Tibetan people conducting religious ceremonies and taking care of the monasteries Sometimes in order to maintain a household and to avoid the dividing of property a younger son is sent to the monastery to be a monk the equivalent of knighting a younger son without property in England and when the younger brother reaches adulthood he shares his elder brothers wife Source Washington Post According to Reuters there are more than 46000 monks in Tibet The number of monks in Tibet in 1950 was about 110000 which would be the equivalent per capital of the US having 27 million monks of which about 35 percent would be of marriageable age This creates a shortage of available males and in many sparsely populated areas it is hard to find a suitable spouse Source Chloe Xin Tibetravelorg tibettravelorg Websites and Resources Good Websites and Sources on Monks and Lamas Monks and Nuns at Labrang China Vista Monk Daily Life tibetanvillageorg Monk Life travelchinaguidecom Research on Tibetan Monks caseeduaffiltibet New York Times article on monks studying science nytimescom Monasteries and Pilgrims Monasteries buddhisttourismcom Monastery Preservation asianartcom Wikipedia list Wikipedia Book Path to Buddha A Tibetan Pilgrimage by Steve McCurry Phaidon Press 2003 Mt Kailash Wikipedia Wikipedia Sacred Sites Sacred Sites Summit Post Summit Post Tibetan Buddhism Religion Facts religionfactscom Wikipedia article Wikipedia View on Buddhism click Tibetan Buddhism stuff on left viewonbuddhismorg Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center tbrcorg Tibetan Buddhist archives sacredtextscom Buddhanet list of Tibetan Buddhism sources buddhanetnet Books on Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism kotanorg and wisdompubsorg Book Tibetan Buddhism by L Austine Waddell On Buddhism Introduction to Buddhism webspaceshipedu Guide to Buddhism buddhanetnet Buddhist Studies Virtual Library on Buddhism ciolekcomWWWVL Buddhism Library buddhismlibntuedu Buddhism in China Buddhist Studies buddhanetnet Wikipedia article on Buddhism in China Wikipedia Bibliography huaumfmaineedu Links in this Website BUDDHISM IN CHINA FactsanddetailscomChina HISTORY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA FactsanddetailscomChina HISTORY OF TIBETAN BUDDHISM FactsanddetailscomChina TIBETAN BUDDHISM SECTS FactsanddetailscomChina TIBETAN BUDDHISM TEXT BELIEFS GODS SYMBOLS FactsanddetailscomChina TIBETAN BUDDHIST OBJECTS RITUALS AND TEMPLES FactsanddetailscomChina TIBETAN MONKS AND LAMAS FactsanddetailscomChina TIBETAN MONASTERIES AND PILGRIMS FactsanddetailscomChina BON RELIGION CATHOLICS AND ASTROLOGY IN TIBET FactsanddetailscomChina RELIGIOUS REPRESSION IN TIBET FactsanddetailscomChina DALAI LAMAS FactsanddetailscomChina PRESENT DALAI LAMA FactsanddetailscomChina DALAI LAMAs CURRENT LIFE FactsanddetailscomChina DALAI LAMA AND POLITICS FactsanddetailscomChina PANCHEN LAMAS AND LAMA CONTROVERSIES FactsanddetailscomChina KARMAPA LAMA FactsanddetailscomChina Good Websites and Sources on Tibet Central Tibetan Administration Tibetan government in Exile wwwtibetcom Chinese Government Tibet website engtibetcn Wikipedia Wikipedia Tibetan Resources phayulcom Open Directory dmozorgRegionalAsiaChinaTibet Snow Lion Publications books on Tibet snowlionpubcom Photos Tibet Photo Gallery Tibet Gallery Terra Nomada Terra Nomada Tibetan Cultural Sites Conservancy for Tibetan Art and Culture tibetancultureorg Tibet Trip tibettripcom Tibetan Cultural Region Directory kotanorg Tibetan Studies and Tibet Research Tibetan Resources on The Web Columbia University CV Starr East Asian Library columbiaedu Tibetan and Himalayan Library thliborg Digital Himalaya digitalhimalayacom Tibetan Studies Maps WWW Virtual Library ciolekcomWWWVLTibetanStudies Center for Research of Tibet caseedu Center for Advanced Tibetan Studies amnyemachenorg Tibetan Studies resources blog tibetanstudiesresourcesblogspotcom News Electronic Journals ciolekcomWWWVLPages Rinpoches and Tibetan Buddhist Saints Guru Rinpoche Rinpoches an honorary term meaning precious ones are senior lamas or the head lamas at monasteries They are generally regarded as reincarnations of the monasterys first lama They often enjoy a level of comfort and luxury not afforded other monks As a symbol of their rank they sit on cushions higher than everyone else Rinpoches are lamas who are revered and honored as holy men who have progressed beyond the status of monk through reincarnation If lamas are the equivalent of priests rinpoches are like bishops The Dalai Lama is a sort super Rinpoche Rinpoches are usually selected by their ability to pick out religious objects in a large group of things and recognize certain people in a crowd Certain auspicious signs usually indicate the birth of lama or rinpoche Greatly revered abbots are considered a tulku by Tibetans and called a living Buddha in Chinesean especially revered figure who is believed to be the essence of a prominent religious leader Some are regarded as saints A Dolpo saint by the name of Tulka Tsewang reportedly meditated for 65 years inside a wooden crib To gain an audience with him followers had to give him a votive offering that looked like a piece of chocolate and a shell suggesting the spinning of the universe Source Eric Valli and Diane Summers National Geographic December 1993 Tertons or treasure seekers are credited with finding important Buddhist texts and objects They reportedly have the power to fly inside mountains and icy lakes to retrieve sacred objects Selecting Lamas It is believed that when a lama dies his spirits move into a new body After his death a search for the individual that possesses this body begins In theory the search for a new lama is supposed to be based on visions from oracles divine messages and poems and messages left from the previous lama In reality the search process is often affected by politics court intrigues and factional infighting Sometimes a method of divination is used to select lamas in which the names of the candidates are placed in balls of tsampa barley meal and the bowl is rotated until one of the balls jumps out Theoretically women and nonTibetans can become lamas but in nearly all cases lamas are Tibetan males A reincarnation of a lama is called a tukla He is regarded as a sacred vessel of Tibetan Buddhism Describing what they look for in a new lama one senior lama in Mongolia told National Geographic They are watched for certain qualities They must for example have beautiful hands because they must make certain hand movements Lama Life Young men study for around five years to become lamas They usually begin their training at monasteries at age six Shrines in homes are often decorated with pictures of lamas If you meet a lama you should present him with a scarf The scarfs can usually be purchased at the temples where the lamas reside When face to face with a saint or revered lama Tibetans often try to lift up the robes and touch the feet of the lama as an act of reverence Among the few possessions owned by a lama are a ceremonial bowl made from a human skull silver charms to keep away biting dogs and disease and a threeedged ritual dagger to keep away ignorance passion and aggression Most Tibetan villages or towns have resident lamas They along with local lay priests and shaman are called upon to heal the sick settle disputes preside over religious activities and predict the future and read omens for auspicious and inauspicious times Traditionally lamas have presided over important events in a Tibetan persons life Journalist Thomas Ambercrombie wrote in National Geographic Much of what education he has comes from lamas who also bless his birth consecrate his wedding interpret his future cure his ills andwhen the trials of the present incarnation ceasecremate his remains His social life is tuned to the lively festivals held at lamaseries Many lamas are married men not celibate monks They believe they have inherited their places in society from the last Tibetan kings and this gives them spiritual and social authority Some use their position to make money by blessing homes livestock and people in return from money goods or labor Dalai Lama Panchen Lama Karmapa Lama See Dalai Lama See Panchen LamaOther Lamas Sects Controversies See Karmapa Lama Other Lamas Sects Controversies Tibetan Buddhist Oracles Bodhisattva Manjushri Tibetan Buddhists believe that it is possible to communicate with spirits and deities through intermediaries and oracles Selections for these positions are often based on certain signs or body marks After a Tibetan child is born his or her body is searched for omens and signs Large ears like those on Buddha statues are considered a sign of wisdom Moles with particular shapes found in significant places have special meanings Living with the Dalai Lama in India is the Oracle from Nechung Monetary in Tibet Not unlike his ancient Greek counterpart at Delphi the oracle mediates near the Oracle statuea small dolllike figure with reaching arms bulging eyes and an expression reminiscent of Edvar Munchs The Screamin a chapel and goes into a trance with an interpreter interpreting what he says Before 1959 the Dalai Lama used to meet with Nechung oracle on every New Years day The oracle donned bracelets shaped like human eyes and wore an elaborate headdress made of feathers and went into a trance Observers said his eyeballs rolled on his sockets his face turned red his mouth opened up and his tongue curled up inside his mouth He answered questions in an anguished hissing voice while looking in a mirror A clerk recorded and translated what he said The session was over after he fainted Tibetan Buddhist Monks Boy monks Traditionally large numbers of Tibetan males became monks and many families had at least one son who was a monk In 1959 nearly a quarter of all Tibetan males were monks The number of monks has been reduced from around 120000 in 1950 to 14000 in 1987 and has grown to around 467000 today a number fixed by the government since 1994 There are relatively few nuns they have a reputation for political activism Monks join monasteries when they are a young as five years old To gain admission they must be approved by a lama and later pass an entrance exam Monks are expected to develop through meditation research and training in logic Children are often recruited when they are very young to be monks The practice has been criticized A spokesman for the Dalai Lama told National Geographic We find that some of the best scholars began as children though I acknowledge that children dont really know their own minds at that age Novice monks gain admittance to Sera monastery at age 16 by memorizing 300 scriptures and passing an exam Deciding to Become a Tibetan Monk William Dalrymple of the Paris Review talked with an elderly monk named Tashi Passang The monk said I was born in 1936 in the Dagpo district of the Kham region Like many in eastern Tibet my family lived a seminomadic life We were small landowners with a stone threestory house and we had many yaks In the summer the boys of the family had to help my grandparents and my uncles to take the herds up to the high summer pastures Source William Dalrymple Paris Review Spring 2010 For my third summer in the mountains my greatuncle came with us He was a monk though he no longer lived in a monastery My mother had taught me to read and write a little Tibetan and my uncle thought that I was a promising boy who might benefit from a monastic education Every day he would sit with me and teach me to write on a slate or on the bark of a tree as there was no paper in the mountains He also loved history and was a good storyteller As we tended the animals he would tell But his main love was the dharma and he told me that if I continued to lead the life of a layman I might acquire many yaks but would have nothing to take with me when I died He also said that married life was a very complicated business full of responsibilities difficulties and distractions and that the life of a monk was much easier He said that it gave you more time and opportunities to practice your religion Ibid By the end of the summer I had decided that I would like to try monastic life I thought that if I really dedicated myself to religion I would have a better chance of a good rebirth in my next life and have the opportunity to gain nirvana My uncle and I guessed that my parents would forbid me from becoming a monk so we decided that I should join the monastery first and only later inform the family At the end of the summer when we came down from the passes my uncle and I went to Dagpo monastery Tibetan Buddhist Monk Life Monks live as simply as possible They follow the model of the Buddha who traded in his clothing for simple robes Monks shave their heads and faces to discourage vanity Monks have traditionally lived a cloistered existence One Tibetan monk said When I was a child we Tibetans were like frogs in a well We saw the walls of the well and the sky above That was our world Passang said As it turned out I was happier in the monastery than I had ever been In my life as a herdsman I had to worry about protecting my yaks from wolves and I had to look after my grandparents Life was full of anxieties But as a monk you just have to practice your prayers and meditation and to hope and work for enlightenment Also life in the mountains for all its beauty was quite lonely In Dagpo there were nearly five hundred monks and many boys of my own age I made a lot of friends I How you start your life as a monk can determine the rest of your life One of our teachings is Men who have not gained spiritual treasures in their youth perish like old herons in a lake without fishThe main struggle especially when you are young is to avoid four things desire greed pride and attachment Of course no human being can do this completely But there are techniques that the lamas taught us for diverting the mind They stop you from thinking of yaks or money or beautiful women and teach you to concentrate instead on gods and goddesses Tibetan Buddhist Monk Daily Life Tibetan monks rise at 530am offer holy water and light yak butter lamps to honor Buddha and the Dalai Lama and pray and meditate for five hours Near midday two monks climb a central temple and blow a horn calling the senior monks to prayer In the afternoon monks generally attend classes participate in discussions on religious doctrine say prayers for the dead to help their soul reach heaven and engage in debates with other monks Prayers and study are stopped up to nine times a day for teas and simple meals Many monks carry a bowl for eating tucked Monks sit crosslegged in rows when they chant prayers Describing a group of chanting monks in Mongolia Thomas Allen wrote in National Geographic Dozens of monks sat in the center of the temple while the world of tourists and worshipers whirled around them In a counterpoint of human and sacred sounds babies cries sharply rose and fell against the undulating ceaseless chanting A gong throbbed unseen in a mist of incenseThe monks sat in facing rows eyes fixed on some inner eternity hands gracefully moving as they hold their dark beads and tinkled tiny bells Many of the monks in Tea is considered essential by all Tibetans lamas included Every morning lamas attend a morning prayer sessions led held under the aegis of the sutra teacher This is followed the consumption of buttered tea and tsampa At noon they gather in the sutra hall of the Buddhist school of the monastery to pray and recite Buddhist scriptures while drinking tea This ceremony is much the same as the morning mass but is held on a smaller scale In the evening lamas gather in the Khangtshan to pray and drink tea in a fairly informal setting In Tibetan this is called tibettravelorg Monks use wooden bowls People who know the monasteries well can tell which monastery the monk is from based on the shape of the bowl The ironclub lamas always move the bowl from one hand to the other playfully which is quite dazzling In religious meetings when the ironclub lama keeps order his wooden bowl is an emblem of authority that is used to knock the head of those who do not observe the order Clergy and laypeople making obeisance to the Dalai Lama in the morning were usually awarded three bowls of butter tea While they listened respectfully to tibettravelorg Tibetan Monk Training On his training Passang said It was very rigorous For three years we were given text after text of the scriptures to memorize It was a slow process First we had to master the Tibetan alphabets Then we had to learn a few mantras then slowly we were taught the shorter versions of the scriptures or tantras Finally we graduated to the long versions At the end of this period we were each sent off to live in a cave for four months to practice praying in solitude There were seven other boys nearby in the same cliff face but Initially I felt like a failure I was lonely and scared and had a terrible pain in my knees from the number of prostrations we were expected to do thousands in a day but by the end of the first fortnight I finally began to reflect deeply on things I began to see the vanity of pleasures and ambitions Until then I had not really sat and reflected I had just done what I had been taught and followed the set rhythms of the monastery Ibid I felt that I had found myself in the cave My mind became clear and I felt my sins were being washed away with the austerity of the hermit life that I was being purified I was happy It is not easy to reach the stage when you really remove the world from your heart Ever since then I have always had a desire to go back and to spend more time as a hermit But it was not meant to be As soon as I returned from those four months of solitude the Chinese came Ibid Tibetan Buddhist Monk Rules In the Yellow Hat sect a monk initiate makes initial vows known as the genyen or getsui ordination in which he vows to give up secular life and become celibate This is the beginning of a long road of study and meditation If he stays the course he becomes ordained as a monk with full gelung vows Monks are not supposed to marry quarrel smoke drink or eat meat They wear maroon robes and carry prayer beads Sometimes Tibetan monks carry staffs that signify their rank Many monks are trained for specific duties such as administration teaching or cooking In the old days many monastery had fighting monks that were trained in the martial arts and expected to defend the monastery if attacked or even attack rival monasteries if there was some dispute Monks have not always been celibate In the old days it was customary for senior monks to keep young boys and girls as drombos passive sexual partners and marry noble women who bore them children William Dalrymple of the Paris Review talked with an elderly Tibetan monk named Tashi Passang The monk said The main struggle especially when you are young is to avoid four things desire greed pride and attachment Of course no human being can do this completely But there are techniques that the lamas taught us for diverting the mind They stop you from thinking of yaks or money or beautiful women and teach you to concentrate instead on gods and goddesses Source William Dalrymple Paris Review Spring 2010 When asked about the techniques to rid oneself of desire and attachment a Tibetan monk said The lamas taught us to stare at a statue of the Lord Buddha and absorb the details of the object the color the posture and so on reflecting back all we knew of their teachings Slowly you go deeper you visualize the hand the leg and thevajra in his hand closing your eyes and trying to travel inward The more you concentrate on a deity the more you are diverted from worldly thoughts It is difficult of course but it is also essential In Tibetan Buddhist Monk Tasks Monk chores The life of a monk is not all just quiet meditation and study New arrivals and junior monks especially perform chores like doing the laundry sweeping floors and fetching water Young monks are often running around with pots of tea in their hands delivering them to senior monks To earn merit on Buddhas birthday some monks walk around and around their monasteries the entire day carrying heavy woodenbound prayer books Many classrooms in monastery colleges are outfit with buckets If a monk cant remember a text he was supposed to recite he has to wear a bucket of water around Monks have traditionally subsisted off of food from their labors donations from farmers and herders and contributions from their families Buddhists believe that each monks spiritual quest helps the entire community Sending sons to become monks earn merits for their parents Many monks spend their time laboriously duplicating sacred books by hand with intricate handcarved printing blocks The Buddhist scriptures are printed in threefootlong books that are produced in sets consisting of 100 or more volumes Buddhist monks at the Baoguang monastery in southwest Sichuan formed Chinas first and only monk fire department in 1989 About 80 of the monasterys 130 monks are members of the department and newlyrecruited monks are trained in fire fighting Catholic monks have come to Tibetan monasteries to learn meditation techniques and Tibet monks have been sent to Catholic missions to lean how to set up orphanages homes for the elderly schools and hospitals In Tibet villages and families traditionally took care of these things With the Dalai Lama in exile in India the traditional structure has collapsed and the monasteries have had to take over Studying and Debating Monks Debating monks Many monks spend their time debating subtle points of Buddhist theology such as whether or not a rabbit has a horn or whether form has shape and color The abbots and teachers usually stand while the monks sit on the floor In their free time monks play soccer wrestle and goof around In some monasteries monks participate in debates in the main assembly hall of the monastery observed by local spectators and tourists This is sometimes followed by ritual music played outside Examinations for the highest Lharampa Geshe degree a degree in Buddhist philosophy in the Geluk tradition are held Describing debating monks in a monastery Tim Sullivan of Associated Press wrote The shouts of more than a dozen Tibetan monks echo through the small classroom Fingers are pointed Voices collide When an important point is made the men smack their hands together and stomp the floor their robes billowing around them Its the way Tibetan Buddhist scholars have traded ideas for centuries Among them the debateasshouting match is a discipline and a joy Source Tim Sullivan Associated Press July 3 2012 Though most studied only religious subjects after eighth grade and few learned anything but basic math they regularly traverse highly complex concepts Because of the way they study focusing on debates and the memorization of long written passages but doing comparatively little writing few are able to take notes during classroom lectures Many were raised to see magic as an integral part of the world around them To watch them in class though is astonishing No one yawns No one dozes Since almost no one takes notes its easy to think theyre not paying attention For most of the monastics the challenges are not in the academic rigor They see nothing astonishing about their ability to process vast amounts of information without taking notes or to remain attentive for hours on end See Tibetan Education Tibetan Monk Clothes Chloe Xin of Tibetravelorg wrote Clothing articles for Tibetan monks include a waistcoat and a red monk skirt They wrap dark red kasaya twice the bodys length obliquely about their shoulders When monks pray they wear a red cloak made of wool which is called dagang in Tibetan After the monks are promoted to Gexi the highest academic degree of Tibetan Buddhism their waistcoats are rimmed with satin borders and they hang satin water bags about their waists in which is a small bottle for mouthrinsing Monks who are responsible for blowing suona horn and monastic bugle may also wear tibettravelorg June 3 2014 The costumes of Tibetan monks are usually made of crimson pulu In daily life a monk wears a shawl with the front and the back decorated with yellow cloth and a long skirt and drapes another long shawl that is approximately 25 times of the length of his height When he attends a religious meeting he will wear a cloak and a special yellow cap Sticking up high on the head this neatly sewed cap resembles the shape of a roosters comb Virtually the costumes of monks varies among different sects For example some other monks wear long steeplecrowned hat Hats are also important costume for Tibetan monks and distinctive feature of different schools of Tibetan Buddhism for example Red Hats for Nyingmapa and Yellow Hats for Gelugpa Monks of different sects can be easily distinguished by their coronary caps For example senior monks of the Ningma Sect wear lotus caps shaped like thrones It was said that such caps were once worn by Padmasambhava a senior Indian monk who had come to preach his religion in Tibet Monks of the Sakya Sect wear heartshaped caps called the sakya cap The goldenrimmed red caps which were also said to be Although monks attire is determined by rigid rules nuns attire is determined mostly by their financial situation Their waistcoats may be rimmed with satin but their skirts and kasaya are usually made of tweed Sometimes they patch a piece of satin on their shoes to represent their different status Along with the fast development of society monks and nuns clothes have been undergoing changes Now it is not unusual to see Buddhist monks and nuns wear sport shoes and watches Tibetan robes are called Kasaya a translation of Sanskrit whose original meaning was color that is not pure or bad color Because the robe worn by monks was traditionally made of color that is not pure variegated color it was called kasaya Later the color of monks clothes changed Today different types are worn for different occasios For example when monks hold ceremonies they often wear Jinlan clothes kasaya woven with gold thread Source Liu Jun Museum of Nationalities Central University for Nationalities kepunetcn Kasaya is basically a wrapping sheet about 70 centimeters wide and is 25 times as long as human body When monks wear them they are wrapped on the upper body leaving the right shoulder exposed and reaching the instep Kasayas are different according to different levels of ranks and positions in terms of quality and the color of the cloth Robes edged with yellow brocade or have yellow silks and satins in normal times are mostly worn by highlevel monks or lamas The styles of kasaya and ways of wearing them are almost the same for the four main Tibetan Tibetan Monk Robes Robes are the most common costume of Tibetan monks The basic robe consists of the following parts 1 The dhonka a wrap shirt with cap sleeves usually is maroon or maroon and yellow with blue piping 2 The shemdap is a maroon skirt made with patched cloth and a varying number of pleats 3 The chögu something like a sanghati a wrap made in patches and worn on the upper body although sometimes it is draped over one shoulder like a kashaya robe The chögu is yellow and worn for certain ceremonies and teachings 4 the zhen similar to the The way of the monks to wear the robe usually depends on their sect and areas The most universal one is that which is worn for the almsround when the robe is covering both the shoulders The two top corners are held together and the edges rolled tightly together The roll is then pushed over the left shoulder down the back under the armpit and is pressed down with the left arm The roll is parted in front through which protrudes the right arm Within the monastery or residence and when having an audience with a more senior monk a See Endangered Animals Trouble Getting New Tibetan Monks More monk chores A couple decades ago there were very few monks left as a result of Chinese repression and most of the monks were elderly After China opened up after the Cultural Revolution many young men in Tibet became monks Asked why he became a monk one 22yearold monk told the Washington Post I joined of my own free will Every time I met a monk I had a good feeling Monasteries have a hard time getting new recruits In Nepal few Sherpas become monks these days and of those who try two thirds eventually quit One monk told National Geographic No one wants to become a monk when theyve already danced with girls Some fall in love with girls one trainee said Others cant take the responsibility One man who was a monk for 16 years left for chang and a good woman In Tibet many monks are lured by money and run off and work as laborers or in restaurants The number of senior priests is also declining Changing Tibetan Monks The monks themselves are changing These days monks sometimes wear blue running shoes under their maroon robes and suck on popsicles and smoke cigarettes after the meditation sessions are over Many wear soft wool robes rather than ones made of coarse cloth and study Mandarin and English to keep up with the times There are monks that are always on their cell phones and love tinkering with electronics Some talk on cell phones while they do the circuit at Jokhang Monks with flashy sunglasses riding motorscooters are becoming a common sight Some are involved in the smuggling of precious antiques and selling statues and to German and Japanese tourists Small bronze statues taken from monasteries have been sold by monks for between 5000 and 50000 Chinese Rules and Tibetan Monks The Chinese government bans monastic education before the age of 18 The government justifies this policy by arguing that monasteries only teach religion and the Tibetan language and students need a complete education with sciences the Chinese language and math Many parents ignore the law and quietly send their sons off to monasteries for religious training Senior monks have said that after attending regular schools for nine years many young Tibetans dont want to become monks In many monasteries monks are not allowed to watch DVDs surf the Internet or use cell phones in accordance with Beijing rules They are told that pictures of the Dalai Lama are banned and reminded not to listen to what people outside China say Monasteries have been ordered to stop holding public teachings and are required to allow the Chinese government to conduct classes One monk in Shigatse told the Washington Post We have enough to eat and enough clothes but our spirits are heavy There are political education classes every Tuesday and Friday now and everyone is scared We cant even trust our senior monks Foreign tourists have described undercover monks at some of the monasteries they have visited One American couple told Lonely Planet that they gave one monk at Tashilhunpo monastery in Shigatse some tapes of speeches by the Dalai Lama Later the couple was picked up by police with the monk on hand to identify them They were interrogated at police station and had their hotel room searched Possessions connected to the Dalai Lama were confiscated Reeducation Classes for Tibetan Monks A monk at the Dege printing factory told National Geographic Fifteen times a year Chinese officials visit the monasteries and conduct patriotic education Each class lasts two or three hours Basically they tell the monks the Dalai Lama is evil and that he wants to split the motherland The monks must pretend to listen but most manage to block it out by chanting silently to themselves In recent years regular reeducation classes have been stepped up and have become part of monastic life in Tibet Attendance is mandatoryunless a monk is sick and then a letter from a doctor is necessary be excused from the class The reeducation classes used to take place once or twice a month then they were increased to once or twice a week Now at some monasteries they occur almost daily One monk told the Times of London that in the morning We gather in the main hall and Communist Party officials deliver a speech telling us to be patriotic and they give each monk a paper to read In the afternoon the monks return to answer questions related to the paper Usually its pretty relaxed If I cant remember my answers then I just repeat the same as the monks Sometimes it turns more serious That is when the police arrive They may stand beside each monk listening carefully to make sure each answer is correct If the police come we have to lie We have to say I love the motherland I dont love him They dont require you to explain who him is because we all know Image Sources Julie Chao httpjuliechaocompixchinahtml Shunyanet Purdue University Text Sources New York Times Washington Post Los Angeles Times Times of London National Geographic The New Yorker Time Newsweek Reuters AP Lonely Planet Guides Comptons Encyclopedia and various books and other publications 2008 Jeffrey Hays Last updated July 2015 | [
"TIBETAN MONKS",
"LAMAS"
] |
http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Laos/sub5_3b/entry-2954.html | FAMILIES MEN AND WOMEN IN LAOS FAMILIES IN LAOS The Lao have large closeknit families Often with three generations living together The eldest man is the patriarch of the family and represents the household at village meetings The Lao have great respect for parents and elders The family unit for the Laos is usually a nuclear family but may include grandparents or siblings or other relatives usually on the wifes side The average household has six to eight members Sometimes two or more families may farm together and share grain in a common granary Lowland Lao households average between six and eight persons but may reach twelve or so in exceptional cases The family structure is typically nuclear or stem a married couple and their unmarried children or an older married couple together with one married child and his or her spouse plus unmarried children and grandchildren Because kinship is reckoned bilaterally and flexibly Lao Loum may maintain close social relationships with kin who are only distantly related by blood Terms of address for persons in an older generation distinguish whether the relationship is through the fathers or mothers side and elder from younger The oldest working man in a household makes decisions about rice production and represents the family in temple rituals and villages councils Kin relationships are defined partly by choice Siblings and immediate maternal and paternal relatives are recognized by everyone but more distant relations between uncles aunts and cousins and so forth are only established if they are pursued Kin relations are reinforced through sharing goods swapping labor and participating in family and religious rituals These relations are defined by gender relative age ad by side of the family Sons and daughter have traditionally received relatively equal shares of the inheritance The daughter who takes care of the parents and her husband often receive the house after the parents die Property is often handed over when a child gets married or establishes a household In Laos there is no social security or other welfare such as homes for the elderly provided by the government However as our family bonds are strong and everyone in the family helps everyone out it is an important part of our culture to take care of our aging parents and grandparents This might change in the future because the Lao simple life is slowly being replaced by modern lifestyles and the extended families are gradually being replaced by nuclear ones as people have fewer children these days Family Life in Laos Lao people typically socialise as families and most live in extended families with three or sometimes more generations sharing one house or compound The family cooks and eats together sitting on the floor with sticky rice and dishes shared by all Sometimes when someone pays a visit unexpectedly at meal time we automatically invite them to join us without any hesitation Source LaosGuide999com The fact that most Lao people were brought up in extended families that required a high level of harmony kindness patience and readiness to help each other has made the Lao a generous kind and soft hearted tolerant and socialized people Lao people tend to value privacy less highly than foreigners partly because its a normal way of life in extended families especially in the countryside where everyone knows everyone elses business Sometimes for those foreigners living here this can be a surprise especially with what they might find are slightly personal questions and the fact everyone in their village When the couple has children the stayathome parents or grandparents usually help raise their grandchildren before they reach school age Grownup children usually also live in until they get married and sometimes even until after they have their own children so that the grandparents can help raise them or sometimes until they save enough money to build their own house However one of the children usually the youngest daughter in big families lives with the parents inherits the main house and takes the responsibility of taking care of aging parents The movedout children support their parents by sending money back One Lao man told the Vientiane Times Where I lived aunts were the ones who looked after their nieces and nephews because our parents had no time We slept in the same room as them and they entertained and taught us at bedtime As I was falling asleep I sometimes woke to find my aunt still telling a story or softly singing His main source of knowledge was his aunt whom he says was his radio and television of yesteryear Every evening before he went to sleep his aunt would tell a story and sing a folk song Source Vientiane Men and Women in Laos In traditional Lao society certain tasks are associated with members of each sex but the division of labor is not rigid Women and girls are usually responsible for cooking carrying water maintaining the household and taking care of small domestic animals Men are in charge if caring for buffalo and oxen hunting plowing paddy fields and clearing slash and burn fields Both men and women plant harvest thresh carry rice and work in gardens Most small time Lao traders are women Both sexes cut and carry firewood Women and children traditionally carry water for household use and to cultivate kitchen gardens Women do most of the cooking household cleaning and washing and serve as primary caretakers for small children They are the main marketers of surplus household food and other petty production and women are usually the commercial marketers for vegetables fruit fish poultry and basic household dry goods Men typically market cattle buffalo or pigs and are responsible for the purchase of any mechanical items Intrafamily decision making usually requires discussions between husband and wife but the husband usually acts Women generally have pretty high status They inherit property own land and work and enjoy man of the same rights as men But still it is hard to say that are treated equally In Theravada Buddhism there is a belief that women must be reborn as men to achieve nirvana There is an often quoted Lao saying Men are the front legs of an elephant and women are the hind legs Women in Laos Traditional attitudes and gender role stereotyping kept women and girls in a subordinate position preventing them from equally accessing education and business opportunities and there was little government effort to redress this Women continued to be disproportionately affected by poverty especially in rural and ethnic minority communities While rural women carried out more than half of total agricultural production in every field the additional workloads of housework and child rearing also fell primarily on women Source 2010 Human Rights Report Laos Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor US State Department April 8 2011 Because prostitution is not as widespread in Laos as it is in Thailand Laotian women are much freer to do what they want in public without having to worry about being accused of prostitution For example they are much more likely to drink beer and lao lao in public than Thai women are Smoking is generally acceptable for men but not for women For women smoking seems to be associated with prostitution or promiscuity One rule for which here are no exceptions is that women must always ride on the inside of river boats trucks and buses Unlike men they are not allowed to ride on the roof This custom is based partly on concerns for their safety and partly on the belief that women should not occupy a position above men According to Culture Crossing Gender issues tend to differ a bit on the urbanrural divide but women are still seen primarily as caretakers and homemakers That being said there are various opportunities for women and many do work and hold positions of power in various industries SourceCulture Crossing Most small time Lao traders are women Much of the long distance trade in northwest Laos is conducted by women who cross the borders into China and Thailand and stock up on goods there and transport them on the Mekong River and by buses to trading centers like Luang Prabang and Udomxai These women have earned relatively high incomes and have status at home and surprising sexual and social freedom when they are traveling The anthropologist Andrew Waker wrote these women entrepreneurs have a distinctive appearancemakeup nail polish gold jewelry fake leather handbags and baseball capsgives the rustic and muddly Lao trading system an unmistakable feminine character Women Human Rights and Abuse Rape was reportedly rare although like most crime it was likely underreported The country does not have a central database of crime nor does it provide statistics on crime The law criminalizes rape with punishment set at three to five years imprisonment Sentences are significantly longer and may include capital punishment if the victim is under age 18 or is seriously injured or killed In rape cases that were tried in court defendants generally were convicted with sentences ranging from three years imprisonment to execution Source 2010 Human Rights Report Laos Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor US State Domestic violence is illegal however there is no law against marital rape and domestic violence often went unreported due to social stigma Penalties for domestic violence including battery torture and detaining persons against their will may include both fines and imprisonment The criminal law granted exemption from penal liabilities in cases of physical violence without serious injury or physical damage LWU centers and the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare MLSW in cooperation with NGOs assisted victims of domestic violence Statistics were unavailable on the number of abusers prosecuted convicted or punished Sexual harassment was rarely reported and its extent was difficult to assess Although sexual harassment was not illegal indecent sexual behavior toward another person is illegal and punishable by six months to three years in prison Women and men were given equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections including HIV The law provides for equal rights for women and the LWU operated nationally to promote the position of women in society The law prohibits legal discrimination in marriage and inheritance however varying degrees of culturally based discrimination against women persisted with greater discrimination practiced by some hill tribes The LWU conducted several programs to strengthen the role of women The programs were most effective in the urban areas Many women occupied decisionmaking positions in the civil service and private business and in urban areas their incomes were often higher than those of men See Human Rights Human Trafficking China Children and the Elderly in Laos Regardless of where they are born children acquire citizenship if both parents are citizens Children born of one citizen parent acquire citizenship if born in the country or when born outside the countrys territory if one parent has a permanent incountry address Not all births were immediately registered The law prohibits violence against children and violators were subject to stiff punishments Reports of the physical abuse of children were rare Source 2010 Human Rights Report Laos Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor US State Department April 8 2011 Young children are indulged older children are expected t obey their elders and help with family chores Beginning around the age of five girls help with household chores At nine boys begin caring for cattle and buffalo By adolescence children are proficient in all the activities that adults do They generally learn by observation and direct instruction A favorite past time among Laotian children is shooting down insects with a sling shot As you can imagine it is a difficult skill to master one that takes a lot of concentrationand a lot of insects which is no problem during the rainy season Then the insects are so thick you can aim in the sky randomly bring down an entire swarm Source Peter White National Geographic June 1987 The elderly enjoy high status Respect is something earned with age There isnt the emphasis on youth as there often is in the West Respect for the elderly is manifested through the custom of allowing the elderly people to go first and young people deferring to them and helping them out see Education School Image Sources Text Sources New York Times Washington Post Los Angeles Times Times of London Lonely Planet Guides Library of Congress LaosGuide999com Comptons Encyclopedia The Guardian National Geographic Smithsonian magazine The New Yorker Time Newsweek Reuters AP AFP Wall Street Journal The Atlantic Monthly The Economist Global Viewpoint Christian Science Monitor Foreign Policy Wikipedia BBC CNN NBC News Fox News and various books and other publications 2008 Jeffrey Hays Last updated May 2014 This site contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been authorized by the copyright owner Such material is made available in an effort to advance understanding of country or topic discussed in the article This constitutes fair use of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law In accordance with Title 17 USC Section 107 the material on this site is distributed without profit If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use you must obtain permission from the | [
"FAMILIES",
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"Life"
] |
http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Thailand/sub5_8e/entry-3271.html | TRADITIONAL THAI SPORTS RECREATIONAL SPORTS IN THAILAND AND TIGER WOODS KITE FIGHTING IN THAILAND Kite fighting is popular in Thailand and is even a league sport The origin of the sport is not known It probably has religious or ritualistic roots The kitefighting season last from February to June The AllThailand championships held in Bangkok is a major sporting event There are two kinds of kitefighting kites the large starshaped chula or male kite and the smaller diamondshaped pakpao or female kite The chula may up to two meters across and requires several people to launch it It has bamboo slats tied on to its string which are used to entangle the tail of the pakpao Generally two pakpao are used They are about half the size of the chula and are much faster and maneuverable In a competition the more cumbersome Chula attempt to snare the Pakpao kites and pull them into a designated territory The more maneuverable Pakpaos which often have bits of glass on their strings attempt to severe the strings of the Chula or wrap around it and bring it crashing to the ground Kite flying is so popular that the playful vernacular term chak wow meaning to fly a kite is also slang for masturbation According to Encyclopedia of Sexuality Thailand The term compares male masturbation to the hand action of flying a kite a popular Thai pastime An even more euphemistic term for male masturbation is pai sanaam luang which means to go to the grand field referring to the very popular park area near the royal palace in Bangkok where people fly kites For women the slang term tok bed is used meaning to use a fishing pole These playful and euphemistic expressions reflect the acknowledgment that masturbation occurs for both men and women and yet some discomfort prevents a straightforward verbal expression Source Encyclopedia of Sexuality Thailand Muang Thai by Kittiwut Jod Taywaditep MD MA Eli Coleman PhD and Pacharin Dumronggittigule MSc late 1990s www2huberlindesexologyIESthailand Longboat Racing The annual longboat race in the northern Thai town of Pichit in is Thailands oldest river boat race Held for almost 100 years it has been around about as long the Henley Regatta in England The races are held over two days on a 650 meter course on the Nan River in 20meterlog teak dugout boat rowed by teams of 30 or so men and occasionally women who are follow orders from a coxswain The vent is a festive affair with pretty girls feasting and cheering cords According to the Thai government Longboat races are a reflection of the Thai peoples way of life connected to and dependant on the waterways Boats have been used in transport all over the country since time immemorial In the past longboat races employing a large number of oarsmen were also seen as tryout sessions for men wanting to join the navy a major defensive force for the country in former days These days royal barges in grand processions down the river are also handled by men in the naval forces Source Thailand Foreign Office The Government Public Relations Department Longboat races are major events held to celebrate high water in several riverside provinces Similar to dragon boat races held in China and other Chinesespeaking areas longboat race also forge unity in communities especially among crew members on the same team who are cheered on by spectators on the river banks Those paddling the boats have to be strictly disciplined and work as teams to collectively lead their boats to victory The feat can not be achieved by any individual on his own As a rule before setting out on the race course contestants bring flowers candles and joss sticks or an elaborate garland to pay respect to spirits of the boat praying for victory followed by boat songs sung collectively by the crew in order to boost their morale and for the enjoyment of the spectators Another special feature of the longboat race is the live narration of the race on shore by skilled commentators who are wellinformed about the race and who are experts at adding excitement and color to the event Water Buffalo Races Water buffalos raceswith human riders on the buffalos are held during the annual Buffalo Racing Festival in Chonburi Richard Barrow wrote in his blog in 2008 I have been going to this event for a few years now to watch the spectacle of buffaloes racing down a track with riders perched precariously on their backs This is now the 137th buffalo racing event Every year the races seem to be getting more popular as word starts to spread This year was no exception with larger crowds There were also many more foreign tourists than I have seen before I think thaiblogscom October 18 2008 Buffalo racing is not really like a day at the horse races It takes a long time to prepare them for the start of each race There are also many false starts which again takes time for them to get back to the start line Even though four buffaloes and their riders are at the start line not all of them reached the finish line Some never even start and some riders fall off along the way As you can see from this picture there is no saddle for the rider and it can not be easy for him to In another area of the field there was an auction going on for some buffaloes These were really big animals As I walked passed the prices were going up as high as 100000 baht A bit further on I came across the winners for the Miss Buffalo Beauty Pageant The buffaloes were all dressed up as well Apparently they take part in a parade through the town though I missed that this year as I was away on a road trip to Isaan Other events going on included cock fighting Thai boxing climbing a greasy pole team takraw and slingshot Takraw Takrawa sport played with a rattan ballis enjoyed by both children and adults Described as volleyball for the feet the game is easily set up as little space is required Players perform aerial pirouettes spiking the ball over the net with their feet Only the feet and head are permitted to touch the ball Takraw is played in all regions of Thailand by people from all walks of life There are takraw championships at national and international levels especially for sepak takraw the net version of the game which is now included in the Southeast Asian Games and Asian Games Thai players dominate the sport and takraw stars have become national heroes Thailand won the gold medal in both mens and womens sepak takraw in 2002 Asian Games Takraw players have to be both physically and mentally fit They have developed detailed professional techniques Players are acrobatic using their feet and their legs to control the ball The techniques are categorized into four types firm reception accurate service graceful postures and flexible kicks A variation has players kicking the ball into a hoop 45 meters above the ground which takes on the look of basketball with the feet but without a backboard Hoop takraw is a popular takraw game in Thailand The game is played on a circular field roughly 60 meters in diameter At the center of the is a goal usually a cluster of three hoops The object is to get the bal into the hoop without letting it hit the ground or touch the hands Points are scored by making a goal with extra points added of it is done Sepak Takraw Sepak Takraw is an interesting sport that you see played all over Southeast Asia Essentially it is volleyball played without using your hands and arms It is very exciting to watch a good player leap high into the air flip around and spike the ball with his foot at 60 miles per hour and then fall on his head and shoulders without hurting himself Sepak Takraw is played with a special rattan bag in a badminton court It is known by different names in different countries sipak in the Philippines takraw in Thailand and sepak raga in Malaysia Sepak Takraw was coined in 1965 at the Southeast Asia Games by combining the Malay word for kick speak and the Thai word for ball surprisingly takraw Malaysia has lobbied to get sepak takraw accepted as an Olympic sport The origin of Sepak Takraw is not known Malays claim it was invented in Malaysia while Thais claim it was invented in Thailand The game was reportedly played in royals courts in feudal Malaysia an is associated with the great Malayan hero Hang Tuah In this version of game participants gathered in a circle and tried to keep the ball from hitting the ground During the British colonization period it was played mainly in villages as a s lunchtime pastime by working boys Competition sepak takraw is played with three players on a team and has rules similar to volleyball and badminton Play begins with a served kicked and each side is allowed three hits the same as volleyball before it is delivered over the net to the other team The scoring is like badminton The first team to 15 wins Tak Ball a Shocking Game Played with Stun Guns Sinsiri Tiwutanond of Reuters wrote The rules are simple throw a ball into the goal to score a point But what makes this game unlike any other is that all the players are armed and ready with stun guns Its Ultimate Tak Ball the brainchild of a few hardcore sports fanatics who say it is the sport of the future and are in Bangkok for an exhibition game Source Sinsiri Tiwutanond Reuters March 6 2012 Each game consists of three periods that last for 7 minutes each with two teams of four players each Any player in possession of the 24inch medicine ball is open to unlimited shocking by the players on the opposite team The stun guns pack 3 to 5 milliamps of electricity which is only about 10 percent of the power of the taser stun guns used by police Fired on contact with an opponent the guns produce a twitching feeling according to players It never gets better you just get less afraid of the stun a smiling Damien Ryan 24 said during a break in a match in Bangkok But its one of the best feelings ever The game was thought up by friends Leif Kellenberger Eric Prum and Erik Wunsch who were trying to come up with the extreme of extreme sports when the idea of stun guns popped up Planning for the game began some four years ago Players on the teams in Bangkok were all originally paintball professionals who had been touring together for a while and so were already accustomed to the agility and pain required in an extreme sport created for adrenaline junkies The switch to Ultimate Tak Ball or UTB as they call it was easy I quit counting once I was on the ground and two people were stunning me a lot Yeah it felt like one continuous tase said Ryan Moorhead of the San Diego Spartans recalling being shocked 10 to 15 times during a game The justestablished league has only four teams but there have been more than 15 million views on its promotional video on YouTube and it has been covered by the US television show The Colbert Report Despite the scary equipment players maintain that the most serious injury since the sports inception has been a player dislocating his finger when he rammed into a wall while avoiding a tackle People just have a preconceived notion about stun guns the ones we use dont cause any danger Theyre really low voltage said Kellenberger The recent game in Bangkok had very little downtime with players moving frantically from one end of the field to the other a constant buzzing from the stun guns heard throughout The crowd roared as one player got stunned and tackled while trying to maneuver the ball through the opposing defense Elephant Sports The Surin Elephant Roundup in northeastern Thailand in midNovember is an internationally famous event in which over 100 elephants participate in mock elephant hunts polo matches mock elephant battles tugofwars and demonstrations of log pulling skills In the mock battle warrior with spears advance on the backs of the elephants to the sound of drums while soldiers with and swords guards the animals legs A parade of elephants outfitted for medieval warfare is also held Over 40000 people show up for the event at the Surins main stadium Most of elephant mahouts are members of the Suay tribe who live Describing an elephant polo game in Thailand Anthony Faiola wrote in the Washington Post During Americas debut in the extrawide world of elephant polo frustrated US captain Kimberly Zenz nearly screamed herself hoarse The prime pachyderms toting the rival Italians were dominating the opening match while Thong Kao Zenzs languid charger seemed more interested in turning the grassy polo field into an afternoon snack But as the ball skidded dangerously close to the Italian goal posts something suddenly seemed to stir from deep inside Thong Kao She hurled her threeton bulk toward that ball like Barbaro on steroids Source Anthony From the sidelines international playboys almost choked on their gin and tonics British aristocrats looked up from their Rolexes cocking eyebrows with bemusement For a moment at the Kings Cup Elephant Polo Championship one of the circuits Big Three it seemed the upstart Yanks from the Washington area might finally charge onto the scoreboard Then something really did stir from deep inside Thong Kao She let rip a hail of dung that left the pursuing Italians dodging for cover And just as Zenz yanked back her mallet Thong Kao accidentally stepped on the polo ball squashing it into the ground Tamarine TanasugarnThailands Best Female Tennis Player Tamarine Tanasugarn is a professional Thai tennis player She was born in Los Angeles United States born on May 24 1977 and turned professional in 1994 She has been in the top 20 in both singles and doubles Tanasugarns highest Womens Tennis Association WTA world ranking was no 19 achieved on 13 May 2002 which is the highest ranking ever achieved for a Thai female player She has won four singles titles and five doubles titles She was briefly a doubles partner with Maria Sharapova with whom she won two titles in 2003 Her highest world doubles ranking was no In her career Tanasugarn has defeated former and current no 1 players including Amélie Mauresmo Jennifer Capriati Jelena Jankovic and Dinara Safina She has also beaten Australian Open and French Open champion Mary Pierce Tanasugarn is regarded as a grasscourt specialist she has won most matches on the surface including two grasscourt International titles Tanasugarn at some point held the record of the most singles matches won on grass court among WTA active players As of July 8th 2013 she was second with 84 wins among active players and 12th on the alltime list Tanasugarn is also a regular competitor for the Thailand Fed Cup team helping the team join the World Group II in 2005 and 2006 after beating Australia and Croatia in their playoff matches Height165 m 5 ft 5 in Plays Righthanded twohanded backhand Prize money US 3448676 Singles Career record 532414 Career titles 4 WTA 14 ITF Highest ranking No 19 13 May 2002 Current ranking No 160 29 July 2013l Grand Slam Singles results Australian Open 4R 1998 French Open 3R 2002 Wimbledon QF 2008 US Open 4R 2003 Doubles Career record 272241 Career titles 8 WTA 7 ITF Highest ranking No 15 13 September 2004 Current ranking No 62 29 July 2013 Grand Slam Doubles results Australian Open 3R 2000 French Open 3R 2012 Wimbledon SF 2011 US Open QF 2004 Asian Games Bronze 2010 Guangzhou TeamBronze 2010 Guangzhou Mixed Doubles Silver 2002 Busan Singles Silver 1998 Bangkok Singles Southeast Asian Games Gold 2007 Nakhon Ratchasima Doubles Bronze 2007 Nakhon Ratchasima Mixed Doubles Gold 2009 Vietiane Doubles Silver 2009 Vietiane Mixed Doubles Paradorn Srichaphan Thailands Best Male Tennis Player Paradorn Srichaphan is a retired professional tennis player from Thailand He was the highest ranked mens singles player from Thailand and Asia in history reaching a career high world no 9 He was born June 14 1979 His nickname is Ball Paradorn started his professional ATP career in 1998 He remained in the lower ranks of the professional circuit for several years However his ranking continued to improve After being a surprise finalist in the 2000 Hopman Cup 2002 was a breakthrough year for him as he managed to get into the top 30 after defeating Andre Agassi in Wimbledon In 2003 he won his first ATPlevel singles title the Hamlet Cup He reached the fourth round in Wimbledon where he was beaten by Andy Roddick 46 63 36 26 having become the first player to defeat Rafael Nadal in a Paradorn is extremely popular in Asia especially in Thailand He was Thailands flag bearer at the opening ceremony of the 2004 Summer Olympic Games held in Athens Greece but lost in the first round of singles to Joachim Johansson His best Olympics performance was second round in Sydney beating Attila Sávolt before being beaten by thirdseeded Magnus Norman Paradorn plays with big serves and powerful forehands He uses a singlehanded backhand and is known for being a weak player on clay courts due to his lack of patience when playing points At the 2006 Indian Wells masters tournament Paradorn reached the semifinals and lost against World No 1 Roger Federer in two sets 62 63 En route to the semifinal he beat World No 20 Robby Ginepri in the second round World No 16 Juan Carlos Ferrero of Spain in the third round World No 4 David Nalbandian in the fourth round and World No 25 Jarkko Nieminen of Finland in the quarterfinals In the 2006 Wimbledon Championships Paradorn was seeded 29th but was upset in the first round by Agustín Calleri in five sets He did not perform well in all the events he participated in early 2007 due to wrist injury and he missed basically the whole 2007 season As a result his ranking fell to below No 900 After the end of the ATP Masters Series event in Miami that ended in early April 2007 Paradorn fell entirely out of the ATP rankings He began practicing as of March 2008 however it took him until the 2009 Thailand Open to Paradorn is noted for his politeness on the court At each match he performs the wai the traditional Thai greeting clasping his hands together and bowing to the four corners of the stadium The gesture is seen as thanking the fans and it has become his trademark His success in tennis led to a spike in popularity of the game in Thailand The Nation newspaper named him Thai of the Year in 2002 in 2003 Paradorn was featured on the cover of Time and featured as one of the years Asian heroes In November 2005 Paradorn spent a week as a Buddhist monk in a temple outside Bangkok He adopted the Buddhist name Mahaviro meaning great and brave wore saffron robes and shaved his head His then girlfriend Odette Henriette Jacqmin was present for the ceremony Paradorn married Natalie Glebova Miss Universe 2005 in Bangkok Thailand on 29 November 2007 In February 2011 Paradorn and wife Natalie announced their separation after three years of marriage stating the reason to be work commitments had kept them apart Height 185 m 6 ft 1 in Turned pro 1997 Retired 4 June 2010 Plays Righthanded onehanded backhand Prize money 3459655 Singles Career record 239193 Career titles 5 Highest ranking No 9 12 May 2003 Grand Slam Singles results Australian Open 4R 2004l French Open 3R 2002 Wimbledon 4R 2003 US Open 4R 2003 Other tournaments Olympic Games 2R 2000 Doubles Career record 2561 Highest ranking No 79 8 September 2003 Golf in Thailand Golf attracts affluent tourists to Thailand from abroad and elsewhere in Asia The sport is loved by wealthy Asians who view it as a status symbol Many Thai resorts cater to foreign golfersparticularly the Japanese with more the Taiwanese Koreans Hong Kong Chinese and Chinese swelling the ranks every year For the Japanese it is much cheaper to fly to foreign countries and play golf than play golf at home Among local Thais golf is mainly seen as a rich mans sport The first golf course in Thailand the Royal Bangkok Sports Club was built at the turn of the 20th century King Rama VI played the game with his wife and had a championship course built in Hua Hin in the 1920s The Thailand Open has attracted the likes of Rory McIroy and Luke Donald Before the event was held in December 2011 after Thailand was devastated by floods that killed over 600 people Thai golfer Thawon Wirachant said While it might be a good idea to show the world Thailand is back to normal the money could have been used to help the thousand s affected by the floods The Honda PTT LPGA is a major womans golf tournament Sukree Onsham was the first Thai golfer to play in the master He played twice in 1970 and 1971 he didnt make the cut either year Thailands Thongchai Jaidee is a former army paratrooper who became a professional golfer after his military service was up One of Asias top golfers he has played on the American tour and was the top money winner on the Asia Tour in 2001 and 2004 Thingchai learned the game when he was in the army He won the Wales Open at the age of 42 in June 2012 It was his fifth European Tour title and his first in mainland Europe He participated in his first Masters in 2006 See Activities Golf Course Boom and AntiGolf Movement in Thailand Lots of golf courses have been built in Thailand in the past decade In 1994 there were 160 golf courses in Thailand triple the number that existed in 1985 There were plans to build another 500 more before the Asian economic crisis in 1997 dampened those plans At one time new golf course were opening at a rate of one very couple of weeks Many of the course have been financed by powerful generals and police commanders who are able to avoid environmental reviews Japanese investors have financed numerous golf courses in Thailand as well as in Malaysia Indonesia Hawaii and Singapore Sreela Kolandai a Malaysian who founded the AntiGolf Movement told the New York Times Golf has become a serious environmental threat all across Asia The golf courses are being cleared from rain forest and built on valuable agricultural land The courses also use up valuable sources of water and fertilizers and pesticides run off the courses and contaminate other water sources Private golf courses have been built in national parks wilderness sanctuaries and wetlands that provide feeding grounds for migrating birds and ducks Some farmers have been forced to give up their land at gun point A study by a Thai university showed that a golf course in Thailand uses up as much water as 6000 city dwellers During one drought farmers were told not use water to raise a second crop while golf courses patronized by the rich and powerful continued to soak up water from government reservoirs Defenders of the golf boom claim that displaced farmers can get better paying jobs as caddies and security guards and greenskeepers Tiger Woods Tiger Woods is considered a native son of Thailand because his mother is half Thai and grew up in Thailand Sshe was secretary in Bangkok when she met Woods father a Vietnam War American army officer in 1968 While he was growing up Tiger only visited Thailand twice According to Wikipedia Woods was born Eldrick Tont Woods in Cypress California to Earl 19322006 and Kultida Tida Woods born 1944 He is the only child of their marriage but does has two halfbrothers and a halfsister born in the 1950s from the 18year marriage of Earl Woods and his first wife Woods said on the Oprah Winfrey Show Growing up I came with us name Im a Cablinasian to describe his blend of Caucasian black Indian and Asian ancestry Woods first name Eldrick was coined by his mother because it began with E for Earl and ended with K for Kultida His middle name Tont is a traditional Thai name He was nicknamed Tiger in honor of his fathers friend Col Vuong Dang Phong who had also been known as Tiger In August 2012 Woods became the first person to earn 100 million in prize money on the PGA Tour when he finished third in the Deautsche Bank Championship in Norton Massachusetts earning 544000 At that time he had won 74 tournaments including 38 which had prize for first place of over 1 million and 14 majors His earnings come out to an average of 362 277 for his 277 career starts at that time Wood is second on the careeer tournament win list behind Sam Snead who won 82 PGA tournaments and won 620126 in his whole career which started Tiger Woods in Thailand Tiger Woods first played in Thailand in 1997 when he won the Asian Honda Classic and was greeted by large crowds He also received a royal award He last played in Thailand in 2000 winning the Johnnie Walker Classic In 1997 he came to Thailand only weeks after becoming the youngest person to win the Masters golf tournament Woods was mobbed at the airport by beautiful women chanting Tiger Tiger Tiger He attended a cocktail party hosted in his honor by the prime minister and flew to Sydney on a Thai Airlines flight that waited two hours for him because On a visit to Thailand in November 2010 hen he participated in a oneday charity skins tournament Associated Press reported Tiger Woods met the prime minister of Thailan as he received VIP treatment during a short visit to his mothers home country The charity golf tournament is part of celebrations marking King Bhumibols 60th year on the Thai throne Woods also made an early morning visit to pay respects to the ailing 82yearold king who has been lodged at a Bangkok hospital for more than a year The golfer did not meet the king but signed a get well book Thais adore Woods because of his Thai family connection But the golfer displayed his American side by shaking hands with Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva and ignoring the leaders wai the traditional Thai greeting of palms pressed together with a head bow that is a sign of humility and respect Dressed in a grey blazer and black trousers Woods and Thailands top player Thongchai Jaidee presented Abhisit with a golf club during a brief meeting at his stately office the Government House The golfers handed Abhisit a check for 22 million baht 73000 from ticket sales they are donating to the victims of recent floods that left more than 100 people dead Woods then boarded a helicopter for Chonburi a seaside province southeast of Bangkok where the oneday tournament was being held at the Amata Spring Country Club Woods stay in Bangkok was scheduled to last about 24 hours He arrived in Bangkok after competing in the HSBC Champions in Shanghai and is scheduled to leave for Australia the next day to compete in the Australian Masters in Melbourne Tiger Woodss the Buddhist From childhood Woods was raised as a Buddhist and actively practised this faith from childhood until well into his adult professional golf career In a 2000 article Woods was quoted as saying he believes in Buddhism Not every aspect but most of it In the wake of the sex scandal that made worldwide headlines in 2009 Woods attributed his deviations and infidelity to his losing track of Buddhism He said that Buddhism teaches me to stop following every impulse and to learn restraint Obviously I lost track of what I was taught Source Wikipedia In February 2010 AFP reported Tiger Woods believes the Buddhist precepts he learned from his mother Kultida will help him right a life derailed by his now infamous infidelities I have a lot of work to do and I intend to dedicate myself to doing it Woods said in his first public remarks since sordid revelations of his extramarital affairs surfaced in November Part of following this path for me is Buddhism which my mother taught me at a young age People probably dont realize it but I was raised a Buddhist and actively practice my faith from childhood until Woods said that 45 days of inpatient therapy had helped him realize that his life needed a spiritual element In therapy Ive learned the points of looking at my spiritual life and keeping in balance with my professional life I need to regain my balance and be centered so I can save the things that are most important to me my marriage and my children Ibid Tiger Woodss Mother Sticks Up for Him After His Sex Scandal Around the same time AFP also reported Tiger Woodss mother lashed out at the medias portrayal of the golf superstar saying her son had been treated like a criminal by the tabloid media Kultida Woods was the first person Woods approached following his wrenching nationally televised apology leaning forward to embrace her after his heartfelt statement to a select group of friends and journalists Afterward Kultida Woods said she was proud of her son and angrily slammed the medias coverage of the sex scandal that had engulfed him Source AFP February 21 2010 You know what Im so proud to be his mother Period she said This thing it teaches him just like golf As a human being everyone has faults makes mistakes and sins We all do But we move on when we make a mistake and learn from it I am upset the way media treated him like hes a criminal he didnt kill anybody he didnt do anything illegal Theyve being carrying on from Thanksgiving until now thats not right she said The tabloids and newspapers just killed him held him back To me it looked like a double standard Tiger Woods had earlier apologized for his selfish and irresponsible behavior saying he had let down his wife friends family and fans by committing serial infidelities His mother agreed her son was embroiled in the biggest personal crisis he would ever face but would eventually prevail When you make a mistake you learn from it and move on thats the way life is thats a human being she said Were not good and he never claimed he was God If anyone tells me to condemn him I say look at yourself first I would look in their eyes and tell She also said her sons decision to reembrace Buddhist philosophy would help him on the road to redemption Buddhism teaches you to go deep inside your soul and look through from himself and correct the bad thing to be a good thing she said When he realized he said okay and went back to practice Buddhism and that will make him a much better person Ariya Jutanugarn Ariya Jutanugarn born 23 November 1995 is a Thai professional golfer who was born in Bangkok Thailand where she still lives She has an older sister Moriya who is also a professional golfer Their parents are father Somboon and mother Narumon and they have four older halfsiblings through their father The two sisters often play matches together and travel with their parents who handle their business and financial affairs The parents own a pro golf shop called Rose Garden Golf Course near Bangkok Source Wikipedia Jutanugarn qualified for the 2007 Honda LPGA Thailand at age 11 making her the youngest player ever to qualify for an LPGA Tour event As of early May 2013 she had played in three LPGA tournaments and four Ladies European Tour LET tournaments and had five top4 finishes While she is a pro golfer playing on a sponsors exemption as she is not a LPGA member in 2013 because she was not granted an exemption to qualifying school to earn her LPGA Tour card In 2012 she was winner of the American Junior Golf Association AFGA girl Player of the Jutanugarn has an aggressive and fearless playing style At the 2013 Honda LPGA Thailand she led by three shots going to the final hole and lost by one shot to Koreas Inbee Park She placed 4th one week later at the HSBC Womens Champions in Singapore A few weeks later she won her first professional tournament at the LETs Lalla Meryem Cup in Morocco The win put her on top of the LET Order of Merit She led the first two days at the Kingsmill Championship in Williamsburg Virginia in May 2013 She shot a 7underpar on the first day In a practice round at the 2013 US Womens Open Ariya injured her shoulder by tumbling down an incline while chasing her sister Moriya with a water bottle The injury required corrective surgery which was performed in Bangkok Amateur wins Turned professional 2012 Current tours Ladies European Tour joined 2013 Professional wins 1 Number of wins by tour Ladies European Tour 1 Best results in LPGA Major Championships Kraft Nabisco Cship T22 2012 US Womens Open CUT 2010 2011 Johnny Damon Plays for Thailands National Baseball Team The baseball player Johnny Damon is another famous athlete who is part Thai In November 2012 the former Major League star played for Thailand his mothers homeland in qualifications for the World Baseball Classic Benjamin Hoffman wrote in the New York Times Damon spent 18 seasons playing for seven clubs winning World Series rings with the 2004 Red Sox and the 2009 Yankees He was last seen struggling through a tough season with the Cleveland Indians who released him in August after he batted 222 in 207 atbats A twotime AllStar Damon played for yet another team as he tried Thailand ranked 27th in the world by the International Baseball Federation has recently been a force in the Southeast Asia Games winning the tournament in 2007 and finishing third in 2011 making a berth in the World Baseball Classic possible Coming too Thailand has been liking coming home an official with the Amateur Basebal of Association of Thailand said He is like the idol of Thai baseball player He is a good moral boost and an inspiration for the athletes to improve At the end pf the tournament NBC Sports reported Johnny Damons time playing for Thailand lasted all of two games as the team was eliminated from the World Baseball Classic qualifying tournament last night Thailand lost Game 1 to the Philippines and Game 2 to New Zealand falling by a combined score of 204 while committing 11 errors defensively Damon started the first game at designated hitter and the second game at first base going 3for7 with a walk and three singles while grounding into a double play Damons mother is Thai and despite backtoback ugly losses he seemed happy A 17th century French envoy to Siam reported seeing two of the kings acrobats using two large umbrellas to flat down from a high place Fishing for Arapaima Reporting from Stuart Gillhams fishing resort near Krabi in southern Thailand Anthony Geoffrey wrote in The Star Completed in 2007 this resort boasts a 36ha lake with underwater features spread across it so that no one swim fishing station is better than another and this has made for fair angling Natural filtration systems and sluice systems from natural streams ensure that the level and quality of water can be maintained throughout the year Built on the edge of a stunning national park the resort is only 3km from Thalen Bay and 19km from the lively seafront town of Aonang Source I started fishing about midafternoon and within 10 minutes had landed a 30kg redtailed catfish on the dead bait meant for arapaima I thought my luck was on and I would have my arapaima but no I also had palm oil seeds on the second rod The bait proved attractive to the pacu and I landed two within the next 30 minutes They were not big though only about 7kg each Another two hours lapsed without a bite before I got a good 35kg carp All the while the English guy on the next swim was catching on a regular My second day started out well at 7am with a couple of catfish and a couple of carp along with a really goodsized temoleh Jallieni barb a protected species in Perak Then I hit my nemesis the dreaded freshwater stingray I knew it was that monster from the way it stopped after taking the hook and wouldnt budge at all Could it be the same brute that I snagged last year which refused to surface no matter what I was stuck with that ray for three hours before the line snapped Thankfully this time around the hook slipped and the By midafternoon I was still waiting for my first arapaima when the buzzer on the rod holder began to beep It was slow at first and then it went wild The fish when it appeared was a goodsized arapaima An arapaima garners instant attention from the staff who would immediately inform Stuart or Sean by radio Other anglers would then be told to quickly reel in their rods The fish ran jumped surfaced and snorted The fight was on About an hour and a quarter later the boys entered the water with a huge landing net The fish came close I was devastated Stuart consoled me later saying that 50 percent of arapaima escape before they are landed One guy came here for a days fishing and caught nine arapaima whereas another fished for a week and got none But statistics show that if you fish for three days your chances of landing one is about 80 percent he said That same day saw two more English and two Malaysian anglers arriving The two Malaysians landed a decent arapaima on their second day Alas it was not to be for me but I took that as a good sign Giving Image Sources Text Sources Jukka O Miettinen Asian Traditional Theater and Dance Theatre Academy Helsinki New York Times Washington Post Los Angeles Times Times of London Lonely Planet Guides Library of Congress Tourist Authority of Thailand Thailand Foreign Office The Government Public Relations Department CIA World Factbook Comptons Encyclopedia The Guardian National Geographic Smithsonian magazine The New Yorker Time Newsweek Reuters AP AFP Wall Street Journal The Atlantic Monthly The Economist Global Viewpoint Christian Science Monitor Foreign Policy Wikipedia BBC CNN NBC News Fox News and various books and other publications 2008 Jeffrey Hays Last updated May 2014 This site contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been authorized by the copyright owner Such material is made available in an effort to advance understanding of country or topic discussed in the article This constitutes fair use of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law In accordance with Title 17 USC Section 107 the material on this site is distributed without profit If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use you must obtain permission from the | [
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http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat53/sub335/item2182.html | MANGROVES AND THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS THAT LIVE THERE MANGROVES Mangroves are generally small scrubby trees supported by prop roots . There are many species of mangrove plant . Though mangrove species often look the same or similar , they are often not members of the same family . Many come from different families not even closely related . Different mangrove species are simply plants that came up with the same strategy to survive in a specific environment as plants in the desert have . [ Source : Kennedy Warne , National Geographic , February 2007 ; John P . Wiley , Jr . , Smithsonian magazine ] Mangroves are essentially terrestrial plants that have adapted themselves to living in salt water and mud saturated with hydrogen sulfide ( the chemical that produces the rotten egg smell ) and salt and is rich in organic matter ( up to 90 percent ) but deficient in oxygen . Mangrove swamps are difficult to explore . The roots form an impregnable tangle of interlocking roots that make boating through them impossible . Sometimes the roots are covered with a variety of sea creatures and can be as colorful as reefs . Mangrove swamps are easiest to explore on foot at low tide . But even then making your way through them is no piece of cake They are often covered by barnacles and shells that cut hands and legs . The mud can suck off shoes , stick to the body and swallow people up to their knees . The air is humid , full of mosquitos and the smell of decay and rotten eggs ( swamp gas ) . Mangrove forests provide vital habitat for endangered species from tigers and crocodiles to rare humming birds the size of a bee . Kennedy Ware wrote in National Geographic , “ Forest mangroves form some of the most productive and biologically complex ecosystems on Earth . Birds roost in the canopy , shellfish attach themselves to the roots , and snakes and crocodiles come to hunt . Mangroves provide nurseries for fish ; a food sources for monkeys , deer , tree - climbing crabs . . . and a nectar source for bats and honeybees . ” Mangrove Areas Nearly 75 percent of the coastlines in the tropics ( between 25 degrees north and 25 degrees south ) have some kind of mangrove covering . Although most are found within 30 degrees of the Equator some hardy varieties such as those found in New Zealand have adapted themselves to temperate climates . Mangrove areas worldwide Mangroves are most prolific in Southeast Asia , where they are thought to have originated , with the largest total area of mangroves in Indonesia . The Indo - Pacific mangroves are generally richer in species and dense growth than mangroves found elsewhere . In parts of Sumatra mangroves are marching into the sea at a rate of 115 feet a year ; in Java advance rates of a 180 feet a year have been recorded . There are 60 species in the Indo - Pacific region compared to only 12 in the New World and three in Florida ( Mangroves in the Asia - Pacific region are harvested for wood for paper . They are also excellent land builders . Their interlocking roots stop sediments from traveling out sea and instead cause them to settle around the mangroves . As mud accumulates on the seaward side of a swamp , mangroves advance and claim it using special seeds that germinate while still hanging from a branch . The seeds sends down green spear - like shoots which may up to 40 centimeters long . Some aboriginals in northern Australia believe their primal ancestor used mangroves to walk across the Mangroves , Tides , Freshwater and Saltwater Kennedy Ware wrote in National Geographic , mangroves are “ brilliant adaptors . Each mangrove has an ultrafiltration system to keep much of the salt out and a complex root system that allows it to to survive in the intertidal zone . Some have snorkel - like roots called pneumatophores that stick of the mud to help them take in air ; other use prop roots or buttresses to keep their trunks upright in the soft sediments at tide ’ s edge . ” Mangroves survive in the salty , brackish water with various kinds of safeguards : membranes that prevent salt from entering the roots , glands on the leaves that secrete salt or move it to leaves that are about to fall off . These adaption help mangrove carve out a niche for themselves where other plants ca n ' t grow . Different mangroves deal with salt water incursions in different ways . Those that move it dying leaves carry the salt water through the stems and deposit it leave salt ready to fall off a die . Those that have glands on their leaves secrete it in concentrations that are 20 times stronger than the sap and stronger than saltwater . Saltwater is damaging to plants and every effort is made to conserve freshwater . The leaves contain mechanisms similar to these found in desert plants to prevent evaporation Salt marshes and mangrove forest have traditionally served as filters between land and sea . Mangroves have to deal with high tides that swamp the plant and low tides that expose the roots and deal with water that can range from almost completely fresh to completely salty . Currents deposit and remove mud . Some mangroves can live on dry land away from salt water . Mangroves , Oxygen and Global Warming Mangrove roots , like those of other plants , need oxygen . Since estuarine mud contains virtually no oxygen and is highly acidic , they have to extract oxygen from the air . Mangrove roots extract oxygen with above - ground , flange - like pores called lenticels , which are covered with loose waxy cells that allow air in but not water . Some species of mangrove have the lenticels on their prop roots . Others have them on their trunks or have pneumatophores ( fingerlike projection that grow up from the organic ooze ) . A single large tree such as Sonneratia alba can produce thousands of rootlike snorels that radiate out in all direction . Mangroves sit like platforms on the mud . Their roots are imbedded in the mud just deep enough so plants do n ' t wash away . The areal roots also spread out in such a way that act like buttresses . Scientists have determined carbon inputs and outputs of mangrove ecosystems by measuring photosynthesis , sap flow and other process in the leaves of mangrove plants . They have found that mangroves are excellent carbon sinks , or absorbers of carbon dioxide . Research by Jin Eong On , a retired professor of marine and coastal studied in Penang , Malaysia , believes that mangroves may have the highest net productivity of carbon of any natural ecosystem . ( About a 100 kilograms per hectare per day ) and that as much as a third of this may be exported in Achin Steiner , United Nations Under - Secretary General told the Times of London . “ We already know that marine ecosystems are multitrillion - dollar assets linked to sectors such as tourism , coastal defense , fisheries and water purification services . Now it is emerging that are natural allies against climate change . ” A United Nations task force on mangroves and the environment recommending : 1 ) setting up a blue carbon fund to help developing countries to protect mangroves as well as rain forests ; 2 ) place a value on mangroves that takes into consideration their value as carbon sinks ; and 3 ) allow coastal and ocean carbon sinks to be traded in same fashion as those for terrestrial forests . Christian Nellemann , an author a United Nations report on the issue , told the Times of London , “ There is an urgency to act now to maintain Mangrove Plants and Seedlings Puerto Rico The plants that form mangrove forest are surprisingly diverse , There are 70 species from two dozen families , including palms , hibiscus , holly , plumbago , acanthus , legumes , and myrtle , ranging from prostrate shrubs to 65 - meter timber trees . Fully developed mangroves are very stable . The same can also be said for seedlings . Some species let their seed germinate on their root . The seedlings drop off into the soft mud when they are about two feet high and send out roots at astounding rates to establish themselves . If the seedlings fall during high tide they can be carried a considerable distance and survive up to a year and feed and grow during that time . Floating seedling hang horizontally in the water and photosynthesize using green cells on their skin . If they float into an estuary they become vertical and implant themselves in mud . Although the journey is treacherous floating seedling have a better chance of survival than ones that drop near its parents , where competition and crowding are fierce . Mangroves , Coastal Areas and Humans Preserving coastal areas and mangroves is vital to people that live in coastal areas , providing them with fish and other seafood and offers protection from storms and tsunamis . Natural coastal environments and mangroves also play a vital role in absorbing carbon dioxide and combating climate change . Ganges River Delta , Bangladesh India Mangroves are useful in many ways . Many commercial important fish and crustaceans spend part or all of their lives in mangroves , which also provide a home of many terrestrial animals . Some 250 - acre sections of mangrove produce four tons of shrimp a year . Mangroves also produce three tons of organic matter per acre a year ; protect shorelines from winds , waves and erosion and provide lumber , firewood , charcoal , tannins , medicines , food and alcoholic beverages . Local people do things like harvest wild honey and collect reeds for roof thatching and baskets . Mangrove forests are vital for protesting farmland from salt water intrusion and buffeting the effects of tropical storms . The great tsunami of 2004 demonstrated how they can save thousands of lives by blunting the force of tsunami waves . Countries need to set aside protected areas where nature is allowed to run its course without human interference . Managing these habitats is often far less expensive than repairing degraded habitats . In Asia , for example , careful management of mangroves has proved far more effective in protecting coastal areas from storms , surges and waves than man - made coastal defenses . In some places mangrove trees are being planted to create coastal wetlands that will act as a barrier against storms and the effects of sea level rises . Threats to Mangroves and Coastal Areas Before shrimp farming , Honduras 1987 Coastal habitats have been lost to development , shrimp farms , fish farms and land reclamation . Run off , agriculture , overfishing , dumping of garbage , surface mining and construction all degrade the coastal environment . Untreated raw sewage , industrial chemical and other pollutants are released directly into the sea . Even in the United States this is still occurring on a grand scale . Houses and hotels are built too close to the water . Dredging and filling have destroyed near shore habitats . Oil spills equal in size to the Exxon Valdez spill occur on average around the world every eight months . In some places the accumulation of pollutants is so bad that dead zones - - - areas where there is so much algae that all the oxygen is sucked out of the water making it impossible for most life forms to exist - - - have sprung up . There are nearly 150 of these worldwide . Even when progress After shrimp farming , Honduras 1999 Mangroves are regarded by some as the world ’ s most endangered habitat , with more than third being lost to development between 1990 and 2000 . Mangroves and coastal habitats are being lost at a rate of seven percent a year , 15 times faster than rain forests . Parts of Asia have lost 90 percent of their mangrove forests . , robbing fish of a place to spawn and people protection from storms . Mangrove forests are being destroyed to make way for fish and shrimp farms , coastal development , salt pans , port facilities , farms , golf courses and roads . The mangroves themselves are chopped up to provide chips for the production of rayon or processed into charcoal in rudimentary ovens . They die as a result of pollution , oil spills , sediments overlaid and disruption to their sensitive water and salinity balance . Perhaps the biggest threat comes from shrimp farms , which are easy to set up in mangrove areas and provide much need jobs in poor countries , When there a choice between leaving a mangrove undeveloped for the sake of the fish and crabs and carbon - consuming tree or developing the site for money and jobs you know who is going to win out . To make matters worse , shrimp farmers typically abandon their ponds after a few years to avoid disease outbreaks and declining productivity and move to new sites , leaving behind degraded areas and plowing Desert Wetlands Cayo Levisa Cuba Carl Hodges , a environmental scientist at the University of Arizona and friend of the actor Martin Sheen and the late Marlon Brando , is major proponent of utilizing sea water to make the desert bloom , provide energy and combat global warming . Hodges has proposed setting up massive artificial seawater farms in which seawater is delivered to coastal deserts by canals . Under the scheme sea water first flows into shrimp farms and then , loaded with nutrients , it is directed from the farms to wetlands with mangrove forests and salicornia - - - a plant that grows well in salt water and can provide food or material for biofuels . One of the advantages of the plan is that it does n ’ t eat up valuable agricultural land needed to grow crops . Water is naturally filtered as it The system also helps combat global warming by providing carbon - dioxide - sucking plants and canals that can drain water from the oceans as sea levels rise . Hodges has concluded that 50 such seawater farms - - - capable of diverting the equivalent of three Mississippi Rivers - - - would be enough to absorb the sea level rises generated by global warming . A seawater farm that follows this plan is planned for the Kino Bay area in the Sonora Desert in Mexico west of Baja California . One was built in Eritrea in 1999 , achieving Growing Mangroves in the Desert Also involved in this kind of project has been Gordon Sato , a cell biologist and cancer - drug pioneer who developed a breakthrough cancer drug in the early 1980s and since then has devoted himself to reducing poverty and making the desert bloom using mangroves . The thrust of his scheme is growing mangroves in salt water and feeding the foliage to sheep and goats ( camels were known to eat the leaves ) and provide food and a means for making a living to thousands . Gambia Sato began his project by planting thousands of mangroves along the Eritrean coast of the Red Sea . All the saplings died . Sato then a closer look around and noticed that mangroves were growing naturally where freshwater was diverted during brief seasonal rains . He then determined that the mangroves grew there not because of freshwater but because the freshwater supplied minerals - - - namely nitrogen , phosphorus and iron - - - that the seedlings needed but sea water lacked in sufficient amounts . Sato then developed a low - tech means of delivering these minerals : The saplings were planted using this method in 2001 . As of 2007 , 700,000 mangroves were growing on a formally treeless shore of Hirgigo , a few miles down the shore from the Eritrean port Massawa . Sato named the project Manzanar , after the World War II internment camp in California desert where thousands of Japanese - Americans were interred , and coaxed crops from barren soil . Describing the site in 2007 Kennedy Ware wrote in National Geographic , “ Many of the mangrove trees are now well above head height , and the yellow - green Since the planting began fisherman have begun catching small fish such as mullet that they did n ’ t catch before as well as bigger predators that feed on mullet . In villages nearby sheep feed on mangrove propagules and leaves , which are nutritious but do n ’ t provide all the nutrients animals need so a small amount of fish meal is necessary to make up the difference . Mangrove and Coastal Zone Life Ferns , vines , orchids , lilies , terns , herons , plovers , kingfishers , egrets , ibises , cormorants , snakes , lizards , spiders , insects , snails and mangrove crabs thrive on land or upper parts of the mangrove plants . Barnacles , oysters , mussels , sponges , worms , snails and small fish live around the roots . Mangroves water contain crabs , jellyfish and juvenile snappers , jacks , red drums , sea trout , tarpon , sea bass , snook , sea bass . The only sharks and barracudas are babies . Lemon sharks give birth to live young and breed in shallows and young sharks spend their first year around mangrove swamps , feeding on small fish and crustaceans and staying shallow waters were there are less vulnerable to attacks from larger fish , especially other sharks . In the Bahamas there are large numbers of youngsters living in mangrove swamps which offer them a plentiful supply of food and few dangers than in the open sea and around reefs . Mangroves begin the food chain by transforming sunlight into energy and food that support microorganisms that in turn support larger and larger animals . Leaves that fall in the water are broken up crabs and snails and in turn provide nutrients for other life forms . Pieces of leave are attacked by bacteria , fungi and yeasts that break down the leaves into particles that can be consumed by protozoa and microscopic animals . They are fed on by small fish , worms , crustaceans and other invertebrates . They in turn are fed on by crabs and bigger fish , which are sometimes gobbled up by herons and eagles . Some mangrove snails avoid being submerged by crawling up and down mangrove roots . They have an acute sense of timing and anticipate tide changes by moving up and down the roots just ahead the rising and falling water . When they tides are at their highest each months they stay at the highest perch and do n ’ t drop down at low tide . Mudskippers Mudskippers are small fish found in mudflats that spend a great deal of time out of water . There are the only fish that feed , court and defend their territories on land . Residing in Old World mangrove swamps and muddy estuaries from West Africa to Papua New Guinea and Australia , they spend about half their time on land and can live up to week without water . The largest species reach lengths of about 20 centimeters . Mudskippers are somewhat similar to the first creatures that moved from the seas to land and evolved into amphibians , reptiles , dinosaurs , mammals and other terrestrial animals . Most species feed on plankton and algae . Some feed on worms , crustaceans and insects and other food and small animals they can extract from the mud . Mudskippers can breath on both land and in the water . Like all fish they have gills . But what makes them unique are the little chambers they have outside their gills which entrap water and enables them to breath on land , sort of like a scuba tank in reverse . To breath in this way they need to regularly fill their mouths with water . They can also absorb oxygen through their skin like a frog does but to do this they need to keep their skin wet and often roll around in the mud to achieve that Mudskippers have relatively large , funny - looking , protruding bug eyes . These eyes are so well adapted for seeing on land , the ability to see in water is greatly diminished . Below their eyes are small cups that hold water . As their eyes become dehydrated they retreat for a time into the cups , which remoisten them . There are three main kinds of mudskippers . The smallest ones spend most of their time in the water . They usually hang out at the water ' s edge sifting for worms and crustaceans . Medium size ones spend their time in the mid - tide areas of swamps . They are solitary , feed almost exclusively on algae and sometimes build mud walls to defend their territory . The third and largest kind hangs out in mudflats close to shore . It is a carnivore and feeds mostly on small crabs . Mudskipper Movement Mudskippers move by suddenly flexing the rear parts of their bodies , which cause them to jump or skip , hence their name . Their front pair of pectoral fins helps them stay steady . These also help the animals to walk and have a rigid bone and fleshy base and operate sort of like crutches . Mudskippers spend most of their time in burrows that can be found in both land and water . During low tide Mudskippers cruise the land looking for food , They like to stay close to their burrow to make a quick escape from predators such as birds , crabs and snakes . During high tides they spend much of their time in their burrows safe from predatory fish . To ensure the do n ’ t suffocate they gulp air and transport it to their burrow so they have enough to breath unto low tide arrives . Mudskippers come out of the water to feed on insects and other invertebrates that like mud . Under the slightest threat they dart back into their burrows . When the need to move quickly to escape danger or catch prey they curl their tails sideways , flicking them and slide across the mud . Some mudskippers can climb tree branches and mangrove roots by using their front flippers to grasp a tree ' s stems and branches . There are other fishes which walk on land , like the walking catfish , but the mudskipper is the only one that climbs trees . Mudskipper Mating Gambian mudskippers Mudskippers mate out of water . Because their front fins are used in getting around they perform their courtship displays with the long fins that run down their backs . Normally the back fins of the male lie flat . During the mating season they become erect , sometimes revealing bright colors . Male mudskippers sometimes leap into the air so they can be seen at a distance . During the mating season males often carve up the available land area into territories and dig burrows with one or several entrances , and sometimes “ turrets ” and “ moats . ” To attract mates they do courtship dances . Some species do multiple flips , one after another . Fierce battles between males occur over the best burrowing spots . Many males puff out their cheeks and gill chambers by filling them with air to lure a female into their burrows . If a male is successful he plugs the entrance with mud and mates . After they are born mudskipper larvae float out of the burrow water into open water . After about 35 days they develop into mudskippers and return to the mud flat and live as an amphibian fish . Fiddler Crabs Fiddler crabs live in holes and pick up food with their pincers that deliver it to a set of hair - fringed blades that scissor back and forth in front of their mouths . One set of hairs sorts out grains of sand and mud . Another set moves potentially edible material to the mouth . Inedible material collects at the bottom of the mouth and is coalesced into a pellet that is removed with the pincer . [ Source : Douglas Fox Natural History , April 2004 ] Fiddler crabs are seen by the hundreds in mud flats . They make slurping noises as they take in mud , extract organic material and eject little balls . They rarely venture more than a meter or two from their burrow . Somehow in their brains they count their steps and use triangulation to figure out where they are in case they have to make a run for it to the relative safety of their burrows . Fiddle crab life revolves around its burrow . Douglas Fox wrote in Natural History : “ A crab ’ s most precious resource is its burrow . That ’ s where the animal hunkers down at hide tide , hides from birds , mates . And other crabs that leave the safety of their own burrows in search of a larger or better - positioned burrow are often the biggest threat . When a crab ventures even a few crab steps from its burrow to slurp some mud , other crabs are constantly trying to steal its burrow , forcing In the world of the fiddler crab most everything on land level are other crabs and things that come from the sky are predators . If a dummy is placed next to a crab the crab treats it as another crab and either ignores it or tries to fight with it or mate with it . If you wave a dummy over their heads from the sky they immediately run for cover to their burrows . Fiddler Crab Breeding Fiddler crab burrows Female fiddler crabs have two pincers that are the same size . Males have one pincer like the female ’ s . The other is very large and conspicuously colored pink , red , blue , purple or white . The large claw looks fearsome but actually they are virtually useless in catching prey and defending the crab from predators , Its primary purpose is to attract mates . The large claw is waved ( the fiddling ) by the male , often accompanied by a little dance , to signal females that he is ready to mate . Responsive females follow the male to his hole . The dance and style of fiddling varies from species to species . Some stand as high as they can and wave their claws back and forth . Other hold their claws still and jump up and down . A group of a dozen or so male fiddler crabs may surround a female and wave their large claws , seemingly in unison . The female then selects one of the males and goes down his hole to mate . Why did she chose one and not the others when they all seem to be acting the same . Studies have shown that the victor often begins his fiddling a fraction of a second earlier than the others . Fiddler Crab Vision Fiddler crabs have compound eyes located on stalks that emerge from the head . Each eye is composed of 10,000 ommatidia , the individual eyes that make up compund eyes . Most are on the stalks rather than at the end of the stalk . Even where there is a clear division of shapes fiddle crabs can only make out objects only about two percent as well as humans can . Describing fiddler crab vision Douglas Fox wrote in natural History magazine wrote : “ A fiddler crabs eyes are mounted on stalks that point straight up and they command a panoramic 360 - degree view . The mudflat comprises the entire outer edge of the visual field , and the arching sky dominates the middle . . .Unlike human vision the crabs vison is sharpest around the edges . That ’ s a reasonable emphasis . After all , the outer edge is where other members of the species are scuttling about : both rival animals looking to steal one Scientists at Australia National University in Canberra studying fiddler crabs have developed a “ crab camera ” that mimic the vision of a fiddler crabs , giving a sky - centered “ donut view ” of the world . Fiddler crab anatomy Image Sources : Wikimedia Commons , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Text Sources : New York Times , Washington Post , Los Angeles Times , Times of London , Yomiuri Shimbun , The Guardian , National Geographic , The New Yorker , Time , Newsweek , Reuters , AP , Lonely Planet Guides , Compton ’ s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications . © 2008 Jeffrey Hays Last updated January 2012 Image Sources : Wikimedia Commons , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Text Sources : New York Times , Washington Post , Los Angeles Times , Times of London , Yomiuri Shimbun , The Guardian , National Geographic , The New Yorker , Time , Newsweek , Reuters , AP , Lonely Planet Guides , Compton ’ s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications . © 2008 Jeffrey Hays Last updated January 2012 | [
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http://factsfive.com/gus-kenworthy-net-worth/ | Money Gus Kenworthy Net Worth : 5 Facts You Should Know By factsfive February 6 , 2018 1764 August Richard Kenworthy shortly known as Gus Kenworthy is an American freestyle - skier . Gus is one of the athletes who will be competing in the Winter Olympics . So , how much does Gus Kenworthy earn ? Here are some facts about him including his personal life , boyfriend , net worth and more . Contents hide 1 1 . Gus Kenworthy Net Worth is estimated to be $ 300,000 2 2 . His Early Life and Education 3 3 . His Professional career 4 4 . He came out as gay in 2015 . 5 5 . Gus is currently dating Matthew Wilkas . 1 . Gus Kenworthy Net Worth is estimated to be $ 300,000 According to businessinsider , Gus Kenworthy net worth is $ 300,000 . Athletes are paid around $ 37,500 for winning a gold medal at Winter Olympics while he has never won one in his career so far . Gus earns most of his money from sponsorship deals from companies like Visa and Proctor & Gamble . Gus Kenworthy Net Worth compared to other athletes Lindsey Jacobellis Net Worth $ 1 million Mikaela Shiffrin Net Worth $ 2 million Lindsey Vonn Net Worth $ 3 million Jamie Anderson Net Worth $ 4 million Shaun White Net Worth $ 40 million Gus Kenworthy Net Worth $ 300,000 2 . His Early Life and Education Gus was born on October 1 , 1991 in Essex , United Kingdom to Pip Tyler and Peter Kenworthy . His mother is originally from Bristol England while his father Peter who is American worked in London for many years . In 1993 Pip Tyler , Peter Kenworthy , their sons including Gus who was two years old that time immigrated to United States . Kenworthy graduated from Telluride High School in 2010 . He could have graduated one year before in 2009 but decided to take a year off because of his passion on ski . 3 . His Professional career Gus won AFP World Championships overall titles in 2011 , 2012 and 2013 . He then won Silver medal in 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia in freestyle skiing . The same year he won bronze medal at the Games in France in the slopestyle event . In 2015 and 2016 , he won the World Cup Men ’ s Halfpipe in Utah and California respectively . In 2017 , he finished third in Men ’ s slopestyle in World Cup in Switzerland . He will be representing United States in 2018 winter Olympics in Pyeongchang , South Korea . 4 . He came out as gay in 2015 . In an interview with ESPN in 2015 , Kenworthy came out as gay . He later said to Attitude magazine that “ I wanted to do it in my own words and once and for all - and hopefully help kids that are in the same position I was ” . He is the first action sports star to come out as gay . 5 . Gus is currently dating Matthew Wilkas . Gus Kenworthy Matthew Wilkas Currently , he has been in relationship with Matthew Wilkas . Matthew is an American theatre , film actor and reality television personality . He has appeared in 2012 movie “ Gayby ” . Before that , he was involved in relationship with Robin Macdonald . Gus and Robin first gained attention as a result of Macdonald , texting him a photo of five stray dogs during the time at 2014 Winter Olympics . However , their relationship broke after 5 years . Warning : A non - numeric value encountered in / srv / users / ekmantime / apps / factsfive / public / wp - content / themes / Newspaper / includes / wp_booster / td_block . php on line 326 | [
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http://faculty.baruch.cuny.edu/jwahlert/bio1003/algae.html | Laboratory Notes for BIO 1003 © 30 August 1999 , John H . Wahlert & Mary Jean Holland Domain Eukarya Kingdom Plantae ALGAE Plants arose in water , and algae are examples of this stage in plant evolution . Life in water is much simpler than life on land , since the nutrient rich environment surrounds the organism . Algae ( s . alga ) are photosynthetic , nonvascular aquatic plants . They may consist of a single cell ( e.g. , Chlamydomonas ) , of a cluster of cells ( e.g. , Gonium ) , or be a giant marine organism ( e.g. , Macrocystis — kelp ) . Algae are autotrophs or primary producers , part of the broad base of the aquatic food chain . They live in fresh water , brackish water , and marine environments . The photosynthetic portion is always at relatively shallow depth , within the zone of light penetration . Any large , flat multicellular form is referred to as a thallus . Gametes that are identical are called isogametes ; if different , heterogametes ( oogamy refers to a large , non - motile egg ; in such cases sperm are small and motile ) . Division Rhodophyta — red algae About 4000 species of red algae are known . They inhabit the edges of the sea everywhere . A few species occur in fresh water . The kinds that you see are generally haploid ; alternation of generations ( diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte ) is the norm . The reddish plastids are called rhodoplasts ; they contain chlorophyll a and phycobiliproteins , which give them the red color ; all lack chlorophylls b and c . Some red algae live at great depth , where red light wavelengths , which are of primary importance as energy for green and brown algae , fail to penetrate . Red algae are the source of agar , a gelatinous substance that is extracted from their cell walls ; polysaccharides from these algae are used in the manufacture of ice cream and other food products . Examples Porphyridium ( unicellular ) ; Porphyra ( multicellular membranous — used as food in Asia under the name of “ nori ” ) ; Polysiphonia ( branching form ) is a small marine alga . The filament is complex : “ Polysiphonous contruction is one of the most noteworthy characteristics of Polysiphonia . Apical cells cut off proximal segments which elongate to become axial cells . These cut off pericentral cells of the same length . The central axial cell is now surrounded by pericentral cells of the same length , forming one ‘ tier ’ or segment . can have four to 24 pericentral cells present per tier . ” ( Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute : http : / / www . mbari . org / staff / conn / botany / reds / sarah / morphology . htm Division Phaeophyta — brown algae About 1500 species of brown algae are known ; nearly all are marine . Some are huge : The giant kelp may be as much as 100 meters long . Brown algae dominate the intertidal zone , especially rocky coastal sea shores in the temperate regions . Reproduction is mostly sexual . There is alternation of haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations . The gametophyte and sporophyte may look identical or be entirely different . Chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and c , but never b . Fucoxanthin is responsible for the brown or olive - drab color of the thallus . Examples Ectocarpus Laminaria Macrocystis — kelps ( these have a root - like holdfast , a stemlike stipe , and leaflike blades ) ; Sargassum Fucus — rockweed ( found at the beach ; tips of the thallus have bladders that you can pop ) . Chlorophyta — green algae About 7000 species have been described . Many are marine ( e.g. , Ulva - - sea lettuce , a membranous thallus ) ; others are a major component of the freshwater phytoplankton . Together they have been estimated to fix over a billion tons of carbon per year . Chloroplasts are grass - green and contain chlorophylls and carotenoid derivatives . Since the Chlorophyta and land plants share photosynthetic pigments and cell wall chemistry , it is presumed that some kind of green alga was the ancestor of the land plants . These plants have many different forms including motile unicellular and colonial , nonmotile unicellular , colonial , filamentous , membranous , and multinucleate . The microscopic examples you will see are all haploid , fresh water green algae . Chlamydomonas is a motile unicell ; each cell has two flagella . The chloroplast is cup - shaped . Starch is synthesized in a special region of the chloroplast called the pyrenoid . Recall that starch is a polysaccharide made of glucose sugars . belongs to a group called the Volvocales . Other examples are Gonium , which consists of groups of - like cells , and Pandorina in which the cells are more regularly arranged . Volvox , itself , is a colonial alga , a hollow cluster of mostly identical cells that are held in place by a gelatinous matrix . The flagella of each cell cause the colony to roll through the water . You can see examples of asexual reproduction - - cells within the colony divide and form hollow spheres called daughter colonies ( left ) . In sexual reproduction a large egg and tiny sperm ( heterogametes ) are formed ; fertilization results in thick - walled , spiny zygotes ( right ) , also inside a parent colony . Oedogonium is an example of a filamentous or thread - like green alga , and it does not swim . The chloroplast is netlike and has many pyrenoids . A holdfast attaches the filament to the substrate . Mitosis produces haploid zoospores ( asexual reproduction ) . In sexual reproduction meet and form a thick - walled zygote ; when it germinates , meiosis produces haploid motile spores that settle down and a new haploid filament grows . Spirogyra is also a filamentous green alga . Prepare a wet mount by picking out some strands with forceps and curling them on the slide ; add a couple drops of water and put a cover slip over the alga . The choroplast spirals between the cell membrane and the central vacuole . Examine its form and note the pyrenoid bodies spaced along its length . Remove the cover slip , absorb the water with a paper towel , and replace the water with iodine solution . Have the pyrenoids changed color ? What does this indicate ? Would you have seen the same result Spirogyra had been in the dark or in very cold water ? Asexual reproduction occurs if the filament breaks into pieces . Sexual reproduction is by conjugation . Two filaments lie side by side , and conjugation tubes bulge out from the cells in the opposite filaments ; they meet and unite as continuous tubes . The contents of one cell move across into the other , and , when the nuclei fuse , a zygote is formed . In the following spring the zygote nucleus undergoes meiosis , three of the four nuclei die , and the new haploid cell germinates into a haploid filament . Charophyta — Stoneworts and Brittleworts These algae are often included in the division Chlorophyta , because they have the same photosynthetic pigments and store carbohydrate as starch . The body form and reproductive organs are different . Some botanists consider them to make a link between the green algae and land plants . Return to index Last updated 3 March 2017 ( JHW ) | [
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"Kingdom Plantae"
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http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/bergslet/interior.html | Earth ' s Interior Introductory Geology GES 101 Dr . Bergslien Rotation about its spin axis causes the earth to be a very slightly flattened sphere There are two basic ways of dividing the Earth into layers : Chemical Compostion and Physical Properties Chemical Composition Compositional Sorting - Overall Density Sorting of the Earth , Iron and Nickel sink to the center - lighter elements float upwards . Called the " Iron Catastrophe " Chemical differentiation - chemical affinities of elements for each other . Uranuium has an affinity for oxygen , not iron , so it formed compounds that were relatively light and rose up rather than sinking to the core . Compositional Layered structure : Crust Continental ( about 35 km thick ; 60 km in mountain ranges ) Granitic composition ( 2.7 g / cm3 ) Non - ferromagnesian minerals dominate Oceanic ( about 5 km thick ) Basaltic composition ( 3.0 g / cm3 ) Ferromagnesian minerals dominate Mantle ( 2885 km thick ) The mantle has the biggest volume of all the layers . It is primarily made up of Iron ( Fe ) and Aluminium ( Al ) rich silicate minerals ( silicates are minerals made of Silicon ( Si ) and Oxygen ( O ) ) . Olivine ( 3.38 g / cc ) , Spinel ( 3.66 g / cc ) , Perovskite ( 4.27 g / cc ) Solid that flows ; plastic behavior Core - chemically homogeneous ( all the same ) Outer core ( 2270 km thick ) Molten Fe with some Ni Inner core ( 1216 km radius ) Solid Fe with some Ni Physical Properties - Mechanical Behavior The layers are defined by their physical properties With increasing depth , Earth ' s interior is characterized by gradual increases in temperature , pressure , and density Depending on the temperature and depth , a particular Earth material may behave like a brittle solid , deform in a plasticÐlike manner , or melt and become liquid Mechanical layers of Earth ' s interior are based on physical properties and hence mechanical strength Mechanically Layered Structure Lithosphere ( sphere of rock ) Earth ' s outermost layer Consists of the crust and uppermost mantle Relatively cool , rigid shell ( BRITTLE ) Averages about 100 kilometers in thickness , but may be 250 kilometers or more thick beneath the older portions of the continents Asthenosphere ( weak sphere ) Beneath the lithosphere , in the upper mantle to a depth of about 600 kilometers Small amount of melting in the upper portion mechanically detaches the lithosphere from the layer below allowing the lithosphere to move independently of the asthenosphere Mesosphere or lower mantle Rigid layer between the depths of 660 kilometers and 2900 kilometers Rocks are very hot and capable of very gradual flow Outer core Composed mostly of an iron - nickel alloy Liquid layer 2270 kilometers ( 1410 miles ) thick Convective flow within generates EarthÕs magnetic field Inner core Sphere with a radius of 3486 kilometers ( 2161 miles ) Material is stronger than the outer core Behaves like a solid So - How do we know this ? Drilling Wells drilled into Earth are mostly in the upper 7 km of the crust . Deepest well is only a little under 8mi deep Volcanic activity Xenoliths = foreign rock ( pieces of the mantle in lava ) . Only useful to depth of about 200 km High pressure laboratory experiments Samples of the solar system ( meteorites ) Study of seismic waves generated by earthquakes and nuclear explosions . Seismic waves are one of the main keys used to understand the EarthÕs Interior Important Notes Velocity depends on the density and elasticity of the transmitting material . The denser the material , the faster the waves travel . Crystalline rock transmits waves faster than mud . Pressure increases within the Earth - therefore density increases . The deeper inside the Earth the faster waves travel . P - waves travel in all mediums S - waves travel only in solids P - waves travel faster than S - waves Seismic Energy Wave energy gets reflected and refracted at seismic boundaries . | [
"Earth 's Interior",
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http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/penaloj/bio405/outline6.html | Genetic drift - " In small populations , chance events produce outcomes that differ from theoretical predictions " ( p . 165 ) . In any population of finite size , " sampling error " will result in random changes in allele frequency from generation to generation . Consequences : Especially for neutral alleles , frequencies drift to 1 ( fixation ) or 0 ( elimination ) . The effect is strongest in small populations , but occurs in all populations Founder effect " is a special case of genetic drift : the small size of a founder population almost guarantees that its allele frequencies will not be identical to the parent population . " Bottleneck effect " occurs when populations undergo periodic crashes . Allele frequencies after the crash will probably differ from those before the crash . Genetic drift causes random fixation of alleles and loss of heterozygosity . Fig 6.13 shows the trajectories of many populations , revealing that : Each population follows a unique trajectory ( evolutionary path ) . Some alleles become fixed in some populations , other alleles become fixed in other populations . Change in allele frequency is rapid in small populations , slower in large populations . Fixation occurs rapidly in small populations , more slowly in larger populations , but it eventually occurs no matter the population size . As alleles become fixed , there is an overall decline in heterozygosity as each population become homozygous for one or the other of the alleles . Note that selection can modify these outcomes by either facilitating or preventing fixation / extinction of alleles . Some real examples : Buri ' s experiment with Drosophila ( Fig . 6.14 ) . He began with most populations near p = .5 , he ended with most populations near p = 1 or p = 0 . This is exactly the outcome predicted by the computer simulations in Fig . 6.13 Relict desert lizard populations in the Ozarks ( Templeton , Fig . 6.16 ) : . Each population became fixed for a single multilocus genotype . Flowering plants ( Young et al . , Fig 6.17 ) : There is a positive correlation between population size and genetic diversity ( two measures of ) . Geospiza in the Galapagos : New population established by 3 males and 2 females . The new population differs morphologically from the source population . Migration Migration - " In an evolutionary sense , the movement of alleles between populations " ( p . 157 ) . Naturally , the alleles donut move by themselves - they move as organisms disperse from population to population . Note - do n ' t confuse migration in this sense with seasonal migrations , e.g. of birds . " Gene flow " and " migration " are synonymous . Dispersal can be by adult animal organisms , seeds and spores of plants , planktonic larvae of intertidal animals , gametes / zygotes of algae , etc . Effects of migration on allele frequencies : In absence of selection ( i.e. if alleles are selectively neutral ) migration homogenizes allele frequencies among populations . If selection and migration tend to increase the frequencies of the same alleles , selection can amplify effect of migration . If selection and migration are opposed - - If selection is stronger than migration , than differences among populations will be maintained , even in the face of migration . If migration is stronger than selection , differences among populations will be reduced . Some real examples : Water snakes ( Nerodia sipedon ) on islands in western Lake Erie ( Camin , Ehrlich , King ; Fig . 6.6 , 6.7 ) . Selection on the islands favors unbanded snakes , but dispersal of banded snakes from the mainland results in equilibrium frequencies of the two phenotypes . This is analogous to selection / mutation balance . Red bladder campion ( Silene dioica ) on Swedish islands ( Giles and Goudet , Fig .6 .9 ) . This example address the interaction of drift and migration : Diversity among young populations is due to founder effect . Migrations reduces diversity among populations of intermediate age . As populations shrink , chance extinction of alleles generates diversity among populations of old islands | [
"Mendelian Genetics",
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http://faculty.college-prep.org/~bernie/sciproject/project/Kingdoms/Fungi%207/fungi%20website/features.html | FEATURES * * * goto : structure reproduction sources back to : index Anatomy of Fungi Most fungi are made up in a large part of their mycelia , the underground net of threads called hyphae . Each hypha is surrounded by a rigid wall made of chitin ( the same material that makes up the exoskeleton of insects ) . As a group in the mycelium , the hyphae merge together and their cytoplasms ( and the nutrients contained within them ) flow freely among them . Their organelles ( and nuclei ) , however , stay in one place . In some species of fungi , namely those in the Basidiomycota Phylum , as the mycelium develops it produces a structure that grows above ground and contains spores ( the reproductive element of fungi ) . This structure usually grows above ground in order to disperse the spores more effectively . This above - ground portion of the fungi is what is commonly referred to as the mushroom , the fruiting body that is often eaten ( such as crimini mushrooms , oyster mushrooms , shitake mushrooms , etc ) . As with agaricus fungi , this portion is made Above : an anatomy diagram of a common capped club fungi In all cases , though , this above - ground structure contains spores . This way , the spores , which are the reproductive system of fungi ( much like seeds in plants ) , can be carried and spread . Spores are generally released from the gills of a mushroom . Other fungi , such as polypores , have things other than gills . Below : Stringy , white mycelium growing at the surface of the soil next to a rock Below that : Mycelium observed under a microscope ; note that the cell ' s cytoplasms are adjoined Mycelium : Underneath the molds and mushrooms you see growing beneath trees or on your bread is an interlaced mesh of stringy white mycelium . Mycelium , or intricate underground weavings of hyphal cell , makes up a sort of ‘ root ’ system for fungi . Mycelium is made up of special diploid or haploid cells , hyphae , which are arranged in a line . The hyphae ’ s cytoplasms are all joined so that materials can be transported from hypha to hypha quickly but the nucleus of each hyphal cell remains separate . The Mycelium draws up minerals which back to the top Fungal Reproduction : Alternation of Generation Each generation of Fungi Kingdom is opposite of its parents generation . A generation of fungal cells can either diploid , with two copies of each chromosome , or haploid , with only one copy of each chromosome . Most fungi that you would recognize as fungi , for example mushrooms ( club fungi ) , the fruiting bodies of sac fungi and molds that appear above ground , are diploid . On the other hand , haploid fungi make up the hyphae cells and underground mycelium before the mycelium undergoes sexual reproduction . For the most part , the Each of the two generations of fungi undergoes a different type of reproduction . Haploids sexually reproduce , joining the two nuclei of two different strands of hyphae cells to produce a new strand of diploid hyphae cells which will the sprout into an above - earth mushroom ( etc . ) Diploids , on the other hand , produce special haploid cells using Mitosis to be released as spores into the ground . The children of diploids become haploid mycelium that will produce more diploids . Three Types of Fungi Reproduction There are five , debatably six , phylums of fungi ( see evolution section ) : Conjunction , Club , Sac , Imperfect , primitive and , perhaps , lichen . Each phylum has its respective method of reproduction . In this section , we will cover the three most important types of Fungi Reproductions : that of Molds / Conjunction Fungi ( Zygomycota ) , Club Fungi ( Basidiomycota ) and Sac Fungi ( Ascomycota ) . Enjoy fungi sex ! Phylum Zygomycota : Molds ( Conjunction Fungi ) Sexual Reproduction : ( 1 ) When two haploid strands of hyphae , one ( + ) and one ( - ) , meet , they fuse at the edges and begin to form a multi - celled , thick - walled zygosporangium . ( 2 ) The nuclei from the opposite hyphal cells fuse together inside the zygosporangium , forming a diploid - celled zygospore . ( 3 ) The diploid zygospore grows upwards into the air by undergoing meiosis . This mold protrusion is called sporangium ( haploid ) . ( 4 ) The sporangium releases haploid spores into the air . ( 5 ) A spore lands into its final destination ( e.g. in the earth , in bread , etc . ) and begins to undergo mitosis forming new mycelium . Asexual Reproduction : ( 1 ) Haploid mycelium sprouts into haploid sporangium without ever creating a diploid zygospore . ( 2 ) Spores are released into the air ; the spores begin to sprout mycelium when they land . Phylum Basidiomycota : Club Fungi ( Mushrooms ) Sexual Reproduction : Two strands of haploid mycelium , one ( + ) and one ( - ) , fuse to create a diploid mycelium strand that contains two nuclei in each of its adjoined hyphal cells . ( 2 ) When above earth environmental changes become favorable , a visible mushroom forms above the diploid hyphae . ( 3 ) On the gills of the mushroom , diploid basidia ( which will form into spores ) begin to form ; each basidia cell contains two nuclei . ( 4 ) The two nuclei in the basidia cells fuse creating a – still diploid – basidium . ( 5 ) Each basidia cell then undergoes meiosis producing haploid nuclei that matures into basidiospores . ( 6 ) The basidiospores are dispersed ; when they land in their final destination points , they germinate , forming haphae Asexual Reproduction : Basidiomycota only EXTREMELY rarely ever asexually reproduces , so do n ’ t sweat it ! Phylum Ascomycota : Sac Fungi Sexual Reproduction : Sac Fungi seldom reproduce sexually . Two strands of haploid hyphae , one ( + ) and one ( - ) , come in close contact : both form a haploid Ascogonium out of hyphae . The Ascogonium is a sac with many fungi cell nuclei compacted close . Out of the Ascogonium , many strands of hyphae grow above earth . These filaments synthesize to form the structure of the “ fruiting ” body of the fungi . At the tip of the fruiting body , each hyphae strand forms into an ascus . Each ascus contains two nuclei . The nuclei in the ascus fuse to create a diploid ascus . Then , each ascus undergoes meiosis , producing haploid nuclei . The haploid nuclei undergo meiosis again , resulting in eight ascospores in each ascus . Each ascus bursts , releasing the ascospores into the air . When an ascospore reaches its destination , hyphae develop and a new generation of fungi is propogated . Sac Fungi USUALLY reproduce asexually . Haploid hyphae grow above earth , producing some haploid spores . The spores are dispersed . When a spore reaches its destination , hyphae develop and a new generation , identical to its parent , is propogated . Sources : All photographs acquired using google image search All diagrams and illustrations are hand drawn by Jon , Chuck and Jesslyn Reproduction diagrams adapted from : http : / / www . sirinet . net / ~ jgjohnso / fungireproduction . html Info adapted from : Biology ; Concepts and Applications : Fifth Edition http : / / www . sirinet . net / ~ jgjohnso / fungireproduction . html All text written / website design done by Chuck Goldhaber , Jonathan Wachter and Jesslyn Jamison FEATURES * * * goto : structure reproduction sources back to : index | [
"Fungi",
"Anatomy",
"Mycelium"
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http://faculty.etsu.edu/hipples/fpvsmp.htm | FISCAL POLICY VS MONETARY POLICY I . THE BUSINESS CYCLE II . ECONOMIC POLICY AND THE BUSINESS CYCLE The approach to the business cycle depends upon the type of economic system . Under a communist system , there is no business cycle since all economic activities are controlled by the central planners . Indeed , this lack of a business cycle is often cited as an advantage of a command economy . Both socialist and fascist economies have a mix of market and command sectors . Again , the command sector in these economies will not have a business cycle - - while the market sector will display a cyclical activity . In a full market economy - - like the United States - - the nation can suffer extreme swings in the level of economic activity . The economic policies used by the government to smooth out the extreme swings of the business cycle are called contracyclical or stabilization policies , and are based on the theories of John Maynard Keynes . Writing in 1936 ( the Great Depression ) , Keynes argued that the business cycle was due to extreme swings in the total demand for goods and services . The total demand in an economy from households , business , and government is called aggregate demand Contracyclical policy is increasing aggregate demand in recessions and decreasing aggregate demand in overheated expansions . In a market economy ( or market sector ) the government has two types of economic policies to control aggregate demand - - fiscal policy and monetary policy . When these policies are used to stimulate the economy during a recession , it is said that the government is pursuing expansionary economic policies . And when they are used to contract the economy during an overheated expansion , it is said that the government is pursuing contractionary economic policies . III . FISCAL POLICY AND MONETARY POLICY Fiscal policy is changes in the taxing and spending of the federal government for purposes of expanding or contracting the level of aggregate demand . In a recession , an expansionary fiscal policy involves lowering taxes and increasing government spending . In an overheated expansion , a contractionary fiscal policy requires higher taxes and reduced spending . According to Keynes , a recession requires deficit spending while an overheated expansion requires a budget surplus . 1 ) Discretionary Fiscal Policy . The first way this can be done is through the federal budget process . However , this process takes so long - - 12 to 18 months - - that it is difficult to match discretionary fiscal policy with the business cycle . The expansionary Kennedy tax cut of 1964 and later the Ford tax increase of 1974 hit the economy just when the opposite contracyclical policy was needed . As a result , the federal government will only use discretionary fiscal policy in a severe recession , such as 1981 - 82 and 2008 - 09 . In both cases , the federal government resorted to a large fiscal stimulus – tax cuts in 1981 - 82 and increased spending in 2008 - 09 . Both policies created large deficits , which is the appropriate stabilization policy during a severe downturn . 2 ) Automatic Stabilizers . A second type of fiscal policy is built into the structure of federal taxes and spending . This is referred to as " nondiscretionary fiscal policy " or more commonly as " automatic stabilizers " . The progressive income tax ( the major source of federal revenue ) and the welfare system both act to increase aggregate demand in recessions , and to decrease aggregate demand in overheated expansions . These automatic changes in spending and taxes will generate a deficit in recessions and a surplus in overheated expansions . The size of these automatic changes can be quite large . In the 2008 - 09 recession the deficit stimulus due to the automatic stabilizers was much larger than the stimulus created by the legislative changes in taxes and spending ( discretionary fiscal policy ) . Monetary policy is under the control of the Federal Reserve System ( our central bank ) and is completely discretionary . It is the changes in interest rates and money supply to expand or contract aggregate demand . In a recession , the Fed will lower interest rates and increase the money supply . In an overheated expansion , the Fed will raise interest rates and decrease the money supply . These decisions are made by the Federal Open Market Committee ( FOMC ) which meets every six to seven weeks . The policy changes can be done immediately , although the impact on aggregate demand can take several months . Monetary policy has become the major form of discretionary policy used by the federal government . A source of conflict is that the Fed is independent and is not under the direct control of either the President or the Congress . This independence of monetary policy is considered to be an important advantage compared to fiscal policy . Note that expansionary monetary policy is commonly called " easy money " while monetary policy is called " tight money " . Other terms are also used . | [
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http://faculty.etsu.edu/odonnell/2011fall/engl3130/student_writing/social_darwinism.htm | American Politics : Is Social Darwinism Once Again Prevalent ? Charles Darwin by Aaron Thomas ( email : ztat11 @ goldmail . etsu . edu ) for Advanced Composition , East TN State U , December 2011 - About the Author : Aaron Thomas is an English / History double - major undergraduate at East Tennessee State University . He plans to graduate this December ( 2011 ) and pursue a Master ’ s degree of History with a primary focus on Gilded Age America . - It ’ s a time of dramatic change in America . “ Progress , ” is going ahead full steam , with new inventions , political philosophies , and scientific advancements abounding . Industrialization appears to reinforce the benefits of capitalism as the United States first appears on the world stage as a dominant force . Later historians , however , exercising a nuanced perspective , notice some flaws in this Gilded Age of American history ( 1877 - 1893 is the general consensus , although these dates are flexible ) . The disparity between rich and poor was phenomenal , as “ robber barons ” [ 1 ] built massive empires by implementing both horizontal and vertical integration , [ 2 ] often paying their employees the least amount possible . Laissez - faire dominated politics as speculation ran rampant on Wall Street . ( Sound familiar ? ) Regulation was so lax on businesses that railroad employees routinely fell off trains without so much as an afterthought to safety and the meatpacking industry allowed fingers to find their way into processed meats . [ 3 ] It ’ s a time of great conservatism in our nation , clearly displayed by the absence of almost any governmental regulation . Social Darwinism : a Brief Background As the name suggests , Social Darwinism is a theory based on Charles Darwin ’ s scientific findings in On the Origins of Species Herbert Spencer , an English intellectual and Social Darwinist , applied the study to economic life and actually coined the phrase “ survival of the fittest . ” The theory basically transplants the struggle of a species onto society , arguing that social reforms are useless and only impede the natural process of life . Truly a conservative movement , the ideology gained widespread vogue in the United States throughout 1870 - 1890 . These years represent the height of Social Darwinism , but in no way suggest the movement became completely stagnant after 1890 . Only until the Great Depression when the ill effects of un - regulation were felt and FDR ’ s presidency did the dogma truly fall by the wayside . Unsurprisingly , many of those who benefited the most from the status quo greatly heralded Social Darwinism . John D . Rockefeller told his Sunday school class : The growth of a large business is merely the survival of the fittest … It is merely the working - out of a law of nature and a law of God . [ 4 ] Not only did those vastly successful in business support the validity of such a perception ; the individuals wanting to suppress radical movements ( such as Populism , or even worse , Socialism ) used the theory , as Vincent De Santis , a respected authority on the Gilded Age argues , “ to give capitalism the backing of ‘ science ’ . ” [ 5 ] Ultimately , Social Darwinism created an amalgamation of new thought [ 6 ] not only in politics and economics , but also religion . A vivid example of this new philosophy impacting religious thought is presented by Russell Conwell , a Baptist minister who founded Temple University . During the late 19 th century he is said to have given his “ Acres of Diamonds ” speech over 5,000 times , in which he famously exclaims , “ There is not a poor person in the United States who was not made poor by his own shortcomings . ” [ 7 ] What is important to keep in mind , throughout this discussion , is that Social Darwinism was not simply a benign philosophy . The theory had a concrete impact on governmental inaction and how society perceived the lower classes . De Santis argues : The new doctrine crippled reform movements by justifying poverty and slums . Poverty and slums were natural for the unfit who had not survived the economic struggle ; and any governmental effort to relieve poverty amounted to a perversion of the natural law . [ 8 ] Thus , the proletariat of America was stigmatized as inferior and simply a manifestation of a universal and natural law . Social Darwinism and the Gilded Age in general championed laissez - fare economic philosophy . They believed the government ’ s role in the daily lives of citizens should be negligible and should honor free trade and competition , often seen as core values of capitalism . This perception was heralded by many during the time , especially those who benefitted from the system . As De Santis explains , Social Darwinism “ justified free competition and made successful businessmen [ 9 ] feel that they themselves were the finest flower of evolution . ” [ 10 ] Not only did Social Darwinism provide a newfound legitimacy for free competition , but it also reinforced laissez - faire principles . The capitalistic system was seen as self - regulatory , rewarding the wise and laborious while punishing the lazy and unintelligent . This perception created an environment where the prevailing thought was that “ the government was not to interfere in the conduct of business or in personal matters . ” [ 11 ] Thus , the time period is often viewed as one of the most stagnant in terms of governmental action in United States history . So widespread and accepted was Social Darwinism that Yale , Harvard , and Johns Hopkins all maintained courses on religion , biology , and social science that implemented the ideology into the particular course . [ 12 ] William Graham Sumner , a Harvard sociologist , held deep - seated Social Darwinist views . He argued that “ humans must stop ‘ sentimentalists ’ and allow unfit people to die , or at the very least not reproduce . ” [ 13 ] Such a pessimistic view of society and distorted perception of the lower classes seems hard to fathom by many today . Most 21 st century Americans would dismiss the theory as nothing more than an outdated explanation of the world , an attempt to justify capitalism that simply went too far . As Americans we progress , learn from our mistakes and try to avoid making the same ones twice . Is Social Darwinism Coming Back ? Roughly a hundred years later , are we destined to fall into the pitfalls of Social Darwinism once again ? The rhetoric thrown around by Republican candidates this 2011 political season seems eerily reminiscent of the age that turned a blind eye to the poor , neglected the lower classes as simply unfit for the game of capitalism . Is it time to regress so far ? Certainly , many politicians adhere to some aspects of Social Darwinism . Herman Cain proclaimed recently : Do n ' t blame Wall Street , do n ' t blame the big banks ’ , if you do n ' t have a job and you are not rich , blame yourself ! [ 14 ] This statement exudes typical Social Darwinist philosophy , placing the blame of any inadequacy in capitalism solely on the individual , negating any critique on the system itself . It ’ s a view that places the lower class as “ deserving ” of their plight , again , simply the working out of a natural law . Cain echoes the belief , quite clearly , of Russell Conwell ( the Baptist minister ) , blaming the poor as creating their individual situation by their own “ shortcomings . ” Harboring a similar ideology is Michele Bachmann , winner of the Iowa straw poll earlier this year . In 2005 , at a Minnesota State Senate hearing she said : Literally , if we took away the minimum wage — if conceivably it was gone — we could potentially virtually wipe out unemployment completely because we would be able to offer jobs at whatever level . [ 15 ] This statement unabashedly embraces the invisible free hand of the market , central to any laudation of an ultra - conservative capitalistic viewpoint . Because Social Darwinists believe capitalism facilitates the working out of a natural law the less regulation , the better . An end to the minimum wage , for Bachmann , would allow those competent to succeed while further suppressing the lower class . Such a principle strikes at the very core of Social Darwinism dogma . Realistically , an end to the minimum wage would plunge American economic society back to the Gilded Age where unskilled laborers were at the mercy of their employer , often earning deplorable wages . [ 16 ] Bachmann ’ s statement is clearly analogous with Social Darwinism because she favors , at least at the time she gave this particular statement , drastically extending the rights of businesses while limiting those of the employee . No discussion would be complete on the corollaries between Social Darwinism and today ’ s political climate without mentioning the political figure that is often praised as the founder of the influential Tea Party movement , Ron Paul . Recently , Paul has unveiled his plan to balance America ’ s staggering deficit , proposing to cut 1 trillion dollars in governmental spending in one year . If elected president , Paul would achieve this astronomical goal by entirely cutting the federal departments of Education , Energy , Commerce , Interior , and Housing and Urban Development . [ 17 ] Such a radical alteration showcases how Paul retains a similar ideology compared to the laissez - faire and Social Darwinist beliefs that dominated the Gilded Age . Paul desires an extremely weak central government that lacks many regulatory powers , similar to America ’ s greatest un - regulation era where consumers depended upon all - powerful monopolies for goods and low paying jobs . Not only does Paul wish to create a castrated central government , he emanates apathy for entitlement programs ( such as Welfare ) , giving him many of the essential characteristics of a true Social Darwinist . [ 18 ] Realistically , only time will tell if the United States will once again warm up to Social Darwinism as a dominant and acceptable ideology . What remains unquestionable , however , is that the theory is becoming more acceptable in American politics . Hopefully , today ’ s “ survival of the fittest ” ideological battles will induce the United States towards progress , rather than creating a renewed prejudice and flawed policies towards the less fortunate in our society . Works Cited Camia , Catalina . “ Ron Paul Proposes $ 1 Trillion in Spending Cuts . ” USA Today ( Oct . 17 , 2011 ) . < http : / / content . usatoday . com / communities / onpolitics / post / 2011 / 10 / ron - paul - spending - cuts - / 1 > ( accessed Oct . 24 , 2011 ) . Condon , Stephanie . “ Herman Cain to “ Occupy Wall Street ” protesters : Do n ’ t Blame Wall St . , blame yourself . ” CBS News ( Oct . 5 2011 ) . < http : / / www . cbsnews . com / 8301 - 503544_162 - 20116087 - 503544 . html > ( accessed Oct . 24 , 2011 ) . De Santis , Vincent P . The Shaping of Modern America : 1877 - 1920 Revised Ed . . Wheeling , Illinois : Harlan Davidson , Inc . , 2000 [ 1973 ] . De Santis ’ book is often cited as a leading authority of Gilded Age American history , although it was published in 1973 , nothing more comprehensive and well written has surpassed the work . In the book , De Santis traces the development and industrialization of America , focusing on vital movements and adding beneficial commentary that develops a deeper understanding of the time . De Santis was a professor of American history at the University of Notre Dame and just recently passed away . Edwards , Rebecca . New Spirits : Americans in the “ Gilded Age . ” Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2011 . This is a social history of the Gilded Age , a term Edwards would like to replace with “ the Early Modern Era , ” disliking the connotation of “ gilded . ” The book focuses more on how life functioned on the individual and class level instead of a sweeping history of the time period , as De Santis ’ work does . Edwards discusses many historical aspects of popular culture , such as clothing fashions , new ideological movements , and trends in music , to only name a few . Rebecca Edwards is a professor of American history at Vassar College . Gara , Antoine . “ Would Killing the Minimum Wage Help ? : Michele Bachmann Seems to Think So . Many Economists , Though , See Little Job Creation from Abolishing the Law . ” Bloomberg Business Week ( June 30 , 2011 ) . http : / / www . businessweek . com / magazine / would - killing - the - minimum - wage - help - 07012011 . html http : / / www . businessweek . com / magazine / would - killing - the - minimum - wage - help - 07012011 . htm > ( accessed Oct . 24 , 2011 ) . Gara ’ s article discusses whether ending the minimum wage would help the economy , implementing advice from economists . ( Most argue it would n ’ t . ) Gara suggests that lower paying jobs , such as those performed by high school students and other part time employees might see a boost , but a reliable forecast is unachievable , as is so often the case in economics . Sinclair , Upton . The Jungle New York : Barnes and Noble Classics , 2003 . ( Originally published in 1906 ) . Suggested further Reading about the Gilded Age Allen , Frederick Only Yesterday : An Informal History of the 1920 ’ s New York : Harper Collins Publishers Inc . , 2000 . ( Originally published in 1931 ) . This is a social history of the 1920s , towards the very end of what could be labeled Gilded Age America ( It ’ s more realistically the Progressive Era ) . Allen ’ s work is unique because he lived during the decade , actually experiencing the movements and popular aspects of the time . Particularly interesting is the discussion of gangsters and the corruption in the White House , the scandals of President Harding . Frederick Allen graduated from Harvard in 1912 and was editor in chief for Harper ’ s magazine from 1941 until his death in 1954 . Calhoun , Charles W . , ed . The Gilded Age : Perspectives on the Origins of Modern America New York : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers , Inc . , 2007 . A collection of historical essays , each extremely detailed about a particular aspect from the Gilded Age . Intriguing to this work is an essay by Edmund J . Danziger Jr . on Indian policy , how legislation created Native American dependency upon the federal government for survival . Another well written essay by Stacy A . Cordery outlines women ’ s role in industrialization and the meager wages they labored for . Essays range from “ Cultural and Intellectual Life in the Gilded Age ” to “ The African American Experience , ” creating scholarship that is both well - rounded and in - depth . Schweikart , Larry and Michael Allen . A Patriot ’ s History of the United States : From Columbus ’ s Great Discovery to the War on Terror New York : Penguin Group , 2004 . This is a sweeping history of America , as the title suggests . I have included it here because it presents an ultra - conservative viewpoint , ( The foreword is an interview by Rush Limbaugh with the first named author , Larry Schweikart ) permitting another perception of the Gilded Age ( pgs . 457 - 558 ) . The book defends Coolidge and Hoover as not creating the Great Depression and lambasts FDR ’ s New Deal ( generally accepted as beneficial to American growth ) . Self - described as a response to “ leftist ” academia , the book is not a seabed of unbiased commentary but does , at least , present the rationale for conservative conclusions . Larry Schweikart is a professor of American history at the University of Dayton and Michael Allen is a professor of American history at the University of Washington , Tacoma . | [
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http://faculty.fshn.illinois.edu/~mcheryan/dextros1.htm | A Better Way to Produce Dextrose from Starch Dextrose ( glucose ) is the primary feedstock for numerous products , including corn sweeteners , fuel ethanol and organic acids ( e.g. , lactic acid , acetic acid , citric acid ) . It is produced by enzyme hydrolysis of starch ( e.g. , from corn ) or cellulose ( e.g. , from woody biomass ) . As practiced today , the saccharification step has many limitations : Slow : Reaction takes 30 - 72 hours Large amounts of enzyme needed ( enzymes are used only once per batch ) . Enzymes are the second - largest material cost in a corn refinery , Large saccharification tanks are required For sweeteners , the dextrose is clarified , usually by diatomaceous earth ( DE ) filtration . Disposal of DE is expensive and creates environmental problems . To overcome these limitations , University of Illinois biochemical engineers began a research project in 1986 to develop a " continuous membrane reactor " ( CMR ) for saccharification of starch . The CMR is based on the use of synthetic semipermeable membrane technology . These superfine filters can " reject " the starch and enzyme molecules while allowing the dextrose molecules to pass through . As shown in the diagram , a reaction vessel is coupled in a closed - loop configuration to the appropriate membrane module . The feed ( liquefied starch ) is fed into the vessel , where it reacts with the glucoamylase , which breaks it down into dextrose molecules . The reaction mixture is continuously pumped through the membrane unit , which separates out the dextrose , while the enzymes and unreacted or partially reacted starch is recycled back to the vessel for further reaction . To bring the CMR concept to commercial reality , the project went through several stages of research and development . Initial studies were done in a bench - top dead - end stirred cell reactor with a total volume of 0.015 liters . Later , a larger system ( 0.5 liters ) configured as a recycle - type membrane reactor was used to obtain a better understanding of the kinetics of the saccharification reaction , and to mathematically model the CMR to enable easier scale - up and optimization . By 1991 , the CMR had been scaled up to After successful trials at the university ' s Agricultural Bioprocess Laboratory , a larger pilot plant was designed and fabricated for on - site testing at a large midwestern corn wet milling plant . It consisted of a 1500 liter reaction vessel and four two - element membrane housings ( for a total membrane area of 30 - 45 sq . m . ) . The CMR operated successfully on site , and it was further optimized with inputs from membrane manufacturers , plant engineers and enzyme manufacturers . The chart below is a comparison of the CMR vs . the conventional batch process . Option 1 of the CMR is typical of the data obtained under the specified conditions during trials in the university ' s laboratory in 1991 - 92 . In Option 2 , the CMR is operated at a lower temperature , which should improve the CMR productivity , because the enzyme is more stable . Process Parameter Conventional Process CMR Option 1 Option 2 Liquefied starch concentration ( % w / w ) 30 30 Initial enzyme concentration ( ml / kg starch ) 1 14 20 Residence time ( hours ) 70 5 5 Substrate conversion ( % ) 98 98 Temperature ( Centigrades ) 60 55 45 Product composition ( % dry basis ) : Glucose ( DP - 1 ) 95 94 94 Maltose ( DP - 2 ) 3 3 Others ( DP - 3 + ) 2 Volumes processed per dose enzyme 1 20 * 40 * Productivity ( Kg dextrose / ml enzyme ) 1.4 * 3 * Capacity ( g . glucose / ml enzyme / hr ) 18 320 * 440 * Relative size of reaction vessels 14 * Minimum values ; higher values could be obtained by further optimization Benefits for a biomass or corn refiner The CMR technology is a significant advancement with several advantages over today ' s process : Enzyme cost reduced by 50 - 80 % Faster process : saccharification time has now been reduced to 5 - 10 hours . This allows 7 - 12 times more throughput for the same size reaction vessels . Clear dextrose stream of high solids and high purity is produced ( no suspended matter , proteins , fat or starch ) , thus reducing downstream processing costs . No post - filtration or filter - aid such as DE or carbon is needed and thus there is no disposal cost or environmental problems . This feature is of special interest to sweetener manufacturers . Costs Capital costs for the membrane equipment . This will be balanced by the savings in saccharification vessels . Operating costs for the membrane system , which include membrane replacement , membrane cleaning , additional power for recirculation of the process fluid and solids separation . Depending on the present process used and the process targets , the savings in enzymes alone could pay for this cost within one year . Publications on this topic Research - - Other topics Updated April 2000 by mcheryan @ uiuc . edu | [
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"Starch",
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http://faculty.georgetown.edu/imo3/epe/epe.htm | Introduction After the tribes of the Prophet Moses suffered from a lack of food in the desert God sent down quail while water sprang out of the rocks according to Surat AlBaqara of the Holy Quran Verse 61 relates that they still complained Oh Moses we can not endure one kind of food all the time So beseech thy God to produce for us what the earth grows its herbs and cucumbers its garlic lentils and onions He said Will you exchange the better for a lessergo land in Egypt and you shall find what you want While Egypt of the past was recognized as a land of plentiful variety of agricultural products and abundance of food it is currently heavily dependent on imports of wheat flour and other products to feed its people This would not in itself constitute an economic problem if Egypts exports could pay for its imports of food However its exports lag behind its imports and the gap between them keeps widening over time The complicated and interrelated sets of economic problems facing Egypts economy go beyond inadequate agricultural production and balance of payments deficits In spite of recent efforts to ameliorate Egypts economy these problems have compounded in the last twentyfive years They include a population explosion high rates of open and disguised unemployment a crushing debt service burden high rates of inflation substantial budget deficits widespread pricecost distortions low productivity and acute external imbalances It is not the purpose of this study to examine the economics of every sector The purpose of this study is to analyze inhibiting factors that are crippling Egypts economic growth and are hindering its longpromised takeoff stage For a more accurate assessment of Egypts economy this study also estimates the countrys vast informal economy on the basis of a savings function derived from a direct questionnaire survey of 500 Egyptian households conducted in December 1988 This survey found Egypts informal economy to be even larger than the countrys officially announced national income The present study also indicates that before Other estimates made in this study are for the following parameters 1 Egypts rate of unemployment 2 Egypts foreign exchange earnings 3 Egypts housing shortage as of 1990 A new term rentalism is introduced to indicate and analyze the economic consequences of government control of property rents since Nassers regime Egypts Economic Accomplishments in the 1980s During the political campaign for the presidency of Egypt and prior to the reelection of Presdient Mubarak for another sixyear term the January 1988 issue of alAhram alIqtisadi made a detailed list of economic accomplishments and financial reforms undertaken during his firs term From 1981 to 1986 agricultural land increased from 57 to 63 million feddans the number of factories more than doubled oil production increased by 40 percent the number of harbors increased from four to seven capable of handling 191 million tons of merchandise in comparison to only 18 million tons in 1981 the road network increased from 26000 to 42000 kilometers the number of trucks more than doubled the number of telephone lines increased from 18 billion kilowatthours to 45 billion As a result electricity which had been connected to 52 billion homes in 1981 was connected to 82 in Even though the above figures represented real growth in the sectors mentioned they are by no means indicators of per capita real growth because of the substantial increase in Egypts population The performance of the economy should not be measured by such partial indicators as the number of bridges built or the kilowatt capacity installed It can only be measured by macroeconomic indicators such as the growth of real per capita gross domestic product the reduction in the rate of unemployment the level of price stability and improvement in the external balance In the alAhram alIqtisadi study all figures denominated in Egyptian pounds are misleading because of the failure to adjust them to take into account the official rate of inflation In Table 1 a comparison of the alAhram alIqtisadi statistics with statistics adjusted by myself to reflect a reasonable 20 percent annual rate of inglation reveal the opposite of what the study presented Columns 1 and 2 were quoted from the study of alAhram alIqtisadi while column 3 shows my adjusted figures for the year 1986 It is therefore apparent that alAhram alIqtisadi s monetary comparisons of Egypts economic performance in 1986 visavis 1981 were inaccurate misleading and highly inflated In fact the performance of the Egyptian economy on all counts during the period 1981 to 1986 left much to be desired Population Even if we take into consideration the real growth of some of its infrastructure Egypts economy is seriously affected by a population growth outstripping many economic gains Given the existing constraints of an inhabited area of only 34000 square kilometers out of a total area of one million square kilometers Egypts high birth rate coupled with a high but declining death rate make it one of the most densely populated countries in the world Based on an area of only 2142 square miles my estimate of Cairos density in 1990 was 42000 inhabitants per square mile the highest in the 1 It is worth noting that Egypts population increased fourfold in the nineteenth century from 25 million in 1800 to 10 million in 1900 2 By comparison another fourfold increase materialized in the first three quarters of the twentieth century 3 While Egypts population was in excess of 54 million inhabitants in 1990 its annual growth rate ranged between 28 and 30 percent one of the highest in the world In the midst of this population explosion Egyptians are living under intolerable conditions of overcrowdedness in the narrow band of Egypts habitable area of 34 percent the remainder of its territory being predominantly desert In spite of the existence of a Supreme Council on Population headed by the President of Egypt no systematic policy is being adopted In 1956 a program for a workable birth control policy likely to achieve effective With the shrinkage of the per capita area under civilization the need to import food increases while the ability to export agricultural products is reduced An increase in exports is necessary for the service and payment of Egypts foreign debt With high rates of population growth the same pressures apply to the production levels of industry and of other sectors in which the satisfaction of internal needs will have to be at the expense of exports Furthermore with an acute shortage of housing an annual increase of one and a half million inhabitants compounds an already critical situation as the Essays on the Principles of Population 1798 may be applicable to Egypt The intolerable population situation threatens to worsen as more than 40 percent of the inhabitants are less than 14 years of age 4 Agriculture In contrast to the more than fivefold increase in its population since the beginning of the twentieth century Egypts cultivated land has increased no more than one fifth during the same period Agricultural production per capita has declined both because of a declining landtolabor ratio and because of a host of other factors For example the policy of taxing the agricultural sector by pricing export crops such as cotton and rice at levels well below international prices for the purposes of raising public revenue has resulted in a serious weakening of incentives Other factors which have adversely affected agricultural production Per capita agricultural production has therefore declined while imports of food have been on the rise As Egypt imports most of its needs of what and flour from abroad the call for food security has arisen The Specialized National Councils an advisory institution to the President of Egypt which has included top experienced talents such as former ministers AbdulGalil alImari Ali alGraitli Ibrahim Hilmi AbdulRahman Fuad Kamil Hussein Hamid alSayih Mastafa alGabali and others formed a Council of Production and Economic Affairs In its report to the President of Egypt the Council issued its call for food security through an 5 The Councils report outlined in detail the means of achieving the goals it spelled out without neglecting the theory of comparative advantage Unfortunately such studies and recommendations are seldom taken into account in the Egyptian decisionmaking apparatus In most cases ministers are either too busy promoting their own political ambitions or are preoccupied with ensuring their continuation in the cabinet They tend to be engaged in bureaucratic matters which could easily be delegated to subordinates With a few remarkable exceptions the majority of Egyptian ministers since the time of Nassers regime have had no time to think of an innovative approach to problems they are facing or to plan a strategy for implementation and followup In certain instances a minister may be The failure to carry out structural reform in agriculture however is only partly a matter of overburdened overambitious or overcautious ministers The main reasons are fiscal and ideological When President Mubarak came to power in 1981 he was constantly reminded by the Prime Minister Fuad Muhiedden and other top officials of the political disturbances of January 1977 known as the food riots which might they argued be repeated if any policy for a structural reform was proposed After being commissioned by the President two prominent Egyptian economists AbdulGalil alImari and Ali alGraitli made recommendations for structural reforms of the countrys In spite of efforts for Egypts industrialization since the 1930s the agricultural sector still remains important to the countrys economy as is evident from figures provided in Table 2 In should be noted however that if the service sector is divided into its constituent subsectorstransportation communication and storage Suez Canal trade finance and insurance foreign trade housing tourism and other servicesagricultural ranks first both in terms of contribution to gross domestic product GDP and in terms of employment Furthermore almost half of Egypts industrial production is based on agricultural output 6 In addition many items of the service and export sectors revolve around agricultural production Egypts exports of cotton still remain one of its major sources of foreign exchange as shown below In spite of its relative importance to Egypts economy agriculture has deteriorated as has been shown in Table 1 and other studies 7 This decline in Egyptian agriculture runs counter to the historical trend In the nineteenth century in the time of Muhammad Ali the cultivated area increased by 33 percent from three million feddans in 1813 to four million in 1852 and the water resources of the River Nile were more efficiently utilized than ever By 1900 the overall cultivated land had increased to 53 million feddans 8 With the near quadrupling of cotton prices resulting from shortages in the world market caused by the American Civil War Egyptian export prices of cotton increased from 12 riyals per kantar in 1860 to 45 in 1864 9 In realizing their comparative advantage Egyptian framers allocated the bulk of their land to the cultivation of cotton Cotton remained the backbone of the Egyptian economy as well as the main source of Egypts foreign exchange earnings until the 1960s Egypts cultivated land has increased by no more than 19 percent in the twentieth century in spite of the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1902 and the Aswan High Dam in 1970 Notwithstanding this Egypt has been producing a variety of agricultural products mainly cotton maize wheat berseem beans barley rice sugar cane and onions Indeed the foreign exchange earnings from the export of cotton until the 1950s were in excess of the countrys needs to pay for its imports The Egyptian balance of payments was favorable while the Egyptian pound whose value was freely determined in world markets One of the major developments in Egypts agricultural system after the Nasser revolution was the implementation of the Land Reform Law of 1952 which placed a ceiling on the size of the individual ownership expropriated and redistributed land in excess of the statutory maximum to landless peasants as shown in Table 3 fixed land rent at seven times the amount of land tax and abolished the right of the landlord to terminate tenancy making tenancy perpetual so that it would pass from one generation to the next Finally Egypts land reform legislation organized all agricultural producers in socalled cooperatives which are in effect public sector companies with a monopoly of the marketing of the principal crops and the supply of seeds and basic inputs One of the favorable outcomes of the 1952 Land Reform Law was a reduction in the inequality of land distribution It does not however seem to have significantly affected the inequality of income distribution in spite of Nassers socialism as is shown in even more detail below Furthermore the Law created builtin rigidities such as the fixing of land rents at seven times land taxes which have been kept at the same level ever since It also guaranteed permanent tenancy As the real value of rent became negligible over time due to an average rate of inflation of 20 percent Rents on land but not land prices were fixed by the land reform of 1952 on the basis of tax assessments from 1949 and have not been changed since and still had not been changed by the date this book was published Immediately after the breakdown of the Korean boom the official maximum rents were probably in line with what free market rents would have been but since then a large gap has grown between official fixed rents and hypothetical market rents Moreover the relative rents on different lots of land are becoming increasingly out of line with relative supply 10 Without an overall reconsideration of the builtin rigidities that the Egyptian government has created over the years and without adoption of a program to institute structural reform the agricultural sector is likely to stagnate further in the future Before an expensive program of expanding agriculture in Egypts desert is launchedgiven the very limited capital the country hasa priority has to be given to raising the economic efficiency of the six million feddans under cultivation In his study of Egypts agricultural sector while referring to the countrys productivity in agriculture measured by output per hectare Richard Adams concluded that The Egyptian rate of growth in output per hectare for major food crops far exceeded that of 36 other developing nations before Nassers revolution in the period 194852 However after 196367 Egypts rate of yield growth for major food crops dropped sharply while that of the average of the 36 other developing countries rose considerably Between the periods of 196367 and 197882 the 36 developing countries averaged a much higher rate of growth in output per hectare than Egypt No wonder Egypt is heavily dependent on food imports especially from the United States Income Distribution Due to distortions created by the worsening of income distribution in Egypt particularly after Sadats opendoor policy conspicuous consumption rose sharply and merchant trading increased while investment and growth in production lagged behind Even before Sadats opendoor policy inequality of income distribution in Egypt had turned out to be worse than in the capitalistic nations of France England Israel Japan or the United States of America This was the case in spite of Egypts 1952 Land Reform Law later amended to put an upper limit of no more than 50 feddans on land ownership and in spite of Nassers socialism Table 4 In analyzing the data it can be observed that the households in the upper 20 percent of income brackets had almost half of Egypts national income while in other capitalistic nations their share was approximately 40 percent The richest 10 percent of Egypts households had one third of the countrys income in comparison to less than one quarter in the case of England France and even the United States While it may be argued that income maldistribution in many Third World countries is worse than that of the capitalistic nations it would have been reasonable to expect Egypt to be different since it has adopted socialism as its economic system since the 1952 Revolution It is difficult to assess the maldistribution of income in Egypt during the 1980s because of the growth of an unaccountable informal economy in which earnings are neither taxable nor invested but rather lavishly spent on weddings and luxurious items or otherwise saved or invested abroad However inequality in Egypts income distribution has certainly worsened in comparison to 1974 as a result of Sadats opendoor policy An Estimate of Egypts Informal Economy Several studies have been conducted on the nature and extent of the informal economy Henry 1978 12 called it the hidden economy but Portes and SassenKoob 1987 13 preferred the phrase the underground economy Gershuny 1978 14 used the term selfservice economy and Feige 1979 15 chose the irregular economy while Hansen 1981 16 used yet another phrase the border economy All of the above terms and other similar ones such as offthebooks economy mean more or less the same phenomenon The phrase informal economy has become the most widely used Among the many definitions offered in this regard is the following by Castells and Portes The informal economya process of income generation characterized by one central feature it is unregulated by institutions of society in a legal and social environment in which similar activities are regulated 17 Even though such a definition may seem appropriate the use of the word process may give an ambiguous meaning to the phenomenon of informal economy I define the informal economy as that which encompasses all economic activities unknown to established authoritiesor unadmitted by them even if knownand all incomes generated thereof but not reported to the government and not included in the countrys national income accounts The total of such may be referred to as the informal economy Furthermore a labor market operating without the knowledge of the authorities and without adherence to existing laws and regulations may be called the informal labor market Similar terms apply to capital markets and to all other informal economic activities It should be noted however that all sources of informal income are not necessarily illegal An informal income may be lawfully earned such as that derived from certain cash payments to physicians lawyers tutors plumbers mechanics nightclub operators or otherwise obtained from unreported remittances In addition to these legal sources of an informal economy there are other illegal sources such as trading in illegal drugs and unlawful black market transactions in commodities or in foreign currencies Whether the source of an informal income is lawful or unlawful the act of concealing it from the authorities is itself illegal Moreover there To estimate an informal economy Gutmann 1979 for example compared the ratio of outstanding currency to demand deposits in 1978 with the average for the years 1937 to 1941 a period when underground activities were assumed to be close to zero Increases in the ratio were imputed to growth in these activities On the basis of this method Gutmann estimated that the informal economy represented about 10 percent of the currently measured Gross National Product or 177 billion in 1978 This approach has been employed with variations by other authors Spitznas 1981 applied Gutmanns formula to the Second Federal Reserve 18 Gutmanns methodology has led to a wide range of estimates of the informal economy in industrialized societies despite the criticism by Castells and Portes that there is no assurance that the base period had no informal economy It does not however appear to be appropriate for Egypt In my attempt to evaluate Egypts informal economy I did not rely on official figures for my estimation A questionnaire was devised for a stratified random sample of five hundred households in Egypt in December 1988 in an effort to estimate first the ratio of income that Egyptians are accustomed to allocating for savings It should be noted that the sample is indicative of aggregate savings as a large number of Egyptian households have a zero or even negative net rate of savings With an estimate of a savings ratio s and with an estimate of total savings S I then estimated Egypts Gross National Product GNP in 1987 The result of the sample indicates with 95 percent statistical confidence that the savings ratio in Egypt is somewhere between 9 and 11 percent of income This result was found to be significantly different from the 199 percent which was derived from applying regression analysis to a thirteenyear time series of published official data as shown in Appendix 1 It would have been inconceivable for Egypt to have a savings ratio of 199 percent in 1987 at a time when a country such as the United States with a much higher per capita income than Egypt only had a savings ratio of 124 percent gross savings was 5664 billion out of a Gross National Product of 44862 billion 19 Even in applying regression analysis to the case of the United States for the same period of thirteen years the savings ratio was found not to be significantly different from that based on the figures from 1987 The estimates are consistent with that of Robert Mabro whose analysis of the data for the period 1952 to 1970 concluded that Egypts savings ratio is between 9 and 14 percent 20 Such a contrastbetween results obtained from primary data and those derived statistically from published official datashould not be surprisingly Official data on Egypts savings and national income do not reflect the actual performance of the countrys economy As total savings S are unknown I attempted to estimate them in spite of institutional and cultural difficulties Since certain financial institutions such as the Islamic capital investment companies do not report actual deposits of savings to Egypts Central Bank in spite of their significance the official figures on national savings are definitely unrealistic Furthermore Egyptians save in many different forms some of The methodology I used to estimate Egypts aggregate saving was based on the following premises First official figures for savings are to be avoided I found out that these turned out to be only the sum of net sales of savings certificates 21 in addition to post office savings deposits By mid1987 net sales of savings certificates amounted to EP Egyptian Pounds 31 billion 22 while post office saving deposits were half a billion Egyptian pounds 23 the total of which represented the official figure for Egypts total saving S Second I used the published figures of time deposits in banks as a relatively more reliable base for S since all of those among the stratified sample of 500 who had savings defined in their time deposits as savings Third I estimated savings deposited with nonbank institutions mainly the Islamic capital investment companies since they are not a fully integrated part of Egypts banking system As there was no access to the accounts of the twelve major Islamic capital investment companies I used an estimated figure of d estimatedtotal deposits unknown Annual yield Since the annual yield was advertised by the Islamic investment companies as ranging between 20 percent and 25 percent I conservatively took the lower percentage of 20 percent to estimate the unknown total deposits made with such institutions which turned out to be in the neighborhood of ten billion Egyptian pounds My estimate of the total deposits wit h the Islamic capital investment companies is conservative in comparison to other estimates AlAhram alIqtisadi for example estimated deposits at the two largest of them AlRayan and AlSaad Islamic Investment Companies at EP 117 billion in 1987 24 Muhammad Dowaidar provides two estimates of the total deposits with the Islamic capital investments companies between EP 5 and 14 billion or between EP 13 and 48 billion 25 Furthermore some of those deposits wer made by Egyptians working abroad and denominated in US dollars as well as in other major European currencies Whatever the amounts of money deposited with the Islamic capital investment companies may have been the fact remains that they were substantial even though such institutions were not under any banking supervision or control as shown in Appendix 2 Assuming that the EP 10 billion in total deposits with those companies were the result of accumulated savings over their period of expansion of five years a conservative estimate of EP 2 billion may be regarded as annual savings deposited with those institutions In 1987 therefore Egypts total savings S can be estimated at EP 103 billion representing the sum of times deposits with the countrys banking system of EP 83 billion 26 plus the savings deposited with the Islamic capital investment companies at EP 2 billion Using the savings ratio s derived above which was found to have been in the range of 911 percent and given the estimated S at EP 103 billion my estimate of Egypts national income in 1987 would be somewhere between EP 94 and 114 billion Even if the lower limit of EP 94 billion is to be considered then Egypts informal economy in 1987 may be estimated at a minimum as EP 50 billion ie the difference between the EP 94 billion figure and the official one of only EP 44 billion In other words Egypts national income in reality was at least more than double the official estimate in 1987 Regardless of how the above estimates reflect Egypts my conservative approach indicates the existence of a substantial informal economy in the country which complicates the implementation of structural economic reforms With an informal economy even larger than Egypts reported national income it can be presumed that the income maldistribution of the country is even worse than that shown in the available statistics The wealth and most of the purchasing power are highly concentrated in the hands of a small percentage of the countrys population while the majority live under extremely tight budgetary conditions where basic needs can not be met among the poor and middle class alike The dilemma of policy makers of structural reform which necessitates a rise in prices bringing further economic hardships to the majority of Egyptians Egypts Contemporary Economic Problems Apart from the complicated issue of population Egypts contemporary economic problems may be classified under three main headings 1 external economic factors 2 internal economic factors and 3 government policies laws and regulations The exogenous or external economic factors which have compounded Egypts economic problems in recent years can be attributed to the decline in the main sources of its foreign exchange earnings since 1983 when the price of oil was substantially reduced declining to less than 10 a barrel in 1986 With the subsequent economic recession in major Arab oilexporting nations there was a decline in the remittances of the three million Egyptians working in those countries which constituted the highest source of foreign exchange earnings for the country The relative contributions of sources of Egypts foreign exchange earnings are shown in Table 5 There are however other sources of foreign exchange not listed in Table 5 They are classified as a other food and raw materials onions potatoes oranges b semifinished goods and c finished goods Table 6 If the figures for a b and c are added to the last column in Table 5 we get the total foreign exchange earnings in billions of dollars consecutively in the years above as follows 68 59 69 77 73 66 and 38 adding up to 45 billion for the sevenyear period It is to be noted that with the drop in the price of oil in 1986 the relative contributions of remittances and oil exports were significantly reduced while the absolute amount of Egypts total foreign exchange earnings dropped by about three billion dollars After 1987 however as the price of oil rose the Egyptian government decided to increase both the production and the export of crude and refined oil The inability of Egypt to control external factors affecting its economy makes structural internal economics imperative Domestic economic problems at present include the rise in both disguised and open unemployment low productivity high rates of inflation government facing deficit financing unaffordable subsidy programs deficits in the balance of payments accumulating public debt the lack of adequate domestic investments the acute shortage in housing price disequilibria and in general low rates of real economic growth often even leading to negative per capita real growth rates Unemployment According to official statistics there were more than two million Egyptians unemployed in 1986 out of a labor force of 137 million 27 representing a rate of unemployment in the neighborhood of 15 percent My estimates indicate however that there were 28 million unemployed while the labor force was 145 million representing an unemployment rate in excess of 19 percent in 1986 Since half of Egypts population according to published official age distribution data is of labor force age I used the figure of 242 million Egyptians of both sexes as the basis for estimating the size of the labor force Traditionally however approximately 20 percent of females are in the labor force Thus my estimate of Egypts labor force in 1986 was 28 were employed according to official statistics The remaining 28 million can thus be estimated to have been employed This estimate represents only those who were unemployed and does not take into account underemployment Many work places in the Egyptian government and public sector companies are staffed with people beyond work needs and some employees on the payroll have little or no work at all This phenomenon of disguised unemployment has increased over time because of Nassers unemployment act which obligated the government to provide employment to all As labor offices assign people to vacancies on the basis of first listed first served a backlist of more than five years of university graduates is still awaiting employment Inflation The official rates of inflation are downwardly biased because of the rigidity of prices in certain items as in the case of subsidized goods and fixed rents which enter in the consumer basket when prices are compared from one year to another Inflation rates as measured by consumer price indices CPI are shown in Table 7 The average annual rate of inflation computed from the above statistics is approximately 16 percent In previous research I estimated Egypts annual rate of inflation at 23 percent 29 which is in line with most estimates of the World Bank Even if we take a conservative estimate of 20 percent this rate of inflation imposes an unbearable burden on the majority of Egyptians who are poor and even those who are middle class While there are other economic social and political implications of such high rates of inflation it is important to assess the root causes of Egypts substantial increase in its consumer price index One of the main sources of inflationary pressure in Egypt is the high budget deficit and the way it is financed In the most recent estimate by the International Monetary Fund Egypts budget deficit was about 17 percent of the countrys Gross National Product GDP Roughly half of this deficit is financed by borrowing from the public or from publicly owned institutions such as pension funds and social Table 8 While the monetized part of the budget deficit is the major source of the demandpull inflation in Egypt other sources include 1 imported inflation which is becoming increasingly important following depreciations of the Egyptian pound and 2 the raising of the price of principle commodities to reflect the increasing cost of labor and other inputs These fuel the flame of costpush inflation The decline in marginal productivity is a further cause of inflation Budget Deficit As the government has not been able to track down the vast untaxable underground economy its total public revenues have increased modestly from EP 83 billion in 198181 to EP 135 in 198687 Its expenditures meanwhile have increased from EP 132 billion to EP 222 billion The overall budget deficits have therefore increased from EP 49 billion to EP 87 billion in 198586 to EP 87 billion in 198687 Furthermore the relative burden of the budget deficit as a percentage of the countrys national income even though still high has been reduced from 235 percent in 198182 to 199 percent 30 In summary the three methods of financing the budget deficit in Egypt are 1 borrowing from public and savings institutions which is essentially noninflationary although it crowds out private investment 2 borrowing from the banking system through the printing of money which is highly inflationary and 3 foreign borrowing which is noninflationary but creates external debt with farreaching implications for the balance of payments position and the prospects of economic growth Two of the most prominent and internationally respected Egyptian economists AbdulGalil alImari and Ali alGraitli have concluded that the root cause of Egypts economic problems is deficit financing Having been commissioned by President Mubarak to present a study on Egypts structural reform they presented an important dfrom landlords to tenants Whatever the reasons for rentalism it led to one of the most serious economic problems that Egypt is currently facingan acute shortage of rental housing This shortage has been compounded over the years as the government has not had the financial ability to fill the needed gap in spite of Based on an average household of 49 individuals 38 and with 54 stay is only temporary because with few exceptions Arab countries do not allow the permanent settlement of foreign workers With no appreciable effect so far on Egypts birth rate or on migration from the country the acute housing shortage remains a threat to social and political equilibrium Overcrowdedness in apartments has created a variety of social problems and crimes 39 in addition to its negative effect on the overall productivity of the country and also on hygiene and sanitary conditions In the meanwhile the lack of adequate housing for the majority of young Egyptians who are also faced with an unemployment rate of at least 19 percent leads to frustration hopelessness possible mass disturbances and political instability Obviously the current status quo is untenable To improve the situation there are only three possible options in addition to an increase in housing construction by the government 1 to encourage the private sector to increase its investments in housing construction or 2 to pursue a less efficient system by socializing Egypts housing sector in its entirety so that at least the existing buildings may be properly maintained so their lifetime can be extended or 3 a combination of both Due to the governments problem of bureaucracy and its budget deficits and for other cultural and practical considerations the last Government Bureaucracy As in the case of the housing laws which led to the current acute housing shortage in shelter several other laws and regulations have created myriad economic imbalances and problems With the decision to move quickly along the road to industrialization the Egyptian government interfered in the relationship between prices of industrial products and those of agricultural goods Bent Hansen has candidly observed that there has been a clear tendency to let the terms of trade of agriculture deteriorate as a means of financing industrializationBefore World War II fertilizers were imported duty free Although this policy was dictated by the 40 As the sole purchaser the government of Egypt also established the rule of buying cotton from its growers at a price less than that of world markets as a means of raising public revenue Bureaucratic inefficiency a characteristic of governments especially in the Third World has had negative effects on the countrys economy Ironically the system of long bureaucratic procedures requiring several approvals signatures stamps and the like for the simplest government authorization was established by the British authorities upon their military occupation of Egypt in 1882 The system has remained in place ever since in spite of all attempts to overhaul it In a major policy speech on November 11 1989 President Mubarak acknowledged and bitterly criticized Egypts suffocating bureaucracy which seeks to make the easy difficult and the possible impossible 41 A case study of a tourist project of Arab Misr Investment Company in Cairo revealed that it required 18 different steps to obtain the final license needed to operate as shown in Appendix 6 It is little wonder that it took five years after the full completion of the project for the license to be issued During that period all capital and investment expenditures were frozen as there were no returns to for a closeddown project Meanwhile there were financial obligations to banks on the borrowed money in addition to the depreciation of capital assets and the payment of all financial obligations throughout the longawaited period for the necessary final license Financial hardships to investors some of whom were small investors committing the savings of a lifetime crippled the company financially prevented it from Because of the problems of bureaucracy several other projects have not been completed after their start A feasibility study of a project might rely heavily on certain privileges allowable under existing regulations such as duty free imported machinery for the project allowable under the opendoor policy and the issuance of Law 43 in 1974 However during project construction in the early 1980s companies were faced by an unmanageable situation when the government reversed its position and decided to impose a heavy duty retroactively on the imported machinery for an already approved project which had not yet been completed Through such Some Egyptian and private companies therefore have devoted their activities to shortterm trade reaping high cash profits that have largely been diverted to an expanding informal economy These high cash profits have often been hoarded in the form of cash or jewelry or spent on unnecessary luxuries lavish consumption or otherwise invested or saved abroad The effects of Egypts inefficient bureaucracy were limited when the role of the government in the economy was small With Nassers move towards more centralization which meant more consolidation of government power and centralization of decisionmaking the role of Egypts government in the economy was In fairness there have been good managerial talents in charge of some of the public sector companies Unfortunately they have often been caught in the cobweb of bureaucratic procedures and an overlapping of conflicting jurisdictions among several different ministries Their capabilities are not properly utilized Constraints on their action and limits on their budget have prevented Egypt from taking advantage of the worlds substantial technical progress since the 1950s After almost forty years of assembling cars in Egypt the industry has not been able thus far to produce a fully manufactured Egyptian car In comparison South Korea which had almost The Root Cause of Egypts Contemporary Economic Difficulties There has been a decline in per capita real income in Egypt throughout the period 198387 During this period the rate of increase of real GNP according to the official data was one percent per annum 42 while the population rate averaged 29 percent 43 This meant that the annual decline in per capita income by 19 percent in spite of the amelioration of some of Egypts infrastructure during the period Some economic progress in 1989 may however lead to an agreement with the International Monetary Fund as a prerequisite for the possible rescheduling of Egypts foreign debt and the continuation of US aid In analyzing data on the Egyptian economy I have concluded contrary to the views of alImari and alGraitli that the financing of the budget deficit was not the root cause of Egypts contemporary economic difficulties Rather it was the result of the governments mismanagement of economic problems However it has worsened real economic conditions as it has been a major source of inflation The results of my research on the root causes of internal economic problems in Egypt indicate that the single most important factor has been a steady decline in productivity in comparison to other nations 44 With the exception of the first phase of Egypts opendoor policy in the period 19751980 I observed a continuous decline in the marginal productivity of Egyptian labor since the mid1950s A decline in the marginal productivity led to further deterioration in Egypts balance of payments and a further deficit in the governments budget and has pushed inflation in an upward spiral Concluding Remarks Egypts economic reforms will have to be part of a longterm strategy covering ten to 15 years during which time there should be no stopgap measures or shortterm remedies which could obstruct longterm structural reform In addition to an implementation of new medical technologies in the field of family planning there must be a full state commitment to a reduction of the current high birth rate Disincentive measures may be used such as the removal of subsidies and other benefits after a second or third child is born As to the root cause of internal economic problems in Egypt namely 45 Others have called for an overhauling of all emergency laws and regulations and of existing labor laws to provide more effective incentives for talented and highly productive workers Furthermore it has been argued that either a substantial reform of Egypts ailing public sector be made or else a systematic policy of privatization be implemented 46 As a start it may be recommended that shares of ownership of public companies be given to talented and highly productive workers as a bonus and an incentive be provided by the end of every budget year to increase marginal productivity There exists however a vicious cycle of cause and effect that may have led to the deterioration of Egypts marginal productivity The reasons include overcrowdedness the lack of adequate housing hardships in public transportation poor or crippled management and the existing labor laws which led to a system in which the inefficient is subsidized through equal earnings treatment and opportunity while the efficient is penalized in the absence of adequate recognition compensation and promotion In my opinion a reform of the decline in marginal productivity is a national issue in which the state can only play a role by initiating a new system including incentives and disincentives for labor as well as an effective and continuous public awareness program A change in peoples attitudes toward increased marginal productivity will have to include a deepening of their sense of belonging through more active political participation and the removal of existing political impediments currently obstructing the freedom of choice of peoples representatives in Egypts Peoples Assembly The requirement inserted by Nasser in Egypts constitution that no 47 Overall political reforms which enable greater political participation will safeguard each individuals basic human rights They may also have a positive effect on the peoples attitude toward increased productivity by encouraging them to accept temporary hardships accompanying structural economic reforms There is no doubt that some progress has been made in this context in recent years under Mubaraks regime The process of political liberalization and reinforcement of democratic institutions are necessary conditions for generating an atmosphere of confidence and longterm political stability 48 These in turn could encourage capital owners who have invested in Egypts vast and expanding underground economy to invest in longterm projects in the country As the role of an economically efficient private sector is increased in an environment of competition marginal productivity will necessarily increase Otherwise a continuation of the status quolow productivity and an increase in populationwill undoubtedly make Egypt more dependent than ever before on outside sources While economic assistance to Egypt from Arab countries the US and other industrialized nations is sizable it should not be regarded as a continuous flow in the future Even if it does there is an economic andor political price tag to it Currently Egypt is the second largest recipient of US aid after Israel yet this aid was the consequence of the signing of the Camp David accords with Israel and the continuation of that treaty The vulnerability of foreign economic assistance to Egypt and its possible discontinuation in the future leave no choice for Egypt other than to devise Among badly needed reforms are a restructuring of Egypts public administration to minimize the crippling conflicts of jurisdictions and authority among different ministries a series of continuous training and retraining programs and an amelioration of the educational system especially those parts of it which develop managerial capabilities The proposal to reward highly productive and talented innovative workers with an equity share in the capital of the public sector companies in which they work could be an added incentive to increased productivity As a policy of liberalization of both political and economic reform it has to be consistently pursued with vigor Rentalism should be gradually abolished over a period of ten to 15 years Emergency special laws for security purposes should be canceled as a means to of generating an atmosphere conducive to attracting money now circulating in Egypts informal economy for longterm investments Futhermore the current costly subsidy system which has been a failure in helping the poor 49 has to be totally eliminated and replaced with another that is less costly but more directly geared to helping the poor through such means as food stamps or direct cash payment according to need With a reduction in subsidy expenditures and with a comprehensive overhaul of Egypts tax system the governments budget deficit could be substantially reduced Every attempt should be made to rest public revenue on a solid base of progressive income tax which would also serve as a means of reducing the current and eventually unsustainable degree of income maldistribution Exportoriented industrialization should be encouraged as a means of identifying the countrys comparative advantage as well as a way to reduce its balanceofpayments deficits An analysis of a subset of importcompeting industries in Egypt found them to be mainly operating at an economic loss or producing at a far lower level than their capacity While such losses may in some cases be justified on the basis of nonquantifiable national security considerations in others there is no justification for the continued depletion of the countrys limited economic resources which could be better utilized and more efficiently allocated Other than their generally 50 Historically the benefits of Egypts integration with other Arab countries were analyzed by Charles Issawi as far back as 1954 51 Egypt can overcome most of its economic problems in the long run if it can identify its comparative advantages not only in its reservoir of special human talents but also in such fields as tourism which has been barely utilized in spite of the countrys worldwide unique features and agriculture Tourism for example had witnessed substantial progress by the end of the 1980s because of a strong policy against red tape and inefficiency The Ministry of Tourism established direct links to several inland airports in Egypt for foreign carriers at a time when the only tow international airports were in In spite of the multiplicity and complexity of economic problems that Egypt is currently facing there is room for optimism so long as there are possible solutions Benign neglect of problems will only complicate them more Solutions become much more difficult with the passage of time If there is no firm commitment by the state to a reduction of the current high birth rates and if the pace of economic reforms is too slow to be fundamentally corrective of the accumulated problems of the past pessimism and alarm will be justified Notes | [
"political campaign"
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http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/augustine/civ.html | Augustine City of God by James J ODonnell Explicui tuos libros neque enim tam languidi aut inertes erant ut me aliud quam se curare paterentur iniecerunt manum ereptumque aliis solicitudinum causis suis vinculis illigarunt ut ego anceps sim quid in illis magis mirer sacerdotii perfectionem philosophiae dogmata historiae plenam notitiam an facundiae iucunditatem Et usus es validissimo exemplo recentis calamitatis quo licet firmissime causam muniveris tamen si utrumvis licuisset id tibi nolueram suffragari Sed quando orta inde fuerat convincendorum stultitiae querela necesse fuit inde argumenta veritatis accersere ep 1542 Macedonius ad A 4134 These are the words of the first reviewer of the first installment of ciu 1 Vicar of Africa in the delicate year 413414 after the uprising of Heraclian and the purge that followed Macedonius was the ideal reader for the magnum opus et arduum poised between empire and church he first wrote to A ep 152 asking the bishops views on the delicate matter of episcopal intervention in the affairs of state A wrote back at length ep 153 passing along a copy of the first three books of ciu It is good to heed the first reviewers praises for the happy combination of erudition and argument doctrine and eloquence and his regret that the work dilates on the late catastrophe His views give a useful perspective from which to consider the events of 410 and their echoes in Africa That will lead naturally to a consideration of the contents and sources of the work as we have it but first it will be useful to review the external facts as we have them for the composition and transmission of the work I Dates of composition The composition of ciu occupied A for at least a decade perhaps fifteen years cf retr 2431 There are numerous indications of his progress on the work from which a tentative schedule may be constructed The following outline summarizes the available indications Evidence for the dates is briefly indicated but for fuller discussion one should consult the note by G Bardy in the BA edition of the retr 12587588 Books 13 No later than 1 September 413 probably no earlier than late 412 book 1 may have circulated independently before the other two 2 Books 45 In circulation by spring 415 ep 169 Books 610 Available by 417 Orosius hist praef ep 184a 3 Books 1113 By 41718 ep 184a cf ciu 1210 and trin 13912 From this point opinions diverge Some think that all 22 books were finished by c 422 others insist on postponing 18 to at least 425 citing ciu 185472 but others take the arithmetic suggested there literally and insist on postponing that book until 429 but it seems clear that the work was complete and out of As hands by the time he wrote retr 2431 4267 Hoc grande opus tandem viginti duobus libri est terminatum II Manuscripts and editions The first important document of the manuscript tradition of ciu is the letter to Firmus now ep 1A in CSEL 88 The purport of this letter for the manuscript tradition may be summarized thus a the 22 books were first prepared in separate quaterniones b together the quaterniones would be too bulky as a single codex c hence A recommends that two codices be made divided to incorporate the first ten books in one manuscript the last twelve in another If further division is required five codices are recommended to contain books 15 610 1114 1518 and 1922 respectively It is also clear that the individual books had come into circulation separately The last line of the letter to Firmus may indicate further important information Quantum autem collegerit viginti duorum librorum conscriptio missus breuiculus indicabit Following HI Marrou 4 it has become the practice to treat the list of chapter headings that occurs in many manuscripts and which Eugippius seems to have known in the sixth century when he made his excerpts from this work as though it were the breviculus here mentioned and to print the list at the head of the work Though this is an undoubted advance over the earlier practice of inserting the individual headings in the text of the work itself the headings may be postAugustinian and may even have been written by Eugippius himself In that case whatever the breviculus may have been 5 Pending completion of the HUWA catalogue we know of 394 medieval manuscripts of all or part or excerpts of ciu more even than of the Confessions The most recent analysis shows six manuscripts and seven fragments earlier than the ninth century thirtyone plus twelve fragments and three collections of excerpts survive from the ninth century More than half the ninth century manuscripts have not been used in any critical edition The most venerable manuscripts on which our editions rely most heavily are Lyon Bibliotheque Municipale 607 L North Italy 6th century containing books 15 Veronensis XXVIII26 V early fifth century North Africa containing books 1116 and Paris Bibliotheque Nationale lat 12214 C Italy sixth century containing books 19 to be 6 It will be seen that these MSS offer impressively ancient testimony for the first sixteen books Nevertheless it would be dangerous to assert that considerable improvement in the text or at least confidence in its foundations could not be derived from a fuller examination of the manuscript tradition than has yet been undertaken Whether it is useful to think of two different recensions of the work owing to As own hand see CCL 47VII which arises from the differences between the readings of C and L and is further fueled from mention in the letter to Firmus of the copy 7 The earliest printed edition of ciu appeared at Subiaco in 1467 there are other incunabula of which the most important is that of Johannes Amberbach Basel 1489 In the following century the edition with ample commentary by the Spanish humanist Ludovicus Vives takes pride of place but mention must also be made of the edition of As works prepared by the theologi Lovanienses Antwerp 1576 As with other works of A the contribution of the Maurists is deservedly celebrated Their edition of ciu appeared in 1685 and had the advantage of using the important MS C available to them in Paris This edition was reprinted in volume 41 of Patrologia Latina and elsewhere There are two modern critical editions of which only one has continuing influence The edition of E Hoffmann CSEL 40 Vienna 18991900 was not well received 8 leaving the field to the successive revisions of the edition originally prepared by Bernhard Dombart and published by Teubner Leipzig 1863 Dombart revised his own work twice 1877 and 190508 while a fourth version was revised by A Kalb 192829 This edition has been taken over for volumes 4748 of CCL and provides the text in the BA volumes 3337 195960 Other texts have appeared eg J Welldon London 1924 but none have independent critical merit while all earlier annotated editions yield to the BA edition Nevertheless there exists no detailed philological commentary on even a single book of the III Circumstances of Composition The rhetorical point of departure for civ is clear and famous retr 243 Interea Roma Gothorum irruptione agentium sub rege Alarico atque impetu magnae cladis eversa est Cuius eversionem deorum falsorum multorumque cultores quos usitato nomine paganos vocamus in christianam religionem referre conantes solito acerbius et amarius Deum verum blasphemare coeperunt Unde ego exardescens zelo domus Dei adversus eorum blasphemias vel errores libros de civitate Dei scribere institui But As rhetorical strategy should not be allowed to obscure the sequence of events that led up to the work On 24 August 410 the Visigoths under Alaric entered Rome remaining to plunder for a few days The event is of modest importance among the military disasters of the late empire but it was too obvious a symbol to be viewed by contemporaries with any balanced perspective Jeromes disproportionate exclamations of grief his epp 123 127 130 etc are perhaps more famous than they deserve to be other immediate reactions are lacking Our main historical sources for the events all date from after years when the events of that week had become the substance of polemic How severe the calamity really was can not be said with certainty It is safe to infer that there was death and destruction fire and plunder and other injuries besides As first known reaction to the events came in s 81 preached at Hippo later in 410 This text gives few circumstantial details of the sack A seems uncertain himself and preaches under the assumption that the damage to the city may have been considerable He makes no mention of what will later be a central piece of his defense that refugees were granted sanctuary in the basilicas outside the City There are already refugees coming to Africa for he closes thus et in ista occasione multorum peregrinorum egentium laborantium abundet hospsitalitas vestra abundent bona opera vestra s 819 There are already murmurs in the air Locutiones illae verba illa quibus nobis dicitur Ecce quid faciunt tempora christiana ecce quae sunt scandala Ecce quae nobis dicunt pagani quae nobis dicunt quod est gravius mali christiani s 8178 But the response A offers is already marked by the theme of citizenship and pilgrimage Eia christiane coeleste germen peregrini in terra qui civitatem in coelo quaeritis qui angelis sanctis sociari desideratis intelligite vos sic venisse ut discedatis s 817 Some of the rhetorical devices that characterize ciu are also in place the pagan gods of Rome are reproached for failing to preserve their first home Troy and Sallust and Vergil are quoted to drive the point home In short there is worry in the air and A moves quickly to offer Christians the line to take he shows no sign here that he shares any of the extreme emotional response of a Jerome The events entail for A as they always would a threat against Christianity in the realm of ideas and ideology the material threat to the stability of the Roman regime is an incidental concern A second sermon s 105 is variously dated to late 410 Kunzelmann at Hippo and to the summer of 411 Perler at Carthage It resembles s 81 on many points though it seems to have been preached at a time when the true dimensions of the catastrophe had become known There is still no mention of victims taking shelter in the basilicas though there is other special pleading of a kind that appears in ciu some of the particular points do not recur It is not true he argues that as soon as the old gods were abandoned Rome was taken Radagaisus had been a pagan and a sacrificer but he was turned away in 402 while Alarics Visigoths though not Catholic were Christian Christians suffered in the sack this is the first admission of this but they knew how to bear their sufferings Again there is a range of allusion to secular literature which is not customary in Augustines sermons including a neat juxtaposition of two Vergilian texts and a prosopoeia of Vergil himself A third sermon s 296 printed in a fuller version as Casin 1133 MA 1402412 is securely dated to 29 June 411 almost a year after the events at Rome the themes are un changed the evenness of tone still firm The sermon preached on the feast of Sts Peter and Paul mentions of the basilicas at Rome and yet does so to excuse their impotence to protect Christians not as in ciu to exploit their power Iacet Petri corpus Romae dicunt homines iacet Pauli corpus Romae Laurentii corpus Romae aliorum martyrum sanctorum corpora iacent Romae et misera est Roma et vastatur Roma affligitur conteritur incenditur tot strages mortis fiunt per famem per pestem per gladium Ubi sunt memoriae apostolorum Ibi sunt ibi sunt sed in te non sunt Utinam in te essent quisquis ista loqueris quisquis ista desipis memoria est excitans amorem ad aeterna non ut terrae inhaereas sed ut cum apostolo caelum cogites Casin 113367 A year after the fact therefore A was still imperfectly informed about the events that had occurred and though concerned to defend Christianity against accusing murmurs had not lifted his pen on the subject A fourth sermon exc urb completes the dossier of his public reaction This is As most concentrated homiletic treatment of the sack marked by increasing concern to explain the sufferings of Christians The text for the sermon is Abrahams debate with God over the fate of Sodom and the ensuing bargain by which God would spare the city if only ten just men were found within it Were there not ten just men at Rome among so many Christians Such is the question pressed by men qui scripturis nostris impietate insidiantur non qui eas pietate requirunt As answer has a quibbling nicety about it Cito exc urb 2 After all Rome was not swallowed up by fire as Sodom was ab urbe autem Roma quam multi exierunt et redituri sunt quam multi manserunt et evaserunt quam multi in locis sanctis nec tangi potuerunt Slaughter torture and captivity inflicted upon the just all have scriptural precedents Horrenda nobis nuntiata sunt strages factae incendia rapinae interfectiones excruciationes hominum Verum est multa audivimus omnia gemuimus saepe flevimus vix consolati sumus non abnuo non nego multa nos audisse multa in illa urbe esse commissa exc urb 3 This sermon is marked by stronger expressions of distress and sympathy than the earlier ones but the expressions have the mark of rhetorical calculation as though A now feels that to make his point he must insist on the depth of his own feelings where before it had not suited his point to do so At the same time this sermon has none of the apparatus of learned classical quotation of the earlier ones and is directed against a particular kind of murmurer who at least knows the Christian scripture even if his attitude towards it is not what There is no sign here of any panic in A or in his flock The energy A expends on refutation of the churchs critics increases as time passes though the threat of the Visigoths had faded markedly with the death of Alaric and the movement of his troops towards Gaul and Spainthey were in Gaul by early 412 His audience is always his own flock and his concern seems to grow insofar as the criticism comes from closer at handfrom those who read scripture not merely from the urbane pagans who mocked Christianity from a distance There is thus little ciu as we have it would ever have been written if things had remained as they stood a year after the sack of Rome the rhetorical opportunity the calamity offered might have been neglected But then A was approached privately in ways that set his pen moving with greater ambition In the spring of 411 there had come to Carthage the imperial commissioner Marcellinus to preside over the conference of June 411 between Catholic and Donatist bishops The Donatist controversy was uppermost in As mind through these months the successful outcome of the conference was the one goal on which his efforts were bent The results of the conference were richly satisfactory to him Marcellinus was everything he could have hoped for in an imperial representative for he was not only a skillful public official but a devout Christian and supporter of orthodoxy from conviction as well as habit In While A was in the country in the winter of 41011 recovering from an illness one particular refugee from Rome passed through Hippo whom A would have profited from meeting Pelagius His passage through Africa on his way to the Holy Land left a stir of discussion which came to A through Marcellinus the first two pamphlets of the long stream that would attack Pelagiuss ideas were written in response to now lost inquiries from Marcellinus pecc mer and spir et litt Into this discussion a mutual acquaintance then intervened Rufius Antonius Agrypnius Volusianus sometime proconsul of Africa later to be Prefect of the City of Rome and Praetorian Prefect for Italy scion of a venerable family was not quite a Christian His mother was Christian as was Volusianuss niece the remarkable Melania the younger It is conventional to say flatly that Volusianus was a pagan it is true that he received baptism only on his deathbed in 437 in Constantinople and then at the pressing instance of Melania from the clearly pagan side Rutilius Namatianus was a friend and spoke fondly A wrote to Volusianus in late 411 or early 412 ep 132 9 at Volusianuss mothers request inviting him to discuss his difficulties in matters of religion Volusianus replied ep 135 with elaborate politeness addressing A thrice as domine vere sancte ac merito venerabilis pater He told of a recent conversation among friends that had ranged over rhetoric poetry philosophy and theology Volusianus adds careful flattery for Augustines presumed interest in each of these subjects the group broke up when one man unnamed raised shocking questions about the life of Christ stupemus tacentes The virgin birth the infirmities of the human Jesus and the paltriness of the wonders worked by Jesusall these objections are delicately posed The other participants are too modest to offer answers ne dum incautius secreta temerantur Marcellinus must have taken part in that conversation he wrote at the same time to A ep 136 excusing the bashfulness of Volusianus who is afraid to write all he wishes to ask The questions Volusianus had attributed to someone in the group were likely his own whether he had voiced them or not Marcellinus describes Volusianus as a man in danger of being lost to Christianity homo qui a veri Dei stabilitate multorum quorum in hac urbe copia est persuasione revocatur It is those men who throw up against Christianity particularly the deeds of Apollonius of Tyana whose life had been translated into Latin twenty years earlier by the solemn pagan prefect Flavianus Apuleius aliosque magicae ep 135 of the miracles of Jesus pagan worthies had done mightier things than these few cures It is Marcellinus who now brings to As attention the objection that is troubling Volusianus the most deeply Christianitys doctrine of turning the other cheek is inconsistent with the management of a res publica Nam quis Romanae provinciae de praedatori non mala velit belli iure reponere per christianos principes christianam religionem maxima ex parte servantes tanta etiamsi ipse Volusianus de hac parte taceat reipublicae mala evenisse manifestum sit Marcellinus is careful himself to make no direct mention of the disaster compare Macedonius fastidiousness at Also present when these issues were discussed was an eximius Hipponensis regionis possessorone of As wealthy neighbors who had offered ironical praise of A while professing himself unable to answer the questions raised It is in such men polite selfsatisfied Christian perhaps in name but worldly men withal that such objections had the greatest strength It was for them that Marcellinus sought As help libros confici deprecor ecclesiae hoc maximo tempore incredibiliter profuturos A responded to Volusianus and Marcellinus in kind Writing to Volusianus ep 137 he dealt with the questions raised in ep 135 Important themes of civ begin to appear the criticism alleged against Cicero in Books 2 and 19 is adumbrated Hic etiam laudabilis reipublicae salus neque enim conditur et custoditur optime civitas nisi fundamento et vinculo fidei firmaeque concordiae cum bonum commune diligitur ep 13717 cf 13810 The response to Marcellinus ep 138 more explicitly echoes the doctrines and the rhetorical ploys already used in the sermons on the sack of Rome The first books of ciu soon followed The prefatory epistle at the head of ciu attributes the works composition to a promise made to Marcellinus and debitum is the word A used in the last paragraph the last words of Book 22 when Marcellinus was long dead to characterize the force that kept him at his task The first book of ciu reflects the polemical situation in which A wrote and the rhetorical devices with which he chose to exploit his opportunity The book offers two principal arguments in a kind of ring composition 10 that those who criticize the Christian god themselves benefitted from his protection by taking refuge in the basilicas of the apostles and that those Christians who suffered in the sack of the city lost nothing of essential value and can not complain of the injustice of God The first argument opens and closes the book and compels us to infer that A had in mind specific individuals who were present in Africa at the time he wrote The second argument fills more than half the book and includes the long discussion of the plight of religious women who had been It was the case of the women that posed the most delicate issues Some women filled with shame at what they had suffered had in fact committed suicide this was a course which had not been universally disapproved by earlier Christian writers But there were other religious women who had suffered the same indignity and who had escaped to Africa there to be confronted with the doubly galling taunts of those who suggested that their God had failed them in allowing them to be raped and that they had failed their vows of chastity by not emulating the example of The last pages of Book 1 return to the critics whose views are attacked cultured refugees who escaped the sack by taking refuge in the apostles shrines and who now wander from the churchs to the theaters of Carthage Christians in outward show but separated from the faithful community in essentials 135 sicut ex illorum numero etiam Dei civitas habet secum quamdiu peregrinatur in mundo conexos communione sacramentorum nec secum futuros in aeterna sorte sanctorum qui etiam cum ipsis inimicis adversus Deum cuius sacramentum gerunt murmurare non dubitant modo cum illis theatra modo ecclesias nobiscum replentes A is too polite to name these people It is not likely he would speak so harshly if Volusianus were the target of his words but there must have been others Christian in name whose doubts and hesitations were the real source of unease that made A so polemically vigorous here Whether there were real diehard pagans devout believers in the ancient gods in As original audience may sincerely be doubted There is no reason to think that the immediate pretext for writing ciu came from outside the Christian community That the work emphasizes so strongly from first page to last that the apparent bounds of that community do not precisely match those of the heavenly civitas shows how strongly A sought to reach those who bore the name and shared the sacraments of Christ but who were yet alien to the inner grace perplexae quippe sunt istae duae civitates in hoc saeculo invicemque permixtae donec ultimo iudicio dirimantur 135 In sum it was not precisely the sack of Rome in 410 that aroused A to write ciu but the lingering contention it provoked among sophisticated citizens Christian in name but classical in allegiances A took up the challenge with a power and a firmness of intention that still astonish his readers The notion of writing about the two cities had been already been in As mind 11 circumstances of the years after 410 offered him a witty and polemically effective point of departure and provided the catalyst that allowed the great work to precipitate itself from the creative centers of As mind He wrote throughout for the kind of audience from which one can expect to hear characteristically pagan arguments suggested but to which one can nevertheless make the kind of arguments that are characteristically Christian The first three books either published as a group or else the first preceded the other two appeared in the difficult year 41213 when Africa was in an uproar over the usurpation and revolt of Heraclian That crisis cost Marcellinus his life cf ep 151 ciu might well have been broken off after the Marcellinus death But it was not the other 19 books appeared over the next decade or so with never a mention of Marcellinus and only the slightest hint on the very last page of the works origins In later books events of 410 could be mentioned without emotional or polemical overtones eg 1523 so far did the book grow from its roots IV Contents Civ is the longest single work presenting a sustained argument unified around a coherent single theme to survive from GrecoRoman antiquity apart from histories and compilations whose bulk is inherent in the matter and whose disposition is far less than artful than that required in a work such as ciu Leaving aside collections of sermons eg on the Psalms or the Gospel of John it is far and away the longest work Augustine ever wrote far longer than any of the surviving works of Plato or Cicero It is every inch the product of its times both in style and in content It should not therefore be surprising that modern readers have differed widely in the interpretation of its purport It can be taken as a livre de circonstance that grew out of control and into which A poured all manner of material as it occurred to him It can be argued that the initial polemical thrust carried him through three books a second polemical inspiration carried him through the tenth book and then a third purely theological enthusiasm overtook him and inspired the last dozen books Both of these lines of interpretation take the circumstances of 410413 as the essential point of departure for all that followed and insist that the common intent of apologetic and comfort for the distraught be the source of any unity the work Other interpreters see grander structure For them the initial polemical movement was quickly exhausted and the inspiration that replaced it was the ambition to design a grand plan for all of human history At this point opinions diverge between those mainly the more recent writers who emphasize the philosophy of history detached from particular circumstances and those descendants in many ways of As own acquaintance Orosius who saw a particular apology intended to identify the Christian Church and often the Christian Empire of this world closely if not exclusively with the City of God Both main schools of interpretation have flourished in the absence of a sustained tradition of philological commentary and analysis of the text itself It is not easy to descry the structures and intent of a work of this sort so much sui generis so out of temper with modern times hence it is easy either to assert that no structure exists or to create ones own structure from a selective reading With the discovery in this century of the letter to Firmus however the case against order has been made much more difficult and studies of the structure and purport A discussion of the detailed structure of the work and the individual books will appear below The following remarks on the principal themes and arrangement assume such analysis at every point they only attempt to extract a few main points in brief compass 12 We first hear of the two cities in the vera rel written at Tagaste in 38991 The theme fundamentally scriptural is not infrequent in As works before Rome was ever threatened That he had conceived a work on the Two Cities on purely theological and exegetical grounds is clear form an important text in the Gn litt 111520 Hi duo amores quorum alter sanctus est alter immundus alter socialis alter privatus alter communi utilitati consulens propter supernam societatem alter etiam rem communem in potestatem propriam redigens propter arrogantem dominationem praecesserunt in angelis et distinxerunt conditas in genere humano civitates duas sub admirabili et ineffabili providentia Dei De quibus duabus civitatibus latius fortasse alio loco si dominus voluerit disseremus Nothing in the original theme required the discussion be located in a contemporary polemical matrix It was providence that gave A the pretext for writing the work in a way that found its target and perhaps its audience ready made As own desire to write a work on the Two Cities may have contributed to the zeal with which he took up the murmurs in the air after 410 and made them the object of such vehement polemical attacks The fundamental pastoral point made by A writing on the two cities is that Christians live in this world but they are not of this world They are present here as strangers sojourning in a foreign country enjoying the the blessings the world has to offer but always ready to move on 13 Heaven is the Christians true home and it is to heaven that his affections and his loyalties should be directed It was probably the happenstance observation of the analogy that obtained between this metaphor for Christian life and the facts of the situation in Africa after 410 that inspired A to join the intended work on the two cities with the rejoinder to the skeptics of those years The skeptics were to be found among wealthy and discontented refugees from Rome who found themselves living as aliens in Africa discontented and frustrated taking the pleasures of the theaters and shows ciu is that the refugees have exactly the right attitude they need to realign their loyalties and their longings toward a greater city farther away and then only will they see the fate of temporal kingdoms in true perspective This juxtaposition of metaphor and reality begot the first ten books of ciu But the polemic against the pagans and their gods is never more than incidental to the main purpose of the whole work A work of demolition may be necessary and enlightening but it is the construction that follows that is of greater significance The first books are thus curiously divided between what we are inclined to think of as the merely rhetoricalsuch as the mocking description of the gods of the Roman marriage bed and their assorted functions at 69and the more trenchantly argumentativesuch as the serious and on the whole sympathetic discussion of the merits and demerits of Platonism 14 but it must nevertheless be admitted that ciu is of much less use to us as a source for these opinions than it would be if the subject had been more central to the writers purpose It is with Book 11 that the central constructive stage of ciu opens It quickly becomes clear that the debate of Books 110 is now for all intents and purposes over either the reader has been convinced or he has left off the battle and departed cf 115 Scriptural texts had been quoted throughout the first ten books but here they take on their full authority for the first time The organization of Books 1122 is chronological within the frame of scripture The method of Books 1122 is exegetical As characteristic method He will repeat in some of its pages some of what he had said in several other places notably Gn litt and conf 1113 about the creation and fall of men and angels in Genesis his narrative of world history Books 1518 would seem strangely selective and inconsistent to a reader of his time accustomed to read the classical historians or even the Christian chroniclers but it is nevertheless a progress through the most important pieces of the scriptural data The last books finally will place exegesis in the service of eschatology culminating on the last pages of the work with the anticipation of heavenly repose and order to match the peace and lack of division that is evoked on the first pages It is to these books preeminently that later ages with pressing questions of their own have come seeking As answers The philosophy of history and political theory embody vital concerns of moderns when they turn to A it is in these pages that they find most nearly what suits their purposes Yet it must be asserted and constantly held in mind that it was not to answer the questions of other ages that A wrote Any Augustinian philosophy of history or theory of politics extracted from these pages will suffer from grave defects at the outset not only will his Taken in himself and read in the context of his times A has little to offer except theology and exegesis the fruits of his reading of history are the theological virtues of faith hope and charity A would place no value whatever on the patterns he sees in history if they were separated from his expectation of the four last things At the center of the whole work is a single scriptural theme illuminated and made the basis for an extended meditation on the whole message of revelation itself The fall of angels and men itself the result of a derangement of loves has brought schism into the soul of man In the natural state man is now a stranger to himself incapable of selfknowledge thinking himself good and virtuous but in reality full of pride and disordered loves How this can come about is a mystery in some ways ciu 127 but it is a fact Left to itself human society would be nothing but the city of this world cut off from God destined to die in body and soul But the fact of divine mercy and mediation already adumbrated in the first ten books culminating in the vivid contrast between Christ and the demons in Book 10 has nurtured a fragment of the original excellence of mankind This spark exists in a portion of the human race and always has Abel found favor with God in all three ages of divine dispensation ante legem sub lege sub gratia God has seen those who carry the standards of the heavenly city In the desolation of a sinful world these figures have held out the hope that the journey home is possible that men need not resign themselves to citizenship in a corrupt city but may already participate in the citizenship of heaven with faith and hope in its full restoration Human history between Adam and the second coming is thus radically incoherent There is one readily visible pattern for the earthly city marked by disasters and wars public and private of every kind but there is another pattern dimly visible but obscured by sin according to which the heavenly city lives It is the task of revelation to remove the scales from the eyes of those who would look for this pattern it is the role of exegesis to bring home that message The aim of As exposition is not to satisfy intellectual curiosity none of his mature works were ever written to that end The purpose was entirely pastoral to dismantle first in Books 110 the prevailing alltoonatural interpretation of the meaning of human affairs and then to find hidden just be neath the surface a second interpretation divine in origin full of hope for the future The error of those who would lament bitterly the fall of a single earthly city of bricks and mortar is the error of those who are unable to distinguish shadow from reality the sovereign remedy V Structure Modern students have not always been kind to the literary qualities of ciu Adverse judgments on the structure and organization have been commonplace and even the works most devoted students have often damned with faint praise H Scholz was willing to admit that the first ten books could pass as a Kunstwerk but of 1122 he said Es felht die Einheit und Konzentration Der zweite Hauptteil ist ein lockeres halborganisiertes Gefüge 15 A detailed analysis of the contents led two American scholars to find in ciu the defects of homiletic digression deviation from the subject superfluous arguments in vain pursuit of clarity prolixity repetition and a penchant for symbolism especially number symbolism their summary of the contents carefully stigmatized the passages containing these defects Fully onefifth of the whole text was so marked and 60 of book ten was revealed to be a disfigurement to the integrity of the underlying plan 16 There is also this judgment to contend with Un commerce prolonge avec loeuvre augustinienne met bien souvent a lépreuve la patience duun Français daujourdhui Saint Augustin compose mal sa composition is beaucoup trop lache telle est la critique qui se formule spontanement 17 And yet A was after all a thoroughly trained and before his conversion notably successful practitioner of the principles of ancient rhetoric To be sure the almost unparallelled length of his major works and the lack of explicit rhetorical doctrine on the way to construct such extensive arguments leaves us without obvious recourse to ways of explaining As structures still caution in adverse judgments is certainly necessary This was handsomely recognized by the author of the last quoted criticism writing a decade after his first judgment Saint Augustin compose mal jugement dun jeune barbare ignorant et presomptueux 18 Marrous famous palinode and the pregnant suggestions that followed opened the way for a more subtle and careful analysis of the underlying movement of the work and an appreciation of its craft in the traditions of ancient rhetoric It can not be argued that As work was be in every way to the taste of all of his own first readers yet Macedonius seems to have been quite satisfied Much must be conceded to the long period of gestation and composition it would be difficult to sustain a close and faithful adherence to a detailed outline when the subjects were so complex and when the work was of necessity only part of the literary activity and literary activity only part of the life of a busy bishop It can not be urged for example that the long series of miracles outlined in 228 stood in mind when A took up the pen to write the first page of Book 1 between Books 1 and 22 had intervened the return of Orosius from the east with the relics of Stephen and the construction by Evodius of the memoria at Hippo to enshrine the relics and give a focus to their power But the discussion of the nature of a populus in book two is marked by a promise to return to the subject suo loco 221 the promise comes due seventeen books later Quapropter nunc est locus ut quam potero breviter ac dilucide expediam quod in secundo huius operis libro me demonstraturum esse promisi 1921 This implies a degree of control over material and its disposition that renders adverse judgment liable to severe correction It must be borne in mind in seeking the rationale behind the composition of the great works of the ancient rhetorical tradition is that the aim of such writing is persuasion more than demonstration successful deployment of rhetoric rather than dialectic Moderns prefer dialectic to rhetoric prefer a careful and logical outline explicitly articulated and closely followed The ancients have little such to offer late antique taste must be allowed its preferences Even the digression has a place in such a structure The modern reader must above all be careful neither to denigrate nor to overpraise The principles on which A worked are subject to criticism and he did not always implement them with the greatest success he could juxtapose the serenity and lucidity of Book 19 to the seemingly endless expanse of loosely connected discussions of Book 18 threequarters again as long as the average of the preceding seventeen books But it does now seem clear that there was a clear plan in outline at the outset of the work and that in the implementation of that plan A seldom lapsed It is necessary to add one further principle to elucidate the structure of ciu There is indeed a disparity of texture between Books 110 and 1122 The first books openly contra paganos are composed more in the secular manner of a Cicero but 1122 where As purposes and premises are now avowedly ecclesiastical more closely resemble in form and structure his own other works than they do the for A idiosyncratic Books 110 A close examination of the style of the two halves would reveal comparable shifts from the full and dramatic periodicity of the opening pages of Book 1 we move to a more restrained and straightforward style in the later books Here The main lines of the architecture of the work and something of the disparity between the first and second halves may be glimpsed in a compendious chart No such outline is of much value in itself it should be read only as a suggestion of the depths that lie behind such superficial analyis Still the symmetry and order of the work as a whole can not escape our notice The rightmost column prints the number of printed lines of text which each book occupies in the CCL printing of the DombartKalb text Note particularly that the measured symmetries of the A more detailed summary of the contents follows Gloria they have their reward the saints have better 1216 2 Rome as moral exemplum their virtues no virtues at all by comparison with the saints 1719 further comparison with Epicureanism 20 3 God governs all things even Rome 21 C Summary of arguments stemming from events of 410 by way of postscript to books 15 2226 1 War and its severity with reference to the defeat of Radagaisus 2223 2 The fortunes and virtues of Christian emperors 2426a D Conclusion 26b Book VI Civil theology introduction A Introduction Preface 1 B Varro and the tripartite theology 29 C Seneca 1011 Nullus deus miscetur homini VI Sources In none of As works are the variety and the limitations of his indebtednesses more clearly displayed than in ciu A was ever limited first by the literary culture on which he had been brought up and second by the still narrow range of Christian literature available to one working almost entirely in Latin 19 The classical education of A had centered on the school authors of his time the authors of the quadriga Messii Vergil Cicero Terence and Sallust loom large in any assessment of his classical equipment with Vergil and Cicero easily in the lead The perils of this preference for his knowledge of Roman history are particularly acute The traditional literary authors had lain dormant in As mind for many years before 413 In writing ciu A made a deliberate attempt to refresh his classical memory to redeploy his erudition in the service of his great work contra paganos But As education had not been limited to the literary classics nor is his range of citation in ciu so limited From the time of his reading of the Hortensius A had distinguished himself by zeal for the study of philosophy with a seriousness that went beyond what was customary in the schools of the time Hence in ciu we see some authors cited who were not part of the standard school lists The most notable is Varro whose Antiquitates are a heavilyquoted source and A in turn is an important source for fragments of that work There are also a number of quotations from Apuleius and the pseudoApuleian Asclepius A may have read Apuleius for the first time after he heard of the works popularity in the group around Volusianus cf epp 136 137 Beyond these authors there can be discerned a penumbra of quotations allusions and echoes to a number of other Latin authors these quotations in the main stem from the literary classics eg a single citation of Persius while the material derived from the more pedestrian authors eg Pliny the elder or Solinus is often of debatable provenance and may have come to A indirectly The Greek sources that appear in ciu conform to the pattern detected elsewhere As recourse to original Greek texts is greater at this period than earlier in his career but he was still not reading any of the classical or Neoplatonic Greek authors in the original in extenso what he knows of Plato Plotinus and Porphyry he knows from Latin translations and from doxographers though if a Greek text were available he may have checked a particular point here and there That is not to say that he is either ignorant or unsophisticated the discussion and refutation of the claims of the Platonists in Books 8 through 10 is remarkable given the time and place of its composition There is no final consensus on the exact identity and nature of the Neoplatonic books that underlay his discussion here the works of JJ OMeara have evoked lively debate and 20 One point of filiation may be worth salvaging The loss of most of Ciceros De republica prevents us from tracing closely the influence it exercised on A But some of what A found there was important to him eg the definition of a populus quoted from Cicero in Book 2 and taken up seventeen books and ten years later to become an important part of the elegant and beautiful Book 19 There are affinities between the underlying themes of the Ciceronian work and As own effort in ciu for all that A is deliberately attempting to suggest an entirely new way of thinking about human society and the responsibilities of its citizens That Macrobius it now seems wrote his own imitation of the De republica his Saturnalia in Africa around 430 could even be taken as an indication that this learned traditionalist saw the intended rejoinder to De republica in A and posed his more loving imitation to counteract A At any rate it is clear that ciu isamong many other thingsAs final debate and settling of accounts with Cicero But what of Plato There is just a trace in ciu 2228 that A knew enough of Platos Republic to conceive his own work as the third stage of a debate that connected Greek with Roman with Christian ideas about justice peace and human society That the first work ended with the eschatological myth of Er the second with the dream of Scipio and the third with As own evocation of last things suggests that if the De republica had survived intact we might be in a position to descry a clearer line of descent than we now know But for all the apparatus of secular literature brought to bear on the works theme the texts of scripture still loom much larger in the work from one end to the other than do all secular texts combined There is a disparity between the first and second halves of the work Book 1 shows a preponderance of scriptural over classical citations a ratio of about 5 to 2 but for Books 2 through 8 the classical citations predominate by about 3 to 1 it is in Book 10 with the assertion of the powers of Christ as mediator against the When we ask what works of Christian nonscriptural literature A knew and used we are on the shakiest ground It was never As habit to identify his sources particularly orthodox sources even heretics often hide behind the ambiguous designation of quidam The importance of Tyconius for the underlying concept of the two cities is particularly im portant 21 The investigations of B Altaner 22 offer the best general view of As debts to the Greek fathers Further investigation is required to show how much of what A says against the pagans is in fact the fruit of his long ruminations and debates involving the Manichees and Donatists but it was against the works rhetorical strategy to discuss those sects openly VII AnaloguesPlace in Career The second great creative phase of As career fell in the early 410s the first fell c 399401 the end of the long Donatist quarrel was probably the proximate cause of a new release of energy and imagination and the inquisitive and loyal presence of Marcellinus must have contributed encouragement as well Then we see A bringing to completion some of the great projects begun years earlier trin Gn litt en Ps Io ev tr beginning ciu and launching the first of his stream of pamphlets against the poison of Pelagianism Ciu therefore holds a place central to As work and thought for concrete reasons Of As other works however it may most profitably be compared with conf One writer has said of ciu that it plays out on a wider stage the same drama of conversion that animates conf this is not an optical illusion The earlier more private work had begun with ten books that dismantled the errors of the past and reached on the last pages of the tenth book Christ the mediator the movement of the first ten books of ciu is remarkably similar with the same result The second part of conf was devotedto the dismay of modernsto the exposition of the first chapters of scripture a small Hexameron the exposition of Genesis there is deliberately constructed to mark the parallel between the seven days of creation and the whole of salvation history from creation to last things The last books of ciu similarly begin with close reading of the crucial opening pages of Genesis supplementing Gn litt and move towards the eschatological tranquility of the last page It is not within the scope of this article to consider the influence exercised by ciu in later times indeed the story of its influence is a long and discouraging record of misreading and misplaced reverence A had set out in ciu to propose to his readers a view of mans place in the world that differed materially on every main principle from that which had underpinned GrecoRoman antiquity It was the fate of Christianity in his own time and in centuries after to make the task of realizing that view more difficult for itself by following the perilous paths of power and glory The union of church and empirea constant dream of the western middle ages a depressing reality for the easternobscured the practical value of As doctrines and led many devout readers of A to share the hollow optimisms of Bibliography A Adam Der manichäische Ursprung der Lehre von denen zwei Reichen bei Augustin Theologische Literaturzeitung 771952 385390 J duQ Adams Populus in the Theology of Augustine and Jerome New Haven 1971 GH 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Cité de Dieu Medieval and Renaissance Studies 41958 163175 G Ladner The Idea of Reform Cambridge Mass 1959 C Lambot Lettre inedite de saint Augustin relative au De Civitate Dei Rev Ben 511939 109121 E Lamirande LEglise celeste selon s Augustin Paris 1963 J Lamotte But et adversaires de saint Augustin dans le de civitate Dei Augustiniana 111961 434460 J Laufs Der Friedensgedanke bei Augustinus Untersuchungen zum XIX Buch des Werks De Civitate Dei Wiesbaden 1973 A Lauras and H Rondet Le theme des deux cités dans loeuvre de saint Augustin Études augustiniennes Paris 1951 97160 H Leisegang Der Ursprung der Lehre Augustins von der Civitas Dei Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 161925 127155 CS Mahoney The Rare and Late Nouns Adjectives and Adverbs of Saint Augustines De Civitate Dei Washington DC 1935 Patristic Studies 44 FG Maier Augustin und das antike Rom Tuebingen 1955 A Mandouze S Augustin et la religion romaine RA 11958 187223 RA Markus Saeculum History and Society in the Theology of St Augustine Cambridge 1970 RA Markus Two conceptions of political authority Augustine De civitate Dei XIX 1415 and some thirteenthcentury interpretations JThS 161965 68100 HI Marrou Civitas Dei civitas terrena num tertium quid Studia Patristica 21957 342350 HI Marrou La division en chapitres des livres de la Cité de Dieu Melanges J de Ghellinck 1Gembloux 1951 235249 HI Marrou Theologie de lhistoire Paris 1968 Time and Timeliness New York 1969 RT Marshall Studies in the Political and SocioReligious Terminology of the De Civitate Dei Washington DC 1952 F Martinez and G Cantera El sentido escatologico en el De Civitate Dei Religion y Cultura 191973 2329 P Mazzeo Il problema agostiniano del tempo nelle Confessiones e nel De Civitate Dei Annali della Facolta di Lettere e Filosofia di Bari 151972 279313 TE Mommsen St Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress Journal of the History of Ideas 121951 346374 M Moreau Le Dossier Marcellinus dans la Correspondance de saint Augustin Paris 1973 JJ ODonnell Augustines Classical Readings RA 151980 144175 JJ ODonnell The inspiration for Augustines De civitate Dei Augn Stud 101979 7579 ND ODonaghue Freedom in the City of God Prudentia 111979 2732 JF OGrady Priesthood and Sacrifice in City of God Augustiniana 211971 2744 JJ OMeara Charter of Christendom New York 1961 JJ OMeara Porphyrys Philosophy from Oracles in Augustine Paris 1959 MV OReilly Sancti Aurelii Augustini De excidio urbis Romae sermo Washington DC 1955 T Orlandi Origine e composizione del I libro del De civitate Dei di Agostino Studi classici e orientali Pisa 141965 120133 R Piccolomini Platone nel Libro VIII del De civ Dei Augustinianum 111971 233261 J Ratzinger Herkunft und Sinn der CivitasLehre Augustins AM 2965979 J Ratzinger Volk und Haus Gottes in Augustins Lehre von der Kirche Munich 1954 F Reiter Gottesstaat und Friedenswerk Zur Frage eines dynamischen Friedens bei Augustin Vienna 1974 G Reynolds The clausulae in the De Civitate Dei of St Augustine Washington DC 1924 H Rochais Fragments du De Civitate Dei Bibliothèque de lInstitute Catholique de Paris ms latin 55 VIe s REA 171971 293298 MB Schieman The Rare and Late Verbs in St Augustines De Civitate Dei Washington DC 1938 Patristic Studies 53 H Scholz Glaube und Unglaube in der Weltgeschichte Ein Kommentar zu Augustins De Civitate Dei Leipzig 1911 F Silitti La critica di Agostino a Varrone De civ Dei VI 2 Augustinianum 161976 135143 E Stakemeier Civitas Dei Die Geschichtstheologie des hl Augustinus als Apologie der Kirche Paderborn 1955 2nd ed J Straub Augustins Sorge umd die regeneratio imperii das Imperium Romanum als civitas terrena Historisches Jahrbuch 731954 3660 K Thraede Das antike Rom in Augustins de Civitate Dei JbAC 221979 90148 A Trape La grande opera della speranza cristiana La Cittá di Dio di S Agostino Divinitas 231979 361363 E Troeltsch Augustin die christliche Antike und das Mittelalter im Anschluss an die Schrift De Civitate Dei Munich 1915 P Vanderlinden Essai sur la conception historique de saint Augustin dans la Cité de Dieu Louvain 1965 M Versfeld A Guide to the City of God London 1958 A Wachtel Beiträge zur Geschichtstheologie des Aurelius Augustinus Bonn 1960 | [
"City of God",
"Augustine"
] |
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http://faculty.sdmiramar.edu/dtrubovitz/biol/earthworm/ | DISSECTION GUIDE FOR THE EARTHWORM The earthworm belongs to a group of animals called annelids ( segmented worms ) . The body of an annelid is usually divided internally and externally into well - defined segments which may be separated from each other by membranous partitions . Except for the tail and head regions , all segments are essentially alike . Other members of this group include the clam worms and tube worms , which live in the ocean , and the leeches . The earthworm hunts food at night and thus has been called a " night crawler . " it usually extends its body from the surface opening of a small tunnel which it makes by " eating " its way through the soil . The rear end of the worm ' s body remains near the opening while the head end forages for decaying leaves and animal debris . It has been estimated that an acre of good soil contains over 50,000 earthworms . By their continuous foraging and tunneling these worms turn over 18 to 20 tons of soil per acre and bring over one inch of rich soil to the surface every four to five years . Thus , indirectly , the earthworm enriches farmland and provides for more food in a rapidly expanding population . A . EXTERNAL ANATOMY : Using Figure 1 as a guide locate the following ( A hand lens or dissecting microscope will be helpful in locating the smaller features . ) : At the anterior ( front ) end is a small fleshy projection over the mouth . This is the prostomium . it is not considered to be a segment of the worm . The anus , the opening at the end of the digestive tract through which solid wastes are expelled , will be found at the posterior ( hind ) end . About one - third of the way back from the mouth region is a thick cylindrical collar - the clitellum . This structure , involved in reproduction , will be considered later . Place the worm so that the ventral side is uppermost . In living worms the ventral ( lower ) surface is a lighter color than the dorsal ( upper ) surface . In preserved worms the prostomium extends from the dorsal surface . With your finger , lightly stroke the ventral surface in an anterior direction . The bristles you feel are the setae and are used by the worm in movement . How many pairs of setae are there in each segment of the worm ? Does each segment have setae ? Each segment ( except the first three and the last one ) contains pores . The small openings connect with the metanephridia which are the primitive kidneys of the earthworm . Liquid wastes , which collect in the body cavity , are excreted through these nephridial openings . Each segment of the worm is separated from the next one by a thin wall called a septum B . INTERNAL ANATOMY : Place the earthworm on the dissecting tray , dorsal side up , and pin into position ( Figure 2A ) . To expose the internal organs , dissect the worm as outlined in Figure 2B - F . A . Pin through prostomium . Pin through last ( anal ) segment . B . With forceps , lift dorsal skin . Cut slit at base of forceps ( a ) insert scissors and cut a line , slightly off center , through to the anus ( b ) . Caution : Be careful to cut only as deep as the skin to avoid damaging internal organs . C . Beginning at the anal end , hold body wall with forceps and with razor or scalpel , cut through septa on both sides of the intestine . Cut to within 1 / 2 to 1 inch of the clitellum . D . Pin the body wall to the dissecting tray as illustrated . E . Cut through ciitellum anteriorly . Sever the septa and pin body wall to tray as illustrated in F . Digestive Svstem : Figure 3 shows the general location and structure of the digestive system . The other organ systems have been omitted . Locate : a . The mouth is at the anterior end . The opening is located just below the overlapping prostomium . b . The mouth leads to a slightly expanded and muscular pharynx which is usually covered by three pairs of whitish seminal vesicles . These will be examined later . Food taken in by the animal is passed on by muscular contractions in the pharynx through the esophagus to the crop where it is temporarily stored , c . The crop opens into a thick - walled , highly muscular gizzard where food , with the aid of small soil particles taken in during feeding , is ground up . It is then passed into the intestine where digestion and absorption occur . d . Solid waste products of digestion are passed to the exterior through the anus Circulatory System An interesting feature of the circulatory system is that it is a " closed " system in which the blood circulates within a series of blood vessels . The blood is red because it contains hemoglobin ( the pigment that gives the red color to human blood ) . The major vessels of the circulatory system are a dorsal longitudinal vessel lying on top of the digestive tract and a ventral blood vessel lying below it . These two vessels are connected with each other by a number of vessels passing around the digestive tract . Five pairs of these ( located in segments 7 to 11 inclusive ) are larger than the others and comprise the " hearts . " Pulsation of the hearts causes circulation of the blood . Most of the other blood vessels are difficult to observe unless the material has been sectioned for microscopic study . Reproductive System To obtain a clear view of the reproductive organs , cut through the intestine near the clitellum . Carefully lift it and ease it free as far forward as the posterior end of the pharynx . Then cut it out . Although earthworms are monoecious ( They possess a complete set of male and female reproductive organs . ) they nevertheless undergo cross - fertilization during copulation . Two worms come together along their ventral sides and become temporarily joined together by the secretion of a " slime tube . " During copulation sperm cells are reIeased from the seminal vesicles and stored in the seminal receptacles of the opposite earthworms The animals separate and the clitellum then secretes a mucus ring . This ring slides over the anterior segments and picks up eggs from the oviducts in the 14th segment and sperm as it slides over the anterior end of the worm to form the egg cocoon , from which the young eventually hatch . The seminal vesicles have previously been described as lying alongside of the crop and gizzard . The testes are inside of these bodies and can not be seen . Near the seminal vesicles , in segments 9 and 10 , are the four small , spherical seminal receptables . By careful examination with a hand lens or dissecting microscope you may be able to locate the single pair of ovaries in segment 13 . Nervous System The nervous system in the worm is difficult to study . Its major component is the ventral nerve cord which runs the length of the worm on the inner ventral surface ( Figure 3 ) . At its anterior end the cord divides and passes around the front part of the pharynx where it enlarges to form two swellings - the cerebral ganglia , These might be considered primitive " brains . " Along the length of the cord , lateral nerves are given off which go to the muscles of the body wall . Excretory System Each segment of the body , except the first three or four and the last one , contains a pair of excretory structures called metanephridia . These coiled tubular structures , lying next to the body walI , open to the exterior by a pore called a nephridiopore internally they are connected to the septum of the segment just anterior to them . Each nephridium collects fluid wastes from the segment anterior to the segment in which it is located . | [
"EARTHWORM",
"annelids"
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http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/classification_of_organisms.htm | Profpage ( updated 09 / 08 / 06 ) To date , over 1,600,000 species of organisms have been described ; at least one million of these are insects , but it is believed that possibly 25 million species of insects may exist , primarily in the tropics . The hierarchical system of classification normally includes seven levels : Kingdom , Phylum , Class , Order , Family , Genus and species . However , super , sub , and infra - groups may occur . One way to remember these in order is : " kindly pay cash or furnish good security . " Every new species discovered must be placed into this system . One of the most exciting things for a biologist is to discover a new species . Hybridization is one difficulty of distinguishing species , but since most hybrids , such as the mule , are usually sterile , and can not reproduce with either parental species or among themselves . The change from two to five kingdoms developed in the 1960s , when it became apparent that some organisms had characteristics of both plants and animals . Three major Domains of life - the first two are Prokaryotes ( before the nucleus ) , while the Eukaryotes all have a true nucleus in each cell . Below are the major characteristics of each Domain and some characteristics of each Kingdom , and variations in the life cycle of each group . Over 5000 species of Bacteria have been described , composing at least six groups , and probably thousands more have yet to be identified . The Cyanobacteria used to be known as blue - green algae , since they are photosynthetic . The Archaea are the most recently discovered group ; Archaebacteria live at the bottom of the ocean . Eukaryotes are divided into 5 groups of 15 very divergent major phyla of Protista ( over 40,000 species ) , the Slime Molds , four groups of Fungi ( over 72,000 species ) , nine phyla of Plants ( over Below are major characteristics of the three Domains ( Bacteria , Archaea , Eukarya ) and the six Kingdoms of life , as well as their evolutionary relationships , based upon genetic similarities and differences . The Protista represent an artificial grouping of extremely diverse groups that possess more differences between each other than do Fungi , Plants , and Animals . The Plants and some algae arose from one group of Bacteria , while Animals , Fungi , and other Protists arose from a different group of Bacteria . Chloroplasts and Mitochondria represent two groups of bacteria that made photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration possible . These bacteria entered into other cells ( see the theory of endosymbiosis below ) , and possess their own DNA in a circular chromosome , ribosomal RNA ( which differs from eukaryotic rRNA ) , and they divide and grow on their own within eukaryotes . The Archaebacteria have more in common with Eukarya than The origin of Eukaryotes possibly occurred in the process of endosymbiosis , shown below . Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have characteristics of bacteria , including their own DNA and bacterial ribosomes . Although viruses_and_prions are nonliving , they are studied by biologists because they cause many diseases in living organisms . For more information on Bacteria , see Kingdom Eubacteria . The table below compares major characteristics of the six kingdoms of organisms . Continuation of major characteristics of the six kingdoms of life . Three major types of life cycles exist , and diploidy ( possession of two sets of chromosomes ) has arisen many times . Diploid multicellularity has arisen numerous times , and is highly advantageous to survival . What are the advantages of two copies of each gene , and of sexual reproduction versus asexual reproduction ? Syngamy means a fusion of two cells , and results in a zygote . In this first example , the zygote divides the chromosome number into half ( haploid ) in the process of meiosis . This system is typical of Fungi . . In gametic meiosis , a reproductive cell produces ( usually four ) haploid gametes ( sex cells ) that combine to produce a zygote , which grows into a diploid individual . Humans and most animals reproduce through this method . Plants and many algae reproduce by sporic meiosis , in which a diploid Sporophyte generation produces spores ( asexually ) , which grow into a haploid Gametophyte generation that reproduces sexually to form a zygote and new sporophyte . Most plants that you would recognize are sporophytes , and the gametophytes grow within flowers or cones ; however some plants have separate gametophytes . Not all organisms reproduce sexually ; some reproduce only asexually . Numerous variations in both sexual and asexual reproduction exist . For more information on protists , see Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi - The bacteria and Fungi are " decomposers , " in that they break down dead bodies of other organisms , so that the chemicals can be recycled through the environment . Although some species cause diseases , many are beneficial , and we could not live without bacteria and fungi . Characteristics of the different groups of fungi . Kingdom Plantae - Plants are the " producers " in the ecosystem , in that they produce oxygen , living spaces , and food for animals . An illustration of the life cycle of a plant . Key characteristics of the nine phyla of extant ( living ) vascular plants , and the approximate number of species of each ( 1 ) . Key characteristics of the nine phyla of extant ( living ) vascular plants ( 2 ) . Plants and simple animals can be haploid , diploid , or polyploid , whereas humans can not . Our brain is so complex that even part of one chromosome missing or duplicated , causes retardation , and often sterility . Some polyploid species of plants are produced artificially to increase food supplies . Evolutionary changes , often with the help of man , are shown below in wheat ( 1 ) . Evolutionary changes , often with the help of man , are shown below in wheat ( 2 ) . Kingdom Animalia Back to Index Back to Profpage | [
"Classification of Organisms",
"hierarchical system",
"Hybridization"
] |
http://faculty.uml.edu/ccarter/Chapter9Part3.htm | Accounting for property , plant , and equipment Determining the dollar amount of property , plant , and equipment resources The dollar amount reported as property , plant , and equipment resources ( assets ) consists of all costs providing benefits for more than one year and required to get the assets ready to be used . For example , assume on January 2 , a company buys $ 27,300 of new display equipment on account . In return for promising to pay $ 27,300 , the company obtains the following . Equipment sales price $ 26,500 Equipment delivery $ 500 Equipment 9 - month extended warranty $ 300 Total $ 27,300 The company predicts that after six years the display equipment will be too inefficient to use . Although the equipment may still be in working condition after six years , the company expects to replace it with more modern equipment . The company predicts that it will be able to sell the equipment to some other company for $ 3,000 at the end of the equipment ' s six - year useful life . The dollar amount to report as a resource is the cost of getting the resource into usable condition . In the case of the display equipment , the cost is $ 27,000 , which includes the $ 26,500 sales price and the $ 500 cost of delivery . The delivery cost is included in the asset account because the equipment is not usable to the company unless it is delivered from the supplier . The $ 300 cost of the extended warranty would not be included in the equipment cost , but would be recorded as an asset , possibly Total Resources = Sources of Borrowed Resources + Sources of Owner Invested + Management Generated Assets = Liabilities Stockholders ' Equity + $ 300 equipment warranties + $ 27,000 display equipment = + $ 27,300 accounts payable As a result of buying the display equipment on account , the company ' s resources and sources of resources both increase by $ 27,300 . Only $ 27,000 would be included in the display equipment account because the $ 300 warranty cost is not necessary to get the equipment into usable condition . Remembering that assets increase with debits and debits equal credits , prepare the journal entry to record the equipment purchase . Date Description Post . Ref . Debits Credits Jan . 2 Equipment Warranties 300 Display Equipment 27,000 Accounts Payable 27,300 Display equipment purchase * * You now have the background to do text exercise 9.4 . Determining the total dollar amount of property , plant , and equipment to report as an expense Just like all resources , the dollar amount of property , plant , and equipment to report as an expense is the dollar amount of the resource used up . Since the company purchased the equipment for $ 27,000 and expects to be able to sell it for $ 3,000 at the end of its useful life , the company ' s expense for the display equipment will be $ 24,000 over its useful life of six years ( $ 27,000 cost - $ 3,000 residual value ) . Show the effects on the company ' s resources and sources of resources of using up $ 24,000 of display equipment . Total Borrowed Owner Invested Management Generated Assets Liabilities Stockholders ' Equity - $ 24,000 accumulated depreciation , display equipment = - $ 24,000 depreciation expense , display equipment Over six years , the using up of equipment reduces the company ' s resources by $ 24,000 and reduces the company ' s stockholders ' equity by $ 24,000 . The decrease in resources is not shown directly in the display equipment account , but is recorded in a separate contra asset account called accumulated depreciation , display equipment . As the equipment is used up , the expense is called depreciation expense , display equipment . Remembering that assets increase with debits and debits equal credits , prepare the journal entry to record the using up of $ 24,000 of equipment over six years . Date Description Post . Ref . Debits Credits " over Depreciation Expense , Display Equipment 24,000 six Accumulated Depreciation , Display Equipment 24,000 years " Six - year depreciation By the end of six years , the company would report the following amounts in its general ledger accounts . Display Equipment Accumulated Depreciation , Display Equipment Depreciation Expense , Display Equipment $ 27,000 ( Cost of getting equipment into usable condition ) $ 24,000 ( Cost of equipment used up ) $ 24,000 ( Cost of equipment used up ) ( Closed to income summary ) The company ' s accounts show the display equipment was originally purchased for $ 27,000 ( display equipment account ) and had been used up a total of $ 24,000 ( accumulated depreciation , display equipment account and depreciation expense , display equipment account ) . The $ 3,000 difference between the display equipment account and the accumulated depreciation , display equipment account represents the dollar amount of the display equipment that was not used up by the end of year six . If the company ' s estimates are accurate , the $ 3,000 difference will be equal to * * You now have the background to do text exercise 9.5 . Determining the periods in which to report the property , plant , and equipment depreciation expense Like all assets , the periods in which to report the property , plant , and equipment depreciation expense are the periods during which the assets are used . In the case of the display equipment , it should be depreciated ( expensed ) over its useful life of six years . Determining the dollar amount of depreciation expense to report in any specific year of the property , plant , and equipment ' s useful life Based on the display equipment ' s $ 27,000 original cost and estimated residual value of $ 3,000 , the company knows its six - year depreciation expense will be $ 24,000 , as calculated earlier . The question facing management each year is : how much of the $ 24,000 depreciation expense should be recorded during each of the six years of the equipment ' s life ? The logical answer is that the depreciation expense to record in each year is the amount of the equipment used up during each year . Unfortunately , it is virtually impossible Straight - line depreciation Many assets are used at approximately the same rate each year . For example , buildings can be used 365 days a year for 40 years or more . For assets that are used at approximately the same rate each year , it is reasonable to record the same amount of depreciation expense each year . Remember depreciation expense is the cost of the assets used up . To record the same amount of depreciation expense for each year of an asset ' s life , managers use the straight - line depreciation method . For the display equipment , Straight - line annual depreciation = ( cost – residual value ) / useful life Straight - line annual depreciation = ( $ 27,000 - $ 3,000 ) / 6 years = $ 4,000 per year Over its six - year life the display equipment ' s depreciation expense would total $ 24,000 , with each year ' s expense being $ 4,000 . Year Depreciation 1 $ 4,000 2 $ 4,000 3 4 5 6 $ 24,000 Show the effects on the company ' s resources and sources of resources of using up $ 4,000 of display equipment during year 1 . Stockholders ' Equity - $ 4,000 accumulated depreciation , display equipment - $ 4,000 depreciation expense , The use of equipment in year 1 reduces the company ' s resources by $ 4,000 and reduces the company ' s stockholders ' equity by $ 4,000 . The decrease in display equipment is recorded in a separate contra asset account called accumulated depreciation , display equipment and the expense is called depreciation expense , display equipment . Remembering that assets increase with debits and debits equal credits , prepare the journal entry to record the using up of $ 4,000 of equipment in the first year . Date Dec . 31 Depreciation Expense , Display Equipment 4,000 Accumulated Depreciation , Display Equipment 4,000 Year 1 depreciation By the end of six years , the effects of using up the display equipment would be as follows . Total Sources of Borrowed + Sources of Owner Invested + Management Generated Year Stockholders ' Equity 1 2 3 4 5 6 Totals Over six years , the company ' s using up $ 24,000 of display equipment reduces the company ' s resources and sources of resources by $ 24,000 . The straight - line depreciation method results in a $ 4,000 reduction of resources and sources of resources each year . At the end of six years , the following information would appear in the company ' s general ledger . Display Equipment Accumulated Depreciation , Depreciation Expense , $ 27,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 4,000 $ 0 The equipment ' s $ 27,000 cost appears in the display equipment account . The $ 24,000 of equipment used up over six years appears in the accumulated depreciation , display equipment account . The amount of equipment used up each year is first recorded in the depreciation expense , display equipment account , which is closed to the income summary account at the end of each year . Practice Exercise On January 2 , the Christopher Corporation purchased equipment by paying $ 9,000 cash to a supplier . To have the equipment delivered , the Christopher Corporation paid $ 200 cash to a local trucking company . The equipment will be used for the next 10 years , after which it will be sold for $ 1,000 . 1 . Determine the total dollar amount the Christopher Corporation will record in its equipment account on January 2 . The equipment account includes all costs of getting the equipment in usable condition . It would include the $ 9,000 price from the supplier and the $ 200 delivery cost . The equipment can not be used unless it is purchased and delivered to the company . The total dollar amount in the equipment account would be $ 9,200 . 2 . Determine the total depreciation expense the company will have over the 10 - year life of the equipment . The total 10 - year depreciation expense would be $ 8,200 , the equipment ' s $ 9,200 cost less its $ 1,000 residual value . 3 . Determine the straight - line depreciation expense for the equipment in year 1 . Annual straight - line depreciation = ( cost – residual value ) / useful life = ( $ 9,200 - $ 1,000 ) / 10 = $ 820 . * * You now have the background to do text exercise 9.6 . Previous section Next section | [
"accounting",
"property",
"plant"
] |
http://faculty.uml.edu/ndeluca/84.334/topics/topic7.htm | Return to Class Schedule The Electronic Spectra of Complexes Energy States of Multi - Electron Atoms Although it is relatively easy to predict the ground state electron configuration of an element , examining other possible configurations and how they might interact further complicates the picture . Using a p 2 configuration ( as in carbon ) as an example , there are three major energy levels possible for the two electrons . In addition , the lowest major level is further split into three slightly different energies due to spin - orbit coupling . Spin - orbit coupling is a magnetic interaction which results when the spin and angular orbital momenta of individual electrons are strongly coupled together . The different energy levels of the electrons are designated using term symbols ( or term states ) . A term symbol consists of an upper case letter ( S , P , D , F , G , H , etc . ) which corresponds to the total orbital angular momentum quantum number , L , for the energy state . The term symbol is preceded by a superscript which is the spin multiplicity of the configuration , and relates directly to the number of unpaired electrons in the energy state . If spin - orbit coupling occurs , than a subscript follows the upper case letter . The subscript is the value of J , the total angular momentum quantum number . The process for determining term states and their relative energies will be illustrated with a p 2 configuration . Making a Microstate Table The most systematic way to determine all the energy states for a particular electron configuration is to create a microstate table . The microstate table lists all of the possible arrangements of electrons for a specified configuration . The table will show all the possible arrangements of electrons . Once the table is completed , quantum numbers can be determined for the atom , rather than the individual electrons . These atomic quantum numbers ( L , S and J ) are used to determine the term symbols for the atom . The quantum numbers that describe states of multi - electron atoms are : L = total orbital angular momentum quantum number S = total spin angular momentum quantum number J = total angular momentum quantum number . the possible values of L = l 1 + l 1 + - 1 , - 2 , . . . / 1 - / ( L must be positive or 0 ) ) the values of S = s + s , s + s - 1 , s - 2 , . . . . / s 1 - s / ( S must be positive or 0 ) Atomic State Individual electrons M = 0 , . + / - 1 , + / - 2 , . . . + / - L m l = 0 , + / - 1 , + / - 2 , . . . + / - l M = 0 , + / - 1 , + / - 2 , . . . + / - S m s = + 1 / 2 , - 1 / 2 For a p configuration , the values of m l for each electron can be 1 , 0 and - 1 . The value of L ( the total orbital angular momentum quantum number ) used to obtain the letter of the term symbol , can therefore range from a value of 2 ( obtained from ) down to a minimum of 0 ( obtained from / / ) . The The easiest way to determine all of the term symbols for the configuration is to use a microstate table . The table will contain all the possible electron configurations of two electrons in a p subshell . Note that configurations which violate the Pauli exclusion principle are not included in the table . The table will include all possible electron configurations ( called microstates ) for all values of M ( which range from 2 to - 2 for a p configurations ) and all values of M ( which range from 1 to - 1 for two electrons ) . Each microstate is represented by a number which is the l value of the orbital and a superscript + or - which indicates the value of m for the electron . Thus , 1 represents a pair of electrons in the p orbital which has a value of equal to + 1 . The electrons have opposite spins ( indicated by the + and - ) , so they are paired . M + 1 0 - 1 + 2 + 1 0 - 1 - 2 The microstate table can be used to determine the possible values of L and S , and the term states for a p configuration . For M = 2 , there is only one microstate in the M = 0 column . This is the maximum value of M in a series that ranges from + 2 down to - 2 . All microstates associated with this series are indicated in red in the above table . The microstates indicated in red give rise to a term symbol or term state in which L = 2 , and S = 0 . The term symbols which are generated by various values of L and S are summarized below : L = 3 4 Term Symbol P D F G The term symbol for the red microstates in the table above will have a D designation , since L = 2 . The spin multiplicity designation is equal to 2S + 1 , where S is the total of the spins for the electrons in an energy state . For the red microstates in the table , S = 0 , and the spin multiplicity is equal to 1 . The term symbol used to designate all of the red microstates in the table is D . This term is referred to as singlet D . Term symbols for the remaining microstates must also be assigned . The microstates with the same term symbol will be grouped in a rectangular array , just as the D microstates were . There is a set of 9 microstates which are related to the same energy state and term symbol . These are in a 3X3 rectangle which has M = 1 , 0 and - 1 , and the value of M = 1 , 0 and - 1 . These microstates are indicated in blue . The term symbol for these microstates will be 3 P , because the maximum value of L = 1 , and the maximum value of S = 1 . This term is referred to as triplet P . There is one microstate that does not yet have a designation . It is the one in the center of the table , O O . This microstate has an L = 0 , and S = 0 , so its term symbol is S , or singlet S . To summarize , the electron configuration p has three major energy levels , designated as P , D , and S . Return to Class Schedule Hund ' s rules can be used to determine which term state has the lowest energy . The ground term has the highest spin multiplicity . In the above example , the ground state term will be P . If two or more terms have the same maximum multiplicity , the ground term is the one having the highest value of L . Term States for Many Electron Atoms The more electrons in an atom or ion , the greater the number of microstates , energy states and term symbols generated . For example , a d electron configuration generates 45 microstates and term states of S , P , D , F and G . In general , you can look up the term states for a given configuration , rather than having to derive them . However , it is quite simple to determine the ground term . The ground term will have the highest spin multiplicity ( maximum number of unpaired electrons ) and the highest value of L ( maximum values of M . So , for a d configuration , there will be two unpaired electrons , for a multiplicity of 3 . You can write out the orbitals and their values of ml to obtain the ground term value of L . For d , the five orbitals have ml values of 2 , 1 , 0 , - 1 and - 2 . Since the multiplicity rule requires that the electrons be unpaired in the ground term , the two electrons will have parallel spins in the orbitals with the two highest values of m . The value of L will be 2 + 1 , or 3 , and the letter designation is F . Thus , the ground state term for a d configuration is F . The simplest configuration for a transition metal is d . The ground level term state for the free ion will be D , because the multiplicity is 2 ( 1 / 2 ) + 1 = 2 , for a single electron , and the maximum value of L = 2 , corresponding to a term symbol of D . Because there can be no electron - electron repulsions or interactions , the level will split in an octahedral field , just like d orbitals split , into a T 2g ( lower ) level and an E g ( upper ) level . The term symbols for these new levels will still be doublets , because they could only contain a single unpaired electron . As the strength of the ligand field increases , the magnitude of the splitting , D o , increases . This information can be summarized in a Correlation diagram , in which the free ion is shown on the left side , and the levels which result from the splitting in an octahedral field appear on the right side . Other energy states of the free ion will also split in an octahedral field . In addition , the designations for the new energy states must have labels consistent with the symmetry of the point group ( O h ) . The designations of the new energy states and their " parent " energy states are shown below . Atomic or Free Ion Term # of States ( degeneracy ) Terms in Octahedral Symmetry A 1g P T 1g 5 T 2g + E g F 7 + T + A G 9 A + E + T The correlation diagrams for multi - electron configurations can be quite complicated , but are extremely useful in explaining the spectra of transition metal complexes . For a d configuration , the free ion has the following ground level energy state : Maximum L = 2 + 1 = 3 , so the letter designation is F , and the multiplicity will be 2 ( 2 / 2 ) + 1 = 3 , for a term state of F . The other term states arising from a d configuration can be found in the text on table 11 - 5 ( page 361 ) . The other terms are P , S , D , and G . A correlation diagram for this configuration is shown below . Note that the free ion terms will split slightly in a weak field , and resolve into term states which correspond to recognizable electron configuration in an infinitely strong octahedral field . The relative energies of the levels has been obtained using calculations and experimental data . A few key features of the diagram should be pointed out . The notes at the far right side of the diagram show the electron configuration of the metal ion in an infinitely strong octahedral field . The ground energy state of the ion in an infinitely strong octahedral field will be t , because this would have two electrons in the lowest set of orbitals with parallel spins . The next highest energy state would have the configuration t e , representing one electron promoted to the higher , e set of orbitals . the highest energy state would correspond to a configuration of e , with two electrons in the upper set of orbitals . In actual coordination complexes , the environment of the metal is intermediate between the free ion case and the infinitely strong ligand field . As can be seen from the correlation diagram , each free - ion irreducible representation is matched with ( correlates with ) a strong - field irreducible representation having the same symmetry . The different energies on the correlation diagrams relate to the absorption spectra of transition metal complexes . Certain electronic transitions are favored over others , and the rules governing these transitions are called selection rules Selection Rules The relative intensities of absorption bands are governed by a series of selection rules . On the basis of symmetry and spin multiplicity of ground and excited electronic states , two of these rules are : Transitions between states of the same parity ( symmetry with respect to a center of inversion , i.e. , gerade or ungerade ) are forbidden . For example , transitions between d orbitals are forbidden ( g - > g transitions ) , but transitions between d and p orbitals are allowed ( g - > u ) . This is know as the Laporte selection rule . Transitions between states of different spin multiplicities are forbidden . For example , transitions between 4 and are " spin - allowed " , but transitions between and are " spin - forbidden . " Tanabe - Sugano Diagrams Tanabe - Sugano diagrams are special correlation diagrams that are especially useful in the interpretation of the electronic spectra of coordination compounds . In these diagrams , the lowest ( ground state ) energy state is plotted along the horizontal axis . As a result , vertical distance above this axis is a measure of the energy above the ground state . For the d configuration , the energy state is the baseline of the horizontal axis . The excited states are shown as well . The quantities plotted in the Tanabe - Sugano diagrams are as follows : o / B : where is the octahedral ligand field splitting B : Racah parameter , a measure of the repulsion between terms of the same multiplicity . For a d configuration , the energy difference between F and P is 15B . E / B : where E is the energy ( of excited states ) above the ground state . Note that in the above diagram ( as in many such diagrams ) the subscripts ( all g in this case ) have been omitted for clarity . Relationship to Spectra of Complex Ions Below is the spectrum of the d complex [ Cr ( NH 6 3 + . The two broad absorptions around 25,000 cm correspond to transitions involving electrons in the d orbitals . The bands in the spectrum have been labeled , both with symmetry labels , and with electron configurations . The two absorptions involving d to transitions will be explained qualitatively , and then related to the Tanabe - Sugano diagram for a d configuration . On a qualitative basis , it might seem like only one energy should be seen for a t to t e transition . The splitting pattern for this complex is : Upon closer examination , it can be seen that transitions from the lower t level to the higher e level are not all the same . In the ground state , electrons occupy the d xy , d xz , and d yz orbitals , and they will absorb energy and get promoted to either the d z or d x - y 2 orbitals . If promotion takes place from the d xy to the d z orbital , the transition shifts electron density from the xy plane to the high electron density z axis . The z axis is rich in electron density because both the d xz and d yz orbitals , which contain an electron each , have electron density along the z direction . This transition will result in an increase in electron repulsion . An alternative transition could promote an electron from the d to the d orbital . This transition involves a small relocation of electron density , as the electron is already in an electron rich environment . As a result , the two transitions discussed will have distinctly different energies . In examining all the other combinations of transitions , there is either a large shift in electron density , or a small shift . That is all transitions will fall into one of these categories , with three involving a large shift ( from the d xz and d to the d x - y 2 ) and three involving a smaller shift ( the d 2 , and the d ) in electron density . The two types of transitions are illustrated below . The type of transition shown in illustration ( a ) is from a low density area to a high density area . The illustration ( b ) transition is between areas of more comparable electron densities . Examination of the spectrum of the complex is consistent with this analysis , with two peaks of equal size in the region associated with to transitions . The Tanabe - Sugano diagram for a d configuration is shown below . The two arrows indicate the spin - allowed transitions which correspond to the analysis above and the two peaks shown in the region of the spectrum near 25,000 cm . The third spin - allowed transition from the ground state to the upper level is obscured by the strong charge transfer band in the spectum above . Note that the subscript for gerade is left off for clarity . Using Tanabe - Sugano Diagrams - Determining from Spectra The ease with which o can be obtained from spectra depends upon the electron configuration of the metal and the clarity of the spectra . Often bands are overlapping , and it is difficult to determine the true absorption peaks . Assuming the spectra are resolved and absorptions are clearly defined , the configuration of the d electrons in the metal will dictate the ease with which the spectra can be interpreted . , d ( high spin ) , d 6 ( high spin ) , d 9 In each of these cases , the absorption spectra will result from the excitation of an electron from a t orbital to an e orbital , with the excited electron configuration having the same spin multiplicity as the initial configuration . In each case , there is a single excited state of the same spin multiplicity as the ground state . As a result , there is a single spin - allowed absorption , with the energy of absorbed light equal to . Examples of these complexes include [ Ti ( H O ) 3 + , [ Cr ( H O ) , [ Fe ( H 2 + , and [ Cr ( H 2 + . The spectra of these complexes show a single absorption band , with occasional splitting due to a Jahn - Teller distortion . 3 and d8 These configurations have a ground state F term . This term splits in an octahedral field into an A , a T and a T term as illustrated in the Tanabe - Sugano diagram above to help explain the spectrum of [ Cr ( NH , a d complex . For a d or d 8 configuration , the term of lowest energy is the A . The difference in energy between this term and the T term ( the next lowest energy state ) is equal to . To obtain the value of , you just need to determine the energy of the lowest energy transition in the absorption spectrum of the complex . Additional examples of these types of complexes are [ Cr ( H and [ Ni ( H . For the complex [ Cr ( NH , the value of the lowest energy absorption is 21,550 cm . The hexaaqua complex has its lowest energy band at 17,500 cm , indicating that ammonia produces a stronger ligand field than water for a given metal ion . and d 7 ( high spin ) The term for the free ion ground state is F , but the determination of the value of is a bit more complicated than the previous cases . The best way to interpret the spectra is to consult the appropriate Tanabe - Sugano diagram . The ground state for a d configuration is , and there are three excited states with the same multiplicity ( terms both arising for the free ion ground state F term and a term arising from the free ion P term ) . Please note that the labels in your text and on the Tanabe - Sugano diagram above contain an error . The triply degenerate state which arises from the P term is , and not . The two terms of like symmetry , , may mix , and the result of mixing is that as the field strength increases , the states appear to repel each other , and the lines in the Tanabe - Sugano diagram curve away from each other . As a result of the mixing of these states , and the subsequent curving of the ground energy state , the determination of the value of is made more difficult . The value of is calculated using the ratios of the absorption frequencies in the visible spectrum of the complex . This method will be illustrated in class . 5 ( high spin ) Complexes All d - d transitions are spin forbidden , and hence very weak . Complexes of Mn are colorless or faint pink ( due to a spin - forbidden transition ) . - d ( low spin ) The spectra of these complexes require a complicated analysis which will not be covered in this course . Tetrahedral Complexes Transitions between the e and t orbitals are no longer Laporte forbidden , as the molecule does n ' t have a center of symmetry . As a result , absorptions may be more intense . The electron configurations of tetrahedral complexes can be compared to those of octahedral complexes , and Tanabe - Sugano diagrams for octahedral complexes may be used to interpret the spectra of tetrahedral complexes . For example , the arrangement of a single electron in an octahedral complex is the same as the arrangement of a missing electron ( hole ) in a d tetrahedral complex . Charge Transfer Spectra Charge transfer spectra usually contain a very intense absorption in the ultraviolet or visible spectrum . These transitions are both Laporte and spin allowed , and hence have extremely high intensity . The transition can involve the transfer of an electron from molecular orbitals which are primarily on the ligands to a molecular orbital which is primarily on the metal . This is known as a ligand to metal transfer ( LMCT ) . These occur when the ligand has lone pairs of relatively high energy and / or the metal has low lying empty orbitals . Typical examples include , Hg , Fe , or Mn 7 + and Cr 6 + Electron transfer from the metal to the ligands is also possible . In these cases ( CTTL ) , the ligands typically have empty antibonding orbitals , such as CO , cyanide , SCN and bipyridine . Copyright © 1998 Beverly J . Volicer and Steven F . Tello , UMass Lowell . You may freely edit these pages for use in a non - profit , educational setting . Please include this copyright notice on all pages . | [
"The Electronic Spectra",
"metal complexes"
] |
http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/history/precolumbian/tainover.htm | PRE - COLUMBIAN HISPANIOLA - - ARAWAK / TAINO NATIVE AMERICANS Below is an overview of the Arawak / Taino Native Americans , the original natives of the land today called Haiti ( and Dominican Republic ) . This is not so much an original treatment , but I pulled a lot of material together from about a dozen sources , so it ' s more like an extended report . The topics I treat are : Lifestyle of the Arawak / Taino Housing and Dress Food and Agriculture Transportation Defense Religion and Myth The genocidal end of the Arawak / Taino Specific Indian leaders at the time of Columbus ( The five caciques of the time ) I cordially invite comments . If you find that you do not agree with this report in some point , or you wish to add something that I chose not to include , or you wish to ask me and others for further information , please do n ' t hesitate to write and ask . Bob Corbett bcorbett @ netcom . com THE ARAWAK / TAINO NATIVES OF THE ISLAND OF HISPANIOLA ( HAITI ) On December 6th , 1492 Christopher Columbus landed at Mole St . Nicholas in Haiti ' s north . Thus began a totally new phase of life on the island of Hispaniola . Most people are aware that Christopher Columbus landed at San Salvador on October 12th , 1492 , thus " discovering " the New World for Spain . Less known is that his second land fall was at Mole St . Nicholas , Haiti on December 1492 , or that the first settlement in the New World was La Navidad , on Haiti ' s north coast . Columbus did not discover a lost or unknown land . There was a flourishing civilization of native Americas . The primary group was the Arawak / Taino Indians . Arawak is the general group to which they belong , and describes especially the common language that this group of native Americans shared . They ranged from Venezuela through the Caribbean and Central America all the way to Florida . However , the particular group of Arawak - speaking people who lived on the island of Hispaniola was the Taino Indians . To keep both names before us , I ' LIFESTYLE OF THE ARAWAK / TAINO The Arawak / Taino society was basically a very gentle culture . It was characterized by happiness , friendliness and a highly organized hierarchical , paternal society , and a lack of guile . Each society was a small kingdom and the leader was called a cacique . At the time of Columbus there were five different kingdoms on the island of Hispaniola . The Indians practiced polygamy . Most men had 2 or 3 wives , but the caciques had as many as 30 . It was a great honor for a woman to be married to a cacique HOUSING AND DRESS The Arawak / Taino used two primary architectural styles for their homes . The general population lived in circular buildings with poles providing the primary support and these were covered with woven straw and palm leaves . They were somewhat like North American teepees except rather than being covered with skins they needed to reflect the warmth of the climate and simply used straw and palm leaves . The caciques were singled out for unique housing . Their houses were rectangular and even featured a small porch . Despite the difference in shape , and the considerably larger buildings , the same materials were used . When the Africans came beginning in 1507 they introduced mud and wattle as primary building materials . However , there is no record of the Arawak / Tainos having used these materials . The house of the cacique contained only his own family . However , given the number of wives he might have , this constituted a huge family . The round houses of the common people were also large . Each one had about 10 - 15 men and their whole families . Thus any Arawak / Taino home might house a hundred people . The houses did not contain much furniture . People slept in cotton hammocks or simply on mats of banana leaves . They also made wooden chairs with woven seats , couches and built cradles for their children . In addition to houses the typical Arawak / Taino village contained a flat court in the center of the village which was used for ball games and various festivals , both religious and secular . Houses were around this court . This was a hierarchical society , and while there was only one cacique who was paid a tribute ( tax ) to oversee the village , there were other levels of sub - caciques , who were not paid , but did hold positions of honor . They were liable for various services to the village and cacique . Stone making was especially developed among the Arawak / Tainos , but they seem not to have used it at all in building houses . It was primarily used for tools and especially religious artifacts . The men were generally naked , but the women sometimes wore short skirts . Men and women alike adorned their bodies with paint and shells and other decorations . FOOD AND AGRICULTURE The Arawak / Taino diet , like ours , centered around meat or fish as the primary source of protein . There never were many wild animals to hunt on Hispaniola , but there were some small mammals that were hunted and enjoyed . They also ate snakes , various rodents , bats , worms , birds , in general any living things they could find with the exception of humans . They were able to hunt ducks and turtles in the lakes and sea . The coastal natives relied heavily on fishing , and tended to eat their fish The Arawak / Taino had a developed system of agriculture which was virtually maintenance free . They raised their crops in a conuco , a large mound which was devised especially for farming . They packed the conuco with leaves to protect from soil erosion and fixed a large variety of crops to assure that something would grow , no matter what weather conditions prevailed . ( As an aside I would like to comment that many people in the pre - Columbian Americas had virtually work free agriculture . This system meant that people living in these materially simple social systems had enormous amounts of free time and often developed elaborate religious rites which took a lot of their time , but also had highly developed systems of games and recreation . There are some nice advantages to very simple living and diet ! ) One of the Arawak / Taino ' s primary crops was cassava . This is a root crop from which a poisonous juice must be squeezed . Then it is baked into a bread like slab . The current method of doing this in Haiti produces a flat bread , sort of like a stale burrito or pizza shell . The Arawak / Taino grew corn ( maize ) , squash , beans , peppers , sweet potatoes , yams and peanuts . They not only had cotton , but they raised tobacco and enjoyed smoking very much . It was not only a part of their social life , but was used in religious ceremonies too . TRANSPORTATION The Arawak / Taino had no large animals like horses , oxen or mules to ride or use for work . But they did have river and sea transportation . They used dugout canoes which were cut from a single tree trunk and used with paddles . They could take 70 - 80 people in a single canoe and even used them for long travels on the sea . These dugouts allowed fishing the few lakes of Hispaniola as well as fishing out a bit off the coast . DEFENSE The Arawak / Taino themselves were quite peaceful people , but they did have to defend themselves from the Caribs who were cannibals . The Caribs of this area were centered at what is today Puerto Rico , but some did live in northeast Hispaniola , an area that today is the Dominican Republic . The Caribs were war - like cannibals . They often raided the more peaceful Arawak / Tainos , killing off the men , stealing and holding the women for breeding , and fattening the children to eat . Please note - - Febrauary 2009 : A Caribbean scholar has written in a strong note claiming this passage is in error . Her claims sound quite plausible to me , however , it was years ago I wrote this passage and I have no idea of my source , nor the energy to seach the passage out at this time . Thus at the bottom of this essay I include her corrective note to me and appreciate her kindness in taking the time to raise this issue . See below at end . Thus the Arawak / Taino had some weapons which they used in defense . They used the bow and arrow , and had developed some poisons for their arrow tips . They had cotton ropes for defensive purposes and some spears with fish hooks on the end . Since there were hardwoods on the island , they did have a war club made of macana . This was about 1 " thick and reminds one very much of the cocomaque stick used in later Haitian days . They did not develop any armor or specifically defensive weapons ( shields , RELIGION AND MYTH The Arawak / Taino were polytheists and their gods were called ZEMI . The zemi controlled various functions of the universe , very much like Greek gods did , or like later Haitian Voodoo lwa . However , they do not seem to have had particular personalities like the Greek and Haitian gods / spirits do . There were three primary religious practices : Religious worship and obeisance to the zemi themselves . Dancing in the village court during special festivals of thanksgiving or petition . Medicine men , or priests , consulting the zemi for advice and healing . This was done in public ceremonies with song and dance . There are many stone carvings of zemi which have survived . Hugh Cave in his HAITI : HIGH ROAD TO ADVENTURE reports that some of the stalagmites of the caves of Dondon were carved into zemi . Some of my students on a study trip visited the caves of Dondon but were unable to find and photograph these carvings . One often sees stone zemi for sale in Haiti , but I have no way of knowing if they are genuine Arawak / Taino archaeological finds , or if they have been remade for tourists ! ( As a footnote to this section I might add that Rev . Dr . William Hodges in Limbe , Haiti , is perhaps the most important of those who have done archaeological work in Haiti , and he bills himself as a amateur who does it " on the side for pleasure . " However , his small museum in Limbe is simply fantastic , and worth the trip , which is only about 45 minutes from Cap Haitien by taptap . He also has a wealth of materials which he has printed over the years . Dr . One account of the religious agricultural feasts which were offered both in thanksgiving and petition , describes the following features : People had special dress for the ceremonies that included paint and feathers . From their knees on down they would be covered in shells . The shaman ( medicine man or priests ) presented the carved figures of the zemi . The cacique sat on wooden stool , a place of honor . ( There are many surviving stone carvings of the cacique on his stool . ) There was a ceremonial beating of drums . People induced vomiting with a swallowing stick . This was to purge the body of impurities , both a literal physical purging and a symbolic spiritual purging . This ceremonial purging and other rites were a symbolic changing before zemi . Women served bread ( a communion rite ) , first to zemi , then to the cacique followed by the other people . The sacred bread was a powerful protector . ( The interesting similarities between this ritual and the Christian practice of eucharist is obvious ! ) Finally came an oral history lesson - - the singing of the village epic in honor of the cacique and his ancestors . As the poet recited he was accompanied by a maraca , a piece of hardwood which was beaten with pebbles . There was an afterlife where the good would be rewarded . They would meet up with dead relatives and friends . Since most of the people they would meet in this paradise were women , it is curious to speculate if it was mainly women who were considered good , or if some other reason accounted for this division of the sexes in the afterlife . There are many stone religious artifacts which have been found in Haiti . The zemi take on strange forms like toads , turtles , snakes , alligators and various distorted and hideous human faces . The zemi , as well as dead caciques , have certain powers over the natural world and must be dealt with . Thus these various services are ways of acknowledging their power ( worship and thanksgiving ) and at the same time seeking their aid . Because of these powers there are many Arawak / Taino stories which account for the origins of some experienced phenomena in myth and or magic . Several myths had to do with caves . The sun and moon , for example , came out of caves . Another story tells that the people lived Another Indian became angry at the sun for its various tricks and decided to leave . He convinced all the women to abandon their men and come with him along with their children . But , the children were deserted , and in their hunger they turned into frogs . The women simply disappeared . This left the men without women . But , they did find some sexless creatures roaming around and eventually captured them . ( Actually they used people with a disease like mange since they had rough hands and could hold on to these elusive creatures A different myth simply tells that once there were no women . Man brought woman from an island where there were only women . The origin of the oceans was in a huge flood which occurred when a father murdered his son ( who was about to murder the father ) , and then put his bones in a calabash . The bones turned to fish and then the gourd broke and all the water of the world flowed from the broken gourd . THE GENOCIDAL END OF THE ARAWAK / TAINO NATIVES ON THE ISLAND OF HISPANIOLA This section of the genocidal end of the Hispaniolan Taino / Arawaks was revised in August 1999 ( including the title of the section ) . There is a great debate as to just how many Arawak / Taino inhabited Hispaniola when Columbus landed in 1492 . Some of the early Spanish historian / observers claimed there were as many as 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 . These numbers seem to be based on very little reliable evidence and are thought to be gross exaggerations . However , since nothing like a census was done , the methods for estimating the numbers are extremely shaky , whether by these early historians or later critics . One long technical article on the population comes in the with the low estimate of 100,000 . Several other modern scholars seem to lean more forcefully in the area of 300,000 to 400,000 . Whatever the number , what happened to them is extremely tragic . They were not immune to European diseases , especially smallpox , and the Spanish worked them unmercifully in the mines and fields . By 1507 the Spanish were settled and able to do a more reliable job of counting the Arawak / Tainos . It is generally agreed that by 1507 their numbers had The next three paragraphs were added in August 1999 . It is important to pause and think about what is claimed here . The claim is not that the entire population of CARIBBEAN ( and possibly even Floridian ) Taino / Arawaks were wiped out , but that population which was on the island of Hispaniola when Columbus arrived . Further , this is not to say that no drop of Taino / Arawak blood survived , or than not a single word of the language drifted in later Haitian Creole , perhaps even a zemi god influenced Voodoo here or there . Rather , the claim is that the Taino / Arawak as a discernible people with a discernible culture simply disappeared ON THE ISLAND OF HISPANIOLA . It is clear that the Taino / Arawak survived in others areas of the Caribbean , even in near - by Puerto Rico . The claim I am making is limited to those Taino / Arawaks who inhabited the island of Hispaniola when Columbus arrived in 1492 . Disease was a major cause of their demise . However , on Columbus ' 2nd voyage he began to require a tribute from the Arawak / Tainos . They were expected to yield a certain quantity of gold per capita . Failing that each adult of 14 was required to submit 25lbs . of cotton . For those who could not produce the cotton either , there was a service requirement for them to work for the Spanish . This set the stage for a system of assigning the Arawak / Taino to Spanish settlers as effective slave labor . In Sidney Lintz ' s interesting introduction to James Leyburn ' s THE HAITIANS , he argues that not only did the natives die out , but nearly all cultural traces did too . He says this is a very unusual phenomenon . Haiti ' s culture is almost entirely African and European . There are some anthropologists who believe that some Voodoo rites , and especially the Petwo Voodoo rites , might have their origins in Arawak / Taino religion , but this is speculative . Regardless , it does seem that the Arawak / Tainos disappeared without a trace . Michel Laguerre does caution that despite the early date of the demise of the Arawak / Taino , numbers of them did last long enough to have worked alongside the African slaves who were being brought to Haiti in increasing numbers . Laguerre suggests that there would probably have been some inter - mating and thus it is highly unlikely that Indian blood completely died out in Haiti , even though their cultural heritage did disappear without a trace . [ Special note : Given my focus on the history of Haiti as shaping the current situation in Haiti and using history to understand Haiti today , what is contained in the few paragraphs before this note is very important . It says , in effect , that the pre - Columbian period has virtually no role at all in shaping contemporary Haiti . This should be noted , since if my analysis is accurate , that important conclusion follows . ] SPECIFIC NATIVE LEADERS AT THE TIME OF COLUMBUS There were five major caciques when Columbus landed and they had various relations with Columbus . These caciques , their provinces and relations with the Spanish were : Cacique Guacanagaric The province of Marien ( Bainoa ) This province was on the north east coast + interior , in the area of the bay of Samana in the Dominican Republic . He wanted Columbus to protect him from the marauding Caribs who often came into this area , and he became a friendly advisor to Columbus and a lifelong friend of the Spanish invaders . His own village was about 2 miles SE of Cap Haitien . Cacique Caonabo The province of Ciguayos ( Cayabo or Maguana ) After the Spanish " settlers " at La Navidad perpetrated many horrors on local natives , Caonabo led a band which crossed into the province of Maden and killed all the sailors . Caonabo then became the rallying point for resistance to the Spanish . Under a pretext of making peace , Columbus lured Caonabo into a trap . The Spaniard Ojeda gave Caonabo a gift of polished iron chains and handcuffs . Mistaking them for ornaments , Caonabo allowed himself to be chained and taken away . Columbus then sent him off to Spain . Caonabo ' s brother , Manicatoex , then led an uprising . The Spanish , with their superior firepower crushed the natives and the defeated Arawak / Taino were forced to agree to pay tribute to the Spanish . There seems to be some unclarity among scholars about these natives . Some claim that these Indians were not from the Arawak / Taino group , but some other tribe . lt does seem that an earlier group , the Ciboney , did live in this area . But , it ' s not clear if at the time of Caonabo these were Arawak / Taino or not . Cacique Guarionex The province of Magua ( Huhabo ) This was a densely populated area . This was good inland agricultural land . In 1494 Guarionex was made to submit , then was imprisoned . The Spanish raped his wife in front of him , then executed him . They suspected him of being involved in the attack which Caonabo led on La Navidad . ( A brief digression on La Navidad . Columbus landed at Mole St . Nicholas on Dec . 6 , 1492 , his second land fall in the " New World . " On Dec . 24 , 1492 he was sailing away and on Christmas Eve the Santa Maria ran aground and sank off the north coast of Haiti , just near Cap Haitien . The Pinta was lost and the Nina could not accommodate all the sailors . Thus Columbus , with the help of Arawak / Taino , salvaged a good deal of the Santa Maria and On his return on the second voyage all the sailors were discovered to have been killed . It seems that they began to violate native women and property and the natives rose up against them . ) Cacique Behechio The province of Xaragua This was in the southwest peninsula . They grew lots of cotton here and also in the cul de sac , north of where Port - au - Prince lies today . Behechio ' s sister was Anacaona , widow of Caonabo . After the Spanish killed Caonabo and Behechio , she succeeded her husband in Xaragua and was much loved by her people . However , the Spanish were threatened by this popularity and the power that went with it . Ovando , a successor to Columbus , went to her village under the pretext of collecting the Spanish tribute . Despite Anacaona ' s instructions to the people to be fully cooperative and hospitable , and despite her own friendly welcome , the Spanish began a slaughter , burned the Cacique Cotubanama or Cayacoa The province of Higuey ( Caizcimu ) There were rumors of there being gold in Higuey . De Las Casas reported that " infinite was the number of people l saw burned alive " in order that the people tell where the nonexistent gold was . ( I ' ll do a separate piece on De Las Casas , a most interesting fellow . ) After the death of Anacaona , Cotubanama too was considered dangerous . The Spanish attacked his province , captured him and hung him in Santo Domingo . [ Another interruption : A word about " originality . " I am not an historian by profession or training . I gather virtually no data from original archival sources . Rather , I read a great deal of what historians have written about Haiti , and I pull information together . However , I do then build interpretations of that data that is sometimes not the same " use " of the data that the original historian made of it . Thus , while I want to caution you that I am not " original " in the sense of data gathering , I do accept the responsibility for many of my interpretations The word " genocide " is an interesting term . Etymologically it means the killing of an entire " gens , " a whole people . The word is used a good deal in politically charged language these days with people often charging that some group or other is attempting genocide . Certainly Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich of Germany attempted it on the Jews of Europe , and failed . As far as I know , the only case in history of where complete and total genocide was carried out was here on the island of Hispaniola . GENS , the whole people of the native Americans of the Arawak / Taino people were wiped out . It is a horrible and astonishing story . [ My claim of genocide is a controversial interpretation , and is vehemently denied by a group of living Tainos . Now , one may ask , if there was genocide on the Hispaniola Arawak / Tainos , then how can their be " living Tainos ? " That ' s the rub , and that ' s why I stand behind my claim . ] The Tainos were throughout the Caribbean , Bahamas and some areas of the mainland , especially near northern coastal South America . But , from what I have read , the Arawak / Tainos of the island of Hispaniola did not survive at all . However , if this topic interests you , then I urge you to get in touch with the active Taino group which has a WWW site and can offer you a contrary view . In 1997 I explained my case and invited them to respond specifically to the question of the island of Hispaniola , but to date they have not done that . Their home page can be found at : From : Cacique Ciba Guanikeyu great grandson of Cacique Orocobix Taino Inter - Tribal Council The Taino Inter - Tribal Council Inc NJ Jatibonuco Tribe Taino Nation Forum THE NJ COUNCIL OFFICE Tel : 609 - 825 - 7776 FAX & TAINO BBS : 609 - 825 - 7922 We Are Still Here ! Taino Indigenous Nation of the Caribbean & Florida The head of this organization is Peter Torres Torresp @ algorithms . com Note added February 2009 Dear Sir , I am an indigenous Caribbean scholar ( Lokono Arawak ) who is doing my doctoral work on the history and culture of the indigenous people of the Caribbean at York University in Toronto . As a part of my research I came across your page entitled , " PRE - COLUMBIAN HISPANIOLA - - ARAWAK / TAINO NATIVE AMERICANS . " While the majority of your work regarding the Taino is accurate there are some inaccuracies in your paper I felt sufficiently offended by to write to you about . Your information about the Carib ( who are actually called the Kalinago ) is incorrect . The information I am referring to is : . . . " they did have to defend themselves from the Caribs who were cannibals . The Caribs of this area were centered at what is today Puerto Rico , but some did live in northeast Hispaniola , an area that today is the Dominican Republic . The Caribs were war - like cannibals . They often raided the more peaceful Arawak / Tainos , killing off the men , stealing and holding the women for breeding , and fattening the children to eat . " There is no archaeological , anthropological or traditional cultural evidence to support this view that the Kalinago were Cannibals which makes your writings about them inadvertently a part of the perpetuation of an outdated and unsupported scholarly view . Sincerely : Leilani Stewart BA MA Phd ( ABD ) Department of Humanities York University Toronto , Canada PRE - COLUMBIAN MAIN HAITI PAGE Art , Music , & Dance Book Reviews Film History Library Literature Mailing List Miscellaneous Topics Notes on Books People to People Voodoo HOME Bob Corbett corbetre @ webster . edu | [
"Native Americans",
"protein",
"cannibals"
] |
http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/voodoo/biglist.htm | Descriptions of Various Loa of Voodoo Ayida : The female counterpart Ayida : The female counterpart Adjasou : Characterized by protruding eyes and a bad humor , lives under the mombin tree near a spring and is very fond of vermouth , rum , and cognac . Agassu : Dahomean in origin and belonging to the Fon and Yaruba tribes . When a person is possessed by Agassu , his hands become crooked and stiffened , therefore resembling claws . In Dahomey , he is the result of a union between a panther and a woman . He is associated with water deities and sometimes takes the form of a crab . He is one of the mythical creatures who once gave assistance to the Ancestor . He is considered one of the loa masons . Agau : Agau is a very violent god . Earth tremors and the frightening sounds associated with storms are because of Agau . The trances induced by his mounting are so violent there have been deaths associated with his brutality . When one is mounted one attempts to imitate the sounds of thunder and tremors , if they are strong enough to utter sounds under the possession . The possessed person keeps repeating , " It is I who am the gunner of god ; when I roar the earth trembles . " It is said that when the earth tremors , Agau is angry . Those who are strong enough to keep him in their bodies are puffing with all their strength and sputtering like seals . One has to be very strong to harbor this spirit . When Sogbo and Bade ( the loa of lighting and wind ) act together and call upon Agau , a thunder storm is produced . Agau is the inseparable companion of Sogbo . Bade and Agau share the same functions , loa of the winds . Agwe : ( Agive ) He is invoked under the names " Shell of the Sea , " " Eel , " and " Tadpole of the Pond . " Sovereign of the sea . One of the many lovers of Erzulie . Under his jurisdiction come not only all the flora and fauna of the sea , but all ships which sail on the sea . His symbols are tiny boats , brightly painted oars and shells , and sometimes small metal fishes . He likes military uniforms and gunfire . He is the protector of seafaring men . The service for Agwe is A conch shell is used to call him during a voodoo ritual . He must be greeted with wet sponges and towels when leaving the water because of the heat . A barque is prepared with all sort of Agwe ' s favorite foods , including champagne . This barque is then floated over where it is believed the sacred underwater world exists . If the barque sinks , then Agwe has accepted the sacrifice and will protect the water interests of those who have prepared the sacrifice . Were the barque to float back into shore , then the service has been refused and a different manner of placating Agwe would have to be devised . The animals that are sacrificed to him are two white sheep . Depicted as a mulatto with fair skin and green eyes . Services take place near seas , rivers , or lakes . Must be careful that those possessed do not jump into the water . Any reference to signaling can only come as a pleasure to this god . Agwe ' s counterpart is La Sirine , the sirin of the seas . In connection with Christianity , Agwe has borrowed traits from St . Ulrich , who is often pictured with a fish in his hand . Ayezan : ( Aizan , Ayizan ) This is the Legba ' s wife . She protects the markets , public places , doors , and barriers , and has a deep knowledge of the intricacies of the spirit world . Selects and instructs certain novice houngans . When feeding her or her husband , a black or white goat or russet colored ox is offered up . Her favorite tree is the palm tree . Ayezan is symbolized by mounds of earth sprinkled with oil and surrounded by fringes of palm . Ayezan is Dahomean in origin and represented by an old woman in personification . She is the mate of Loco ( Loko ) . As a Mambo , Ayezan is reputed to have many children ( devotees ) ; she cares for her children greatly ; she has a good , loving heart . She punishes those who have made mistakes not because she is a sadistic woman but to correct their behavior in the future . She will punish those adults taking advantage of the young , the rich of the poor , the strong of the weak and the husband of the wife . She is believed to have the ability to Ayida : The female counterpart of Dumballah , his mate , is Ayida . She is the mother figure . She is the rainbow . Together they are the unitary forces of human sexuality . Her symbol is also a serpent . She is quite submissive and very delicate . Her co - wife is Erzullie . It is said that whoever " can grasp the diadem of Ayida will be assured wealth " ( Metraux , p . 105 ) . Also known as Ayida Wedo : her job is that of holding up the earth . Azacca or Zaka : This is the loa of agriculture , but is generally seen as the brother of Ghede . For this reason Ghede will often come to the ceremonies for Zaka and come when Zaka has mounted someone . Zaka is a gentle simple peasant , but greatly respected by the peasants since he is a very hard worker . He is addressed as " cousin " . He is found wherever there is country . He is usually barefoot , carries a macoute sack , wears a straw hat , and has a pipe in his mouth . By nature There are interesting similarities between the sophisticated Ghede and the more bumbling Azacca , as though a younger less sophisticated brother were imitating a more secure older brother . Like Ghede , Zaka loves his food . But , unlike Ghede , he is rude and voracious in his eating habits , often running away to hide with him food and eat it quickly . His favorite dishes to eat are the ones peasants feed on - - boiled maize , bread soaked in oil and slices of small intestine with fatty membrane fried , unrefined sugar . His favorite It is rumored that Zaka often appears in concrete forms . In this concrete form , he assumes a limp and dresses in a ragged peasant outfit . Then he begs for rum or cassava melons . Those that refuse to give him anything are punished . Zaka is a polygamist and considers all his children as investments . He stands for the incest taboo , though , and will not break it no matter how rich he could become . Bade : The loa of wind . He is the inseparable companion of Sogbo , god of lightning . He also shares his functions with Agau , another storm spirit . Bakulu : ( Bakulu - baka ) He drags chains behind him and is such a terrible spirit that no one dares to invoke him . His habitat is in the woods where offerings are taken to him . He himself possesses no one . Since no one wants to call on him , people simply take any offerings that go to him and leave them in the woods . Bosou Koblamin : Violent petro loa . Bosou is a violent loa capable of defeating his enemies . He is very popular during times of war . He protects his followers when they travel at night . Bosou ' s appearance is that of a man with three horns ; each horn has a meaning - - strength , wildness , and violence . Sometimes Bosou comes to the help of his followers but he is not a very reliable loa . When a service is held , Bosou appears by breaking chains that he is restrained . Immediately upon appearing he Brise : Brise is a loa of the hills . He is boss of the woods . Brise is very fierce in appearance . He is very black and has very large proportions . Brise is actually a gentle soul and likes children . Brise lives in the chardette tree and sometimes assumes the form of an owl . Brise is a protectorate . He is strong and demanding and accepts speckled hens as sacrifices . Congo : A handsome but apathetic loa . Content with any clothing and eats mixed foods with much pimiento , and is fond of mixed drinks . Congo Savanne : A fierce petro loa . He is malevolent , fierce , and strong . Savanne eats people . He grinds them up as we would grind up corn . His color is white . He is a loa not to be messed with . Dinclusin & Chalotte : These two loa are among the French " mysteries . " People mounted by these gods talk perfect French and seem to be unable to speak Creole normally or properly . Chalotte often demands upon the most defined forms of ritualistic protocol . Dinclusin can be recognized by his habit of pocketing everything given to him . Dumballah ( Dumballah Wedo , Damballah ) : Known as the serpent god , he is one of the most popular . Dumballah is the father figure . He is benevolent , innocent , a loving father . He does n ' t communicate well , as though his wisdom were too aloof for us . Dumballah is the snake . He plunges into a basin of water which is built for him , or climbs up into a tree . Being both snake and aquatic deity , he haunts rivers , springs , and marshes . Again , as the snake he is rather uncommunicative , but a loving quiet presence . Dumballah does not communicate exact messages , but seems to radiate a comforting presence which sort of sends a general spirit of optimism into all people present . Because of this , he is often sought after during ceremonies . When Dumballah mounts Dumballah is the serpent god , also lightning . He and his wife , Aida - Wedo , are often shown as two snakes who look as if they were diving into the sink and by a rainbow . He is the bringer of rain ; this is a necessity for good crops . People possessed by him dart their tongues in and out , slither along the ground , and climb trees , or roof beams , falling like a boa . He is known to whistle because he has no speech . His special day is Thursday , He is sometimes referred to as Da . Dumballah is often spoken of as a serpent . In the voodoo culture , the serpent is a symbol of fertility . He is one of the oldest of the ancestors and is so sacred that he does n ' t speak , but expresses himself through hissing sounds , just like that of a serpent . In the voodoo religion Dumballah is closely associated with the Catholic ' s St . Patrick . He is Dahomean in origin . His favorite foods are eggs , cornmeal , melons , rice , bananas , and grapes . The usual offering to him is a hen and a cock . It is believed that if respects are paid to him by a married couple , he will keep them happy . Erzulie : ( Ezili ) Voodoo does not have a woman as goddess of fertility . Fertility is regarded as a unified principle , equally held by male and female forces . Thus Dumballah is united to his Ayida . Agwe has his counterpart in La Sirene , the Marasa ; the twins are contradictory and complementary forces of nature and so on . Erzulie is the female energy of Legba . She has tremendous power and is feared as much as she is loved . Also , she has several different roles : goddess of the word , love , help , goodwill , health , beauty and fortune , as well as goddess of jealousy , vengeance , and discord . She is usually known as a serpent that coiled upon itself lives on water and bananas . There is a casual connection between the lightness of her color and that of wealth , because only the light skinned elite possess wealth in Haiti . But Voodoo has a most special place for Erzulie , the loa of beauty , the loa who is so uniquely human since she is the differentiating force between human and all other creation . She is the ability to conceptualize , the ability to dream , the artistic ability to create . She is the loa of ideality . She is the female prototype of voodoo who represents the moon . She is the most beautiful and sensuous lady in the voodoo pantheon . She is respected and wealthy ; wears her hair long ; is very jealous and requires her lovers to dedicate a room for her ritual lovemaking . Erzulie is not a loa of elemental forces , but THE loa of ideal dreams , hopes and aspirations . As such she is the most loved loa of all . She is pale in appearance ; almost white , even though she is Dahomean in origin . She is known as the earth mother , the goddess of love . She is depicted as a trembling woman who inhabits the water . She has no specific function , but is approachable in a confidential manner . In every sanctuary there is a room , or corner of a room Erzulie is fabulously rich , and , when she mounts someone the first act is always to accomplish her elaborate toilette . The very best of things which the houngan or mambo have are reserved for Erzulie . She will bathe , using soap still in a fresh wrapper if possible . She will dress in silks with fresh flowers and other signs of her femininity and specialness . Her sacred days are Tuesday and Thursday . She wears red and blue dresses and jewels . As soon as someone is possessed by her , they are washed and dressed in finery . She is a high class mulatto who walks with a saucy sway to her hips . She is a " woman of the world " and is fond of sugary drinks . She is compared to Aphrodite . She is pleasure - loving , extravagant and likes to give and get presents . She fond of men but mistrusts women as rivals . She is a She is a master of coquetry . She may simply visit with her servants , or she may eat or drink with great delicacy . She loves to dance and is the most graceful of all the loa . She is quite special to men and will dance with them , kiss and caress them , even in an often embarrassing manner . Yet she is closely associated with the Blessed Virgin Mary and her symbol is the heart , usually one broken with an arrow in much the same way as a dominant Catholic portrait of Mary has it . Erzulie wears three wedding bands since she has been ( or is ) wedded to Dumballah , Ogoun and Agwe . She has often flirted with Zaka , but she has completely dismissed his more coarse brother Ghede as unworthy ( since he is black and she is mulatto ) . However , Erzulie is always in charge and may take any servitor present as her lover for the day if she chooses . However , the visit of Erzulie is never fully satisfying . In the end she always begins to weep . The world is just too much for her . At first people try to comfort her with more delicate food or drink or other gifts , but her tears continue to flow . It is this tearful and sad side of her that allows the women to accept her in her haughty ways . She is , in the end , one who suffers the burden of the world ' s sorrows . Despite her flirtations and loving ways , Erzulie is a virgin . She is the complete converse of the crude sexuality of Papa Ghede . She may not be a virgin in the physical sense , but in the sense that her love transcends the earth , it is a love of higher forces . She belongs to the family of sea spirits , but has become completely divorced from her origins as to be now almost exclusively a personification of feminine grace and beauty . Erzulie Jan Petro : Violent spirit loa belonging to the Petro tradition . Jan Petro is called upon to take responsibility for the temple where spells are on display ; although she is a neutral entity , when not called upon it is the duty of the devotees to make them behave peacefully or violently , depending on their motivation for dealing with the spirits . Jan Petro as a protector of temples is very powerful ; when people come to the temple they soon find out . Jan Petro likes fresh air and water ; she is a sea spirit . She Ghede : ( Papa Ghede ) Ghede is the eternal figure in black , controlling the eternal crossroads at which everyone must someday cross over . His symbol is the cross upon a tomb . Known as the spirit of death , other spirits fear him and try to avoid him . He operates under the direction of Baron Samedi . Baron Samedi represents the death side of Ghede ( Guede ) . He talks through his nose , is cynical , jovial , and tells broad jokes . His language is full of the unexpected . His tools are the pick , the hoe , and the spade . He is the power behind the magic that kills . He controls the souls of those who have met death as a result of magic . When he appears ( mounting someone at an invoking ceremony ) , he wears a pair of dark glasses , from which he knocks out the right lens : for with his right eye he watches those present , lest anyone steal his food . Of especial interest is the testimony of Ghede ; for when this god mounts his carriers , they are bereft of any sense of self , behave and speak compulsively , and recover knowing nothing of what they did or said . Loa of death , sexuality , and keeper of the cemeteries . He is enamored of women , makes constant use of obscene words and songs , and performs obscene dances . When someone is mounted by Guede they put on a black undertaker ' s coat , a black top hat and stuff cotton in their ears and noses , this to symbolize a dead person . After they are dressed up they must then perform the banda dance , an erotic dance in which one imitates the movements of copulation . The Guedes live in cemeteries and visit Catholic churches at night . On November 2 the faithful visit cemeteries and light candles in honor of Baron Samedi . Papa Guede is a much loved loa because his appearance always brings laughter and joy , singing and dancing ; he is usually the last to appear at a ceremony . He is the loa of death and resurrection ; is known as a total clown ; loves cigarettes ; is often seen smoking two at a time . He is neither good nor evil , but he is amused by humans and that ' s why he jokes around so much . Ghede is sort of to the underworld or afterlife what Legba is to life - - he who controls access . Ghede controls access to everything in the afterlife . We are reminded by him that our understanding of death and life is limited and that both are beyond our comprehension . Ghede is also god of eroticism . Eroticism is beyond good and evil since it is inevitable . Ghede is neither delighted by eroticism , and certainly not shamed by it . If anything , Ghede is amused by the universal presence of eroticism and humans ' constant need to pretend that it is other than what it is . It is believed that his obscenity in sexual matters is an affirmation of life in the midst of death . Saturday is his day and his color is black . His favorite foods are salt herring , hot peppers , roasted corn , and roasted bananas , and he is known for stealing food and hiding it , and then demanding more . Black goats and chickens are the animal sacrifices made to him during the rituals . When Ghede mounts someone he often singles out people who pretend to be aloof from eroticism . He ridicules them , embarrasses them , exposes them ( in more ways than one ) . He is especially hard on whites since they often have the puritanical sexual attitudes of western culture . Ghede is also often called BARON SAMEDI . In this aspect he is DEATH . He is the keeper of the cemetery and the primary contact with the dead . Anyone who would seek contact with the dead must first contact and solicit Ghede / Baron Samedi in the same way that Legba is contacted to cross over to the spirit world . Ghede has a ravenous appetite for food and drink and does n ' t mind manifesting them when he mounts someone . He has a dread of fire and shares the characteristic of a nasal voice with zombis . Ghede is a clown , an interrupter , a coarse fellow . He wears formal black attire and a high silk hat with dark glasses and a cane . He smokes cigarettes and drinks rum . Likes to mount young girls . When he is pleased , he ' s quite a clown , but hard to handle when angered . But he is history too . As keeper of the cemetery he has intimate contact with the dead . He knows what their plans were , what ' s going on in families , what the connections of things are . And he is quite generous with his information . Even when he is clowning or performing his erotic antics , if you can pull him aside and ask him a serious question you will get a serious and reliable answer . Another of Ghede ' s great powers is as the protector of children . Ghede generally does not like to see children die . They need a full life . Thus he is the loa to go to when seeking help for a sick child . Ghede has the power over zombies and decides whether or not people can be changed into animals . Any such black magic voodoo must seek the help of Baron Samedi / Ghede with these tasks . Lastly , since Ghede is the lord of death , he is also the last resort for healing since he must decide whether to accept the sick person into the dead or allow them to recover . Gran Boa : Lives in the deep forest where the vegetation is wild . He is the protector of wildlife , and does n ' t like to be seen . He eats fruits and vegetables all day in the woods and when called in a ceremony , he is usually not hungry but the people always have food for him anyway . He is the loa that must be called upon before one is ordained into voodoo priesthood . Grande Ezili : An old woman , crippled with rheumatism and she is only able to walk by dragging herself along on the ground with a stick . Ibo Lele : He is independent and hateful ; proud of himself and ambitious . He likes to be exclusively served and does n ' t like to associate with the other loa . He relies heavily on the people for his food , but the people are never certain what kind of food he is likely to eat . Jean Petro : Jean Petro is a deformation of Don Pedro , the name of the Spanish slave . Jean Petro is the spirit - leader of a group of strong and violent spirits called petro . The difference between the good loa ( rada ) and the evil loa ( petro ) is still far and wide . Voodoo services are rarely held for petro loa ; however , they still do occur but most services are for family and rada loa . Some say that Jean Petro was brought about by Don Pedro who was a Negro slave of Spanish Kalfu ( Carrefour , Kalfou ) : Legba is twined with his Petro opposite . Kalfu too controls the crossroads . Actually , were it not for him the world would be more rational , a better place . But , not unlike Pandora in Greek religion and myth , Kalfu controls the evil forces of the spirit world . He allows the crossing of bad luck , deliberate destruction , misfortune , injustice . Kalfu controls the in - between points of the crossroads , the off - center points . Legba controls the positive spirits of the day . Kalfu controls the malevolent spirits of the night . Yet Kalfu can control these evil spirits too . He is strong and tall , muscular . People do not speak in his presence . When he mounts a person everyone at the service stops speaking because he allows evil loa to come to the ceremony . He claims that most of the important loa know him and he collaborates with them . Kalfu says that some people claim he is a demon but he denies this . He is a respected loa and he is not liked much . He is the grand master of charms and sorceries and is closely associated with black magic . Ceremonies are often held at the crossroads . The origin of darkness . The moon is his symbol . He can be placated , but is a very violent and dangerous loa . Kalfu is similar to Pandora in that he controls the gate comings and goings of bad spirits . He controls the off center points of the crossroads . He has knowledge of the human condition and develops ways to help individuals cope with their problems . He has experience dealing with all kinds of people . Kalfu is a magician and likes to use tree leaves in his magic . He has the ability to change people into animals and then control their minds . Krabinay : Krabinay loa are petro loa . They dress all in red and do high impressive jumps . People are warned away from Krabinay . However , they are very tough and can offer a great deal of assistance to a houngan . These loa behave in a truly devilish way . Possessions induced by them are so violent that spectators are advised to keep their distance . They take pleasure in cynicism . However , they undertake treatment of desperate cases . Despite their admission of creation by God they avoid mentioning his name . Legba : Old man who guards the crossroads . He is the origin of life , so he must be saluted each time a service or any other activity with the loa will begin . Legba controls the crossing over from one world to the other . He is the contact between the worlds of spirit and of flesh . He can deliver messages of gods in human language and interpret their will . He is the god of destiny and is also the intermediary between human beings and divine gods . Legba is one of the most important loa in Haitian voodoo . He is the first loa to be called in a service , so that he can open the gates to the spirit world and let them communicate with other loa . No loa dares show itself without Legba ' s permission . Whoever has offended him finds himself unable to address his loa and is deprived of their protection . He is the origin and the male prototype of voodoo . Voodooists believe that if Legba grants their wishes , they can contact the forces of the universe . He is the guardian of voodoo temples , courtyards , plantations , , and crossroads . He protects the home . If you are going on a trip , it is believed that you pray to Legba for protection from harm and a safe return home . As " Master of Crossroads " he is the god of every parting of the way - - a favorite haunt of evil spirits and propitious to magic devices ; and it is at crossroads that he receives the homage of sorcerers and presides over their incantations and spells . He is also the guardian of the poto mitan - - the center post - - a post in the center of a peristyle regarded as a thoroughfare of the spirits . The poto - mitan is an extremely sacred object . Legba walks in his bare feet because he is in constant contact with the earth . He is a small crooked lovable old man . Small pipe with little tobacco , a little food in his macoute sack . Sores on his body . His pitiful appearance has earned him the nickname of Legba of the Broken Foot but conceals the terrific strength which becomes apparent in the violence of possession induced by him . Because of his politeness and caring nature he is greeted as Papa Legba . He is a much loved loa . His favorite foods are vegetables , meat and tubules grilled on a fire . These foods will be offered to him so that he will open the gates . His symbol is the sun and all that is good . His sacred day is Tuesday . His favorite tree is the medicinier - bebi . When he mounts someone the person ' s limbs are twisted and horrible to see . The crutch is the symbol of Legba . The outward appearance of Legba hides a very powerful interior . Legba is the symbol of the sun , of daylight , of things positive . Legba controls the cardinal points of the crossroads . The interpreter to the gods can deliver the messages of the gods in human language and interpret their will . He is the god of destiny , honored first at every ceremony , receiving first offerings . He is represented by a wooden or iron phallus mounted in a little mound of earth in front of every house . Legba is also known to hold the " key of the spiritual world " , and for this reason is identified with the Christian St . Peter . Legba ' s colors are green , rose , and red . Lemba : is symbolized by an iron bar . Linglessu : This is one of the loa free masons . When feeding this loa , all meat prepared for him must be liberally salted . He prefers the ends of the tongue , ears , front teeth , and the end of a tail of a goat . When this loa mounts somebody , it is violent and his voice is highly distorted . Linto : The child spirit of the Guede family . He induces childish behavior in those he rides . They walk clumsily , much like a baby who hardly knows how to use his legs . They babble and cry for food . The company Linto is in teases him but only in good humor . Loco : ( Loko ) is the spirit of vegetation and guardian of sanctuaries . Mainly associated with trees . He gives healing properties to leaves ; the god of healing and patron of the herbs doctors who always invoke him before undertaking a treatment . Offerings are placed in straw bags which are then hung in its branches . He is only recognizable by the pipe smoked by his servant and the stick which he carries in his hand . His favorite colors are red and white . Animals that are most likely to be offered to this god are black or white goats or russet colored oxen . Portrayed in the form of a butterfly , Loco has an extensive knowledge of pharmaceutical uses of herbs . It is said that Houngans and Mambos receive their knowledge from Loco . He is known for his good judgment ; often during conflicts he is called in to be judge . He is known for his intolerance of injustice . It has been said that he transforms into the wind and listens to people without them knowing he is there . Loco has many wives and girlfriends who are young and good - looking all over the country wherever there is vegetation . He is the personification of the trees he is so closely associated with . Loco is compared to an invisible houngan with authority over all the sanctuaries in Haiti . The worship of Loco is much like the worship of trees - - mainly the Ceiba . The Ceiba tree is the Antillean silk - cotton tree and the tallest species in Haiti . Offerings to it are put in straw bags and hung from the branches . It is hard to distinguish Loco when he has mounted someone since he is the personification of plants . Loco is also a messenger loa and communication loa , but his main duties are the vegetation in the woods and forests . He also watches over the agricultural tools peasants use in their every day activities . The voodoo physician priests worship him , getting their knowledge from him . Marasa : Twins who died in their early childhood and are innocent and capricious . They are thought to be orphans with no discipline in terms of good eating habits . They eat from twin plates and they eat all of what they are offered at once , always coming very hungry to the ceremonies . They must be fed until they are content and then they will listen to the people . They have a reputation for doing harm to those who have forgotten to provide food or who have not kept their promises , but also refuse to take Marinette - Bwa - Chech : Literally " Marinette of the dry arms . " This is a petro loa or an evil spirit . Worship of her is not spread all over Haiti but is growing rapidly in southern parts . Her ceremonies are held under a tent and lit with a huge fire in which salt and petrol are thrown . She is most dreaded ; a she - devil ; the sworn servant of evil . She is respected by werewolves , who hold services in her honor . She is an agent of the underhand dealings of Kita who is , herself , an outstanding loa sorceress . The screeching owl is the emblem of Marinette . When she mounts someone they behave as an owl , hooking their fingers , lowering their heads and scratching . After mounting people , she talks of eating people and confesses hideous crimes . At the end the houngan and the possessed alike jump in the fire and stamp it out . For sacrifice she is offered chickens that have been plucked alive , goats and sows . However , no one can touch these animals wile preparing them ; they must also be buried . Marinette is the mistress of Petro - e - rouge and wife to Ti - Jean - pied - sec . She wanders the woods and goes to her secret place where the offerings she shares with no one are left . Obatala : Obatala is a sky loa . He is the loa responsible for forming children in the womb . Thus , Obatala is responsible for birth defects . He is also called king of the white cloth , and all his followers wear white . Obatala ' s favorite food is edible snails . Ogoun : ( Ogorin , Ogu - badagri ) Ogoun is the traditional warrior figure in Dahomehan religion . He is quite similar to the spirit Zeus in Greek religion / mythology . As such Ogoun is mighty , powerful , triumphal . In more recent time Ogoun has taken on a new face which is not quite related to his African roots . This is the crafty and powerful political leader . However , this political warrior is much more of an image of where struggle is in modern Haiti . Originally , he was the god of blacksmithing ; however , now that blacksmithing has become obsolete , he has become the warrior loa . He can give strength through prophecy and magic . It is Ogoun ( Ogu ) who is said to have planted the idea and led and given power to the slaves to the 1804 revolt and freedom . He is called now to help people obtain a government more responsible to their needs . He is of the Nago loa family . This loa loves the noise of battle itself and this is most likely why he is the voodoo religion ' s master of lightning and storm . By Nado tradition Shango has these loa duties . Ogu - badagri by voodoo hymn , " throws " lightning and thunder . His symbol in humfo is a sabre stuck in the earth in front of the altar . His past follows him in that " Ogu ' s forge " is the name given to an iron rod stuck in a brazier which represents him . Ogoun comes to mount people in various aspects of his character , but the people are quite familiar with each of them . Some of these aspects are : Ogoun the wounded warrior . Here he even assumes a Christ - figure pose which the people know well from their Christian associations . As Ogoun Feraille he gives strength to the servitors by slapping them on the thighs or back . As Ogoun Badagris he may lift a person up and carry him or her around to indicate his special attention and patronage . But in all the aspects of Ogoun there is the dominant theme of power and militancy . He represents a veteran of the " time of bayonets . " His possessions can sometimes be violent . Those mounted by him are known to wash their hands in flaming rum without suffering from it later . They are never given water ; they are more like " teased " with water . They dress up in red dolman and French kepi and wave a saber or machete , chew a cigar and demand rum in an old phrase " Gren mwe fret " ( my testicles are cold ) . At times , the loa Ogu interprets Dumballah ' s messages . If he is properly persuaded , he will protect his petitioners from bullets and weapon wounds . He is covered with iron and immune to fire and bullets . To make him more comfortable the congregation serves him white rum . Ogou ' s symbol is a piece of iron , which he uses to fight his enemies . He is a respected loa . Ogoun is the deity of fire and " metallurgical elements " and red is his color . Therefore , he likes animals that are red to be offered to him ; for example , red or russet pigs or roosters . He likes to be saluted with rum , not with the more traditional water . Often this rum is poured on the ground then lit and the flames pervade the peristyle . The sword , or much more commonly , the machete is his weapon and he often does strange feats of poking himself with it , or even sticking the handle in the ground , then mounting the blade without piercing his skin . The members of this family are great drinkers , but alcohol has no effect on them . Ogoun is identified with St . Jacques , the warrior general , and is often in the guise of a revolutionary war general . He likes cigars and rum . He has a passion for fire and likes the women . He ' s the spirit of fire and water . His favorite tree is the mango tree . His favorite day is Wednesday . Petite Pierre : is a gluttonous and quarrelsome spirit who tries to pick fights with the audience . Petro : Comes from a new nation of spirits forged directly in the steel and blood of the colonial era . They reflect all the rage , violence and delirium that threw off shackles of slavery . The drums , dancing , and rhythm are offbeat sharp , and unforgiving , like the crack of a rawhide whip . The Bizango is an extreme form of the Petro and it is sometimes described as the wild Petro . Bizango occurs by night , in darkness that is the province of the djab , the devil . Rada : The loa that represents the emotional stability and warmth of Africa , the hearth of the nation . Rada derived almost directly from the Dahomean deity is highly religious in nature ; rite is never celebrated without the performance of Mahi dances and without honoring and invocation of Nago gods . The Rada drumming and dancing is on beat whereas the Petro is offbeat . Rada stands for light and the normal affairs of humanity . Simbi : ( Simba , Simbe , Simbi Andezo ) is guardian of the fountains and marshes and can not do without the freshness of water . Voodoo rituals are held near springs . Several of their songs mention these sorts of places . He is a very knowledgeable loa because he spends a lot of time learning about the nature of illnesses of supernatural origin and how to treat them . He is either with you or against you by protecting those who have good relations with him and turning his back on those who do not . As part of Ogou ' s army he is the chief He is the petro loa of the coast ; one of the respected members of the petro family . He belongs to rada because of his nature . Sometimes neglected by their devotees and gnawed by hunger , he tends to be cruel . He lives in springs and rivers . He can not stand being away from water ; children who go to fetch water at springs run the risk - - particularly if they are fair - skinned - - of being kidnapped to work for him under the water for a few years , gifting them with second sight for their trouble . Siren and Whale : These two loa are marine divinities , so closely linked that they are always worshipped together and celebrated in the same songs . Some people say the Whale is the mother of the Siren , others that he is her husband ; others say they are used for one and the same deity . Popular opinion says the Siren is married to Agwe . When Siren turns up in a sanctuary , the person possessed by her appears simply in the role of a young coquette most careful of her looks , and speaking in French , often offending Sobo ( Sobo Kessou ) : Loa of strength . Sobo is a very powerful loa and well known for his bravery as a warrior . When he possesses someone , that person must dress up like a general in the army . When he addresses the congregation during a mounting it is like a general addressing his troops . Sobo is considered an important figure in voodoo mythology . He is the symbol of strength , the ideal of voodoo priests who want to be respected figures in their communities . Because of the strength he procures for his followers , Sobo ' s Sobo is said to have healing power and is often called upon to cure illness of the supernatural origin to his devotees . He dines upon goat meat and mutton , and often lives under trees . His servitors wear kerchiefs of white and lemon , his favorite colors . Sogbo ( Soybo ) : He is the god of lightning and the protector of flags . Sogbo is the brother of the three - horned Bosu . Sogbo is always accompanied by his companion Bade , who is the loa of the winds . These loa share functions with Agau , who is also a storm loa . When possessed by Sogbo , one hurls down polished stones which are piously collected and used as symbols of the loa . Despite their divine origins , thunderstones are not uncommon in Haiti . The spirit hurls a lightning bolt to the earth , striking a rock outcropping and casting the stone to the valley floor . There it must lie for a year and a day before the houngan may touch it . Taureau - trois - graines : His name means bull with three testicles . This loa is a product of the fanciful imagination of the people in Haiti and is considered a Creole loa . He is the great loa of the Jacmel region . His appearances are terrible ; people possessed by him are seized with destructive rage and create havoc all round unless appeased by the offer of a handful of grass . This they munch at once . During trance , they bellow ceaselessly . Ti - Jean - Petro : This is a black magic or " petro " loa that is depicted as a dwarf with one foot . Even though Ti - Jean - Petro has a French name , his roots can be traced back to Africa . He is easily comparable to a spirit that roamed through the bush . This spirit , too , was depicted as having only one leg . This loa often protects and assists black magic sorcerers . Ti - Jean - Petro also is recognized under the names of Petro - e - rouge , Ti - Jean - | [
"Loa of Voodoo",
"Ayida",
"Adjasou"
] |
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