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In conclusion, as with any field evaluation, variability is inherently higher due to factors outside of the parameters that can be controlled by the investigators.
However, there was no positive or negative impact on yield from those plots that were irrigated with the PMDI system versus a standard drop nozzle system.
Emitter flow was decreased in both years when compared with nozzle flow which was likely due to emitter clogging.
Clogging of the emitters over the life of the system along with puncturing of the hoses from wildlife appear to be two negatives of the system, while one benefit of the system was the reduced wheel pivot tracks when the PMDI system is used to water crops near the pivot wheel.
The authors of this paper would again like to thank DLS farms for their cooperation on this project.
Fig.
5.
Emitter response from 2004 and 2005
Fig.
6.
Nozzle Response from 2004 and 2005
Stormwater BMPs for Confined Livestock Facilities
Steve Higgins and Sarah Wightman, Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering
The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency states that agricultural sediment, pathogens, and nutrients account for more than 50 percent of water pollution in the United States.
Animal confinement facilities, widely used for holding, feeding, and handling animals, are potential sources of that pollution.
The pollution load of these facilities can be reduced by installing and maintaining best management practices.
The BMPs may be implemented as part of permit compliance or may be used to ensure that a permit is not needed.
Types of Animal Feeding Operations
An animal feeding operation is defined as a lot or facility where animals have been, are, or will be stabled/ confined and fed/maintained for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period and crops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season.
AFOs are classified by size as large, medium, or small.
Some AFOs may also be classified as Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations.
A CAFO must meet the definition of a medium or large AFO and either discharge pollutants into waters of the United States through a man-made ditch, flushing system, or other similar man-made device or discharge pollutants directly into waters of the United States.
Water that does not infiltrate into the ground will run off, and on animal feeding operations, this runoff can become contaminated with manure, sediment, pathogens, and nutrients.
This polluted runoff then has the potential to move offsite and enter surface and groundwater resources.
Because of stormwater runoff and other pollution potential, the Kentucky Division of Water considers confinement operations to be potential sources of pollutants, and therefore requires water quality permits for AFOs and CAFOs.
A Kentucky No Discharge Operational Permit or a Kentucky Pollution Discharge Elimination system permit may apply to animal feeding operations.
AFOs are not allowed to discharge to the waters of the United States, and either the KNDOP or KPDES permit can be used to ensure compliance.
CAFOs are required to obtain a KPDES permit.
Types of Confinement Facilities
There are three general types of confinement facilities: totally enclosed, partially enclosed, and open.
Each is predisposed to a different kind of runoff pollution and requires different management strategies.
In totally enclosed facilities, the animals are managed completely under a roof.
Totally enclosed facilities generally do not produce runoff if designed correctly, although pollution can still originate from these facilities if stormwater is allowed to drain through the facility or if generated manure is not collected and managed properly and stormwater comes in contact with the manure or other waste.
In contrast, partially enclosed facilities may contain a roofed building that COVers a portion of the holding area, with the animals also having access to uncovered areas that may be paved or unpaved.
Open confinement facilities are unroofed corrals or holding areas where the animals are held, fed, and handled.
Partially enclosed and open facilities may be a significant source of pollution if stormwater runoff is not properly managed.
The surface used for partially open and totally open facilities affects runoff quantity and quality.
Generally, confinement facility surfaces are either paved
Table 1.
Animal feeding operation classification by animal type and number.
Animal Type Small Medium Large
Mature dairy COWS <199 200 699 >700
Veal calves <299 300 999 >1,000
Cattle (including heifers, steers, bulls, <299 300 999 >1,000
cows, or calf pairs)
Swine <749 750 2,499 >2,500
Swine <2,999 3,000 9,999 >10,000
Horses <149 150 499 >500
Sheep or lambs <2,999 3,000 9,999 >10,000
Turkeys <16,499 16,500 54,999 >55,000
Laying hens or broilers <8,999 9,000 29,999 >30,000
Chickens2 <37,499 37,500 124,999 >125,000
Laying hens2 <24,999 25,000 81,999 >82,000
Ducks <9,999 10,000 29,999 >30,000
Ducks1 <1,499 1,500 4,999 >5,000
1 If the AFO uses a liquid manure handling system.
2 If the AFO uses other than a liquid manure handling system.
Figure 1.
Over the years, gravel has been added to this driveway, increasing its height so it now drains into the production area.
Figure 2.
This rock-lined channel diverts clean water away from the production area and prevents erosion near the buildings.
with concrete or asphalt or left unpaved and lined with soil or heavy-use pads made of rock and geotextile fabric.
Paved surfaces usually generate more runoff than unpaved surfaces because they do not allow water to infiltrate the soil.
Unpaved surfaces allow water to infiltrate, but they also tend to become compacted, which can increase runoff.
By far, the best method for reducing the pollution potential of a confinement facility is stormwater BMPs.
Urban areas use these BMPs to reduce the "first flush," a high concentration of pollutants that is washed into streams, ponds, and lakes once a rainfall event begins.
Agricultural producers can use stormwater BMPs with the same concept in mind.
This document describes stormwater best management practices that producers with confined livestock facilities should consider implementing to prevent pollution from discharging off-site.
Producers should carefully select appropriate practices to create a sustainable livestock operation.
The right BMPs depend on several factors, many of which are site specific.
No single BMP will prevent all types of pollution, and in many cases, multiple BMPs are needed to prevent a discharge of pollutants into the waters of the Commonwealth.
There are several BMPs that a livestock producer can implement to control stormwater pollution.
These BMPs fall into three main categories: structures, vegetation, and facilities management.
An ideal building site is one in which drainage is diverted away from the production area, but over time, topography can be altered with road creation, structure remodeling, and facilities additions, which can cause runoff to flow through the production area.
To keep clean runoff clean, diversion practices should be implemented if water enters the production facility from upland sources, such as streams or overland flow.
Headwater diversion entails installation of structures such as levees, dikes, drainage swales, and diversion ditches that carry the water away from the production area and to a natural drainageway.
Figures 3 and 4 show a before-and-after aerial photo of a production area in which headwater diversion techniques have been incorporated.
Diverting clean stormwater from the production area can reduce the water volume that must be managed and can increase storage capacity of holding ponds and lagoons, which is a management philosophy called "keeping clean water clean." In many cases, diverting clean runoff not only reduces the amount of water that needs to contained and managed, but it also creates a drier environment for the animals and reduces odors.
If a confinement facility has a roof that drains onto the production area, consider installing gutters with downspouts.
Placing gutters on the sides of buildings diverts clean rain water away from animal handling and holding areas and prevents the pollution of this otherwise clean and usable water.
Downspouts should be directed into diversion ditches, and guttered water should be carried away from animal containment areas.
Confinement areas have impervious surfaces that cause large volumes of water to flow quickly from the area.
The force created by the flow of this water can cause erosion, and although some erosion is natural, a lack of soil management accelerates the process and can become a significant problem.
To prevent severe erosion, hardened structures should be installed.
To construct a hardened structure, simply line diversion ditches or swales with geotextile fabric and large rock.
It may be possible
Figure 3.
Before clean water diversion methods were implemented, the production area drained into the liquid storage ponds.
Figure 4.
Installing clean water diversions increased capacity in the liquid storage ponds.
to line ditches that have a slope of 3% to 6% with vegetation, depending on the soil type.
Silty soils will erode more easily than clayey soils, SO in these instances, rock may be required to stabilize the soil.
To manage suspended sediments in runoff, small center-overflow dams made of stone, known as check dams, could be used.
Check dams reduce the velocity of runoff, allowing the sediment to settle out of suspension, thus serving as a sediment trap.
Multiple check dams located along the same channel should be spaced SO that the toe of the upper structure is at the same elevation as the top of the downstream dam.
Check dams should be installed to form a notch to allow water to flow in the center of the channelnotches located on the side of the check dam contribute to erosion.
Slopes greater than 10% require heavy armoring and possibly grade stabilization structures.
A grade stabilization structure allows water to move to a lower elevation while reducing its energy and velocity SO that erosion can be controlled.
Unlike a weir or a dam, it is usually not meant for water impoundment, diversion, or raising the water level.

In conclusion, as with any field evaluation, variability is inherently higher due to factors outside of the parameters that can be controlled by the investigators.

However, there was no positive or negative impact on yield from those plots that were irrigated with the PMDI system versus a standard drop nozzle system.

Emitter flow was decreased in both years when compared with nozzle flow which was likely due to emitter clogging.

Clogging of the emitters over the life of the system along with puncturing of the hoses from wildlife appear to be two negatives of the system, while one benefit of the system was the reduced wheel pivot tracks when the PMDI system is used to water crops near the pivot wheel.

The authors of this paper would again like to thank DLS farms for their cooperation on this project.

Fig.

5.

Emitter response from 2004 and 2005

Fig.

6.

Nozzle Response from 2004 and 2005

Stormwater BMPs for Confined Livestock Facilities

Steve Higgins and Sarah Wightman, Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering

The U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency states that agricultural sediment, pathogens, and nutrients account for more than 50 percent of water pollution in the United States.

Animal confinement facilities, widely used for holding, feeding, and handling animals, are potential sources of that pollution.

The pollution load of these facilities can be reduced by installing and maintaining best management practices.

The BMPs may be implemented as part of permit compliance or may be used to ensure that a permit is not needed.

Types of Animal Feeding Operations

An animal feeding operation is defined as a lot or facility where animals have been, are, or will be stabled/ confined and fed/maintained for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period and crops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season.

AFOs are classified by size as large, medium, or small.

Some AFOs may also be classified as Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations.

A CAFO must meet the definition of a medium or large AFO and either discharge pollutants into waters of the United States through a man-made ditch, flushing system, or other similar man-made device or discharge pollutants directly into waters of the United States.

Water that does not infiltrate into the ground will run off, and on animal feeding operations, this runoff can become contaminated with manure, sediment, pathogens, and nutrients.

This polluted runoff then has the potential to move offsite and enter surface and groundwater resources.

Because of stormwater runoff and other pollution potential, the Kentucky Division of Water considers confinement operations to be potential sources of pollutants, and therefore requires water quality permits for AFOs and CAFOs.

A Kentucky No Discharge Operational Permit or a Kentucky Pollution Discharge Elimination system permit may apply to animal feeding operations.

AFOs are not allowed to discharge to the waters of the United States, and either the KNDOP or KPDES permit can be used to ensure compliance.

CAFOs are required to obtain a KPDES permit.

Types of Confinement Facilities

There are three general types of confinement facilities: totally enclosed, partially enclosed, and open.

Each is predisposed to a different kind of runoff pollution and requires different management strategies.

In totally enclosed facilities, the animals are managed completely under a roof.

Totally enclosed facilities generally do not produce runoff if designed correctly, although pollution can still originate from these facilities if stormwater is allowed to drain through the facility or if generated manure is not collected and managed properly and stormwater comes in contact with the manure or other waste.

In contrast, partially enclosed facilities may contain a roofed building that COVers a portion of the holding area, with the animals also having access to uncovered areas that may be paved or unpaved.

Open confinement facilities are unroofed corrals or holding areas where the animals are held, fed, and handled.

Partially enclosed and open facilities may be a significant source of pollution if stormwater runoff is not properly managed.

The surface used for partially open and totally open facilities affects runoff quantity and quality.

Generally, confinement facility surfaces are either paved

Table 1.

Animal feeding operation classification by animal type and number.

Animal Type Small Medium Large

Mature dairy COWS <199 200 699 >700

Veal calves <299 300 999 >1,000

Cattle (including heifers, steers, bulls, <299 300 999 >1,000

cows, or calf pairs)

Swine <749 750 2,499 >2,500

Swine <2,999 3,000 9,999 >10,000

Horses <149 150 499 >500

Sheep or lambs <2,999 3,000 9,999 >10,000

Turkeys <16,499 16,500 54,999 >55,000

Laying hens or broilers <8,999 9,000 29,999 >30,000

Chickens2 <37,499 37,500 124,999 >125,000

Laying hens2 <24,999 25,000 81,999 >82,000

Ducks <9,999 10,000 29,999 >30,000

Ducks1 <1,499 1,500 4,999 >5,000

1 If the AFO uses a liquid manure handling system.

2 If the AFO uses other than a liquid manure handling system.

Figure 1.

Over the years, gravel has been added to this driveway, increasing its height so it now drains into the production area.

Figure 2.

This rock-lined channel diverts clean water away from the production area and prevents erosion near the buildings.

with concrete or asphalt or left unpaved and lined with soil or heavy-use pads made of rock and geotextile fabric.

Paved surfaces usually generate more runoff than unpaved surfaces because they do not allow water to infiltrate the soil.

Unpaved surfaces allow water to infiltrate, but they also tend to become compacted, which can increase runoff.

By far, the best method for reducing the pollution potential of a confinement facility is stormwater BMPs.

Urban areas use these BMPs to reduce the "first flush," a high concentration of pollutants that is washed into streams, ponds, and lakes once a rainfall event begins.

Agricultural producers can use stormwater BMPs with the same concept in mind.

This document describes stormwater best management practices that producers with confined livestock facilities should consider implementing to prevent pollution from discharging off-site.

Producers should carefully select appropriate practices to create a sustainable livestock operation.

The right BMPs depend on several factors, many of which are site specific.

No single BMP will prevent all types of pollution, and in many cases, multiple BMPs are needed to prevent a discharge of pollutants into the waters of the Commonwealth.

There are several BMPs that a livestock producer can implement to control stormwater pollution.

These BMPs fall into three main categories: structures, vegetation, and facilities management.

An ideal building site is one in which drainage is diverted away from the production area, but over time, topography can be altered with road creation, structure remodeling, and facilities additions, which can cause runoff to flow through the production area.

To keep clean runoff clean, diversion practices should be implemented if water enters the production facility from upland sources, such as streams or overland flow.

Headwater diversion entails installation of structures such as levees, dikes, drainage swales, and diversion ditches that carry the water away from the production area and to a natural drainageway.

Figures 3 and 4 show a before-and-after aerial photo of a production area in which headwater diversion techniques have been incorporated.

Diverting clean stormwater from the production area can reduce the water volume that must be managed and can increase storage capacity of holding ponds and lagoons, which is a management philosophy called "keeping clean water clean." In many cases, diverting clean runoff not only reduces the amount of water that needs to contained and managed, but it also creates a drier environment for the animals and reduces odors.

If a confinement facility has a roof that drains onto the production area, consider installing gutters with downspouts.

Placing gutters on the sides of buildings diverts clean rain water away from animal handling and holding areas and prevents the pollution of this otherwise clean and usable water.

Downspouts should be directed into diversion ditches, and guttered water should be carried away from animal containment areas.

Confinement areas have impervious surfaces that cause large volumes of water to flow quickly from the area.

The force created by the flow of this water can cause erosion, and although some erosion is natural, a lack of soil management accelerates the process and can become a significant problem.

To prevent severe erosion, hardened structures should be installed.

To construct a hardened structure, simply line diversion ditches or swales with geotextile fabric and large rock.

It may be possible

Figure 3.

Before clean water diversion methods were implemented, the production area drained into the liquid storage ponds.

Figure 4.

Installing clean water diversions increased capacity in the liquid storage ponds.

to line ditches that have a slope of 3% to 6% with vegetation, depending on the soil type.

Silty soils will erode more easily than clayey soils, SO in these instances, rock may be required to stabilize the soil.

To manage suspended sediments in runoff, small center-overflow dams made of stone, known as check dams, could be used.

Check dams reduce the velocity of runoff, allowing the sediment to settle out of suspension, thus serving as a sediment trap.

Multiple check dams located along the same channel should be spaced SO that the toe of the upper structure is at the same elevation as the top of the downstream dam.

Check dams should be installed to form a notch to allow water to flow in the center of the channelnotches located on the side of the check dam contribute to erosion.

Slopes greater than 10% require heavy armoring and possibly grade stabilization structures.

A grade stabilization structure allows water to move to a lower elevation while reducing its energy and velocity SO that erosion can be controlled.

Unlike a weir or a dam, it is usually not meant for water impoundment, diversion, or raising the water level.