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STUDIES
A number of studies of Roseland Lake have been done by researchers, citizen scientists, and federal, state, regional and local environmental organizations. The results of these studies will be featured on this page.
Multi-Temporary Assessment of Connecticut Lake Water Clarity Using Landsat Satellite Imagery, Report as of FY2010 for 2010CT208B, Progress Report, May 2011, Civco Daniel et al, UCONN Dept. of Natural Resources and the Environment
Suspended-Sediment Characteristics of Muddy Brook at Woodstock, Connecticut, with a section on The Water Quality of Roseland Lake and Its Major Tributaries, Muddy Brook and Mill Brook, Kenneth P. Culp, US Geological Survey, 1991 | {
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How much is clean air realty worth?
Continue Reading Below
If you are presidential candidate Elizabeth Warren, it is worth $3 trillion.
The Democratic presidential hopeful unveiled her new clean energy plan to save the environment today and was revealed with a nod to several ideas from former rival, Gov. Jay Inslee (D-WA), who dropped out of the Democratic field two weeks ago after positioning himself as the "climate candidate."
“Today I’m embracing that goal by committing to adopt and build on Governor Inslee’s 10-year action plan to achieve 100% clean energy... and I’m challenging every other candidate for President to do the same,” she wrote while announcing her new environmental plan.
Warren would like to commit the United States, according to her new plan published on website Medium, to using fully clean energy over the next ten years. That includes zero emissions and clean energy for cars, buildings, manufacturers and more.
“The science is clear,” Warren explains her reasoning behind this massive plan as Hurricane Dorian rages towards the Carolinas. “The world’s leading experts have long known that climate change is caused by human beings, it is here, and it is accelerating. We already see its effects — record floods, devastating wildfires, 100-year storms that happen every year — costing lives, causing hundreds of billions of dollars in damage… This is an emergency, and without rapid and widespread change, we will soon be unable to prevent the worst harms.”
“Today, I’m announcing I’ll commit an additional $1 trillion over 10 years — fully paid for by reversing Trump’s tax cuts for the wealthiest individuals and giant corporations,” Warren said that her plan will cost the government "a federal investment of $3 trillion" and "will leverage additional trillions in private investment and create millions of jobs.”
So what will Americans get exactly for this hefty price tag?
Warren's plan includes:
100% zero-carbon pollution for all new commercial and residential buildings by 2028
100% zero emissions for all new light-duty passenger vehicles, medium-duty trucks, and all buses by 2030
100% renewable and zero-emission energy in electricity generation by 2035, with an interim target of 100% carbon-neutral power by 2030.
Warren is also targeting car companies in her plan. “In my first year in office, I’ll set strict vehicle emissions standards that will become progressively tighter every year, reaching a requirement for 100% zero-emissions for all new light- and medium-duty vehicles by 2030.”
Not only will she require the cars to be friendly to the environment but she will impose stricter regulations on the plants that manufacture new vehicles. “I’ll provide federal investments to grow domestic zero-emission vehicle manufacturing and reinforce the assembly plants and supply base, including battery manufacturing.”
CLICK HERE TO READ MORE ON FOX BUSINESS
The Democratic candidate for the 2020 election also set out her plans for new building regulations, “I’ll create a national zero-carbon building standard by 2023, and I’ll partner with states and local governments to enforce new and stronger building codes.”
Warren closes her arguments by reinforcing the dire need of her plans, “As president, I will take bold action to confront the climate crisis, starting on day one. The future of our planet depends on it, and we have no more time to waste.”
Last week Beto O'Rourke took to Medium to lay out his plan to end the trade war. Former Secretary of Housing & Urban Development, Julian Castro preceded him weighing in on protecting animals and wildlife and this marks Warren's second foray on to the social publishing platform. Earlier in August, Sen. Warren (D-MA) wrote about public safety and mass incarceration. | {
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Inbreeding depression: tests of the overdominance and partial dominance hypotheses.
The two principal theories of the causal mechanism for inbreeding depression are the partial dominance hypothesis and the overdominance hypothesis. According to the first hypothesis, inbreeding increases the frequency of homozygous combinations of deleterious recessive alleles thereby decreasing fitness, whereas the overdominance hypothesis posits that inbreeding increases homozygosity and thus reduces the frequency of the superior heterozygotes. These two hypotheses make different predictions on the effect of crossing inbred lines: the overdominance hypothesis predicts that trait means will be restored to the outbred means, whereas the partial dominance hypothesis predicts that trait means will exceed those of the outbred population. I tested these predictions using seven inbred lines of the sand cricket, Gryllus firmus. Fourteen generations of brother-sister mating resulted in an inbreeding depression of 20-34% in four traits: nymphal weights at ages 14 days, 21 days, 28 days, and early fecundity. An incomplete diallel cross of these lines showed genetic variation among lines and an increase in all trait means above the outbred means, with three being significantly higher. These results provide support for the partial dominance hypothesis and are inconsistent with the overdominance hypothesis. | {
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All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Introduction {#sec001}
============
Pest resistance to insecticides is an important problem in production of many crops worldwide; thus reduced insecticide efficacy in the field has practical consequences for pest control, farmer profitability, and ecosystem health \[[@pone.0127576.ref001]--[@pone.0127576.ref004]\]. Insecticide resistance occurs as a result of exposure of pest populations to insecticides in a host crop; and at a landscape-scale, greater abundance of uniformly treated host crops increases the selection pressure for resistance \[[@pone.0127576.ref005],[@pone.0127576.ref006]\]. One tactic to control resistance development has been to separate individual crops in space and time through the use of crop rotation \[[@pone.0127576.ref005],[@pone.0127576.ref007]\]. During intervals when the treated crop is not being grown, selection for resistance does not occur. Hence the frequency of selection is reduced in direct relation to the crop-rotation interval, assuming the pest is present during all these times. Moreover, if resistance is costly in terms of fitness, the benefit of crop rotation is expected to increase \[[@pone.0127576.ref005],[@pone.0127576.ref008]\].
Crop rotation for resistance management is a scale-dependent tactic that can be affected by life history and dispersal ability of the pest. For highly mobile, polyphagous pests (e.g., sweetpotato whitefly, *Bemisia tabaci* Gennadius; cotton bollworm, *Heliocoverpa spp*.), resistance management plans are expected to be most effective when implemented at regional scales and could include several different target crops, insecticide inputs, and stakeholders (i.e., farmers, industry, and regulatory agencies) \[[@pone.0127576.ref009]--[@pone.0127576.ref011]\]. Because these pests can disperse long distances, crop rotation alone may be an inadequate tactic to reduce colonization of the crop and selection for insecticide resistance in farm fields. Yet, resistance is often slow to develop in these pests because non-agricultural or non-sprayed host environments can serve as a critical refuge for insecticide-susceptible pests that help to delay resistance development \[[@pone.0127576.ref005]\].
Insecticide-resistant specialist herbivores (e.g., western corn rootworm, *Diabrotica virgifera virgifera* LeConte; Colorado potato beetle, *Leptinotarsa decemlineata* Say) that do not disperse long distances can be effectively managed using crop rotation at the field- or farm-scale \[[@pone.0127576.ref007],[@pone.0127576.ref012]--[@pone.0127576.ref015]\]. The link between changing crop rotation practices and specialist herbivore insecticide resistance has been documented at the scale of individual maize fields in areas of the upper Midwest where frequent maize production at the field-scale relates to resistance to a Bt maize trait (Cry3Bb1) in the specialist herbivore, *D*. *virgifera* \[[@pone.0127576.ref016]\].
Using *D*. *virgifera* Bt resistance estimates generated from individual maize fields in Iowa, Gassmann et al. \[[@pone.0127576.ref016]\] speculated that this high intensity, continuous cropping of Bt maize coupled with limited rotation of non-host crops at larger spatial scales, is one likely explanation for eroding control in the upper Midwest maize agroecosystems. Theoretical simulation studies support the link between continuous maize production and Bt resistance in *D*. *virgifera* populations at larger spatial scales \[[@pone.0127576.ref015]\], suggesting that selection for Bt resistance could be related to spatiotemporal maize production patterns at the landscape or regional scale. Although it is well known that homogeneous agricultural systems and uniform insecticide regimes (e.g., Bt maize and *D*. *virgifera* resistance) enable the rapid emergence of insecticide resistance \[[@pone.0127576.ref006]\], few empirical studies have described how changing crop composition within agricultural landscapes could affect insecticide resistance development in pest populations. Moreover, agricultural systems in which specialist herbivores have a close association to specific host crops provide a more simplified context to examine the direct effects of crop rotation on pests, pesticide use, and insecticide resistance.
Here, we tested whether field- or landscape-scale intensification (increasing spatial and temporal abundance) of the insecticides used in cultivated potato (*Solanum tuberosum* L.) has measureable, long-term effects on populations of the specialist potato pest, *Leptinotarsa decemlineata* Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), sufficient to increase the development of resistance to the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid. Here, we define resistance as a genetically conferred trait that results in reduced imidacloprid susceptibility. In our definition a resistant phenotype has decreased sensitivity to neonicotinoid insecticides that has practical consequences for potato pest management. This potato-pest term extends the definition of "practical resistance" as defined by Tabashnik et al. \[[@pone.0127576.ref017]\] where field-evolved resistance in a pest reduces pesticide efficacy and has practical consequences for pest control. Uniform use of specific insecticides in commercial potato (i.e., pyrethroids, carbamates) has, in the past, resulted in widespread insecticide resistance in *L*. *decemlineata*, requiring additional insecticide applications, and causing significant economic loss for farmers \[[@pone.0127576.ref018]\]. This predisposition to insecticide resistance is a concern for potato farmers that have relied almost exclusively on neonicotinoid insecticides applied at the time of planting over the past 18 years. Prophylactic neonicotinoid use continues to occur uniformly among potato fields in the Great Lakes region of the US. Therefore, we compare landscapes with different spatial and temporal potato production patterns by holding insecticide use constant while varying potato abundance, to assess the effect these variations in potato abundance have on *L*. *decemlineata* susceptibility to neonicotinoid insecticides. As a result of uniformity of neonicotinoid use among potato farmers, we hypothesized the incidence of insecticide resistance in *L*. *decemlineata* populations would be related to abundance of neonicotinoid-treated potato in the landscape and also the frequency of its production.
Materials and Methods {#sec002}
=====================
Ethics statement {#sec003}
----------------
No specific permits were required for the field study described here. Access to field sites was granted by landholders to collect insects.
*Leptinotarsa decemlineata* management and the potato agroecosystem {#sec004}
-------------------------------------------------------------------
*Leptinotarsa decemlineata* is a specialist herbivore of plants in the family *Solanaceae*, and is an economically important potato pest in North America, Europe and Asia \[[@pone.0127576.ref019]\]. Neonicotinoid insecticides applied at planting are the most common approach for managing *L*. *decemlineata* in the Midwestern US. Prior to this study, data provided by the Wisconsin Potato and Vegetable Growers Association showed that a high proportion of potato area was treated with neonicotinoid insecticides for *L*. *decemlineata* control from 2003--2006 ([Table 1](#pone.0127576.t001){ref-type="table"})\[[@pone.0127576.ref020]--[@pone.0127576.ref022]\]. Farmers spray the neonicotinoid insecticide (i.e., clothianidin, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam) directly on potato seed pieces when the crop is planted. As the plant grows, the insecticide moves systemically through the plant xylem to leaf tissues \[[@pone.0127576.ref023],[@pone.0127576.ref024]\]. Using this neonicotinoid treatment method, entire potato fields are protected from four key potato herbivores (i.e., green peach aphid, *Myzus persicae* Sulzer; potato aphid, *Macrosiphum euphorbiae* Thomas; potato leafhopper, *Empoasca fabae* Harris; Colorado potato beetle *L*. *decemlineata* Say) for nearly two months \[[@pone.0127576.ref025]\]. Insecticide-treated potato is often the most abundant host for *L*. *decemlineata* in temperate potato agroecosystems; however, untreated volunteer potato and several native *Solanum* weeds (e.g., nightshades, *Solanum dulcamara* L.; buffalo-bur, *Solanum rostratum* Dunal; horse-nettle, *Solanum carolinense* L.) are alternate hosts when commercial potato fields are not present \[[@pone.0127576.ref026]--[@pone.0127576.ref029]\]. Overwintered adult *L*. *decemlineata* walk to colonize potato fields, typically at distances less than 1.5 km from the diapause site \[[@pone.0127576.ref030]\]. Each season *L*. *decemlineata* completes two generations on the potato crop and diapauses as an adult in unmanaged habitats surrounding fields \[[@pone.0127576.ref031]--[@pone.0127576.ref033]\]. This combination of host plant specialization and short-distance dispersal makes *L*. *decemlineata* vulnerable to abundance, or paucity, of nearby potato crops and alternate hosts, and also shifts in potato pest management practices.
10.1371/journal.pone.0127576.t001
###### Reported neonicotinoid use in a survey of commercial potato farmers in Wisconsin, 2003--2006.
{#pone.0127576.t001g}
Year Reported area treated with neonicotinoid insecticides (ha) Total potato area reported (ha) Proportion treated with neonicotinoids
---------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------- ----------------------------------------
**2003** **5394** **6422** **0.84**
**2004** **5174** **7392** **0.70**
**2005** **4953** **6784** **0.73**
**2006** **4051** **4822** **0.84**
**Mean (±SD)** **4893 (589)** **6355 (1098)** **0.78 (0.07)**
Mechanisms driving resistance development in *L*. *decemlineata* may operate at several different scales in the landscape. At the field level, a complex arrangement of landholders and farmers (many farmers rent land) has resulted in different crop management practices that contribute to variable profit expectations and, in turn, pest management decisions. All farmers used at-plant neonicotinoids as their primary pest management tactic for potato fields from which *L*. *decemlineata* populations were collected over the course of this study (4 counties in Michigan and 7 counties in Wisconsin). We also know that neonicotinoids are the predominant *L*. *decemlineata* management tool in the production region ([Table 1](#pone.0127576.t001){ref-type="table"}). Although *L*. *decemlineata* resistance to neonicotinoids is an emerging problem, growers continue to spray inexpensive at-plant neonicotinoids to control the remaining pest species and gain some incidental control of *L*. *decemlineata*. Other insecticides may be used for *L*. *decemlineata* control later in the growing season; however, there is no known cross resistance between neonicotinoid and other insecticides used in this system \[[@pone.0127576.ref034], [@pone.0127576.ref035]\]. As a result of these two factors, variation in the field-level pest management practices, aside from uniformity of neonicotinoid use, will likely provide limited explanation for observed differences in *L*. *decemlineata* resistance to neonicotinoids.
Alternatively, regional-scale analyses of potato production and *L*. *decemlineata* may provide insight about the genetic predisposition for resistance in discrete geographically isolated populations \[[@pone.0127576.ref036]\]; however variability in resistance to individual insecticides has been previously documented to operate at smaller scales in the study region \[[@pone.0127576.ref018]\]. Thus far, studies of *L*. *decemlineata* resistance at either field or regional scales have not effectively described specific selection factors that influence spatial variability in *L*. *decemlineata* resistance within agroecosystems. Here we approach resistance development at the landscape scale by exploring the relationship between spatiotemporal potato production intensity and *L*. *decemlineata* resistance selection by neonicotinoid insecticides.
*Leptinotarsa decemlineata* collection {#sec005}
--------------------------------------
From 2007--2012, imidacloprid susceptibility was measured at 50 locations in commercial potato production regions of Michigan and Wisconsin, USA ([S1 Fig](#pone.0127576.s003){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). Two large vegetable production regions include the majority of sample locations, and potato is a common component of the landscape and *L*. *decemlineata* is an annual pest of the crop. Additionally, several smaller potato production areas of Michigan and Wisconsin were sampled; these individual farms or small groups of farms also experience significant damage from *L*. *decemlineata* populations. At all locations, potato was the most abundant host crop in the environment for this specialist herbivore.
Adult *L*. *decemlineata* were collected from commercial potato fields that averaged 39±19 ha (mean±SD, min. 4, max 75) in size. The collection sites were not chosen at random; cooperators collected insects at locations where large numbers of adult insects were present. Incidence of large numbers of adult beetles may have been the result of insecticide application problems, inadequate rotation of potato, proximity to overwintering sites, or insecticide resistance \[[@pone.0127576.ref037]\]. Collections occurred during the month of June each year. During this period, concentration of neonicotinoid insecticides are highest in potato \[[@pone.0127576.ref038]\], and were the only insecticides applied to the crop. Adult insects collected during this period generally represented the overwintered generation of *L*. *decemlineata* immigrating to the potato crop.
To estimate baseline neonicotinoid susceptibility in *L*. *decemlineata*, one population was collected from insecticide-free potato outside of the WI commercial potato production region each year (2007--2012). *Leptinotarsa decemlineata* collected near Arlington, WI (hereafter called the reference population) was included as a wild population that has not been exposed to large-scale commercial potato production and associated crop inputs.
At each site, approximately 400--500 adult beetles were collected directly from potato plants into plastic cups (0.94 L). Sample numbers varied based on availability of insects in the field. Adult insects were transported to laboratories at either Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI or the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI. Upon arrival, insects were fed insecticide-free potato foliage in screen cages maintained in environmental chambers held at 24°C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) for one week prior to bioassays to allow for mortality related to latent, chronic effects of possible insecticide exposure in the field.
Resistance assessment {#sec006}
---------------------
Resistance to neonicotinoids was assessed using topical imidacloprid bioassays. Technical grade imidacloprid (97.5%, Bayer Corporation, Kansas City, MO) was dissolved into pesticide grade acetone (Fisher Chemicals, Fair Lawn, NJ), then serially diluted to a range of concentrations between 0.001--10 ppm \[[@pone.0127576.ref039]\]. Using results of a preliminary screen of 60 randomly chosen individuals, a range of five to nine insecticide concentrations were chosen that would result in 0--100 percent mortality \[[@pone.0127576.ref039]\]. Adult beetles were randomly divided into equal numbers per concentration, each containing no fewer than fifteen insects per concentration. Collected individuals were topically treated with one microliter of insecticide solution applied to the first abdominal sternite with a repeating dispenser equipped with a 50 μL blunt syringe (PB-600 and 700 series, Hamilton Company, Reno, NV). Control insects received a one microliter dose of pesticide-grade acetone alone. Treated insects were placed into 100x15 mm Petri dishes with filter paper (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA) and maintained on insecticide-free potato foliage in an environmental chamber held at 24°C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D). Bioassay response was measured at day seven post-treatment. Insects were classified as alive, intoxicated, or dead. Intoxicated beetles were unable to grasp the tip of a wooden pencil and walk greater than one body length up the pencil \[[@pone.0127576.ref039]\]. Because prior research showed intoxicated *L*. *decemlineata* do not recover and reproduce, intoxicated and dead insects were pooled for subsequent statistical analyses \[[@pone.0127576.ref039]\].
Imidacloprid bioassay dose-response results were first adjusted for control mortality using Abbott\'s correction \[[@pone.0127576.ref040]\], and then analyzed against imidacloprid concentration with a Log~10~ probit regression analysis in SAS \[[@pone.0127576.ref041], [@pone.0127576.ref042]\]. Goodness of fit chi-square tests were used to interpret satisfactory performance of model fitting and differences of within population susceptibility \[[@pone.0127576.ref043]\]. Fifty-percent lethal concentration estimates (LC~50~) were calculated to determine the relative imidacloprid susceptibility of populations. Presented and analyzed here are fifty-percent lethal concentration estimates to compare the average response of different *L*. *decemlineata* populations to imidacloprid.
Agricultural landscapes {#sec007}
-----------------------
To determine the agroecosystem composition surrounding sampled *L*. *decemlineata* populations, sample fields were digitized from orthorectified aerial imagery \[[@pone.0127576.ref044]\], then converted to a point representing the field centroid in ArcGIS (Version 10.1, ESRI, Redlands, CA). Semi-natural and crop habitats were quantified within 1.5 km of field centroids, the maximum dispersal distance documented for *L*. *decemlineata* (Buffer tool, ArcGIS) \[[@pone.0127576.ref030]\]. Data describing the composition of managed agricultural and semi-natural habitats surrounding sampled fields were derived from publicly available, National Agricultural Statistics Service---Cropland Data Layer \[[@pone.0127576.ref045]\]. The data layer is a remotely sensed, categorical description of crop and semi-natural land using georeferenced 30x30m squares (raster pixels) that can be used to measure spatial patterns of crop production \[[@pone.0127576.ref045]\]. The bioassay crop year was used to quantify the amount of cultivated agriculture and potato in the landscape ([S2a Fig](#pone.0127576.s004){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). Crops included in the landscape were forages, fruit, maize, pea, potato, dry beans, small grains, vegetables, and other miscellaneous crops ([S2b Fig](#pone.0127576.s004){ref-type="supplementary-material"}).
Potato crop history was determined from four sequential years prior to each bioassay. Land cover data were reclassified into a binary layer (potato or not) then sequentially summed to generate four potato crop sequences: one, one and two, one through three, and one through four consecutive prior years of potato production (Raster Calculator, ArcGIS). Land cover and potato raster data for each bioassay location and prior crop year combination were extracted and tabulated using Python and the integrated ArcPy site package (version 2.7.2).
To examine the broader effects of landscape composition, land use raster data within each 1,500 m buffer around each field from each bioassay year were used to measure one common estimate of landscape pattern, Shannon's Diversity Index (SHDI) \[[@pone.0127576.ref046]\]. Landscape compositions including cultivated cropland and semi-natural habitats were used to calculate SHDI using FragStats \[[@pone.0127576.ref047]\]. Although several other measures of landscape composition exist, SHDI represents one easily interpretable metric that is likely correlated to other metrics of landscape pattern \[[@pone.0127576.ref048]\].
Statistical analysis {#sec008}
--------------------
A linear modeling approach was used to determine the relationship between *L*. *decemlineata* resistance (LC~50~ estimates) and proportion cultivated agriculture in the landscape ([Fig 1a](#pone.0127576.g001){ref-type="fig"}), proportion of available cropland used for potato production in the bioassay year (potato cultivation over space) ([Fig 1b](#pone.0127576.g001){ref-type="fig"}), proportion of available cropland used for potato production over the potato intensity interval (potato cultivation over time)([Fig 1c](#pone.0127576.g001){ref-type="fig"}), and potato intensity metric (PIM)([Fig 1d](#pone.0127576.g001){ref-type="fig"}). The potato intensity metric was calculated as follows: $$PIM = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{j}{\bullet T_{i}}}{Potato\ area_{i}}$$ where *i* is a year prior to resistance sampling and *j* is every consecutive year prior to *i*. *T* ~*i*~ is the total area (number of pixels) of potato in the landscape for each of the years prior to resistance sampling. *Potato area* ~*i*~ is the total area (number of pixels) used for potato in any of the four years prior to resistance sampling. Because the PIM incorporates both spatial and temporal potato production into a single metric, differentiating effects of either space or time becomes challenging. To account for this interaction, we chose to include models that included only abundance of potato over four years (potato cultivation over time) to estimate the effect of patch abundance over the PIM interval. Although *L*. *decemlineata* is a concern for farmers, pest pressure is only a minor component of potato planting decisions. Several other factors (e.g., soil pathogens, fuel costs) also influence the location of fields in the landscape. To our knowledge, farmers do not bias planting decisions in space based on prior *L*. *decemlineata* management records, pest pressure, or anecdotal estimations of *L*. *decemlineata* resistance to neonicotinoids. Therefore, relationships do not indicate simultaneous causality between resistance and history of potato production.
{#pone.0127576.g001}
We observed a difference between estimated LC~50~ for imidacloprid by state ([S3 Fig](#pone.0127576.s005){ref-type="supplementary-material"}); this state-level difference has been consistent for many previously used insecticide modes of action \[[@pone.0127576.ref037],[@pone.0127576.ref049]\]. An additional explanation for this difference could be operational differences among labs conducting bioassays; however, we minimized this possibility by standardizing protocols for solution preparation, dose selection, growth chamber conditions, and bioassay scoring. To account for unmeasured population-level differences (e.g., genetic, pest management history, laboratory) between states, a state factor and resulting interactions with predictors were included in all saturated models. Preliminary analysis found that SHDI and proportion cultivated cropland in the landscape were significantly correlated (*r* = -0.28, t~(48)~ = -2.054, *P* = 0.04). We chose to model proportion cultivated cropland only. All linear regressions were completed in R using *lm* in the base package \[[@pone.0127576.ref050]\]. All functions used in R are denoted in italics. Homogeneity of the error variance between states was examined with Levene's test using group medians \[[@pone.0127576.ref051]\]. There was no evidence of inconsistent variance between states (*F* ~(1,48)~ = 0.49, *P* = 0.49). Model fits were examined for patterns in residual distribution and deviations from assumptions of normality \[[@pone.0127576.ref052]\]. Sensitivity of ordinary least-squares regression models to possible outliers was determined using the Bonferroni correction method for points with the largest residual values \[[@pone.0127576.ref051]\]. Presence of influential observations was examined with Cook's statistics, half-normal plots, and added variable plots \[[@pone.0127576.ref053]\]. Model diagnostic assessments did not justify the removal of any outlier or highly influential points.
Candidate models tested combinations of the potato in space, potato in time, PIM, or proportion agriculture parameters. Models tested each parameter individually with a fixed effect for state and also an interaction with state. All possible combinations of parameters were also tested (N = 30 possible models). Parameters in nested models were eliminated using a backward selection strategy with ANOVA and sequential *F*-tests using the *drop1* function. No higher-level interactions were tested beyond the covariate of interest by state interaction. Non-nested models were sequentially ranked from lowest to highest score and all candidate models with an AIC score within four of the best models are presented. If two competing models were within an AIC score of two, main effect and interaction terms that were not significant were eliminated with the *drop1* function (test = "*F*"). All parameter estimates, standard errors, and model fit diagnostics for the final model were generated with the *summary* function. Data were transformed (Log~10~) to meet the assumptions of normality. Model fit predictions were generated with the *predict* function. Correlation between PIM, SHDI, and proportion cultivated cropland in the landscape were done with *cor*.*test* function \[[@pone.0127576.ref051]\].
Results and Discussion {#sec009}
======================
Using PIM, we evaluated the link between spatiotemporal crop production and insecticide resistance. There was a significant positive relationship between PIM and imidacloprid resistance in *L*. *decemlineata* (*F* ~(2,47)~ = 17.72, *P*\<0.01, R^2^ = 0.43; [Fig 2](#pone.0127576.g002){ref-type="fig"}; [S1 Table](#pone.0127576.s008){ref-type="supplementary-material"}); this positive relationship shows increasing potato intensity was associated with an increase in insecticide resistance ([Fig 2](#pone.0127576.g002){ref-type="fig"}). Uniformity of neonicotinoid use among potato fields ([Table 1](#pone.0127576.t001){ref-type="table"}) further supports the conclusion that greater abundance of potato in space and time (PIM) could increase exposure to neonicotinoid insecticides, thereby driving imidacloprid resistance in *L*. *decemlineata*. We also found that the proportion of cultivated cropland in the surrounding environment did not significantly relate to the measured level of neonicotinoid resistance in *L*. *decemlineata* ([Table 2](#pone.0127576.t002){ref-type="table"}). This relationship shows that some *L*. *decemlineata* populations were isolated from other agricultural production and also had high levels of resistance.
{#pone.0127576.g002}
10.1371/journal.pone.0127576.t002
###### Parameter estimates (±SE), AIC and difference in AIC from best models fitting log transformed LC~50~ estimates of resistance in *L*. *decemlineata* populations.
{#pone.0127576.t002g}
model parameters[^a^](#t002fn001){ref-type="table-fn"} intercept PIM \% potato in space[^b^](#t002fn002){ref-type="table-fn"} \% potato in time[^c^](#t002fn003){ref-type="table-fn"} \% cultivated cropland state~*wisconsin*~ Interaction term [^d^](#t002fn004){ref-type="table-fn"} AIC Δ AIC
-------------------------------------------------------- ---------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------ -------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- --------- -------
**PIM+state** -1.28\* (0.62) 1.05\* (0.41) -1.05\* (0.24) 110.666 \-
**PIM\*state** -0.28 (1.02) 0.35 (0.69) -2.51\* (1.20) 1.06 (0.85) 111.028 0.361
**% cropland\*state** 1.77 (1.19) -2.65 (2.02) -3.54\* (1.25) 3.98 (2.11) 112.780 2.114
**% potato in time+state** -0.34 (0.34) 0.86\* (0.41) -1.12\* (0.24) 112.804 2.137
**% potato in time\*state** -0.01 (0.56) 0.35 (0.80) -1.55\* (0.63) 0.69 (0.93) 114.217 3.551
**% cropland+state** -0.35 (0.41) 0.99 (0.61) -1.23\* (0.24) 114.493 3.826
**% potato in space+state** -0.08 (0.31) 1.06 (0.79) -1.19\* (0.24) 115.329 4.662
^a^ Parameter estimate differs significantly from zero (\*, *P* \< 0.05)
^b^ Proportion potato grown on available cropland in the year bioassays were conducted
^c^ Proportion cultivated cropland where potato was grown at least once in the four years preceding the bioassay
^d^ Represents the interaction between specified model parameter and state
There was no significant relationship between *L*. *decemlineata* resistance and proportion of cultivated cropland in the ecosystem. We found that average imidacloprid LC~50~ of the reference population was 0.04±0.02 μg L^-1^ (mean±SD; min. 0.02; max. 0.09) over six consecutive years. This estimate represents baseline tolerance of a population not exposed to commercial potato or the insecticides used in that crop. In comparison, insects collected from landscapes where potato was grown had higher estimates of neonicotinoid resistance with an average imidacloprid LC~50~ of 0.74±0.81 μg L^-1^ (mean±SD; min. 0.08; max. 3.39), which was a 19-fold (range 4 to 37 fold) difference in resistance.
One explanation for differences in *L*. *decemlineata* resistance levels between the reference population and other sample sites could be the amount of insecticides used in agriculture surrounding collection locations. In a regional study of insecticide inputs, amount of insecticides and pest pressure in this region were positively correlated to proportion cultivated cropland in the landscape \[[@pone.0127576.ref054]\]. To determine if the landscape structure surrounding the reference population could have affected the low estimates of neonicotinoid resistance, we measured the composition of cultivated cropland over the six-year collection interval. We found that 0.55±0.25 (mean proportion±SD, min. 0.08, max 0.99) of available land in agricultural production was used to grow potato in at least one of the four prior growing seasons ([Fig 3](#pone.0127576.g003){ref-type="fig"}). The dominant landscape matrix surrounding the reference population was 0.72±0.04 proportion cultivated cropland (mean proportion±SD, min. 0.62, max. 0.75). Potato was a very minor component in the landscape with less than a hectare grown each season. In contrast, the proportion cultivated cropland surrounding *L*. *decemlineata* populations collected from commercial potato production areas was more variable 0.57±0.17 (mean proportion±SD, min. 0.20, max. 0.90). Proportion cultivated cropland did not show a clear relationship to *L*. *decemlineata* resistance for populations collected in agroecosystems where potato is grown commercially. Moreover, the reference population was collected from a landscape dominated by cultivated cropland, yet the reference population was, on average, 19-fold more susceptible to imidacloprid on average compared with than populations collected where commercial potato was grown. This comparison further supports the hypothesis that production intensity of potato in the landscape influences resistance development in *L*. *decemlineata*.
{#pone.0127576.g003}
The proportion of cultivated cropland and PIM were not significantly correlated (*r* = 0.19, t~(48)~ = 1.336, *P* = 0.19), at the 1.5 km spatial scale ([S4 Fig](#pone.0127576.s006){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). Predictions of other studies \[[@pone.0127576.ref054], [@pone.0127576.ref055]\] suggest intensively managed crops, such as potato, would tend to occur in landscapes dominated by agriculture. For *L*. *decemlineata*, the type of crops grown on available farmland in space and time mattered much more than the quantity of agricultural production in the landscape. Because fields containing resistant populations were not consistently found in agriculturally dominated landscapes, we expected that the amount of land devoted to potato production would have a larger effect on insecticide resistance than the proportion of the total landscape in agricultural production. We found that the proportion of cultivated cropland occupied by potato in at least one of the prior four years was significantly related to measured resistance in *L*. *decemlineata* populations (*F* ~(2,47)~ = 15.98, *P*\<0.01, R^2^ = 0.40). Independent measures of potato in space or potato in time did not describe *L*. *decemlineata* resistance as well as PIM, which simultaneously accounts for a spatial and a temporal crop production component ([Table 2](#pone.0127576.t002){ref-type="table"}). The significance of both potato production in time and PIM indicates that landscape measurements using a singular spatial response may be strengthened with a temporal abundance component. These results further suggest that continued displacement of other crops by potato in time and space would result in more widespread neonicotinoid resistance.
To better understand crop rotation decisions of potato farmers, we measured main crop groups (beans, forage, maize, potato, small grains, vegetables) grown in a four-year sequence in fields where *L*. *decemlineata* populations were collected. There were 45 different crop rotation combinations for the 50 fields; however, farmers chose to plant maize or potato in 115 of 200 possible crop rotation decisions (57.5%) ([S5 Fig](#pone.0127576.s007){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). Moreover, in the prior four years of production, 14 fields grew potato twice (28%), 21 only once (42%), and 15 did not produce potato in any other year (30%). Differences in mean LC~50~ showed a marginally significant, positive effect of more frequent potato production on resistance estimates (*F* ~(2,47)~ = 2.802, *P* = 0.07; [Fig 4](#pone.0127576.g004){ref-type="fig"}).
{#pone.0127576.g004}
Our results demonstrated the importance of abundance of an insecticide-treated crop in the landscape coupled with the frequency of its production (e.g., PIM) at a landscape scale when designing resistance management strategies for specialist insect pests. Although this crop-pest-resistance interaction is logical, we could find no studies that have documented this spatiotemporal crop relationship at the landscape scale, and likely the strength of this effect is influenced not only by crop intensity but also pest life history, dispersal distance, natural enemy control, and host range. In other systems, quantitative tools used to describe selection factors for resistance development in landscapes will need to fit the crops, individual pests, and production practices (i.e., insecticide use) of the agroecosystem where they are found.
Our spatiotemporal approach used publicly available, remotely sensed crop data to generate one simple estimate of potato intensification that was associated with measured levels of *L*. *decemlineata* resistance at the landscape scale. This analysis confirmed our potato intensity hypothesis: the level of insecticide resistance in *L*. *decemlineata* populations was positively related to abundance of insecticide-treated potato in the landscape and also the frequency of its production (PIM). Furthermore, this approach defines effects of landscape composition on a more biologically meaningful scale encompassing both spatial and temporal dimensions than approaches only measuring proportion cultivated cropland or proportion potato in a single season \[[@pone.0127576.ref055]\]. While proportion cropland may be a suitable predictor for pest responses in a monoculture system of a few crops, it may not consistently describe specific crop-pest interactions in more diverse production systems where many crops are grown. Sustainable intensification of agriculture will require an increase in crop diversity to reduce input reliance \[[@pone.0127576.ref056],[@pone.0127576.ref057]\], a transition that will demand more flexible tools to assess landscape-scale questions about individual crops in diverse agroecosystems.
This reasonable association between insecticide resistance selection and abundance of any specific crop may not hold for more polyphagous herbivores that are exposed to variable mosaics of many host crops, insecticides, and pesticide-free refugia in the ecosystem. While other studies have focused on spatial composition of agriculture in landscapes \[[@pone.0127576.ref054],[@pone.0127576.ref055]\], the findings of this study build on those results by identifying the importance of both spatial and temporal scales when examining indirect relationships between the proportion of cultivated cropland in the ecosystem, insecticide use, and negative impacts on specialist pest populations.
This crop-specific, spatiotemporal approach using remotely sensed crop cover data could have a broad range of applications to measure impacts of agricultural intensification on other pests. In temperate, conventional production systems, farmers have increased the frequency of crop production (e.g., bean, cotton, maize) in response to improved precision agriculture techniques, genetic modification (GM) technology, and increasing costs of fossil fuels \[[@pone.0127576.ref058],[@pone.0127576.ref059]\]. As a direct result of these changes in production, the composition of some agricultural landscapes has rapidly transitioned from diversified crop rotations to entire regions dominated by a few profitable crops grown at a high frequency \[[@pone.0127576.ref045],[@pone.0127576.ref056]\]. This intensification process improves yields by reducing pest damage via advanced agricultural technologies that reduce production amendments over large areas (GM insect control replacing conventional insecticides) \[[@pone.0127576.ref059],[@pone.0127576.ref060]\]. Although advocates may argue this reduction in total inputs per unit area combined with near universal adoption of a specific technology can be an effective method to sustainably intensify production on existing farmland \[[@pone.0127576.ref061]\], this large-scale intensification strategy in U.S. maize production has likely contributed to the development of Bt maize resistance in the specialist herbivore, *D*. *virgifera* \[[@pone.0127576.ref016],[@pone.0127576.ref058]\]. Similar patterns of resistance are likely to develop where pest management practices are adopted over large geographic extents and used frequently in time, a process that may decrease the overall sustainability of agricultural production.
Proactive insecticide resistance management programs are critical to effective insecticide stewardship from the field to the global scale \[[@pone.0127576.ref062]\]. While approaches to managing pest resistance may vary across pests, crops, and geographic regions, patterns of increasing insecticide use (i.e., spray frequency, higher rates, multiple insecticides) are often reflective of changing sensitivity in a pest population \[[@pone.0127576.ref011]\]. Unfortunately, timely insecticide input records are not easily obtained at a scale that is meaningful in a pest and crop production context. As a result, researchers tend to monitor high-risk pest species to detect developing resistance to insecticides in major crops (e.g., maize, rice, bean, cotton) \[[@pone.0127576.ref062]\], an exercise that does little to change pest management practices of individual farmers or improve the sustainability of minor crops in a meaningful timeframe.
Here, we used potato data to develop a metric that is specific enough to assess field-scale potato intensification to proactively manage *L*. *decemlineata* neonicotinoid resistance. Furthermore, this approach could be adapted to generate risk assessments for other resistant specialist pests for which spatial and temporal crop abundance data exists. Since 2008, the USDA NASS has produced annual CDL data spanning the contiguous US and containing a georeferenced inventory of more than 100 categorical crop classes \[[@pone.0127576.ref045]\]. Application of this information to other intensified crop systems will be a powerful tool to understand the effect of crop rotation on pest management at an agroecosystem, regional, or national context. Furthermore, estimates of crop intensification are likely correlated to many other inputs used annually (e.g., fungicides, herbicides, irrigation, nutrients), and could serve as a landscape- or regional-scale predictor for overall environmental risk posed by increasing production intensity of specific crops grown in monoculture or within more diverse agricultural landscapes.
In an increasingly globalized agricultural community, farmers will have greater access to similar, technologically sophisticated approaches (e.g., crop-protection products, insect resistant and herbicide tolerant GM crops) to intensify individual, high-value crops; perhaps at the cost of eliminating other 'low-tech' insecticide resistance management strategies, such as crop rotation. Anticipated technological advancement of global agriculture will increase the importance of proactive strategies that reduce chances of pest and disease outbreaks, crop failure, reduced yields, or negative social and environmental externalities \[[@pone.0127576.ref063]--[@pone.0127576.ref065]\]. For the specific conditions of our study (i.e., a specialist herbivore with limited dispersal capabilities in a system of pervasive and uniform technology adoption), our results demonstrate that combinations of spatial and temporal crop production patterns are important to describe the indirect costs of technology adoption to intensify agriculture, and should be considered in the design of strategies to achieve more sustainable methods that improve productivity of global agriculture.
Supporting Information {#sec010}
======================
###### Potato production data and aggregated landscape data.
Potato area columns represent the prior years of production (ha) prior to measurement of *L*. *decemlineata* resistance. Total potato area column represents the sum of those areas. Proportion data were calculated from data included in Dataset 2. Proportion agricultural area in potato was calculated as the difference between total area of potato production and area of total cultivated agriculture area.
(DOCX)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Area of land cover (ha) surrounding *L*. *decemlineata* populations sampled in the bioassay year.
Land cover estimates were tabulated from NASS CDL data using a 1.5 km buffer surrounding sample field centroids.
(DOCX)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Distribution of *L*. *decemlineata* populations.
Map of *L*. *decemlineata* populations (N = 50) assayed for neonicotinoid resistance from 2007 to 2012. At each location, adult *L*. *decemlineata* were sampled from commercial potato fields and exposed to a dose-response bioassay. Circle (●) data points represent collections at commercial potato fields and the triangle (◼) represents reference population collection.
(TIF)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Average land cover composition within 1.5 km of sample fields.
Distribution of major land cover types **(a)** comprising average proportion of 1.5 km radius surrounding sample field centroid. Distribution of dominant agricultural crop types comprising the average proportion cropland **(b)** of 1.5 km radius surrounding sample field centroid. Land cover compositions were measured in each year of *L*. *decemlineata* bioassay (N = 50 fields). Minor crops (i.e., fruit, miscellaneous crops, pea, small grains, and other vegetables) were aggregated for graphical presentation.
(TIF)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Average *L*. *decemlineata* response to imidacloprid.
Average lethal concentration responses of *L*. *decemlineata* beetle populations to imidacloprid by state from 2007 to 2012. Error bars represent standard deviation of means. Lethal concentration estimates were significantly different between states (Student's t-test, *t* = 3.2589, df = 12.467, *P* = 0.0065).
(TIF)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Potato intensity and proportion cropland within 1.5 km of sample sites.
Relationship between the potato intensity metric (PIM) and proportion cropland in the landscape (N = 50 fields). Measures of proportion cropland and PIM were not significantly correlated.
(TIF)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Crop composition within 1.5 km of sample sites.
Frequency distribution of major crop groups grown in four prior seasons at 50 different field locations where *L*. *decemlineata* populations were assayed for neonicotinoid resistance from 2007 to 2012. Numbers in parentheses indicate the percentage of total counts for each group.
(TIF)
######
Click here for additional data file.
###### Regression coefficients for final model relating neonicotinoid insecticide resistance to the potato intensity metric (PIM).
(DOCX)
######
Click here for additional data file.
We thank the farmers, pest consultants, and cooperative extension employees who made insect collections possible. We thank Wisconsin Potato and Vegetable Growers Association for providing estimates of neonicotinoid use. We thank A. Byrne for conducting MSU bioassays. We thank AA Agrawal, TM Chappell, F Gould, AV Hicken, AL Jacobson, DM Lowenstein, D Pimentel, and anonymous reviewers for comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. Regression coefficients of the final model ([S1 Table](#pone.0127576.s008){ref-type="supplementary-material"}), potato production data ([S1 Dataset](#pone.0127576.s001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}), and land cover data ([S2 Dataset](#pone.0127576.s002){ref-type="supplementary-material"}) used in the analyses are available online in the Supporting Information.
[^1]: **Competing Interests:**The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
[^2]: Conceived and designed the experiments: ASH JDP KP ZS BAN GGK RLG. Performed the experiments: ASH ZS RLG. Analyzed the data: ASH JDP. Wrote the paper: ASH JDP KP ZS BAN GGK RLG.
| {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Central"
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at is 0.00009200672 rounded to six dps?
0.000092
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-141800
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-0.011
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541000000
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5633000000
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-0.00573
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-1000000
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119
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0.0457
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-73.2
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-27600
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3000000
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34000
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112.6
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0.0004459
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60
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0.308
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-0.1
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0.0000006
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582000
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-190
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-0.000006
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1184300000
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0.00001
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-0.000015
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2807000
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0.19
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0.000648
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-173.1
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0.0395
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40000
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3789
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-33
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1620000
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0
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-0.0042
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0.00714
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0.00002
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0.2
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0.0002
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322000000
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1.276
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-12350
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0
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-0.0000013
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-4
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310000000
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0.000041
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5773000
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130
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-4200
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0.0000015
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2868000
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-142
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0.4
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-0.0364
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401000000
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300
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-30
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4600000
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0.00303
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-0.0002
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0
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-0.0819
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6.96
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2800000
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-66000000
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-340
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-0.2468
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250000
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0.0047
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-0.973
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-0.0002118
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-0.04
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0.0453
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0.00429
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22200
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-0.04
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0.0004142
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-5000
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51000
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11
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-0.0000151
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-0.1
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-6650000
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0.025
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0.0020566
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-23300000
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2000
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2000
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-0.0012
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-0.0000799
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-475
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1200000
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11000000
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52.15
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0.02
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8600000
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0.36
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-0.0000013
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-0.023
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-5700
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2760000
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0.000653
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-260000
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-1000
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-10000
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-442600
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8.4
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-0.00021
Round 42589.1 to the n | {
"pile_set_name": "DM Mathematics"
} |
"Life of Crime" is a SpongeBob SquarePants episode from season two. In this episode, SpongeBob and Patrick steal a balloon on free balloon day.
Characters
Synopsis
The episode starts at the Krusty Krab, where SpongeBob and Patrick see Mr. Krabs watching a classic black and white crime movie. Mr. Krabs speaks out against thieves and stealing, but SpongeBob and Patrick remind him of all the stuff he has that isn't his: a barrel from Salty Sea Farms, a towel from the Sizzling Spring Sauna, a Bikini Bell phone, Sandy's hedge clippers, Plankton's lawnmower, and Mrs. Puff's hair curlers. Mr. Krabs claims that he "borrowed" all those things, telling them that it is okay to borrow something as long as they give it back before it is missed.
Later that day, SpongeBob and Patrick spot a balloon stand. Since they do not have any money, they decide to follow Mr. Krabs' advice and "borrow" a balloon. They sneak away with it, and as they talk about all the fun things they plan to do with it, it suddenly pops. Realizing that they can no longer return the balloon, they concede that they stole it. When they panic and bump into Lou, the owner of the balloon stand, they run away before he reveals that it is National Free Balloon Day. They decide to leave Bikini Bottom after realizing that they were wanted criminals, not realizing that they never committed any crime.
That night, they camp in the middle of nowhere and lament that they will never see any of their friends or do any of the fun things they used to do again, causing Patrick and SpongeBob to be sad and miss their old lives. However, they then begin to look at the positives, such as not having to live by society's standards and not having to return anything they borrow, and so convince themselves that being criminals can be fun. Patrick sadly remarks that they still don't have anything to eat until SpongeBob reveals that he has two chocolate bars, which he hopes they can survive on for the rest of their lives. However, Patrick eats his in two quick bites, and upon trying to take a third bite of it, discovers that it is gone.
When he sees SpongeBob's candy bar, Patrick accuses him of stealing it. Although SpongeBob tries to remind Patrick that he already ate his, he refuses to believe him. SpongeBob offers half of his chocolate to him, but Patrick says he doesn't want it unless SpongeBob admits that he took it. Having enough of Patrick's behavior, SpongeBob eats the whole thing himself. Fed up, Patrick decides to report SpongeBob to the police. SpongeBob aims to tell on Patrick first and they race to the police station.
Once there, they both confess their original crime together, and the officers confer with each other before locking them up. However, the two are immediately released, being informed that they stole the balloon on National Free Balloon Day, much to the officers' amusement. SpongeBob and Patrick, though shocked to learn of their innocence, vow that they will never borrow anything without permission again and the officers give them lollipops for the trip back home. Once again, Patrick eats his immediately and accuses SpongeBob and the officers of stealing it. They all laugh together until Patrick says he means it, with a shot of Bikini Atoll being seen.
Storyboards
Music
( ‣ ) Associated production music
( • ) Original music
( ◦ ) SpongeBob music
‣
‣ Villains and Vampires - Sam Fonteyn [Crustacean Crime Theater]
‣ Dirty Work at the Crossroads - Sam Fonteyn [Crustacean Crime Theater]
‣ The Rake Hornpipe - Robert Alexander White [Mr. Krabs watching TV]
• Seaweed - Steve Belfer [SpongeBob, Patrick in the park]
• Dreamy Harp - Nicolas Carr [Patrick sees balloons]
‣ Dance of the Lights - Buddy Baker [Riding a rainbow]
• Idea Sting - Nicolas Carr ["Yeah, like Mr. Krabs!"]
‣ Sunny Samoa - George de Fretes, Jan Rap [Saying all the things they are going do with the balloon]
‣ Dramatic Cue (a) - Ronald Hanmer [They scream]
‣ Flight in Panic 1 - Gregor F. Narholz [Putting the balloon back together]
‣ Life or Death - Jack Beaver ["We can't return it!"]
‣ Hit and Run - Ralph Dollimore [SpongeBob and Patrick running away]
‣ Hawaiian Farewell - George Elliott ["Take a last look, Patrick."]
‣ Lonely Violin - Dick Stephen Walter [SpongeBob lists all the things they will not see anymore]
‣ On the Beach - Kapono Beamer [Upside of being a fugitive/"But at least we don't have to shave."]
‣ Hawaiian Link (b) - Richard Myhill [SpongeBob and Patrick hug]
• Idea Sting - Nicolas Carr [Close up of candy bars]
• Gator - Steve Belfer [Patrick accuses SpongeBob of stealing his candy bar]
‣ House of Horror - W. Merrick Farran [SpongeBob teases Patrick with the candy bar/SpongeBob licks the candy bar]
‣ Catwalk - Kenny Graham ["Or did your criminal mind hypnotize me to steal it?"]
‣ The Hurry Up - Kenny Graham ["Not if I tell on you first!"]
• Sponge Monger - Sage Guyton, Jeremy Wakefield [Running to the police station]
• Steel Licks 7 - Jeremy Wakefield ["We stole a balloon!"]
‣ Dramatic Cue (e) - Ronald Hanmer [SpongeBob and Patrick locked up]
‣ Nostalgic Hawaii - George de Fretes, Jan Rap [Ending]
Release
Trivia
General
There was a rumor that SpongeBob originally said "No more getting nailed" which was replaced by "No more getting mail !" and Patrick was shown nailing a plank to his head. It was debunked by Vincent Waller on Twitter. [1]
!" and Patrick was shown nailing a plank to his head. It was debunked by Vincent Waller on Twitter. There is a book based on this episode called Sponge on the Run!
Cultural references
The episode shares the title of a 1990 album by the garage rock band Laughing Hyenas.
Mr. Krabs' "eel in the kelp" line is a pun on the "snake in the grass" metaphor.
Errors
In one scene, the balloon is brown instead of red.
When Patrick first looks at the balloons, there is a brown one, but when Patrick looks again, the brown balloon disappears.
When SpongeBob and Patrick are seen around the fire at nighttime, they are seen in the middle of nowhere. However, when SpongeBob attempts to fly, they are standing next to a cliff.
When Patrick says, "You took my only food! Now I'm gonna starve!" he appears to be lit by the fire. However, the fire was already extinguished.
In some scenes, the red line under SpongeBob's mouth disappears.
When SpongeBob says, "We can loosen our ties" and plays with his tie, it turns pink for less than a second.
After SpongeBob finishes off his chocolate bar, the chocolate on Patrick's face disappears, then reappears after a few frames.
On recent Nicktoons airings, this and its sister episode are low pitched.[citation needed] | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
} |
Q:
Hilbert style axiom system without generalisation
I the book Computational Complexity by C. Papadimitriou he introduces for first order logic the following axioms:
AX0: Any expression whose Boolean form is a tautology.
AX1: Any expression of the following form:
AX1a: $t = t$.
AX1b: $(t_1 = t_1' \land \ldots \land t_k = t_k') \Rightarrow f(t_1, \ldots, t_k) = f(t_1', \ldots, t_k')$.
AX1c: $(t_1 = t_1' \land \ldots \land t_k = t_k') \Rightarrow (R(t_1,\ldots,t_k) \Rightarrow R(t_1', \ldots, t_k'))$.
AX2: Any expression of the form $\forall x \phi \Rightarrow \phi[x \leftarrow t]$
AX3: Any expression of the form $\phi \Rightarrow \forall \phi$, with $x$ not free in $\phi$.
AX4: Any expression of the form $(\forall x(\phi \Rightarrow \varphi)) \Rightarrow (\forall x \phi \Rightarrow \forall x \varphi)$.
Remerk: AX0 includes Modus Ponens. And $t$ denotes a term in the language of first order logic.
In the text there is a form of generalisation mentioned, to cite the text (the paragraph's where all these axioms are justified):
Proposition 5.7: If $\phi$ is valid, then so is $\forall x \phi$.
There is a stronger form of this. Suppose that $x$ does not occur free in $\phi$. Then we claim that $\phi \Rightarrow \forall x \phi$ is valid. The reason is that, any model that satisfies $\phi$ will also satisfy $\forall x\phi$, as the $x = u$ part of the definition of satisfaction becomes irrelevant. We summarize this as follows:
Proposition 5.8.: If $x$ does not appear free in $\phi$, then $\phi \Rightarrow \forall \phi$ is valid.
What makes me wonder is that Propostion 5.7 is entirely dropped from the axioms, so I thought it might be deducable from the the other. And indeed if $x$ does no appear free in $\phi$, then Modus ponus with AX3 gives it, but what if $x$ does appear free in $\phi$. Surely by definition, if then $\phi$ is valid it must be satisfied by every model, in particular whatever value the free variable has, which makes this rule evident. But in that case I do not see how to deduce it from the other axioms...
So, why is the rule of generalisation missing in the axioms? Is it somehow deducible from the others?
A:
Yes, it is a quite common presentation of first-order logic.
See e.g.:
Herbert Enderton, A Mathematical Introduction to Logic, Academic Press (2nd ed. 2001), page 109-on.
It has one rule of inference only : modus ponens, while Generalization is derivable in the form [see page 117]:
If $\Gamma \vdash \varphi$ and $x$ do not occur free in any formula in $\Gamma$, then $\Gamma \vdash ∀x \ \varphi$.
The proof is by induction on the lenght of the derivation of $\Gamma \vdash \varphi$ (and it needs axioms Ax3 and Ax4).
With $\Gamma = \emptyset$, we have : if $\vdash \varphi$, then $\vdash \forall x \ \varphi$.
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
Dodamangadi
Dodamangadi is a village in Belgaum district in the southern state of Karnataka, India.
References
Category:Villages in Belgaum district | {
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
} |
var isStream = require('./isStream');
module.exports = function(stream) {
if (!isStream(stream)) return;
var streamType = stream.constructor.name;
// avoid StreamStream
if (streamType === 'Stream') streamType = '';
return '<'+streamType+'Stream>';
};
| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
Contents
ooeLite are lite version from ooe framework;
ooeLite have some news features for next release candidate from ooe framework;
News Feature :
Now all classes as extend from ooeInheritance;
Now ooeInheritance suport classes with constructor;
ooePDO now have news methods and suport SQL Statement;
ooePDO return error execption for best query debug;
ooeLite work only PDO (PHP DATA OBJECT) and suport all PDO database (mysql,postgres,oracle,etc ..);
See exemples :
executeSql.php : compact automatic method for all basic querys;
prepare_select.php : methods for return values from select querys;
statment_sql.php : How to use a statement querys , suport all basic querys , select, update, delete , insert and store procedures.
Good Luck for all. | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
Related products
The LUELLA bag is a simple sling bag with front, back and an internal zip pocket with our signature blue printed lining and detachable tassel. It is available in 2 sizes the mini for the little girls and the regular for the ones a bit older.
The RUBIKA is always a favourite of little girls It features and external and internal zip pocket and our signature blue printed satin lining snd is made from Vegan leather. It is available in 2 sizes the mini for the little girls and the regular for the ones a bit older.
The Lulu overnighter features internal and external zip pockets and is made from denim with washed denim and a gold star print. It is lined with our signature blue printed satin lining. This also comes in a adult version. | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
Hoist controller
A hoist controller is the controller for a hoist. The term is used primarily in the context of electrically operated hoists, but it is apparent that the control systems of many 20th century steam hoists also incorporated controllers of significant complexity. Consider the control system of the Quincy Mine No. 2 Hoist. This control system included interlocks to close the throttle valve at the end of trip and to prevent opening the throttle again until the winding engine was reversed. The control system also incorporated a governor to control the speed of the hoist and indicator wheels to show the hoist operator the positions of the skips in the mine shaft.
The hoist controllers for modern electric mining hoists have long included such features as automatic starting of the hoist when the weight of coal or ore in the skip reaches a set point, automatic acceleration of the hoist to full speed and automatic deceleration at the end of travel.
Hoist controllers need both velocity and absolute position references taken, typically taken from the winding drum of the hoist. Modern hoist controllers replace many of the mechanical analog mechanisms of earlier controllers with digital control systems.
See also
Hydraulic hooklift hoist
References
Category:Mining equipment | {
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
} |
Q:
How to reference a map position in code?
I'm coding a digital version of the Macao board game which has a flat map similar to below. Players have a "ship" which starts in the blue box and can follow the dashed lines in any direction/orientation. The larger rectangles represent city locations.
I'm stuck in the following issues.
How do I record the position of each ship? I'm thinking co-ordinates like X,Y but that doesn't tell me the segment its on
How do I construct the route paths as objects? Do I put them in an array?
Finally; in order to measure distance between 1 rectangle and another, it will need to count how many segments there are to ascertain the shortest distance. I believe this can be resolved via a simple path algorithm.
I've not created a map like this before in a project but would welcome any help on how to move this forward.
A:
I would suggest you start by building a node graph (a bunch of nodes and arcs (sometimes called edges)).
The nodes are the cities and "dash" intersection
The arcs link cities and "dash" intersection
Then all these nodes have info like their 'physical' location (x/y coordinates on the map).
To solve your issues:
you use the position that are set in the nodes to infer the location and the orientation.
this will depend on the implementation of your node graph.
use a path-finding algorithm like A* to find the best route between your current location and the destination. Your graph, again, will be used for that.
This should help you to get started.
Edit
The produced node graph could look like this:
Of course, the arcs depicted in the picture would be the arcs linking the nodes in the graph.
Now, from the question it is not clear if the intersection nodes are spots where the ships could stay, but as it is designed as a board game, I assumed that if there is more than one dash between two cities, it is because it costs more to travel from one city to another (for instance you need a 2 on a dice instead of just 1). With this in mind, I assumed that a ship could stay on these spots (but not on arcs).
If it is not the case, however, the intersection nodes could still be used for navigation purpose between cities. This would give squarish ship tracks, however, so perhaps another approach should be taken for that. For instance: edges could contain data describing how they should be travelled (spline, series of dots, etc.).
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
1. Field of the Invention
The present disclosure relates to an organic light-emitting diode. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to a high-efficiency organic light-emitting diode in which an electron-density-controlling layer is disposed between a light-emitting layer and an electron injection layer.
2. Description of the Related Art
Organic light-emitting diodes, based on self-luminescence, exhibit the advantages of having a wide viewing angle, excellent contrast, fast response time, high brightness, and excellent driving voltage and response rate characteristics, and of realizing a polychromic display.
A typical organic light-emitting diode includes an anode and a cathode, with an organic emissive layer disposed therebetween.
As to the general structure of the organic light-emitting diode, a hole transport layer, a light-emitting layer, an electron transport layer, and a cathode are formed in that order on an anode. Here, all of the hole transport layer, the light-emitting layer, and the electron transport layer are organic films comprising organic compounds.
An organic light-emitting diode having such a structure operates as follows: when a voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode, the anode injects holes which are then transferred to the light-emitting layer via the hole transport layer while electrons injected from the cathode move to the light-emitting layer via the electron transport layer. In the luminescent zone, the carriers such as holes and electrons recombine to produce an exciton. When the exciton returns to the ground state from the excited state, the molecule of the light-emitting layer emits light.
Materials used as the organic layers in organic light-emitting diodes may be divided into luminescent materials and charge carrier materials, for example, a hole injection material, a hole transport material, an electron injection material, and an electron transport material. The light-emitting mechanisms allow the luminescent materials to be classified as fluorescent and phosphorescent materials, which use excitons in singlet and triplet states, respectively.
Meanwhile, when a single material is employed as the luminescent material, intermolecular actions cause the maximum luminescence wavelength to shift toward a longer wavelength, resulting in a reduction in color purity and light emission efficiency. In this regard, a host-dopant system may be used as a luminescent material so as to increase the color purity and the light emission efficiency through energy transfer. This is based on the principle whereby, when a dopant has a smaller energy band gap than a host, which consist of the light-emitting layer, the addition of a small amount of the dopant to the host generates excitons from the light-emitting layer so that the excitons are transported to the dopant, emitting light at high efficiency. Here, light of desired wavelengths can be obtained depending on the kind of the dopant because the wavelength of the host moves to the wavelength range of the dopant.
With regard to the efficiency of organic light-emitting diodes, statistically, there is a 25% probability of forming a singlet state and a 75% probability of forming a triplet state. It would thus be expected that in fluorescent OLEDs only the formation of singlet excitons results in the emission of useful radiation, placing a theoretical limit on the internal quantum efficiency of 25%.
To avoid the disadvantage, Korean Patent Unexamined Application Publication No. 10-2012-0092555 (Aug. 21, 2012) proposes the effective occurrence of a TTF phenomenon, in which singlet excitons are generated through the collision and fusion of two triplet excitons. For this, as shown in FIG. 1, this reference discloses an electroluminescence device in which a blocking layer is interposed between a light-emitting layer and an electron injection layer, with an affinity difference between the electron injection layer and the blocking layer. In this regard, the blocking layer is set to have a triplet energy larger than that of the host of the light-emitting layer so as to confine triplet excitons within the light-emitting layer, whereby the effective occurrence of the TTF phenomenon is induced. In addition, the electroluminescence device employs a material in which respective affinities of both the electron injection layer and the blocking layer satisfy a specific condition.
As described above, the reference document is designed to cause the effective occurrence of a TTF phenomenon in order to provide high emission efficiency for an organic electroluminescence device. To this end, the blocking layer should include a material that is higher in triplet energy than the host, and an aromatic heterocyclic compound of a specific fused ring should be employed in the blocking layer.
In spite of various efforts made to fabricate organic light-emitting diodes having effective luminescence characteristics, however, there is still a continued need to develop organic light-emitting diodes having a higher effective luminescence efficiency by improving the emitting layer. | {
"pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds"
} |
Methods of cerebral protection in surgery of the thoracic aorta.
During the last decade, a considerable increase in the number of operations on the thoracic aorta has been observed. Although patient's outcomes have improved considerably, this surgery is still associated with significant morbidity and mortality due to neurological complications. Various methods have been proposed and widely used as means to protect the brain from ischemic damage. This review summarizes the principal methods of cerebral protection, describes the advantages and disadvantages of each method and their impact on patient outcomes, and discusses the different surgical techniques proposed to minimize the risk of cerebral injuries. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Role of modelling in in-patient suicide: a lack of supporting evidence.
An analysis of the temporal distribution of 115 in-patient suicides that occurred in two Swiss psychiatric hospitals in the years 1977-86 failed to reveal any statistically significant clustering of suicides. Thus, the modelling effect does not generally play a decisive role in psychiatric in-patient suicide. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Q:
Significance level in hpgenselect procedure in SAS
I am building models with proc hpgenselect but I can't set significance level. In Docs I found out that parameter: ALPHA= Specifies a global significance level. However SAS still use default value of 0.05 building model (see on image below).
I wanted to see which parameters will come to model over diffrent significance levels but now I can't do this. &significance. is a macro variable. My code:
%let significance = 0.15;
proc hpgenselect data=MySet ALPHA=&significance.;
model Y = &Var./ dist=nb ALPHA=&significance.;
id id;
selection method=STEPWISE(stop=SL) DETAILS=SUMMARY;
run;
A:
Try the SLS=&significance on the SELECTION statement. I believe that controls the alpha for selection. The ALPHA= on the model is for the confidence intervals produced, and ALPHA= on the hpgenselect also controls the confidence intervals.
proc hpgenselect data=MySet ALPHA=&significance.;
model Y = &Var./ dist=nb ALPHA=&significance.;
id id;
selection method=STEPWISE(stop=SL SLS=&significance) DETAILS=SUMMARY;
run;
That should give you want you want.
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
South Carolina Gamecocks defensive end Jadeveon Clowney (7) holds the Capital One Bowl trophy after defeating the Wisconsin Badgers at the game held at the Florida Citrus Bowl. Mandatory Credit: Rob Foldy-USA TODAY Sports
Usually college coaches gush with praise when asked about former players who are now touted draft prospects, but both UCF head coach George O’Leary and South Carolina Gamecocks head man Steve Spurrier didn’t have the best effusive praise for prospects Blake Bortles and Jadeveon Clowney respectively.
While I personally believe that the knocks on Clowney for a lack of work ethic and college production last season are grossly overblown, Spurrier didn’t exactly extinguish the work ethic concerns. I think his comments will also be overblown, but it was still interesting to see him give toned down, down-to-earth (then again, that’s exactly what he’s known for) evaluation of Clowney’s work ethic. He told NFL AM, via Pro Football Talk’s Michael David Smith, “He was OK. It wasn’t like Marcus Lattimore, you know, every player is a little different,” Spurrier said. “His work habits are pretty good, they’re not quite like Lattimore, maybe Stephon Gilmore, Melvin Ingram, some of those guys, but when the ball is snapped he’s got something no one else has.”
Ingram and Lattimore are two of the hardest-working players in the NFL, so it’s not like those were fair comparisons anyway. Clowney has a ridiculous amount of talent ,and Spurrier backed him up on both his talent and gave the right response when asked why Clowney didn’t have as many sacks.
“Even though his production this year wasn’t near what it was last year, he had two or three guys waiting on him just about every play,” Spurrier said. “His run defense was very good, though, and he chased down a bunch of guys and made tackles. His sacks — he had to run around two or three guys just about every game. I don’t think teams will quite do that in the NFL, but we’ll have to wait and see.”
Right on. Right. On. Clowney is probably the best run defender in the class, and he’s certainly the most talented prospect in the class. Kelcy Quarles and Chaz Sutton have him to thank for a lot of their production, and it would be ridiculous to dock Clowney by box score scouting (seriously, that’s the worst kind of “scouting” there is). “OK” work ethic or not, Clowney is the most talented prospect in the class, and it would be a shame for him to slip out of the top five.
Follow @NFLSpinZone | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
} |
cheese tortellini pasta recipes
Chilled Italian Shrimp Tortellini Pasta Salad | Skinnytaste
Loaded with shrimp, this Chilled Italian Shrimp Tortellini Pasta Salad is perfect for dining al fresco! This delicious, light shrimp and tortellini salad can be served as a side or main dish, perfect for summer potlucks or pool parties, or anytime you need a pasta salad that isn't weighed down with heavy mayo.
Pasta | Food & Wine -
Pasta recipes from F&W, including a baked four-cheese spaghetti.
Tortellini Tuna Salad - Kraft Recipes
Try our Tortellini Tuna Salad. If you've got a can of tuna and some cheese tortellini, you can make this creamy, family-pleasing Tortellini Tuna Salad.
Buitoni - Official Site
Get inspired for meals with BUITONI® pasta. Our flat & filled pastas, sauces & cheese can be found in your grocer's refrigerated aisle.
#97 - Cheese Cappelletti - 365 Days of Easy Recipes
While the tortellini is cooking, heat the spaghetti sauce over medium heat. Cube the cream cheese and add to the heated sauce. Whisk the sauce until the cream cheese is completely dissolved.
Easy Italian Tortellini Pasta Salad | The Recipe Critic
Easy Italian Tortellini Pasta Salad is full of fresh summer veggies, salami, and tortellini pasta. It is tossed in a ...
Quick & Easy Pasta Recipes - EatingWell
Find quick and easy pasta recipes, from the food and nutrition experts at EatingWell.
Easy Tortellini Pasta Salad Recipe - Add a Pinch
This easy Tortellini Pasta Salad recipe is a summer staple! Perfect for picnics, potlucks, reunions, or to make ahead for easy meals, this is a pasta salad you'll turn to time and again! My sister Wendy makes the most amazing pasta salad. It is one of those recipes that I crave, especially in the ...
Three Cheese Tortellini Italian Pasta Salad Recipe (Perfect ...
This pasta salad recipe tastes so delicious, no one will ever guess just how easy it was for you to make it! It's a real crowdpleaser, and makes the perfect side dish for picnics, potlucks and summer barbeques. You'll love three cheese tortellini pasta combined with your favorite Italian flavors ...
Tortellini Pasta Salad with Pepperoni and Italian Vinaigrette ...
This is a classic tortellini pasta salad that's perfect for cookouts, BBQs, and potlucks! It's a universal crowd-pleaser thanks to cheesy pasta pockets and all the other fresh and flavorful ingredients.
20 Minute Tortellini Pasta Carbonara - The Chunky Chef
Simple, elegant and quick cooking, this 20 minute tortellini pasta carbonara is the answer to your weeknight dinner prayers! Easy and family friendly! Weeknight dinners can be a hassle, but with this ultra quick tortellini pasta carbonara you can have a fresh, wholesome dinner that the whole ... | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
What if coloring books just came with colors And we drew the pictures to fit?
126 shares | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
} |
Q:
How to convert this javascript code into jquery?
I have a javascript code like this:
function share22() {
if(!isOneChecked('choice')) {
alert('Please select the file..');
return false;
}
document.getElementById('share_popup').style.display="block";
}
I want to convert this dialog into simple jquery so that I can edit the title.
A:
Try this
function share22() {
if(!isOneChecked('choice')) {
alert('Please select the file..');
return false;
}
$("#share_popup").css("display", "block");
}
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
Q:
C++ Boost multiprecision cpp_int
I try to get log of a big number. How should I do it? I cannot use gmp.hpp because it says Cannot open include file: 'gmp.h': No such file or directory
The following code
#include <iostream>
#include <boost/multiprecision/cpp_int.hpp>
#define rsa100 "1522605027922533360535618378132637429718068114961380688657908494580122963258952897654000350692006139"
using namespace std;
using namespace boost::multiprecision;
int main(){
cpp_int n(rsa100);
cout << boost::multiprecision::log(n);
return 0;
}
Give me error:
1>------ Build started: Project: rsa, Configuration: Debug x64 ------
1> Source.cpp
1>Source.cpp(12): error C2893: Failed to specialize function template 'enable_if_c<boost::multiprecision::number_category<Num>::value==1,boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<boost::multiprecision::detail::function,boost::multiprecision::detail::log_funct<Backend>,boost::multiprecision::number<B,et_on>,void,void>>::type boost::multiprecision::log(const boost::multiprecision::number<B,et_on> &)'
1> With the following template arguments:
1> 'Backend=boost::multiprecision::backends::cpp_int_backend<0,0,signed_magnitude,unchecked,std::allocator<boost::multiprecision::limb_type>>'
1>Source.cpp(12): error C2784: 'enable_if_c<boost::multiprecision::number_category<boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<tag,Arg1,Arg2,Arg3,Arg4>>::value==number_kind_floating_point,boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<boost::multiprecision::detail::function,boost::multiprecision::detail::log_funct<detail::backend_type<boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<tag,Arg1,Arg2,Arg3,Arg4>>::type>,boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<tag,Arg1,Arg2,Arg3,Arg4>,void,void>>::type boost::multiprecision::log(const boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<tag,Arg1,Arg2,Arg3,Arg4> &)' : could not deduce template argument for 'const boost::multiprecision::detail::expression<tag,Arg1,Arg2,Arg3,Arg4> &' from 'boost::multiprecision::cpp_int'
1> C:\boost_1_55_0\boost/multiprecision/detail/default_ops.hpp(1998) : see declaration of 'boost::multiprecision::log'
========== Build: 0 succeeded, 1 failed, 0 up-to-date, 0 skipped ==========
A:
log takes a real number, not integer.
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <boost/multiprecision/cpp_dec_float.hpp>
#define rsa100 "1522605027922533360535618378132637429718068114961380688657908494580122963258952897654000350692006139"
using namespace std;
using namespace boost::multiprecision;
int main(){
cpp_dec_float_100 n(rsa100);
auto log_n = log(n);
auto exp_log_n = exp(log_n);
cout << std::fixed << log_n << "\n";
cout << std::fixed << exp_log_n << "\n";
}
See it Live on Coliru
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
Pharmacotherapy of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: focus on safety.
The therapy of osteoporosis has made enormous strides in the last decade. There is now a range of interventions, each with its pros and cons. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation remain the foundation and have few safety issues. Bisphosphonates are widely used, though gastrointestinal tolerance is a problem with some oral preparations. Intravenous administration may circumvent this, although this introduces the smaller problem of acute phase reactions. The side effect profile of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is still being delineated after 40 years of use, with substantial new information expected in the next few years. This will clarify its place in the medical management of the menopause. Raloxifene appears to have a superior safety profile to HRT, though its efficacy on bone may be less. While none of these options is suitable for everyone, the range of available therapies does mean that most patients can find an intervention that is effective and acceptable. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Most of the puppies that pet stores sell are trucked or flown hundreds of miles from puppy mills, creating a Great Dane–sized carbon pawprint. But animal shelters in every city are full of locally grown companion animals you can tuck into your Smart car before taking the short drive home.
Photo courtesy of PETA
9) Sea yourself away from water pollution.
SeaWorld isn’t just hard on orcas—it’s also hard on the environment. The marine park was in a fine mess after it got hit with a fine for messing up San Diego’s Mission Bay after violating effluent limitations numerous times.
Credit: PETA
8) Make like Miss Piggy and love a frog.
Ecosystems are being decimated by biological supply houses that catch huge numbers of frogs to be dissected. If you’re a student or parent, urge your local school district to switch to a virtual dissection program instead.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is the largest animal rights organization in the world, with more than 3 million members and supporters. PETA focuses its attention on the four areas in which the largest numbers of animals suffer the most intensely for the longest periods of time: on factory farms, in the clothing trade, in laboratories, and in the entertainment industry. | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
1. Introduction {#sec0005}
===============
Precision agriculture is already commonplace in many aspects of farming. Information-based management systems to adapt fertilizer distribution across the field were first introduced in the mid-1980s ([@bib0095]) and since then precision farming techniques including GPS steering, soil mapping, and variable rate seeding are becoming increasingly popular; with the proportion of UK farmers who implement these techniques increasing over recent years ([@bib0060]). The concept of site-specific weed management, specifically patch spraying is less prevalent but is gathering interest. Site-specific weed management takes into account the spatial variability of weeds either through intermittent spraying based on observed weed density at different locations or by modelling the thresholds for weed density above which it is economic to spray ([@bib0090]). This results in reduced chemical cost and more accurate application of control practices ([@bib0065]).
Despite the economic and environmental benefits of patch spraying for weed management, it has not been readily taken up as a standard management tool. There are many reasons for this ([@bib0025]) but perhaps the most important is that a change to patch spraying goes against current practice. An unwillingness to implement site-specific weed management may stem from the perceived risk of missing individuals that grow outside of currently established patches and are not detected by weed mapping. Individuals may enter the field from elsewhere or a patch may expand due to increased dispersal from highly dense patches or through cultivation. If these individuals remain unsprayed there is a risk they will turn into new patches. The incorporation of buffer zones into spray maps is a general measure taken to try and combat this, however this does not account for seed spreading outside of the immediate area surrounding the patch or entering the field from elsewhere.
Despite the reservations of farmers in using precision agriculture techniques in weed control, many weed species lend themselves well to site-specific control due to their patchy distributions within fields. In recent years, the idea of studying the spatial distribution of weeds with the intent to introduce a site-specific aspect to their management has been an area of growing interest. The introduction of satellite spatial technology in the 1990s introduced the possibility of locating weed patches in the field ([@bib0155]) and this is now being explored further with the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (e.g. [@bib0020], [@bib0145], [@bib0150], [@bib0245]). Research on the real-time mapping of weeds (e.g. [@bib0205], [@bib0270]) is also ongoing.
We focus here on *Alopecurus myosuroides* Huds. (black-grass), a common grass weed of winter cereals in north-west Europe ([@bib0115]). It is particularly problematic due to its fast reproductive rate, strong competitive ability with the crop, and because its life-cycle is largely synchronised with that of winter cereals ([@bib0160]). *Alopecurus myosuroides* plants can produce large amounts of seeds ([@bib0190]) meaning small failures in control can lead to rapid population growth and dense infestations within fields. Currently, the main means by which farmers choose to control this pernicious weed is through broadcast application of herbicides. However, the decreasing number of chemical products available for use, and increasing economic and environmental pressures to reduce herbicide use puts a growing emphasis on the optimisation of current techniques and finding alternative approaches ([@bib0105]). The within-field distribution of *A. myosuroides* is patchy ([@bib0285], [@bib0130], [@bib0170], [@bib0185]) and as such this presents an opportunity for site-specific management.
It has been shown that the patchy distribution of *A. myosuroides* in fields can be related to variation in soil properties ([@bib0115], [@bib0155], [@bib0210], [@bib0170], [@bib0185]), particularly soil organic matter, pH, and water. [@bib0185] demonstrated that these relationships are strongest at coarse scales (\>20 m), making them ideal for the implementation of precision management. This provides a basis upon which to identify weed vulnerable zones within fields for this species. However, a biological model that elucidates the underlying processes and causality of these relationships could potentially be used to assess the relative propensity of other species to form patches based on their ecophysiology.
[@bib0195] constructed a basic life-cycle model of *A. myosuroides*. [@bib0050], [@bib0055] added more complexity to their life-cycle model for *A. myosuroides*: ALOMYSYS. Most weed population dynamics models ignore the within-field distribution of the weed and generally simulate the average density ([@bib0120]). [@bib0220], however, considered the need for a spatial component to models of *A. myosuroides* population dynamics. Building on basic models of the *A. myosuroides* life-cycle they incorporated elements of stochasticity into the life-cycle processes and included a binomial probability of weed survival following herbicide application. They included both isotropic and anisotropic dispersal processes derived from [@bib0125]. They showed that when dispersal only occurs over short distances, patchiness is maintained and even if the field is initialised with a uniform seed bank the population will develop patches in a homogeneous environment. [@bib0100] also considered spatial patterns in the modelling of *A. myosuroides* in an array of hexagons representing part of a field. Seed dispersal was assumed to be isotropic and dispersal by the combine was also considered. The inclusion of features such as seed dispersal in spatial models are often not sufficient to describe the degree of patchiness observed in field populations. It is thought that this may be due to the omission of the effect of soil variables ([@bib0220], [@bib0250]).
[@bib0070] included the effect of nutrients, soil pH and particle size on *A. myosuroides* in their model, based on the results of a pot experiment. They verified this model in one field where *A. myosuroides* counts and soil properties were measured on a 50 m × 50 m grid. Their model was based on the demographic data from [@bib0195]. In the [@bib0070] model, only the early parts of the life-cycle are affected by soil as the experiment on which they based their model was only conducted for 5 weeks post germination. They found their simulations to be only weakly correlated with real data and only 4 out of 20 simulations showed a significant correlation.
Our aim was to develop a model to help address the risk, associated with current patch spraying techniques, of missing individuals that disperse outside of currently established patches. We propose an extension to current techniques for mapping weeds, which addresses this concern: that is to identify parts of the field that are vulnerable to weed infestation. These "weed vulnerable zones" can then be used to guide the precision application of herbicides. To do this, we develop a spatially explicit model of the life-cycle model of *A. myosuroides* incorporating mechanistic responses to soil variability across the whole life-cycle. The model is based on the work of [@bib0195], [@bib0050] and [@bib0220] but extended to include the direct and indirect effect of soil on the weed based on experimental data. It also introduces stochasticity into the system providing a more realistic range of possible outcomes than could a deterministic model. By modifying the life-cycle of the plant according to known responses to variation in soil properties (including texture, organic matter, water and pH) we tested the hypothesis that scale-dependent relationships between soil properties (including soil organic matter, water content and pH) and the density of *A. myosuroides* observed in fields by [@bib0185] can be modelled. Our model strikes a balance between tractability and complexity---processes are only modelled mechanistically to capture the effect of different soil properties. It was built to answer the specific hypothesis that the heterogeneous environment impacts on population dynamics resulting in scale-dependent correlations between soil properties and *A. myosuroides* distributions and does not claim to predict absolute numbers but rather the relative fitness in different within-field locations.
2. Model description {#sec0010}
====================
We developed a spatially explicit model of *A. myosuroides* population densities within a field, incorporating various processes throughout the plant\'s life-cycle. The model is described here and the parameterisation detailed in the following section. The modelled field is described by a grid of square cells, the side length of which can be defined in real units of distance. We define the relative position of these cells in Cartesian coordinates and so a rectangular area of defined size can be simulated allowing spatial processes, such as dispersal, between cells. For each grid cell we define values for soil texture (% clay and silt), soil pH, soil organic matter (%), soil gravimetric water content (%), slope, and aspect, at a resolution consistent with the chosen grid size.
2.1. Soil water content {#sec0015}
-----------------------
Soil water content is dynamic and changes over time according to weather and other soil properties. Plant available water, given as soil volumetric water content (*S*~VWC~) is calculated by$$S_{VWC} = \frac{S_{GWC} \times D_{b}}{100}.$$where *S*~GWC~ is the soil gravimetric water content set for the cell and *D*~*b*~ is the bulk density of the soil, which is calculated using the pedotransfer function:$$\begin{matrix}
D_{b} & {= 0.80806 + 0.823844\exp\left( {- 0.27993\, S_{SOM}} \right) + 0.0014065\left( {100 - S_{Clay} - S_{Silt}} \right) - 0.0010299\, S_{Clay}} & \\
& & \\
\end{matrix}$$derived by [@bib0110] for cultivated topsoil, where *S*~SOM~ is the soil organic matter (%), *S*~Clay~ is the soil clay content (%) and *S*~Silt~ is the soil silt content (%).
We modelled the change in volumetric water content of the soil on a daily time step with additions from daily precipitation and losses from evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration was calculated for a bare soil surface in the autumn, and a crop canopy at other times of the year. For these calculations we followed the analysis by Penman ([@bib0085], [@bib0230], [@bib0235], [@bib0240]). The Penman formulae are dependent on the evaporative demand of the atmosphere and the net absorbed radiation, which are calculated using daily temperature, solar irradiation, vapour pressure and wind speed. Other required values including reference values for albedo and constants used in the formulae were taken from FAO guidelines for computing crop water requirements ([@bib0005]).
We modify the solar irradiation from the input weather data according to topography (shown to be an important determinant of *A. myosuroides* patch location by [@bib0185]), before using it in the Penman calculations. We split daily irradiation into its direct and diffuse component parts according to the latitude ([@bib0135], [@bib0140]). Each cell, irrespective of topography, received the full amount of diffuse irradiation, but the direct component was modified according to the slope and aspect of the field in each cell by scaling it up or down relative to a reference value for a flat field so that steep south facing slopes received more direct radiation than shallow or north facing slopes ([@bib0080]).
As water potential of soil varies with soil type, we calculate this using the van Genuchten pedotransfer function ([@bib0275]; as parameterised by [@bib0290]), which allows conversion between volumetric water content and water potential according to the soil clay, silt, and organic matter content and the bulk density of the soil. If the water potential exceeds 15,000 mbar then we assume the grid cell has reached wilting point and no more water can be lost. Conversely if the water potential drops below 50 mbar then the field is at capacity and any additional water input will drain through and so the water content of the soil does not increase ([@bib0290]).
2.2. *A. myosuroides* life-cycle {#sec0020}
--------------------------------
The life-cycle of *A. myosuroides* is modelled in 4 main stages: seedlings, mature plants, viable seed, and the seedbank, as described by [@bib0195]. In each iteration of the model there are two cohorts of seeds in each of two soil layers; new seeds (shed in the previous year) and old seeds (shed in any year prior). Each stage of the life-cycle is connected to the next by one or more processes (see [Fig. 1](#fig0005){ref-type="fig"}). The life-cycle runs independently in each grid cell with various processes being affected by the soil properties associated with that cell. We identified the key transitions in the life-cycle that we expected to respond to variability in soil properties ([Table 1](#tbl0005){ref-type="table"}). We included additional functions (described below) in the model to predict the effects of variable soil properties on the whole life-cycle.Fig. 1Basic component structure of the *A. myosuroides* life-cycle model. Processes are shown in italics and components of the *A. myosuroides* life-cycle are boxed and capitalised. This life-cycle component is based on the model by [@bib0195] and runs in each cell of our spatially explicit model. Note: *A. myosuroides* seed is not spread by the combine while still on plant and so movements by cultivation only occur in the soil. This may not necessarily be the case for other weed species that retain seed heads until harvest.Fig. 1Table 1Stages of the *A. myosuroides* life-cycle identified as being affected by soil variability.Table 1Life-cycle stageSoil propertyEffectSourceGerminationPlant available waterTotal germination increases with hydrothermal time[@bib0050] and supplementary pot experimentsGerminationSoil pHMore seeds germinate at low pH[@bib0175]Pre-emergence herbicide mortalitySoil organic matterProbability of survival increases with increasing soil organic matter[@bib0180]Seed productionSoil organic matterSeed production increases with soil organic matterSupplementary pot experimentsSeed productionWater stressSeed production decreases when water is limiting[@bib0260]
### 2.2.1. *A. myosuroides* emergence {#sec0025}
We calculate the number of *A. myosuroides* seedlings that emerge by taking the number of seeds in the soil surface layer and multiplying this by the proportion of seeds germinating (*G*). We model the proportion of seeds that germinate (*G*) as a function of hydrothermal time (*θ*~HT~) following [@bib0050]:$$$$where *M* is the maximum level of germination, *a* is the lag phase of germination, *c* is a shape parameter, and *x*~50~ is the time to 50% germination. These parameters are modelled according to properties relating to the seeds (see supplementary material for calculations) including the age of the seed which allows different values of *G* for the old and new seed cohorts, time from germination to maturity (Julian day of maturity drawn from a normal distribution) of the mother plants, water deficit between flowering (Julian day of flowering drawn from a normal distribution) and maturity, depth of seed, hydrothermal time spent in darkness prior to tillage, mean seed mass, and total available nitrogen. The offset *t*~*a*~ increases the delay before the commencement of germination. We calculate the water deficit experienced by the parent plants from the previous flowering to previous harvest by taking the difference between the daily evapotranspiration and the sum of the soil water content and daily precipitation. If more water is lost to evapotranspiration than is available then this difference is added on to the water deficit.
Hydrothermal time (*θ*~HT~) is accumulated on a daily timestep from the day of tillage (Julian day of tillage drawn from a normal distribution) for a maximum of 50 days by$$\theta_{HT} = \theta_{H}\theta_{T}\quad{where}$$$$\begin{aligned}
\theta_{H} & {= \psi - \psi_{b}\quad{if}\text{ \,\,}\psi > \psi_{b}} \\
\theta_{H} & {= 0\quad{otherwise}} \\
\end{aligned}$$and$$\begin{aligned}
\theta_{T} & {= T - T_{b}\quad{if}\text{ \,\,}T > T_{b}} \\
\theta_{T} & {= 0\quad{otherwise}} \\
\end{aligned}$$*ψ* is the daily water potential (MPa) and *T* is the daily temperature (°C). *ψ*~*b*~ and *T*~*b*~ are the base water potential and temperatures required for germination respectively.
Crop germination is much less variable than that of the weed due to their larger seeds and breeding efforts toward uniform establishment ([@bib0265]) and so is modelled by thermal time (it is assumed to be unaffected by the soil) using a function from [@bib0255] which divides the crop green area (*A*~*G*~, Eq. [(7)](#eq0035){ref-type="disp-formula"}) by the area of the cell. If the crop green area index reaches 0.5 before day 50 then *A. myosuroides* germination is terminated at that point.$$A_{G} = \frac{(C_{m}/G_{m})\,\ln\left\{ {1 + \exp\left\lbrack {G_{m}(t_{sum} - t_{0})} \right\rbrack} \right\}}{10,000}$$where *C*~*m*~ is a maximum growth rate (g plant^−1^ °d^−1^), *G*~*m*~ is a maximum relative growth rate (°d^−1^), *t*~sum~ is the accumulated time from the day of tillage, and *t*~0~ is the time at which the plant effectively reaches a linear phase of growth (°d).
### 2.2.2. Herbicide mortality {#sec0030}
The number of plants surviving herbicide application is drawn from a binomial distribution:$$P(i|t,p) = \left| \begin{pmatrix}
t \\
i \\
\end{pmatrix} \right|p^{i}{(1 - p)}^{t - i}$$where *P*(*i*) is the probability of *i* plants surviving from an initial number of *t* plants in the cell, given a probability, *p* of survival.
Pre-emergence herbicide efficacy is known to be reduced with increasing organic matter, this can have an indirect effect on the life-cycle of the weed as on some soils there will be an increased number of survivors ([@bib0225], [@bib0180]). So to model the proportion of plants surviving pre-emergence herbicide application the value of *p* used to draw from the binomial distribution (Eq. [(8)](#eq0040){ref-type="disp-formula"}) is modelled by:$$p = \frac{\eta\, S_{SOM}}{1 + \zeta\, S_{SOM}} + \tau,$$where *S*~SOM~ is the percentage soil organic matter.
### 2.2.3. Seed production {#sec0035}
Seed head production is density dependent and so we model the number of heads per cell (*D*~Heads~) by$$D_{Heads} = \frac{\beta\, D_{Plants}}{1 + \alpha\, D_{Plants}} \cdot T_{A:P}$$where *D*~Plants~ is the number of plants per cell ([@bib0200]) and *T*~*A*:*P*~ is the mean ratio of actual to potential soil transpiration (given by Eq. [(11)](#eq0055){ref-type="disp-formula"}) over the growing season. This accounts for the effect of water stress on plant yield ([@bib0215]).$$T_{A:P} = \frac{1}{1 + \epsilon\,\exp(\rho \times F_{TSW})}$$We calculate the fraction of transpirable soil water (*F*~TSW~) by taking the average of the daily soil volumetric water contents from the start of germination to the start of flowering as a proportion of the difference between field capacity and wilting point for that soil type.
The number of seeds produced per head is stochastic and is sampled from a log-normal distribution. A proportion of this total seed production will be non-viable and is sampled stochastically from a normal distribution.
### 2.2.4. Seed losses {#sec0040}
The amount of seed lost, for example from predation, is sampled from a lognormal distribution and seed survival in the soil is sampled from a normal distribution.
### 2.2.5. Seed movement {#sec0045}
We modelled both natural *A. myosuroides* seed dispersal and dispersal of seed by cultivation. The probability distribution for each dispersal process was calculated by numerical integration as:$$P(m,n) = \underset{S(n - 0.5)}{\int\limits^{S(n + 0.5)}}\underset{S(m - 0.5)}{\int\limits^{S(m + 0.5)}}f(x,y)\,{dx}\,{dy}$$where *S* is the side length of the cell, *P*(*m*, *n*) is the probability of a seed falling into a cell at the distance from the source *x* = *m*, *y* = *n* and *f*(*x*, *y*) is the dispersal probability function.
*Natural dispersal*. The natural dispersal of *A. myosuroides* seed is assumed to be isotropic and to follow the rotated Gaussian distribution$$f(x,y) = \frac{1}{2\pi\sigma^{2}}\exp\left\lbrack {- 0.5\left\lbrack {\left( \frac{x - \mu}{\sigma} \right)^{2} + \left( \frac{y - \mu}{\sigma} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack} \right\rbrack$$([@bib0220]). The probability of seed falling into each cell is calculated in turn by Eq. [(12)](#eq0060){ref-type="disp-formula"} following the order indicated in [Fig. 2](#fig0010){ref-type="fig"} until a total proportion of 0.999 has been accounted for. If any seeds remain these are dispersed to a randomly allocated cell to represent other sources of seed dispersal not accounted for here. The resulting list of proportions are stored and used throughout each yearly cycle of the model to move seeds from one cell to nearby cells.Fig. 2Numerical order of assessment of nearby squares for the natural dispersal of seeds from a plant in the centre square (labelled "1"). Cells with the same number all receive the same proportion of seed from the starting cell. If required, the pattern continues in the same manner expanding outwards.Fig. 2
*Seed movement by cultivation*. Dispersal by cultivation is anisotropic with seeds being dispersed in the direction of travel ([@bib0155]). In order to model the way in which seeds were moved by the combine, we assumed$$f(x,y) = \frac{\gamma}{2}\,\exp^{\frac{\gamma}{2}{({2\varepsilon + \gamma\lambda^{2} - 2x})}}{erfc}\left( \frac{\varepsilon + \gamma\lambda^{2} - x}{\sqrt{2\lambda}} \right)$$This distribution matches the shape of that described by [@bib0220] for anisotropic dispersal of seeds. The distribution is integrated for each grid cell in turn for a maximum of five grid cells in the direction opposite to the direction of travel and then towards the direction of travel until a total proportion of 0.999 is accounted for. Any remaining seeds are randomly allocated to a grid cell in the direction of travel, up to a maximum dispersal distance of 20 m. The direction of travel is set up along the *x* axis of the grid from west to east for the first set of rows up to the width of the cultivator (40 m). It is then switched to travel east to west. The direction changes every time the number of rows reaches a multiple of the cultivator width.
For both natural dispersal and the seed movement by cultivation, if seeds are to be moved into a cell that lies outside of the model arena the process is reflected such that there is no immigration or emigration of seeds to and from the field. This is representative of a real field where boundaries are a source of seed ([@bib0165]).
*Vertical movement of seed in the soil*. Seeds are moved vertically between the shallow and deep soil layers. The tillage type can be set for each year to one of 4 types: plough, 20 cm tine, 10 cm tine, or \<5 cm tine. In years when the tillage is "plough" a proportion of seeds from the shallow soil layer are buried into the deep soil layer, conversely some seeds are brought up to the shallow soil layer. For all other tillage types there is no upward movement of seed (from the deep soil layer to the shallow soil layer) but a proportion of seeds are buried according to the depth of tillage.
3. Model parameterisation {#sec0050}
=========================
Where possible, each function in the life-cycle model was parameterised using data from the literature. However, the effect of soil organic matter (and its influence on water holding capacity) on *A. myosuroides* emergence and seed production was identified as a knowledge gap and so we set up an experiment under controlled conditions in order to parameterise these functions within the model (see supplementary material for experimental details).
3.1. *A. myosuroides* emergence {#sec0055}
-------------------------------
Colbach et al.\'s parameterisation of Eq. [(3)](#eq0015){ref-type="disp-formula"} ([@bib0030], see supplementary material) relies on information about the germinating seeds including the age and seed mass. To determine whether this parameterisation works on soils with very different water holding capacities we germinated seeds of known origin, age and size on soil with different levels of organic matter (see supplementary material). The data from this experiment supported the shape of the Colbach curve but the offset parameter *t*~*a*~ is increased to 49.169 in our fit ([Fig. 3](#fig0015){ref-type="fig"}). This offset increased the delay before the commencemenrt of germination to match the mean of our four treatments ([Fig. 3](#fig0015){ref-type="fig"}).Fig. 3Germination counts plotted against hydrothermal time. Grey is low soil organic matter, Yellow is medium soil organic matter. Solid lines show high water input and dashed lines are low water input. The solid black line shows the resulting germination counts from Eq. [(3)](#eq0015){ref-type="disp-formula"} when parameterised for the seeds used in the experiment. See supplementary material for experimental detail.Fig. 3
Germination counts on different levels of soil pH collected by [@bib0175] show that the asymptote for germination is higher when soil pH is low. We therefore included a pH threshold of 6.5 in our model. At pH levels below this threshold *M* (Eq. [(3)](#eq0015){ref-type="disp-formula"}) is increased by the ratio of the values for the asymptote of the curves fitted to the low and high pH treatments respectively (40.92/36.72) ([@bib0175]).
In the parameterisation of Eq. [(3)](#eq0015){ref-type="disp-formula"} (and Eqs. (18)--(26) in the supplementary materials) we set the age of the old cohort of seeds to 818 days and the new cohort to 60 days. Changing this parameter allowed the germination of seeds to occur at different rates. The mean Julian day of tillage, flowering of *A. myosuroides* and maturity of *A. myosuroides* were set to be 258, 150, and 206 with respective variances 8, 3, and 6. These were determined using field data from a series of field experiments reported in [@bib0260] on *A. myosuroides* competition in winter wheat sown in the autumn and managed according to standard farm protocols except for the absence of herbicide. Depth was set to 1.5 cm and mean seed mass, determined by weighing 100 seeds, was 0.0014 g. Total available nitrogen was set at 25 kg/ha.
Following [@bib0040], [@bib0045], the base temperature (*T*~*b*~) and water potential *ψ*~*b*~ for *A. myosuroides* (Eqs. [(4)](#eq0020){ref-type="disp-formula"}, [(5)](#eq0025){ref-type="disp-formula"}, [(6)](#eq0030){ref-type="disp-formula"}) were set at 0°C and −1.53 MPa respectively.
3.2. Herbicide mortality {#sec0060}
------------------------
We modelled the survival rate of *A. myosuroides* after the application of pre-emergence herbicides using data from [@bib0180]. We took the data points for the proportion of seedlings surviving an application of pre-emergence herbicide at a dose equivalent to field rate on different soils and plotted this against the organic matter (%) in the soil and fitted Eq. [(9)](#eq0045){ref-type="disp-formula"} to the data. The fitted values were *η* = 4.9, *ζ* = 3.8252, and *τ* = −1.0890 (see supplementary Figure S.3).
For post-emergence herbicide application we assume no effect of soil variability on contact herbicide efficacy and so *p* was fixed at 0.3 ([@bib0010]).
3.3. Seed production {#sec0065}
--------------------
[@bib0200] parameterised their model of density dependent head production (Eq. [(10)](#eq0050){ref-type="disp-formula"}) with data from 16 field experiments to give parameter values *β* = 8.71 and *α* = 0.005741. We adjusted this equation to account for soil organic matter according to the results from our experiment (see supplementary material). We only had one plant per pot, in our experiment, and so we would not expect this to be representative of the number of heads produced under field conditions but assumed the relative differences were representative of those seen under field conditions. This allowed us to compute a generic relationships between soil organic matter and the density dependent relationship between plants and heads (see supplementary material for derivation).
Parameters in Eq. [(11)](#eq0055){ref-type="disp-formula"} were derived for *A. myosuroides* as *ϵ* = 6.88 and *ρ* = −4.61 from a series of glasshouse experiments reported in [@bib0260].
The mean (4.58) and standard deviation (0.23) of the lognormal distribution used to determine seed production per head are estimated from data provided by [@bib0195]. The normal distribution: $\mathcal{N}(0.55,0.126)$ is used to draw values for the proportion of viable seed, the mean and standard deviation are again estimated from the data provided by [@bib0195].
3.4. Seed losses {#sec0070}
----------------
For the distributions used to calculate seed losses, data from [@bib0195] were again used to estimate the means and standard deviations. The distributions used were: Log-normal(−0.81, 0.13) for above ground seed losses (e.g. through predation), and $\mathcal{N}$(0.3,0.077) for seed survival in the soil.
3.5. Seed movement {#sec0075}
------------------
As was described by [@bib0220], the mean (*μ*) of the natural dispersal distribution (Eq. [(13)](#eq0065){ref-type="disp-formula"}) is set at 0 and the standard deviation (*σ*) at 0.3. For seed movement by cultivation (Eq. [(14)](#eq0070){ref-type="disp-formula"}) parameters were set to *γ* = 10/3, *λ* = 0.1 and *ε* = −0.15 to best match the shape of the distribution described by [@bib0220] for anisotropic dispersal of seeds. The proportion of seeds moved vertically in the soil for each type of tillage was described by [@bib0195]. Here stochasticity is added by drawing these from distributions estimated from the mean and range of that original data ([Table 2](#tbl0010){ref-type="table"})Table 2Distributions used to sample the proportion of seeds to be moved between soil layers due to tillage.Table 2Tillage typeDirection of movementDistribution typeMeanVariancePloughShallow to deepLognormal−0.05150.0191Deep to shallowLognormal−1.06700.119920 cm tineShallow to deepNormal0.20000.0510Deep to shallowNone10 cm tineShallow to deepNormal0.40000.1010Deep to shallowNone\<5 cm tineShallow to deepNoneDeep to shallowNone
4. Model validation {#sec0080}
===================
[@bib0185] linked *A. myosuroides* seedling counts to various environmental properties within fields commercially producing winter wheat. They sampled 136 locations in each field using an unbalanced nested sampling design, with pairs of points separated by fixed distances. At each sampling point they counted the number of *A. myosuroides* seedlings emerging in the autumn. They also took soil cores to analytically determine the soil clay and silt content, soil organic matter, soil pH and soil gravimetric water content. The nested design structure allowed the partitioning of the components of variance for both *A. myosuroides* and soil properties at each of the spatial scales studied using the residual maximum likelihood (REML) estimator as described by [@bib0170], and scale-dependent correlations between *A. myosuroides* counts and soil properties were calculated.
4.1. Patch location {#sec0085}
-------------------
To validate our model, we simulated three UK fields, for which complete datasets on soil properties and weed densities were available, studied by [@bib0185]. The three fields were Harpenden (Hertfordshire), Redbourn (Hertfordshire) and Haversham (Buckinghamshire) (see [@bib0185]). As an initial investigation, we kriged the measured soil data to predict on a 1-m grid. We then used this to parameterise the cells in the model. We simulated 40 years of weed growth starting with an initial seed bed of 10,000 seeds per cell, 20% of which were in the top soil layer. As we did not know the tillage history of the studied fields, we simulated three typical tillage systems: (i) rotational cultivation with three years of tillage at \<5 cm followed by one year using the plough, (ii) tillage at 10 cm, and (iii) tillage at \<5 cm. We ran the model with all required input weather data on a daily timestep from Rothamsted met station (Hertfordshire, UK) beginning with data from 1966. We discarded the simulation results from the first 10 years to allow the patches to stabilise following the initial seeding. We recorded and mapped the average number of plants simulated at each location in the field (1 m × 1 m grid cell) across years 11--40 and for 10 different simulations of the model (a total of 300 realisations of the field), we then compared these maps with the kriged distribution of *A. myosuroides* plants obtained by [@bib0185] for that field.
4.2. Scale-dependent correlations {#sec0090}
---------------------------------
We wanted to see if the scale-dependent relationships between *A. myosuroides* and soil properties found in the field by [@bib0185] were an emergent property of the model. To do this we needed to simulate soil realistic of that found in the fields, but that maintained fine-scale variation, which is lost in the kriged maps. We simulated soil properties on a 1 m × 1 m grid using lower upper decomposition of the covariance matrix, also known as the Cholesky decomposition technique ([@bib0280], chapter 12). We created the covariance matrix for each soil property in each field from the covariance function corresponding to the spherical variogram fitted to the soil data and conditioned the simulation to include our measured soil properties at the location where they were measured. The *R* conditioning data were transformed to standard normal form (denoted by the vector **z**) and the values at *S* unsampled positions were drawn independently at random from a standard normal distribution (vector **g**). To obtain the vector of conditionally simulated values (**y**) we used$$\mathbf{\text{y}} = \begin{bmatrix}
\mathbf{\text{z}}_{R} & \\
{\mathbf{\text{L}}_{SR}\mathbf{\text{L}}_{SS}^{- 1} + \mathbf{\text{L}}_{RR}\mathbf{\text{g}}_{S}} & \\
\end{bmatrix}$$where **L** is the lower triangular matrix obtained from the decomposition of the covariance matrix for the field.
Following the simulation of the soil, we scaled the simulated values to match the mean and range of the original data values:$$y = \frac{x - m}{s} \times s_{obs} + m_{obs}$$where *x* is a simulated value, *m* and *s* are the mean and standard deviation respectively of all the simulated values for that soil property and *m*~obs~ and *s*~obs~ are the mean and standard deviation respectively for the observed data. Ideally we would have simulated all soil properties based on their covariances. However, due to the size of the field and the spatial scale of simulation this was not possible and so we performed a number of checks to prevent the simulation of impossible soil distributions. We checked that the scaled simulated values did not exceed realistic ranges for these soil properties and discarded any simulations falling outside of the acceptable range. We also checked that the simulated clay and silt values did not sum to values greater than 100 and so we paired simulations accordingly. We produced 35 suitable simulations for each soil property for the Harpenden and Haversham fields (the Redbourn field was too large to simulate in this way).
We simulated 40 years of weed growth starting with an initial seed bed of 10,000 seeds per cell, 20% of which were in the top soil layer. We implemented 10 cm tine as the tillage type. We ran the model with weather data from Rothamsted met station (Hertfordshire, UK) beginning with data from 1966.
We took the output of the model only for years 11--40 from each simulation and extracted the number of simulated *A. myosuroides* plants at each of the sampling locations from the original study ([@bib0185]). We did the same analysis of the nested sampling design as described by [@bib0170] to give scale-dependent correlation coefficients between the simulated *A. myosuroides* counts and each soil property present in the model (clay, organic matter, pH and water) for each of the 1050 realisations of the field. We plotted a histogram to look at the frequency of these correlations across all 1050 realisations of the field given by the model and compared this distribution to the value obtained in the field data for each spatial scale and each soil property ([@bib0185]).
5. Results {#sec0095}
==========
5.1. Patch location {#sec0100}
-------------------
The locations of the patches predicted by the model were broadly similar to those observed in the field study ([Fig. 4](#fig0020){ref-type="fig"}). At a coarse scale there are broad similarities between the distribution of *A. myosuroides* observed in the field and the predicted distributions from the model for all fields. In Harpenden, the rotational ploughing system led to very similar distributions, whereas the other two tillage systems (10 cm tine, and \<5 cm tine) showed much more uniform distributions across the field ([Fig. 4](#fig0020){ref-type="fig"}a--d). For the field in Redbourn the *A. myosuroides* counts in the eastern part of the field were reflected in the predictions, as were the low counts in the southern part of the field. However, in the west the observed and predicted distributions differ ([Fig. 4](#fig0020){ref-type="fig"}i--l). Finally, in Haversham the western part of the field shows similar patch locations to those observed in the field ([Fig. 4](#fig0020){ref-type="fig"}e--h). In all cases the predicted seedling densities are larger than were observed in the field and the patches more extensive.Fig. 4Maps of Harpenden (top row: a--d), Haversham (middle row: e--h) and Redbourn (bottom row: i--l) showing the kriged log seedling counts (first column: a, e and i) and model outputs (columns 2--4: b--d, f--h, and j--l). Each model output shows the average log seedling density in each cell across 300 realisations of the field. The simulations in the second column (b, f, and j) are the output from the model simulations with rotational ploughing as the cultivation type --- ploughing every fourth year with tining at \<5 cm in the intermediate years. The simulations in the third column (c, g, and k) used 10 cm tining each year, and the simulations in the fourth column (d, h, and l) used \<5 cm tining. Colour scales are maintained within columns and are applicable to each cultivation type separately.Fig. 4
5.2. Scale-dependent correlations {#sec0105}
---------------------------------
The scale-dependent correlations between *A. myosuroides* and clay were fairly consistent with those observed in the field. At coarse scales the model simulations largely resulted in large positive correlations ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}a and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} a). For Harpenden, this was close to the observed correlation in the field of 0.85 and for Haversham the simulated correlations were often larger than that observed in the field (0.55), whereas at intermediate scales ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}b--d and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} b--d) where the observed correlation in the field were weaker the prediction from the models were less conclusive with a range of correlation coefficients that included both positive and negative values. At the finest scale all correlations between clay content and the simulated *A. myosuroides* seedling densities were small and often close to zero. This reflects the non-significant correlations observed in Harpenden and Haversham fields.Fig. 5Frequency distribution of scale-dependent correlation coefficients between the simulated number of *A. myosuroides* seedlings and simulated soil properties used as inputs into the model simulations for the field in Harpenden. The dotted line represents the observed scale-dependent correlation in the field ([@bib0185]). The correlations shown are between *A. myosuroides* seedlings and the soil properties clay (a--e), soil organic matter (f--j), pH (k--o) and water (p--t) and for each soil property a range of spatial scales are considered ranging from coarse-scale in the first column to fine-scale in the last column: 50+ m (a, f, k, p), 20 m (b, g, l, q), 7.3 m (c, h, m, r), 2.7 m (d, i, n, s), and 1 m (e, j, o, t).Fig. 5Fig. 6Frequency distribution of scale-dependent correlation coefficients between the simulated number of *A. myosuroides* seedlings and simulated soil properties used as inputs into the model simulations for the field in Haversham. The dotted line represents the observed scale-dependent correlation in the field ([@bib0185]). The correlations shown are between *A. myosuroides* seedlings and the soil properties clay (a--e), soil organic matter (f--j), pH (k--o) and water (p--t) and for each soil property a range of spatial scales are considered ranging from coarse-scale in the first column to fine-scale in the last column: 50+ m (a, f, k, p), 20 m (b, g, l, q), 7.3 m (c, h, m, r), 2.7 m (d, i, n, s), and 1 m (e, j, o, t).Fig. 6
The results were similar for the relationships predicted between soil organic matter and *A. myosuroides* seedling densities with the model predicting large positive relationships with organic matter at coarse scales ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}f and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} f). There was no distinct pattern in the correlation coefficients at intermediate scales in Harpenden ([Fig. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}g--i) and only small positive correlations at intermediate scales in Haversham ([Fig. 6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"}g and h), which were similar to the observed correlations of 0.22 and 0.62 at those scales. In both fields there were correlation coefficients close to zero at the finest scale between soil organic matter and *A. myosuroides* ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}j and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} j).
When we consider pH and its relationship with *A. myosuroides* seedling densities in the Harpenden field we find a large peak of positive correlation coefficients at coarse scales ([Fig. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}k), which is in contrast to the negative correlation coefficient observed int he field. Again, at intermediate scales ([Fig. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}l--n) there is no distinct pattern in the correlation coefficients and at fine scales all correlation coefficients are close to zero. In Haversham the REML model used to partition the variance across scales could not be fitted to the field data and so no comparison can be made with the simulated model outputs.
We found positive relationships with soil moisture content at the coarse-scale in the majority of simulations ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}p and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} p). This result matched the significant positive correlation we found in the fields at this spatial scale. At intermediate scales ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}q--s and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} q--s), the correlations between soil water content and *A. myosuroides* densities predicted by the model were less consistent. At the finest scale ([Figs. 5](#fig0025){ref-type="fig"}t and [6](#fig0030){ref-type="fig"} t) the relationship between soil water content and *A. myosuroides* seedling counts predicted by the model was often close to zero in both fields. However, at this fine scale our field observations gave quite large correlations and lay outside of the distribution of correlations predicted by our model.
6. Discussion {#sec0110}
=============
Our results support in-field studies ([@bib0155], [@bib0210], [@bib0185]) that show soil is an important determinant in the within-field distribution of *A. myosuroides*. Our results suggest that our model can provide a good prediction of the location of patches within fields. Irrespective of the tillage type implemented in the model the spatial distribution of *A. myosuroides* seedlings across 300 realisations was consistent with observed field distributions ([Fig. 4](#fig0020){ref-type="fig"}). This indicates the usefulness of this model in locating *A. myosuroides* vulnerable zones within fields.
Simulated seedling densities were quite different under the different tillage types, yet all provided a good estimation of patch location. This supports the conclusions from [@bib0030] that densities are often highly variable and so the prediction of densities is less accurate than the prediction of patch location. This means that it is possible to predict patch locations or weed vulnerable zones irrespective of the tillage practices in place on a farm, making the model useful as a decision support tool as it is not necessary to provide all the information about cultivation history in order to locate weed vulnerable zones. Our model was built to answer the question of the impact of soil variation on the distribution of the weed and so relative abundances are a useful output, and absolute values are not particularly important.
Strong coarse-scale relationships between soil properties and *A. myosuroides* distributions are an emergent property of our model. These matched those observed in-field. This is important as it is at these coarse scales that in-field correlations are strongest ([@bib0170], [@bib0185]) and so it is important that our model corroborates these observations. In the application of site-specific weed management most farm machinery operates at coarse scales. As such, if we can input pre-existing or supplemented soil maps, already in use on farm for other site-specific management practices, then we should be able to predict the likelihood of parts of the field being vulnerable to *A. myosuroides* and so be able to develop maps for patch spraying based on the output of this model.
As with all models of weed population dynamics there are some limitations to this model including a lack of field data, and the adoption of number of assumptions. However these are necessary in order to keep the model simple enough to be functional whilst retaining enough detail to understand the system ([@bib0075]). Initially some of the limitations of the model come due to a lack of field data and are also under-represented in other models of *A. myosuroides* such as those by [@bib0195] and [@bib0050]. These include the fate of seeds after shedding, where we have included a certain amount of seed loss but this is an all encompassing figure, including predation and decay, which would be difficult to model mechanistically. Similarly for other life-cycle processes where we only have information on the range and mean of field data such as seed production. In these cases we draw values stochastically but the chosen values remain unaffected by other processes within the life-cycle. In our model we assume that the density of the crop and other weeds are uniform across the field and so spatial variability in interspecific competition is excluded. As we base this model on the premise that the field is a heterogeneous environment this may not be a correct assumption to make, however, it is an assumption that is also made in other models for patch spraying purposes (e.g. [@bib0220]). In this regard, our model could be improved by modelling interspecific competition mechanistically. In order to simplify the model we have divided the soil into two layers: a shallow layer from which seeds can germinate and a deep layer. However, in reality the soil is a continuum and there will be a gradient over which seeds can germinate at different rates. Finally, natural seed dispersal is barochorous in our model and seeds are moved by the combine and cultivator. Both of these methods of dispersal are independent of other factors, yet it has been shown that there can be some influence of wind speed on seed dispersal of *A. myosuroides* ([@bib0035]) and equally, seed movement in the soil can depend on soil properties ([@bib0015]).
In our model validation, the large scale correlations between *A. myosuroides* and soil properties were generally similar to those observed in the field. However, for soil pH our simulations predicted positive correlations at large scales, whereas the observed data showed a negative correlation. The only role of soil pH in our model is in altering the asymptote reached in germination. We implemented this using a threshold approach, where the asymptote for germination is increased when soil pH is below 6.5. It is possible that this is insufficient to describe the true nature of the impact of soil pH on germination as by only changing the asymptote we will only see these differences in years when there are very large numbers of seeds germinating. It is likely that the observed response to pH in the field data is a product of additional processes to do with growth and competition in the established phase that are not currently captured in the model.
The usefulness of our model in its ability to predict patch locations for *A. myosuroides* highlights the possibility of using similar models for other species where data are available on the response of the species to various soil properties. This model could be used for other grass weeds with similar life-cycles and the key aspects of the life-cycle altered to fit with known responses of that species to environmental properties. This would allow the prediction of patches of problematic weed species based on soil maps and could be used in conjunction with current patch mapping activities to zone fields for site-specific weed management at the appropriate scale.
7. Conclusions {#sec0115}
==============
We have drawn together experimental data on the impact of soil properties on the life-cycle and management of this important agricultural species and through a modelling approach demonstrated the important role played by soil properties in determining the within-field distribution of *A. myosuroides*. We have also shown that scale-dependent correlations between *A. myosuroides* and soil properties observed in the field are an emergent property of this model, which incorporates small changes to individual components of the life-cycle due to soil properties. This could allow it to become an effective management tool as the coarse-scale correlations, which are shown to be of the greatest importance, are the ones that have the most relevance to management.
Appendix B. Supplementary data {#sec0125}
==============================
The following are the supplementary data to this article:
Rothamsted Research receives grant aided support from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) of the United Kingdom. This research was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) under research programme NE/N018125/1 LTS-M ASSIST Achieving Sustainable Agricultural Systems. The project was funded by a BBSRC Doctoral Training Partnership in Food Security BB/J014451/1 and the Lawes Agricultural Trust. We thank the Lawes Agricultural Trust and Rothamsted Research for weather data from the e-RA database.
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.002>.
| {
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Rechargeable lithium batteries dominate the portable electronics market because lithium cells offer the largest energy density in all the rechargeable battery technologies available. Additionally, they are well-positioned to take over the emerging large-scale application markets of electric vehicles and off-grid storage devices[@b1][@b2][@b3][@b4][@b5]. The performance of rechargeable lithium batteries is mainly restricted by the cathode based on inorganic intercalation compounds with low specific capacity[@b6][@b7]. Recently, organic carbonyl compounds as high-energy cathode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries have been extensively explored owing to redox stability, structural diversity, high theoretical capacities, and infinite availability from biomass[@b8][@b9][@b10][@b11][@b12][@b13][@b14][@b15][@b16][@b17][@b18]. Nevertheless, organic carbonyl compounds suffer from some mortal shortages, such as the intrinsic drawback of poor cyclic performance and rate capability owing to low electronic conductivity, high solubility in organic electrolyte, no well-defined Li^+^-conducting channel, and no interstitial sites due to the lack of lattice in organic electrode materials. To address these issues, first, the combination of multi-carbonyl groups and low molecular weight should be used to achieve high specific capacity, where multi-carbonyl groups can capture more lithium to offer multi-electron reactions[@b8][@b19]. Second, the carbonyl-based electrode generally demands certain functional structures to stabilize the negatively charged carbonyl groups under the electrochemical reduction state. Carbonyl groups are directly connected to an aromatic core to disperse charge through delocalization[@b8][@b10][@b20][@b21][@b22]. Third, from the design of electronic conductivity for organic semiconductors, one method is the judicious incorporation of heteroaromatic structures. The morphological and electronic properties of the target compounds can be predictably tuned in a wide range by this method[@b19][@b23][@b24][@b25]. For example, pyridine is an important electron-withdrawing moiety in electron-transporting materials[@b26][@b27]. According to the above function-oriented design strategies of organic compounds, many carbonyl-based positive electrode materials with high capacity and good electrochemical performance have been reported. For example, Sun *et al.* reported 3,4,9,10-perylene-tetracarboxylicacid-dianhydride (PTCDA) sulfide polymers, which showed average reversible capacity of \~130 mAh g^−1^ in current density of 100 mA g^−1 ^[@b10]. Yao *et al.* prepared 2,5-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone (DMBQ) as cathode material, the electrode material demonstrated an initial discharge capacity of 312 mAh g^−1^ at current density of 10 mA g^−1^, and the capacity decayed sharply with the increase of cycles[@b28]. Chen *et al.* synthesized two new carbonyl electrodes, pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PTO) and 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione (PhenQ), delivering a reversible capacity of 360 mAh g^−1^ in current density of 0.05 C[@b8]. Tarascon *et al.* reported an organic salt, lithium 2,6-bis(ethoxycarb onyl)-3,7-dioxo-3,7-dihydro-*s*-indacene-1,5-bis (olate), delivering an overall capacity of 125 mAh g^−1 ^[@b1]. Poizot *et al.* obtained tetralithium salt of tetrahydroxybenzoquinone (Li~4~C~6~O~6~), the Li~4~C~6~O~6~ compound showed good electrochemical performance with a sustained reversibility of \~200 mAh g^−1 ^[@b11]. Our group previously reported a series of polycarbonyl organic compounds with different number of hydroxyl groups and a lithium-organic coordination compound, \[Li~2~(C~14~H~6~O~4~)\], to achieved high initial discharge capacities[@b29][@b30]. However, one of the great challenge for these organic compounds is that most of the synthesis procedure were involved by many pot reactions or in high-temperature, with long time consuming. Furthermore, there is extremely large space to design the low molecular weight compounds with more carbonyl groups, conjugated system and fused heteroaromatic structures, which can improve the capacity, cyclic stability and rate performance of small molecules.
In this work, we report a compound with multi-carbonyl groups, conjugated system and fused heteroaromatic structures, *N,N′*-diphenyl-1,4,5,8-naphthalenete tracarboxylic diimide (DP-NTCDI-250) through a simple one-pot *N-*acylation reaction of 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (NTCDA) with phenylamine (PA) in DMF and Et~3~N solution. The key features of this method are time-saving and low energy consumption. It should be noted that DP-NTCDI has been reported in literature[@b31][@b32][@b33][@b34][@b35], however, DP-NTCDI was not applied as electrode material for lithium batteries. Here, DP-NTCDI-250 (the heat treated sample of DP-NTCDI) was used as cathode material showing high discharge capacity, good cycling stability and rate capability, which is superior over other benzene-fused analogues[@b29][@b30][@b36][@b37][@b38], showing a promising organic cathode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries.
Results and Discussion
======================
Synthesis mechanism
-------------------
The synthesis of DP-NTCDI was adapted by one-pot *N*-acylation reaction ([Fig. 1](#f1){ref-type="fig"}). NTCDA dissolved in DMF was reacted with PA, in which the -*N*- replaced the oxygen of -C-O-C- in NTCDA to form heteroaromatic compound, resulting in the generation of DP-NTCDI. The reaction was carried out in nitrogen atmosphere to avoid oxidation or decomposition of the PA. A brown precipitate, which can easily be separated by centrifugation and filtration, occurred as the reaction proceeds. It should be noted that the Et~3~N can act as catalyst and can be used to stimulate the reaction of NTCDA and PA. After washing with EtOH and recrystallizating in DMF and drying, the as-synthesized orange acicular product (DP-NTCDI), with a yield of 91.2%, was further heated at 250 °C to get DP-NTCDI-250 compound. The sample was prepared within 1 h through a simple one-pot *N*-acylation reaction. The key features of the synthesized method are time-saving and low energy consumption.
Physical properties
-------------------
The as-prepared DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250 were comparatively characterized against each other by various techniques. From the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image in [Fig. 2a](#f2){ref-type="fig"}, DP-NTCDI consists of uniform rod structure, and the mean diameter of DP-NTCDI is estimated to be \~2 μm. After heat treatment of DP-NTCDI, the morphology of DP-NTCDI-250 is almost same with DP-NTCDI ([Fig. 2b](#f2){ref-type="fig"}). The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image in [Fig. 2c](#f2){ref-type="fig"} manifests that DP-NTCDI is well faceted and have very smooth surface with diameter of \~2 μm.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns in [Fig. 3](#f3){ref-type="fig"} are performed to investigate the crystal phase composition of DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250. It can be seen from [Fig. 3](#f3){ref-type="fig"} that most of the peaks from the experimental XRD patterns of DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250 can match with the simulated patterns based on single-crystal X-ray solution[@b35], indicating that the ordered material is similar in the structure. All the diffraction peaks of DP-NTCDI could be indexed to monoclinic lattice of space group P2~1~/c with the lattice constants: a = 5.136 A˚; b = 7.522 A˚; c = 25.623 A˚. After heat treatment of sample, the characteristic peaks of DP-NTCDI-250 become sharply and strong. However, the characteristic peaks of DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250 are overall broad and weak in comparison with the simulated peaks, indicative of the poor crystallinity of as prepared materials.
Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis was conducted to follow the heat treatment process of DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250 in air ([Fig. S1](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}, ESI^†^). The obtained results show no weights lost were observed before 380 °C for DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250, exhibiting good thermal stability for the two samples. Upon further heating, the samples start to decompose and the framework collapses.
DP-NTCDI is further supported by FTIR, ^1^H NMR and ^13^C NMR. As shown in [Fig. 4](#f4){ref-type="fig"}, the typical absorption band at around 1711, 1661 and 770 cm^−1^ are attributed to the stretching vibration of C=O, 3068 and 982 cm^−1^ is the vibration C-H of aromatic ring, 1670 and 1350 cm^−1^ are the C-N stretching vibration of imide, 1582 cm^−1^ is the stretching vibration of naphthalene ring skeleton. As can be from the ^1^H NMR spectrum ([Fig. S2a](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}, ESI^†^), there is a multiplet peak at 7.46--7.59 ppm, which is the peak of proton on the benzene ring. A singlet at 8.73 ppm can be assigned to the proton of naphthalene ring. The two different environmental proton give an integration ratio of 5:2. For ^13^C NMR ([Fig. S2b](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}, ESI^†^), 163.42 ppm is the characteristic peak of C=O, the other seven characteristic peaks are attribute to carbon on the aromatic ring.
Electrochemical Performance
---------------------------
The initial three cyclic voltammograms (CVs) of DP-NTCDI electrode between 1.5 and 4.0 V at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s^−1^ is shown in [Fig. 5](#f5){ref-type="fig"}. It can be seen from [Fig. 5a](#f5){ref-type="fig"} that two separated steps for lithium insertion and removal in DP-NTCDI are not obvious. The first reduction peaks at about 2.3 V corresponds to one-electron transfer reaction in one of the four carbonyl groups, forming the radical-anion (the lithium enolate). The second reduction peaks at about 2.1 V can be ascribed to the second electron transfer reaction in another of the four carbonyl groups and produce a dianion species. During the positive sweeping, the two indistinct split oxidation peaks at about 2.5 V and 2.7 V are attributed to the reoxidation of lithium enolate to form the carbonyl groups[@b20][@b39]. The reaction processes of DP-NTCDI can be expressed as enolization process of the carbonyl group ([Fig. 5b,c](#f5){ref-type="fig"}). DP-NTCDI comprising of four carbonyl groups makes it possible for transfering four electrons. However, the lithium enolate of only two carbonyls can be involved in DP-NTCDI when the discharge voltage is higher than 1.5 V[@b8][@b39]. It is worth mentioning that DP-NTCDI with conjugated structure can disperse charge by delocalization, facilitating the enolization process of the carbonyl group[@b8][@b39].
The galvanostatic charge/discharge tests of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode were carried out in a potential range of 1.5--4.0 V at different current rates ([Fig. 6](#f6){ref-type="fig"}). [Figure 6(a)](#f6){ref-type="fig"} shows the initial three cycles for DP-NTCDI-250 electrode at a current density of 25 mA g^−1^. The battery exhibited two discharge plateaus with average discharge voltage of \~ 2.4 and \~2.3 V, respectively, corresponding to two major redox reactions observed in cyclic voltammetry. The initial discharge and charge capacity of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode is 170 and 182 mAh g^−1^, with a coulombic efficiency of 93.4%, which is higher than similar structures in literatures[@b37][@b38]. After three cycles, the reversible capacity of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode is \~156 mAh g^−1^, with the coulombic efficiencies of DP-NTCDI-250 over 98%. However, the initial charge capacity of the material corresponds to 87% of theoretical capacity (256 mAh g^−1^), which still cannot reach its full theoretical capacities, it may be ascribed to the low crystallization and the poor electronic conductivity of organic compounds. [Figure 6(b)](#f6){ref-type="fig"} shows the cycle performance of DP-NTCDI-250 at a current rate of 25 mA g^−1^. After 100 cycles, the reversible capacities of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode maintains \~120 mAh g^−1^ with the capacity fading of 13%. This result shows that DP-NTCDI-250 present better cycle life compared with those similar structures that have been reported in literature[@b37][@b38][@b39], which might be attributed to bigger particle size and rod-like structure[@b30]. The rate capability of the sample is evaluated at different rates from 25 to 500 mA g^−1^ ([Fig. 6(c)](#f6){ref-type="fig"}). It can be found from [Fig. 6(c)](#f6){ref-type="fig"} that DP-NTCDI-250 exhibits good rate capability with reversible capacities of 153, 134, 127, 118, 109 mAh g^−1^ at current densities of 25, 50, 125, 250, 500 mA g^−1^ (each for 10 cycles), respectively. After 50 cycles, the reversible capacity still maintains 106 mAh g^−1^. When the current density back to 25 mA g^−1^, the reversible capacity is 142 mAh g^−1^, demonstrating good rate capacity and reversibility.
To explain the well electrochemical performance of DP-NTCDI-250, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was performed. [Figure S3](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"} shows the Nyquist plots of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode before cycling and after 100 cycling at 25 mA g^−1^. It can be found that the diameter of semicircle after cycling is basically same with that of before cycling, demonstrating that the charge transfer resistance of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode after cycling basically did not increase and the structure was not damaged, indicating the good stability of the active materials. The good cycling performance of DP-NTCDI-250 at 25 mA g^−1^ were further confirmed by SEM and the dissolution test of the sample ([Figs S4](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"} and [S5](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). [Figure S4](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"} presents the SEM image for DP-NTCDI-250 electrode after cycling. As can be seen from [Fig. S4](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}, after 100 cycles, although the size of rod-like structure becomes small, the morphology of rod-like structure of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode can be maintained and can't be damaged, contributing the good cycling stability of DP-NTCDI-250 electrode. [Figure S5](#S1){ref-type="supplementary-material"} shows the photos of DP-NTCDI-250 dissolution in electrolyte. It can be seen that DP-NTCDI-250 sample almost can't be dissolved in electrolyte after 15 days, implying DP-NTCDI-250 can achieve good electrochemical performance.
Conclusion
==========
DP-NTCDI-250 sample consisting of rod-like structure was synthesized through a simple one-pot *N*-acylationreaction of 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (NTCDA) with phenylamine (PA), leading to great time saving compared with the other organic synthesized method. The electrochemical tests including constant current charge-discharge, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) show high specific capacity, good cycling stability, high-rate capability for DP-NTCDI-250 compound. The synthesis process is simple, time saving and low energy consumption. The well electrochemical performance is also promising for the application in lithium batteries.
Methods
=======
1,4,5,8-Naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (NTCDA), phenylamine (PA), triethylamine (Et~3~N), *N*,*N*′-dimethylformanide (DMF), ethanol (EtOH) were obtained from commercial sources and used without purification.
Preparation of *N,N'*-diphenyl-1,4,5,8-naphthaleetetracarboxylic diimide (DP-NTCDI)
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*N,N′*-diphenyl-1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic diimide (DP-NTCDI) was prepared by 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (NTCDA) with phenylamine (PA) in DMF solution. Typically, 2.0 g NTCDA (7.6 mmol) was dissolved in 40.0 mL DMF at 130 °C under stirring. Then 2.1 mL PA (23.0 mmol) and 4.3 mL of Et~3~N (30.0 mmol) were added dropwise into the solution, respectively, and continued to reflux under stirring for 1 hour to form a brown precipitate, and the mother liquid was removed by centrifugation and filtration. The as-obtained brown precipitate was redissolved in EtOH, washed thoroughly with EtOH. Then the as-obtained product with recrystallization in DMF afforded orange acicular DP-NTCDI. The as-obtained pure DP-NTCDI was washed with EtOH and collected by filtration again. Finally, the pure DP-NTCDI was dried in vacuum at 80 °C for 12 h (2.9 g, 91.2%): ^1^H NMR (DMSO) δ 8.73 (s, 4H), 7.46--7.59 ppm (m, 10H); ^13^C NMR (DMSO) δ 127.14, 127.45, 128.94, 129.43, 129.47, 130.88, 136.06, 163.42 ppm. IR (KBr pellets): v = 3068, 981.77(benzene C-H), 1710.86 (C=O, vas), 1670.35 (imide), 1660.71 (C=O, vs), 1581.63 (naphthalene C=C, v), 1350.17 (C-N, v), 769.60 cm^−1^ (C=O, δ). The elemental analysis by a Thermo Flash EA-1112 (CHNS-O) element analyzer indicated that the synthesized DP-NTCDI consists of 74.60% C, 3.32% H, 6.62% N and 15.36% O, corresponding to its calculated values: 74.64% C, 3.37% H, 6.70% N and 15.30% O.
The as-prepared DP-NTCDI was further annealed at 250 °C for 3 h under air atmosphere to obtain DP-NTCDI-250 sample.
Characterization
----------------
The morphology and structure of as-prepared DP-NTCDI and DP-NTCDI-250 were characterized by a field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, ZEISS Ultra 55, 5 kV, Pt-spraying treatment), transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEM-2100HR, 200 kV), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD, BRUKER D8 ADVANCE, Cu K radiation (1.5406)). Elemental analyses were performed on a Thermo Flash EA-1112 (CHNS-O) element analyzer. The FT-IR spectra were recorded from KBr pellets in the 4000 \~ 400 cm^−1^ range on a Shimadzu Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (IR Prestige-21). Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) were carried out on a Perkin-Elmer TGA 7 thermo-gravimetric analyzer. ^1^H and ^13^C NMR spectra were obtained in DMSO-d~6~ on a Varian VNS400 MHz spectrometer and tetramethylsilane (TMS) was used as internal standard.
Electrodes and Cells Fabrication
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Coin-type cells (size:2016) consisting of a working electrode and a lithium foil counter electrode separated by a Celgard 2300 microporous membrane were assembled in an argon-filled glove-box. The working electrodes were prepared by mixing a powder of DP-NTCDI-250, acetylene black as a conductive additive, and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as a binder in a weight ratio of 5:4:1 using a mortar. The sheet was then attached to an aluminum foil current collector, and the resultant working-electrode was dried. The amount of active material deposited was approximately 3 mg cm^−2^. The electrolyte was 1M LiPF~6~-EC + EMC + DMC (V~EC~:V~EMC~:V~DMC~ = 1:1:1). The charge/discharge experiments were performed by using a LAND cell test system (Land CT 2001A) in the potential range of 1.5\~4.0 V versus Li/Li^+^ at different constant current densities (25, 50, 125, 250, 500 mA g^−1^). Cyclic voltammogram was obtained on PGSTAT-30 (Autolab) in the potential range of 1.5\~4.0 V at a scanning rate of 0.1 mV s^−1^. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis were carried in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 10 mHz with an AC signal amplitude of 10 mV.
Additional Information
======================
**How to cite this article**: Lv, M. *et al.* Heteroaromatic organic compound with conjugated multi-carbonyl as cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries. *Sci. Rep.* **6**, 23515; doi: 10.1038/srep23515 (2016).
Supplementary Material {#S1}
======================
###### Supplementary Information
This work was supported by the Scientific and Technological Plan of Guangdong Province (No. 2015A040404043), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 21273085), the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (Grant No. 2015A030313376) and the Undergraduates' Innovating Experimentation Project of China, Guangdong Province and South China Normal University (Nos 201510574056, 2014087, 2014089, hx201603), Golden Seed Project of South China Normal University.
**Author Contributions** F.Z. designed the material structure. M.X.L. performed the experiment. Y.W.W. and M.J.C. collected the experimental data. C.F.Y. performed the XRD. J.N.M. and D.S. analysed datas. M.X.L., H.P.Z., R.H.Z. and S.L.C. wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed to preparing the manuscript.
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![XRD patterns of DP-NTCDI-250, DP-NTCDI and simulative DP-NTCDI of ref.[@b35].](srep23515-f3){#f3}
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| {
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Measurement of microparticle tissue factor activity in clinical samples: A summary of two tissue factor-dependent FXa generation assays.
Thrombosis is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Detection of a prothrombotic state using biomarkers would be of great benefit to identify patients at risk of thrombosis that would benefit from thromboprophylaxis. Tissue factor (TF) is a highly procoagulant protein that under normal conditions is not present in the blood. However, increased levels of TF in the blood in the form of microparticles (MPs) (also called extracellular vesicles) are observed under various pathological conditions. In this review, we will discuss studies that have measured MP-TF activity in a variety of diseases using two similar FXa generation assay. One of the most robust signals for MP-TF activity (16-26 fold higher than healthy controls) is observed in pancreatic cancer patients with venous thromboembolism. In this case, the TF+ MPs appear to be derived from the cancer cells. Surprisingly, cirrhosis and acute liver injury are associated with 17-fold and 38-fold increases in MP-TF activity, respectively. Based on mouse models, we speculate that the TF+ MPs are derived from hepatocytes. More modest increases are observed in patients with urinary tract infections (6-fold) and in a human endotoxemia model (9-fold) where monocytes are the likely source of the TF+ MPs. Finally, there is no increase in MP-TF activity in the majority of cardiovascular disease patients. These studies indicate that MP-TF activity may be a useful biomarker to identify patients with particular diseases that have an increased risk of thrombosis. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Henry L. and Grace Doherty Charitable Foundation Professor of LawPh.D., University of Michigan, 1984J.D., University of Michigan Law School, 1981A.B., Dartmouth College, 1978
Law and economics expert Jason Scott Johnston joined the Virginia Law faculty in 2010 and serves as the Henry L. and Grace Doherty Charitable Foundation Professor of Law . He formerly served as the the Nicholas E. Chimicles Research Professor in Business Law and Regulation at Virginia Law, and the Robert G. Fuller, Jr. Professor of Law and director of the Program on Law, Environment and Economy at the University of Pennsylvania Law School.
Johnston’s scholarship has examined subjects ranging from natural resources law to torts and contracts. He has published dozens of articles in law journals, such as the Yale Law Journal, and in peer-reviewed economics journals, such as the Journal of Law, Economics and Organization. He is currently working on a book that critically analyzes the foundations of global warming law and policy, a series of articles on the economics of regulatory science and another series of articles on various aspects of the law and economics of consumer protection. He has served on the Board of Directors of the American Law and Economics Association, on the National Science Foundation’s Law and Social Science grant review panel, and on the Board of the Searle Civil Justice Institute. He won Penn Law’s Robert A. Gorman Award for Teaching Excellence in 2003.
After earning his A.B. from Dartmouth College and both his J.D. and Ph.D. (economics) from the University of Michigan, Johnston clerked for Judge Gilbert S. Merritt on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. He then taught at Vermont Law School and Vanderbilt Law School before joining Penn’s faculty. He has been a visiting professor or held fellowship appointments at Yale Law School, the University of Southern California Gould School of Law, the American Academy in Berlin and the Property and Environment Research Center.
“The Law and Economics of Environmental Federalism: Europe and the United States Compared,” 27 Va. Envtl. L.J. 205-274 (2009).HeinOnline (PDF)
"Fashioning Entitlements: A Comparative Law and Economic Analysis of the Judicial Role in Environmental Centralization in the U.S. and Europe" (with Michael G. Faure), in Responsibility and Governance (Giorgio Brosio, et. al., eds., Edward Elgar, 2009).
"Tradable Pollution Permits and the Regulatory Game," in Moving to Markets in Environmental Regulation: Lessons from Twenty Years of Experience 353-385 (Charles Kolstad and Jody Freeman, eds., Oxford University Press, 2007).PDF | {
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This interview is part of the Institute's "Conversations with History" series, and uses Internet technology to share with the public Berkeley's distinction as a global forum for ideas.
Archival photos are courtesy of Ken Jacobs.
Welcome to a Conversation with History. I'm Harry Kreisler of the Institute of International Studies. Our guest today Ken Jacobs, a film artist in residence this week at the Pacific Film Archive on the Berkeley campus. For more than 35 years, drawing on his skills as an imaginative illusionist, a workman-like tinkerer, and a worshiper of film frame by frame, Ken Jacobs has confronted reality and unmasked established powers. He creates, through his art, disorienting experiences which strangely empower the viewer. Combining elements of comedy, tragedy, history and mystery, his artistry connects the viewers with their feelings, their visual faculties, and most importantly, with experience.
Ken Jacobs's week-long residency at UC Berkeley in October 1999 included two Nervous System performances and a lecture at the Pacific Film Archive / Berkeley Art Museum. Ken Jacobs's residency at Berkeley was a project of The Time of Your Life: Enhancing Student Engagement with the Arts, funded by a grant from The Pew Charitable Trusts. | {
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Стовп бруду досягав 6 поверху.
На місці прориву труби у столиці безлад. Вирва, яка утворилася, становить щонайменше 20-30 метрів, йдеться в ТСН.12.00.
Камери спостереження зафіксували момент прориву. На ньому видно, як за секунди, утворюється "гриб" з асфальту, який прориває. Стовп бруду досягає 6 поверху.
"Київенерго" виправдовується, що випробування труби були планові, вони не могли передбачити, в якому місці може прорвати. Також зазначають, що труба не була діаметром в два метри, як стверджують користувачі мережі, а становила лише 80 см.
Також у відомстві обіцяють, що збитки постраждалим буде компенсовано у встановленому законодавством порядку. | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
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Q:
Django: Is there a way to detect if uploaded image is landscape or portrait?
I want to write a method which detects the orientation of uploaded image, then use a thumb with certain landscape or portrait dimensions using django-imagekit. Any ideas?
class Photo(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=200)
photo = models.ImageField(upload_to='/photos', max_length=50)
photoalbum = models.ForeignKey(Photoalbum, related_name='photos')
portrait_thumb = ImageSpecField(source='photo',
processors=[ResizeToFill(50, 100)],
format='JPEG',
options={'quality': 60})
landscape_thumb = ImageSpecField(source='photo',
processors=[ResizeToFill(100, 50)],
format='JPEG',
options={'quality': 60})
def get_orientation(self):
'''HOW TO IMPLEMENT THIS?'''
def get_thumb_url(self):
if self.get_orientation == 'portrait':
return self.portrait_thumb.url()
elif self.get_orientation == 'landscape':
return self.landscape_thumb.url()
A:
You can do this by checking the width and height attributes of the model's image spec field. If width is greater than height, it is landscape. If the height is bigger than the width it is portrait.
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
Q:
Apps crashing on one user only
Random apps are crashing as soon as they open, such as Acrobat, Word, Distiller and a few other smaller apps. I tried opening the apps on a 2nd user account and they open fine. I have also tried deleting my preferences via ▸ Users ▸ imac ▸ Library ▸ Preferences, but that has not helped.
This is getting very irritating!
I'm running Yosemite on an iMac.
A:
Since Mountain Lion, OS X is also caching preferences, what I personally think is an bad idea. :) It's like "Oh we made the Library folder visible again since Lion, let's make another hurdle against over-intelligent users deleting files and configuring on their own so we do not need to support their problems and to protect us!"-idea. :)
Back to topic. :)
On your path to delete the dark side app preferences, did you try:
defaults delete -app <YOURAPPNAME>
in Terminal.app? For instance, for deleting even the cached preferences of Apple Mail, you would invoke
defaults delete -app Mail
That resets all the preferences for Apple Mail and puts default values in the prefs file.
If you did, then try to load the default prefs you created:
defaults read -app <YOURAPPNAME>
BEFORE that, you could do displaying the prefs file for debugging that everything is ok:
defaults read -app <YOURAPPNAME>
If you see some binary trash, you can be sure the problem is there...
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
volume 16, no. 3 january 2016 What Is Sexual Orientation? Robin A. Dembroff Princeton University © 2016 Robin A. Dembroff This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License. <www.philosophersimprint.org/016003/> 1. Introduction Ordinary discourse is filled with discussions about "sexual orientation". Everyone seems to have opinions about it - whether it should be a legally protected class, whether it is apt for moral judgment, and whether Lady Gaga is right that, whatever our sexual orientations, we were "born this way".1 This discourse suggests a common understanding of what "sexual orientation" is. But even a cursory search turns up vastly differing, conflicting, and sometimes ethically troubling characterizations of sexual orientation. Consider the following, taken from (respectively) a professional scientific association, an LGBTQ advocacy organization, a neuroscientist, and a philosopher: 1. Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes.2 2. 'Sexual orientation' is the preferred term used when referring to an individual's physical and/or emotional attraction to the same and/or opposite gender.3 3. Sexual orientation ... is the trait that predisposes us to experience sexual attraction to people of the same sex as ourselves (homosexual, gay, or lesbian), to persons of the other sex (heterosexual or straight), or to both sexes (bisexual).4 4. A person's sexual orientation is based on his or her sexual desires and fantasies and the sexual behaviors he or she is disposed to engage in under ideal conditions.5 1. Lady Gaga (2011). "Born This Way". Born This Way. Abbey Road Studios. 2. The American Psychological Association (2008). 3. Human Rights Campaign (2014). 4. LeVay (2011), 1. 5. Stein (1999), 45. ImprintPhilosophers' robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 2 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) The conceptual jumble surrounding sexual orientation suggests that the topic is overripe for analytical philosophical exploration.9 While the delay in such exploration may be due to metaphysicians' historical focus on discovering and articulating metaphysically necessary truths about reality, recent feminist critiques have brought topics related to contingent social realities into the subfield's focus. Philosophers such as Charlotte Witt and Sally Haslanger have begun, for example, rich and growing literatures on metaphysical questions concerning gender and race. But sexual orientation has yet to receive due in-depth metaphysical exploration. This paper lays the groundwork for one such in-depth exploration and, in so doing, encourages further analytic philosophical discussion of sexual orientation. Its target is twofold: (i) the everyday concept of sexual orientation, and (ii) the corresponding concepts associated with the taxonomy of sexual orientation (e. g., gay, straight). These concepts are highly interwoven, since the concept of sexual orientation constrains the taxonomy. (For example, a concept of sexual orientation that centrally concerns a relation between a subject's own sex [or gender] and the sex [or gender] of the persons they are attracted to will imply a taxonomy containing correspondingly relational concepts.) My project sets out to engineer a revised concept of sexual orientation that implies a new taxonomical schema of sexual orientation. Both the revised concept and the new taxonomical schema are intended to elucidate and improve our everyday concepts in light of particular theoretical and socio-political purposes. And, importantly, this project is limited in scope: the proposed concept and taxonomy of sexual orientation are not meant to apply across all cultural contexts. Instead, my project constructs a concept that is both responsive to and critical people, I encourage you with all good will to incorporate a gender-neutral singular pronoun of your own choosing into ordinary English discourse. 9. While sexual orientation has received little attention in the analytical tradition, the continental tradition has a rich history of thinking about sexual orientation - see Foucault (1980) and Halperin (1990) and (2002), among others. To name just a few of the worries that might be raised for these characterizations: (1)–(3) assume binary categories of sex or gender (i. e., male/female or men/women)6; (2) and (3) disagree on whether sexual orientation concerns gender-attraction (attraction to individuals with certain genders) or sex-attraction (attraction to individuals with certain sexes); and (4) appeals to the opaque notion of "ideal conditions" for acting on one's sexual desires (more on this later). Characterizations like these - assuming they are attempts to elucidate a shared, pre-existing concept of sexual orientation - reveal that we have an extremely poor grasp of this concept. And even if the characterizations are stipulative, we have good reason to resist adopting many of them. Inadequate understandings of sexual orientation can reinforce heteronormative assumptions (i. e., assumptions that heterosexuality should be privileged within society) by maintaining a majority/minority divide between heterosexuality and other sexual orientations that historically has been normatively loaded and policed. They also can reinforce cisnormative assumptions (i. e., assumptions that all persons are cisgender - that is, that all persons' genders are the ones assigned to them at birth on the basis of their anatomy) by failing to provide recognition or clarity within the sexual-orientation taxonomy for persons who are not cisgender or who are attracted to persons who are not cisgender.7, 8 6. I here understand sex as a classification solely on the basis of human bodies' physical characteristics and gender as a classification (at least in part) on the basis of social situatedness. For more on this distinction, see section 3. Also, I acknowledge that gender-identity (the gender one self-attributes) and gender-expression (the external characteristics and behaviors that are socially interpreted as communicating that one belongs to a certain gender category) can come apart. In this paper, talk of gender-attraction is most easily understood as attraction to certain gender expressions, but I leave open that persons' gender identities can also play a role in gender-attraction. 7. Often this cisnormative assumption is paired with the views that gender is biologically determined by one's anatomy, and that gender is essentially a biological rather than social category. 8. Throughout this paper, I will use 'their' as a gender-neutral singular pronoun. Some people may take grammatical issue with this. If you are one of those robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 3 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) (if any) our ordinary concept of x tracks. The last project, and the one that best categorizes the methodology of this paper, is what I will call the "engineering project": it asks about the purposes of our concept of x, and (if necessary) improves or replaces the existing concept to better realize the purposes we want this concept to fulfill.11, 12 This project takes seriously that, as Alexis Burgess and David Plunkett put it, "our conceptual repertoire determines not only what we can think and say but also, as a result, what we can do and who we can be".13 Given this important feature of our conceptual repertoire, we can think of the engineering project as one that sets out to elucidate and possibly revise or replace our everyday concepts in light of the impact we would like them to have. Importantly, the engineering project is not required to replace or even to revise an existing concept - what is important is that the final concept serves the proposed purposes. In some cases, these purposes may be best served by preserving (e. g.) the ordinary usage, connotation, or extension of the everyday concept in question. To quote Haslanger: [I]f we allow that everyday vocabularies serve both cognitive and practical purposes, purposes that might also be served by our theorizing, then a theory offering an improved understanding of our (legitimate) purposes and/ or improved conceptual resources for the tasks at hand might reasonably represent itself as providing a (possibly revisionary) account of the everyday concepts. ... The responsibility is ours to define [these concepts] for our 11. Haslanger (2000), 32–33. Haslanger calls this the "analytic project". In order to distinguish it from "conceptual analysis", though, which is more akin to the "conceptual project", I will refer to it throughout as the "engineering project". 12. Though I do not want to take a strong stance on the nature of concepts, I am loosely understanding concepts here as ways of representing the world. I mean this, though, in a deflationary sense that remains neutral on the issue of whether concepts can carry non-descriptive, expressive content. 13. Burgess & Plunkett (2013), 1091. of our everyday thinking in contemporary Western society about sexual orientation. On my proposed account of sexual orientation, which I call "Bidimensional Dispositionalism", sexual orientation is based upon a person's sexual behavioral dispositions under the ordinary manifesting conditions for these dispositions (i. e., the conditions corresponding to applications of the term 'sexual orientation' and related terms), and having a particular sexual orientation is based upon what sex[es] and gender[s] of persons one is (or is not) disposed to sexually engage with under these conditions. Importantly, these particular categories of sexual orientation do not reference one's own sex or gender.10 In what follows, I assume non-eliminativism about sex and gender. I use the terms 'male' and 'female' to refer to sex categories, though I do not assume that these terms exhaust or refer to discrete sex categories. Similarly, I use the terms 'man' and 'woman' to refer to gender categories, though I do not assume that these terms exhaust or refer to discrete gender categories. 2. Methodology and Framework This section clarifies my project's methodology and framework. I first discuss the project's methodology, and then turn to the purposes guiding my analysis of the concept of sexual orientation. Finally, I distinguish between the central target of my analysis - the everyday concept of sexual orientation - and three distinct but closely related concepts. Methodology: The Engineering Project In her work on gender, Haslanger points out the importance of distinguishing between three projects that ask a question of the form, What is x? One project is conceptual: it asks only about the content of our ordinary concept of x. Another is naturalistic: it asks which natural kind 10. Acknowledging that some people wholly lack dispositions to sexually engage with other persons on the basis of sexor gender-attractions will include asexuality with regard to sex and gender among the class of sexual orientations. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 4 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) replace our former concept. This tension is fine; I'm not sure anything important hangs on whether my project is described as providing a revised or replacement concept of sexual orientation. Either description can point to what does matter - that as an engineering project, my project consists of two parts: (I) Elucidating purposes ideally served by our concept of sexual orientation, and (II) Re-engineering our concept of sexual orientation (and the corresponding taxonomy of sexual orientation) in light of the purposes described in (I).15 Having now described the methodology of my project, I will turn to describing purposes that (I argue) are ideally served by our concept of sexual orientation and clarifying my central target concept. I will then spend the remainder of the paper reconstructing this concept and its corresponding taxonomic schema in a way that fulfills these purposes. Framework I: Purposes I propose that the following purposes are ideally served by our concept of sexual orientation: (i) Clarifies the criteria for ascribing sexual orientation, as well as how these criteria translate into a taxonomic schema of sexual orientation; (ii) Is consistent with relevant social-scientific research - in particular, research concerning sex and gender; 15. These parts could be conceptually divided into two projects, one of which looks for suitable concepts in light of assigned purposes, and the other of which engineers revised (or new) concepts that meet these purposes (should suitable ones not be found elsewhere). For simplicity, I am including both projects under the heading of the 'engineering project'. purposes. In doing so we will want to be responsive to some aspects of ordinary usage (and to aspects of both the connotation and extension of the terms).14 In this way, engineering projects may range in the descriptiveness and prescriptiveness of their conceptual construction. Given the purposes that projects assign to their target concepts, they might prescribe no revision to an everyday concept, or prescribe revisions that (among other things) preserve features of the everyday concept. These latter projects are descriptive insofar as they elucidate and maintain certain features of the everyday concept, but prescriptive insofar as they propose revisions to the everyday concept in light of certain purposes. Haslanger acknowledges that, because of this flexibility, an engineering project will confront issues regarding how conceptually conservative it intends to be - i. e., whether it intends to retain, revise, or eliminate the everyday concept. My project is somewhat conservative in one sense but not another. While - for reasons I will soon explain - it attempts to preserve the general extension of our everyday concept of sexual orientation, it does not attempt to preserve many of the connotations associated with the term 'sexual orientation' or the concepts associated with our current taxonomy of sexual orientation. Given this, my project will clarify and minimally revise our everyday concept of sexual orientation, but also eliminate and replace the everyday concepts associated with the taxonomy of sexual orientation. Some might take my proposed concept of sexual orientation to constitute a new, distinct concept replacing the former concept, rather than revising it. I can see both sides of this issue. Insofar as my account attempts to be responsive to our ordinary usage of the concept of sexual orientation while revising the concept's content, it may be thought merely revisionary. But insofar as this revised content implies a new taxonomy of sexual orientation and significantly changes the connotations of the term 'sexual orientation', it may be thought to entirely 14. Haslanger (2000), 33. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 5 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) sex and gender - especially with regard to sexual orientation - regularly create difficulties for queer, gender-nonconforming, and intersex persons, as well as their partners. How should gender-nonconforming, transgender, or intersex persons (or their partners) describe their sexual orientations? How can or should non-discrimination laws address these sexual orientations? The current categories of sexual orientation offer little to no flexibility or clarity for these individuals. For these reasons, the current categories reinforce cisnormativity as well as heteronormativity. That is, because the current categories place queer orientations in a vast minority and have no place at all for many transgender or intersex individuals (or persons attracted to these individuals), they perpetuate prejudices that sexual orientations and gender identities that do not meet standard binaries of homosexual/heterosexual and cisgender man/cisgender woman are somehow deviant, dysfunctional, or even nonexistent.18 Ideally, our concept of sexual orientation would get rid of or at least diminish these harms by achieving purposes (iii)–(iv) above, and do so (at least in part) by employing the tools articulated in purposes (i)–(ii). In addition to guiding my project, purposes (iii)–(iv) also impose certain constraints. In particular, they constrain the project to construct a concept of sexual orientation that is feasible for public uptake. Only such a concept can move us toward achieving these social and political purposes. So, rather than rebuilding the concept of sexual orientation from scratch, I restrict myself to engineering a concept that clarifies and improves upon the pre-existing structure of our everyday concept and - on the basis of this clarification and improvement - rebuilds and expands the sexual-orientation taxonomy. To put this slightly differently: I am not out to develop a theoretically ideal or purely stipulative concept and then argue that the term 'sexual orientation' should be attached to my concept rather than the 18. Consider, for example, the well-recognized phenomenon known as "bisexual erasure" (a tendency to explain away or simply deny evidence that persons are attracted to both men and women, or, on alternative accounts, females and males). (See, e. g., Greenesmith [2010].) See also Stein's (1999) critiques of the binary operationalization of sexual orientation in scientific studies. (iii) Reduces or eliminates the presumption that cisheterosexuality16 is the normatively standard sexual orientation and all queer sexual orientations are normatively deviant;17 and (iv) Is conducive for establishing legal and social protections for persons who have queer sexual orientations. These purposes are not merely stipulative; someone could disagree with me concerning whether these purposes should guide our concept of sexual orientation. I take each of them, though, to be rooted in everyday political and social realities. My reasons for adopting (i)–(ii) are both theoretical and practical. As I've shown, sexual orientation is understood in a variety of conflicting ways - there is disagreement about how to articulate the criteria for ascribing sexual orientation (e. g., in terms of genderor sex-attraction), as well as corresponding disagreement about the taxonomy of sexual orientation. There also are regular confusions between sex and gender, which suggests that these understandings are not informed by recent research concerning the distinction between sex and gender. This alone immediately reveals a need for an elucidation of the concept and taxonomy of sexual orientation, and possibly a revision ensuring their consistency with relevant research on sex and gender. More practically, clarifying the criteria for ascribing sexual orientation (and how they translate into a taxonomic schema of sexual orientation) is a key ingredient in developing a concept that serves the social and political purposes stated in (iii)–(iv). Confusions between 16. As will become clear in the subsequent section, because I understand sexual orientation as concerning both sex and gender, I reject the idea that heterosexuality picks out a specific sexual orientation. I believe that talk about "heterosexuality" in ordinary discourse is usually talking about "cisheterosexuality" - that is, the attraction of a cisgender woman to a cisgender man or vice versa. 17. I use the term 'queer' here to mean something like "not cisheterosexual". For reasons that hopefully become clear, I intentionally avoid terms such as 'same-sex', 'homosexual', etc. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 6 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) orientation that they fail to recognize. Given this, I will not address sexual identity in what follows. The second is romantic or emotional attraction. Some characterizations of sexual orientation - for example, that of the American Psychological Association - understand sexual orientation in terms of "emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions".21 I grant that romantic and emotional attractions are often reliable evidence of sexual orientation, and can be themselves the target of discrimination. But it seems that our concept of sexual orientation is distinct from the concepts of romantic and emotional attraction in that it primarily concerns sexual behavior. This is why, for example, I think we correctly call "asexual" persons who are disposed to never engage in sexual behaviors, even though they may experience a range of romantic and emotional attractions. The fact that asexuality is considered (even by asexual persons) to be a single category within the taxonomy of sexual orientation, despite asexuals reporting a wide range of romantic and emotional attractions, suggests that these latter attractions are captured by concepts other than concepts of sexual orientation.22 (There is even a distinct taxonomy for these romantic and emotional attractions, e. g., 'biromantic', 'panromantic'.) Conversely, we can imagine that someone - or even every person - who has sexual attractions that lead us to ascribe a sexual orientation to them could completely lack romantic or emotional attractions. In short, it is not difficult to think of examples in which persons with seemingly the same sexual orientation have vastly differing romantic or emotional attractions, as well as examples in which sexual orientation is unaccompanied by romantic or emotional attractions. Given cases like these, I assume in what follows that, while romantic and emotional attractions might fall under a concept of sexuality broadly construed, the concepts associated with these attractions are distinct from the concept of sexual orientation. For this reason, my 21. American Psychological Association (2008). 22. See Emens (2014). everyday concept. Instead, I am constraining my conceptual engineering so that it is responsive to our ordinary usage by generally preserving the extension of our everyday concept of sexual orientation.19 I will say more about this soon, but in particular, this means that I limit my concept to one that primarily concerns sex-attraction and gender-attraction. I have no qualms if someone wants to describe this restricted project as building a ladder that we climb in order to eventually kick away and move on to a different concept of sexual orientation. It is a ladder that I think we must climb. And - I would suggest - this pragmatic approach to a conceptual project is well suited for any project that hopes to balance theoretical aims with a political and social agenda.20 Framework II: Target Concept Given my project's constrained scope, it is important to get a sense of the everyday concept's extension. To this end, I will now argue that we should distinguish the everyday concept of sexual orientation from three other, closely related concepts. The first is sexual identity, which I understand to refer to an individual's self-identification with regard to sexual orientation. Because sexual identity concerns sexual orientation in this way, the concept of sexual identity is sensitive to the concept of sexual orientation. But we also acknowledge that someone can be self-deceived or in denial about their sexual orientation (or even lack the concepts necessary for self-identification), while still being truly said to have the sexual 19. I say "generally" because it is unclear to me whether our everyday concept of sexual orientation extends to certain non-cisheteronormative pairings and simply fails to place them within its taxonomy, or whether it fails to extend to these pairings. My project secures this extension. It is also worth noting that this constraint is not an unusual move in metaphysics - e. g., Haslanger (2000) and Sider (2011) also constrain their conceptual engineering to a particular phenomenon in light of certain proposed purposes. It is also a move that is explicitly discussed in recent literature on conceptual ethics, such as Plunkett (2015) and Burgess & Plunkett (2013). 20. Thanks to an anonymous referee for pressing me to clarify this point. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 7 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Admittedly, the cultural distinction we make between sexual orientation and sexual druthers seems somewhat arbitrary. It is not clear why attraction to certain sexes or genders is considered relevant to one's sexual orientation, but not attraction to a certain hair color, race, or economic status. But sex and gender are, for better or worse, particularly salient social categories with respect to sexual orientation. As a result, we find ourselves in the position of classifying persons' sexual orientations on the basis of their sexand gender-attractions, and not on the basis of other sexual attractions. And this makes persons with particular sexand gender-attractions more vulnerable to discrimination than persons with attractions to persons with a certain hair color or economic status. Again, I am not generally preserving the everyday concept's extension for its own sake, but in order to fulfill certain purposes. And the purposes that I've proposed are, I think, best served by maintaining the distinction between sexual druthers and sexual orientation (understood in terms of attraction to persons with certain sexes or genders). No one is interested in creating nondiscrimination laws to protect people attracted to blondes or baritones. We are, though, interested in creating legal and social protections for queer, transgender, gendernonconforming, and intersex persons. And, as mentioned before, I am here assuming that an account of sexual orientation should be aimed at better realizing these political and social purposes. So, given the pragmatic interests guiding the boundaries of "sexual orientation", I think that I can best fulfill purposes (iii)–(iv) by retaining these boundaries and separating sexual orientation from sexual druthers. For this reason, I will hold fixed that sexual orientation primarily concerns sexand gender-attractions, and not other sexual attractions. That said, one might worry that even once we take on board the distinction between sexual orientation and sexual druthers, it remains vague because many of the traits that are objects of druthers also (at least in part) construct gender. In other words, the worry goes, if sexual orientation concerns attraction to persons of a certain gender, and gender is a social construction that concerns (e. g.) performativity project is not directly concerned with emotional or romantic attraction. That is, my analysis is not concerned with emotional or romantic attractions that have no effect upon one's dispositions toward sexual behavior, and only indirectly concerned with those that have an effect. Should, for example, someone's romantic attractions significantly influence these dispositions, their romantic attractions will be part of what forms their sexual orientation under my account insofar as they have this influence. Any concern with attraction in what follows will focus upon sexual (and I mean sexual!) attraction regardless of whether other forms of attraction accompany it. To this end, talk of attraction in what follows generally can be understood as shorthand for dispositions to engage in sexual behaviors.23 The third concept to distinguish from sexual orientation is what I call sexual druthers, which refers to specific preferences of sexual partners within potential partners according to one's sexual orientation. This is often referred to as someone's "type".24 Height, hair color, body structure, and voice quality are all examples of traits about which people may have sexual druthers. In order to generally preserve the extension of our everyday concept of sexual orientation, I do not include sexual druthers in my account of sexual orientation, and instead focus upon preferences of sexual partners with regard to sex and gender categories. 23. Michael Rea raises the interesting question of what this distinction (between emotional/romantic attraction and sexual orientation) implies for someone who lacks dispositions to engage in sexual behaviors (perhaps, e. g., due to chronic deficiency of sex hormones), but who has higher-order desire for sexual intimacy. Does having only this higher-order desire preclude such a person from having a sexual orientation? I would answer "No" - not so long as we consider asexuality a sexual orientation. Asexuality is generally understood as the lack of sexual attraction, or lack of first-order desire to have sexual contact with someone else. (See, e. g., The Asexual Visibility & Education Network (2012).) Asexuals can and often do experience romantic or emotional attractions, though. And they might have higher-order desire to experience first-order sexual desire or sexual intimacy. A person in the situation that Rea describes seems, for these reasons, to be best categorized as asexual. 24. Of course, a single person may have multiple "types". robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 8 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) experience no sexor gender-attractions? These questions press on our ordinary concept, and its embedded assumption that there is a clear line between sexual druthers and sexual orientation. Happily, I take no such position. Borderline cases like these make it clear that our social categories have fuzzy edges and do not cut at deep joints. But we would be mistaken to expect that they would. For my purposes, what is important is that - though the separating line can be fuzzy - the majority of cases show that there clearly is a distinction between sexual orientation and sexual druthers. I leave it to future papers to further discuss borderline cases, and whether these cases ought to affect the extension of our concept of sexual orientation; the following will aim toward a general account of sexual orientation that preserves the central bases of sexual orientation as it is ordinarily understood - namely, sexand gender-attraction. For this reason, I will assume that - just as sexual orientation concerns romantic and emotional attractions only insofar as they affect sexual attraction - sexual orientation concerns sexual druthers only insofar as features that are the object of druthers go into constructions of gender (or insofar as primary or secondary sex characteristics that are objects of sexual druthers affect sexual behavioral dispositions). 3. Bidimensional Dispositionalism In what follows, I propose a concept of sexual orientation that is designed to satisfy purposes (i)–(iv). However, I first address two issues that constrain and shape my concept of sexual orientation: the distinctions between sex and gender and between behaviorism and dispositionalism. I then state my proposal and discuss its implications, as well as additional philosophical questions pointing to further expansion on my proposal.28 28. Specifically, I will address the application of discrete vs. continuous categories of sex or gender and essentialism vs. constructionism to accounts of sexual orientation. (behaviors, dress, etc.) or social status, then the distinction between sexual orientation and sexual druthers is vague. I agree with this point, but still insist that there are cases where sexual orientation and sexual druthers come apart - that is, cases where someone is attracted to a particular feature that lacks gendered connotations.25 In fact, it may be that some persons lack any genderor sex-attractions, and are solely sexually attracted to persons with non-gendered features such as wealth or red hair. That is, there may be persons whose sexual attractions are based only on what I've termed sexual druthers.26 This, of course, puts pressure on the distinction between sexual orientation and sexual druthers - why don't we think that being (e. g.) solely attracted to redheads is a sexual orientation?27 And if it is not, what sexual orientation do such persons have, since they are not asexual (i. e., having no sexual attractions to anyone), but 25. Whether or not certain druthers have gendered connotations should be assessed from a subjective perspective. It could be, for example, that someone has a druther (or, if you prefer, fetish) for a particular shoe color because for that person this shoe color is associated with aspects of sexual engagement that express their sexual orientation. While such druthers might appear to others to have no gendered connotations, they have these connotations for the persons who have them. For this reason, I think that an account of sexual orientation should concern such gender-laden druthers, albeit indirectly, as expressions of persons' underlying sexual orientations. 26. Thanks to David Black for bringing this possibility to my attention. 27. A more common example of a similar phenomenon is pedophilia, or exclusive attraction to pre-pubescent children regardless of their sex or gender. Is pedophilia a sexual orientation? Those inclined to think that it is not a sexual orientation might think that it is instead a sexual disorder, which (unlike sexual orientation) is something that should be subject to psychiatric and medical treatment. Those inclined to think that it is a sexual orientation, though, can maintain that sexual orientation concerns sexand gender-attractions. On a plausible view of sex-categories, these categories are based on continuous and fluid groupings of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Because these characteristics undergo significant change during puberty, it is arguable that humans shift sex-categories during puberty. These possibilities are surely not exhaustive, and I acknowledge that this is a difficult (as well as a morally and emotionally loaded) case. Undeniably, there are a host of similar difficult cases that beg for further discussion. Length limitations and the freshness of this topic to philosophical debate constrain me from providing more than an extremely general discussion of sexual orientation in this paper. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 9 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) think that understanding sex as an anatomical category entails understanding it as purely "natural" or culture-independent. Our sex categories seem to (in some way) track anatomical features associated with reproductive functions, but these very anatomical categories of reproductive roles could be (at least partially) the result of cultural practice. As I see it, one can maintain that both sex and gender categories are (at least partially) culturally constructed while distinguishing between them on the grounds that they are constructed upon different physical and social features and aimed at fulfilling different purposes. Given this, I see little to be gained by adopting the unification view. Of course much more can be said, but for the sake of brevity I will now turn to the cisnormative view. A pathway to challenging this view was famously laid by Simone de Beauvoir, who marked sex as a biological category and gender as a category concerning the social position (e. g., exploitation and oppression) experienced by those exemplifying femininity.31 While the details of de Beauvoir's ideas have been challenged in contemporary discussions, her sex/gender distinction is the standard view in psychology, sociology, and queer and women's studies, as well as in feminist philosophy.32 Given this, it would be fairly uncontroversial for me to simply assume this distinction moving forward in my account of sexual orientation. It is worth saying explicitly, though, that not only is the distinction theoretically useful, dividing what seem to be distinct phenomena, but it is also politically and socially advantageous. For one, it provides a helpful framework through which to understand the gender identity 31. Sveinsdóttir (2011), 48. As de Beauvoir famously said, "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman." I will adopt Haslanger's view that 'sex' refers to a classification on the basis of anatomy (e. g., primary sex characteristics), though this is compatible with these classifications having vague boundaries, or boundaries heavily influenced by socio-political interests. I am also sympathetic with Haslanger's view that gender is not merely a social construct, but is defined in terms of social relations (Haslanger [2012], 39). 32. For an overview of recent philosophical approaches to sex and gender, as well as the interaction between philosophical approaches and other (e. g., psychological, political) approaches to sex and gender, see Mikkola (2012) and Haslanger (2012). Preliminary Issues Sex and Gender As mentioned, previous characterizations of sexual orientation typically and without argument equate and assume binary categories of sex and gender. They often also analyze sexual orientation in terms of either sex-attraction to the exclusion of gender-attraction, or vice versa. These assumptions lead to understandings of sexual orientation according to which sexual orientation is unidimensional - tracking either sexor gender-attraction, but never both independently of each other - and limited to a small number of discrete sub-categories. The position that there is no distinction between sex and gender might be understood in two ways: as the claim that sex (taken as anatomical) wholly determines gender, or that gender (taken as socio-political or psychological) wholly determines sex. The former - call it the "cisnormative view" - is much more prevalent than the latter - call it the "unification view" - which has a small presence within feminist theory and other academic literature.29 In this paper, I am primarily concerned with rejecting the cisnormative view. While I find the unification view provocative, I also think it incorrect. Much of the motivation for the view, it seems, comes from the conviction that we should not posit sex/gender along a nature/culture binary, because this binary has historically provided justification for women's oppression, or because - as Linda Alcoff rightly identifies - "in an important sense, everything is natural".30 But (as Alcoff also points out) it is confused to 29. See, e. g., Butler (1990), Wittig (1992), or Halpern (2002). Butler and Wittig (both feminist theorists) argue that sex classifications follow laborand politically-driven gender classifications. Wittig, for example, writes, "No biological, psychological, or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society: it is civilization as a whole that produces this creature." (For dissenting discussion of these views, see Alcoff [2005].) In contrast, Halpern (a psychologist) emphasizes sex differences in cognitive capacities, meaning that one who understands gender as a primarily psychological feature might argue based on Halpern's research that sex differences follow gender identity. 30. Alcoff (2005). robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 10 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) For example, someone may be attracted only to transgender men who have not had genital or top surgery, or only to cisgender men and women. And given that we recognize that conferral of sexual orientation tracks both genderand sex-attraction, we also should recognize that it tracks various combinations of these attractions. For this reason, I place a further constraint on my account of sexual orientation: (b) The account must permit individuals' sexual orientations to be based on both gender-attraction and sex-attraction. Someone perfectly happy with (a) may still resist (b), and argue that sex-attraction (or gender-attraction) should be taken as a mere sexual druther, allowing sexual orientation to remain unidimensional. Consider, for example, someone who is attracted to women and not men, but is only attracted to cisgender women. Why think that this latter attraction is anything more than a sexual druther? That is, why should we think that someone attracted only to cisgender women has a different sexual orientation than someone attracted to both transgender and cisgender women? This line of argument might suggest that, while we preserve the extension of our ordinary sexual-orientation concept, we should make the relevant criterion for ascribing sexual orientation only gender-attraction (or only sexattraction), and also categorize sexual orientations along only one of these dimensions. There are a number of considerations against thinking of sexattractions (or gender-attractions) as mere sexual druthers. The two most weighty (and related) considerations are: (i) the frequency with which people experience sexual attraction not only to individuals with particular gendered features, but also to individuals with particular primary and secondary sex characteristics, and (ii) the need to recognize the community of persons who are exclusively (or strongly) attracted to transgender individuals, or who are themselves transgender and seeking persons with these attractions. or anatomical transition of (e. g.) gender-nonconforming, androgynous, and transgender individuals. That is, because it separates sex as an anatomical category from gender as a category of social situatedness, it creates the possibility for understanding how the two can be combined in a variety of ways. It also creates an avenue for addressing the ways in which gender categories can be altered to combat patriarchal social structures. If, for example, gender is defined in terms of social situatedness such that (as Haslanger argues) to be a woman is (in part) to be in a position of systematic social oppression, then acknowledging this clarifies the changes that should and can be made to our gender categories if we are to establish gender equality.33 For all of (but certainly not only) these reasons, I hold that the following constraint on an account of sexual orientation will move us closer to achieving what were earlier established as the purposes ideally served by a concept of sexual orientation: (a) The account must be compatible with the distinction between sex and gender. If the cisnormative assumption and unification view of sex and gender are dismissed - and I think they should be - then the unidimensional view of sexual orientation also should be. The distinction between sex and gender allows for various combinations of sex and gender across individuals, making it clear that an account of sexual orientation should be sensitive to the fact that individuals may be sexually attracted to persons with various sex/gender combinations.34 33. See, e. g., Haslanger (2000). 34. I take it to be a fairly uncontroversial assumption that we can (though an individual need not) experience sexual attraction to purely anatomical features as well as gendered features. (I acknowledge that the boundary between these features is slippery.) Given this, we can already begin to see how sexual orientation is significantly dependent upon both biological traits and particular social contexts. For example, if we hold that one's sexual orientation concerns (at least in part) gender-attraction, and that gender is merely a social construct, this sexual orientation will be dependent on placement in a context that has gender-constructs. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 11 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) important for ensuring legal and social protections for persons with these attractions, insofar as we can reasonably expect that (e. g.) many partners of transgender persons will encounter discrimination that they would not if partnered with cisgender persons. Without concepts that capture these attractions as part of individuals' sexual orientations, it becomes difficult if not impossible to guarantee the protections that such individuals deserve. For all of these reasons, I maintain (ii), and disagree with the position that either sexor gender-attraction should be classified as mere sexual druthers. Of course, adopting (a) and (b) does not resolve the issue of whether sex or gender (and therefore sexual orientation) should be understood in terms of discrete or continuous categories. I revisit this issue in discussing my account's implications. But it is worth noting here that this neutrality is, I think, appropriate for a general account of sexual orientation. Understanding sexual orientation categories as discrete or continuous should piggyback on, and not decide, whether we understand sex and gender categories as discrete or continuous. And the debate over this issue has not reached a clear consensus. For similar reasons, my project does not take a precise stance on which features are the basis of sex and gender categories. As seen from my discussion so far, I do assume that sex and gender are real (i. e., non-eliminativism), that sex and gender are distinct, and that sex categories are related to anatomical features while gender categories are related to relational and social features. (Of course, there may be overlap in the features that provide the basis for sex and gender ascriptions - what's important is that they are not identical.) More specific theories of sex and gender can be filled into the forthcoming schematic understanding of sexual orientation (and its taxonomy). I purposively build this flexibility into my account in order to construct a concept of sexual orientation (and of its taxonomy) that can be structurally preserved even when the number or understanding of recognized sex and gender categories undergoes shift.37 37. Thanks to an anonymous referee for pressing me to clarify this feature of my project. The first consideration is fairly straightforward: it is simply the observation that, in addition to attraction to particular genders, persons can also be exclusively interested in partners with particular sex characteristics. It is not unusual, for example, for persons to become uninterested in pursuing a relationship with someone upon discovering that they are transgender or intersex. At first, one might be tempted to chalk up all scenarios like this to transphobia or other prejudices, and not these persons' sexual orientations. However, there also are numerous cases within the growing "trans-oriented" community of persons who experience strong or exclusive sexual attraction to transgender persons.35 These persons report feeling misplaced among the current categories of sexual orientation, identifying neither as straight nor as gay. Some, for example, consider themselves a "different kind of gay" - indicating that the current taxonomy of sexual orientation simply fails to capture their sexual orientation, since they experience strong or exclusive attraction specifically to persons who are not cisgender. This failure is also reflected within academic literature, where a variety of terms have been suggested for these individuals (e. g., 'MSTW' ['men sexually interested in transwomen'], 'gynemimetophilia'/'andromimetophilia').36 While - unsurprisingly - none of these terms have caught on, the community of trans-oriented persons (and the research concerning this community) suggests that individuals can have exclusive sexual preference for transgender persons that is not caused by social prejudice. Similarly, one would expect, individuals can have unprejudiced exclusive preference for cisgender persons. Recognition of these possibilities is not only important for trans-oriented persons; it is also important for transgender persons who may experience rejection by both "straight" and "gay" potential partners, and who are seeking someone who is (though perhaps are not exclusively) trans-oriented. It is also 35. See www.transoriented.com or the most recent work of British journalist and transgender rights activist Paris Lees on the question, 'Is trans-oriented an emerging sexual orientation?' 36. See, e. g., Weinberg & Williams (2010); Money & Lamacz (1984). robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 12 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) psychological states, except perhaps states that can be in turn reduced to behavior. We can understand this view - behaviorism - as the following claim: A person's sexual orientation is determined solely by their observable sexual behavior.38 In other words, under a behaviorist account, an individual's sexual orientation is decided simply by looking at their sexual behaviors, and seeing what sex[es] and gender[s] of persons they sexual engage with. For example, if they only sexually engage with cisgender men, their sexual orientation is ascribed accordingly. An immediate difficulty for behaviorism is determining what behaviors and span of time are relevant to someone's sexual orientation. Even setting this aside, though, three more egregious problems remain.39 First, behaviorism doesn't allow that individuals can behaviorally repress their sexual orientations. Consider, for example, the case of Episcopal Bishop Gene Robinson, a cisgender man who, after privately identifying himself as gay during seminary, was married and faithful to a cisgender woman for fifteen years.40 Cases like these are extremely common within the LGBTQ community - under extreme social pressure to conform to cisheteronormativity, many individuals enter so-called "straight" relationships and so behaviorally (if not also psychologically) repress their sexual desires. Additionally, homeless LGBTQ persons are often forced into prostitution, thereby sexually engaging with individuals of sexes and genders that these persons do not necessarily find sexually desirable.41 38. Alternatively, Edward Stein describes this as the view that "a person's sexual orientation is indexed to his or her sexual behavior" (Stein [1999], 42). 39. For further discussion of the merits and demerits of behaviorism, see Stein (1999). 40. Robinson (2012). 41. Ray (2006). Conditions (a) and (b) are also intended to be neutral with regard to whether we can in the future adopt further dimensions of sexual orientation, and subsequently expand our concept of sexual orientation. As discussed previously, my current project is limited to these two dimensions because it aims to construct a readily accessible but politically and socially beneficial concept of sexual orientation. Behaviorism and Dispositionalism The previous subsection argued that we should take sexual orientation to involve both sexand gender-attraction. But it is not clear how to assess these attractions in order to determine someone's sexual orientation. The task of clarifying the criteria for ascribing sexual orientation and how these criteria translate into a taxonomic schema of sexual orientation, then, is not complete. The following part of my project continues this task. It is primarily descriptive in nature, though it will also contain a prescriptive element. It is centrally aimed at further elucidating criteria for ascribing sexual orientation as well as articulating (in light of social and political motivations) criteria for placing individuals within a taxonomy of sexual orientation. The following discussion will compare two main approaches to this task: behaviorism and ideal dispositionalism. Both of these approaches, I will argue, fail to provide an acceptable analysis of sexual orientation because both insist on overly rigid conditions for ascribing sexual orientation - behaviorism insists on rigid actual conditions, and ideal dispositionalism insists on rigid ideal conditions. I conclude by demonstrating how a different form of dispositionalism - call it ordinary dispositionalism - captures an intuitive balance between actual and ideal conditions for ascribing sexual orientation. Behaviorism One way of understanding sexual orientation is as nothing over and above (i. e., as reducible to) one's observable behaviors - that is, as something solely concerning behavior and not at all concerning robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 13 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) in terms of individuals' dispositions to engage in sexual behaviors with a certain class of persons (rather than their actual sexual behaviors), and that concern psychological states only insofar as they influence individuals' behavioral dispositions. After assuming this shift to talk of dispositions, though, significant and difficult questions remain. A standard account of dispositions tells us that: Something x has the disposition to exhibit manifestation m in response to being situated in stimulating circumstance c iff, if x were to be situated in c, it would exhibit m.43 That is, for example, a match is disposed to light (i. e., is flammable) in response to being in a certain circumstance if and only if, were the match in that circumstance, it would light. Applying this to sexual orientation, we can let x range across the domain of human persons, and let m be engagement in sexual behavior (broadly construed) with persons of a certain sex and gender. But determining what c should be is a much more complicated task. And without specifying c, dispositionalism gives us: A person's sexual orientation is determined solely by what sex[es] and gender[s] of persons S is disposed to sexually engage under certain stimulating circumstances. This claim is enough to get us to the position that there is some particular scrutability basis of sexual orientation - namely, relevant sexual behavioral dispositions. Without specifying the conditions under which these relevant dispositions manifest, though, we have not made much headway beyond behaviorism. To assign actual conditions to c would make the view indistinguishable from behaviorism - if the manifesting conditions are actual conditions, then the relevant 43. Choi (2008), 796. For simplicity, I have removed the variable ranging across times. But, by behaviorist lights, it is correct to categorize these individuals' sexual orientations according to their coerced behaviors, rather than according to their (freely or forcibly) behaviorally repressed desires. It seems obvious to me that this is a bad result. Because sexual behavior can be - and, for LGBTQ persons, frequently is - coerced by societal pressures, we must understand sexual orientation as something "deeper" than observable behavior. Even if influenced by social pressures, sexual orientation cannot be explicitly forced upon someone by these pressures.42 To deny this is to do an injustice to a large number of LGBTQ persons, especially in countries where queer sexual behavior can result in prison or even death. Two other, related problems for behaviorism regard its implications for voluntary celibates and persons who are not sexually active, as well as sexually active persons in situations lacking a variety of potential sexual partners (e. g., prisons). Behaviorism wrongly dictates that persons in the first situation either lack sexual orientations or ought to be classified as asexual, and that the sexual orientations of persons in the second situation should be determined with no regard to the extremity of their circumstances. These too are bad results, and ones that blatantly conflict with the general extension of our everyday concept of sexual orientation. Ideal Dispositionalism A plausible account of sexual orientation should account for situationally specific sexual behaviors. Behaviorism fails to do this. And yet behaviorism admittedly captures something important about sexual orientation: our concept of sexual orientation tracks (with qualifications) sexual behavior, and not selfor other-identification, emotions, or purely psychological states. But insisting that it concerns only actual behavior is, as we have seen, riddled with problems. For this reason, I propose that analyses of sexual orientation should move toward dispositional accounts - that is, accounts that define sexual orientation 42. See, for example, the near-universal recognition of the total failure of socalled "reparative therapy". robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 14 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) While I think that this type of proposal rightly pushes against behaviorism's rigid focus on actual conditions, I also think that the extreme shift to "ideal" conditions would create two different problems. First, this view legitimizes a worrisome cross-cultural projection of our concept of sexual orientation. The ideal conditions for (e. g.) ancient Greeks to realize their sexual desires might vastly differ from the ideal conditions for (e. g.) a contemporary European or North American.46 If, for example, political power dynamics were significantly built into their sexual desires, then the ideal conditions for ancient Greeks acting on sexual desires might be unlike the conditions we think of as ideal for acting on our sexual desires - perhaps they would include a specific political scenario. Likewise for any culture in which sexual desires largely concern (e. g.) social status, wealth, or particular survival skills, not to mention ones where the recognized sexes or genders differ from those built into our concept of sexual desire.47 And yet the "ideal conditions" view suggests that our concept of sexual orientation can be aptly applied within all of these widely ranging "ideal conditions". In other words, the view implies that we can ascribe sexual orientation (as we understand it) to all human beings across cultures by holding fixed their sexual desires and projecting them into corresponding "ideal conditions", regardless of how foreign these conditions are to the conditions that correspond to contemporary concepts of sexual desire. But given how tightly our concept of sexual desire is entwined in our concept of sexual orientation, I am doubtful that sexual orientation can be cross-culturally applied to this extent. For this reason, this approach would seem to 46. For example, Miriam Reumann's (2005) American Sexual Character develops a compelling case for the existence of uniquely American sexual desires and patterns, shaped by uniquely American politics, social life, gender roles, and culture, as well as racial and economic divides. The main takeaway for the purpose of this paper is that it would be naïve - and, in fact, simply incorrect - to assume that sexual desire has a universal and cross-culturally consistent character. 47. Interestingly, Stein addresses this possibility later in his book amidst a discussion of essentialism and constructionism. dispositions should be those dispositions manifested in actual conditions - that is, actual behaviors. And this is precisely what we want to avoid. To capture the general extension of our everyday concept, we will need a different theory of what circumstances manifest these dispositions - one less narrow than "actual conditions", and more informative than, say, "all the physical facts". In Edward Stein's The Mismeasure of Desire, he proposes that the dispositions relevant to determining sexual orientation manifest "under ideal conditions".44 He goes on to say, "Conditions are ideal if there are no forces to prevent or discourage a person from acting on his or her [sexual] desires, that is, when there is sexual freedom and a variety of appealing sexual partners available."45 According to Stein, then, we can understand sexual orientation in terms of the sexual behaviors someone would engage in if nothing - nothing at all - were stopping them. While it is not clear that Stein is attempting to capture the general extension of our ordinary concept of sexual orientation, his proposal suggests that one way to fill out the dispositional schema above is as follows: A person's sexual orientation is determined solely by what sex[es] and gender[s] of persons S is disposed to sexually engage under ideal conditions. In other words, Stein suggests that sexual orientation is determined by how someone would sexually behave if we held fixed their sexual desires and ensured that nothing is stopping them from acting on those desires. We can then consider whether Stein's suggestion can be used to capture the extension of our ordinary concept of sexual orientation by specifying that the relevant features of these sexual behaviors are the sex[es] and gender[s] of the persons that they involve. 44. Stein (1999), 45. My emphasis. 45. Stein (1999), 45. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 15 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Ordinary Dispositionalism The problems facing behaviorism and ideal dispositionalism may be avoided by appealing to conditions somewhere between "actual" and "ideal" conditions. One possibility - which I here tentatively adopt - incorporates an adaptation of Sungho Choi's notion of "ordinary" manifestation conditions for a given disposition. Choi argues that it is possible to articulate manifesting conditions for dispositions that will not be subject to the standard counterexamples to analyses of dispositions (e. g., "masked" or "finkish" dispositions),50 but which also will not be vacuous (e. g., "if it were struck, then, unless the match didn't light, it would light").51 He proposes that this challenge is met by examining the purpose behind our concept of a given disposition, which in turn reveals what manifesting conditions are conceptually connected to that disposition. To put this slightly differently: Choi suggests that whatever conditions those having the concept consider "ordinary" manifesting conditions for that disposition are the relevant manifesting conditions for that disposition. In a slight divergence from Choi, I suggest instead that the relevant manifesting conditions for the dispositions determining sexual orientation are not the conditions that those who possess the concept consider "ordinary", but the conditions under which people in fact apply the term 'sexual orientation' (and relevantly associated terms).52 Or, more 50. A "finkish" disposition is one whose stimulus conditions also remove the disposition - for example, a glass's disposition to break is finkish if, every time it is struck, God hardens the glass so that it is no longer disposed to break. A "masked" disposition is one that is simply prevented from manifesting under the stimulus conditions - for example, a glass's disposition to break is masked if it is bubble-wrapped when it is struck. See Choi & Fara (2014). 51. Choi (2008). 52. I remain neutral on the question of whether this sort of account should be applied widely across all types of dispositions. Perhaps some of the manifesting conditions for some dispositions can be given a purely physics-based explanation, for example. Here, I only commit to an account for determining the ordinary manifesting conditions for the dispositions relevant for determining sexual orientation. (Thanks to Michael Rauschenbach for raising this issue.) get the extension of our concept wrong, extending it beyond its appropriate reach.48 Second, there are some empirical reasons to think that sexual desires cannot be "held fixed" independently of someone's actual social context, and that these desires would not remain constant when projected into ideal circumstances. In particular, when surrounded by a vast variety of sexual partners and lacking any inhibitions, there is evidence suggesting one's sexual desires - and so, one's sexual behaviors - will undergo significant alteration from what they were under ordinary circumstances. In particular, social psychologists have discovered that sexual desires frequently increase or decrease (depending on other characteristics of the individual) in situations with high sexual opportunity. The corresponding principles, known as the "satisfaction principle" (high opportunity decreases desire) and the "adaptation principle" (high opportunity increases desire) are perfect examples of why we should doubt that individuals' sexual desires would remain constant when they are placed in a situation with complete sexual freedom and availability.49 But if these desires undergo significant shift, then we should expect that an "ideal conditions" account of sexual orientation will frequently dictate ascriptions of sexual orientation that conflict with our everyday understanding of sexual orientation. To put this in slightly stronger terms: there is some reason to think that it would significantly change the subject from what we were originally talking about when we were talking about sexual orientation. 48. One might respond on Stein's behalf that our concept of sexual orientation (and other cultures' related concepts) should be understood as socially-historically constrained, such that it may not be cross-culturally applied. While this is not clear from Stein's text, and I would still have concerns about the view (see the following argument), I do think that this would improve the account. In my own proposal - and as we will soon see - I attempt to develop a way of ensuring this social-historical sensitivity by looking to ordinary language use as a guide to the relevant manifesting conditions. 49. See, for example, Gebauer, Baumeister, Sedikides, & Neberich (2014). robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 16 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Central to this proposal is the idea that finding the ordinary manifesting conditions for a disposition means looking to the (often pragmatic) goals determining application of the term referring to that disposition. In the case of sexual orientation, then, the manifesting conditions for the behavioral dispositions relevant to determining sexual orientation must be understood within the framework of the purposes behind the everyday operative concept of sexual orientation - finding potential partners, establishing laws (be they protective or discriminatory), predicting behavior, enabling scientific research of sexual attraction, and so on.56 These purposes determine the "ordinary" conditions under which the term is applied - that is, they are the conditions corresponding to the operative concept. Importantly, using these conditions as the relevant manifesting conditions for a particular disposition does not mean forfeiting any revision to the everyday operative concept. It simply means that these conditions are built into the revised concept, guaranteeing that the everyday concept's extension is generally preserved. These conditions only provide constraints on the eligible criteria for ascribing sexual orientation - they do not determine these criteria, much less determine the taxonomy resulting from them. More needs to be said about what these ordinary conditions are - that is, what are the conditions corresponding to the everyday operative concept of sexual orientation? Or, in other words, what conditions lie behind our ascriptions of sexual orientation? 56. While these purposes at bottom will result in the same behaviors as the purposes behind the manifest concept of sexual orientation, they importantly differ in the interpretation of those behaviors. Whereas those applying the term 'sexual orientation' may take themselves to be (e. g.) identifying moral failing or categorizing psychological defects, this is simply using fictions as a mask for what Haslanger calls the "explicitly social content of the operative concept". So too, those applying the term may take the manifesting conditions relevant to sexual orientation to be anything from "having certain genetics" to "being cursed by God", but these cannot be the conditions we are concerned with. We are instead concerned with the conditions that actually determine application of the term 'sexual orientation', regardless of what someone thinks they are doing when applying it. simply, the relevant manifesting conditions just are the conditions under which ascriptions of sexual orientation typically take place. Here I follow Haslanger, who makes a useful distinction between "operative" and "manifest" concepts: The operative concept of "cool", for example, is "the concept that actually determines how we apply the term to cases, i. e., (roughly) being such as to conform to the standards of the in-group".53 In contrast, the manifest concept of cool is "the concept that users of the term typically take themselves to be applying, i. e., being intrinsically or objectively cool".54 By defining "ordinary" manifesting conditions in terms of the concept those applying the term take themselves to have, Choi restricts our search for these conditions to the conditions attached to manifest concepts. But these conditions may be nonexistent (i. e., "intrinsic coolness") or severely mistaken. Better, I think, is to identify the "ordinary" conditions as those corresponding to the everyday operative concept - that is, the conditions corresponding to applications of the relevant terms. Consider, for example, a match's disposition of flammability. Using this adaption of Choi, we look at the operative concept of "flammability" and find that the purpose of it is to determine whether a match will light when it is struck in normal temperatures, when dry, etc. These conditions, that is, determine how we apply the term 'flammable' to a match. Because of this, they are the relevant manifesting conditions c in the statement 'A match is disposed to light in response to being situated in stimulating circumstance c iff, if the match were to be situated in c, it would light.'55 53. Haslanger (1995), 102. 54. Haslanger (1995), 102. 55. One might worry that this account is circular - that it relies on the "ordinary manifesting conditions" that identify a disposition by appealing to the concept of that very disposition. Choi (2008) argues that this objection fails. As he points out, because the ordinary conditions for a disposition are understood as "extrinsic conditions that are ordinary to those who possess the dispositional concept", those persons need no knowledge of a conceptual account of the disposition in question. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 17 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) corresponding to exclusive attraction to women.57 This sort of case illustrates that we expect an explanatory relation to hold between one's sexual orientation and the sex or gender of the persons they are attracted to. (II) The operative concept assumes attraction to certain persons while having a reasonable diversity of potential sexual partners. This generalization is far from Stein's suggestion that sexual orientation is based on attractions with no restriction on sexual partners. But it captures why we do not consider behaviors in outlying circumstances where potential partners are extremely limited or homogenous (e. g., prisons, boarding schools, deserted islands) as reliable indicators of one's sexual orientation. (III) The operative concept assumes that one is willing and able to sexually engage with other persons. We refuse to ascribe sexual orientations to someone on the basis of their actual sexual behaviors if (e. g.) they are voluntarily celibate, subject to sexual contact without consent, or possess a prohibitive medical condition. These scenarios indicate that it is also important to the operative concept of sexual orientation that the behaviors relevant to ascribing sexual orientation are ones that are engaged in willingly and with the physical and psychological ability to engage or not engage in the behavior.58 It might also explain why we judge 57. Or because Elijah thinks they are women. This would leave room for cases in which, e. g., someone attracted to cisgender men is attracted to someone they take to be a cisgender man, but who is anatomically female. 58. Of course, some (and perhaps all) asexual persons will never be in a situation in which they are willing to engage in sexual behavior. In that case, we can determine that, because it is impossible for them to meet condition III, they do not have any sexual behavioral dispositions that would be manifested under the ordinary conditions - that is, they are asexual. This distinguishes asexuals from (e. g.) voluntary celibates. My primary goal in moving away from actual or ideal conditions, and toward the conditions corresponding to the everyday operative concept of sexual orientation, is to escape the rigidity of both behaviorism and ideal dispositionalism. I want to avoid a view that ascribes sexual orientation on the basis of only observable behaviors, or only behaviors within unattainable, potentially culturally distant ideal conditions. This is not to say that the operative concept is without substance. But I will not pretend to articulate necessary and sufficient conditions corresponding to the operative concept of sexual orientation - nor do I maintain that such conditions exist. The conditions corresponding to our ascriptions of sexual orientation admit, no doubt, of borderline and vague cases. My primary concern is to capture the core elements of these conditions in order to generally preserve the extension of our everyday concept of sexual orientation. And I do think that a number of things can be said to elucidate the conditions under which we typically confer sexual orientation. In particular, I propose the following as conditions constraining our ascriptions of sexual orientation - that is, as conditions corresponding to the operative concept - reminding the reader to think of these as generalities that admit of exception and vagueness, rather than as strict rules of use. (I) The operative concept assumes attraction to persons of a certain sex or gender (at least partially) because they are that sex and/or gender. For example: Say that Elijah has strong sexual druthers for persons with long hair, but has no preference between men or women as sexual partners. Elijah lives in a town where the only people with long hair happen to be women. As a result, it is true to say that Elijah is attracted only to women. But because he is not attracted to them because they are women, we would not say that Elijah has the sexual orientation robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 18 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Bidimensional Dispositionalism [BD]: A person S's sexual orientation is grounded60 in S's dispositions to engage in sexual behaviors under the ordinary condition[s] for these dispositions,61 and which sexual orientation S has is grounded in what sex[es] and gender[s] of persons S is disposed to sexually engage under these conditions.62, 63 In other words, I propose that - whatever the categories we place within 'sexual orientation' - their ascription should be based on the sex[es] and gender[s] of the persons someone is disposed to 60. I use the term 'grounded' here in the loose sense of 'dependent on' or 'explained by'. One may also be able to understand it in terms of 'built on', which (roughly) means 'less fundamental than' or 'accounted for in terms of'. (See Bennett [forthcoming].) 61. I remain neutral on the debate over whether properties can have dispositional essences or if all dispositions reduce to categorical properties. For my purposes here, I don't have a dog in that fight. 62. As Shamik Dasgupta pointed out, someone might be concerned that BD, as stated, does not ensure that the dispositions relevant to sexual orientation are particularly "deep" or "self-disclosing". Sexual orientation, one might think, deserves protection because it is deep and, in this way, outside (or mostly outside) a person's control. While I acknowledge this worry, I disagree with the idea that sexual orientation must be particularly "deep" to merit special protections. Whether or not sexual orientation has these features is orthogonal to its merit for protection. Even if every person shifted sexual orientation every week (and even if we could do so by choice), I would insist that sexual orientation deserves protections. However, one might worry that, even apart from questions of protections, sexual orientation is a "deep" and unchangeable (or nearly unchangeable) feature of who someone is. I want to remain neutral on this question, and so the formulation of BD allows but does not require someone's sexual orientation to undergo frequent shifts. 63. By 'sex[es] and gender[s] of persons...' I do not mean to imply that there must be any particular persons of this sex and gender, or particular persons with whom S is disposed to sexually engage. That is, S could be disposed to engage with persons who are cisgender women even if there were no cisgender women, or even if there were no particular cisgender women with whom S is disposed to engage. abnormal sexual behavior that occurs under the influence of alcohol or narcotics (and therefore is nonconsensual) to be an unreliable indicator of sexual orientation. Again, (I)–(III) are generalizations of the conditions that I think are built into the operative concept of sexual orientation, and they therefore will admit of occasional exceptions or borderline cases. They remain, though, useful guidelines explaining why we consider extreme circumstances poor guides to determining sexual orientation, and how we can reliably ascribe sexual orientation to persons without appealing to "ideal" conditions. Someone may here object that, in appealing to the conditions underlying our operative concept of sexual orientation in order to construct a revised concept of sexual orientation, I appear to be doing mere conceptual analysis. To this, I would again emphasize that my project is necessarily in part descriptive because it aims to generally preserve the extension of our everyday operative concept of sexual orientation. But it is prescriptive insofar as I am out to precisify and revise this concept in order for it to more efficiently and ethically serve the purposes assigned to it. Noticeable revisions concern decisively including both sexand gender-attraction as criteria for ascribing sexual orientation and - as we will now see - distancing the concept from concerning the relation between a subject's own sex or gender and the sex or gender of the persons they are attracted to. These revisionary aims are importantly distinct from projects that intend to radically revise the conditions determining concept deployment.59 Bidimensional Dispositionalism Putting together the previous discussions of gender/sex and behaviorism/dispositionalism, we arrive at my positive proposal: 59. See Haslanger (1995), 114. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 19 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) orientation should "reduce or eliminate the presumption that cisheterosexuality is the normatively standard sexual orientation and all queer sexual orientations are normatively deviant", and be "conducive for establishing legal and social protections for non-cisheterosexual persons". The categorization shift proposed by BD moves us closer to accomplishing both of these tasks. First, BD promotes the aims of purpose (iii) because BD eliminates the distinction between cisheterosexuality and queer sexual orientations and provides a taxonomic schema capable of recognizing persons outside the gender or sex binary. On the former point, on BD, there are no such sexual orientations as (e. g.) "homosexual" or "heterosexual". And there is no distinction in the sexual orientations of (e. g.) a cisgender man and a transgender woman who both are exclusively attracted to women. The statistical divide between cisheterosexuality and queer sexual orientations simply disappears, because these categories disappear, and their members are reorganized into new categories. While this will not of itself eliminate discriminatory attitudes, it does change the concept of sexual orientation such that it does not simply fall out of the concept that cisheterosexuality is statistically standard and all else is deviant. It also removes the connotation that "sexual orientation" is what distinguishes (e. g.) the so-called "straight" and "queer" communities. I believe that this is a socially and politically beneficial result, encouraging dismantling the divide between these communities. On the latter point, BD does not build in either discrete or binary gender or sex categories, and so has the flexibility to adopt a variety of sex and gender taxonomies. With this flexibility, it is capable of providing taxonomic recognition for persons outside of the sex or gender binaries (e. g., genderqueer or intersex persons), as well as their sexual partners. Second, BD achieves (or at least moves toward achieving) purpose (iv) by providing the conceptual tools for lawmakers to secure protections for sexual orientation under pre-existing protections against genderand sex-discrimination. That is, because sexual orientation makes no reference to one's own sex and gender on BD, any discrimination sexually engage with under ordinary conditions for ascribing sexual orientation.64 This analysis recasts sexual orientation as pertaining to bidimensional attraction - that is, as pertaining to both sexand gender-attraction. But, importantly, BD does not require that, in order to be ascribed a sexual orientation, someone must have a certain sex-attraction or gender-attraction. One could be neutral as to one or both, or be attracted to neither (i. e., be asexual with regard to sex and gender). All of this would be revealed by their dispositions to engage (which could be dispositions to never engage) in sexual behavior with certain persons (at least partially) on the basis of their sex and gender.65 By emphasizing only these dispositions, BD understands sexual orientation solely in terms of the sex[es] and gender[s] of the persons one is disposed to sexually engage, without reference to the sex or gender of the person so disposed. Under this framework, for example, a cisgender man and transgender woman disposed to sexually engage only with cisgender women have the same sexual orientation, and so too for a cisgender man and gender-nonconforming female disposed to engage only with men. In emphasizing this shift in our categories of sexual orientation, BD rejects the idea that sexual orientation can be classified in terms of a relation between persons of the "same" or "opposite" sex or gender. This taxonomical shift is important to the fulfillment of purposes (iii)–(iv). Recall that these purposes stated that an analysis of sexual 64. While I will not address this issue here, we arguably should also acknowledge that these dispositions themselves come in a range of strengths, which would add another dimension to sexual orientation. (Thanks to Justin Christy for this suggestion.) 65. I expect that we are often attracted to certain persons because they have characteristics that are associated with particular genders, and not because of the totality of their gender expression. For my purposes, this sort of connection is sufficient to allow for the explanatory connection between gender and attraction, though it leaves many open questions regarding what (if anything) is essential to particular gender expressions, and more generally, how we should think about the constitution of gender expressions. I leave these questions to persons working in the metaphysics of gender. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 20 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) One worry about BD is that it does not give us enough epistemic access to our own sexual orientations. How will we know our sexual orientation if it would require being placed under circumstances that we are not actually in? How could, say, a lifelong celibate priest know that they would take certain actions if they were under these "ordinary circumstances"? It might seem as though any compelling account of sexual orientation will make it possible for someone to know their own sexual orientation, and BD does not do this.67 This objection, though, makes a substantive assumption: that the correct metaphysical analysis of sexual orientation must bend to a demand for epistemological transparency (or something close to transparency). And I see no reason to think this. In fact, we have good reason to deny it, given the many examples of repression and selfdeception of sexual orientation under (e. g.) social, religious, or familial expectations.68 And this does not mean that we have no idea what our sexual orientations are - in general, people seem to have a "good enough" idea of their sexual attractions and how they do or would act under certain circumstances that they also have a "good enough" idea of their sexual orientation to seek out specific (or no) sexual partners. Insofar, too, as we think that persons have some manner of epistemic privilege in self-assessments of desire, attraction, and so on - features that inform and direct their behavioral dispositions - we can maintain that persons also have some manner of epistemic privilege in self-ascriptions of sexual orientation. Another worry for BD concerns the relation between sexual dispositions and sexual desires. Why, someone might ask, should we go to the trouble of analyzing sexual orientation in terms of dispositions and all their metaphysical baggage, when we can much more simply analyze it in terms of sexual desire, understood as an occurrent mental state? 67. Thanks to Peter Finocchiaro for raising this objection. 68. Indeed, the testimony of many queer persons suggests that discovery of one's own sexual orientation can be a long and difficult process. against someone in response to their sexual orientation can be re-described as discrimination on the basis of their gender or sex. This conceptual shift is, in fact, ripe for public uptake. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts recently articulated a similar shift in thought during oral argument in Henry v. Hodges, a case concerning the legalization of same-sex marriage. Justice Roberts re-described the same-sex marriage question in terms of sex discrimination, and (perhaps rhetorically) asked why the issue could not be decided on the basis of pre-existing protections against sex discrimination: I'm not sure it's necessary to get into sexual orientation to resolve this case.... I mean, if Sue loves Joe and Tom loves Joe, Sue can marry him and Tom can't. And the difference is based on their different sex. Why isn't that a straightforward question of sexual discrimination?66 As Justice Roberts here notes, cases of sexual orientation discrimination can be easily re-described in terms of gender or sex discrimination by holding fixed that multiple individuals share the same sexor gender-attractions, and yet some are discriminated against simply because they have a particular sex or gender in addition to those attractions. BD goes a step further by saying that the sexand gender-attractions - again, understanding these attractions in terms of behavioral dispositions under ordinary conditions - are all that matter for sexual orientation. My own sex and gender, for example, do not matter for my sexual orientation. And so, if I am discriminated against for having the attractions constituting sexual orientation X and a man who has sexual orientation X is not discriminated against, I can recast this discrimination as gender discrimination and appeal to pre-existing laws prohibiting this discrimination as the basis for my legal protection. 66. Liptak (2015). This argument in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage on the basis of pre-existing laws against sex-discrimination also was the central argument of an amicus curiae brief filed by a number of legal scholars in Henry v. Hodges, Supreme Court Case No. 14–556. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 21 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) desire (and the corresponding behavioral dispositions) would not be able to accommodate this case. If instead one prefers, for example, a pleasure-based theory of desire, then the formulation will be too narrow to capture the concept of sexual orientation. Not everyone receives pleasure from sexual behavior. Still other theories of desire (e. g., attention-based or holistic) are too broad to capture the concept.69 And so on, I would argue, for the other main candidate theories of desire. Of course, one could simply appeal to a "common understanding" of desire, but I am skeptical that there is any such thing. Third, one might worry that desires are too context-sensitive to capture the general (though perhaps not necessary) stability of sexual orientation. Earlier, I argued that we should not use Stein's "ideal conditions" as the relevant manifesting conditions for sexual behavioral dispositions, because we have good reason to think that someone's desires would be significantly altered in a scenario with wholly unrestricted access to a huge variety of sexual partners. Whatever these desires (and the corresponding behaviors) are, I argued, they are not reliable indicators of someone's actual sexual orientation. But, similarly, I think there are cases where someone's actual desires are not reliable indicators of their sexual orientation. For example, it is reasonable to expect that someone in a context lacking a reasonable variety of potential partners, such as a prison, may undergo shifts in sexual desire. And yet we would, I think, still deny that these shifted desires are reliable indicators of their sexual orientation, or that these shifts in desire constitute a shift in their sexual orientation. Perhaps, to avoid this result, one could insist that the desires relevant to sexual orientation are those that one would have in the ordinary conditions that I've described. But, in that case, we've only moved from behavioral to psychological dispositions; we haven't gotten rid of dispositions, or pinpointed particular mental states determining sexual orientation. 69. For an overview of these (and other) theories of desire, see Schroeder (2014). The first and most important response is, I think, to emphasize that in order to achieve the pragmatic goals discussed earlier, it is important to avoid an account that wholly psychologizes sexual orientation. While I leave open that the behavioral dispositions for which persons need political and social protections have categorical psychological bases, these bases will not be the focus of a socio-politically oriented account of sexual orientation. For these purposes, someone with the psychological features of a "heterosexual" but queer behavioral dispositions can and should be protected from anti-queer prejudice. In other words, given the pragmatic goals of my account, the questions of whether or which psychological states ground the behavioral dispositions at issue are interesting questions for neuroscientists, but not ones that should guide a politically motivated account of sexual orientation. Second, given the current main contending theories of desire, an account in terms of desire either amounts to a problematically restricted dispositional view or else creates new (and worse) problems. Suppose, for example, that one is partial to an action-based theory of desire, articulated in terms of dispositions. In this case, sexual desires just are the categorical basis of the kinds of behavioral dispositions that I have been talking about. At first, it might seem like this view would be co-extensive with my own, but preferable because it is articulated in familiar terms (desire) rather than in the technical language of dispositions. This thought would be mistaken. A sexual-desire view of sexual orientation would not be co-extensive with my own, because ordinary dispositionalism allows sexual behavioral dispositions to have a range of categorical psychological bases (or no categorical basis), and certainly does not restrict the relevant dispositions to ones grounded in the mental states that we would categorize as "sexual desire". For example, if someone is attracted to women on the basis of, say, a constant curiosity about what it is like to have sex with women, but not because of desire-like attitudes typically considered sexual attraction, my account does not rule out that this person can be classified as sexually women-oriented. A view of sexual orientation restricted to sexual robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 22 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Discrete/Continuous Categories BD requires that we acknowledge that sexual orientation is bidimensional, pertaining to both sexand gender-attraction. Within this bidimensionality, though, we can and should ask whether our categories of sexual orientations will be discrete or continuous. The most common current categories of sexual orientation are uniformly discrete. In ordinary discourse, we typically hear two, or at best three, discrete categories: "heterosexual", "bisexual", and "homosexual". Expanding our concept of sexual orientation to include both sex and gender will increase the number of sexual orientation categories. But it will not of itself revise these categories such that they are no longer discrete, since it will not of itself revise our categories of sex and gender to no longer be discrete (much less binary). Suppose someone accepts, for example, a sex binary (male and female) and a gender binary (men/women). In that case, under BD, they would have four categories for attraction qua sex and four for attraction qua gender, arriving at sixteen discrete categories of sexual orientation. Consider the following example of how one might retain discrete categories of sexual orientation under BD, where 'attraction' can be taken as a useful shorthand signaling dispositions to engage in sexual behavior: Illustration 1: Discrete Categories Sex-Attraction (Assumes two sexes - male/female) Gender-Attraction (Assumes two genders - men/women) A: Not attracted to either sex qua sex 1: Not attracted to either gender qua gender B: Attracted to males 2: Attracted to men C: Attracted to females 3: Attracted to women D: Attracted to males and females 4: Attracted to men and women My respondent might be fine with accounting for sexual orientation in terms of dispositions to desire rather than dispositions to behavior, strange as it may seem. But framing sexual orientation in this way would not avoid yet another problem for any desire-based account: dispositions to desire would underdetermine sexual orientation because desire underdetermines sexual orientation. Consider someone who is behaviorally disposed to sexually engage with certain persons, but does not possess the emotional or cognitive features of sexual desire. (Again, we could imagine that they are motivated to sexually engage with persons on the basis of curiosity, free of desire.) That is, they don't (e. g.) feel sexual yearnings, spend time thinking about sexual behavior or receive particular pleasure from sexual behavior. Does this person have a sexual orientation? It seems to me that they do, suggesting that desires are not necessary for sexual orientation. But are they sufficient? Consider too the unlikely but imaginable case of someone who feels desire for, say, cisgender men, but is disposed only to sexually engage with women. In this case, and particularly for the socio-politically motivations discussed above, I would argue that this person's sexual orientation is one of orientation toward women and not cisgender men. But I admit that intuitions about our concept's extension may get fuzzy with regard to both of these hypotheticals - I can only report my own. I suspect that one's response may come down to whether one tends to think about sexual orientation as something predominately action-oriented or predominately internal. But more importantly (given that this is an engineering project), I support the former view as better equipped to achieve the social and political purposes behind the concept of sexual orientation, and as not clearly in conflict with the general extension of our everyday concept. Even with this advantage, BD is only the beginning of a full analytic account of sexual orientation. It remains neutral on a number of important and closely related philosophical questions. I turn now to these questions, which will highlight where further research can expand philosophical discussion of sexual orientation. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 23 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Sex-Attraction (Assumes two sexes - male/female) 1: Not attracted to either sex qua sex 2: Attracted to males 3: Attracted to females 4: Attracted to males and females Under this view, a category within sexual orientation might be "MA-1", heuristically referring to someone who - under ordinary conditions - is disposed to engage in sexual behaviors with persons who present as (roughly) androgynous or masculine, regardless of their sex. BD remains neutral on the issue of discrete vs. continuous categories of sexual orientation. But the questions surrounding the issue require much closer attention, and my hope is that further research on sex and gender will allow an expansion of BD that specifies sexual orientation as continuous. It would thereby become more equipped to recognize sexual diversity and fulfill the need for an account of sexual orientation that eliminates the idea that cisheterosexuality is the "standard" sexual orientation and all else is "deviant". Essentialism/Constructionism As stated, BD is also neutral on the question of essentialism vs. constructionism about sexual orientation. Roughly, essentialism is the view that sexual orientation is something necessary or unifying about humans as a kind or as particular humans (thereby applying cross-culturally), whereas constructionism is the view that sexual orientation is socially constructed (thereby culturally specific), and may not (depending on the type of construction) in any sense "carve at the joints" of reality.71 71. See Haslanger (1995) for a wonderful look at how different levels and kinds of social constructions correspond to what we admit into our ontology. Under a view such as this, a category within sexual orientation might be "C2", which refers to someone who - under ordinary conditions - is disposed to engage in sexual behaviors only with transgender men who have not had genital surgery. One could also easily add 'intersex' to the left-hand column, 'genderqueer' to the right-hand column, and so on. The element I mean to emphasize in such a view is the insistence upon discrete categories for sex and gender, which leads to discrete categories of sexual orientation. If instead (as I prefer) one understands gender (and perhaps sex) to refer to a continuous spectrum, then sexual orientation will also refer to a continuous spectrum. Of course, within ordinary discourse, we typically have heuristic markers along continuous spectrums for pragmatic purposes (e. g., 'tall' or 'hot').70 But it is generally understood that these markers are merely heuristic, and do not refer to neatly closed categories. This could easily be applied within discourse about sexual orientations. The following illustrate a view under which sex categories are discrete but gender categories are continuous, resulting in continuous categories of sexual orientation: Illustration 2: Continuous Categories Gender-Attraction [Attraction may be represented at one, no, or multiple locations on the diagram]: 70. In other words, I prefer an account that rejects epistemicism about gender categories, just as most of us, I think, would reject epistemicism about 'tall' or 'hot'. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 24 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) framework related to sexual orientation are socially constructed, but they refer to real properties (or traits, if you prefer) of individuals that are in part socially formed and in part biologically determined.75 Moderate constructionism's main benefit is allowing the possibility of cross-cultural behaviors and biological traits loosely translating onto a contemporary framework - namely, the framework of the "ordinary conditions for ascribing sexual orientation" - while maintaining that the contemporary understanding of sexual orientation should not be applied to cultures lacking the concept of sexual orientation within that culture. But I also worry that moderate constructionism gives too prominent of a place to biology, and underestimates the degree to which sexual orientation is socially constructed. In any case, I currently have only tentative opinions about these issues, and so I have chosen to here state BD as neutral on issues of essentialism and constructionism.76 4. Conclusion and Implications Although I've gone to lengths to clarify what issues I do not take a firm position on, I do not mean to leave the impression that BD is an uncontroversial thesis. To clarify this, I will briefly state its central implications. First, to adopt BD is to reject our current taxonomy of sexual orientation. The assumptions that sexual orientation is always onedimensional - concerning either sex-attraction or gender-attraction, 75. I predict that whether you consider this a realist or fictionalist account of sexual orientation will largely depend on whether you are a realist or fictionalist about certain social kinds. Within the distinction of ideaand objectconstruction, this view would incorporate elements of each. While sexual orientation classifications would be considered idea-constructions, the way that we are socially and politically impacted by these classifications (whether our self-identity aligns with our sexual orientation or not) incorporates a large dose of object-construction into our understanding of persons as sexually oriented beings. (For more on this issue, see Haslanger & Sveinsdóttir [2011].) I am partial to the idea that there is a balance between these constructions and biological influence in determining sexual orientation. 76. For an interesting perspective on the need for recognizing individuals' agency in determining their sexual orientations, see Behrensen (2013). One common form of essentialism is biological essentialism - often heard in the sentiment "Born This Way" - which claims that sexual orientation is a biologically determined feature of a person.72 While BD is compatible with this view, to hold both, one must hold to biological determination of gender-attraction. That is, if sexual orientation is to be genetically determined and pertain to gender-attraction, biological essentialism faces the difficult challenge of explaining how gender could be (at least partially) socially constructed, and yet genderattraction be biologically determined.73 For this reason, it seems that BD - though compatible with biological essentialism - is unlikely to be paired with it. I do not have space here to discuss alternative forms of essentialism about sexual orientation, other than to say that I think it will be difficult to find a form of essentialism that agrees with contemporary theories of gender, which almost always incorporate some degree of constructionism.74 For this reason, I tentatively lean toward a moderately constructionist view according to which our social context (which may be self-selected to some extent) directs the manifestation of and categories for the manifestation of biological tendencies toward certain sexual attractions. On this view, the concepts and interpretive 72. See, for example, LeVay's (2011) analysis of sexual orientation as "the trait that predisposes us to experience sexual attraction to people of the same sex as ourselves (homosexual, gay, or lesbian), to persons of the other sex (heterosexual or straight), or to both sexes (bisexual)" (emphasis added). By identifying sexual orientation with the (according to him, biological) trait that predisposes us to have certain attractions, LeVay adopts a biological essentialism about sexual orientation. 73. Of course, one could also insist (against the prevalent view) that gender is biologically determined. 74. One interesting line of inquiry would be whether Charlotte Witt's "uniessentialist" account of gender, which combines both individual essentialism and social construction, could be applied to sexual orientation. On this view, certain properties of someone, such as their gender, can be essential to that person as a social individual, which Witt views as one of the three parts in the trinitarian ontology of "selves" (i. e., human organism, person, social individual). If one is willing to adopt Witt's ontology of "selves", perhaps a case could be made for sexual orientation as an essential property of a social individual. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 25 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) implications of our answers - remain unexplored. BD only begins to map this promising philosophical landscape.77 References Alcoff, L. M. (2005). "The Metaphysics of Gender and Sexual Difference". In Barbara S. Andrew, Jean Keller & Lisa H. Schwartzman (eds.), Feminist Interventions in Ethics and Politics: Feminist Ethics and Social Theory. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. American Psychological Association (2008). Answers to Your Questions: For a Better Understanding of Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality. Washington, DC. URL = www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.pdf. The Asexual Visibility & Education Network (2012). General FAQ. URL = http://www.asexuality.org. Behrensen, M. (2013). "Born That Way? The Metaphysics of Queer Liberation". APA Newsletter on Philosophy and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Issues 12 (2):2–7. Bennett, K. (Forthcoming). Making Things Up. Oxford University Press. Burgess, A. & Plunkett, D. (2013). "Conceptual Ethics I". Philosophy Compass 8 (12): 1091–1101. Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge. 77. Many thanks to David Black, Justin Christy, Shamik Dasgupta, Esa Diaz-Leon, Peter Finocchiaro, Vera Flocke, Katharine Jenkins, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Rachel McKinnon, David Plunkett, Michael Rauschenbach, Michael Rea, Cat SaintCroix, Father Raphael Mary Salzillo, Sami Sumpter, Elizabeth Victor, Ted Warfield, and audiences at Princeton University, Notre Dame, UC Irvine's Perspectives on Gender Conference, the New York Society for Women in Philosophy, the 2015 Central APA, and the Berkeley Social Ontology Group for helpful feedback and conversation during the development of this paper. Special thanks as well to two anonymous referees at Philosophers' Imprint for insightful comments, and to the Princeton University Center for Human Values' Political Philosophy Graduate Student Research and Travel Fund. As is the case with most philosophy papers, to call this paper "single-authored" does not do justice to the vast amounts of time and energy that others have generously donated to help me develop these ideas. but never a combination of the two - and that sexual orientation concerns the sex or gender of both potential partners are deeply embedded within the concepts associated with these categories. For this reason, the current concepts of "homosexual" and "heterosexual" do not pick out sexual orientations under BD. These terms inherently refer to a relation between the sexes (or genders) of sexual partners, whereas BD focuses exclusively on the sex and gender of the persons one is attracted to. Second, BD implies - but does not necessitate - that we should reject biological essentialism about sexual orientation. This again comes on the heels of BD's incorporation of both sexand genderattraction in its analysis of sexual orientation. Third, and also for this reason, BD implies that the categories of sexual orientation ought to be continuous, rather than discrete. Contemporary research suggests that the categories of gender (and perhaps sex) are continuous, and so any dispositions related to gender (including the ones at issue in BD) must be sensitive to this continuous scale. This has political and social implications, as it raises questions about how to understand sexual orientation as a protected class or legal decisions concerning sexual orientation, and it puts pressure on the idea that cisheterosexuality (or any sexual orientation) is normative or non-deviant. Fourth, because BD appeals to the "ordinary conditions" for ascribing sexual orientation, it requires that we hesitate in ascribing any category of sexual orientation to an individual on the basis of their behavior without first carefully considering their social context. This hesitation is particularly required when considering persons under (e. g.) religious, situational, or familial pressures to partner with someone of a certain sex or gender, as well as any cross-cultural applications of our categories of sexual orientation. Finally, I also hope to have shown that the issues surrounding sexual orientation need further philosophical analysis. A vast number of questions about essentialism, dispositions, choice, reduction, and social kinds and properties - not to mention the political and ethical robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 26 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) LeVay, S. (2011). Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. Oxford University Press. Liptak, A. (2015). "Gender Bias Issue Could Tip Chief Justice Roberts Into Ruling for Gay Marriage". The New York Times. URL = http://nyti.ms/1OD08RL. Mikkola, M. (2012). "Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http:// plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/feminism-gender/ Money, J. & Lamacz, M. (1984). "Gynemimesis and Gynemimetophilia: Individual and Cross-Cultural Manifestations of a Gender-Coping Strategy Hitherto Unnamed". Comprehensive Psychiatry 25 (4): 392–403. Plunkett, D. (2015). "The Role of Metalinguistic Negotiation in Philosophical Disputes and How It Matters for Thinking About the Methodology of Philosophy". Inquiry 1: 1–47. Ray, N. (2006). "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth: An Epidemic of Homelessness". National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute and the National Coalition for the Homeless. URL = http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/HomelessYouth.pdf. Reumann, M. G. (2005). American Sexual Character: Sex, Gender, and National Identity in the Kinsey Reports. University of California Press. Robinson, G. (2012). God Believes in Love: Straight Talk About Gay Marriage. Knopf. Schroeder, T. (2014). "Desire". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ spr2014/entries/desire/ . Sider, T. (2011). Writing the Book of the World. Oxford University Press. Stein, E. (1999). The Mismeasure of Desire: The Science, Theory, and Ethics of Sexual Orientation. Oxford University Press. Sveinsdóttir, Á. K. (2011). "The Metaphysics of Sex and Gender". In Feminist Metaphysics: Explorations in the Ontology of Sex, Gender and the Self, Charlotte Witt (ed.). Springer. Weinberg, M. & Williams, C. (2010). "Men Sexually Interested in Transwomen (MSTW): Gendered Embodiment and the Construction of Sexual Desire". Journal of Sex Research 47 (4): 374–383. Choi, S. (2008). "Dispositional Properties and Counterfactual Conditionals". Mind 117 (468):795–841. Choi, S. & Fara, M. (2014). "Dispositions". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/spr2014/entries/dispositions/. Emens, E. F. (2014). "Compulsory Sexuality". Stanford Law Review 66:(303). Foucault, M. (1980). The History of Sexuality, Volume One: An Introduction. Vintage Books. Gebauer, J. E., Baumeister, R. F., Sedikides, C. & Neberich, W. (2014). "Satisfaction-Adaptation Principles in Sexual Desire: Exploring Gender Differences Across the Life Span". Social Psychological & Personality Science 5 (2):176–184. Greenesmith, H. (2010). "Drawing Bisexuality Back into the Picture: How Bisexuality Fits Into the LGBT Strategy Ten Years After Bisexual Erasure". Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender 17: 65–80. Halperin, D. M. (1990). One Hundred Years of Homosexuality: And Other Essays on Greek Love. Routledge. Halperin, D. M. (2002). How to Do the History of Homosexuality. University of Chicago Press. Haslanger, S. (1995). "Ontology and Social Construction". Philosophical Topics 23 (2):95–125. Haslanger, S. (2000). "Gender and Race: (What) Are They? (What) Do We Want Them to Be?". Noûs 34 (1):31–55. Haslanger, S. (2012). Resisting Reality: Social Construction and Social Critique. Oxford University Press. Haslanger, S. and Sveinsdóttir, Á. K. (2011). "Feminist Metaphysics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/ feminism-metaphysics/ Human Rights Campaign (2014). Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: Terminology and Definitions. URL = http://www.hrc.org/resources/ entry/sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-terminology-anddefinitions. robin a. dembroff What Is Sexual Orientation? philosophers' imprint – 27 – vol. 16, no. 3 (januray 2016) Witt, C. (2011a). The Metaphysics of Gender. Oxford University Press. Witt, C. (2011b). "What Is Gender Essentialism?". In Feminist Metaphysics Explorations in the Ontology of Sex, Gender and the Self, Charlotte Witt (ed.). Springer. Wittig, M. (1992). "One Is Not Born a Woman". In The Straight Mind and Other Essays. Beacon Press. | {
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During refueling of an automobile, liquid fuel entering the fuel tank displaces gases therein, such as air and fuel vapor. A vent pipe carries the gases to the tank exterior, typically venting directly to atmosphere or, alternatively, to a vapor handling device, such as a carbon canister. When the liquid fuel level covers the vent pipe opening, gases can no longer vent, thus causing a pressure increase which shuts off the fuel pump.
In addition to the just described fuel pump shut-off pressure, fuel tank pressure rises during normal engine operation for a variety of reasons. For example, hot fuel returning from the engine, fuel pump operation within the fuel tank, and normal diurnal temperature changes can increase fuel temperature within the fuel tank. Higher fuel temperature causes an increase in fuel evaporation and thus an increase in fuel vapor within the tank. Increased fuel vapor and fuel temperature can result in fuel tank pressure exceeding atmospheric pressure. With such conditions, sudden removal of the fuel filler pipe cap may result in fuel expulsion through the vent pipe, an obviously undesirable consequence.
The present invention provides a vapor venting apparatus which limits the fuel level within the tank while providing means for reducing fuel flow through the apparatus upon removal of the fuel filler pipe cap after fuel tank pressure increases above atmospheric pressure. | {
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Changes in the choline content of human breast milk in the first 3 weeks after birth.
Choline is an essential constituent of membrane phospholipids in great demand in the developing brain and liver. We have previously demonstrated that human neonates excrete large amounts of betaine, a product of choline oxidation, in their urine. Estimates of perinatal choline intake using previously published data compared with our measurements of betaine excretion indicated that choline insufficiency might occur at certain periods after birth. In this study we measured the choline content of expressed human breast milk in colostrum (2-6 days after birth), mature milk (7-22 days after birth) and several infant formula foods, using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In colostrum choline was present in both the aqueous (free choline, phosphocholine and glycerophosphocholine) and lipid fractions (phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin). After 6-7 days there was a mean increase of 114% in the total choline content; 82% of the rise was accounted for by increases in phosphocholine and glycerophosphocholine, and 14% by (free) choline. The choline content of most formula feeds was comparable with the level in colostrum but below that of mature milk. Both the total choline content and ester composition of mature milk were comparable with more recent measurements using high-performance liquid chromatography. The choline content of human breast milk doubles 6-7 days after birth and, unlike that of many formula feeds, appears to be sufficient to account for betaine excretion in healthy full-term neonates. However, for premature babies who usually receive much lower quantities of milk, yet have a higher demand for choline, the intake may be inadequate. | {
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Evaluation of Biohit HPV Screening and Typing kits in detection of human papillomavirus DNA from lesions of anogenital tract.
The Biohit HPV Screening and Typing kits for in situ hybridization of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA are now commercially available. The HPV Screening kit contains a cocktail of HPV probes, and the Typing kit contains separated hybridization probes for HPV 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, and 33. They were evaluated by comparison with an in situ hybridization (ISH) method, using the Pathogene HPV probes 6/11, 16/18, 31/33/51. One hundred anogenital biopsies from 78 women and 22 men were tested. Among them, 43% showed normal or inflammatory mucosa, 44%, koilocytosis or mild dysplasia, and 13%, moderate to severe dysplasia. Altogether, 60 specimens were positive with the ISH reference method: 17 with the HPV 6/11 probe, 12 with the HPV 16/18 probe, 16 with the HPV 31/33/51 probe, and 15 had mixed infections. The agreement between the Screening test and the homemade ISH is 91%. The Screening test has a sensitivity of 93% and a specificity of 87%. As for the Biohit Typing test, four false-negative samples, and partial or total discordance in nine and four samples, respectively, were observed when compared to our reference method. Thus the agreement between both typing ISH tests is 92%. The sensitivity of the Biohit Typing test is 93%, and the specificity, 91%. The sensitivity decreases to 72% when the 31 and 33 probes are evaluated separately. The Biohit Screening assay is simple, reliable, reproducible, and suitable for rapid routine screening. The Biohit Typing test allows the detection of a specific type of HPV DNA and also permits, in mixed HPV infection, definition of the type of associated HPV DNA.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) | {
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This is a real-world example on a CraftBukkit server using a plugin for Auto-Announcing messages to the Server. You see the "for" in the second message is white (or reset) and still seems to be getting not wrapped correctly. | {
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Not too long ago Kristin Dombek wrote a widely-circulated favorable review of the book Defenders of the Unborn: The Pro-Life Movement Before Roe v. Wade in the New York Times.
By my vague estimates Dombek is a Millennial (if not, then that news is all the more promising) who in the piece identifies with the pro-choice movement. These two biographical facts are important, because the tone of her review reflects larger trends.
There is a whole genre of orthodox Christian writing that preaches at the Millennials as if Millennial decadence is somehow mysteriously and qualitatively different than the decadence of the Yuppies, Hippies, and the Beats, that is, their parents and grandparents.
However, the review of Defenders of the Unborn reflects a different picture. Dombek’s tone is one of surprised identification with the pro-life cause. Reading the book might have been the first time she realized that advocating for the regulation of abortion is not a conservative issue.
Her piece begins by describing the mistaken contemporary perception of abortion as an exclusively conservative issue:
Among those of us who wish to protect access to abortion, it’s easy to feel that “right to life” language is a cover for an attack on feminism. It’s a feeling supported by a common story about history: The anti-abortion movement began after Roe v. Wade, because conservative evangelicals were threatened by women’s newfound power over their bodies. What else could explain the movement’s swift rise in the decade following the Supreme Court’s decision, if not a widespread reaction against equal rights?
Reading the book helped her to uncover an alternative narrative:
From the perspective of our historical moment, it’s hard to imagine a country where the most prominent voices against abortion were Catholic physicians, and evangelical Protestants were either in favor of lifting restrictions on abortion, or didn’t really care. A country where Democrats and the Black Panthers opposed abortion, and Ronald Reagan, like most conservatives, supported it. Where more men than women supported legalizing abortion, and Hugh Hefner was one of those men, leading one activist to call legalized abortion the “final victory of the Playboy philosophy.” Where opposition to abortion found common cause with opposition to the exploitation of women, to the abandonment of the poor, to big business and to the Vietnam War.
What is missing in Dombek’s account is a lack of awareness of the future and past pregnant within the present. A hint of what this alternative move back to future might mean appears toward tend of her Defenders of the Unborn review:
But Williams’s book gave me a bit of hope. If the conversation was that different before, perhaps the terms of this deadlocked debate could change again. Given our shared history of fighting for justice for the less powerful, we might even find some common ground.
This new coalition for the less powerful is already taking shape outside of the conventional narrative of abortion as a conservative (in the sense of “Republican”) issue.
In his interview with this blog Charles Camosy, author of Beyond the Abortion Wars, identifies the Millennials such as Dombek as the driving force behind a new resistance to the abortion industry:
Another development that has pushed it back into the public sphere of contentiousness has been dramatic increases in science and technology in relation to the prenatal child. We not only know a lot more about the child biologically, but that reality is now shown in photos on mobile glowing rectangular screens in nearly every corner of the world. A colleague recently showed me a prenatal photo of his granddaughter on his phone and said, “Charlie, she’s got a name, a prepared room, godparents, even clothes picked out. The only thing she doesn’t have is the right to be born.” When almost everyone can see the face of someone so marginalized, this is a game-changer. Perhaps it is the reason that Millennials are far more skeptical of abortion than the previous two generations were at their age. They grew up with the profound reality of prenatal children as part of their lives in a way that other generations did not.
Note the language. Camosy uses the phrase “the face of someone so marginalized,” which, like Dombek’s “justice for the less powerful,” reflects Catholic “social justice” language, that is, the very language fervently resisted by Neo-Conservative Catholics who see it as a threat to their conservative capitalist values. To be fair to social justice Catholics: Anecdotal experience leads me to believe most of them are on board with the Church’s teaching on abortion. Furthermore, tying abortion to other interconnected issues does not weaken support for the pro-life cause. It makes it stronger by showing how much is really at stake, because it is not an isolated issue.
Camosy goes beyond this anecdotal observation and goes into the numbers (which he covers much more thoroughly in several chapters of Beyond the Abortion Wars):
[The anti-abortion supermajority] isn’t simply my claim. It is the finding of poll after poll, year in and year out. There has been substantial opposition for decades, but it has been slowly and steadily growing. The most intriguing opposition comes from younger people–who are far more skeptical of abortion than Gen Xers and Baby Boomers were at their age. And they are very solidly against abortion. Indeed, twice as many Millennials who identify as pro-life feel strongly about their position on abortion when compared with young people who identify as pro-choice. Anyone who has been to the annual March for Life in Washington DC, for instance, can’t help but be impressed by the fact that the event is dominated by tens of thousands of young people who have traveled in from all over the country.
These trends are also reflected in trends on the legislative level:
It is hopeful that at the state level–where government is closest to the people–the pro-life supermajority has been able to enact some of its agenda. Indeed, by the end of June there already had been over 300 pro-life laws proposed in 2015. At the local level, happily, federal political orthodoxies tend to break down and much more complicated and interesting debates take place. Complex coalitions and compromises are routinely created. Especially has a frustrated Millennial generation enters the political fray, I’m hopeful that the more complex and interesting politics of the states could make its way to the federal level.
However, there remains the problem of a severe political mismatch between the aims of the pro-life movement and its mostly Republican political allies:
While any trend is open to political manipulation in the future, the main problem is that the pro-life supermajority doesn’t really have political vehicle for enacting its agenda at the federal level. Small-government Republicans, in their heart of hearts, are not all that excited about having a big federal government restrict abortion access and punish those who procure and perform abortions. Democrats are a more natural fit for the pro-life movement given their stated political philosophy, but accidents of history have made that difficult in the near-term.
This characterization of the pro-life movement as a more natural fit for the left is something you might have also encountered in Micheal Sean Winters’s history of how the Democrats lost the Catholic in Left at the Altar. Winters lays the blame at the feet of a small but rich group of white radicals who rigged the Democratic candidate selection process in order to promote their abortion agenda. Republicans are not the only party of big business and big business could really care less about the unborn when it can outsource jobs to places in the world where there is cheap and plentiful labor.
Therefore, since politics does indeed make strange bedfellows, it is high time the pro-life movement to figure out ways to woo the Democrats. Not because of any need to identify them as the good guys, but for strategic reasons.
If pro-lifers manage to do so, then they can play the two parties off each other instead of rising and falling with the fortunes of just one of them.
Millennials have shown a great deal of distance toward the political status quo, therefore this strategy would also appeal to them.
This is the time not only to revise our views about the abortion as a strictly conservative issue, but also about Millennials.
Abortion is not a conservative nor liberal issue like most of the causes that grow out of a Christian way of life. Christ cuts across our arbitrary divisions.
Tradition is always going back to the future. The future of the pro-life movement should include the Millennials (some of them are liberals) as allies.
For more details on where the pro-life cause cuts across political boundaries see my interview with Professor Camosy: The Anti-Abortion Supermajority: Beyond the Abortion Wars. | {
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Hot Dog Stands in Vienna
New creations, coupled with exceptional variety and top quality have revived the Viennese sausage-eating traditions. Whether at the sausage stand on Hoher Markt late at night or at the sausage stand in imperial tradition.
“Sweet (süss) or spicy (scharf)?” is the standard question you will get asked when ordering from a Viennese hot dog stand. This has nothing to do with making a choice between Sachertorte or Käsekrainer, but refers to your mustard preference – whether the mild sweet Kremser or spicy hot Estragon. Incidentally, the Käsekrainer is an Austrian invention and a traditional classic. It is a lightly smoked pork sausage with 10-20% cheese content.
The city’s hot dog stands – mostly small sidewalk kiosks – sell not only hot dogs but also wieners, Käsekrainer and fried sausage, and as well as a whole range of culinary surprises. They are complemented by an impressive variety of beverages from raspberry pop to specialty beers.
One of the popular stands is the legendary “Würstelstand am Hohen Markt” located on a traffic island in the heart of Vienna’s old city. During the day it is the ideal place to grab a quick snack while shopping or sightseeing. However, it owes its cult status to its late night opening hours and the diversity of its night owl clientele. It is nothing unusual for bankers to be seen eating shoulder-to-shoulder with punks.
The Bitzinger sausage stands at Albertinaplatz and next to the Giant Ferries Wheel are widely held to be the best in Vienna. Choose between a delicious Bosna, hot dog or Käsekrainer and a range of traditional side orders. Draft beer, bottled wine or champagne are also on.
The "sharpest" sausage stand in the city is called "Zum scharfen Rene". The name says it all. The fine selection of sausages here are served with the sharpest chili mixtures and an award-winning, home-made curry sauce.
Dine like an emperor at the Kaiserzeit Sausage Stand. In addition to the traditional offering of sausages, including the multi-award winning Blunzn (blood sausage), there are also local delicacies such as goulash soup and Altwiener Suppentopf, which you wouldn’t normally expect to find at a sausage stand.
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173 S.W.3d 421 (2004)
Monte PANITZ, et al.
v.
F. PERLMAN & COMPANY, INC., et al.
Court of Appeals of Tennessee, Western Section, at Jackson.
July 20, 2004 Session.
October 4, 2004.
Permission to Appeal Denied March 21, 2005.
*422 John Andre Chiapella of Memphis for Appellants, Monte Panitz and Barry Panitz.
Leo Bearman, Jr. and Maurice Wexler of Memphis for Appellees, F. Perlman & Company, Inc., Alan Perlman, Neil Cohen, Michael Wexler, Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. and American Metal Sales, Inc.
Permission to Appeal Denied by Supreme Court March 21, 2005.
OPINION
W. FRANK CRAWFORD, P.J., W.S., delivered the opinion of the court, in which DAVID R. FARMER, J. and HOLLY M. KIRBY, J., joined.
Shareholders seek to inspect certain records of corporation of which they are shareholders, as well as records of two other corporations ("the subsidiaries"): a second corporation which is the wholly-owned subsidiary of the corporation in which Plaintiffs hold shares, and another that is the wholly owned-subsidiary of the second corporation. Defendants maintain that plaintiffs do not have any right to inspect the records of corporations in which they are not shareholders, but agreed to allow inspection of limited records of two subsidiaries as a courtesy, contingent upon plaintiffs signing a confidentiality agreement. Plaintiffs maintain that they have an unqualified right to inspect records of all three corporations under T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX. The trial court found that the confidentiality agreement was reasonable and entered an order requiring defendants to produce certain records, dating back to 1991, for inspection and copying. It further held that, in light of defendants' agreement to allow limited inspection of records of subsidiaries, it need not rule on issue of whether plaintiffs were entitled to inspect records of subsidiaries. We affirm as modified herein.
I. BACKGROUND
Appellants, Monte Panitz and Barry Panitz, are shareholders of F. Perlman & Company ("Perlman and Co."). Perlman & Co. is the sole owner of Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. ("Southern Steel"), and Southern Steel is the sole owner of American Metal Sales, Inc. ("American Metal"). Appellants are not shareholders of Southern Steel or American Metal.
On May 20, 2002, John Andre Chiapella, attorney for the Panitzes, demanded, by letter, "to inspect the records of the corporation and its subsidiaries .... to ascertain whether any breach of fiduciary duty has occurred with regard to the directors or officers of the corporation or its subsidiaries." On June 13, Chiapella followed up with a more specific letter, demanding to inspect, "to the extent not previously inspected on July 5, 2002," the following:
1. Charter and any amendments thereto from inception of said corporations to present;
*423 2. Bylaws and any amendments thereto from inception of said corporations to present;
3. Any and all minutes from inception of said corporations to present; and
4. Total compensation paid to each and every officer for the last ten (10) years from each of the foregoing corporations.
Chiapella concluded his June 13 letter by stating the Plaintiffs' purposes in requesting the records:
The purposes for which the inspection of records are hereby demanded are to aid the shareholders in their determination of whether the business of each corporation is being properly conducted and whether there has been any breach of fiduciary duty by any director or officer of the corporations.
We are in the process of hiring a forensic auditor to assist us in inspect[ing] the financial records of the corporations. Once accomplished, we will make demand with respect to the appropriate financial records.
In a letter to Chiapella dated July 3, 2002, Leo Bearman, Jr., attorney for Perlman & Co. agreed to allow, "as a courtesy to you," the inspection of certain of the records requested by the Panitzes, while maintaining that the Panitzes, not being shareholders of Southern Steel or American Metal, were not entitled to the information sought. Specifically, Perlman & Co.'s counsel offered to make available the following records for inspection:
1. A list of the officers and members of the Board of Directors of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. dating back to October 14, 1996 (enclosed).
2. A list of the officers and board of Directors of Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. dating back to June, 1994 (enclosed).
3. A list of the officers and directors of American Metal Sales, Inc. dating back to June, 1994 (enclosed).
4. A. To the extent they are readily available, copies of the minutes of Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. and American Metal Sales, Inc. from 1991, to the present. You may review these in my office at your convenience. We have already supplied copies of the minutes of F. Perlman & Company, Inc.
B. A list of the total compensation by way of salaries and bonuses paid to Frank Perlman, Joe Williams, Neil Cohen, Michael Wexler, Gary McKibben, Alan Perlman, Barry Panitz, and Monte Panitz from 1997 to date.
C. The information listed in paragraphs 4.A. and 4.B. will be supplied to you after you and your clients execute a Confidentiality Agreement, a copy of which I enclose. We feel that individual compensation, as well as the content of all corporate minutes are indeed confidential, non-public, proprietary matters and, therefore, believe that this is a reasonable request.
The confidentiality agreement referenced by Bearman in item 4 C. of his July 3, 2002 letter reads as follows:
You have demanded inspection of records of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. ("F. Perlman") on behalf of your clients, Monte Panitz, Barry Panitz and the Estate of Izzy Panitz. The purpose which you have stated for demanding the inspection of records is to aid your clients as shareholders of F. Perlman in a determination of whether the business of F. Perlman and its subsidiaries is being properly conducted and whether there has been a breach of fiduciary duty by any director or officer of F. Perlman or its subsidiaries. The records which you have requested include non-public information. *424 F. Perlman is willing to provide such non-public information if it receives appropriate assurances of confidentiality and that the information will only be used by either you or your clients for the stated purposes.
Accordingly, the terms and conditions of this Confidentiality Agreement (the "Agreement") are as follows:
1. Provision of Confidential Information. Pursuant to your letters of May 20, 2002 and June 13, 2002, you have requested information concerning F. Perlman and its subsidiaries that F. Perlman considers non-public, proprietary, or confidential in nature. All such information, whether having been previously provided, presently provided, or provided in the future is hereby collectively referred to as "Confidential Information". F. Perlman is willing to disclose and provide such Confidential Information to you upon the terms and conditions set forth in this letter.
2. Acknowledgment of Confidentiality. You and your clients recognize and acknowledge the non-public and proprietary nature of the Confidential Information, and that damage could result to F. Perlman if any of the Confidential Information is disclosed to a third party. By receiving the Confidential Information from F. Perlman, you and your clients agree that any and all information may be furnished to you by F. Perlman's officers, directors, employees or legal, accounting or other professional representatives will be used solely for the above stated purposes.
3. Use of Confidential Information. You and your clients agree to maintain the confidentiality of the Confidential Information and not to disclose such to any persons whatsoever, excepting only (I) persons to whom such disclosure is required by legal process (but only after notifying F. Perlman of their receipt of such process and giving F. Perlman an opportunity to seek such protection and protective orders as F. Perlman may undertake to obtain); (ii) such other persons to whom disclosure is approved in writing by F. Perlman; (iii) to your employees and agents pursuant to the above stated purposes and subject to the same terms and conditions; and (iv) in any judicial proceedings alleging a claim of your clients against F. Perlman.
4. Other Provisions. This Agreement shall be binding upon you and your clients and your respective successors, and assigns. This Agreement may be amended only by a writing signed by the parties hereto.
The undersigned agree to and accept the above-stated terms and conditions as of this ____ day of ____, 2002.
JOHN ANDRE CHIAPELLA
Attorney for Monte Panitz, Barry Panitz
and the Estate of Izzy Panitz
_____________
MONTE PANITZ
_____________
BARRY PANITZ
THE ESTATE OF IZZY PANITZ
By: _____________
Title: _____________
Neither the Panitzes nor Chiapella signed the Confidentiality Agreement. On April 4, 2003, the Panitzes filed a "Petition for Order Requiring Defendants to Produce Records for Inspection and Copying," naming as defendants, F. Perlman & Company, Inc., Allan Perlman, Neil Cohen, Michael Wexler, Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc., and America Metal Sales, Inc. The petition also attaches as exhibits the above-referred letters dated May 20, 2002, June 13, 2002, and July 3, 2002, with a copy of a proposed confidentiality agreement *425 and letters dated July 30, 2002 and May 31, 2002. The petition states, in relevant part:
8. The defendants have complied in part with plaintiffs' request but have refused to furnish records of [Southern Steel and American Metal] and have refused to produce other records demanded by plantiffs unless plaintiffs and their attorney sign a "Confidentiality Agreement."
9. Plaintiffs state that they are entitled to the records they have demanded, and that they have complied with T.C.A. Section 48-26-102, Subsection c, in (1) that their demand is made in good faith for a proper purpose; (2) they have described with reasonable particularity their purpose and the records they desire to inspect and (3) the records are directly connected with their purpose.
10. The purposes for the inspection of these records are to aid plaintiffs in determining (1) whether the business of each corporation is being properly conducted, (2) whether there has been any breach of fiduciary duty by any Director or officer of each corporation and (3) the value of plaintiffs interests in F. Perlman & Company, Inc.
11. Plaintiffs have no other adequate or specific remedy for the relief herein sought except that provided in T.C.A. Sections 48-26-101 XX-XX-XXX.
PREMISES CONSIDERED, PLAINTIFFS PRAY:
1. That a copy of this petition be served upon the defendants, and that the Court enter an order requiring the defendant corporations, through their President, Chairman of the Board of Directors and/or Secretary-Treasurer, to produce the records demanded of F. Perlman & Company, Inc., and the records of its two wholly owned subsidiaries, for inspection and copying by plaintiffs, their agents and/or attorney as provided by Sections 48-26-101 XX-XX-XXX.
On April 4, 2003, a Fiat was issued ordering that the Clerk of the Court issue notice to Perlman & Co., Alan Perlman, Chairman of the Board of Directors, Neil Cohen, President, and Michael Wexler, Secretary-Treasurer, to appear in court on Tuesday, May 6, 2003, for a hearing on the petition of the Panitzes to show cause why they should not produce the following records of F. Perlman & Co. and its wholly owned subsidiaries, for inspection and copying:
1. Charter and any amendments thereto from the inception of said corporations to the present less charter of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. as of June 3, 2002.
2. By-Laws and amendments thereto from the inception of said corporations to the present less by-laws of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. as of June 3, 2002.
3. Any and all minutes from the inception of said corporations to the present less minutes of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. for the period February 18, 1991 through December 6, 2001.
4. Total compensation paid to each and every officer for the last 10 years from each of the foregoing corporations.
The Appellees filed an answer on April 16, 2003; a First Amended and Supplemental Answer on April 29, 2003; and a Second Amended and Supplemental Answer on May 6, 2003.
A hearing was held on May 6, 2003. On June 27, 2003, the court entered an Order Requiring Defendants to Produce Records For Inspection and Copying Subject to *426 Protective Order. The order reads, in relevant part:
The Court, it not being necessary to do so, declines to decide the question of whether or not Plaintiffs, who are not shareholders of either Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. or American Metal Sales, Inc., are entitled to demand certain records of those corporations. However, as a result of being advised of the previous offer made by Defendants' counsel to produce certain records to Plaintiffs under certain conditions;
IT IS ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that Defendants Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. and American Metal Sales, Inc. shall make available to Plaintiffs for inspection and copying, to the extent that they are available, copies of the minutes of Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. and American Metal Sales, Inc. from 1991 to the present, and copies of the charter and by-laws of the two corporations.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED, ADJUDGED, AND DECREED that Defendants F. Perlman & Company, Inc., Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc. and American Metal Sales, Inc. shall supply to Plaintiffs a list of the total compensation by way of salaries and bonuses paid to Frank Perlman, Joe Williams, Neil Cohen, Michael Wexler, Gary McKibben, Alan Perlman, Barry Panitz and Monte Panitz from 1991 to the present, to the extent that such information is available.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that the said Defendants shall supply the information set out above on condition that Monte Panitz, Barry Panitz and Barry Panitz, Trustee of the Izzy Panitz Credit Shelter Trust, execute a Confidentiality Agreement identical to that affixed to the petition filed in this matter and dated July 3, 2002, the court specifically finding that said Confidentiality Agreement is reasonable and that its execution constitutes a condition to Plaintiffs receiving access to the information set out above. Defendants Southern Steel Company, Inc. and American Metal Sales, Inc. shall make said material and information available to Plaintiffs within thirty days of the delivery to counsel for Defendants of the fully executed Confidentiality Agreement approved herein.
The Panitzes filed their Notice of Appeal on July 28, 2003.
II. STANDARD OF REVIEW
Our standard of review in this non-jury case is de novo upon the record of the proceedings below and there is no presumption of correctness with respect to the trial court's conclusions of law. Campbell v. Florida Steel Corp., 919 S.W.2d 26 (Tenn.1996) and Tenn. R.App. P. 13(d). The trial court's factual findings are, however, presumed to be correct and we must affirm such findings absent evidence preponderating to the contrary. Union Carbide Corp. v. Huddleston, 854 S.W.2d 87 (Tenn.1993).
III. ISSUES FOR REVIEW
1. Whether the order entered June 27, 2003, of the Chancery Court of Shelby County, Tennessee ("Chancery Court") denying the Appellants, shareholders and members of the board of directors of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. ("Perlman & Company") the right to inspect ALL the minutes and by-laws of Perlman & Company and its subsidiaries and allowing the Appellants only the right to inspect such records for the period commencing after 1991 was error.
*427 2. Whether the Chancery Court erred in denying the Appellants as directors of Perlman & Company the right to inspect the records of Perlman & Company and its subsidiaries.
3. Whether the Confidentiality Agreement which the Chancery Court required the Appellants to sign prior to inspection of the records of Perlman & Company and its subsidiaries was a reasonable restriction pursuant to Tenn.Code Ann. § 48-26-104(d).
4. Whether the Chancery Court in its order of June 27, 2003 erred in allowing the Appellants to procure records only to the extent available as initially determined by Appellees without stating what records were not available and the reasons for such unavailability.
5. Whether the refusal of the Chancery Court to make Finding of Facts was error.
IV. ANALYSIS
Issue 1: Whether the order entered June 27, 2003, of the Chancery Court of Shelby County, Tennessee ("Chancery Court") denying the Appellants, shareholders and members of the board of directors of F. Perlman & Company, Inc. ("Perlman & Company") the right to inspect ALL the minutes and by-laws of Perlman & Company and its subsidiaries and allowing the Appellants only the right to inspect such records for the period commencing after 1991 was error.
The Panitzes contend that they are entitled, by virtue of T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX and T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX, to inspect the records of not only F. Perlman & Co., but also American Metal and Southern Steel. The pertinent statutes read as follows:
§ 48-26-101. Required records.
(a) A corporation shall keep as permanent records minutes of all meetings of its shareholders and board of directors, a record of all actions taken by the shareholders or board of directors without a meeting, and a record of all actions taken by a committee of the board of directors in place of the board of directors on behalf of the corporation.
(b) A corporation shall maintain appropriate accounting records.
(c) A corporation or its agent shall maintain a record of its shareholders, in a form that permits preparation of a list of the names and addresses of all shareholders, in alphabetical order by class and series, if any, of shares showing the number, class, and series, if any, of shares held by each shareholder.
(d) A corporation shall maintain its records in written form or in another form capable of conversion into written form within a reasonable time.
(e) A corporation shall keep a copy of the following records at its principal office:
(1) Its charter or restated charter and all amendments thereto currently in effect;
(2) Its bylaws or restated bylaws and all amendments to them currently in effect;
(3) Resolutions adopted by its board of directors creating one (1) or more classes or series of shares, and fixing their relative rights, preferences, and limitations, if shares issued pursuant to those resolutions are outstanding;
(4) The minutes of all shareholders' meetings, and records of all action taken by shareholders without a meeting, for the past three (3) years;
(5) All written communications to shareholders generally within the past three (3) years, including any financial *428 statements prepared for the past three (3) years under § 48-26-201;
(6) A list of the names and business addresses of its current directors and officers; and
(7) Its most recent annual report delivered to the secretary of state under § 48-26-203.
1986 Pub.Acts, c. 887, § 16.01.
§ 48-26-102. Shareholders right to inspect and copy records.
(a) A shareholder of a corporation is entitled to inspect and copy, during regular business hours at the corporation's principal office, any of the records of the corporation described in § 48-26-101(e), if the shareholder gives the corporation written notice of the shareholder's demand at least five (5) business days before the date on which the shareholder wishes to inspect and copy.
(b) A shareholder of a corporation is entitled to inspect and copy, during regular business hours at a reasonable location specified by the corporation, any of the following records of the corporation, if the shareholder meets the requirements of subsection (c) and gives the corporation written notice of the shareholder's demand at least five (5) business days before the date on which the shareholder wishes to inspect and copy:
(1) Excerpts from minutes of any meeting of the board of directors, records of any action of a committee of the board of directors while acting in place of the board of directors on behalf of the corporation, minutes of any meeting of the shareholders, and records of action taken by the shareholders or board of directors without a meeting, to the extent not subject to inspection under subsection (a);
(2) Accounting records of the corporation; and
(3) The record of shareholders.
(c) A shareholder may inspect and copy the records described in subsection (b) only if:
(1) The shareholder's demand is made in good faith and for a proper purpose;
(2) The shareholder describes with reasonable particularity the shareholder's purpose and the records the shareholder desires to inspect; and
(3) The records are directly connected with the shareholder's purpose.
(d) The right of inspection granted by this section may not be abolished or limited by a corporation's charter or bylaws.
(e) This section does not affect:
(1) The right of a shareholder to inspect records under § 48-17-201 or, if the shareholder is in litigation with the corporation, to the same extent as any other litigant; or
(2) The power of a court, independently of chapters 11-27 of this title, to compel the production of corporate records for examination.
1986 Pub.Acts, c. 887, § 16.02.
The crux of the Panitzes' argument is that under T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX, their status as shareholders of the parent or holding corporation, F. Perlman & Co., entitles them to inspect the records of the subsidiary corporations, American Metal and Southern Steel, even though the Panitzes are not shareholders of these subsidiaries. Appellees contend that the statute is clear on its face, and grants shareholders of a corporation the right to inspect the records of that corporation and no other.
We begin by noting that the plain language of the statute appears to grant the right to inspect a corporation's records only to the shareholders of that corporation itselfnot to the shareholders of the *429 parent corporation. Section (a) of the statute refers to the right of "[a] shareholder of a corporation ... to inspect and copy ... the records of the corporation...." (emphasis added). Similar language appears in section (b). Quite plainly, the statute refers only to the right of shareholders of a corporation to inspect and copy the records of the same corporation, and does not grant that right to shareholders of one corporation to inspect the records of a second corporation, even when the second corporation is wholly-owned by the first corporation or by a subsidiary of the first corporation.
The primary rule of statutory construction is that the intention of the legislative body must prevail. See Gragg v. Gragg, 12 S.W.3d 412 (Tenn.2000); Moser v. Department of Transportation, 982 S.W.2d 864 (Tenn.Ct.App.1998). When the language of a statute is unambiguous, legislative intent is to be ascertained from the plain and ordinary meaning of the statutory language. The role of courts in interpretation of legislation is succinctly stated in Gleaves v. Checker Cab Transit Corp., Inc., 15 S.W.3d 799 (Tenn.2000):
When ... a statute is without contradiction or ambiguity, there is no need to force its interpretation or construction, and courts are not at liberty to depart from the words of the statute. Hawks v. City of Westmoreland, 960 S.W.2d 10, 16 (Tenn.1997). Moreover, if "the language contained within the four corners of a statute is plain, clear, and unambiguous, the duty of the courts is simple and obvious, `to say sic lex scripta, and obey it.'" Id. (quoting Miller v. Childress, 21 Tenn. (2 Hum.) 320, 321-22 (1841)). Therefore, "[i]f the words of a statute plainly mean one thing they cannot be given another meaning by judicial construction." Henry v. White, 194 Tenn. 192, 198, 250 S.W.2d 70,72 (1952).
Finally, it is not for the courts to alter or amend a statute. See Town of Mount Carmel v. City of Kingsport, 217 Tenn. 298, 306, 397 S.W.2d 379, 382 (1965); see also Richardson v. Tennessee Bd. of Dentistry, 913 S.W.2d 446, 453 (Tenn. 1995); Manahan v. State, 188 Tenn. 394, 397, 219 S.W.2d 900, 901 (1949). Moreover, a court must not question the "reasonableness of [a] statute or substitut[e][its] own policy judgments for those of the legislature." BellSouth Telecomms., Inc. v. Greer, 972 S.W.2d 663, 673 (Tenn.Ct.App.1997). Instead, courts must "presume that the legislature says in a statute what it means and means in a statute what it says there." Id. Accordingly, courts must construe a statute as it is written. See Jackson v. Jackson, 186 Tenn. 337, 342, 210 S.W.2d 332, 334 (1948).
Id. at 803.
We find, therefore, under the plain language of the statute, the Panitzes do not have the right to inspect the records of two companies of which they are not shareholders, American Metal and Southern Steel.
In urging a different conclusion upon us, the Panitzes, in their brief on appeal, argue that T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX was passed by the legislature to prevent the oppression of minority shareholders by majority shareholders, who "enjoyed the economic benefits of the corporation through compensation, contracts with related parties, and corporate perks, etc., while paying no dividends. The minority shareholders ... would then expend time, energy and, most importantly, money, to compel inspection of corporate records."
The Panitzes may well be correct in their explanation of the impetus behind the passage of T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX, but such legislative history is irrelevant to the sole question concerning this statute: whether *430 their status as shareholders of a parent corporation entitles them to inspect the books of the corporation's subsidiaries. The Panitzes, surprisingly, do not directly address this question in their appeal brief, nor do they direct this Court to any Tennessee case law supporting their position that the statutory right of inspection extends to a corporation that is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the corporation of which they are shareholders. Nor is there any proof in the record that tends to suggest that the subsidiaries are mere alter egos of the parent corporations.[1]
The Panitzes do have the right to inspect all the records pertaining to F. Perlman & Co. itself, in light of they fact that they have made the showing of good faith and proper purpose set out in T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX(c)[2]. T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX imposes upon corporations the obligation to keep certain records permanently, including the minutes of corporate meetings, and the same statute requires the maintenance of "appropriate accounting records." We therefore find that, with respect to the chancery court's order concerning the records of F. Perlman & Co., it was error for the court to limit the obligation of disclosure to records dating only to 1991. Therefore, we find that the chancery court did not err in failing to find that the Panitzes have a right to inspect the records of American Metal and Southern Steel. To the extent that the chancery court's order pertains to F. Perlman & Co., we find that the court erred in limiting the obligation of disclosure to records dating from 1991 to present.
Issue 2. Whether a director of a corporation is entitled to inspect and copy all of the minutes of the meetings of the board of directors of such a corporation and its controlled subsidiaries.
The second issue on appeal is whether the Panitzes, as directors of F. Perlman & Co., have the right to inspect the records of subsidiary corporations, pursuant to their fiduciary duty to the shareholders of the parent corporation. In their appeal brief, the Panitzes argue, "[i]n order for the Appellants to perform their respective fiduciary duties each must *431 have absolute access to the records of the corporation."
The Panitzes did not seek this relief in their petition, nor did they raise this issue at trial. Generally, issues not raised at trial may not be raised for the first time on appeal. State Dept. of Human Services v. Defriece, 937 S.W.2d 954, 960 (Tenn.Ct.App.1996) (citing Simpson v. Frontier Community Credit Union, 810 S.W.2d 147, 153 (Tenn.1991); Lawrence v. Stanford, 655 S.W.2d 927, 929 (Tenn.1983)). Because the Panitzes failed to raise this issue at trial, we decline to consider it on appeal.
Issue 3. Whether the confidentiality agreement required to be signed by the appellants is reasonable.
The third issue on appeal is whether the chancery court erred in finding that the confidentiality agreement that the Panitzes and their counsel were required to sign was reasonable. Appellants contend that the confidentiality agreement is unreasonable, as they explain in their appeal brief:
[I]t failed to exclude the following information which was deemed confidential: (1) information previously known to Appellants; (2) information independently developed by Appellants; (3) information acquired from a third party not under an obligation to Appellees not to disclose; and (4) information found in the public domain.
Appellees disagree with Appellants' characterization of the confidentiality agreement, and assert that "`confidential information'... is not defined to include that information previously known to Appellants, information previously developed by Appellants, information acquired from a third party not under obligation to Appellees not to disclose, or information found in the public domain."
The confidentiality agreement, in the final form that the court ordered Appellants to sign as a condition of inspecting the corporate records, states in relevant part:
The undersigned ... have requested information concerning [F. Perlman, Southern Steel, and American Metal] which those corporations consider non-public, proprietary, or confidential in nature. All such information, whether having been previously provided, presently provided, or provided in the future pursuant to Decree of Chancery Court in cause no. CH-03-0640-1, is hereby collectively referred to as "Confidential Information."
The agreement could reasonably be read to include information that should be excluded for the four reasons Appellants cite in the passage cited from their appeal brief, supra. We agree with the Panitzes that the confidentiality agreement is overbroad or at least ambiguous.
Therefore, we find that the confidentiality agreement the chancery court ordered the appellants to sign as a condition of inspecting the corporate records is unreasonable. We order that the agreement be modified to provide explicitly for the exclusion of the following types of information from the scope of the confidentiality agreement:
(1) Information previously known to Appellants;
(2) Information independently developed by Appellants;
(3) Information acquired from a third party not under an obligation to Appellees not to disclose; and
(4) Information found in the public domain.
We further find that the execution of the agreement, so revised, will be a reasonable condition of inspection of the records at issue in this case.
*432 Issue 4. Whether the chancery court erred in ordering that documents be made available to appellants "to the extent... available."
The next issue on appeal is whether the chancery court erred in ordering that documents, encompassed in the offer made by Appellees, be disclosed "to the extent ... available." With respect to the information relating to American Metal and Southern Steel, we believe that the court did not err in ordering that such information be provided "to the extent available." As we found supra, in our discussion of Issue 1, the Panitzes have not shown that they are entitled to inspect any records of American Metal or Southern Steel. Therefore, it is reasonable for the trial court to limit the Appellees' obligation to provide such information, as being "to the extent available."
With respect to the information to which the Panitzes are clearly entitledi.e., the corporate records of F. Perlman & Co. encompassed by T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX and XX-XX-XXXwe agree that they are entitled to inspect all of the records of F. Perlman & Co. encompassed by T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX and XX-XX-XXX. Therefore, we find that the modifier used by the chancery court in its order, "to the extent available," suggests some degree of discretion on the part of the Appellees as to what they will provide to the shareholders. Such a condition is inconsistent with the plain language of the statute.
Since the record contains no suggestion that any information to which the Panitzes are entitled is, in fact, unavailable, we need not reach the question of what remedy the Panitzes will have if such information is not made available to them by the Appellees. Therefore, we modify the chancery court's order to reflect that F. Perlman & Co. has an unqualified obligation to make its records, encompassed by T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX and XX-XX-XXX, available for inspection.
Issue 5. Whether the chancery court erred in denying appellants' motion for findings of fact.
The fifth and final issue on appeal is whether the chancery court erred in denying the Panitzes' motion for findings of fact. We first note that no evidentiary hearing was held in this matter; the facts were not in dispute. Indeed, an evidentiary hearing is not contemplated by T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX, the statute governing court-ordered inspections, which reads, in relevant part:
(a) If a corporation does not allow a shareholder who complies with § 48-26-102(a) to inspect and copy any records required by that subsection to be available for inspection, a court of record having equity jurisdiction in the county where the corporation's principal office (or, if none in this state, its registered office) is located may summarily order inspection and copying of the records demanded at the corporation's expense upon application of the shareholder.
(b) If a corporation does not within a reasonable time allow a shareholder to inspect and copy any other record, the shareholder who complies with § 48-26-102(b) and (c) may apply to the court of record having equity jurisdiction in the county where the corporation's principal office (or, if none in this state, its registered office) is located for an order to permit inspection and copying of the records demanded. The court shall dispose of an application under this subsection on an expedited basis.
Moreover, Tenn. R. Civ. P. 52.01 requires the trial court to find the facts only in "actions tried upon the facts without a jury..." (emphasis added). The facts were not in dispute in the case at bar, so this *433 matter cannot be considered an action "tried upon the facts." Therefore, this matter does not appear to fall under the fact-finding requirement set out in Rule 51.02. Finally, as Appellees correctly point out, whether a judge renders findings of fact is a matter in which "some discretion must reside in the trial judge...." Bruce v. Bruce, 801 S.W.2d 102 (Tenn.Ct.App.1990). We find that the chancery court did not err in failing to render findings of fact. Therefore, this assignment of error is without merit.
IV. CONCLUSION
We modify the chancery court's judgment to reflect that F. Perlman & Co. has an unqualified obligation to make all of its records encompassed by T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX and XX-XX-XXX, including its charter, by-laws, minutes of board of directors and shareholder meetings, and accounting records, available to the Panitzes for inspection and copying. Second, we modify the confidentiality agreement upon which the chancery court conditioned the inspection of the corporate records of F. Perlman & Co., American Metal, and Southern Steel, so that the agreement excludes the following type of information from its scope:
(1) Information previously known to Appellants;
(2) Information independently developed by Appellants;
(3) Information acquired from a third party not under an obligation to Appellees not to disclose; and
(4) Information found in the public domain.
The chancery court's judgment is affirmed in all other respects. Costs of appeal are assessed one-half to appellants, Monte Panitz and Barry Panitz, and their surety, and one-half to appellees, F. Perlman & Company, Inc., Allan Perlman, Neil Cohen, Michael Wexler, Southern Steel Supply Company, Inc., and American Metal Sales, Inc.
NOTES
[1] We note that some courts in our sister states have found that a shareholder's right to inspect the records of a corporation may, under some circumstances, extend to wholly-owned subsidiaries of that corporation. But a shareholder's right to inspect the records of a subsidiary will only be found when, in the words of one court, "the subsidiary is in fact the mere alter ego of the parent or that fraud has occurred." South Side Bank v. T.S.B. Corp., 94 Ill.App.3d 1006, 50 Ill.Dec. 369, 419 N.E.2d 477, 479 (1981). See also State ex rel. Brown v. III Investments, Inc., 80 S.W.3d 855 (Mo.Ct.App.2002). As Appellees correctly note, "[t]here is not even an allegation in Plaintiffs' petition, much less any proof in the record, to support a conclusion that either American Metal Sales, Inc. or Southern Steel Supply Metal Sales, Inc. is the alter ego or instrumentality of F. Perlman & Company, Inc." Therefore, we need not consider this question.
[2] The right of shareholders to inspect corporate minutes and accounting records is contingent upon a showing of good faith and proper purpose, under T.C.A. XX-XX-XXX(c), which reads:
A shareholder may inspect and copy the records described in subsection (b) only if:
(1) The shareholder's demand is made in good faith and for a proper purpose;
(2) The shareholder describes with reasonable particularity the shareholder's purpose and the records the shareholder desires to inspect; and
(3) The records are directly connected with the shareholder's purpose.
It is uncontested by Appellees that the Panitzes had good faith and a proper purpose in seeking the records at issue in this dispute.
| {
"pile_set_name": "FreeLaw"
} |
Anatomic and radiographic analysis of arthroscopic tack placement into the superior glenoid.
To anatomically and radiographically describe tack location within the anterosuperior (AS) and posterosuperior (PS) aspects of the glenoid when performing simulated repairs of type II SLAP lesions. Cadaveric anatomic and radiographic analysis. Arthroscopy was performed on 7 fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders and bioabsorbable tacks were placed in the AS and PS aspects of the glenoid to simulate repair of a type II SLAP lesion. The PS tack was placed through an accessory portal 1 cm lateral and 1 cm anterior to the posterolateral corner of the acromion. Dissection was then performed, and the incision made in the rotator cuff when creating the posterolateral accessory portal (PLAP) was identified and measured. Tack location within the glenoid was visually studied after removal of all soft tissues and recorded as being either completely within bone or partially within bone. The tacks were recannulated with guide pins and 3 radiographs were then taken of each specimen (true anteroposterior, axillary, and en face glenoid views) and angles of entry determined. In addition, the angle of deviation from the orthogonal at the point of entry of each tack was measured on the en face glenoid view. The average incision made in the rotator cuff for creation of the PLAP measured 10.3 mm in maximum diameter. In 6 of 7 specimens, this incision was made through muscle and not tendon. Seven of 7 AS tacks were completely within bone, and only 5 of 7 PS tacks remained completely within bone. On the true anteroposterior view, the average angle of entry from the vertical for the AS tack was 64 degrees. For the PS tack, this angle measured 86 degrees. On the axillary view, the angle of placement from the coronal averaged 22 degrees for the AS tack and 42 degrees for the PS tack. For the en face glenoid view, the angle of entry from the vertical was 34 degrees for the AS tack and 93 degrees for the PS tack. Lastly, the angle of deviation from the orthogonal on the en face glenoid view was 12 degrees and 35 degrees for the AS and PS tacks, respectively. This difference was statistically significant at P <.001. This study provides quantitative data on the angle of placement and location of tacks within the superior glenoid when performing repairs of type II SLAP lesions. It also shows the PLAP to be a safe portal for the placement of devices into the posterosuperior aspect of the glenoid. Furthermore, the data show the AS tack to be more reliably placed than the PS tack. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Archives for :
shaka smart
Shaka Smart leaves Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) to take over the head coaching job at Texas University. The cool dad and media darling will finally cash in and get all the spoils that come from coaching a big named program.
Should he have waited for a position at a school with a better basketball tradition? Should he have waited one more year to field offers? Could he have gone to a school who’s fans and athletic director are likely more forgiving to a first year losing season, if that were to occur?
The answer to all these questions are, “maybe.” As it stands the young coach will make about $18 million. I know money isn’t everything, but when you have a family and an opportunity like this presents itself, it makes the decision easier to run a fast break to the bank. Money aside, he had taken VCU as far it it could go and it is time to see what he can do with real resources at his disposal.
I wish Shaka all the success in the world and know he is up to the challenge. #FatherhoodFriday salute! #DadsRule | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
Edward Hudson (fencer)
Edward Hudson (born 26 March 1946) is a British fencer. He competed in the team épée event at the 1972 Summer Olympics.
References
Category:1946 births
Category:Living people
Category:British male fencers
Category:Olympic fencers of Great Britain
Category:Fencers at the 1972 Summer Olympics | {
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
} |
Endoscopic third ventriculostomy for hydrocephalus: early and late efficacy in relation to aetiology.
The aim of the study was to analyse the effectiveness and usefulness of treatment of hydrocephalus by Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy (ETV). We sought to relate rates of failure to the cause of hydrocephalus, distinguishing between early and late outcome. Between September 1999 and April 2001, 30 patients underwent ETV. In 23 patients hydrocephalus was caused by an expansive mass (tumour). Three groups of patients were distinguished, according to the different aims of ETV. Thus in group T--ETV was carried out to eliminate hydrocephalus prior to the main surgery (53%), in C--ETV was the definite treatment of choice (30%), and in group P--ETV was a palliative treatment (17%). The results were assessed in the early postoperative period and in long term follow-up using clinical relief of symptoms, and radiological criteria (pre- and postoperative computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance scans). In the early postoperative period ETV was rated to be effective by clinical criteria in 29 patients, and by radiological criteria in 27. According to late assessment the method was successful in 25 patients using clinical criteria, and in 21 using radiological criteria. There was no peri-operative mortality. A transient complication (wound CSF leak) occurred in two patients. ETV is effective in well chosen patients in relieving symptoms of hydrocephalus. It is valuable before a definitive major operation to remove the cause of hydrocephalus, as a palliative treatment, and in itself as a method of definitive management when indications are correct. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Case report of vasopressin-responsive diabetes insipidus associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia.
A sixth case in the world literature is reported of a 59-year-old male with diabetes insipidus (DI) associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). The patient is unique in that his CML was diagnosed 10 years before he presented with vasopressin-responsive DI. Radiation to the central nervous system failed to reduce the daily requirement of his need for vasopressin. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
514 F.Supp.2d 1373 (2007)
APAC-SOUTHEAST, INC., Plaintiff,
v.
COASTAL CAISSON CORP., Defendant.
Civ. A. No. 1:06-cv-848-TCB.
United States District Court, N.D. Georgia, Atlanta Division.
September 20, 2007.
*1374 *1375 David M. Toolan, APAC, Inc., Atlanta, GA, Mason Craig Hall, Law Office of M. Craig Hall, LLC, Dunwoody, GA, for Plaintiff.
Donald E. Hemke, Carlton Fields Ward Emmanuel Smith & Cutler, Tampa, FL, Philip S. Bubb, Carlton Fields, PA, Atlanta, GA, for Defendant.
ORDER
TIMOTHY C. BATTEN, Sr., District Judge.
Plaintiff APAC-Southeast, Inc. submitted the winning bid to the Georgia Department of Transportation ("GDOT") to serve as the general contractor for the construction of the Perimeter Center Parkway Extension in DeKalb County. Included in APAC's winning bid was Defendant Coastal Caisson Corp.'s proposal to perform drilled-shaft foundation[1] subcontract work on the project. After the GDOT awarded APAC the prime contract and APAC called upon Coastal to fulfill its proposal, however, Coastal refused to perform the work.
In this action, APAC alleges promissory estoppel against Coastal, claiming that APAC reasonably relied on the bid and that Coastal wrongfully refused to honor it. APAC also alleges that the parties later entered into an oral contract that Coastal breached. APAC seeks an award of actual damages plus punitive damages and litigation expenses as a result of Coastal's having acted in bad faith and been stubbornly litigious. The case is now before the Court on Coastal's motion for summary judgment.
*1376 I. Facts
APAC is a general contractor employed in heavy highway and bridge construction. Coastal is a specialty contractor engaged in the installation of drilled-shaft foundations for bridges.
In early 2005, the GDOT solicited bids from general contractors for the construction of the parkway extension project. On January 12, 2005, in preparation for its bid to become general contractor, APAC solicited bids from subcontractors, On January 19, Coastal submitted to APAC its proposal for the drilled-shaft foundation subcontract work on the project. APAC incorporated Coastal's proposal into its bid to serve as the prime contractor for the project.
In early February 2005, the GDOT awarded the prime contract to APAC, and on February 15, 2005, APAC faxed to Coastal a letter of intent to subcontract for the drilled-shaft foundation work. On March 1, 2005, APAC signed the prime contract with the GDOT for the project.
On April 15, 2005, APAC sent Coastal a proposed subcontract, which Coastal received on April 18. The proposed subcontract was a standard subcontract form commonly used by APAC that had been edited to include information regarding the scope of the drilled-shaft foundation work.
Several terms of the proposed subcontract varied from the language of Coastal's bid, particularly with regard to distribution of risk. Coastal's bid included standby rates that would be owed to Coastal in the event of a delay, and it excluded incremental costs that might be incurred as a result of unanticipated subsurface conditions. APAC's proposed subcontract, however, assigned both of those risks to Coastal.
Between April and August 2005, Coastal's representatives worked with APAC's representatives to coordinate the construction schedule. By July 13, 2005, APAC had not received a response from Coastal regarding APAC's proposed subcontract, so Penny Wilson, APAC's contract manager, attempted to reach her management contacts there. She was able to reach only a secretary. She left several messages between July 13 and July 19. When she called again on July 20, she was told that her contacts at Coastal were no longer with the company.
In August 2005, Charles Puccini, Coastal's president, read APAC's proposed subcontract, and on August 3, he contacted APAC to voice his concerns about it. In response, APAC invited Puccini and other Coastal representatives to its Atlanta office to work out the details of the subcontract, to determine a mobilization date, and to visit the jobsite.
At 10:00 a.m. on August 11, Puccini and Jeffrey, Wilkes, one of Coastal's project managers, met with a number of APAC's staff members, including vice president Nate Marini. In the course of that meeting, Marini and Puccini went through the terms and conditions of APAC's proposed subcontract, line by line, noting changes to be made. After the meeting, they went to the jobsite, where they discussed the steps APAC would need to take in order to provide an accessible and stable worksite to Coastal. Puccini stated that Coastal could have a crew available within two to six weeks, and he provided a work schedule. By the end of the meeting, Marini agreed to make all of Puccini's requested changes and promised to send a revised subcontract to Coastal. Marini and Puccini shook hands and said they looked forward to working together.[2]
*1377 That same afternoon, Marini brought Wilson the edits he and Puccini had discussed that morning, and he had her issue a revised subcontract. APAC sent the revised subcontract to Coastal on August 12, 2005, and Coastal received it the next day.
On August 24, Wilson called Coastal to inquire about the status of the revised subcontract. Puccini told her that it was on his desk and that he would review it to ensure his changes had been made and would then get back with Marini.
On September 12,. 2005 a month after the face-to-face subcontract meeting Puccini sent a letter to Marini by which he purported to reject the revised subcontract and terminate the parties' business relationship.[3] APAC then re-bid the subcontract work and replaced Coastal with a new drilled-shaft foundation subcontractor. This process delayed the project by at least six months.
On February 24, 2006, APAC filed this action against Coastal in Georgia state court, which Coastal timely removed to this Court.
II. Discussion
A. Legal Standard
Summary judgment is proper when no genuine issue as to any material fact is present, and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Fed. R.Civ.P. 56(c). The movant carries the initial burden and must show that there is "an absence of evidence to support the nonmoving party's case." Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 325, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986). "Only when that burden has been met does the burden shift to the non-moving party to demonstrate that there is indeed a material issue of fact that precludes summary judgment." Clark v. Coats & Clark, Inc., 929 F.2d 604, 608 (11th Cir.1991). The nonmovant is then required to "go beyond the pleadings" and present competent evidence in the form of affidavits, depositions, admissions, and the like, designating "specific facts showing that there is a genuine issue for trial." Celotex, 477 U.S. at 324, 106 S.Ct. 2548. "The mere existence of a scintilla of evidence" supporting the nonmovant's case is insufficient to defeat a motion for summary judgment. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 252, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). Resolving all doubts in favor of the nonmoving party, the Court must determine "whether a fair-minded jury could return a verdict for the [nonmoving party] on the evidence presented." Id. If reasonable minds could differ as to the conclusion drawn from the evidence in the record, the motion for summary judgment should be denied. Id at 251, 106 S.Ct. 2505.
B. Analysis
1. Promissory Estoppel
APAC argues that because it relied upon Coastal's subcontract bid in its prime *1378 GDOT bid, the theory of promissory estoppel applies to establish a contract between APAC and Coastal even though APAC submitted to Coastal a written subcontract proposing terms and conditions that differed from those in Coastal's bid. APAC alleges that Coastal knew both that it would be required to enter into APAC's form subcontract and that APAC's form subcontract would not mirror the terms and conditions of Coastal's bid. Therefore, according to APAC, because Coastal knew that APAC relied on its bid but never expected APAC to accept the bid unconditionally, unconditional acceptance was not a prerequisite to formation of an enforceable contract.
APAC further contends that tendering its form subcontract should be considered an acceptance because Coastal treated, it as an acceptance until Coastal wanted an eleventh-hour escape from the project. APAC theorizes that Coastal's August 2005 "concerns" about the subcontract were artifice intended to enable Coastal to avoid performing the bid when it discovered that it had equipment scheduling problems or that its subcontract bid was too low. In support of this theory, APAC points out that Coastal's scheduling records from April through September 2005 indicate that Coastal planned to perform on the project and that no one at Coastal even read APAC's form subcontract until August of 2005, the month before Coastal was to begin performance. APAC further notes that Coastal's equipment records indicate that the drill used in Coastal's bid was committed to another site when it was needed for the GDOT project, and that Coastal's subcontract bid was the lowest by $500,000. APAC likens these facts to those involved in SKB Indus., Inc. v. Insite, 250 Ga.App. 574, 551 S.E.2d 380 (2001), and concludes that because, as in SKB, a jury could conclude that the subcontractor refused to perform its bid for reasons unrelated to a contract language dispute,[4] a jury should be allowed to determine whether the doctrine of promissory estoppel should be applied to hold Coastal liable for refusing to perform its bid.
Coastal, in turn, argues that promissory estoppel kept its bid open only until APAC rejected it by responding with its form subcontract, which did not exactly mirror the terms and conditions of Coastal's bid. It contends that all the other facts APAC presents, even if true, are immaterial to APAC's promissory estoppel claim.
In cases where a subcontractor has submitted a bid to a general contractor for use in a prime bid, the prime contractor may invoke the theory of promissory estoppel in order to prevent the subcontractor from revoking its bid, despite the absence of an option supported by consideration or a bilateral contract binding the general contractor and the subcontractor. Drennan v. Star Paving Co., 51 Cal.2d 409, 413-14, 333 P.2d 757, 759-60 (1958).[5] Instead, "a subcontractor who makes a bid to a general contractor binds itself to perform according to its promise because the general contractor has relied on that promise in making its own bid." Foley Co. v. Warren Eng'g, Inc., 804 F.Supp. 1540, 1545 (N.D.Ga.1992) (construing Drennan, 51 Cal.2d at 413-14, 333 P.2d at 759-60).
*1379 Promissory estoppel operates to keep a subcontractor's bid open until the general contractor has had a reasonable opportunity to accept or reject it. Drennan, 51 Cal.2d at 415, 333 P.2d at 760; see also Montgomery Indus. Int'l, Inc., v. Thomas Consfr. Co., 620 F.2d 91, 97 (5th Cir.1980).[6] It does not, however, allow the general contractor to "reopen bargaining with the subcontractor and at the same time claim a continuing right to accept the original offer." Drennan, 51 Cal.2d at 415, 333 P.2d at 760. "Unless the acceptance is unconditional and without variance from the offer it is of no legal effect as an acceptance and operates as a rejection and a counteroffer." Peerless Cas. Co. v. Hous. Auth. of Hazelhurst, 228 F.2d 376, 379 (5th Cir.1955) (former Fifth Circuit case applying Georgia law); accord Duval & Co. v. Malcom, 233 Ga. 784, 787, 214 S.E.2d 356, 358 (1975). The rejection and counteroffer terminates the offeree's power to accept the offer. Gill v. B & R Int'l, Inc., 234 Ga.App. 528, 532, 507 S.E.2d 477, 481 (1998).
Assuming without deciding that APAC could prove the elements of a promissory estoppel claim,[7] the theory is inapplicable to this case because APAC forfeited its right to hold Coastal's bid open when it counteroffered with its form subcontract. As of April 15, 2005, Coastal's subcontract bid remained open. On that date, however, rather than accepting that bid, APAC asked Coastal to sign its form subcontract, which both parties agree differed from Coastal's proposal. Thus, APAC's response to Coastal's offer was not "unconditional" or "without variance" and therefore operated as a rejection and a counteroffer, which terminated APAC's power of acceptance. See Peerless, 228 F.2d at 379.
SKB Indus., Inc. v. Insite, 250 Ga.App. 574, 551 S.E.2d 380 (2001), relied upon by APAC, is inapposite. In SKB, a subcontractor provided a bid on which the general contractor relied in its bid for the primary contract. After the prime contractor won the bid and notified the subcontractor it was the low bidder, it forwarded the subcontractor a written subcontract. The subcontractor later refused to perform "its bid, citing disputes over the language in the subcontract.
The difference between the case at bar and SKB is that in SKB, the contractor did not attempt to accept the bid simply by tendering a non-conforming written subcontract to the subcontractor; instead, it accepted the subcontractor's bid unconditionally and then submitted what may have been a non-conforming written subcontract.[8] By accepting the bid, the contractor preserved the promissory estoppel *1380 claim, and that claim was not vitiated by a subsequent dispute over the terms of the proposed written agreement. Consequently, it was for the jury to determine whether the subcontractor's refusal to perform was based upon a genuine as opposed to pretextual dispute over the terms of the proposed written subcontract.
In contrast, by responding to Coastal's bid not with an acceptance but with a nonconforming proposed written subcontract, APAC rejected Coastal's bid, thereby terminating its ability to accept and its ability to recover under promissory estoppel. See Peerless, 228 F.2d at 379; Drennan, 51 Cal.2d at 415, 333 P.2d at 760. The Court knows of no cases, and APAC presents none, that require a subcontractor to honor an offer after it was rejected by the prime contractor.
For these reasons, APAC's promissory estoppel claim fails as a matter of law, and the Court grants summary judgment on this claim to Coastal.
2. Breach of Oral Contract
APAC contends that the parties came to an enforceable oral agreement on August 11, 2005. APAC's evidence shows that on that date, Marini and Puccini met face-to-face in Atlanta and reviewed each line of the proposed subcontract together, with Marini agreeing to all of Puccini's requested changes. At the end of the meeting, Marini and Puccini shook hands and said they looked forward to working together. Marini expected to use his notes from the meeting simply to memorialize the agreement in writing, per APAC's corporate guidelines.
Georgia law requires four foundational elements for the formation of a valid contract: (1) parties able to contract, (2) consideration, (3) definite subject matter, and (4) "the assent of the parties to the terms of the contract." Strait v. Reid, 262 Ga.App. 430, 433, 585 S.E.2d 640, 642 (2003) (quoting O.C.G.A. § 13-3-1). Coastal does not dispute the first three elements, but contends that there was no meeting of the minds and thus no contract.
At the foundation of Coastal's argument that there was no meeting of the minds is its contention that both parties understood there could be no binding agreement without a writing. As proof that the parties never intended to form an oral contract, Coastal cites record evidence stowing that Coastal's bid and APAC's proposed subcontracts always envisioned that any subcontract would be in writing; that the amount of the subcontract would be close to $800,000; that the proposed subcontract contained detailed terms and conditions; and that APAC's subcontractors always operated under written subcontracts.
Coastal then cites law from other jurisdictions to the effect that courts consistently consider five factors in determining whether an oral agreement is enforceable as a matter of law: "(1) whether the contract is one usually put in writing, (2) whether there are few or many details, (3) whether the amount involved is large or small, (4) whether it requires a formal writing for a full expression of the covenants and promises, and (5) whether the negotiations indicate that a written draft is contemplated as the final conclusion of negotiations." See, e.g., Thompson v. Pike, 122 Idaho 690, 696, 838 P.2d 293, 299 (1992); accord R.G. Group, Inc. v. Horn & Hardart Co., 751 F.2d 69, 75 (2d Cir.1984) (affirming summary judgment on a breach of oral contract claim in part because in "complex and substantial business matters," written contracts are the norm and thus signal that the parties intended not to be bound without a written contract). Coastal argues that application of the foregoing principles to the facts of this case compels a finding that as a matter of law APAC and Coastal could not have reached *1381 an enforceable agreement without a written contract.
Although Coastal's argument is somewhat compelling, it fails to directly address the legal question of whether, under Georgia law, the parties could possibly have entered into an enforceable oral agreement on August n, 2005. Coastal has not presented, and the Court has not found, any authority suggesting that Georgia has adopted the Thompson v. Pike test. The Court declines to adopt this analytical framework to defeat a claim when Georgia courts have yet to do so.
In Georgia, to preclude formation of an oral contract as a matter of law, a party must expressly require a writing. Mason v. Rabun Waste, Inc., 174 Ga.App. 462, 463, 330 S.E.2d 400, 401 (1985) (affirming summary judgment for the plaintiff on its oral contract claim despite the defendant's uncommunicated intent that the final agreement would have to be in writing to be enforceable). Otherwise, whether a contract existed at all is a question of fact to be determined by a jury. Terry Hunt Constr. Co. v. AON Risk Servs., Inc., 272 Ga.App. 547, 551, 613 S.E.2d 165, 168-69 (2005).
Furthermore, contrary to the five-part analytical framework Coastal presents, in Georgia even a complicated, expensive construction contract may be oral. See Royal Mfg. Co. v. Denard & Moore Constr. Co., 137 Ga.App. 650, 650, 224 S.E.2d 770, 771 (1976) (holding that a contract to build an addition to a textile mill could be oral). Thus, under Georgia law, the evidence does not demand a finding that until the parties' alleged oral agreement was reduced to writing and signed, it could not be enforceable.
In evaluating a defendant's motion for summary judgment, it is not the Court's task to determine the plaintiffs likelihood of success at trial, but instead to decide whether the plaintiff cannot possibly succeed as a matter of law. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 252, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). Admittedly, APAC's burden of proving the existence of an enforceable oral agreement is high. See Ga. Farm Bureau Mut. Ins. Co. v. Croley, 263 Ga.App. 659, 661, 588 S.E.2d 840, 843 (2003) (noting that "the party claiming the existence of a contract has the burden of proving its existence and its terms" by "clear and convincing" evidence). Nevertheless, whether the parties established an oral contract is a factual question that will turn on the credibility of the witnesses, and the Court cannot say at this stage that it is impossible for APAC to provide clear and convincing evidence that the parties came to an oral agreement on August 11, 2005.
APAC contends that on August 11, 2005, the parties orally agreed to all the terms and conditions of the arrangement, shook on it, and planned simply to memorialize that agreement in writing. Coastal maintains that its representatives departed from APAC's offices that afternoon believing negotiations were ongoing and that both parties believed no contract could be formed without a signed written agreement. If the facts are as APAC presents them, the parties formed a contract; if they are as Coastal presents them, there was no agreement. Thus, a genuine issue of material fact remains, and this claim is not ripe for disposition by summary judgment.
3. Punitive Damages
APAC claims that Coastal acted in bad faith, entitling APAC to punitive damages under O.C.G.A. § 51-12-5.1. Punitive damages may be awarded under this statute only if the plaintiff prevails on an underlying tort claim. Flynn v. Allstate Ins. Co., 268 Ga.App. 222, 222-23, 601 S.E.2d 739, 740 (2004). Because APAC's *1382 action involves only contract claims, it cannot claim relief under § 51-12-5.1.
"Generally, punitive damages are not recoverable for breach of contract, even though the breach may be in bad faith." Parsells v. Orkin Exterminating Co., 172 Ga.App. 74, 76, 322 S.E.2d 91, 93 (1984) (citing O.C.G.A. § 13-6-10, which states that "[u]nless otherwise provided by law, exemplary damages shall never be allowed in cases arising on contracts"). Rarely, punitive damages may be imposed when the breach of contract involved an act of fraud. Id. "The five elements of fraud . . . include: (1) a false representation made by the defendant; (2) scienter; (3) an intention to induce the plaintiff to act or refrain from acting in reliance by the plaintiff; (4) justifiable reliance by the plaintiff; and (5) damage to the plaintiff." Id. at 75, 322 S.E.2d at 93. APAC has failed to present evidence establishing a genuine issue of material fact on each of these elements.[9] Therefore the Court grants Coastal's motion for summary judgment on APAC's punitive damages claim.
4. Litigation Expenses
However, the Court finds that there is a genuine issue of material fact with regard to APAC's claim for litigation expenses. The award of litigation expenses is allowed under O.C.G.A. § 13-6-11 only where the plaintiff proves that the defendant "has acted in bad faith, has been stubbornly litigious, or has caused the plaintiff unnecessary trouble and expense." David G. Brown, P.E., Inc. v. Kent, 274 Ga. 849, 850, 561 S.E.2d 89, 90 (2002).[10]
Recovery for stubborn litigiousness or unnecessary trouble is authorized only if there is "no bona fide controversy or dispute regarding liability for the underlying cause of action." Id. As noted above, the Court does find that a bona fide controversy exists as to whether an oral contract existed and was breached. Thus, to the extent APAC's litigation expenses claim is based upon these two grounds, Coastal is entitled to summary judgment thereon.
Litigation costs may also be awarded in a breach of contract action, however, if the plaintiff proves that the contract was made in bad faith or that the defendant breached the contract as a result of "some interested or sinister motive." Glen Rest., Inc. v. West, 173 Ga. App. 204, 205, 325 S.E.2d 781, 782 (1984). The question of whether a contract existed and Coastal breached it in bad faith remains for the jury to decide, and the jury may determine both that there was a contract and that Coastal breached it for an interested motive such as scheduling or financial problems, as APAC suggests. Therefore, the Court denies Coastal's motion for summary judgment on APAC's claim for litigation expenses to the extent that claim is based upon the "bad faith" prong of O.C.G.A. § 13-6-11.
*1383 III. Conclusion
For the foregoing reasons, the Court GRANTS in part and DENIES in part Defendant's motion for summary judgment [42].
IT IS SO ORDERED.
NOTES
[1] This specialized type of construction is one method used to build bridge foundations.
[2] Coastal's facts regarding this meeting differ significantly from APAC's. APAC representatives testified that the parties met only that morning for the contract meeting and site visit. According to Coastal, however, APAC stopped the morning negotiations while there were still a number of unaddressed concerns and proposed finishing the contract discussion that afternoon after the site visit. Coastal contends that after the site visit, Puccini and Wilkes returned to APAC's office that afternoon and again met with Marini. Puccini characterized the conversation as argumentative. According to both Puccini and Wilkes, Marini ended their meeting at 5:00 p.m. in a rush, before negotiations were complete.
For the purposes of this motion, these factual discrepancies must be resolved in favor of APAC, the non-moving party. See Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 255, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986).
[3] Puccini later testified that he did not notify APAC sooner because he was "disgusted" and "done talking to them."
[4] In SKB, the court found the jury could have reasonably concluded that the subcontractor refused to perform because it mistakenly bid too low. SKB Indus., Inc., 250 Ga.App. at 578, 551 S.E.2d at 384.
[5] As recognized by this Court in Foley Co. v. Warren Eng'g, Inc., 804 F.Supp. 1540, 1545 (N.D.Ga.1992), Drennan is the leading promissory estoppel case involving subcontractor bids. The case has also been cited by the Georgia Court of Appeals. See SKB Indus., Inc., 250 Ga.App. at 576, 551 S.E.2d at 383.
[6] The Eleventh Circuit his adopted as binding precedent the decisions of the former Fifth Circuit rendered prior to October 1, 1981. See Bonner v. City of Prichard, 661 F.2d 1206, 1209 (11th Cir.1981) (en banc).
[7] To prevail in a promissory estoppel action, the plaintiff must prove that "(1) the defendant made certain promises; (2) the defendant should have expected the plaintiff to rely upon those promises; (3) the plaintiff did in fact rely upon those promises to its detriment; and (4) injustice can be avoided only by enforcement of the promise." Foley, 804 F.Supp. at 1544. "A `promise' may be defined as a manifestation of an intention to act or refrain from acting in a specified way, so made as to justify a promisee in understanding that a commitment has been made." Id. at 1544-45.
[8] Upon determining that the owner was amenable to the subcontractor's specifications and receiving the subcontractor's assurances that it could fulfill its bid, the contractor "accepted [the subcontractor's] bid," at which time the subcontractor "became contractually obligated to perform. . . ." Id. at 576, 551 S.E.2d at 383. The contractor then forwarded to the subcontractor the written subcontract.
[9] APAC claims that Coastal's expectation that APAC would accept its terms and conditions unconditionally was so unreasonable that Coastal's offer amounted to fraud. It cites no case law to support this assertion.
Alternatively, APAC theorizes that Coastal may have refused to perform because of a scheduling problem with its BG-30 drill rig or because Coastal had mistakenly underpriced its subcontract bid. APAC, however, does not argue that this even if true would constitute fraud, and therefore the Court will presume that APAC presents this theory only to show bad faith in support of its claim for litigation expenses and not to support its punitive damages claim.
[10] An award under § 13-6-11 must "relate to conduct arising from the underlying cause of action being litigated, not conduct during the course of the litigation itself." Id.
| {
"pile_set_name": "FreeLaw"
} |
# Makefile for Sphinx documentation
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BUILDDIR = _build
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PAPEROPT_a4 = -D latex_paper_size=a4
PAPEROPT_letter = -D latex_paper_size=letter
ALLSPHINXOPTS = -d $(BUILDDIR)/doctrees $(PAPEROPT_$(PAPER)) $(SPHINXOPTS) .
# the i18n builder cannot share the environment and doctrees with the others
I18NSPHINXOPTS = $(PAPEROPT_$(PAPER)) $(SPHINXOPTS) .
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$(SPHINXBUILD) -b devhelp $(ALLSPHINXOPTS) $(BUILDDIR)/devhelp
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doctest:
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| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
A variety of unusual responses (hypo- and hyper-responses) to sensory stimuli are documented in children with autism and appear to be exacerbated in social situations. The developmental nature of these phenomena and their relationship to the core features of autism are not well understood. Our model explaining unusual sensory experiences in autism involves a basic deficit in information processing (sensory orienting), moderated by social context and development. The specific aims of this project are to: (1) measure developmentally-related changes in responses to sensory experiences in young children with autism, children with other developmental disabilities (DD), and typically-developing children; (2) identify sensory processing patterns that are unique to autism; and (3) determine the extent to which sensory processing patterns covary with phenotypic expressions of autism. A cross-sectional methodology will be used to study unusual sensory experiences in 180 children (60 with autism, 60 with DD, and 60 with typical development). The autism and DD groups will range from 2-7 years of age. All three groups will be matched according to nonverbal mental age and gender. Children will be assessed using a battery of measures (diagnostic, developmental, sensory, and phenotypic features). A cross-sectional methodology will test the degree to which frequencies of sensory symptoms vary as a function of maturational variables and group membership. Composite scores reflecting four sensory processing patterns (hypo/hyper-responsiveness to social/nonsocial stimuli) will be analyzed to specifically discriminate autism from other groups. Finally, these sensory patterns will be correlated with measures of social-relatedness, communication, and restricted/repetitive behaviors. Our conceptual model predicts that a) all three groups will demonstrate a decrease in unusual responses to sensory stimuli as age, cognitive abilities, and language increase, b) the autism group will have the highest frequency of symptoms, c) a hypo-responsive pattern (orienting deficit) will be specific to autism, magnified for social versus nonsocial stimuli, and d) the four patterns of sensory processing will differentially correlate with social-relatedness subtypes and levels of severity in the phenotypic characteristics of autism. | {
"pile_set_name": "NIH ExPorter"
} |
Opinions of the United
2007 Decisions States Court of Appeals
for the Third Circuit
5-16-2007
USA v. Andrews
Precedential or Non-Precedential: Non-Precedential
Docket No. 05-5477
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/thirdcircuit_2007
Recommended Citation
"USA v. Andrews" (2007). 2007 Decisions. Paper 1104.
http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/thirdcircuit_2007/1104
This decision is brought to you for free and open access by the Opinions of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit at Villanova
University School of Law Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in 2007 Decisions by an authorized administrator of Villanova
University School of Law Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected].
NOT PRECEDENTIAL
IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE THIRD CIRCUIT
_______________
No: 05-5477
_______________
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
v.
ERIC ANDREWS,
Appellant
_______________
On Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
(D.C. No. 05-cr-00280-2)
District Judge: Honorable Eduardo C. Robreno
_______________
Submitted Under Third Circuit LAR 34.1(a)
May 11, 2007
Before: RENDELL, JORDAN and ALDISERT, Circuit Judges
(Filed May 16, 2007)
_______________
OPINION OF THE COURT
_______________
JORDAN, Circuit Judge.
Eric Andrews appeals from his conviction of one count of conspiracy to commit
Hobbs Act robbery in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1951(a); thirteen counts of Hobbs Act
robbery and aiding and abetting in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2 and 1951(a)(1); and
thirteen counts of carrying and using a firearm during and in relation to a crime of
violence and aiding and abetting in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2 and 924(c). He asserts
that the District Court erred in denying his motion to suppress statements that he gave to
law enforcement agents. He contends that these statements were involuntary because he
gave them while he was under the influence of both Xanax and marijuana. The District
Court had jurisdiction pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 3231. We exercise appellate jurisdiction
under 28 U.S.C. § 1291. For the reasons set forth below, we will affirm.
I.
From January 10, 2005, to February 9, 2005, Andrews, with three other men,
committed a series of armed robberies in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.1 Andrews testified
that on February 9, 2005, he had been smoking marijuana all day and, around 9:30 p.m.,
he took four Xanax pills of unknown dosage. At approximately midnight on February 10,
2005, the police arrested him.
Shortly after the arrest, the police took Andrews to a holding cell at the police
station where he fell asleep. At about 1:30 p.m. on February 10, 2005, some sixteen
hours after ingesting Xanax and at least thirteen hours after his last opportunity to smoke
marijuana, Detectives Fetters and Boyd escorted Andrews from the holding cell to
Detective Fetters’s desk. Andrews sat beside the desk with one hand cuffed to a chair.
Detective Fetters explained to him the robbery charges pending against him, that the
1
Not all of these men participated in all of these robberies during this time period.
2
police suspected that he had committed several other robberies, and that one of the other
defendants was already cooperating. Detective Fetters asked him if he wanted to give a
statement, and he responded that he would. Andrews did not inform the detectives that he
was under the influence of drugs at any time during the interview.
Detective Fetters read to Andrews the Miranda warnings and provided him with a
written copy of those warnings. Detective Fetters asked him to read a portion of the
Miranda warnings aloud to assure the detectives that he could read. Andrews signed the
first page of the warnings, then wrote his initials after each warning on the second page
and signed at the bottom. He then provided a statement, admitting that he participated in
several robberies in North Philadelphia while using a firearm. He supplied the detectives
with many details concerning his participation in the robberies.
Detective Fetters testified that individuals he had previously encountered who
were under the influence of both marijuana and Xanax exhibited symptoms of glassy
eyes, slurred speech, drowsiness, and slow comprehension. Andrews, however, did not
exhibit such symptoms. During the interview, Andrews appeared alert and lucid, he
spoke clearly, and he answered questions directly.
At approximately 3:00 p.m., the detectives gave Andrews a break, provided him
with a cheesesteak sandwich and a bottle of water, and allowed him to use the bathroom.
The interview resumed at 4:30 p.m. and ended at approximately 8:10 p.m.
Detective Fetters further testified that, during the interview, the demeanor of
Andrews did not change, the detectives’ tone never exceeded that of a conversation, and
3
no one hit, punched, kicked, or touched the defendant in any way. Andrews admitted that
neither Xanax nor marijuana affected his memory, and, at the time of the interview, he
wasn’t “messed up in the head at the time” or “deep into the high; ” rather, he was
“coming up off the drugs.” At no point during the interview did Andrews inform the
detectives that he was tired or that he wanted to stop the interview.
On August 11, 2005, Andrews filed a motion to suppress the statements he made
to the detectives. On September 26, 2005, the District Court denied that motion,
concluding that Andrews made an intelligent, knowing, and voluntary waiver of his
Miranda rights.
II.
We review the District Court’s denial of a motion to suppress evidence for clear
error as to the underlying factual findings, and we exercise plenary review of the District
Court’s application of the law to those facts. United States v. Perez, 280 F.3d 318, 336
(3d Cir. 2002) (citing United States v. Riddick, 156 F.3d 505, 509 (3d Cir. 1998)).
The Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution provides that no person “shall be
compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself.” U.S. Const., amend V.
Only confessions that are voluntary may be admitted into evidence at a criminal trial, and
the government has the burden of proving by a preponderance of the evidence that a
confession was voluntarily given. United States v. Swint, 15 F.3d 286, 288-89 (3d Cir.
1994). A confession is voluntary when it is the “‘product of an essentially free and
unconstrained choice by its maker,’ that it was ‘the product of a rational intellect and a
4
free will,’ and that the appellant’s will was not ‘overborne.’” Id. at 289 (citing United
States ex rel. Hayward v. Johnson, 508 F.2d 322, 326 (3d Cir. 1975)). To determine
whether a confession is voluntary, we are required to examine the totality of the
circumstances, including any coercion, the length of the interrogation, the location of the
interrogation, its continuity, the maturity of the defendant, his level of education, his
physical condition, and his mental health. Id. at 289. The crucial factor, however, is
whether there was police coercion. Id. See also Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157, 167
(1986) (holding that “coercive police activity is a necessary predicate to the finding that a
confession is not voluntary”).
We agree with the District Court that the government satisfied its burden to show
that Andrews’s statements were voluntary. His free will was not overborne by the police.
Detective Fetters read to Andrews the Miranda warnings and provided him with a written
copy. Andrews read some of those warnings aloud and put his initials after each warning.
He sat calmly next to the detectives with one hand cuffed to his chair. The detectives did
not yell, hit, kick, or touch Andrews during the interview. He was given an adequate
break during the interview, was given something to eat and drink, and was permitted to
use the bathroom.
Nor is there any evidence that Andrews’s will was overborne because he had been
smoking marijuana or ingesting Xanax more than thirteen hours prior to his confession.
Andrews admitted that Xanax and marijuana did not affect his memory and that he was
no longer “deep into the high,” but was “coming up off the drugs.” Detective Fetters
5
testified that Andrews did not exhibit any of the symptoms of someone who was under
the influence of marijuana and Xanax. Rather, he found Andrews to be alert and lucid.
Andrews spoke clearly, answered the questions directly, and provided specific details
regarding his participation in the armed robberies.2
In short, there is no indication that, under the totality of the circumstances,
Andrews’s statements were made involuntarily.
III.
Accordingly, we will affirm the judgment of the District Court.
2
Our review of these facts does not imply a conclusion that self-induced intoxication
can make a confession “involuntary,” within the meaning of the Fifth Amendment. That
is an issue we need not reach in this case.
6
| {
"pile_set_name": "FreeLaw"
} |
Two-dimensional Potts antiferromagnets with a phase transition at arbitrarily large q.
We exhibit infinite families of two-dimensional lattices (some of which are triangulations or quadrangulations of the plane) on which the q-state Potts antiferromagnet has a finite-temperature phase transition at arbitrarily large values of q. This unexpected result is proven rigorously by using a Peierls argument to measure the entropic advantage of sublattice long-range order. Additional numerical data are obtained using transfer matrices, Monte Carlo simulation, and a high-precision graph-theoretic method. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Estimating neutron dose equivalent rates from heavy ion reactions around 10 MeV amu(-1) using the PHITS code.
It has been sometimes necessary for personnel to work in areas where low-energy heavy ions interact with targets or with beam transport equipment and thereby produce significant levels of radiation. Methods to predict doses and to assist shielding design are desirable. The Particle and Heavy Ion Transport code System (PHITS) has been typically used to predict radiation levels around high-energy (above 100 MeV amu(-1)) heavy ion accelerator facilities. However, predictions by PHITS of radiation levels around low-energy (around 10 MeV amu(-1)) heavy ion facilities to our knowledge have not yet been investigated. The influence of the "switching time" in PHITS calculations of low-energy heavy ion reactions, defined as the time when the JAERI Quantum Molecular Dynamics model (JQMD) calculation stops and the Generalized Evaporation Model (GEM) calculation begins, was studied using neutron energy spectra from 6.25 MeV amu(-1) and 10 MeV amu(-1) (12)C ions and 10 MeV amu(-1) (16)O ions incident on a copper target. Using a value of 100 fm c(-1) for the switching time, calculated neutron energy spectra obtained agree well with the experimental data. PHITS was then used with the switching time of 100 fm c(-1) to simulate an experimental study by Ohnesorge et al. by calculating neutron dose equivalent rates produced by 3 MeV amu(-1) to 16 MeV amu(-1) (12)C, (14)N, (16)O, and (20)Ne beams incident on iron, nickel and copper targets. The calculated neutron dose equivalent rates agree very well with the data and follow a general pattern which appears to be insensitive to the heavy ion species but is sensitive to the target material. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
President Barack Obama. (Disney / ABC Television Group ) (CC BY-ND 2.0)
The Obama administration financed 70 fossil fuel projects in countries from India to Australia to South Africa with nearly $34 billion through the Export-Import Bank, an investigation by The Guardian and Columbia Journalism School’s Energy and Environment Reporting Project has found.
The Guardian reports:
This unprecedented backing of oil, coal and gas projects is an unexpected footnote to Obama’s own climate change legacy. The president has called global warming “terrifying” and helped broker the world’s first proper agreement to tackle it, yet his administration has poured money into developments that will push the planet even closer to climate disaster.
For people living next to US-funded mines and power stations the impacts are even more starkly immediate.
Guardian and Columbia reporters have spent time at American-backed projects in India, South Africa and Australia to document the sickness, upheavals and environmental harm that come with huge dirty fuel developments.
In India, we heard complaints about coal ash blowing into villages, contaminated water and respiratory and stomach problems, all linked to a project that has had more than $650m in backing from the Obama administration.
In South Africa, another huge project is set to exacerbate existing air pollution problems, deforestation and water shortages. And in Australia, an enormous US-backed gas development is linked to a glut of fracking activity that has divided communities and brought a new wave of industrialization next to the cherished Great Barrier Reef. | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
} |
A content delivery system may present a user with more content options than can be processed by the user in a reasonable amount of time. As a result, it may be difficult for the user to quickly and easily locate content that the user is interested in. For example, when the user has not previously decided what television program to watch, it may be time-consuming for the user to go through a channel listing to find a television program that the user will be interested in watching. | {
"pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds"
} |
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to storage systems. In particular, the present invention relates to a system and a method for providing improved performance, protection and efficiency for an array of storage units.
2. Description of the Related Art
The following definitions are used herein and are offered for purposes of illustration and not limitation:
An “element” is a block of data on a storage unit.
A “base array” is a set of elements that comprise an array unit for an Error or Erasure Correcting Code.
An “array” is a set of storage units that holds one or more base arrays.
A “stripe” is a base array within an array.
n is the number of data units in the base array.
r is the number of redundant units in the base array.
m is the number of storage units in the array.
d is the minimum Hamming distance of the array.
D is the minimum Hamming distance of the storage system.
IOw is the number of IOs to perform an update write.
The total number of storage units in an array is m=n+r.
Storage systems have typically relied on RAID techniques for protecting against data loss caused by storage unit failures. Current RAID designs, however, are reaching the limits of their usefulness based on increasing storage unit capacities. The notation (X+Y) used herein will be used to indicate X data units and Y redundant units. Most systems today use RAID 5 (n+1) or single mirroring (1+1) as a basic array design. Both of these types of storage system configurations have a minimum Hamming distance of D=2 and, therefore, protect against a single storage unit failure. As used herein, the term “distance” refers to the minimum Hamming distance. The likelihood of multiple drive failures and hard errors, however, have increased the occurrence of data loss events in RAID 5 system configurations. Multiple storage unit losses leading to data loss have been observed in practice.
Many array configurations have been proposed for handling such a high failure rate. For example, RAID 6 (n+2) having a distance D=3, double mirroring (1+2) having a distance D=3, and RAID 51 (n+(n+2)) having a distance D=4 have all been proposed as solutions for handing a high failure rate. Nevertheless, all of these array configurations have shortcomings as will be described in connection with Table 1 and FIG. 2.
What is still needed is an array configuration that provides improved performance, protection and efficiency over conventional approaches. | {
"pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds"
} |
730 N.W.2d 225 (2007)
PEOPLE of the State of Michigan, Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
William Eugene TURNER, Defendant-Appellant.
Docket No. 132979. COA No. 273978.
Supreme Court of Michigan.
April 24, 2007.
On order of the Court, the application for leave to appeal the November 29, 2006 order of the Court of Appeals is considered, and it is DENIED, because we are not persuaded that the questions presented should be reviewed by this Court.
| {
"pile_set_name": "FreeLaw"
} |
New baculovirus expression tools for recombinant protein complex production.
Most eukaryotic proteins exist as large multicomponent assemblies with many subunits, which act in concert to catalyze specific cellular activities. Many of these molecular machines are only present in low amounts in their native hosts, which impede purification from source material. Unraveling their structure and function at high resolution will often depend on heterologous overproduction. Recombinant expression of multiprotein complexes for structural studies can entail considerable, sometimes inhibitory, investment in both labor and materials, in particular if altering and diversifying of the individual subunits are necessary for successful structure determination. Our laboratory has addressed this challenge by developing technologies that streamline the complex production and diversification process. Here, we review several of these developments for recombinant multiprotein complex production using the MultiBac baculovirus/insect cell expression system which we created. We also addressed parallelization and automation of gene assembly for multiprotein complex expression by developing robotic routines for multigene vector generation. In this contribution, we focus on several improvements of baculovirus expression system performance which we introduced: the modifications of the transfer plasmids, the methods for generation of composite multigene baculoviral DNA, and the simplified and standardized expression procedures which we delineated using our MultiBac system. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Acronym: Band Dudes For Life. an accompaniment of death metal dudes from the Michigan metal scene, dedicated to all thing metal. To be BDFL is to be devoted to metal music, musicianship, lifestyle and culture. | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
Wesleyan Chapel
The non conformist movement in Bilsdale developed in the early 19C. At first people gathered together and met for worship in small groups, rather than in the Parish church. A rift developed throughout the Methodist movement and in Bilsdale the Primitives and the Wesleyans worshipped separately. John Garbut, of Clay House, a member of the Primitive Society, led the singing in the upper room above the Tiger Inn. The Wesleyans, such as John Peacock the blacksmith, William Brotton, a stonemason and John Dale from the Green also met here. They established a sunday school in the early 1850's. The growth of the sunday school and Wesleyan membership made the building of a chapel essential.
A small plot of land behind the Tiger Inn was bought from Thomas Leng for 5/- a sq yard. The Chapel was built by Nelson's of Swainby a cost of £250 and opened on 8th August 1858. The chapel is described in Bulmers 1890 as "a chapel consisting of one room with pulpit and harmonium". A new schoolroom and tower were added in 1933.
The last service was held in May 2013, and the chapel was sold to a private owner in 2017 | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
/*
Animation example, for spinners
*/
.animate-spin {
-moz-animation: spin 2s infinite linear;
-o-animation: spin 2s infinite linear;
-webkit-animation: spin 2s infinite linear;
animation: spin 2s infinite linear;
display: inline-block;
}
@-moz-keyframes spin {
0% {
-moz-transform: rotate(0deg);
-o-transform: rotate(0deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(0deg);
transform: rotate(0deg);
}
100% {
-moz-transform: rotate(359deg);
-o-transform: rotate(359deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(359deg);
transform: rotate(359deg);
}
}
@-webkit-keyframes spin {
0% {
-moz-transform: rotate(0deg);
-o-transform: rotate(0deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(0deg);
transform: rotate(0deg);
}
100% {
-moz-transform: rotate(359deg);
-o-transform: rotate(359deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(359deg);
transform: rotate(359deg);
}
}
@-o-keyframes spin {
0% {
-moz-transform: rotate(0deg);
-o-transform: rotate(0deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(0deg);
transform: rotate(0deg);
}
100% {
-moz-transform: rotate(359deg);
-o-transform: rotate(359deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(359deg);
transform: rotate(359deg);
}
}
@-ms-keyframes spin {
0% {
-moz-transform: rotate(0deg);
-o-transform: rotate(0deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(0deg);
transform: rotate(0deg);
}
100% {
-moz-transform: rotate(359deg);
-o-transform: rotate(359deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(359deg);
transform: rotate(359deg);
}
}
@keyframes spin {
0% {
-moz-transform: rotate(0deg);
-o-transform: rotate(0deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(0deg);
transform: rotate(0deg);
}
100% {
-moz-transform: rotate(359deg);
-o-transform: rotate(359deg);
-webkit-transform: rotate(359deg);
transform: rotate(359deg);
}
}
| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
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I was lucky enough to meet up with legendary developer & co-founder of Sensible Software, Jon “Jops” Hare in London recently. You may recognise this name as the person responsible for legendary games such as Cannon Fodder, Mega Lo Mania and the all time great, Sensible World of Soccer.
The pending early access release of Jon’s new game, Sociable Soccer is fast approaching. 12th of October 2017 to be precise and I managed to get an exclusive hands on preview of the game in development and WOW!
If you are expecting a Sensible Soccer clone, then think again, this is a completely different game, whilst it may be touted as the spiritual successor to SWOS, the only real similarity is that Jon is also the lead developer for this game; the game play mechanics, graphics, sound and overall experience is very different. Sure! It has the same addictive game play and desire to master the game like SWOS, but that’s about it.
Now don’t shoot the writer, but I firmly believe Sociable Soccer has come out and beaten SWOS with a proverbial boot in the backside.
I played about half a dozen games with Jon and whilst all I could muster is a draw out of all our games (Yes I lost the rest), which isn’t bad since I was playing the designer! I found that the more games I played the better I was becoming, the impressive roster of over a thousand teams in unheard of countries, the roars of the crowds and slick smooth movement of the HD graphical game play had me humming the theme tune “Goal Scoring Super Star hero” whilst I was on my flight back home to Oz.
I also had the rare opportunity to test its VR mode on a tablet. I was treated with an unusual experience. Picture sitting in a stadium at the very best viewpoint and then play god and control all the players on the pitch. It worked extremely well and whilst VR can be gimmicky, I can see myself playing a serious campaign in this mode.
Expect to see online multiplayer too, increasing the chances of a Sociable Soccer World cup online, as well as various of other modes including a unique card collecting option to build your ultimate team.
We here at Retro Domination are looking forward to having access to the full game; stay tuned for a complete review.
Sociable Soccer is set for an early access release on PC via Steam on October 12 and will also be set of release on XBOX, PS4, Android and IOS. Nintendo Switch is also on the cards. | {
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} |
Q:
Dispatcher with 2 more servlet
I have a servlet named "a.java" and I want to send data from a servlet to a jsp and another servlet.
I have the following code:
request.setAttribute("1",result);
RequestDispatcher d1 = request.getRequestDispatcher("b.jsp");
d1.forward(request, response);
RequestDispatcher d2 = request.getRequestDispatcher("c.java");
d2.forward(request, response);
"b.jsp" is working and getting data, but when I try to get some data in "c.java" with this code
List <Products> list = (List <Products>) request.getAttribute("1");
I get a null pointer exception, can someone help me?
A:
Don't attempt to "send" the request to a jsp and a servlet.
Instead,
"send the request from the first servlet to the second servlet then from the second servlet to the JSP.
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
using Rhino.ServiceBus;
using SimpleCqrs.Eventing;
namespace SimpleCqrs.Rhino.ServiceBus
{
public class DomainEventConsumer : ConsumerOf<DomainEvent>
{
private readonly IEventBus eventBus;
public DomainEventConsumer(IEventBus eventBus)
{
this.eventBus = eventBus;
}
public void Consume(DomainEvent domainEvent)
{
eventBus.PublishEvent(domainEvent);
}
}
} | {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
With presenters including Leonardo DiCaprio, Warren Beatty and Jonah Hill, it was a winning night for Captain Phillips, American Hustle, Breaking Bad and Frozen at the 64th annual ACE Eddie Awards. Christopher Rouse took home the Best Edited Feature Film (Dramatic) for Captain Phillips. That film’s director Paul Greengrass also was on hand at the Beverly Hilton to accept this year’s ACE Golden Eddie Filmmaker of the Year award from the American Cinema Editors, presented by his lead actor Tom Hanks. The Bob Odenkirk-hosted ceremony also saw American Hustle editors Jay Cassidy, Crispin Struthers & Alan Baumgarten win the Best Edited Feature Film (Comedy or Musical) trophy. Hot off its big Annie Awards win last week, Disney’s Frozen and its editor Jeff Draheim won the Best Edited Animated Feature Film prize. The Oscar-nominated pic 20 Feet From Stardom, which debuted at Sundance last year, won the Documentary Feature award.
Related: Full List of 2014 ACE Eddie Award Nominations
On the TV Side, Breaking Bad editor Skip MacDonald scored the Best Edited One-Hour Series for Commercial Television award for the series finale episode “Felina”. The Office, Showtime’s Homeland and HBO’s Behind The Candelabra also were winners. In the new Best Edited Non-Scripted Series category, Nick Brigden took home the Eddie for his work on the “Tokyo” episode of CNN’s Anthony Bourdain Parts Unknown.
Check out the full list of winners below, and stay tuned for Deadline’s Pete Hammond’s column on the victors, what went on in the room and what tonight’s awards mean heading toward the Academy Awards on March 2
Related: Full List of 2014 ACE Eddie Award Nominations
Here is the full list of winners, followed by how Deadline’s live blog played out:
BEST EDITED FEATURE FILM (DRAMATIC)
Captain Phillips, Christopher Rouse
BEST EDITED FEATURE FILM (COMEDY OR MUSICAL)
American Hustle, Jay Cassidy, Crispin Struthers & Alan Baumgarten
BEST EDITED ANIMATED FEATURE FILM
Frozen, Jeff Draheim
BEST EDITED DOCUMENTARY (FEATURE)
20 Feet From Stardom, Douglas Blush, Kevin Klauber & Jason Zeldes
BEST EDITED DOCUMENTARY (TELEVISION)
The Assassination of President Kennedy, Chris A. Peterson
BEST EDITED HALF-HOUR SERIES FOR TELEVISION
The Office, “Finale”, David Rogers & Claire Scanlon
BEST EDITED ONE-HOUR SERIES FOR COMMERCIAL TELEVISION
Breaking Bad, “Felina”, Skip MacDonald
BEST EDITED ONE-HOUR SERIES FOR NON-COMMERCIAL TELEVISION
Homeland, “Big Man in Tehran”, Terry Kelley
BEST EDITED MINISERIES OR MOTION PICTURE FOR TELEVISION
Behind the Candelabra, Mary Ann Bernard
BEST EDITED NON-SCRIPTED SERIES
Anthony Bourdain Parts Unknown, “Tokyo,” Nick Brigden
BEST STUDENT EDITING
Ambar Salinas, Video Symphony
Here’s the recap of the live blog:
HERITAGE AWARD
Randy Roberts
BEST STUDENT EDITING
Ambar Salinas, Video Symphony
BEST EDITED DOCUMENTARY (TELEVISION)
The Assassination of President Kennedy, Chris A. Peterson
BEST EDITED DOCUMENTARY (FEATURE)
20 Feet From Stardom, Douglas Blush, Kevin Klauber & Jason Zeldes
Mostly standard “thank you”-type speeches so far.
BEST EDITED NON-SCRIPTED SERIES
Anthony Bourdain Parts Unknown Tokyo, Nick Brigden
CAREER ACHIEVEMENT
Richard Halsey
Halsey won the Academy Award for editing Rocky (1976). “This is better than the Oscar, I will tell you that right now,” he said from the stage. “This is the most thrilling experience of my whole life — to quote Kathy Baker in Edward Scissorhands.” Halsey also edited that 1990 film, along with other features including American Gigolo and Sister Act. He earned an Emmy nom for the 1999 telepic Pirates Of Silicon Valley.
BEST EDITED MINISERIES OR MOTION PICTURE FOR TELEVISION
Behind the Candelabra, Mary Ann Bernard
The winner actually is Steven Soderbergh, who uses his mother’s name — Mary Ann Bernard — as a pseudonym when he does film editing work. The man who also directed the Emmy-winning HBO telefilm isn’t at the Hilton tonight, but his assistant editor read a note from Soderbergh saying his mom passed away this morning. He thanked ACE, but that was it.
CAREER ACHIEVEMENT
Robert C. Jones
Warren Beatty is presenting the award to his Bulworth editor. The actor-director is musing about how he was in Jones’ films like Guess Who’s Coming To Dinner, but the editor did work on such Beatty-starring pics as Heaven Can Wait and Shampoo. Said Jones, “For many years and up until this day I battled with a feeling that I really don’t know what I’m doing.” The three-time Oscar nominee — for Bound For Glory (1976), Guess Who’s Coming To Dinner (1967) and It’s A Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) — thanked Stanley Kramer, John Cassavetes, Arthur Hiller and Hal Ashby. “Working with Warren Beatty was like re-entering the birth canal,” he said. Jones also edited such films as Man Of LA Mancha, Love Story, Days Of Thunder, The Babe and Crazy In Alabama and shared an Original Screenplay Academy Award for Coming Home (1978).
BEST EDITED HALF-HOUR SERIES FOR TELEVISION
The Office, “Finale”, David Rogers & Claire Scanlon
BEST EDITED ONE-HOUR SERIES FOR COMMERCIAL TELEVISION
Breaking Bad, “Felina”, Skip MacDonald
BEST EDITED ONE-HOUR SERIES FOR NON-COMMERCIAL TELEVISION
Homeland, “Big Man in Tehran”, Terry Kelley
GOLDEN EDDIE AWARD
Paul Greengrass
The director’s Captain Phillips star Tom Hanks is presented the award. “Congratulations to ACE for giving out the largest trophy in show business,” Hanks said. He then warned the editors to keep them hidden because actors might want to add editing to their resume just to win one themselves. The two-time Oscar winner called Greengrass’ United 93 the greatest motion picture in history that might be the most difficult to watch. He added that Greengrass never has use for a tripod and said that on Captain Phillips he was the the usual journalist/filmmaker/troublemaker.
Said Greengrass, “I’m humbled to be in a room full of editors who are the custodians of so many directors’ bloopers and mistakes.” He spent a long time reminiscing about the first time he visited a cutting room in 1978, when he was about 21. Greengrass then talked about the “unruly animal” of film. “You can’t master it,” he said. “That is filmmaking. I have been blessed to work with the wonderful editors who helped me on my journey.” Greengrass then talked about balancing his background in documentaries with fictional filmmaking and about his relationship with Christoper Rouse, his editor of Captain Phillips and other films including United 93 and two Bourne pics. “Film editors are authors — they are filmmakers,” he said. “They are at the heart of the process.”
BEST EDITED ANIMATED FEATURE FILM
Frozen, Jeff Draheim
The Disney phenom just rolls on — at the box office ($866M and climbing) and on the awards circuit. The editing win follows its triumph at last week’s Annie Awards.
BEST EDITED FEATURE FILM (COMEDY OR MUSICAL)
American Hustle, Jay Cassidy, Crispin Struthers & Alan Baumgarten
Philomena star and co-writer Steve Coogan presented the award along with William Goldenberg, last year’s ACE Eddie Award winner for Argo.
It’s a repeat for Jay Cassidy and Crispin Struthers, who won the same Eddie Award last year for another David O. Russell film, Silver Linings Playbook. “We were up here before,” Cassidy said, “and we thank you again.” He added that he was “inspired” by his fellow nominees.
BEST EDITED FEATURE FILM (DRAMATIC)
Captain Phillips, Christopher Rouse
Before Leonardo DiCaprio presented the award, he saluted Martin Scorsese and his The Wolf Of Wall Street editor Thelma Schoonmaker, who moments before had come up short comedy/musical category. He thanked her for making him a better actor.
Christopher Rouse thanked Paul Greengrass and says, “You are my creative beacon.” He also saluted his fellow nominees. “I am nervous as hell,” he says. “I’m so lucky to do something I love.” Rouse also talked about apprenticing and assisting tonight’s Career Achievement recipients Robert C. Jones and Richard Halsey early in his career. | {
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} |
Other HTML editing tools:Notetab, the notepad replacement. http://www.notetab.comIt is a basic text editor with some extra html features, and also has a tabbed multiple document thing.
There are some WYSIWIG (what you see is what you get) editors out there. Frontpage is one made by microsoft and comes with MS Office. It adds way too much code for things that are very easy to do. Word XP adds a ridiculous amount of code to a page, and I do not recommend anyone use it to make webpages.
Dreamweaver is the most popular among designers. It is more of an advanced editor. I don't have much experience with Dreamweaver, but I am pretty sure it doesn't add a bunch of gay unnecessary code.
After you get the basics of html down, another important skill is tables. Tables are used for aligning things in webpages, ot just adding a look.
You start the table with the table tag, use a table row tag, then a table data tag, and end it all.
Example:
Code:
<table>
<tr>
<td>content here
</td>
</tr>
</table>
Table starts the table.tr is a table row. All td's inside a table row tag are on one row. So, if you want to have several cells on top of each other, you have to have several table rows with table data's inside them.td is a table data tag. All the content in a table needs to go inside one of these, or it will throw off everything. These always go inside a table row.
Width can be in either percent or pixels. if it is in pixels, you only need to use the number, but percent must have the % after it.Height isn't necessary, but works the same way as width, except it is verticle.Cellpadding is the amount of space between the edge of the cell (td) and the text or images inside it.Cellspacing is the amount of space between each cell (td).Border is the width in pixels of the border. 1 is the most popular, but depending on your design others can look good.Bordercolor is the color of the border. As always, you can use either hexcodes or color names. Hex codes are best because you can get an exact color, but it can be hard to get right. Color names like "orange" or "silver" will work, but I am pretty sure "Macaroni" won't. To learn avbout hex codes, check the links at the end of this post.Bgcolor is the background color of the whole table. The colors work the same as everything in html just like the bordercolor.Align can align everything in a td. Your options are "left", "center", or "right."Valign aligns things in the td vertically. Your options are "top", "middle", and "bottom." | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
Photography by Blackpool’s Linzi Cason!
Another inspiring photographic showcase is in stall this afternoon, this time involving a talented creative from Blackpool! Linzi Cason Photography first snapped onto the business scene in Blackpool two years ago when she worked as photographer for the local Council.
The role of Council photographer meant that Linzi was able to build up an impressive portfolio of work covering hi-profile events such as Blackpool Illumination Switch-On, The Royal Variety and The Tour of Britain.
Early this year Linzi Cason Photography moved into the newly refurbished 81 Central an impressive, modern office block next to Blackpool Winter Gardens.
“Moving into 81 Central feels like I have finally got a better working environment. The decoration is so stylish and I love to bring my clients here just to see their reaction. My office is situated on the first floor called The Lodge and is styled like a hunting lodge with rustic furniture, red walls and a flat screen TV.”
This year has also seen Linzi gain new clients such as The Hilton, The Grand Theatre and extend her skills to work with Caffe Dolce with their PR and Marketing.
“So far it’s been an exciting few months and I have lots of plans for the coming year including an exhibition and completing a project over seas.” | {
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PROJECT ABSTRACT The thirteen phospholipase C isozymes in humans hydrolyze phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate to generate the second messengers diacylglycerol and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. Hydrolysis is tightly controlled ? most PLCs are autoinhibited and activated in response to specific stimuli. The two PLC-? isozymes are uniquely activated upon phosphorylation by a diverse array of tyrosine kinases to control a wide range of biological processes including embryogenesis, immune responses, platelet aggregation, wound healing, and neuronal transmission. Conversely, constitutively active forms of the PLC-? isozymes contribute to immune dysregulation and cancer. However, despite the central importance of the PLC-? isozymes to human health, their regulation remains ill-defined and hampers efforts to treat related diseases. This application proposes a multidisciplinary approach to produce a comprehensive, mechanistic framework describing the regulated activation of the PLC-? isozymes and to use this information to control PLC-? isozymes in cells. These efforts will be greatly facilitated by the first, atomic-resolution structure of a full-length, autoinhibited PLC-? isozyme presented as preliminary data. While this structure and supporting cellular, biochemical, and biophysical studies provide important information on the regulation of the PLC-? isozymes, critical details describing the process of activation remain unknown. Most importantly, there is a paucity of information on both the intermediates that transiently populate the pathway, as well as essentially no information on the active forms of the PLC-? isozymes ultimately needed to engage membranes and hydrolyze substrate. Consequently, Aim 1 will extend the original crystallographic studies to define atomic-resolution structures of active forms of PLC-?1. In Aim 2, the autoinhibited structure of PLC-?1 will be used in conjunction with accelerated molecular dynamics simulations and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to define the dynamics of the structural transitions culminating in active PLC-? isozymes. The preliminary studies have also guided the mutational dissection of PLC-?1 to allow graded control of its phospholipase activity in cells. In Aim 3, this information will be combined with state-of-the-art microfluidics and live-cell imaging to define the roles of PLC-?1 during mesenchymal chemotaxis. Ultimately, these studies will produced a detailed, comprehensive model of the regulated activation of the PLC- ? isozymes that will be used to better understand basic biological processes controlled by these phospholipases. This information is needed to treat human diseases caused by the aberrant regulation of the PLC-? isozymes. | {
"pile_set_name": "NIH ExPorter"
} |
A few adventurers are confronting a nasty surprise at the mountains, when a gigantic frost wyrm appears in sight.This one was quite fast though it had it's difficulties, but fun to paint. Hope you like these sort-of-quickies. | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
} |
Nigeria refused help to search for kidnapped girls
Source :
Last Updated: Sun, May 11, 2014 15:30 hrs
The president of Nigeria for weeks refused international help to search for more than 300 girls abducted from a school by Islamic extremists, one in a series of missteps that have led to growing international outrage against the government.
The United Kingdom, Nigeria's former colonizer, first said it was ready to help in a news release the day after the mass abduction on April 15, and made a formal offer of assistance on April 18, according to the British Foreign Office. And the U.S. has said its embassy and staff agencies offered help and were in touch with Nigeria "from day one" of the crisis, according to Secretary of State John Kerry.
Yet it was only on Tuesday and Wednesday, almost a month later, that President Goodluck Jonathan accepted help from the United States, Britain, France and China.
The delay underlines what has been a major problem in the attempt to find the girls: an apparent lack of urgency on the part of the government and military, for reasons that include a reluctance to bring in outsiders as well as possible infiltration by the extremists.
Jonathan bristled last week when he said U.S. President Barack Obama, in a telephone conversation about aid, had brought up alleged human rights abuses by Nigerian security forces. Jonathan also acknowledged that his government might be penetrated by insurgents from Boko Haram, the extremist group that kidnapped the girls. Last year, he said he suspected Boko Haram terrorists might be in the executive, legislative and judiciary arms of government along with the police and armed forces.
The waiting has left parents in agony, especially since they fear some of their daughters have been forced into marriage with their abductors for a nominal bride price of $12. Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau called the girls slaves in a video this week and vowed to sell them.
"For a good 11 days, our daughters were sitting in one place," said Enoch Mark, the anguished father of two girls abducted from the Chibok Government Girls Secondary School. "They camped them near Chibok, not more than 30 kilometers, and no help in hand. For a good 11 days."
The military has denied that it ignored warnings of the impending attacks. Maj. Gen. Chris Olukolade, a Defense Ministry spokesman, told The Associated Press the major challenge has been that some of the information given turned out to be misleading.
And Reuben Abati, one of Jonathan's presidential advisers, denied that Nigeria had turned down offers of help.
"That information cannot be correct," he said. "What John Kerry said is that this is the first time Nigeria is seeking assistance on the issue of the abducted girls."
In fact, Kerry has said Nigeria did not welcome U.S. help earlier because it wanted to pursue its own strategy. U.S. Sen. Chris Coons said Friday that it took "far too long" for Jonathan to accept U.S. offers of aid, and he is holding a hearing next week to examine what happened. A senior State Department official also said Friday that the U.S. offered help "back in April, more or less right away."
"We didn't go public about it because the consensus was that doing so would make the Nigerians less likely to accept our help," said the official, who spoke on condition of anonymity because the issue concerns internal discussions between governments.
On Sunday, U.S. Sen. Charles Schumer criticized the "disturbingly slow and half-hearted response" by the Nigerian government.
Nigeria is a country of 170 million in West Africa that receives hundreds of thousands of dollars in aid from the U.S. every year to address a rising insurgency in the north and growing tensions between Christians and Muslims. The northeast, where the girls were kidnapped, is remote and sparsely populated, far from the southern oil fields that help to power Africa's biggest economy.
The abductions came hours after a massive explosion in the Nigerian capital of Abuja killed at least 75 people, just a 15-minute drive away from Jonathan's residence and office. Chibok government official Bana Lawal told the AP that at about 11 p.m. on April 15, he received a warning via cell phone that about 200 heavily armed militants were on their way to the town.
Lawal alerted the 15 soldiers guarding Chibok, who sent an SOS to the nearest barracks about 30 miles away, an hour's drive on a dirt road. But help never came. The military says its reinforcements ran into an ambush.
The soldiers in Chibok fought valiantly but were outmanned and outgunned by the extremists. They then made their way to the Chibok school, where they captured dozens of girls. Police say 53 escaped on their own and 276 remain captive.
The following day, Jonathan was photographed dancing at a political party rally in northern Kano city, and newspapers asked what their leader was doing partying when the country was in shock over the kidnappings. The Defense Ministry also announced that all but eight of the kidnapped girls had been freed, quoting the school principal. When the principal objected and demanded the military produce the rescued girls, it retracted its statement.
Frantic, some Chibok fathers made their way into the dangerous Sambisa Forest themselves, where the girls were last seen. But they turned back when villagers in the forest warned that Boko Haram would kill both them and their daughters.
The parents said the forest dwellers did not see any soldiers looking for the girls. And a state senator said that every time he gave the military information from people who had caught sight of the girls, the insurgents moved camp.
The military denied any collusion with the extremists and said it had been pursuing every lead.
For two weeks, Jonathan did not discuss the abducted girls in public. In his Easter Day message, he said only that his thoughts were with the families of those killed by insurgents and the dozens wounded by the Abuja bombing.
Last week, angry Nigerian women, including at least two mothers of abducted girls, took to the streets in Abuja to protest the government's failure to rescue the girls. Jonathan did not meet with them. Instead, he cancelled the weekly executive council meeting to offer condolences to his vice president, whose brother had died in a car crash.
His wife, Patience Jonathan, that night called a meeting to "investigate" what happened at Chibok, and said the kidnappings were engineered to hurt the name of her husband and his government. She accused the leader of the protests of being a Boko Haram member, detained her and released her after several hours.
Finally, at a Labor Day rally, Jonathan made a public pronouncement that "the cruel abduction of some innocent girls, our future mothers and leaders, in a very horrific and despicable situation in Borno state, is quite regrettable." He pledged, "We must find our girls."
On May 2, he set up a "largely fact-finding" committee to put together a strategy for rescuing the girls. Last Sunday, he raised eyebrows by saying on TV that he was "happy" the missing girls were "unharmed," but then admitting that the government had no new information from the abductors.
Jonathan also hinted last week at why, apart from national pride, initial offers of help may have been ignored. Even before the kidnappings, he complained, he had asked Obama in two telephone calls for help with intelligence on the extremists but received questions about alleged military abuses. Jonathan said he responded that the U.S. leader should "send someone to see what we are doing" on the ground, and "don't just say there is some matter of alleged abuses."
The Nigerian military is accused of widespread killings that go beyond members of Boko Haram. The Associated Press documented last year how thousands of people are dying in military detention, through the mortuary records of a Maiduguri hospital. And Amnesty International reported in October that hundreds of detainees were killed, tortured, starved, or even asphyxiated in overcrowded cells.
On May 4, Boko Haram abducted at least 11 more girls, aged 12 to 15, from two villages in the northeast. One escaped. And the Chibok girls are still missing, in a conservative society where girls who are raped can be stigmatized.
"It is very painful. I know my daughter, very obedient and very religious ... she wanted to be a doctor," Mark said. "I was eager to see my daughter with such a hope. Now....I don't know what I can explain to the world."
___
Associated Press writers Lekan Oyekanmi and Bashir Adigun in Abuja, Nigeria, contributed to this report along with Lara Jakes and Darlene Superville in Washington and Gregory Katz in London. | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
[Effect of major nutrient elements on the growth and population homogeneity of the R, S and M dissociants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the glucose oxidation and fermentation pathways].
The population homogeneity of the stationary-phase monocultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa dissociants was studied as a function of the initial content of major nutrient elements (C, N, and P) in the cultivation medium. The monocultures of the dissociants remained homogeneous during cultivation if the initial concentrations of the major nutrient elements were either sufficiently high or, conversely, very low, but became heterogeneous during cultivation in unbalanced (with respect to the major nutrient elements) media. At the initial concentration of nitrate in the medium equal to 0.07% or phosphate equal to 0.004-0.014%, the initially homogeneous population of R dissociant cultivated to the stationary growth phase turned out to contain 30-40% of S-type cells, whereas the initially homogeneous population of S dissociant was found to contain 50-80% of M-type cells. The population of M dissociant remained homogeneous throughout the cultivation period. R dissociant grew better at sufficiently high concentrations of glucose, nitrate, and phosphate in the medium, whereas M dissociant grew better when the initial concentrations of these nutrients were low. During the cultivation of R dissociant, the pH of the medium changed insignificantly, and the C/P ratio (the ratio of the carbon and phosphorus consumed during growth) was minimal (among the three dissociants), indicating that the R dissociant accomplishes the oxidative pathway of glucose metabolism. During the cultivation of the M dissociant, the pH of the medium dropped to 3.4-3.9, and the C/P ratio was maximal, indicating that this dissociant accomplishes the fermentative pathway of glucose metabolism. During the cultivation of the S dissociant, the pH of the medium and the C/P ratio exhibited variations, indicating that this dissociant triggers its pathways of glucose metabolism. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Why Beatles Insiders Kept Silent for Years
An executive of the Beatles’ Apple Corps organization, who was present when the band played its final concert on the roof of Apple Records in 1969, explained why he and others kept silent about their time with the Fab Four for many years afterward.
Ken Mansfield looked after the U.S. part of the operation and was responsible for the decision to release “Hey Jude” as a single, despite its nonstandard length for radio play at the time.
“They were trying to figure out whether to release ‘Revolution’ or ‘Hey Jude’ as their first single under Apple,” he told Billboard. “Paul [McCartney] was a businessman, and he was worried stations wouldn’t play it because it was too long. I said I would take it to America … meet the program directors at radio stations and get their opinion if we should break the rules, if it’s strong enough.” He said the directors “fell on the floor when they heard it. I called Paul and said, ‘We have to go with this.’”
Mansfield can be seen during the Beatles' 40-minute rooftop show on Jan. 30, 1969; he's the man in the white coat to the band’s left. “No one knew at the time that was going to be their last performance,” he noted. “It turned out to be the most unique, fascinating thing they could have done and all they had to do was walk up a few flights of stairs. It was very raw, real and simple.”
That event is the subject of The Roof: The Beatles’ Final Concert, Mansfield’s third book about his experiences with the band. “A lot of us who were there never talked about the Beatles much until decades later,” he said. “They never said to us to keep the things we saw to ourselves. But the thing about all of us is that it was such a privilege to have been there that we had to honor them by keeping things to ourselves and not talking about everything.
“There was something about them that the minute you were in their inner circle they treated you like a friend. I never got the impression of, ‘I’m a Beatle and you aren’t.’ You were part of the team, and every day something phenomenal happened. I didn’t realize the importance of it until after about 20 years.” | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
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Frequent genetic alterations at the distal region of chromosome 1p in human hepatocellular carcinomas.
Cytogenetic analysis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines and primary HCC tissues has demonstrated chromosome 1p to be the region most commonly affected. To refine the altered locus, genetic abnormalities of this region were surveyed systemically by microsatellite polymorphism analysis. Twelve sets of primers evenly distributed on chromosome 1p which can amplify di- or tetranucleotide repeat length polymorphism by polymerase chain reaction were selected. The results were then supplemented by the conventional restriction fragment length polymorphism study. A comparison of the allele patterns between 30 pairs of HCC and their corresponding nontumor DNAs discovered chromosome 1p aberrations in 15 of 30 tumors (50%). The abnormalities can be classified into three groups. The first aberration was typical loss of heterozygosity that was found in 9 HCCs (30%). The second aberration was a 2-3-fold increase of allelic dosage, which was detected in 6 HCCs (20%). The third aberration was the novel microsatellite polymorphism, which was detected in 3 cases (10%). These abnormalities seemed to cluster at the distal part of chromosome 1p, with a common region mapped to 1p35-36, which is also the region with frequent loss of heterozygosity in neuroblastoma and colorectal and breast cancers. Therefore, loss of putative tumor suppressor gene(s) in this locus may participate in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma and a wide range of human cancers. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Tsybyan
Tsybyan () is a rural locality (a village) in Kudymkarsky District, Perm Krai, Russia. The population was 8 as of 2010.
References
Category:Rural localities in Perm Krai | {
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
} |
The Fader
The Fader (stylized as FADER) is a magazine based in New York City that was launched in 1999 by Rob Stone and Jon Cohen. The magazine covers music, style and culture. It was the first print publication to be released on iTunes.
It is owned by The Fader Media group, which also includes its website, thefader.com, Fader films, Fader Label and Fader TV.
The Fader Fort
The Fader Fort is an annual invitation-only event at Austin Texas's South by Southwest (SXSW) founded in 2001. The four-day party features live performances. Fader Fort NYC is a party produced during the annual CMJ Music Marathon.
References
External links
Category:American lifestyle magazines
Category:American music magazines
Category:Hip hop magazines
Category:Independent magazines
Category:Magazines established in 1999
Category:Magazines published in New York City
Category:American bimonthly magazines
Category:African-American magazines | {
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
} |
Q:
How to open link in new page, then link back to the 1st page from the 2nd
I've been asked to implement a web page which opens a new browser window when you click a link (Page 1). The new page (Page 2) will have a link which when clicked will open a new url in Page 1. This needs to work in IE 6, 8 and other current browsers ideally.
Is this possible? If so, how?
A:
To open the window:
window.open ("http://www.someurl.com/maypage","my window");
To change the url from the popup:
self.opener.location = "http://www.someurlcom/anotherpage";
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
We all know how much everyone loves competitions - and how much everyone loves completely intangible prizes around here, so it seemed like high time to have another one.
TDA is in need of a new skin - well, need might be a strong word, but we're definitely in want of a new skin...but before you get despondent (because as anyone who has ever tried to do it can tell you, skinning for IBP is tedious, dull and unsatisfying or because you don't know HTML) read on...
Entries should be submitted as a flat jpg/png/gif of what your skin will look like. All you have to do is the photoshop work. If your design is chosen, I will do all of the coding - so that should open things up to a wider audience of participants.
SUBMISSION RULES:
QUOTE
- you must be a tda member (duh)- your design must be submitted as a flat .jpg/.gif/.png- you must be able to provide a .psd/.pdf version of your design- your image must be submitted by April 21st. Round numbers. Also, I hate Tuesdays, so give me something to look forward to
TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS:
QUOTE
Size:- your skin must either scale (grow or shrink to fit the users screen resolution) or be no larger than 780x450 pixels
Content:- somewhere on it, your skin must say "the dark arts"- your skin must incorporate an area for rotators. (the dimensions of this area are not set - so they can be whatever size you like)- TDA doesn't often have a lot of main page content. we really prefer to keep things to the forum where possible, but we do reserve the right to occasionally say SOMETHING, so give us somewhere to do it.
Judging Criteria
QUOTE
Admins reserve the right to ultimate and final say on a skin, with no explanation offered. BUT, of course we try not to be trolls, so here's some idea of what we're looking for.
First, of course we're looking for something that puts the site's best foot forward. Over time, TDA has grown to be more than just a place for HPFF banners - and that's a great thing - but it also means that slapping a picture of Harry on the main page isn't really the best plan for us, so try to avoid any obvious fandoms unless you're really knocking things out of the park. Also, rotators are very important to the TDA main page as they showcase our artists work. For that reason, making sure that your skin will be able to "work" with them is important.
Finally, the last thing you really need to consider is that I do have to code this, which means even if you make the best design ever, if it's too difficult to code or live within, we may choose something else. It's not personal, I promise
How To Submit:Images may be submitted by posting them in this thread anytime between now and the deadline date of April 21st.
I just want to get this cleared up--this is for the main TDA page, as in the black page we see with rotators as soon as we enter in the dark arts website link? I know this might be stupid, considering you mentioned rotators, but I just want it cleared.
I never thought I'd say this but NOOOOOOOOOOOO!!! I'm going away for most of this month (Driving to New York today) and the deadlines actually my B-day (I'll be in Denver without Connection or Program), can you please extend the deadline to the end of April or is it really needed like now for Summer? I really wanna participate!
- Had to edit because its now Today rather than tomorrow XD...I should sleep.
I'm just curious, since I know nothing about coding or anything like that, what makes a design easy or hard to code?
QUOTE (Colorkiller @ Apr 9 2009, 09:13 AM)
yay! *huggles kay*though i usually code while i design so i get an idea of how it looksand what would and wouldn't work or look right. either way, i'm happy! XD
It's hard to say what specifically will make a design hard or easy to code. I designed a super cute skin in flat once - really adorable - but it had a little window on the righthand side that was supposed to scroll images...yeah, somehow getting all of the tables to work like they should have WITH the scrolling images and the expansion? At some point my head tried to explode, so I had to modify it...that's the sort of stuff I mean. It's not anything specific, it's just that sometimes, you're going to run into something that is too hard to be worth it.
ok, so i know nothing of coding, but i tried to make this fairly simple-looking. (also, i got all the images from stock.xchng so they're royalty free) please let me know if there's anything i need to change, because i'm not completely sure whether i did this right or not.XD
Oh man, this was awesome! Okay, so I'm no coder and I wouldn't really know what's difficult or easy to code but I still tried my best. I dunno - are adjustments layers hard to code or is this a stupid question? 'Coz I kinda used colour balance and stuff to balance the colouring Also, fearing Kay, I didn't merge even the similar layers in my psd file.
I hope this is OK. I know a minimal amount about coding, so I tried to keep it simple without it seeming too empty. If any changes are needed just let me know! I'm using photoplus, so I don't have psd's I have spp's, so I'm not sure if you just want me to give you an empty base or if you can open my spp file? ^^png - psd. | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
import { library } from '@fortawesome/fontawesome-svg-core'
// Official documentation available at: https://github.com/FortAwesome/vue-fontawesome
import { FontAwesomeIcon } from '@fortawesome/vue-fontawesome'
// If not present, it won't be visible within the application. Considering that you
// don't want all the icons for no reason. This is a good way to avoid importing too many
// unnecessary things.
import { faEnvelope, faGraduationCap, faHome, faList, faSpinner, faSignInAlt, faUserCircle } from '@fortawesome/free-solid-svg-icons'
import { faFontAwesome, faMicrosoft, faVuejs } from '@fortawesome/free-brands-svg-icons'
library.add(
faEnvelope,
faGraduationCap,
faHome,
faList,
faSpinner,
faSignInAlt,
faUserCircle,
// Brands
faFontAwesome,
faMicrosoft,
faVuejs
)
export {
FontAwesomeIcon
}
| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
<template>
<div class="picker-slot" :class="classNames" :style="flexStyle">
<div v-if="!divider" ref="wrapper" class="picker-slot-wrapper" :class="{ dragging: dragging }" :style="{ height: contentHeight + 'px' }">
<div class="picker-item" v-for="itemValue in mutatingValues" :class="{ 'picker-selected': itemValue === currentValue }" :style="{ height: itemHeight + 'px', lineHeight: itemHeight + 'px' }">
{{ typeof itemValue === 'object' && itemValue[valueKey] ? itemValue[valueKey] : itemValue }}
</div>
</div>
<div v-if="divider">{{ content }}</div>
</div>
</template>
<style>
.picker-slot {
font-size: 18px;
overflow: hidden;
position: relative;
max-height: 100%
}
.picker-slot.picker-slot-left {
text-align: left;
}
.picker-slot.picker-slot-center {
text-align: center;
}
.picker-slot.picker-slot-right {
text-align: right;
}
.picker-slot.picker-slot-divider {
color: #000;
display: flex;
align-items: center
}
.picker-slot-wrapper {
transition-duration: 0.3s;
transition-timing-function: ease-out;
backface-visibility: hidden;
}
.picker-slot-wrapper.dragging,
.picker-slot-wrapper.dragging .picker-item {
transition-duration: 0s;
}
.picker-item {
height: 36px;
line-height: 36px;
padding: 0 10px;
white-space: nowrap;
position: relative;
overflow: hidden;
text-overflow: ellipsis;
color: #707274;
left: 0;
top: 0;
width: 100%;
box-sizing: border-box;
transition-duration: .3s;
backface-visibility: hidden;
}
.picker-slot-absolute .picker-item {
position: absolute;
}
.picker-item.picker-item-far {
pointer-events: none
}
.picker-item.picker-selected {
color: #000;
transform: translate3d(0, 0, 0) rotateX(0);
}
.picker-3d .picker-items {
overflow: hidden;
perspective: 700px;
}
.picker-3d .picker-item,
.picker-3d .picker-slot,
.picker-3d .picker-slot-wrapper {
transform-style: preserve-3d
}
.picker-3d .picker-slot {
overflow: visible
}
.picker-3d .picker-item {
transform-origin: center center;
backface-visibility: hidden;
transition-timing-function: ease-out
}
</style>
<script type="text/babel">
import draggable from './draggable';
import translateUtil from './translate';
import { once, addClass, removeClass } from 'mint-ui/src/utils/dom';
import emitter from 'mint-ui/src/mixins/emitter';
import Vue from 'vue';
if (!Vue.prototype.$isServer) {
require('raf.js');
}
var rotateElement = function(element, angle) {
if (!element) return;
var transformProperty = translateUtil.transformProperty;
element.style[transformProperty] = element.style[transformProperty].replace(/rotateX\(.+?deg\)/gi, '') + ` rotateX(${angle}deg)`;
};
const ITEM_HEIGHT = 36;
const VISIBLE_ITEMS_ANGLE_MAP = {
3: -45,
5: -20,
7: -15
};
export default {
name: 'picker-slot',
props: {
values: {
type: Array,
default() {
return [];
}
},
value: {},
visibleItemCount: {
type: Number,
default: 5
},
valueKey: String,
rotateEffect: {
type: Boolean,
default: false
},
divider: {
type: Boolean,
default: false
},
textAlign: {
type: String,
default: 'center'
},
flex: {},
className: {},
content: {},
itemHeight: {
type: Number,
default: ITEM_HEIGHT
},
defaultIndex: {
type: Number,
default: 0
}
},
data() {
return {
currentValue: this.value,
mutatingValues: this.values,
dragging: false,
animationFrameId: null
};
},
mixins: [emitter],
computed: {
flexStyle() {
return {
'flex': this.flex,
'-webkit-box-flex': this.flex,
'-moz-box-flex': this.flex,
'-ms-flex': this.flex
};
},
classNames() {
const PREFIX = 'picker-slot-';
let resultArray = [];
if (this.rotateEffect) {
resultArray.push(PREFIX + 'absolute');
}
let textAlign = this.textAlign || 'center';
resultArray.push(PREFIX + textAlign);
if (this.divider) {
resultArray.push(PREFIX + 'divider');
}
if (this.className) {
resultArray.push(this.className);
}
return resultArray.join(' ');
},
contentHeight() {
return this.itemHeight * this.visibleItemCount;
},
valueIndex() {
var valueKey = this.valueKey;
if (this.currentValue instanceof Object) {
for (var i = 0, len = this.mutatingValues.length; i < len ; i++) {
if (this.currentValue[valueKey] === this.mutatingValues[i][valueKey]) {
return i;
}
}
return -1;
} else {
return this.mutatingValues.indexOf(this.currentValue);
}
},
dragRange() {
var values = this.mutatingValues;
var visibleItemCount = this.visibleItemCount;
var itemHeight = this.itemHeight;
return [ -itemHeight * (values.length - Math.ceil(visibleItemCount / 2)), itemHeight * Math.floor(visibleItemCount / 2) ];
},
minTranslateY() {
return this.itemHeight * (Math.ceil(this.visibleItemCount / 2) - this.mutatingValues.length);
},
maxTranslateY() {
return this.itemHeight * Math.floor(this.visibleItemCount / 2);
}
},
methods: {
value2Translate(value) {
var values = this.mutatingValues;
var valueIndex = values.indexOf(value);
var offset = Math.floor(this.visibleItemCount / 2);
var itemHeight = this.itemHeight;
if (valueIndex !== -1) {
return (valueIndex - offset) * -itemHeight;
}
},
translate2Value(translate) {
var itemHeight = this.itemHeight;
translate = Math.round(translate / itemHeight) * itemHeight;
var index = -(translate - Math.floor(this.visibleItemCount / 2) * itemHeight) / itemHeight;
return this.mutatingValues[index];
},
updateRotate: function(currentTranslate, pickerItems) {
if (this.divider) return;
var dragRange = this.dragRange;
var wrapper = this.$refs.wrapper;
if (!pickerItems) {
pickerItems = wrapper.querySelectorAll('.picker-item');
}
if (currentTranslate === undefined) {
currentTranslate = translateUtil.getElementTranslate(wrapper).top;
}
var itemsFit = Math.ceil(this.visibleItemCount / 2);
var angleUnit = VISIBLE_ITEMS_ANGLE_MAP[this.visibleItemCount] || -20;
[].forEach.call(pickerItems, (item, index) => {
var itemOffsetTop = index * this.itemHeight;
var translateOffset = dragRange[1] - currentTranslate;
var itemOffset = itemOffsetTop - translateOffset;
var percentage = itemOffset / this.itemHeight;
var angle = angleUnit * percentage;
if (angle > 180) angle = 180;
if (angle < -180) angle = -180;
rotateElement(item, angle);
if (Math.abs(percentage) > itemsFit) {
addClass(item, 'picker-item-far');
} else {
removeClass(item, 'picker-item-far');
}
});
},
planUpdateRotate: function() {
var el = this.$refs.wrapper;
cancelAnimationFrame(this.animationFrameId);
this.animationFrameId = requestAnimationFrame(() => {
this.updateRotate();
});
once(el, translateUtil.transitionEndProperty, () => {
cancelAnimationFrame(this.animationFrameId);
this.animationFrameId = null;
});
},
initEvents() {
var el = this.$refs.wrapper;
var dragState = {};
var velocityTranslate, prevTranslate, pickerItems;
draggable(el, {
start: (event) => {
cancelAnimationFrame(this.animationFrameId);
this.animationFrameId = null;
dragState = {
range: this.dragRange,
start: new Date(),
startLeft: event.pageX,
startTop: event.pageY,
startTranslateTop: translateUtil.getElementTranslate(el).top
};
pickerItems = el.querySelectorAll('.picker-item');
},
drag: (event) => {
this.dragging = true;
dragState.left = event.pageX;
dragState.top = event.pageY;
var deltaY = dragState.top - dragState.startTop;
var translate = dragState.startTranslateTop + deltaY;
translateUtil.translateElement(el, null, translate);
velocityTranslate = translate - prevTranslate || translate;
prevTranslate = translate;
if (this.rotateEffect) {
this.updateRotate(prevTranslate, pickerItems);
}
},
end: (event) => {
this.dragging = false;
var momentumRatio = 7;
var currentTranslate = translateUtil.getElementTranslate(el).top;
var duration = new Date() - dragState.start;
let distance = Math.abs(dragState.startTranslateTop - currentTranslate);
var itemHeight = this.itemHeight;
var visibleItemCount = this.visibleItemCount;
let rect, offset;
if (distance < 6) {
rect = this.$el.getBoundingClientRect();
offset = Math.floor((event.clientY - (rect.top + (visibleItemCount - 1) * itemHeight / 2)) / itemHeight) * itemHeight;
if (offset > this.maxTranslateY) {
offset = this.maxTranslateY;
}
velocityTranslate = 0;
currentTranslate -= offset;
}
var momentumTranslate;
if (duration < 300) {
momentumTranslate = currentTranslate + velocityTranslate * momentumRatio;
}
var dragRange = dragState.range;
this.$nextTick(() => {
var translate;
if (momentumTranslate) {
translate = Math.round(momentumTranslate / itemHeight) * itemHeight;
} else {
translate = Math.round(currentTranslate / itemHeight) * itemHeight;
}
translate = Math.max(Math.min(translate, dragRange[1]), dragRange[0]);
translateUtil.translateElement(el, null, translate);
this.currentValue = this.translate2Value(translate);
if (this.rotateEffect) {
this.planUpdateRotate();
}
});
dragState = {};
}
});
},
doOnValueChange() {
var value = this.currentValue;
var wrapper = this.$refs.wrapper;
translateUtil.translateElement(wrapper, null, this.value2Translate(value));
},
doOnValuesChange() {
var el = this.$el;
var items = el.querySelectorAll('.picker-item');
[].forEach.call(items, (item, index) => {
translateUtil.translateElement(item, null, this.itemHeight * index);
});
if (this.rotateEffect) {
this.planUpdateRotate();
}
}
},
mounted() {
this.ready = true;
if (!this.divider) {
this.initEvents();
this.doOnValueChange();
}
if (this.rotateEffect) {
this.doOnValuesChange();
}
},
watch: {
values(val) {
this.mutatingValues = val;
},
mutatingValues(val) {
if (this.valueIndex === -1) {
this.currentValue = (val || [])[0];
}
if (this.rotateEffect) {
this.$nextTick(() => {
this.doOnValuesChange();
});
}
},
currentValue(val) {
this.doOnValueChange();
if (this.rotateEffect) {
this.planUpdateRotate();
}
this.$emit('input', val);
this.dispatch('picker', 'slotValueChange', this);
},
defaultIndex(val) {
if ((this.mutatingValues[val] !== undefined) && (this.mutatingValues.length >= val + 1)) {
this.currentValue = this.mutatingValues[val];
}
}
}
};
</script>
| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
The datA locus predominantly contributes to the initiator titration mechanism in the control of replication initiation in Escherichia coli.
Replication of the Escherichia coli chromosome is initiated synchronously from all origins (oriC) present in a cell at a fixed time in the cell cycle under given steady state culture conditions. A mechanism to ensure the cyclic initiation events operates through the chromosomal site, datA, which titrates exceptionally large amounts of the bacterial initiator protein, DnaA, to prevent overinitiation. Deletion of the datA locus results in extra initiations and altered temporal control of replication. There are many other sites on the E. coli chromosome that can bind DnaA protein, but the contribution of these sites to the control of replication initiation has not been investigated. In the present study, seven major DnaA binding sites other than datA have been examined for their influence on the timing of replication initiation. Disruption of these seven major binding sites, either individually or together, had no effect on the timing of initiation of replication. Thus, datA seems to be a unique site that adjusts the balance between free and bound DnaA to ensure that there is only a single initiation event in each bacterial cell cycle. Mutation either in the second or the third DnaA box (a 9 basepair DnaA-binding sequence) in datA was enough to induce asynchronous and extra initiations of replication to a similar extent as that observed with the datA-deleted strain. These DnaA boxes may act as cores for the cooperative binding of DnaA to the entire datA region. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Q:
How can I create a button that acts like a horizontal scroll bar?
I have a side-scrolling element that users can navigate through using a simple horizontal scroll bar. However, I want to add some buttons on the side to move forward or backward like 2 pictures and animate it.
I'm not very familiar with JQuery but would something like this be possible? I know that the scroll bar isn't technically part of the DOM but is actually part of the browser, but is there any way to interact with it?
A:
For you case your can use jQuery's $('.elm').scrollLeft(200) to scroll the element to the left position 200 if you want to scroll to right there is no method for this because this .scrollLeft(-100) can do the magic for scrolling an element to the right.
For more info about jQuery .scrollLeft() follow this link: https://api.jquery.com/scrollleft/
I wrote a basic demo for you and hope it to be helpful.
Working demo link:
http://codepen.io/anon/pen/EKoVOj?editors=0010
index.html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>jQuery Horizontal Scroll Demo</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<div>
<button class="scroll-btn scroll-to-left" type="button">←</button>
<p>Suspendisse faucibus, nunc et pellentesque egestas, lacus ante convallis tellus, vitae iaculis lacus elit id tortor. Etiam vitae tortor. Vivamus laoreet. Cras dapibus. Nam pretium turpis et arcu. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Ut tincidunt tincidunt erat. Donec venenatis vulputate lorem. Vestibulum facilisis, purus nec pulvinar iaculis, ligula mi congue nunc, vitae euismod ligula urna in dolor. Phasellus gravida semper nisi. Morbi vestibulum volutpat enim. Curabitur a felis in nunc fringilla tristique. Phasellus accumsan cursus velit. Praesent venenatis metus at tortor pulvinar varius. Fusce risus nisl, viverra et, tempor et, pretium in, sapien. Sed in libero ut nibh placerat accumsan. Vestibulum purus quam, scelerisque ut, mollis sed, nonummy id, metus. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Curabitur a felis in nunc fringilla tristique. Curabitur suscipit suscipit tellus. Donec mollis hendrerit risus. Sed lectus. Sed fringilla mauris sit amet nibh. Praesent ac massa at ligula laoreet iaculis.</p>
<button class="scroll-btn scroll-to-right" type="button">→</button>
</div>
<script src="script.js"></script>
</body>
</html>
style.css
div {
background: tomato;
color: white;
font-size: larger;
font-family: Calibri;
margin: 50px auto;
padding: 20px 20px 10px;
overflow-x: scroll;
height: 160px;
width: 500px;
position: relative;
}
div > p {
margin: 0;
width: 1500px;
}
.scroll-btn {
background: lightblue;
color: blue;
border: none;
padding: 2px 10px;
font-size: xx-large;
position: fixed;
top: 0;
}
.scroll-btn:hover {
background: blue;
color: lightblue;
cursor: pointer;
}
.scroll-btn.scroll-to-left { left: 0; }
.scroll-btn.scroll-to-right { right: 0; }
script.js
$(function() {
'use strict';
var scrollingValue = 30;
var scrollbarPosition = 10;
function getMaxChildWidth( elm ) {
var childrenWidth = $.map($('>*', elm), function(el) { return $(el).width() });
var max = 0;
for (var i = 0; i < childrenWidth.length; i++) {
max = childrenWidth[i] > max ? childrenWidth[i] : max;
}
return max;
}
function getScrollingValue(toLeft, ctx) {
if (toLeft) {
return scrollbarPosition < 1 ? 0 : scrollingValue;
}
return scrollbarPosition >= getMaxChildWidth(ctx) ? 0 : scrollingValue;
}
$('.scroll-btn.scroll-to-left').on('click', function() {
$(this).parent().scrollLeft(
scrollbarPosition -= getScrollingValue(true, $(this).parent())
);
});
$('.scroll-btn.scroll-to-right').on('click', function() {
$(this).parent().scrollLeft(
scrollbarPosition += getScrollingValue(false, $(this).parent())
);
});
});
| {
"pile_set_name": "StackExchange"
} |
package org.zalando.intellij.swagger.completion.value.openapi;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.junit.runners.Parameterized;
import org.zalando.intellij.swagger.completion.JsonAndYamlCompletionTest;
import org.zalando.intellij.swagger.fixture.Format;
@RunWith(Parameterized.class)
public class CompletionTest extends JsonAndYamlCompletionTest {
public CompletionTest(Format format) {
super(format, "testing/completion/value/openapi");
}
@Parameterized.Parameters(name = "inputKind: {0}")
public static Object[] parameters() {
return Format.values();
}
@Test
public void thatSchemaRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("schema_ref").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Pet").isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatCallbackRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("callback_ref")
.assertContains("#/components/callbacks/Callback")
.isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatExampleRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("example_ref").assertContains("#/components/examples/Example").isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatHeaderRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("header_ref").assertContains("#/components/headers/Header").isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatLinkRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("link_ref").assertContains("#/components/links/Link").isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatParameterRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("parameter_ref")
.assertContains("#/components/parameters/Parameter")
.isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatRequestBodyRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("request_body_ref")
.assertContains("#/components/requestBodies/Foo")
.isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatResponseRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("response_ref")
.assertContains("#/components/responses/NotFound")
.isOfSize(1);
}
@Test
public void thatBooleanValuesAreSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("boolean").assertContains("true", "false");
}
@Test
public void thatTypeValuesAreSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("type")
.assertContains("object", "integer", "number", "string", "boolean", "array")
.isOfSize(6);
}
@Test
public void thatInValuesAreSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("in").assertContains("query", "header", "path", "cookie").isOfSize(4);
}
@Test
public void thatFormatValuesAreSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("format")
.assertContains(
"int32",
"int64",
"float",
"double",
"byte",
"binary",
"date",
"date-time",
"password",
"email",
"uuid")
.isOfSize(11);
}
@Test
public void thatStyleValuesAreSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("style")
.assertContains(
"matrix", "label", "form", "simple", "spaceDelimited", "pipeDelimited", "deepObject")
.isOfSize(7);
}
@Test
public void thatAllOfRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("ref_all_of").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Schema2");
}
@Test
public void thatAnyOfRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("ref_any_of").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Schema2");
}
@Test
public void thatItemsRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("ref_items").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Schema2");
}
@Test
public void thatNotRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("ref_not").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Schema2");
}
@Test
public void thatOneOfRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("ref_one_of").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Schema2");
}
@Test
public void thatPropertiesRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("ref_properties").assertContains("#/components/schemas/Schema2");
}
@Test
public void thatMappingRefValueIsSuggested() {
getCaretCompletions("mapping_ref")
.assertContains("#/components/schemas/Pet", "#/components/schemas/Dog");
}
}
| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
Shabiha
Shabiha (Levantine Arabic: , ; also romanized Shabeeha or Shabbiha'; (meaning "ghosts") is a term for state sponsored militias of the Syrian government. However, in the Aleppo Governorate the term Shabiha is used frequently to refer to pro-Assad Sunni tribes such as al-Berri, al-Baggara, al-Hasasne and al-Zeido. In the city of Aleppo itself it was led by the powerful Sunni Arab al-Berri tribe.
The Syrian opposition stated that the shabiha are a tool of the government for cracking down on dissent. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has stated that some of the shabiha are mercenaries.
Before the Syrian civil war
According to defectors privately interviewed by The Star in 2012, 'Shabiha mercenaries' were established in the 1980s by Rifaat al-Assad and Namir al-Assad, President Hafez al-Assad's brother and cousin. They were originally concentrated in the Mediterranean region of Syria around Latakia, Banias and Tartous, where they allegedly benefited from smuggling through the ports in the area. The shabiha, who were named for the Arabic word for ghost or for the Mercedes S600 that was popular for its smuggling sized trunk and was called the Shabah, were known by the Alawites in Syria as Alawi ganglords. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, they smuggled food, cigarettes and commodities, subsidized by the government, from Syria into Lebanon and sold them for a massive profit, while luxury cars, guns and drugs were smuggled in reverse from Lebanon up the Bekaa Valley and into Syria's state controlled economy.
The shabiha guards, who each had loyalty to different members of the extended Assad family, were untouchable and operated with impunity from the local authorities. They gained notoriety in the 1990s for the brutal way they enforced their protection rackets in Latakia and were noted for their cruelty and blind devotion to their leaders. By the mid-1990s, they had gotten out of hand, and President Hafez Assad had his son Basil Assad clamp down on them, which he did successfully. In 2000, when Bashar Assad came to power, they were apparently disbanded, but following the uprising that began in March 2011, the shabiha gangs, which evolved into the shabiha militias, were again approved by Assad's government.
Syrian Civil War
During the war, the shabiha have been accused by Syrian locals and the foreign press of attacking and killing protesters. In March 2011, activists reported that Shabiha drove through Latakia in cars armed with machine guns firing at protesters, and then later of taking up sniper position on rooftops and killing up to 21 people. It was reported by local activists that on 18 and 19 April that the shabiha and security forces killed 21 protesters in Homs.
In May, Foreign Affairs reported that the shabiba joined the Fourth Division and attacked civilians in the cities of Banias, Jableh, and Latakia." A month later in June, witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region said that the shabiha have reemerged during the uprising and were being used by the Syrian government to carry out "a scorched earth campaign […] burning crops, ransacking houses and shooting randomly." The Washington Post reported a case in which four sisters were raped by shabiha members. They are described to wear civilian clothes, trainers and white running shoes and often are taking steroids. A physician explained that "many of the men were recruited from bodybuilding clubs and encouraged to take steroids. They are treated like animals, and manipulated by their bosses to carry out these murders".
Many shabiha were described by locals as having shaved heads, thin beards and white trainers. It was also reported by Syrian locals that some elements in the Shabiha were contemplating plans to clear Sunni Muslim villages from the Alawi northwest in the hopes of creating an easily defendable rump state. One militiaman said he was ready to kill women and children to defend his friends, family and president: "Sunni women are giving birth to babies who will fight us in years to come, so we have the right to fight anyone who can hurt us in the future".
In July 2012, a captured alleged shabiha member admitted looting and murder, stating that it was for "money and power". The Toronto Star describes Shahiba as "mafia militia […] smuggling commodities, appliances, drugs and guns between Syria and Lebanon at the behest of Assad’s extended family" and the Telegraph as "a group that suffers from a dangerous cocktail of religious indoctrination, minority paranoia and smuggler roots".
In December 2012, NBC News reporter Richard Engel and his five crew members were abducted in Latakia. Having escaped after five days in captivity, Engel held a Shabiha group responsible for the abduction. Engel's account was however challenged from early on. More than two years later, following further investigation by The New York Times, it however came out that the NBC team "was almost certainly taken by a Sunni criminal element affiliated with the Free Syrian Army," rather than by a loyalist Shia group.
Alleged role in Houla massacre
On May 25, 2012, 78 people, including 49 children, were killed in two opposition-controlled villages in the Houla Region of Syria, a cluster of villages north of Homs. While a small proportion of the deaths appeared to have resulted from artillery and tank rounds used against the villages, the foreign press later announced that most of the massacre's victims had been "summarily executed in two separate incidents", and that witnesses affirmed that the Shabiha were the most likely perpetrators. Townspeople described how Shabiha, from Shia/Alawite villages to the south and west of Houla (Kabu and Felleh were named repeatedly), entered the town after shelling of the ground for several hours. According to one eyewitness, the killers had written Shia slogans on their foreheads. The U.N. reported that "entire families were shot in their houses", and video emerged of children with their skulls split open. Others had been shot or knifed to death, some with their throats cut.
The fifteen nations of the U.N. Security Council unanimously condemned the massacre, with Russia and China agreeing to a resolution on the Syrian Civil War for the first time. The U.S., U.K., and eleven other nations–the Netherlands, Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, Bulgaria, Canada and Turkey–jointly expelled Syrian ambassadors and diplomats already 4 days after the massacre took place.
The German newspaper FAZ published findings in June 2012, that the Houla massacre has been perpetrated by rebellious groups antagonistic to the Syrian government.
Alleged role in Al-Qubair massacre
Another massacre was reported but not investigated by local villagers and activists to have taken place in the Syrian settlement of Al-Qubair on June 6, 2012, only two weeks after the killings at Houla. According to BBC News, Al-Qubair is a farming settlement inside the village of Maarzaf.
According to activists, 28 people were killed, many of them women and children. The day after the massacre, UNSMIS observers attempted to enter Al-Qubair to verify the reports, but were fired upon and forced to retreat by Sunni armed militia that have entered the city the day before. Victims were reportedly stabbed and shot by shabiha forces loyal to the government of Bashar al-Assad, according to the victim's families.
Leadership
In the coastal region, the group is reportedly led by Fawaz al-Assad and Munzer al-Assad, first cousins of President Assad. Another source, Mahmoud Merhi, head of the Arab Organization for Human Rights, has been quoted as saying that "most Syrians view" the Shabiha as "operating without any known organization or leadership." Sunni and Alawite businessmen who are protecting their own interests in the country are alleged to be paying the groups.
Accusation of looting and outside analysis
Aron Lund, a Swedish journalist specializing in Middle East issues, says that post-2011 the term "Shabbiha" is generally used as a generalized, insulting description of an Assad supporter.
British newspaper Sunday Times and pan-Arab network Al-Arabiya have reported on Shabiha militia stealing Roman antiquities and selling them on the black market in Syria and Lebanon.
See also
National Defence Force
Jaysh al-Sha'bi
Popular Committees
Baltagiya
Basij
List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War
References
Works cited
External links
United Nations Human Rights Council: Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (Word Document, 9.16 MB, 102 pages, advance edited version), 15 August 2012, containing numerous findings relating to shabiha activities
Category:Pro-government factions of the Syrian Civil War
Category:Guerrilla organizations
Category:Military units and formations established in the 1980s
Category:Paramilitary organizations based in Syria | {
"pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)"
} |
/*
* Open Source Software published under the Apache Licence, Version 2.0.
*/
package io.github.santulator.gui.settings;
import io.github.santulator.core.FileTool;
import org.slf4j.Logger;
import org.slf4j.LoggerFactory;
import java.nio.file.Files;
import java.nio.file.Path;
public class BaseSettingsManager<T> {
private static final Logger LOG = LoggerFactory.getLogger(BaseSettingsManager.class);
private final Path settingsFile;
private final Class<T> beanClass;
protected BaseSettingsManager(final String filename, final Class<T> beanClass) {
this(SettingsPathTool.obtainSettingsFilePath(filename), beanClass);
}
protected BaseSettingsManager(final Path settingsFile, final Class<T> beanClass) {
this.settingsFile = settingsFile;
this.beanClass = beanClass;
FileTool.ensureDirectoryExists(settingsFile, "Unable to create directory %s");
}
protected T readSettings() {
T result = readSettingsIfAvailable();
if (result == null) {
FileTool.writeMinimalJson(settingsFile, "Unable to save settings file '%s'");
result = readSettingsIfAvailable();
}
return result;
}
private T readSettingsIfAvailable() {
try {
if (Files.isRegularFile(settingsFile)) {
return FileTool.readFromJson(beanClass, settingsFile, "Unable to load settings file '%s'");
} else {
return null;
}
} catch (final Exception e) {
LOG.error("Discarding unreadable settings file '{}'", settingsFile, e);
return null;
}
}
protected void writeSettings(final T settings) {
FileTool.writeAsJson(settingsFile, settings, "Unable to save settings file '%s'");
}
}
| {
"pile_set_name": "Github"
} |
Andrei Alexandrescu didn't stand much of a chance. And neither did Walter Bright.
When the two men met for beers at a Seattle bar in 2005, each was in the midst of building a new programming language, trying to remake the way the world creates and runs its computer software. That's something pretty close to a hopeless task, as Bright knew all too well. "Most languages never go anywhere," he told Alexandrescu that night. "Your language may have interesting ideas. But it's never going to succeed."
Alexandrescu, a graduate student at the time, could've said the same thing to Bright, an engineer who had left the venerable software maker Symantec a few years earlier. People are constantly creating new programming languages, but because the software world is already saturated with so many if them, the new ones rarely get used by more than a handful of coders—especially if they're built by an ex-Symantec engineer without the backing of a big-name outfit. But Bright's new language, known as D, was much further along than the one Alexandrescu was working on, dubbed Enki, and Bright said they'd both be better off if Alexandrescu dumped Enki and rolled his ideas into D. Alexandrescu didn't much like D, but he agreed. "I think it was the beer," he now says.
Andrei Alexandrescu. Photo: Ariel Zambelich/WIRED Photo: Ariel Zambelich/WIRED
The result is a programming language that just might defy the odds. Nine years after that night in Seattle, a $200-million startup has used D to build its entire online operation, and thanks to Alexandrescu, one of biggest names on the internet is now exploring the new language as well. Today, Alexandrescu is a research scientist at Facebook, where he and a team of coders are using D to refashion small parts of the company's massive operation. Bright, too, has collaborated with Facebook on this experimental software, as an outsider contractor. The tech giant isn't an official sponsor of the language—something Alexandrescu is quick to tell you—but Facebook believes in D enough to keep him working on it full-time, and the company is at least considering the possibility of using D in lieu of C++, the venerable language that drives the systems at the heart of so many leading web services.
C++ is an extremely fast language—meaning software built with it runs at high speed—and it provides great control over your code. But it's not as easy to use as languages like Python, Ruby, and PHP. In other words, it doesn't let coders build software as quickly. D seeks to bridge that gap, offering the performance of C++ while making things more convenient for programmers.
Among the giants of tech, this is an increasingly common goal. Google's Go programming language aims for a similar balance of power and simplicity, as does the Swift language that Apple recently unveiled. In the past, the programming world was split in two: the fast languages and the simpler modern languages. But now, these two worlds are coming together. "D is similar to C++, but better," says Brad Anderson, a longtime C++ programmer from Utah who has been using D as well. "It's high performance, but it's expressive. You can get a lot done without very much code."
>In the past, the programming world was split in two: the fast languages and the simpler modern languages. But now, these two worlds are coming together.
In fact, Facebook is working to bridge this gap with not one but two languages. As it tinkers with D, the company has already revamped much of its online empire with a new language called Hack, which, in its own way, combines speed with simplicity. While using Hack to build the front-end of its service—the webpages you see when you open the service in your web browser—Facebook is experimenting with D on the back-end, the systems that serve as the engine of its social network.
But Alexandrescu will also tell you that programmers can use D to build anything, including the front-end of a web service. The language is so simple, he says, you can even use it for quick-and-dirty programming scripts. "You want to write a 50-line script? Sure, go for it." This is what Bright strove for—a language suitable for all situations. Today, he says, people so often build their online services with multiple languages—a simpler language for the front and a more powerful language for the back. The goal should be a single language that does it all. "Having a single language suitable for both the front and the back would be a lot more productive for programmers," Bright says. "D aims to be that language."
The Cape of a Superhero
When Alexandrescu discusses his years of work on D, he talks about wearing the "cape of a superhero"—being part of a swashbuckling effort to make the software world better. That's not said with arrogance. Alexandrescu, whose conversations reveal a wonderfully self-deprecating sense of humor, will also tell you he "wasn't a very good" programming language researcher at the University of Washington—so bad he switched his graduate studies to machine learning. The superhero bit is just a product of his rather contagious enthusiasm for the D project.
For years, he worked on the language only on the side. "It was sort of a free-time activity, in however much free-time a person in grad school can have, which is like negative," says Alexandrescu, a Romanian who immigrated to the States in the late '90s. Bright says the two of them would meet in coffee shops across Seattle to argue the ins and outs of the language. The collaboration was fruitful, he explains, because they were so different. Alexandrescu was an academic, and Bright was an engineer. "We came at the same problems from opposite directions. That's what made the language great–the yin and the yang of these two different viewpoints of how the language should be put together."
For Alexandrescu, D is unique. It's not just that it combines speed and simplicity. It also has what he calls "modeling power." It lets coders more easily create models of stuff we deal with in the real world, including everything from bank accounts and stock exchanges to automative sensors and spark plugs. D, he says, doesn't espouse a particular approach to modeling. It allows the programmer "to mix and match a variety of techniques to best fit the problem."
>That's what made the language great–the yin and the yang of these two different viewpoints of how the language should be put together.
He ended up writing the book on D. But when he joined Facebook in 2009, it remained a side project. His primary research involved machine learning. Then, somewhere along the way, the company agreed to put him on language full-time. "It was better," he says, "to do the caped-superhero-at-night thing during the daytime."
For Facebook, this is still a research project. But the company has hosted the past two D conferences—most recently in May—and together with various Facebook colleagues, Alexandrescu has used D to rebuild two select pieces of Facebook software. They rebuilt the Facebook "linter," known as Flint, a means of identifying errors in other Facebook software, and they fashioned a new Facebook "preprocessor," dubbed Warp, which helps generate the company's core code.
In both cases, D replaced C++. That, at least for the moment, is where the language shines the most. When Bright first started the language, he called it Mars, but the community that sprung up around the language called it D, because they saw it as the successor to C++. "D became the nickname," Bright says. "And the nickname stuck."
The Interpreted Language That Isn't
Facebook is the most high-profile D user. But it's not alone. Sociomantic—a German online advertising outfit recently purchased by British grocery giant Tesco for a reported $200 million—has built its operation in D. About 10,000 people download the D platform each month. "I'm assuming it's not the same 10,000 every month," Alexandrescu quips. And judging from D activity on various online developer services—from GitHub to Stackoverflow—the language is now among the 20 to 30 most popular in the world.
For coder Brad Anderson, the main appeal is that D feels like interpreted languages such as Ruby and PHP. "It results in code that's more compact," he says. "You're not writing boilerplate as much. You're not writing as much stuff you're obligated to write in other languages." It's less "verbose" than C++ and Java.
Yes, like C++ and Java, D is a compiled language, meaning that you must take time to transform it into executable software before running it. Unlike with interpreted languages, you can't run your code as soon as you write it. But it compiles unusually quickly. Bright—who worked on C++, Java, and Javascript compilers at Symantec and Sun Microsystems—says this was a primary goal. "When your compiler runs fast," he says, "it transforms the way your write code." It lets you see the results much faster. For Anderson, this is another reason that D feels more like an interpreted language. "It's usually very, very fast to compile–fast enough that the edit [and] run cycle usually feels just like an interpreted language." He adds, however, that this begins to change if your program gets very large.
>It's usually very, very fast to compile–fast enough that the edit and run cycle usually feels just like an interpreted language.
What's more, Anderson explains, a D program has this unusual ability to generate additional D code and weave this into itself at compile time. That may sound odd, but the end result is a program more finely tuned to the task at hand. Essentially, a program can optimize itself as it compiles. "It makes for some amazing code generation capabilities," Anderson says.
The trouble with the language, according to Alexandrescu, is that it still needs a big-name backer. "Corporate support would be vital right now," he says. This shows you that Facebook's involvement only goes so far, and it provides some insight into why new languages have such trouble succeeding. In addition to backing Hack, Facebook employs some of the world's leading experts in Haskell, another powerful but relatively underused language. What D needs, Alexandrescu says, is someone willing to pump big money into promoting it. The Java programming language succeeded, he says, because Sun Microsystems put so much money behind it back in the '90s.
Certainly, D still faces a long road to success. But this new language has already come further than most. | {
"pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2"
} |
Job Description
COMPANY AND DIVISON OVERVIEW
Wynn’s Belgium is part of Additives International, an ITW Division that manufactures and supplies specialty and innovative chemicals for the automotive aftermarket. Wynn's offers additives to restore, protect and enhance the three essential fluid systems in your car: fuel, oil and coolant. We manufacture products in Sint-Niklaas, Belgium and commercialize around the globe serving markets in Europe, Russia, Middle East, Africa, Asia,…
We are currently seeking a Production Supervisor for our facility in Sint-Niklaas, Belgium.
POSITION SUMMARY
As Production Supervisor you have the responsibility for the production planning and for the complete coordination of the production. As a People Manager you supervise and coach the production team. You make proposals to optimize the existing production process and you are involved in quality, safety and maintenance.
CORE RESPONSIBILITIES
Guarantee an optimal production process in order to ensure production continuity and a cost efficient process;
Prepare an optimal production schedule in the short term and a production plan in the longer term (MRD);
Schedule an optimal production planning per department/production line based on the capacity, make-to-order, make-to-assemble and make-to-stock, available stock and agreed delivery times;
Evaluate and adjust the MRD production plan per product on a regular basis;
Anticipate to changes in production and in planning, to possible supply problems and exceptional sales orders; | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
} |
Introduction
============
Terminal differentiation is usually coupled with permanent exit from the cell cycle and represents the most common cellular state in adult animals. How terminal differentiation controls the cell cycle machinery to maintain a stable postmitotic state remains unclear. Evidence from several model organisms suggests that inhibition of the E2F transcription factor and/or the G1-S cyclin, cyclin E (CycE), is a key event for coordinating cell cycle exit and differentiation (for reviews see [@bib9]; [@bib49]; [@bib54]; [@bib56]; [@bib78]). Yet, activation of E2F or CycE in many contexts is insufficient to abrogate exit ([@bib2]; [@bib55]; [@bib40]; [@bib12]; [@bib6]; [@bib10]; [@bib27]).
E2F transcription factors play key roles in regulating the cell cycle as many genes required for S, G2, and M phases are targets of E2F ([@bib31]; [@bib59]; [@bib64]; [@bib16]). Importantly, E2F complexes (made up of an E2F subunit and its dimerization partner \[DP\]) can act as both transcriptional activators and repressors of the same targets. Association with the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor proteins (RBs) can convert E2F--DP complexes to transcriptional repressors by recruiting repressive chromatin-modifying complexes ([@bib20]), whereas the G1 cyclin--Cdk complexes, CycD--Cdk4 and CycE--Cdk2, promote E2F activity by phosphorylating and inhibiting the association of RBs with E2F--DP complexes ([@bib18]). CycE--Cdk2 activity is also directly essential for S-phase entry, as it regulates critical components to initiate S phase in both kinase-dependent and -independent manners ([@bib45]; [@bib46]; [@bib26]).
*Drosophila melanogaster* has been a key organism for studies of cell cycle exit in part because its E2F/CycE network is simpler than mammals, consisting of only two RB family (Rbf) members (Rbf and Rbf2), a single Cip/Kip type cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, Dacapo (no INK homologues), two E2Fs (one activator, E2F1, and one repressor, E2F2), one DP, and one essential G1-S cyclin, CycE ([@bib19]; [@bib15]; [@bib38]; [@bib66]; [@bib22]; [@bib72]).
Investigations into cell cycle exit in *Drosophila* have demonstrated that RB/E2F repressive activity is not required for permanent exit in vivo ([@bib79]; [@bib24]). We have suggested that this is caused by independent but parallel repression of E2F and cyclin--Cdk activities, a mechanism we call double-assurance ([@bib10]). The restraint of both E2F and CycE activities upon exit partially involve Rbf and Dacapo ([@bib21]) but, based on genetic experiments, must also include Rbf- and Dacapo-independent mechanisms ([@bib10]).
The finding that E2F activity alone is insufficient to maintain cycling of differentiating cells is surprising because E2F activity itself up-regulates CycE and Cdk2 after exit to levels even higher than those in proliferating cells ([@bib10]). High CycE--Cdk2 activity normally promotes increased E2F activity via phosphorylation of RBs and cooperates with E2F-dependent induction of CycE and Cdk2 to establish a positive E2F-CycE feedback loop for cell cycle entry ([@bib83]; [@bib4]), similar to that of Cln1 and -2 in yeast ([@bib71]). However, we have found that E2F-CycE positive feedback appears to be limited after terminal differentiation to prevent ectopic cycling ([@bib10]). In this study, we examine why both ectopic E2F and CycE activities must be provided to bypass cell cycle exit in *Drosophila* and uncover specific cell cycle control mechanisms that cooperate to limit E2F-CycE positive feedback and maintain a stable postmitotic state.
Results
=======
E2F2 complexes are partially responsible for CycE-resistant E2F repression after exit
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CycE induces E2F activity in proliferating and reversibly quiescent cells by preventing the formation of Rbf--E2F repressive complexes. However, our previous results indicated that CycE activity could not prevent repression of E2F target genes after cell cycle exit in terminally differentiated eye and wing cells ([@bib10]). Rbf--E2F2-mediated repression is somehow resistant to G1 cyclin--Cdks despite G1 cyclin--Cdk phosphorylation of Rbf ([@bib23]). This makes E2F2 complexes prime candidates as factors limiting CycE-dependent activation of E2F after cell cycle exit in differentiated cells. Genetic studies of E2F2 have failed to demonstrate a role for E2F2 in cell cycle exit upon differentiation in vivo ([@bib22]; [@bib79]). *e2f2* mutant cells exit from the cell cycle on time ([@bib22]), and mitotic tissues of *e2f1^su89^,e2f2* double mutant animals, thought to lack all E2F repressive function, exit the cell cycle normally ([@bib79]). Therefore, we sought to reveal a more subtle role for E2F2 in blocking CycE-E2F feedback specifically after cell cycle exit and influencing exit flexibility in the presence of high CycE--Cdk2 activity.
Clones of cells overexpressing CycE and Cdk2 were generated in an *e2f2^76Q1/G5.1^*-null background using the *heat shock* (*hs*)--FLP Gal4 method ([@bib57]), where clones are negatively marked by the CD2 (cluster of differentiation 2) antigen and CycE and Cdk2 are expressed under the control of a Gal4 responsive upstream activating sequence (UAS). E2F transcriptional activity was monitored in wings at stages after cell cycle exit, using a reporter containing an E2F-responsive *proliferating cell nuclear antigen* (*PCNA*) promoter fused to GFP ([@bib76]). In the absence of *e2f2*, CycE--Cdk2 was able to activate the E2F reporter in clones within the wing after terminal differentiation at 36 h after puparium formation (APF; [Fig. 1 A](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}), an effect absent in wild-type (WT) wings. However, the CycE--Cdk2-induced E2F activity in *e2f2* mutant wings was temporary, as CycE--Cdk2 was unable to sustain E2F activity beyond 40 h APF in the absence of *e2f2* ([Fig. 1 B](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}).
{#fig1}
We next examined whether the loss of *e2f2* influenced the flexibility of cell cycle exit in the presence of high CycE--Cdk2 activity. GFP-marked *e2f2*-null mutant clones expressing CycE--Cdk2 were generated using the mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) system ([@bib41]) and examined for ectopic mitoses after normal cell cycle exit in pupal eyes and wings by staining for phosphorylated Ser10 on histone H3 (PH3; [Fig. 1, C--E](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}). Ectopic mitoses were evident in *e2f2^−/−^* cells expressing CycE--Cdk2 in eyes from 24--44 h APF ([Fig. 1 C](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}, 36 h APF shown), indicating a delay of cell cycle exit 8 h beyond the effect of CycE--Cdk2 expression alone in the eye. However, mitoses were no longer observed in *e2f2^−/−^* cells expressing CycE--Cdk2 after 44 h APF in eyes ([Fig. 1 D](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}) or in wings after 36 h APF ([Fig. 1 E](#fig1){ref-type="fig"} and [Table I](#tbl1){ref-type="table"}). This reveals a cell cycle exit function for *e2f2* in temporarily limiting CycE activation of E2F but also demonstrates that an *e2f2*-independent mechanism prevents E2F transcriptional activation after prolonged exit in eyes and wings.
######
Genetic manipulations of cell cycle regulators and their effects on cell cycle exit
Genetic backgrounds Delay exit 24--40 APF? Delay exit past 44 APF? (mitotic index) Figure or reference
------------------------------- ------------------------ ----------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------
*e2f2^−/−^* + CycE + Cdk2 Yes No [Fig. 1](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}
GFP-E2F1^WT^ Yes No [Fig. 1](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}
GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^ Yes No [Fig. 1](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}
GFP-E2F1^WT^ + CycE + Cdk2 Yes ND [Fig. 1](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}
GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^ + CycE + Cdk2 Yes ND [Fig. 1](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}
*dp^−/−^* + CycE + Cdk2 Yes No [Fig. 2](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}
*dp^−/−^* + CycE + Stg Yes Yes (≤3%) [Fig. 2](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}
*e2f2^−/−^* + CycE + Stg Yes Yes (≤1%) [Fig. 2](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}
CycE + Stg Yes Yes (≤1%) [Fig. 2](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}
*rbf1^−/−^* + CycE--Cdk2 Yes No, wing blade Yes, neurons [@bib10]
*rbf^−/−^* + CycE + Stg Yes Yes (15--20%) [Fig. 3](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}
*rbf^−/−^* + Stg Yes No [Fig. 3](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}
CycA Yes No [@bib10]
Rca1 Yes No [Fig. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}
E2F1--DP + Rca1 Yes Yes [Figs. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"} and [6](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}
E2F1--DP + Fzy^RNAi^ Yes Yes [Fig. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}
E2F1--DP + Fzr^RNAi^ Yes Yes [Fig. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}
E2F1--DP + Cortex^RNAi^ Yes No [Fig. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}
E2F1--DP Yes No [Fig. 6](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}
CycE + Cdk2 Yes No [@bib10]
E2F + CycE--Cdk2 Yes Yes [@bib10]
E2F + CycE + Stg Yes Yes [@bib10]
Ectopic CycE--Cdk2 activity in terminally differentiated cells leads to E2F1 degradation
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Recent work has delineated a Dacapo- and Rbf-independent mechanism limiting E2F1 activity in embryos and proliferating cells. E2F1 is degraded each cell cycle during S phase in a PCNA interaction protein motif (PIP) box--dependent manner via a Cul4 ubiquitin ligase complex ([@bib67]; [@bib68]). We considered whether ectopic CycE--Cdk2 activity could inhibit E2F activity after exit by promoting S-phase initiation and thereby E2F1 degradation. This idea was supported by our previous observation that CycE--Cdk2 expression correlated with low E2F1 protein levels in the wing ([@bib10]).
To test whether CycE--Cdk2 activity affected degradation of E2F1 after cell cycle exit in a PIP box--dependent manner, we generated clones coexpressing either WT GFP-E2F1^WT^ or E2F with a mutated PIP box, GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^ with CycE--Cdk2 in the wing and eye. Levels of GFP-E2F1 were determined by detection of the GFP tag using an anti-GFP antibody and compared between GFP-E2F1^WT^ and GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^ ([Fig. 1, F--H](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}). We found that levels of GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^ in the presence of CycE--Cdk2 after exit were higher in both pupal eyes and wings than GFP-E2F1^WT^ ([Fig. 1, F--H](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}). This suggests that if CycE--Cdk2 is aberrantly activated after exit, it could induce S-phase initiation and PIP box--dependent E2F1 degradation to serve as a self-correcting mechanism to limit CycE-E2F positive feedback after exit.
To test whether stabilized E2F1 is sufficient to bypass exit, we expressed GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^ in the dorsal domain of the wing (using *Apterous* \[*ap*\]-Gal4/UAS) during pupal stages and assayed for ectopic mitoses. No mitoses were evident in wings expressing either the stabilized or WT forms of E2F1 after 36 h APF ([Fig. 1, I and J](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}), suggesting that the stabilized E2F1 cannot delay cell cycle exit further than WT E2F1. However, stabilized E2F1 did cause a mild phenotype, as several ectopic neurons were found in the dorsal posterior margin of all GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^--expressing wings ([Fig. 1 J](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}, arrows).
These results suggest that a switch to CycE-resistant E2F2 repressive complexes together with the degradation of E2F1 activator complexes underlie the resistance of terminally differentiated cells to G1 cyclin--Cdk-induced proliferation.
Bypass of cell cycle exit is limited in the absence of all E2F--DP function
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Our results suggest that in the absence of *e2f2*, aberrant CycE--Cdk2 activity leads to degradation of E2F1, and the subsequent loss of both E2F activator and repressor complexes results in cell cycle exit, even in the face of high cyclin--Cdk activity. However, because our experiments were performed in the presence of endogenous E2F1, we could not rule out the potential contribution of a novel CycE-resistant E2F1 repressive complex to cell cycle exit. To address this, we directly examined whether CycE--Cdk2 could bypass cell cycle exit in *Dp*-null mutant cells, which are believed to lack all E2F--DP transcriptional function ([@bib24]).
GFP-labeled *Dp^−/−^* cells overexpressing CycE--Cdk2 did not bypass exit in wings or eyes after 36 h APF and arrested at the G1-S transition with high levels of CycE--Cdk2 activity, as evident by anti-MPM2 (mitotic phosphoprotein marker 2) antibody staining of CycE--Cdk2-phosphorylated targets at the histone locus body ([Fig. 2, A and B](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}, arrows indicate examples; [@bib80]). The arrest of CycE--Cdk2-expressing *Dp* mutant cells at the G1-S transition is indistinguishable from normal cells expressing CycE--Cdk2 at 36 h APF. ([@bib10]).
{#fig2}
Because CycE--Cdk2 was insufficient to bypass exit in *Dp* mutant cells, we next examined whether other cell cycle regulators, particularly regulators of the G2-M transition, could bypass exit in *Dp*-null cells. Expression of the G2-M regulators, CycA, Rca1 (regulator of CycA), and the Cdc25c phosphatase, String (Stg), all failed to bypass exit in *Dp*-null cells ([Fig. S1](http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/jcb.200910006/DC1)). However, some *Dp^−/−^* cells coexpressing CycE and the G2-M regulator Stg continued cycling at 40--44 h APF, as indicated by PH3 and MPM2, with a mitotic index of 0.9% and 3% in the wing and eye, respectively ([Fig. 2, C and D](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}, PH3 shown). Importantly, rare ectopic mitoses were also evident in some control WT wings and eyes expressing CycE and Stg (mitotic index up to 0.3% and 1.0% in some wing and eyes, respectively; [Fig. 2, G and H](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}). This suggests that some very low level of cycling, undetected by our previous clonal assays ([@bib10]), continues in a small number of cells expressing CycE + Stg. This cycling is moderately increased threefold when all E2F--DP function is lost in *Dp*-null cells. Therefore, we questioned whether the loss of E2F2--DP repressive function was responsible for the increased cycling seen in *Dp* mutant cells expressing CycE + Stg. However, *e2f2*-null mutant cells expressing CycE + Stg in wings and eyes were indistinguishable from control cells expressing CycE + Stg ([Fig. 2, E and F](#fig2){ref-type="fig"}).
The failure of most *Dp* mutant cells to significantly bypass cell cycle exit, even in the presence of high CycE and Stg, suggests that E2F--DP activity is somehow required for ectopic proliferation of terminally differentiated cells, even though it is not required for proliferation earlier in development ([@bib22], [@bib24]).
Loss of *rbf* together with CycE and Stg prevents cell cycle exit and produces tumor-like overproliferation of terminally differentiated cells
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We previously tested whether *rbf* mutant cells expressing CycE--Cdk2 could bypass exit and found continued cycling of differentiated neurons in late-stage pupae but no cycling and an S/G2-phase arrest in the epithelial wing blade ([Table I](#tbl1){ref-type="table"}; [@bib10]). Based on the low level of mitoses seen in *Dp* mutant cells expressing both CycE and Stg, we reasoned that expressing CycE and Stg in *rbf^−/−^* cells might completely bypass exit by providing the necessary G2-M activity and E2F activator function. To test this, we generated GFP-marked *rbf*-null mutant clones expressing CycE and Stg using the MARCM system and examined them for ectopic S phases (by BrdU incorporation) or mitoses (PH3). Ectopic cell cycles, including S phases and mitoses, were evident at very high levels (mitotic index up to 20%) in wings and eyes of *rbf^−/−^* cells expressing CycE + Stg at all time points examined, including the latest time point at which we could perform antibody staining, 60 h APF ([Fig. 3, A, B, and E--G](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}). Overproliferation continued at 60 h APF when ommatidia differentiation, wing adult cuticle, and trichome differentiation were evident ([Fig. 3, E and F](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}). Proliferation of differentiated cells in the late wing generated clusters of small cells, resulting in folding of the epithelium, reminiscent of tumor-like overgrowth ([Fig. 3 G](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}). We also observed outgrowths on adult nota and folding of the adult wing indicative of overproliferation with relatively normal terminal differentiation ([Fig. 3, C and D](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}). Importantly, the dramatic bypass of exit observed in *rbf^−/−^* CycE/Stg-expressing cells was not recapitulated in *rbf*-null mutant clones expressing only Stg. Cells mutant for *rbf* expressing Stg exhibited few mitoses restricted to the proximal regions of some clones in the wing at 48 h APF, and no mitoses were observed in eyes after 48 h APF ([Fig. 3, H and I](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}).
{#fig3}
Our results indicate that the E2F activity provided by the loss of *rbf^−/−^* plays an essential role in bypassing exit. We confirmed that *rbf^−/−^* cells ectopically activate the E2F-responsive PCNA-GFP reporter after exit, demonstrating aberrantly high E2F1 transcriptional activity ([Fig. S2 G](http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/jcb.200910006/DC1)). Yet despite the E2F activity, the threshold for both CycE and Stg activities somehow remains high in *rbf^−/−^* cells, and independent activation of both is required to bypass cell cycle exit.
Gene expression changes caused by E2F transcriptional activation and DP loss are highly similar after cell cycle exit
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Our results with *rbf^−/−^* cells indicate that some level of E2F activator, not simply E2F derepression, is required to bypass cell cycle exit upon terminal differentiation. This requirement is specific to the forced proliferation of terminally differentiating cells, as cells lacking all E2F--DP activity can proliferate during normal development ([@bib22], [@bib23], [@bib24]). This suggests that certain critical E2F targets may require the activator function of E2F for expression in differentiating cells. Therefore, we chose to compare gene expression changes caused by high E2F activity to those caused by the loss of all E2F--DP function in terminally differentiating cells.
We took advantage of the relatively synchronous cell cycle exit in the wing to examine gene expression by microarray in E2F--DP-expressing wings, which temporarily delay exit because of E2F activity, and *Dp* mutant wings, which lack E2F--DP function but exit on time. We directly compared E2F1--DP-expressing wings (*ap*-Gal4/UAS-E2F1, UAS-DP, *tub*-Gal80^TS^) with controls (*ap*-Gal4/UAS, *tub*-Gal80^TS^) and *Dp* mutants (*w;Dp^a1/a2^*) with controls (*w*) during proliferation (third larval instar \[L3\]), at normal exit (24 h APF), and after prolonged exit when E2F no longer promotes cycling (36 h APF). [Fig. 4](#fig4){ref-type="fig"} shows the hierarchically clustered heat maps of transcript changes (log~2~ ratio of expression compared with controls) for all transcripts with a fold change of 1.5 or more (\>log~2~ ± 0.6) at one or more time points. Gray bars indicate transcripts that were removed from the analysis because of high variability among replicates ([Fig. 4 A](#fig4){ref-type="fig"}). The complete dataset is available as tab-delimited text in the online supplemental material as a txt file, additional array data descriptions can be found in Materials and methods, and complete clusters can be viewed in high resolution on the JCB DataViewer.
{#fig4}
Overall, transcript changes caused by E2F1--DP (E2F) overexpression and *Dp* loss were strikingly similar in terminally differentiating cells. When arrays were compared, a correlation coefficient of 0.74 was found for E2F and *Dp^−/−^* arrays at 24 and 36 h APF. Representative genes from each major cluster are listed in [Fig. 4](#fig4){ref-type="fig"}. The largest cluster consists of what we call typical transcripts, which represent many known E2F target genes, that are up-regulated in both E2F-expressing and *Dp^−/−^* wings at 24 and 36 h APF. This group contains most of the 157 genes identified as *Drosophila* E2F targets in proliferating S2 cells by [@bib16]. This even includes genes in groups B and C from that study, which were unaffected by *Dp* loss in S2 cells ([@bib16]) but we find to be affected by *Dp* loss in wings in vivo. We also identified many additional E2F targets corroborated by other model system studies (for review see [@bib8]). Typical group transcripts were enriched for Gene Ontology (GO) terms involved in cell cycle (P \< 6.84^−9^), DNA replication and repair (P \< 2.56^−8^), microtubule cytoskeleton organization (P \< 2.14^−7^), and DNA packaging (P \< 2.84^−4^).
The second largest cluster of coregulated genes in E2F-overexpressing and *Dp* mutant wings consisted of genes repressed in differentiating cells. Because E2F1--DP is thought to act as a transcriptional activator, this group of repressed genes is somewhat unexpected. These genes are not repressed indirectly by a delay in cell cycle exit, as they are similarly repressed in *Dp* mutants, which exit normally. We also don't believe this group is caused by E2F1--DP repressive complexes blocking transcription, as such targets would be expected to increase rather than decrease in *Dp* mutants.
The third group of transcripts altered by E2F expression and *Dp* loss are inversely regulated between the two genotypes. These include transcripts increased by E2F expression but decreased in *Dp* mutants, and vice versa. Genes up-regulated by high E2F but decreased in *Dp* mutants could be genes that require E2F1--DP complexes for basal expression as well as activation, and therefore, expression is lost in the absence of *Dp*. In contrast, genes decreased by E2F but increased in *Dp* mutants could be genes somehow actively repressed by E2F1--DP complexes, repression which is lost upon the loss of *Dp*. Neither subgroup of conversely regulated transcripts exhibited any statistically significant enrichment in GO terms, although several of these genes are known to be important in developmental signaling, differentiation, and proliferation (i.e., *HLHm5*, *scribbled*, *Toll-9*, and *glass*).
Specific cell cycle genes require E2F activity for expression after exit
------------------------------------------------------------------------
A group of 162 genes was up-regulated \>1.75-fold (\>log~2~ 0.82) by increased E2F activity at one or both time points after exit but was not significantly increased in *Dp* mutants at any time point (change \<1.3-fold; \<log~2~ 0.4; [Fig. 4 B](#fig4){ref-type="fig"}). This group includes genes that may become limiting for bypass of exit in *Dp* mutants, which is consistent with the finding that this group is significantly enriched for genes regulating the cell cycle and mitosis (P \< 8.07^−4^) but is also enriched for genes involved in RNA processing (P \< 7.15^−5^) and chromatin regulation (P \< 3.4^−4^). We noted that *cycE* and *stg* were among this group, as well as the cyclin--Cdk-activating kinase component, *cdk7*, which is important for maximal CycB--Cdk1 activity ([@bib39]), and the Cdk target of Stg phosphatase activity, Cdk1 (*cdc2*). Asterisks in [Fig. 4 B](#fig4){ref-type="fig"} indicate several examples of genes in this group that regulate cyclin--Cdk activity or mitosis.
Based on our array analysis, E2F activation and *Dp* loss result in highly similar changes in gene expression upon terminal differentiation. This is because a major role for DP after cell cycle exit is in forming repressive E2F--DP complexes, and therefore, loss of DP after exit more closely resembles E2F derepression. However, we found a set of genes important for mitosis, cell cycle progression, and chromatin regulation that specifically require E2F activator function for expression in terminally differentiating cells. We propose that it is the E2F-dependent transcriptional activation of these genes, together with high CycE and Stg activity, that is required to abrogate cell cycle exit upon terminal differentiation.
Anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) activity limits E2F-induced bypass of exit
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Although E2F activity induces robust expression of many cell cycle genes after exit, including *cycE* and *stg*, the threshold of CycE and Stg activity required to bypass exit is increased in terminally differentiating cells. The increased threshold for CycE is not simply a result of an up-regulation of Dacapo because cell cycle exit still occurs in wings and certain cell types in the eye in *dacapo*-null mutant cells overexpressing E2F1--DP ([@bib10]). In our array analysis, we noted that E2F activity (or *Dp* loss) induced expression of several components of the APC/C and certain APC/C activators ([Fig. 5 A](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}). Therefore, we wondered whether high APC/C activity could limit E2F-induced cell cycle reentry after differentiation.
{#fig5}
The fly orthologues of at least one APC/C activator (Cdh1 or Fizzy \[Fzy\]-related \[Fzr\] in flies) and one core APC/C component (APC1 or Shattered in flies) normally increase after cell cycle exit in eyes ([@bib58]; [@bib75]; [@bib84]). We have confirmed that both Fzr transcript and protein also increase in wings after normal exit (Fig. S2 C). We speculated that an increase in APC/C activity after exit could limit E2F-induced bypass of exit by degrading the G2-M cyclin--Cdks and Stg, which are known APC/C targets. This could also raise the threshold for CycE after exit by requiring increased CycE--Cdk2 activity to inhibit the high levels of APC/C ([@bib70]; [@bib69]; [@bib62]). This idea is consistent with the finding that the loss of *fzr* or *shattered* delays cell cycle exit by one cycle in the embryo and larval eye ([@bib69]; [@bib58]; [@bib75]). Therefore, we examined whether APC/C activity contributes to cell cycle exit in both the pupal eye and wing and to what extent inhibition of the APC/C could delay exit.
To inhibit the APC/C upon cell cycle exit without disturbing mitotic cycles, we overexpressed Rca1, an S and G2 inhibitor of the APC/C which leads to accumulation of CycA but does not disrupt mitosis when overexpressed ([@bib29]). Clones of cells expressing Rca1 temporarily delayed cell cycle exit ([Fig. 5 B](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}) but did not continue significant cycling after 40 h APF in the eye or wing ([Fig. 5 C](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}, eye shown exhibiting the sole mitosis observed). However, when E2F and Rca1 were coexpressed, continued mitoses were observed very late in the eye and wing, including the latest time point tested, 60 h APF, without disrupting terminal differentiation of ommatidia ([Fig. 5, D and E](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}; and Fig. S2 A).
Rca1 increases CycA by inhibition of the APC/C. However, the effect of Rca1 + E2F on cell cycle exit was not simply caused by an increase in CycA levels, as coexpression of CycA with E2F1--DP could not continue to bypass exit after 40--44 h APF in wings or eyes (Fig. S2 B). APC/C activity is dependent on sufficient levels of core components and the presence of the activators Cdc20 (Fzy in *Drosophila*) and Fzr. To directly reduce APC/C activity in cells overexpressing E2F, we coexpressed E2F with RNAis to core APC/C components (APC2 and -8) or the activators Fzy or Fzr in clones and examined late pupal eyes and wings after 48 h APF for ectopic cycling. We observed frequent mitoses, as assessed by both PH3 and MPM2 cytoplasmic staining in pupal eyes and wings at 56 h APF, when E2F was coexpressed with each RNAi ([Fig. 5, F--I](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}; and Fig. S2, E and F). We also observed MPM2 nuclear foci indicative of G1-S progression in cells expressing E2F + Fzy^RNAi^ ([Fig. 5 F](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}, inset), suggesting complete additional cell cycles occur.
To confirm that additional cell cycles occurred, we performed a clonal analysis on cells coexpressing E2F with Fzy or Fzr RNAi, as well as cells expressing E2F and an RNAi to Cortex, a germline cdc20-like protein which is up-regulated by E2F after exit in wings ([Fig. 5 A](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}) but had no effect on cycling or E2F delay of cell cycle exit in eyes or wings. When clones expressing E2F + Cortex^RNAi^ were induced by a limited heat shock at 0 h APF, very few clones containing more than four cells were observed at 48--56 h APF. However, we observed an increase in the mean cells/clone when Fzy or Fzr RNAis were coexpressed with E2F, as well as an increase in the number of clones containing six or more cells ([Fig. 5 J](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}). Some of the E2F + Fzy^RNAi^ and E2F + Fzr^RNAi^ clones contained as many as 10--16 cells/clone ([Fig. 5 J](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}, right), indicating that multiple rounds of complete extra cell cycles occurred with normal adult wing cuticle differentiation. This finding was consistent with our observation that E2F + Rca1 expression also increased the frequency of larger clones in the wing (Fig. S2 D).
We hypothesized that high APC/C activity after exit could limit E2F-induced bypass of cell cycle exit by degrading key E2F targets. This is consistent with our finding that E2F1--DP-overexpressing cells do not accumulate the known APC/C targets CycA, Geminin (Gem; [@bib85]), CycB, or Stg (based on a Stg-GFP fusion protein) after prolonged exit in wings or eyes (40--44 h APF; [Fig. 6, A, C, E, and G](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}; and [Fig. S3](http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/jcb.200910006/DC1)), despite expressing high levels of *cycA*, *gem*, *stg*, and *cycB* transcripts by microarray (see supplemental dataset and JCB DataViewer). In contrast, cells expressing E2F + Rca1 together accumulated CycA in wings ([Fig. 6 B](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}), Stg-GFP in eyes ([Fig. 6 D](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}), Gem in eyes ([Fig. 6 H](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}), and very low levels of CycB in wings and eyes ([Fig. 6 F](#fig6){ref-type="fig"} and Fig. S3).
{#fig6}
In contrast to other cyclins, E2F activity is able to induce CycE protein accumulation after prolonged exit ([@bib10]) because CycE is not a target for degradation by the APC/C. CycE activity is thought to inhibit the APC/C ([@bib69]; [@bib62]). Therefore, an increase in APC/C levels could raise the CycE threshold after exit by requiring increased CycE for complete APC/C inhibition. Consistent with this, we found that cells overexpressing high levels of CycE--Cdk2 accumulated APC/C targets such as Gem and CycA after exit ([Fig. 6, I and J](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}).
We suggest that high APC/C activity after exit raises the threshold of CycE and Stg required for cell cycle reentry of differentiated cells. This appears to be increased even further by aberrant E2F activity in differentiated cells by increasing the expression of several core components as well as inducing expression of the activator *fzy*. This could explain why the increased CycE expression provided by high E2F activity alone is insufficient to bypass cell cycle exit after terminal differentiation.
Discussion
==========
Studies of terminal differentiation and cell cycle exit have largely focused on events initiating the inhibition of CycE and E2F activity (for reviews see [@bib51]; [@bib9]; [@bib49]; [@bib56]). Several genes have been identified that can temporarily delay exit either by increasing cyclin--Cdk activity or by preventing E2F inhibition in *Drosophila*. Relatively little attention, though, has focused on the mechanisms that ultimately act to establish and maintain robust cell cycle exit in these situations. The data we present in this study suggest a model for robust maintenance of cell cycle exit in terminally differentiated cells, even in the face of aberrant CycE or E2F activity.
Robust cell cycle exit mechanisms
---------------------------------
Previous studies in *Drosophila* have suggested that cell cycle exit is normally triggered by a decrease in CycE--Cdk2 activity, through the cooperation of multiple CycE inhibitors such as Dacapo, the CycE ubiquitin ligase Fbw7 (Archipelago in *Drosophila*), Hippo signaling, and *cycE* transcriptional down-regulation ([@bib42]; [@bib50]; [@bib21]; [@bib14]; [@bib74]; [@bib53]). This leads to hypophosphorylation of Rbf, resulting in E2F--DP target gene repression and stable cell cycle arrest. Yet, cell cycle exit still occurs in mutants lacking these CycE inhibitors and in the presence of high CycE--Cdk2 activity, demonstrating that additional mechanisms can trigger exit ([@bib10]).
APC/C^Fzr^ activity normally increases at G1 arrest, degrading G2 and mitotic cell cycle targets such as CycA, CycB, and Stg (Fig. S2; [@bib69]; [@bib58]; [@bib75]; [@bib84]). This function of the APC/C is essential for timely exit, as loss of the APC/C is sufficient to cause an additional cell cycle, likely via unrestrained CycA activity ([Table I](#tbl1){ref-type="table"}; [@bib69]; [@bib32]; [@bib10]; [@bib75]). The mammalian APC/C^Fzr/Cdh1^ has been shown to interact with RB to promote cell cycle exit via degradation of Skp2 and subsequent stabilization of p27^Kip1^ ([@bib7]). A similar mechanism may also act to promote exit in *Drosophila* via APC/C^Fzr^, Rbf, and Dacapo, but functions for a *Drosophila* Skp2 homologue in cell cycle control have not yet been examined.
When E2F is aberrantly activated in differentiating cells, expression of several APC/C^Fzy^ components increases and may cooperate with high APC/C^Fzr^ to limit the accumulation of mitotic cyclins and other essential E2F transcriptional targets for cycling such as Stg ([Figs. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"} and [6](#fig6){ref-type="fig"}). CycE--Cdk2 activity has been shown to inhibit APC/C ([@bib69]; [@bib62]), and thus, the increased APC/C activity present in differentiating cells may raise the threshold levels of CycE required for APC/C suppression. Our data suggest that this may explain, at least in part, why supraphysiological levels of ectopic CycE are required to bypass cell cycle exit in differentiating wings and eyes ([Fig. 7](#fig7){ref-type="fig"}).
{#fig7}
If CycE--Cdk2 is aberrantly activated in differentiating cells, cell cycle exit is temporarily delayed with cells arresting at the G1-S transition or in early S phase with phosphorylated histone locus bodies and some partially replicated DNA ([@bib10]). In such cells, the S phase--dependent degradation of E2F1 protein by the Cul4 ubiquitin E3 ligase appears to remain on, leading to an increased ratio of repressive E2F2 to E2F1. This ultimately results in stable CycE--Cdk2-resistant repression of E2F target genes and cell cycle exit ([Fig. 1](#fig1){ref-type="fig"}). If E2F2 is absent, aberrant CycE--Cdk2 leads to S-phase initiation and PIP box--dependent Cul4-mediated destruction of E2F1, resulting in loss of both E2Fs and thereby loss of all E2F--DP function. This situation is similar to that in *Dp* mutants, which lack all E2F-dependent transcriptional function. In these mutants, critical cell cycle genes, including Stg and other cyclin--Cdk regulators, are protected from derepression ([Fig. 4 B](#fig4){ref-type="fig"}), and their expression remains low, ensuring a noncycling state.
The S phase--dependent degradation of E2F1 occurs normally during proliferation ([@bib68]), so how does the normally transient degradation of E2F1 have such a profound effect on the cell cycle after terminal differentiation? During proliferative stages, overexpression of CycE--Cdk2 does not arrest cells, and E2F1 is able to reaccumulate after S phase. In contrast, cells with high CycE--Cdk2 after differentiation fail to complete their final G1-S transition or arrest in S phase with low E2F1 protein levels ([@bib10]), suggesting that the E2F1 degradation machinery remains active. This arrest may be partially caused by the depletion of E2F target genes critical for S-phase completion. But the arrest of *rbf^−/−^* cells overexpressing CycE in the wing blade, which have high levels of E2F target gene expression from previous cell cycles, suggests that there may also be an activation of a checkpoint or inhibition of a key activity for S-phase completion independent of E2F transcriptional regulation after terminal differentiation. Although we do not know the specific mechanism for this arrest, the addition of Stg is able to restore cycling in *rbf^−/−^* cells overexpressing CycE ([Fig. 3](#fig3){ref-type="fig"} and [Table I](#tbl1){ref-type="table"}). This demonstrates that Stg or a target of Cdk1 activity is able to bypass the arrest of cells with high CycE--Cdk2 after terminal differentiation to allow E2F1 reaccumulation.
Importantly, the cell cycle control mechanisms we describe in this study do not act alone at exit. They likely cooperate with other cell cycle inhibitors known to promote exit such as Dacapo, Fbw7, and Hippo signaling. These cell cycle controls together limit cell cycle reentry to ensure robust cell cycle exit upon terminal differentiation.
APC/C functions in terminally differentiated cells
--------------------------------------------------
The data presented in this study demonstrate an important role for the APC/C in maintaining cell cycle exit in the face of aberrant E2F activity in terminally differentiated postmitotic tissues ([Fig. 5](#fig5){ref-type="fig"}). Interestingly, work in mammalian neurons has shown additional postmitotic functions for the APC/C in mature cells ([@bib61]). Both the APC/C^Fzr/Cdh1^ and APC/C^Cdc20^ complexes carry out important nonmitotic functions in the control of axon and dendrite growth and patterning, synapse development, and neuron survival ([@bib37]; [@bib43]; [@bib30]; [@bib36]; [@bib82]). This suggests that the APC/C complexes in many terminally differentiated cells carry out previously unappreciated dual roles in promoting postmitotic cell maturation and protecting against aberrant cell cycle reentry. This is supported by the recent finding that Cdh1 is a haplo-insufficient tumor suppressor in mice ([@bib25]), although further studies will be required to determine whether the tumors in Cdh1 heterozygotes arise from defects in cell cycle exit, cell cycle reentry, or genetic instability in proliferating cells.
Cell cycle exit, terminal differentiation, and cancer
-----------------------------------------------------
It is becoming increasingly clear that certain highly differentiated cells retain the ability to enter the cell cycle. In some cases, this serves a beneficial regenerative function, as recently shown for terminally differentiated cardiomyocytes in the zebrafish heart ([@bib34]; [@bib35]). But in other cases, this ability seems to be a part of the normal tissue development, as shown for differentiated horizontal cells that reenter the cell cycle for their final division in the zebrafish retina before full maturation ([@bib28]). Proliferation of terminally differentiated mammalian cells has also been observed in monocytes and macrophages lacking the c-Maf and MafB transcription factors ([@bib5]). Strikingly, Maf double knockout macrophages appear to fully retain their differentiation-associated functions in vivo despite exhibiting continued cycling for months, demonstrating a clear independence of differentiation and cell cycle exit in these cells ([@bib5]).
We have shown that cell cycle exit is not essential for terminal differentiation in *Drosophila* eyes and wings. Evasion of the robust cell cycle exit mechanism by loss of the tumor suppressor *rbf* together with deregulation of CycE and Stg can lead to tumor-like overproliferation of differentiated tissues ([Fig. 3](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}). Our results may be relevant to specific cancers such as retinoblastoma, where aberrantly dividing differentiated cells have been proposed to be the cancer cell of origin ([@bib13]; [@bib1]; [@bib81]). Aberrant division of differentiated cells could lead to genetic instability and acquisition of secondary mutations, leading to dedifferentiation and ultimately to metastatic cancer. Our data show that the robust exit mechanism is essential for proper tissue development and suggest that even terminally differentiated cells should not be excluded as a potential source of cancer.
Materials and methods
=====================
Fly strains
-----------
The following fly strains were used: w^1118^; y w hsflp^122^;UAS-CycE ([@bib52]); y w hsflp^122^;+;UAS-CycE,UAS-Stg ([@bib52]); y w hsflp^122^;+;UAS-CycE,UAS-Cdk2 ([@bib48]); y w hsflp^122^;UAS-E2F,UAS-DP/Cyo-GFP (UAS-DP from N. Dyson, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; [@bib52]); y w hsflp^122^;UASp-GFP-E2F1^WT^;UAS-CycE,UAS-Cdk2 and y w hsflp^122^;UASp-GFP-E2F1^PIP3A^;UAS-CycE,UAS-Cdk2 (UASp-GFP-E2F1 from [@bib68]); w;UAS~T~-GFP-E2F1^WT^ and w;UAS~T~-GFP-E2F1^WT\ PIP3A^ (provided by J. Davidson and R. Duronio, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC); y w hsflp^122^;UAS-CycA;+ ([@bib32]); w;act\>CD2\>Gal4,UAS-GFP ([@bib57]); w;tub\>CD2\>Gal4,UAS-GFP;tub-Gal80^TS^ (tub\>CD2\>Gal4 from F. Pignoni, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Gal80^TS^ described in [@bib47]); w;tub\>CD2\>Gal4,UAS-GFP;tub-Gal80^TS^,UAS-Diap (UAS-Diap from [@bib44]); w;*ap*-Gal4,UAS-GFP/CyO;tub-Gal80^TS^ (*ap*-Gal4 described in [@bib11]); FRT19A,w,rbf^14^/FM7 (from W. Du, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL; [@bib17]); y w hsflp122;+;UAS-Rca1 (from F. Sprenger, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany; [@bib85]); and FRT19A,w,rbf^14^/FM7;+; UAS-CycE,UAS-Stg.
FRT19A,ywhsflp^122^, tub-Gal80; tub-Gal4,UAS-GFP/MKRS ([@bib41]); y w hsflp^122^,tub-Gal4,UAS-GFP;FRT42D tub-Gal80 ([@bib33]); w;+; act\>CD2\>Gal4, PCNA-GFP (PCNA-GFP from [@bib76]); FRT42D,Dp^a3^/CyO-GFP;+ (from [@bib24]); w;Dp^a1^/CyO-GFP and w;Dp^a2^/Cyo-GFP ([@bib65]); w; de2f2^c03344^ FRT40A (from M. Frolov, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL; [@bib3]); de2f2^G5.1^ and de2f2^76Q1^ (both from [@bib22]); and w; Stg-GFP Yale Trap insertions YD0685 and YD0246 were also used. w; UAS-Fzr^RNAi^, w; UAS-Fzy^RNAi^, w; UAS-Cortex^RNAi^, w; UAS-APC2^RNAi^, and w; UAS-APC8^RNAi^ are all from the Vienna *Drosophila* RNAi Center (\#25550, \#44834, \#41472, \#2993, and \#52279, respectively).
Antibodies
----------
Antibodies used were rabbit α--phospho-Ser10--histone H3 (PH3; 1:4,000; Millipore), mouse α--phospho-Ser10--histone H3 (PH3; 1:1,000; Millipore), mouse α-MPM2 (1:500; Millipore), mouse α-BrdU (1:100; BD), rat α-ELAV (embryonic lethal abnormal vision; 1:200; Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), rabbit α-GFP (1:1,000; Invitrogen), mouse α--rat CD2 (1:800; AbD Serotec), mouse α-CycA (1:100; Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), mouse α-CycB (1:50; Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), rabbit α-Gem (1:100; provided by B. Calvi, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN), and rabbit α-Fzr (1:3,000; provided by C. Lehner, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland). Appropriate secondary antibodies were Alexa Fluor 488, 568, or 633 conjugated (Invitrogen) and used at 1:4,000.
Histology
---------
Pupae, staged from white prepupae (0 h) at 25°C, were dissected and fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in 1× PBS for 30 min at room temperature. Pupal cuticle was removed from wings after fixation. Tissues 24--36 h APF were blocked in PBS + 0.1% Triton X-100 + 1% BSA for 1 h. Tissues 36--44 h APF were blocked in PBS + 0.3% Triton X-100 + 1% BSA (PAT) overnight. For stages after 44 h APF, we incorporated a methanol dehydration series after fixation (25, 50, 75, and 100% methanol/1× PBS, 10 min each) that allowed improved antibody penetration, increased sensitivity, and BrdU detection for tissues 44--60 h APF. After step-wise rehydration, tissues were blocked in PAT overnight, and antibody staining or BrdU incorporation was performed as described previously ([@bib10]; [@bib85]) using Alexa Fluor 488--, Alexa Fluor 568-- or Alexa Fluor 633--conjugated secondary antibodies and Vectashield mounting medium (Vector Laboratories). Wing hinge and notum as well as head capsule and antenna were excluded from our analyses. 1 µg/ml Hoechst 33258 (Invitrogen) was used to label nuclei. Confocal sections and differential interference contrast images were collected on a microscope (LSM 510; Carl Zeiss, Inc.) using a 25× objective. Single representative sections (2.2 µm) are shown, except for [Fig. 3 (E and F)](#fig3){ref-type="fig"}, which are projections of eight sections at a 1-µm interval. Images were cropped using Photoshop (Adobe). Mitotic index was calculated as the mean number of PH3-positive cells/100 GFP-positive cells among multiple clones in several samples, counted blind, from at least two independent experiments.
Clonal overexpression
---------------------
We used the *hs*-Flp/FRT *tub*\>CD2\>Gal4 method for clonal overexpression, with *tub* temperature-sensitive Gal80 (Gal80^TS^; [@bib47]). Gal80^TS^ was inactivated at 29°C. Hours APF are presented as equivalent time at 25°C for simplicity. All incubation times were adjusted appropriately as described previously ([@bib10]). Loss of function clones (or appropriate controls) were generated using MARCM ([@bib41]). Larvae were heat shocked for 45 min at 37°C at 60--72 h after egg deposition, collected for staging at 0 h APF, aged at 25°C, and dissected at the indicated times.
Clonal cell counts
------------------
Nonoverlapping clones labeled with membrane-bound GFP, expressing the indicated regulators, were induced at 0 h APF (white prepupae) and fixed 54--56 h later, nuclei were labeled with 1 µg/ml Hoechst 33258, and cells/clone were counted. We excluded wings with \>50 clones/wing (to reduce the possibility of independent clones merging). We also excluded clones in the wing margin, hinge, notum area, and hemocytes in the veins. No apoptosis inhibitor was used in the clonal cell count experiments.
Microarray
----------
For microarray experiments, 10 pupal wings from animals expressing E2F1 and DP (*ap*-Gal4/UAS-E2F1, UAS-DP, *tub*-Gal80^TS^) and controls (*ap*-Gal4/UAS, *tub*-Gal80^TS^) or *Dp* mutants (*w;Dp^a1/a2^*) and controls (*w*) were dissected at the appropriate time points. For E2F1--DP samples, temperature shifts limited the overexpression to pupal stages. For L3 discs, E2F1--DP was expressed for the equivalent of 24 h before dissection of wandering larvae. RNA was isolated using standard techniques (TRIZOL), and cDNA synthesis was performed with one subsequent round of T7-dependent linear RNA amplification using the commercially available Message AmpTM kit (Applied Biosystems) as described previously ([@bib63]). Amplified RNA was labeled in a subsequent cDNA synthesis reaction according to NimbleGen protocols and hybridized to NimbleGen 4-plex 60-mer *Drosophila* expression arrays (<http://www.nimblegen.com>). Hybridizations were repeated four times for E2F expression and three times for *Dp* mutants with independently obtained biological replicates to ensure maximal confidence in data reproducibility. Statistically significant changes with a 1.5-fold cutoff were determined using analysis of variance ([@bib77]). Hierarchical clustering was performed using the Genesis program ([@bib73]). GO enrichment was examined using GOrilla (<http://cbl-gorilla.cs.technion.ac.il>) and FatiGO (<http://www.babelomics.org>) programs.
### Additional description of microarray data.
In addition to the analysis provided in the results section, we also examined the other clusters of transcripts affected by E2F activity in the wing. The second largest cluster of coregulated genes in E2F-overexpressing and *Dp* mutant wings was repressed in differentiating cells. Because E2F1--DP is thought to act as a transcriptional activator, this group of repressed genes is somewhat unexpected. These genes are not repressed indirectly by a delay in cell cycle exit, as they are similarly repressed in *Dp* mutants, which exit normally. We also do not believe that this group is caused by E2F1--DP repressive complexes blocking transcription, as such targets would be expected to increase rather than decrease in *Dp* mutants. One possibility suggested by [@bib8] is that the extensive transcriptional up-regulation caused by E2F (or in *Dp* mutants) could cause some spurious antisense regulation of genes. Although we have not investigated this possibility, \>0% of the transcriptional changes we observed in both genotypes are indeed increases in transcript levels. Overall, this group of repressed transcripts is significantly enriched for genes involved in monooxygenase activity (caused by six cytochromeP450 genes; P \< 8.08^−4^) and genes with catalytic activity (P \< 5.85^−4^), suggesting some functional significance for this group.
We were surprised to find that most transcripts were not affected by E2F overexpression or *Dp* loss at the proliferative L3 time point. This may be because E2F target gene expression is already high in controls during proliferation, as evident by the high activity of the E2F reporter construct (PCNA-GFP) and high levels of E2F target gene expression at this stage ([@bib76]). This is also supported by our finding that the few transcripts up-regulated by E2F and/or *Dp* loss at L3 are normally at low abundance in wings and were significantly (P \< 0.009) enriched for genes with expression one standard deviation lower than the mean gene expression. These transcripts were also enriched for genes identified as group D or E germline/differentiation genes specifically regulated by E2F2 in [@bib16], which we find to be ectopically induced in nongermline tissues by E2F overexpression and *Dp* loss (examples include *spn-E*, *nanos*, *BthD*, CG6790, CG8316, and CG7628). Thus, the transcriptional activation of E2F targets at proliferative stages seems to be masked by the high levels of E2F activity already present in the controls. Interestingly, this also suggests that normal levels of E2F targets are somehow maintained in an E2F--DP-independent manner in proliferating *Dp* mutant cells.
Western blotting
----------------
Western blots were performed as described previously ([@bib60]) with the following modifications. Protein was isolated from 20 pupal or larval wings (with notum removed) by boiling for 5 min in 40 µl of 1× SDS sample buffer containing β-mercaptoethanol. 20 µl of sample was then used for SDS-PAGE. Rabbit anti-Fzr (provided by C. Lehner) was used at 1:3,000 with the appropriate HRP-conjugated secondary antibody.
Online supplemental material
----------------------------
Fig. S1 shows that bypass of cell cycle exit is limited, even in the absence of all E2F--DP function. Fig. S2 shows GFP-labeled clones expressing the indicated cell cycle regulators generated using *hs*-FLP *tub*\>Gal4/UAS, *tub*-Gal80^TS^. Fig. S3 shows GFP-marked clones expressing the indicated cell cycle regulators generated using *hs*-FLP *tub*\>Gal4/UAS, *tub*-Gal80^TS^ and examined for CycB or Gem. The complete E2F and *Dp^−/−^* array dataset (provided as tab-delimited text) is included as a txt file. Complete microarray clusters are also available for viewing on the JCB DataViewer. Online supplemental material is available at <http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/jcb.200910006/DC1>.
We thank members of the Edgar and Schubiger Laboratories, especially J. Bandura and N. Zielke for helpful discussions, the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center Imaging and Array Facilities for help with data acquisition and array hybridizations, and S. Thomas, J. Davison, and M. Morgan for help with statistical analysis. Thanks also to E. Payandeh for help with mitotic index quantifications. We thank Drs. B. Calvi, W. Du, R. Duronio, C. Lehner, F. Sprenger, M. Frolov, and N. Dyson and the Bloomington and Vienna Stock Centers, The Yale Flytrap collection, and the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank for flies and/or antibodies.
L.A. Buttitta was supported by a Leukemia and Lymphoma Society Special Fellowship (LLS\#3370-09) and National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant (K99 GM086517). A Developmental Biology training grant (T32 HD07183) supported A.J. Katzaroff. This work was also supported by an NIH grant (GM070887) to B.A. Edgar.
Abbreviations used in this paper:*apApterous*APC/Canaphase-promoting complex/cyclosomeAPFafter puparium formationCD2cluster of differentiation 2DPdimerization partnerElavembryonic lethal abnormal visionFzrFzy relatedFzyFizzyGemGemininGOGene OntologyMARCMmosaic analysis with a repressible cell markerMPM2mitotic phosphoprotein marker 2PCNAproliferating cell nuclear antigenPIPPCNA interaction protein motifRbfRB familyRca1regulator of CycAStgStringUASupstream activating sequenceWTwild type
| {
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Q:
Virtual Host ServerName without Port
Let's say that I need to setup a virtual host with the server name text.dev, is there a way so I can enter test.dev in my browser without a port number? My xampp is running on port 8080. I have to run on this port.
Currently, I can get test.dev:8080 to go the correct directory, but is there a way I can set test.dev to automatically go to port 8080. Any help would be appreciated, Thanks.
A:
This is not possible directly they way you sketch it. This has nothing to do with the virtual host configuration, but with the browser behavior. If you do not specify a port, then the browser will always connect to port 80. nothing you can do against that.
So your only bet is to listen on port 80. If you cannot or do not want to do that with your http server, then you have to forward requests from that port to the one your virtual host listens on. There are several options for such port forwarding: firewall based, by using a simple socket listener which acts like a proxy or by means of a tunnel, for example setup using the ssh tools.
| {
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Fracture planes in an ice-bilayer model membrane system.
Experiments with transferred stearate layers were performed to determine the location of fracture planes in frozen ice-lipid systems. Bilayers and multilayers of carbon-14-labeled stearate were frozen in contact with an aqueous phase and then fractured. The distribution of radioactivity on both sides of the fracture showed that the stearate layers were cleaved apart predominantly in the plane of their hydrocarbon tails. Because bilayers split in this manner, it was possible to measure time-dependent exchange of label between the layers. Exchange occurred with a half-time of 50 minutes in the presence of calcium and 25 minutes in the absence of calcium. Since stearate bilayers and multilayers are models of hydrophobically stabilized structures, the strong influence of their hydrophobic region on the fracture plane provides an explanation of how the freeze-etch technique of electron microscopy can expose inner, hydrophobic faces of cell membranes. | {
"pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts"
} |
Tag Archives: richardson
As an artist, you spend countless hours in your studio. Hours developing the story behind each drawing. Days working endlessly creating the perfect drawing, ensuring even the tiniest of details – the ear hair on the kit fox – is … Continue reading →
What’s happening in Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex? Come check out the art scene May 4th and 5th in Richardson, Texas! While you’re at it – come by and say hi! I’ll be there with all of my new artwork, including this … Continue reading → | {
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My dog recently went blind. Now he will not eat, but drinks
Resolved Question:
My dog recently went blind. Now he will not eat, but drinks lots of water. He is so weak, he can barely stand up. We can not afford another vet bill since the medicine for his eyes and that visit were almost $200. He is about 5 years old. Should we just hold him and pet him until he dies or is there anything reasonable we can do?
Not really. This is hard to explain. Parts of his eyes became cloudy. One eye was totally gone. Another has partial sight after we gave him some medicine for it. I don't think the vet did any blood tests. He did not eat for a few days. Then he started to eat. Now he won't eat again for the past two days.
Ok, well I would definitely suggest you have some labwork preformed. I know it can be expensive but we need some answers before you decide what the next step is. A young dog like this with eye cloudiness that is drinking alot of water . . . the first thing I have to think about is diabetes. If this is the case then treatment should be instituted to help reverese the clinical signs of drinking alot, possibly the weakness etc. Caring for a diabetic dog can be expensive though so that is something else to consider. If you think he may be on the verge of dying, then I would not let him die in your arms if you think he is suffering. There is a very humane way of putting him to sleep without suffering and depending on how severe he is this may be a very fair and just option for this guy. I hope this helps to answer your question. Please let me know if you have any further questions.
This is probably wasting your time, but I would just like you to realize he was attacked by a coyote two years ago and torn open. He dragged himself back to our house. A veternary hospital operated for two days. He was just about dead. Then he pulled out of it and lived. They only charged us $2000 for the procedure. This was far under what they could have charged. It took over a year to pay that back. Then he gets attacked by a pitbull in our front yard and survives that. Then he goes almost blind. We want so much to help him. He is a survivor. But now he is dependent on us. From what I wrote before, is there much of a chance he can survive this time too?
oh wow, sorry to hear about all of this! WEll it is tough to say for sure. I would want to know what is going on, if he is diabetic and not treated, then unfortunately no. If he is just laying in your arms, weak, not eating etc, I think it will be very difficult for him to pull through. If this was just an external problem, sure, but I think there are 1 or more organs involved and those just don't get better. I'm very sorry.
<p>Oh heavens, I am so very sorry. IT sounds like he atleast went peacefully in those who loved him's arms. </p><p>Again I am very sorry. If there are any questions you have you are more than welcome to ask!</p> | {
"pile_set_name": "Pile-CC"
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Colin Budd
Sir Colin Richard Budd, (born 31 August 1945) is a British civil servant and diplomat. He served as Chef de Cabinet to the Vice President of the European Commission from 1993 to 1996; as Deputy Secretary of the Cabinet Office, Head of the Overseas and Defence Secretariat, and Chair of the Joint Intelligence Committee from 1996 to 1997; and as the United Kingdom's Ambassador to the Netherlands from 2001 to 2005.
References
Category:1945 births
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Category:Civil servants in the Foreign Office
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Category:Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Category:European civil servants
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Category:British officials of the European Union | {
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Kaattu Rani (1985 film)
Kaattu Rani () is a 1985 Indian Malayalam-language film, directed by A. T. Raghu and produced by Unnimary. The film stars Shankar, Unnimary, Anuradha and Sudheer in the lead roles. The film has musical score by Rajan Nagendra.
Cast
Shankar
Unnimary
Anuradha
Sudheer
Soundtrack
The music was composed by Rajan Nagendra and the lyrics were written by Anthikkad Mani.
References
External links
Category:1985 films
Category:Indian films
Category:1980s Malayalam-language films | {
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dalam masa 3 hari jer dah siap.....aheh...... if nak tunggu perfect, alamat x kan start2 la jugak.. but we try to improve it from time to time..ai also supply the perfumes to my sista in UTEM....maklumlah budak2 univ kan kaya....aheh...n a few friends who want to cari duit tepi2....aheh...hurm.....this is just a starting....give me comment or suggestion for the improvement...really appreciate it....n if u want any perfume with the cheaper price than retail price, u can ask me, n i will find it for u n give a special price..u wont regret!! aheh...no need nak tunggu warehouse sale lagi....okey..!!thats all for now....i'll update later...nak minum kopi O Nanyang dulu....Chiow!! | {
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"FINCH:" "You are being watched." "The government has a secret system." "A machine that spies on you every hour of every day." "I know because I built it." "I designed the machine to detect acts of terror, but it sees everything." "Violent crimes involving ordinary people." "People like you." "Crimes the government considered irrelevant." "They wouldn't act, so I decided I would." "But I needed a partner." "Someone with the skills to intervene." "Hunted by the authorities, we work in secret." "You will never find us." "But victim or perpetrator, if your number's up, we'll find you." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "[YUSUF GRUNTS]" "HARRIS:" "He's all yours." "I already told the other Americans, I deliver fruits and vegetables." "You deliver explosives for al Qaeda." "Your cell is responsible for a suicide bomb that killed three U.S. Soldiers in Fallujah." "You should tell me the location of the remainder of those explosives." "Talk to me or else you're gonna have to talk to my boss." "Believe me when I tell you, you don't wanna talk to my boss." "All right." "CARTER:" "Hello, Yusuf." "ELIAS [OVER PHONE]:" "Getting too close." "Enough already." "She goes today." "But it's gotta be clean." "VALENTINO:" "Can't keep coming in here..." "I gotta go." "Detective Carter, Mrs. Kovach is here to bail out her husband." " Ugh, again?" " Figured maybe you could talk to her." "CARTER:" "Thanks." "I work Homicide, Mrs. Kovach." "Okay?" "I'm the one who has to investigate when your husband finally beats you to death." "Look, every time you tell us it was an accident you're strengthening the story he's gonna use to get out of it." "That you were clumsy, accident-prone." "Do you hear me?" "The stairs." "I fell down the stairs." "If he puts his hands on you again, call me." "Sorry, I have to go." "FUSCO:" "I don't know why you bother." "You can't save them all." "That's a homicide waiting to happen." "Figured I'd try to stop one for a change." "DNA came back on the shooter you winged a couple weeks ago the guy who took a shot at you." "Half the DNA matched Marlene Elias." "The other half, Don Moretti." "CARTER:" "Carl Elias, the bastard son you left to rot in the system after you murdered his mother almost 40 years ago." "Your mistress." "Told you before, sweetheart." "I ain't the father of nobody by that name." "DNA says otherwise, Don." "You're a perfect match." "And guess what." "Your son's all grown up now." "Just a few of his recent victims:" "Retired detective Bernie Sullivan." "Your old capo Vincent DeLuca." "What is this?" "What do I care?" "I'm gonna die an old man in here." "Maybe sooner than you think." "You killed his mother, left him to the wolves." "What do you think he's gonna do to you?" "I wouldn't expect any Father's Day cards." "If you help me, I can offer you protective custody." "Who do you think you're talking to?" "You don't get it." "Elias can get to you anywhere." "He can find someone you know, turn them on you." "And you know what?" "It's not a question of if, but when." "Telling me this guy already took out a cop took a shot at you because you got too close and you came here to warn me?" "Heh." "Consider it a courtesy call." "There a task force going after this Elias?" " Or is it just you, detective?" " What is that supposed to mean?" "Way it looks from my side of the fence, you're all alone." "Sounds to me like maybe he's coming after you." "MAN [OVER RADIO]:" "All units respond." "Shooting at 168th and Audubon." "CARTER:" "I came as soon as I heard the description." "FUSCO:" "Got a young African-American male gunned down on his way home." "I got 9 mm casings all over the curb." "Looks like it was a drive-by." "CARTER:" "Any witnesses see the car?" "This neighborhood?" "You're kidding, right?" "[CARTER SIGHS]" " Ronnie Middleton." " You knew this kid?" "He witnessed a shooting six months ago up in the Bronx." "ID'd the shooter, a neighborhood thug, Hector Alvarez." " This kid was a snitch?" " Yeah." "He got cold feet, though." "Recanted his testimony." "DA dropped the case." "Looks like Hector found him." "He won't get away with it again." "Was Ronnie carrying?" "Just a, uh, cell phone and that soda bottle." "CARTER:" "Mariquitas cola." " Mexican soda." " They don't sell that everywhere." "I think I know a place that does." " And I know somebody saw something." " Getting them to talk is another matter." "I'm sure you'll charm something out of them, Fusco." "We've been working together for a while now." "My friends call me Lionel." "You got a first name?" "Sure." "Detective." "FUSCO:" "My name is Detective Fusco with the N.Y.P.D." "If anyone has seen or heard anything pertaining to what happened here tonight, you can call me at..." "I already have your card, Lionel." " What the hell are you doing here?" " Just checking in." "What happened here?" "Lead poisoning." "It's going around the neighborhood." " N.Y.P.D., Mr..." " Castillo." "Um, I'm closed for the night." "You see what happened out here tonight?" "I was busy in the back." "Uh, I didn't hear anything till the police showed up." "See, I find that hard to believe, Mr. Castillo." "After that young man bought this Mariquitas soda from your store he walked out and got shot like a dog in the street." "He bought the soda, he left the store." "I heard the shots, but I didn't see anything." "So you heard shots, you didn't look out, see a car take off?" "Please." "Not here." "I understand." "Why don't you come down to the precinct tomorrow?" "Give a statement, just what you saw." "Okay, I'll come down tomorrow." "FINCH [OVER PHONE]:" "Mr. Reese, where have you been?" "We've got another number." "If you're gonna tell me Ronnie Middleton, you're a little late, Finch." " Kid's already gone." " What?" "Where are you?" "At the scene of a homicide wondering how the machine can see one and miss another." "I'm sorry, Mr. Reese." "The machine detects acts of premeditation." "And I'm afraid we've got a big problem with the one it's seeing right now." "Whose number came up?" "A mutual friend of ours." "Detective Carter." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "Wanna tell me where you were last night?" "Was about to ask you the same thing." "Working a new case." "Thank you." "And I don't have the curfew." "You weren't home when I called and you didn't answer your cell." "I was only a half an hour late." "Yeah." "You're staying with Grandma till I'm off this case." "Hey, Taylor." "[GIRLS CHUCKLE]" "So I saw you got that, uh, homecoming dance coming up Friday." "You gonna go?" "It must be tough being a freshman, all the girls going out with older guys." "I already asked somebody." " Really?" "Well, I want to meet her." " I'm gonna be late for school." "I'm taking you." "I have time." "Stay." "I thought I charged this thing." "TAYLOR:" "After you." " Thank you." "Raised you well." "Did you know she had a son?" "FINCH:" "Didn't know you cared." "No dad in the picture for some time." "FINCH:" "You've been looking into the detective, Mr. Reese?" "REESE:" "It pays to know the person coming after you, Finch." "Okay, they're leaving now." "You'd better hurry up." " Almost got it." " Forget it." "Get out of there now." "Do we have picture?" "And a GPS tracker." "Nice work, Harold." "We need eyes and ears on her 24/7, even inside the precinct." "REESE:" "Finch, Carter's going right into Hector's shop." "FINCH:" "Primary suspect in the Ronnie Middleton shooting." "How's the car business, Hector?" " You say that like you really care." " Care about where you were last night." "Go ahead, spin that yarn, dazzle me." "Sorry, I'm a domesticated man." "I was back with my old lady watching some show." "Ask her." "Of course." "Always with the loyal alibi." "Monica, he's handsome, but you can do better." "You got some huevos coming down here all alone." "So that wasn't your muscle car, took a detour into Washington Heights last night?" " No, I hear it's dangerous there." "I know y'all heard what happened to Ronnie Middleton." "I heard he ate a bullet that didn't agree with him." "Nice shop, nice tools." "Doing well for yourself, Hector." "Make all this money fixing up old cars?" "I got a record." "I gotta work for myself." "This is a nice ride." "Mind if I check it out?" "Sure as hell do." "You're gonna need a warrant for that." "You messed up taking that kid out, Hector." "It's a shame what happened to that kid, even if he was a punk-ass snitch." "You won't get away with it again." "I will find a way to bring you down." "Good luck with that warrant, detective." "Didn't know you collected dolls, Finch." "As you know, I collect rare books, Mr. Reese, 180-gram vinyl and a Xerox Alto when I can find one." " This doll is for Detective Fusco." " Fusco's into dolls?" "He is now, if we want to keep eyes on Detective Carter." "I'll make sure it lands on his desk." "I've been looking into our new number." "Carter, Detective First Grade, Homicide Task Force." "Single mom, teenage son." "Served as an Army interrogator." "Passed the bar in '04, gave up to go back on the force." " It's impressive, Mr. Reese." " Impressive lady, honest to a fault." "Which means she made a lot of enemies both in the criminal world and in her own department." "I've narrowed the list of possible suspects to a little over 300 or so." "Day in the life of a detective." "Any more immediate threats?" "Hector Alvarez." "Indicted for homicide on a case she worked six months ago till the charges were dropped." "Edward Kovach, repeat felon spouse abuser whose wife she's taken a keen interest in protecting." "And then there's Elias, ruthless killer, organized crime boss who's already taken a shot at her." "She's a walking target." "Gonna have to keep her in sight at all times." "You have to be careful." "Get too close, you risk getting caught." "That's a chance I gotta take." " Am I supposed to let her catch a bullet?" " What will you do if she catches you?" "Oh, I'm sure you'll figure something out, Harold." "What the hell?" "[CELL PHONE RINGING]" "Detective Fusco." "Happy birthday, Lionel." "Thanks, but no thanks." "It's not my birthday." "What are you trying to tell me?" "Just put it on your desk and face it towards Carter." "Why?" "REESE:" "Because there's a camera inside and we need to know everyone she's talking to." "You know something I don't?" " She in trouble?" "REESE:" "You tell me." "Ask around with some of your corrupt pals inside the force." " What's going on?" "What do you need?" " To find who wants to take Carter out." "I can't be involved in something like that." "No, Lionel, just turn the camera towards her desk." "[FUSCO SIGHS]" "Nice doll." "Yeah, my, uh, son gave it to me." "How'd it go with the old don?" "Tried to reach out, see what he knew about his biological son." " Elias, huh?" " Old man just shut me down." "Seems to think every cop is dirty." "Ugh, yeah, maybe back in his day." "That bodega owner Castillo come in yet?" " Not that I know of." " Hmm." "Gonna have to pay him another visit." " You coming?" " No, you know what?" "You go ahead." "Uh, I got a thing." "I'll catch up with you later, okay?" "Okay." "[POLICE SIREN WAILING]" "BC:" "Whoa, whoa, whoa!" " I ain't done nothing!" " Hands where I can see." "Got any needles?" "Anything that's gonna stick me?" "BC:" "This is a violation of my civil liberties." "REESE [OVER PHONE]:" "Finch, I don't like the looks of this." "BC:" "Bitch, you better get your hands off me." "CARTER:" "Shut up and get your head down." "Ha, ha." "Thanks for making it look good, detective." "Think I tweaked my wrist." "That was a little too theatrical, Bottlecap." "Wait a minute, Reese." "I think she knows him." "CARTER:" "Haven't seen you in a while." " All for show." "Must be one of her CI's." "That's because after I last got popped, I used my time to rehabilitate myself." "You got clean?" " Come on now." " Uh, I'm serious." "These pipes are junk-free." "But I can always use some scratch, you know what I'm saying?" "I need to know what you've heard about the new guy, Elias." "I've been hearing that name up and coming a lot." "I never seen him, but I hear he's a man not to be trifled with." "You know anything about that shooting last night over on 168th and Audubon?" "Drive-by, right?" "I know the block, just not the players." "You ever hear the name Hector Alvarez come up or see him cruise the block in this GTO?" "I didn't see the car or hear nobody talk about Hector but I can ask around." "Good looking out, BC." "If you get anything back on, um, Hector or Elias there's more where that came from." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "FUSCO:" "Hey, captain." " Welcome back, detective." "Didn't think you'd grace us with your presence again once you spent time with the perfumed folk downtown." " Ha, ha." " How'd a half-wit like you pull that off?" "Guess the half-wit's still got some juice, huh, captain?" "[LYNCH CHUCKLES]" "They got me working with Detective Carter and I'm starting to hear some things." " Yeah?" "Like what?" "Maybe she's not so well-liked by a, uh, certain element." "Listen, Lionel." "Things are going back to the way they used to be." "Used to be?" "Thing about organized crime?" "It was organized." "Things worked." "The trains ran on time." "This new guy?" "He knows the rules." "New guy." "You mean Elias." "Runs a tight ship." "Low profile." "Not like these cutthroat Russian idiots." "He knows who to grease." "All the way up to City Hall." "Look, the economy's in the toilet." "Detective Carter doesn't understand the rules." "She's bad for business." " What'd she do?" " Sniffing around, trying to build a case." "She's gunning for Elias." "She's gotta go." " It's a tricky business getting rid of a cop." " Went through proper back channels up the chain of command." "Permission granted." "It's just gotta look clean." "Clean?" "You mean like in the line of duty?" "I'm starting to feel caught in the middle here, captain." "I'd keep my distance if I were you." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "[CARTER SIGHS]" "You didn't come down to the precinct like you told me you would, Mr. Castillo." "I got no help today." "I'm a very busy man." "Did you see this car before or after the shooting?" "You didn't tell me the guy they killed was a witness to another shooting." "He decided not to testify." "Didn't save him." "If you think that's gonna convince me to, it's not helping." "Point is, if Hector Alvarez thinks you saw him shoot someone he's gonna come after you too." " Please." "I have a family." " Exactly." "If you help me, I can protect you and your family." "If you don't, he could still come after you." "REESE:" "What's the word, Lionel?" "Did some checking around." "Carter's name came up and not in a good way." "Elias wants her gone today." "Killing a cop brings a lot of heat." "Which is why they'll make it look clean." "He could set up a patsy or pay someone off on a case she's working." "All I know is every door Carter walks through could have a bullet behind it." "CARTER:" "Did you see this guy in your store last night?" "Please, that's all I need." "I saw him earlier." "He's been in my store before to buy condoms, beer." "What does it matter?" "I won't give you a statement." " Can you please leave my store?" " Okay, okay." "Thank you." "[HECTOR WHISTLES]" "HECTOR:" "Oh, sorry, detective." "I didn't realize that was you from behind." " Lot of fine girls out today." " Keep it moving, lover boy." "HECTOR:" "Gotta be careful on this block." "I heard some kid got popped last night." "You got any kids, detective?" "Stay off this block." "I see this car roll by one more time, I'm gonna impound it." "I'll be seeing you around, Mr. Castillo." "[MIMICS GUN SHOT]" "Get out of here." "Let's go." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "REESE [OVER PHONE]:" "Elias wants Carter gone." "Possible he'll use someone with motive." "A suspect in one of her cases." " Carter's at a bar." "FINCH:" "I thought she was on duty." "With this many people after her, I'd be inclined to pick up the tab." "CARTER:" "Tell me, Eddie." "What kind of degenerate does that to his wife?" "REESE:" "Carter's paying Kovach a visit." "Why is a Homicide detective intervening in a domestic case?" "REESE:" "Maybe she's like us." "Trying to prevent something bad from happening." "What happens between a man and his woman behind closed doors is none of your business." "Can't stop you from boozing your life away." "But you go home and put your hands on your wife, I'm coming after you." "You come for me, and I will exercise my second amendment rights." "And I promise you I got a pretty big gun." "Man as angry and bitter as you are?" "I got a feeling it ain't that big, Eddie." "I gotta admit, Finch, I sure like her style." "I think we got a new front-runner." "CARTER:" "Mark Thomson Ricky Lopez Joseph McNally." "All were killed." "From a suicide vest you helped transport." "They had families." "People that loved them." "I'm sorry for those soldiers." "But I deliver vegetables." "I know you're working with al Qaeda, Yusuf because I have photos here of you loading vests into your truck." "Now, you gonna tell me all these photos of you are fake, hmm?" "Show me where the other suicide vests are hidden, Yusuf." "Point to the location." "Do you know what they will do if they find out that I helped you?" "They will kill my wife." "They will kill my son." "I would rather you just kill me now." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "Carter, is that the DOA's phone?" "Ronnie Middleton?" "Ugh, his mother hasn't even come to the morgue." "This kid was all alone." "He deserved better." "So far, I've got nothing on Hector." "Analyst from the Real Time Crime Center sent footage from some cameras around Bodega La Nueva." " Some?" "There's more cameras than this?" " Mayor wants one on every corner." "Wow, no wonder I feel like I'm being watched." "I figured Hector's GTO had to pass through this intersection." "But nothing, nada." "Maybe he didn't drive." "Maybe he walked." "Castillo said he came into his market a couple times to purchase some booze and Trojans." " So?" " His girlfriend lives in the Bronx too." "Why would he have to go 25 blocks downtown for condoms?" "Because Don Juan's got a little chickie on the side." "Hector was on foot." "Maybe he walked from her apartment to the market." "And that's where Hector bumped into Ronnie." "We find this chica, we might have a new witness." "[CELL PHONE RINGS]" "I'm gonna make some calls." " I gotta go." "You can thank me later." " Heh." " What, you miss me already?" " You're a hard man to miss, Lionel." "FUSCO:" "This Carter situation has got you worried." "What, you gonna follow her around from now on?" "I'm not." "You are." "I've got some business to take care of." " Don't let her get into any trouble." "FUSCO:" "Carter's gunning for you." "She'll probably catch you." "Why are you trying to protect her?" "She's a good cop." "Good person." "Hell, you should try it sometime." "Thanks." "Look, I'm just saying, if she wasn't around it would solve a lot of your problems." "If anything happens to her, Lionel, I'm coming for you next." "BANGER:" "What the...?" "[MEN GROANING]" "REESE:" "Knock, knock." "What do we have here?" "Hector's a busy man." "Fixing cars and running guns." "LEONARD:" "Who are you, man?" "Tell Hector I'm the guy that just put him out of business." "I see him again, I'll close down more than the shop." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "If you help us, I can protect you and your family." "I promise." "This is just a negotiation for you." "You don't care about me or my family." "Your son is named after you." "He's turning 8 in 14 days, right?" "His favorite sport, soccer." "But it's too dangerous to play in the field by you." "Your only brother, Naji, was killed nine months ago by an IED." "You visit his grave every day." "So, you see you are not just a negotiation." "Not to me." " Do you have children?" " A son." "Taylor." "Would you trust his life to a complete stranger?" "I'd do whatever was in my power to protect him." "You lost your brother, Yusuf." "[SIGHS]" "I lost someone very close to me too." "It changed everything." "You and me?" "We're not that different." "No, we want the same thing." "For our children to walk down the street and not be afraid." "Show me where those explosives are." "The location is not on the map." "Then you'll take us to them." "For our children." "CARTER:" "Hey, BC." "You got anything on Hector's new woman?" "Relax." "Fusco's all right." "Easy there, hubcap." "I don't bite." "All right, let's make this quick." "I seen Hector's GTO outside the Lookie-Loo." "Turns out, he's bumping one of the dancers." "Mei Li." "Ask me, Hector got a little tired of his chica, wanted some strange." "Heh, you done good." "Uh, I thought you said real money." "Reward money." "Okay." "If this pans out, I will get you that reward money." "Meet you later, even take you to dinner at your favorite spot." "All right." "Yeah, but only because it's you." "You always been good to me, Carter." "Okay." "Take care." "Yes, me and Hector was together all night." " We watched TV and then went to bed." " What did you watch?" "I don't know, Hector's always changing channels." "Heard that about that guy." "He gets bored, likes to switch it up, huh?" "[CARTER CHUCKLES]" "Is that why he has that other girl on the side?" "Heh, no, no, no." "You see, my man don't step out on me." "I'll cut it off." "Ooh, okay." "Come here, I want you to see something." "That's Hector's cell phone bill." "You know whose number that is?" "Because he dialed it 33 times." "Probably one of his homies." "Man gossips like a little school girl." "Well, it's easy enough to find out." "Go ahead, dial it." "FUSCO:" "So you were with Hector all night?" " Last night, this morning." "Hector's a morning person." "Likes to spoon." "[CELL PHONE RINGS]" "Hello?" " Who is this?" " Wait, who the hell are you?" "Okay, all right." "Whoa, whoa, whoa." "Looks like you two got a lot to sort out." "Uh, make sure they don't kill each other." "MONICA:" "Oh, no, you got to be kidding me." "[MONICA, MEI LI AND FUSCO SHOUTING INDISTINCTLY]" "Looks like you're not the only one's got a beef with Hector Alvarez." "Some guy came into his body shop and shot up the place." "Bangers inside got a taste of their own medicine." "Said the guy had a submachine gun and a grenade launcher." "You believe that?" "This guy wearing a suit?" " No, motorcycle jacket." "Why?" " Maybe it's in the cleaners." "Hector's wanted for questioning." "Suffice it to say, he's, uh, disappeared." "MONICA:" "Get off me!" " Somebody knows where he is." "If I find Hector, I'll give him your best." "Hector's on the run." "He's not gonna be a problem for Carter." "I'm not sure." "Carter is now determined to get justice for Ronnie." "She will find where Hector is hiding." "This guy's running guns." " Wherever he is, he's armed." " When she goes to arrest him..." "I'll just have to get there first." "FINCH:" "Is everything okay, Mr. Reese?" "We got into this to stop bad things from happening to good people." "Carter's been doing that her whole life." "She's not just another number, Finch." "Some people the world can't afford to lose." "Either of you ready to make a statement?" "Yeah, I got a statement." "Hector Alvarez is a damn fool if he thinks he can play us both." "Mm-hm." "Bastard came to my place, but he went out around midnight." " Did he go to the market?" "MEI LI:" "What he said." "But he came back empty-handed and changed his shirt." " You wash this shirt of his?" " Oh, hell no." "It's all yours." "Along with all his stuff." "So where is Hector?" "He has a warehouse in Queens." "On 25th." "Hangs out there sometimes when he's expecting a shipment." "Call ESU." "Get a team on standby." "[CELL PHONE RINGS]" "I'm gonna see about getting warrant." "Hello?" "MRS. KOVACH [OVER PHONE]:" "He's got a gun." "Wait." "Calm down." "I can't understand you." "MRS. KOVACH:" "He's got a gun." "KOVACH:" "Get out of there." "MRS. KOVACH:" "God, please." "He's gonna kill me." "Hurry!" " Mrs. Kovach?" "Where are you?" "MRS. KOVACH:" "In the bathroom." "Stay where you are." "I'm gonna come get you." "[DIAL TONE]" "Hello?" "Hello?" "Carter's going to the Kovachs' house." "He's armed, sounds extremely agitated." "Reese?" "Where are you?" "MAN [OVER RADIO]:" "All units, code 10." "Shots fired at 326 Greentree in Flushing." "[KNOCK ON DOOR]" "CARTER:" "N.Y.P.D. Open up!" "FUSCO:" "We should wait for backup." "I got a bad feeling." "Mr. Kovach, it's the police." "Put down your weapon." "The hell?" "[KOVACH GROANS]" " Somebody gift wrapped him for us." " Somebody's doing that a lot lately." "Mrs. Kovach?" "[MRS. KOVACH WHIMPERING]" " Mrs. Kovach, are you okay?" " He was gonna kill me." "If that man hadn't shown up..." "That man, what'd he look like?" "[PHONE RINGS]" "Hello?" "It's for you." "Guess I have you to thank for this." "How do you always know something bad's about to go down?" "You're in trouble, detective." "CARTER:" "I'm not the one who's hiding." "You keep playing God, sooner or later an innocent person's gonna get hurt." " I can't let that happen." " I didn't call to talk about me." "Your life's in danger." "I'm a cop, my life's always in danger." "REESE:" "You're not listening to me." "I'm trying to tell you." "Someone wants you dead." "Who told you that?" "Why are you following me?" "What do you want?" "I want you to start being more careful." "For instance, if you're gonna take down Hector Alvarez know the man's running guns." "He has an arsenal at his fingertips." "Why are you helping me?" "And how do you keep finding out all this information?" "Like you said, I always seem to know." "[MOTORCYCLE ENGINE STARTS]" "I never saw his face." "He came out of nowhere." "He attacked me." "You people can't arrest me." "Yes, we can." "Your wife is pressing charges, Eddie." " We get a warrant on Hector Alvarez yet?" " Yeah, ESU's standing by." "Who died?" "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "REESE [OVER PHONE]:" "Finch, Carter's called an ESU unit to Hector's warehouse in Queens." "They're getting ready to knock on the door as we speak." "ESU OFFICER:" "Let's go." "Move out." "It's time to roll." "Stay here." "I'll advise you when we have Alvarez apprehended." " Do you have eyes on Carter?" "REESE:" "She's clear of the line of fire." "If Hector puts up a fight, it could be dangerous." "How will you be close enough to protect her?" "Oh, I'm pretty close." " They got this place covered, right?" "ESU LEADER:" "Absolutely." "ESU LEADER:" "Going in." "Everybody set?" "ESU OFFICER:" "Yes, sir." "ESU LEADER:" "Do it." "ESU OFFICER:" "Move, move, move!" "N.Y.P.D." "[GUNFIRE]" "That doesn't sound good." "ESU OFFICER:" "You!" "Face down!" "[ENGINE REVVING NEARBY]" "CARTER:" "You hear something around back?" "[GRUNTS]" "CARTER:" "Get out of the car." "ESU OFFICER:" "Suspect apprehended." "HECTOR:" "Take it easy, ugh!" "Everything all right, Mr. Reese?" "Hector's got a new set of bracelets." "Should keep him busy for a while." "That's for Ronnie." "I told you I'd get you." "[GRUNTING]" "CARTER [OVER PHONE]:" "Hey, Taylor, baby, I'm running a little late." "I'll be there soon." "Sounds like Carter's headed home." "Made it through the day." "Have we eliminated the threat yet?" "Kovach and Alvarez are neutralized." "But this is a tricky case." "To be perfectly honest, I'm just not sure." "REESE:" "Finch Carter lives uptown." "So why is she headed downtown?" "Wait a minute..." "Where'd she go?" "I lost her." "Track her phone for me." "Where you been?" "Said you was gonna buy me dinner." " Where you been?" "I been waiting." " I'm sorry, BC." "I gotta fill out a requisition for the big payout." " But look, you take whatever I got." " No, that's all right." " You ain't gotta do that." " Let's call this a down payment." "Okay?" "I want you to have that." "I'm sorry, Carter." "You always been good to me." "But I ain't got no choice." "You told me to find that guy, Elias." "Well, I found him." " Sorry." " Ugh." "Said it's either gonna be you or me." "It ain't gonna be me." "[GUNSHOTS]" "[GROANING]" "Look alive, Carter." "About all that's left of that storage facility your friend took us to." "You found the explosives?" "Found and detonated." "I, uh, couldn't have done what you did." "Getting information from that raghead." "Where's Yusuf?" "Yeah, he, uh, didn't make it back." "Accidents happen." "He trusted me." "I gave him my word." "I promised I'd protect him." "You shouldn't make promises you can't keep." "You don't think this guy was innocent?" "He had a family." "Don't you care what happens to them?" "It's not my job to care." "What is wrong with you?" "You can't just play God!" "You don't get to decide who lives and who dies." "You wanna stand on your high horse?" "Go ahead." "Don't expect me and my men to back you up." "It's a long war." "You're all alone." "REESE:" "Glad you took my advice about wearing that vest, detective." "I know this doesn't change anything." "You'll still arrest me if you get the chance." "You should know whether you like me or not, Joss, you're not alone." "REESE [OVER PHONE]:" "Elias got to Carter's CI turned him into his trigger man." "FINCH [OVER PHONE]:" "Is she safe?" "REESE:" "For now." "Time to end this, Finch." "Once and for all." "[LYNCH YELLS]" "Body falls from this height, it's messy." "Of course I don't care about making it look clean." "Unlike your pal, Elias." "I don't know who you are." "You're threatening a captain." "Okay." "Okay!" "Okay." "Elias can't kill a cop without permission." "Run this up the chain of command." "Permission's been revoked." "Tell Elias if he so much as touches Detective Carter again I will put him, you everyone in the ground." " You got that?" " Yeah." "[CHATTERING OVER MONITOR]" "CARTER:" "Grandma said you were late for curfew again." "Oh, come on, Ma." "You serious?" "I was at a dance." "She pretty?" "Better be smart too." "Smart and pretty." "You all right, Mom?" "Did you pull your back or something?" "It's nothing that won't heal, heh." "Sorry I missed it, T." "TAYLOR [OVER FEED]:" "You work too hard." "You should quit." "CARTER [OVER FEED]:" "Wouldn't know how to if I tried." "I don't like it." "You out there, every day." "Who's got your back?" "CARTER:" "You don't have to worry about me." "I can take care of myself." "Besides, we got each other." "Who else do we need?" "[CHUCKLES]" "[MOTORCYCLE ENGINE REVVING]" "[English" " US" " SDH]" | {
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Q:
Why is move-assignment operator invoked for lvalue argument?
I'm currently doing some debugging on our Variant class.
Can someone explain why the compiler selects the move-assignment operator in this particular case? As testValue is an lvalue, I would expect the compiler to select the copy assignment... 1
template <typename T, typename... TN>
template <typename U>
Variant<T, TN...>& Variant<T, TN...>::operator = (U&& a_Value)
{
// Move value ...
}
template <typename T, typename... TN>
template <typename U, typename... UN>
Variant<T, TN...>& Variant<T, TN...>::operator = (const Variant<U, UN...>& a_Variant)
{
// Copy data...
}
std::string testValue("test");
Variant<char32_t, std::string> var;
var = testValue; // testValue now becomes empty string
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/move_assignment
A:
(U&& a_Value) is not a rvalue reference, but a forwarding reference.
U deduced as std::string& in your case.
Move assignment would be something like:
template <typename T, typename... TN>
Variant<T, TN...>& Variant<T, TN...>::operator = (Variant<T, TN...>&& rhs)
{
// Move value ...
}
or
template <typename T, typename... TN>
template <typename U, typename... UN>
Variant<T, TN...>& Variant<T, TN...>::operator = (Variant<U, UN...>&& rhs)
{
// Move value ...
}
| {
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Prince To Be Inducted Into Apollo Theater's Walk of Fame this June
article by Dartunorro Clark via dnainfo.com
Prince will be immortalized at the Apollo Theater’s Walk of Fame.
Theater officials announced Wednesday they will add the Purple One to their walk under the theater’s iconic marquee on 125th Street during its annual spring gala and fundraiser next month, honoring the music legend’s contributions over 40 years.
Prince’s plaque will be in the company of previously inducted Walk of Fame music icons such as Michael Jackson, Aretha Franklin and Ella Fitzgerald.
“The Apollo family was, of course, devastated to hear about the loss of Prince. He is, hands down, one of the greatest artists of all time — an absolute genius — and his relationship with the Apollo dates back to 1993,” said Jonelle Procope, the Appollo’s president and CEO.
“Over the years, we’ve been honored to host him, whether for a seminal New York performance or as a guest in our audience, so we are beyond thrilled to kick off this year’s Spring Gala by inducting him into the Apollo Walk of Fame.”
The gala, scheduled for June 13th at 7 p.m., will also feature a star-studded line up with performances from legendary R&B group The O’Jays and newer artists such as Leon Bridges and Andra Day.
LL Cool J will host. The evening will also include special tributes to other trailblazing artists who died in 2016, as well as a dance tribute to Prince. | {
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HOUSTON — Donald Trump, who has made a hardline stance on immigration a centerpiece of his presidential campaign, asserted Saturday that “not one more American life should be given up in the name of open borders.”
“All across this country, dining room tables have an empty seat because the government abandoned its duty and has not enforced its basic laws,” Trump told a gathering of the Remembrance Project, a group founded to remember those killed by people living illegally in the U.S. and to press for tougher laws. “This has to end. This will end if I become president.”
Two dozen members of the organization sat behind Trump as he spoke, and several told their stories, often gruesome, of how their loved ones lost their lives. Trump has appeared with members of the group several times, including during the speech to lay out his immigration policy in Arizona last month. He vowed to continue to “shine a national spotlight” on their work.
“Politicians ignore your cries but I never will,” Trump said.
Maria Espinoza, founder of the group and daughter of a Mexican immigrant, praised Trump’s advocacy. But the Houston-based group has come under scrutiny for some of its pronouncements, including Espinoza’s false assertion that immigrants who are in the U.S. illegally kill 25 Americans a day.
Trump has long talked tough on immigration, deriding Mexico as a source of rapists and criminals in his campaign kick-off speech last year and vowing to build an impenetrable wall on the nation’s southern border. He is not proposing a pathway to legal status for people living in the country illegally but has backed away from his call for the mass deportation of millions of people who have not committed crimes beyond their immigration offenses. But he also ruled out what he dismissed as “amnesty,” saying those who want to live legally in the U.S. will need to leave and head to the back of the line in their home countries.
Trump was also slated to attend a fundraiser in Oklahoma and his campaign indicated that he may make an appearance in Norman at the Oklahoma-Ohio St. football game or at a reception nearby. But arrangements were not made for the reporters who travel with Trump from city to city to follow him to Oklahoma. Trump also planned a rally in the battleground state of Colorado on Saturday night.
Trump’s running mate, Indiana Gov. Mike Pence, released a two-page letter from his doctor Saturday vouching for his “excellent” health, summarizing his medical history and results of a July physical exam. Pence, 57, released the letter after Trump, Democrat Hillary Clinton and her running mate, Tim Kaine, also provided some details of their medical history. The health of the candidates has become an issue since Clinton stumbled at a 9/11 memorial event and revealed afterward that she had been diagnosed with pneumonia.
Pence’s doctor disclosed that Pence had basal cell carcinomas — skin cancer — removed from his face in 2002 and 2010. He also had surgery in August 2015 to repair a hernia. The doctor said the only medication Pence takes is Claritin for seasonal allergies, he does not smoke or drink alcohol, has diet-controlled heartburn and exercises four times a week.
Associated Press writer Scott Bauer contributed to this report from Florida. | {
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433 So.2d 491 (1983)
ORLANDO EXECUTIVE PARK, INC., Petitioner,
v.
Patricia Dale ROBBINS, Respondent.
HOWARD JOHNSON CO., Petitioner,
v.
Patricia Dale ROBBINS, Respondent.
Nos. 61165, 61166.
Supreme Court of Florida.
March 31, 1983.
Rehearing Denied June 29, 1983.
*492 Ronald M. Owen of Parker, Johnson, Owen & McGuire, Orlando, for Orlando Executive Park, Inc., and Janet R. DeLaura of Smalbein, Eubank, Johnson, Rosier & Bussey, Rockledge, for Howard Johnson Co., petitioners.
Harry G. Carratt of Morgan, Carratt & O'Connor, Fort Lauderdale, for respondent.
McDONALD, Justice.
Both Orlando Executive Park, Inc., and the Howard Johnson Co. have petitioned for review of Orlando Executive Park, Inc. v. P.D.R., 402 So.2d 442 (Fla. 5th DCA 1981). We have jurisdiction, article V, section 3(b)(3), Florida Constitution, and approve the district court decision.
An unidentified man attacked Robbins while she was a registered guest at a Howard Johnson (HJ) Motor Lodge owned and operated by Orlando Executive Park, Inc. (OEP). Robbins sued for damages, claiming that HJ and OEP violated their legal duty to exercise reasonable care for her safety while she was a guest on the premises. The jury agreed and awarded her $750,000 compensatory damages against the defendants jointly and $500,000 punitive damages against each defendant separately. The trial court vacated verdicts for OEP and HJ on the punitive damages, but refused to grant their other post-trial motions. The district court of appeal affirmed the judgment, holding that the jury could properly find that OEP breached its duty of care and that liability could be extended to HJ under the doctrine of apparent agency.
OEP petitioned for review, which we granted on the basis of conflict with Winer v. Walo, Inc., 105 So.2d 376 (Fla. 3d DCA 1958). In Winer a motel guest slipped and fell on a wet terrazzo walkway. His expert witness, a local builder, testified as to the unsuitability of terrazzo for outdoor walkways because it becomes slippery when wet. The trial court directed a verdict for the defendant, finding that Winer had not *493 proved prima facie negligence. In affirming the directed verdict the district court commented that Winer had made "no showing that such terrazzo was not safe when measured by the general standard of building construction practice in the area." Id. at 378.
As its points on review, OEP claims that the district court erred as to the basis for expert testimony and as to imposing upon an innkeeper the duty to prevent a criminal assault. Upon further reflection we find no conflict with Winer regarding the first point, on which we based the exercise of our jurisdiction in granting OEP's petition. Because we have jurisdiction regarding HJ's petition for review, however, we will review the portion of the district court opinion discussing OEP's liability as well as that part concerning HJ.[*]
In the instant case Robbins' security expert testified that three guards should have been on round-the-clock duty at this 300-room motel. OEP's former security service had also suggested the necessity for three guards. Robbins' witness also testified, however, that no industry standards covering the instant situation existed. In Winer industry standards existed, but Winer failed to present them at trial. Here, industry standards did not exist, and we find no conflict with Winer.
We agree, however, with the district court's assessment of OEP's liability. In commenting on OEP's attack on the lack of standards the district court stated that the
absence of industry standards does not insulate the defendants from liability when there is credible evidence presented to the jury pointing to measures reasonably available to deter incidents of this kind, against which the jury can judge the reasonableness of the measures taken in this case.
402 So.2d at 447 (emphasis in original). In this case Robbins presented credible evidence, namely, that numerous episodes of criminal activity, of which the management had knowledge, had occurred during the immediately preceding six-month period and that the situation required the presence of security guards.
The district court properly characterized the question as one of foreseeability. Medina v. 187th Street Apartments, Ltd., 405 So.2d 485 (Fla. 3d DCA 1981); Holley v. Mt. Zion Terrace Apartments, Inc., 382 So.2d 98 (Fla. 3d DCA 1980); Rosier v. Gainesville Inns Associates, Ltd., 347 So.2d 1100 (Fla. 1st DCA 1977). An innkeeper owes the duty of reasonable care for the safety of his guests, Rosier, Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Dorn, 292 So.2d 429 (Fla. 4th DCA 1974), rev'd on other grounds, 347 So.2d 1057 (Fla. 4th DCA 1977), and it is "peculiarly a jury function to determine what precautions are reasonably required in the exercise of a particular duty of due care." Holley, 382 So.2d at 100-01. On the facts of this case the district court correctly stated that
the jury may consider competent evidence on the need or effect of any of these security measures or combination thereof in the context of the circumstances and evidence before it, in determining whether the innkeeper has met his duty of providing his guest with reasonable protection for his safety.
402 So.2d at 448. Credible evidence supported the jury's verdict, and we approve the portion of the district court opinion dealing with OEP's liability.
Turning to HJ, we granted its petition for review because of conflict between the instant district court opinion and Sydenham v. Santiago, 392 So.2d 357 (Fla. 4th DCA 1981), on the issue of apparent authority. In Sydenham a tire repaired at Santiago's Gulf Service Station exploded and injured the plaintiff. Sydenham sued both Santiago, who owned the station, and Gulf Oil Co., whose products Santiago sold. Relying on Cawthon v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 124 So.2d 517 *494 (Fla. 2d DCA 1960), the fourth district found Gulf not liable under an apparent agency theory because
[a]n oil company does not confer apparent authority, subjecting itself to vicarious liability for negligence, upon a retail service station by allowing the use of its trade name and selling its products to the station.
392 So.2d at 357-58.
The instant district court, on the other hand, stated:
While OEP might not be HJ's agent for all purposes, the signs, national advertising, uniformity of building design and color schemes allows the public to assume that this and other similar motor lodges are under the same ownership.
402 So.2d at 450 (footnote omitted). On the facts of this case the district court has set out the proper standard, limiting Sydenham and other oil company cases to their facts, and we disapprove extending the language of Sydenham into cases such as the instant one to the extent of conflict with this opinion.
As HJ concedes, the district court correctly set out the three elements needed to establish apparent agency: "(1) a representation by the principal; (2) reliance on that representation by a third person; and (3) a change of position by the third person in reliance upon such representation to his detriment." 402 So.2d at 449. The existence of an agency relationship is ordinarily a question to be determined by a jury in accordance with the evidence adduced at trial, Scott v. Sun Bank of Volusia County, 408 So.2d 591 (Fla. 5th DCA 1981); Cleveland Compania Maritima, S.A. Panama v. Logothetis, 378 So.2d 1336 (Fla. 2d DCA 1980); McCabe v. Howard, 281 So.2d 362 (Fla. 2d DCA 1973), and can be proved by facts and circumstances on a case-by-case basis. Sapp v. City of Tallahassee, 348 So.2d 363 (Fla. 1st DCA), cert. denied, 354 So.2d 985 (Fla. 1977).
As it did before the district court, HJ now claims that Robbins failed to present enough legally sufficient evidence tending to show the applicability of the doctrine of apparent agency to enable the case to go to the contrary. Robbins presented sufficient evidence to allow the jury to conclude that HJ represented to the public that it could find a certain level of service at this motel. Besides the evidence pointed out by the district court, we note that HJ, rather than OEP, operated the restaurant, lounge, and adult theater at the motel. The complex was an integrated commercial enterprise, and HJ's direct participation was significant. The district court also correctly pointed out the sufficiency of Robbin's evidence regarding her reliance on HJ.
We therefore approve the instant district court opinion.
It is so ordered.
ALDERMAN, C.J., and ADKINS, OVERTON and EHRLICH, JJ., concur.
BOYD, J., dissents with an opinion.
BOYD, Justice, dissenting.
I must respectfully dissent because there is no evidence that the defendants' negligence actually contributed to causing the plaintiff's injuries. That is to say that even if the defendants had provided the security precautions which plaintiff's expert witness testified were needed, there was no evidence that such additional precautions might have deterred or prevented this particular crime. Indeed the record affirmatively shows that such additional security precautions would not have prevented the plaintiff from being assaulted. Without any proof that the defendants' negligence did in fact cause the plaintiff's injuries, the defendants should not be held liable.
One of the essential elements of a plaintiff's cause of action in negligence is that there be a reasonable connection between the defendant's act or omission and the plaintiff's damages. This connection is usually termed proximate cause. There are two main aspects of proximate cause foreseeability and causation in fact. W. Prosser, Law of Torts, § 41 (4th ed. 1971). The *495 district court of appeal and the majority of this Court have limited their review of this case to the narrow issue of foreseeability without considering the issue of whether there was causation in fact. The concept of foreseeability is used by the courts to determine whether as a matter of social policy a defendant should be held liable for a plaintiff's damages. Id.
The courts of this state have established as a social policy that an innkeeper may be liable for damages a guest incurs as a result of a criminal assault. Rosier v. Gainsville Inns Associated, Ltd., 347 So.2d 1100 (Fla. 1st DCA 1977); Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Dorn, 292 So.2d 429 (Fla. 4th DCA 1974). However, before such liability can be imposed, there must be a causal connection between the innkeeper's duty to provide reasonable security precautions and the actual damages that a guest incurs. In determining whether there is a causal connection between a defendant's negligence and a plaintiff's damages, the "courts have derived a rule, commonly known as the `but for' or `sine qua non' rule, which may be stated as follows: The defendant's conduct is not a cause of the event, if the event would have occurred without it." Prosser, supra. Not only must there be a causal connection, but the plaintiff must also prove it.
On the issue of the fact of causation, as on other issues essential to his cause of action for negligence, the plaintiff, in general, has the burden of proof. He must introduce evidence which affords a reasonable basis for the conclusion that it is more likely than not that the conduct of the defendant was a substantial factor in bringing about the result. A mere possibility of such causation is not enough; and when the matter remains one of pure speculation or conjecture, or the probabilities are at best evenly balanced, it becomes the duty of the court to direct a verdict for the defendant.
Id. (footnotes omitted).
The sine qua non of a negligence action is an actual causal connection between the negligent act and the injury. More easily defined than applied, the concept of proximate cause can be quite difficult. Incapable of precise proof as it sometimes may be in a given case, it must be shown by competent proof to be a "material and substantial factor in bringing it [the injury] about."
Asgrow-Kilgore Co. v. Mulford Hickerson Corp., 301 So.2d 441, 444 (Fla. 1974) (quoting Loftin v. Wilson, 67 So.2d 185, 191 (Fla. 1953)).
In this case the plaintiff failed to present any evidence, much less competent proof, that the defendants' failure to provide three security guards instead of one was a substantial factor in bringing her injury about. The plaintiff's expert witness was never asked during direct examination to opine whether the presence of additional security guards would have more likely than not prevented the plaintiff from being assaulted. His failure to draw any connection between his security proposals and this particular assault was brought out during cross-examination.
Q. You are not testifying here today that your proposals, your hypothetical proposals would have in any way affected or prevented the assault on Mrs. Robbins, are you?
A. No.
Not only did the plaintiff fail to present any evidence of any actual causal connection between the defendants' negligence and her injury, but the evidence that she did present tended to show there was no causal connection. The plaintiff testified that when she registered, the people at the desk told her she could park in the lot which was adjacent to and could be seen from the office. She testified that after taking her luggage to her room she returned to her car for some papers. She said that while she was at the car she saw a man standing by the office. As she walked back to her room, she saw the same man again looking, she supposed, for an ice machine. The man came up and assaulted her when she was two doors from her room. On cross-examination she testified that the man was neatly dressed and well groomed. Before the assault she did not find anything suspicious *496 about his appearance or behavior. The guard who was on security duty that night testified that he did not see any suspicious characters. He also stated that he had walked through and around the building containing the plaintiff's room not more than fifteen minutes prior to the assault. The guard said that after touring the grounds, he got in his car. He noticed the plaintiff by her car as he drove by and parked in a location where he could observe most of the premises. Despite his vantage point, he did not become aware of any criminal activity until the sheriff's deputies drove into the parking lot with their lights flashing about twenty minutes later.
From these facts I conclude that the assailant probably would not have been deterred or prevented from attacking the plaintiff by the presence of two additional security guards. For under the security system proposed by the plaintiff's expert, the two additional security guards would have been patrolling other buildings at the time the assault occurred. Since there was no reasonable way the defendants could have prevented or deterred this particular crime, they should not be held liable. See Reichenbach v. Days Inn of America, Inc., 401 So.2d 1366, 1367 (Fla. 5th DCA 1981) (Cowart, J., concurring), review denied, 412 So.2d 469 (Fla. 1982). I would therefore reverse and remand with instructions that a directed verdict be granted in defendants' favor.
NOTES
[*] Robbins also petitioned for discretionary review of the district court opinion. She now raises the identical points in a cross petition filed in the instant cases. We could find no constitutional basis permitting review of her claims when she petitioned for review, and we decline to address these issues now.
| {
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---
abstract: 'By gauging an Abelian electromagnetic (em) solution through a non-Abelian transformation and in accordance with a theorem proved long time ago, we construct a simple class of colliding Einstein-Yang-Mills (EYM) plane waves. The solution is isometric to the Wu-Yang charged Kerr-Newman (KN) black hole and shares much of the properties satisfied by colliding Einstein-Maxwell (EM) plane waves. In the linear polarization limit with unit degenerate charge it reduces to the Bell-Szekeres (BS) solution for colliding em shock waves.'
author:
- Ozay Gurtug
- Mustafa Halilsoy
title: ' Restricted Class of Colliding Einstein-Yang-Mills Plane Waves'
---
Introduction
============
Starting with 1970s, through 80s, were the years in which the subject of colliding waves in general relativity attracted much interest. All known results were compiled later into a cataloque of solutions[@JB]. In later decades the interest in the subject continued with less momentum, concentrating more on the sophisticated fields such as dilaton, axion and torsion coupled to gravity and electromagnetic (em) fields. Formation of Cauchy horizon / singularity, and under what conditions the horizon remains stable dominated most discussions to date. To our knowledge the discussion has not been conclusive to the satisfaction of all yet. Our aim in this paper is not to contribute in this particular direction, but rather to point out a restricted class of colliding Yang-Mills (YM) waves which behaves almost em-like.
The motivating factor to consider such a problem anew relies on the recent attempts of Large Hadron Collisions (LHC) at TeV scale that maintain the prime agenda at CERN. As the protons (anti-protons) are boosted to almost the speed of light they behave more wave-like than particle-like whose collisions are reminiscent of waves colliding in general relativity. Since the inner/color structure of hadrons have constituent YM fields, collision of such waves deserves further investigation.
Within this context although there is a large collection of Einstein-Maxwell (EM) solutions available in the literature [@JB][@MH], extension of the problem to the Einstein-Yang-Mills (EYM) remained ever open. We aim to contribute in this regard, at least partly, for the gauge group $SO(3)$ and pave the way for further solutions underlying various gauge groups. Our starting point is a Theorem proved long time ago by P. Yasskin [@PY] in connection with Yang-Mills (YM) fields in a curved spacetime. The method in Yasskin’s Theorem is to start from an Abelian $U(1)$ em solution and map it through a non-Abelian transformation to the YM problem. In this process, naturally, the degenerate YM charges are defined from the original em charge. By employing the Wu-Yang ansatz [@WY] for the YM fields in the trapped region of the Kerr-Newman (KN) black hole we construct solution that describes colliding EYM plane waves. In this process, rotation of the black hole transforms into the cross polarization of the colliding waves. In the linear polarization limit we recover the colliding em wave solution due to Bell and Szekeres (BS)[@BS]. More generally, any colliding EM metric/field can be shown to represent at the same time colliding EYM waves, in a restricted sense provided the YM field is defined according to the Yasskin’s Theorem. This guarantees that the incoming YM fields are em-like plane waves so that they do not create extra currents. It can be anticipated that non-planar waves will induce their own sources through self-interaction which is the case that we avoid in the present study. Although YM fields is known to be a subject in the realm of quantum (chromodynamics), our treatment is entirely classical here. Stated otherwise, we adopt the viewpoint that anything that interacts with the classical gravity must itself behave classical.
Organization of the paper is as follows. In section II, we introduce YM fields in a KN black hole geometry. Colliding EYM plane waves follows in section III. Section IV, concentrates on the linear polarization of the waves. We complete the paper with conclusion in section V.
KN Black Hole and YM Fields.
============================
The KN black hole solution is given by the line element
$$ds^{2}=\frac{U^{2}}{\rho ^{2}}\left( dt-\overline{a}\sin ^{2}\theta d\varphi
\right) ^{2}-\frac{\sin ^{2}\theta }{\rho ^{2}}\left[ Fd\varphi -\overline{a}dt\right] ^{2}-\frac{\rho ^{2}}{U^{2}}dr^{2}-\rho ^{2}d\theta ^{2},$$
where
$$U^{2}=r^{2}-2mr+\overline{a}^{2}+Q^{2},\text{ \ \ \ \ \ \ }\rho ^{2}=r^{2}+\overline{a}^{2}\cos ^{2}\theta ,\text{ \ \ \ \ \ }F=r^{2}+\overline{a}^{2},\text{\ }$$
in which $\overline{a}$ is the parameter of rotation and $Q$ is the em charge. By invoking Yasskin’s Theorem [@PY] we extend this solution to represent a particular YM field as follows. A suitable YM gauge potential 1-form $A^{i}=A_{\mu }^{i}dx^{\mu },\left( i=1,2,3\right) $ is chosen as
$$A^{i}=\frac{1}{\rho ^{2}}Q^{i}\cos \theta \left[ \left( r^{2}+\overline{a}^{2}\right) d\varphi -\overline{a}dt\right] .$$
Here the gauge charge $Q^{i}$ satisfies the constraint
$$\gamma _{ij}Q^{i}Q^{j}=Q^{2},$$
with the invariant group metric $\gamma _{ij}=\delta _{ij}$ and $Q$ is the charge of the KN black hole. The YM field 2-form is defined by $F^{i}=\frac{1}{2}F_{\mu \nu }^{i}dx^{\mu }\wedge dx^{\nu },$ where $\wedge $ stands for the wedge product and
$$F_{\mu \nu }^{i}=\partial _{\mu }A_{\nu }^{i}-\partial _{\nu }A_{\mu }^{i}+\frac{1}{2Q}\epsilon _{jk}^{i}A_{\mu }^{j}A_{\nu }^{k},$$
in which $\epsilon _{jk}^{i}$ is the structure constant for the group. In the $SO(3)$ basis, $T^{i}$ $\left( i=1,2,3\right) $ are given by
$$T^{1}=\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & -1 \\
0 & 1 & 0\end{array}\right) ,\text{ \ \ \ }T^{2}=\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 0 \\
-1 & 0 & 0\end{array}\right) ,\text{ \ \ \ }T^{3}=\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & -1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0\end{array}\right) ,$$
and the YM potential 1-form has the representation
$$A=A_{\mu }^{i}T^{i}dx^{\mu }.$$
For the particular choice ($Q^{3}=Q\neq 0=Q^{1}=Q^{2}$) we have
$$\begin{aligned}
A_{\varphi }^{3} &=&\frac{Q\cos \theta }{\rho ^{2}}\left( r^{2}+\overline{a}^{2}\right) , \\
A_{t}^{3} &=&-\frac{\overline{a}Q\cos \theta }{\rho ^{2}},\text{ \ \ \ \ \ \
\ } \notag\end{aligned}$$
which has both electric and magnetic components. If $\overline{a}=0,$ i.e. for the Reissner-Nordstrom black hole, we have a pure magnetic field. Now we apply a gauge transformation on $A_{\mu }$ through
$$A_{\mu }\rightarrow \widetilde{A}_{\mu }=GA_{\mu }G^{-1}-Q\left( \partial
_{\mu }G\right) G^{-1},$$
where the gauge transformation matrix $G$ is
$$G=\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
\sin \varphi & \cos \varphi \cos \theta & \cos \varphi \sin \theta \\
-\cos \varphi & \sin \varphi \cos \theta & \sin \varphi \sin \theta \\
0 & -\sin \theta & \cos \theta\end{array}\right) .$$
We obtain the components of the new gauge potential 1-forms (after suppressing the tilde over $A_{\mu }$ ) as
$$\begin{aligned}
A^{1} &=&\frac{Q}{2\rho ^{2}}\sin 2\theta \cos \varphi \left[ \left( r^{2}+\overline{a}^{2}\right) d\varphi -\overline{a}dt\right] +Q\sin \varphi
d\theta , \\
A^{2} &=&\frac{Q}{2\rho ^{2}}\sin 2\theta \sin \varphi \left[ \left( r^{2}+\overline{a}^{2}\right) d\varphi -\overline{a}dt\right] -Q\cos \varphi
d\theta , \notag \\
A^{3} &=&-\frac{Q}{\rho ^{2}}(r^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta d\varphi +\overline{a}\cos ^{2}\theta dt). \notag\end{aligned}$$
In the next section we shall transform these potentials and metric (1) into the colliding wave spacetime and interpret it as a solution to the colliding EYM problem.
Colliding EYM Plane Waves.
==========================
The metric function $U^{2}=r^{2}-2mr+\overline{a}^{2}+Q^{2}=0,$ in Eq.(2) has two roots, $r=r_{+}$ (the outer horizon) and $,$ $r=r_{-}$ (the inner horizon). By the particular choice of parameters it is possible to make $r_{+}=r_{-}$ , which is called the extremal case, however, we shall consider here only the case $r_{+}>r_{-}$ $\neq 0.$ It can easily be seen that for $r_{-}<r<r_{+}$, $U^{2}<0,$ which makes the spacetime to admit two spacelike Killing vectors apt for colliding waves. For simplicity we choose the mass, $m=1$ and apply the following transformation
$$\begin{aligned}
r &=&1+\alpha \tau ,\text{ \ \ \ }\sigma =\cos \theta ,\text{ \ \ \ }t=\alpha x,\text{ \ \ \ \ }y=\varphi , \\
&&\left( \alpha =\sqrt{1-\overline{a}^{2}-Q^{2}}=\frac{1}{p}\right) \notag\end{aligned}$$
to the line element (1). After an overall scaling of the metric we obtain
$$ds^{2}=X\left( \frac{d\tau ^{2}}{\Delta }-\frac{d\sigma ^{2}}{\delta }\right) -X^{-1}\left( Rdx^{2}+Edy^{2}-2Gdxdy\right) ,$$
where
$$\begin{aligned}
X &=&\left( p+\tau \right) ^{2}+a_{0}^{2}\sigma ^{2},\text{ \ \ \ \ \ }R=\Delta +a_{0}^{2}\delta ,\text{\ \ \ \ \ \ } \\
E &=&\Delta A^{2}+\delta B^{2},\text{ \ \ \ \ \ \ }G=\Delta A+a_{0}\delta B,
\notag \\
A &=&a_{0}\delta ,\text{ \ \ \ \ \ \ }B=\left( p+\tau \right) ^{2}+a_{0}^{2},
\notag \\
\Delta &=&1-\tau ^{2},\text{ \ \ \ \ \ \ }\delta =1-\sigma ^{2}, \notag\end{aligned}$$
in which
$$\tau =\sin \left( au\theta \left( u\right) +bv\theta \left( v\right) \right)
,\text{ \ \ \ \ \ }\sigma =\sin \left( au\theta \left( u\right) -bv\theta
\left( v\right) \right) ,$$
are the new coordinates in terms of the null coordinates $\left(
u,v\right) $ and $\left( a,b\right) $ are arbitrary constants. We note also that $a_{0}=\overline{a}p.$ By introducing another constant $q=Qp$, we can check that the constraint condition
$$p^{2}-a_{0}^{2}-q^{2}=1,$$
holds. The YM potential 1-forms are now
$$\begin{aligned}
A^{1} &=&\frac{Q\sigma \sqrt{\delta }}{X}\cos y\left( Bdy-a_{0}dx\right)
-Q\sin y\frac{d\sigma }{\sqrt{\delta }}, \\
A^{2} &=&\frac{Q\sigma \sqrt{\delta }}{X}\sin y\left( Bdy-a_{0}dx\right)
+Q\cos y\frac{d\sigma }{\sqrt{\delta }}, \notag \\
A^{3} &=&\frac{Q\sigma ^{2}}{X}\left( Bdy-a_{0}dx\right) -dy. \notag\end{aligned}$$
We note that in the null coordinates $\left( u,v\right) $ we have
$$\begin{aligned}
d\sigma &=&-\sqrt{\delta }\left( a\theta \left( u\right) du-b\theta \left(
v\right) dv\right) , \\
d\tau &=&\sqrt{\Delta }\left( a\theta \left( u\right) du+b\theta \left(
v\right) dv\right) , \notag\end{aligned}$$
in which $\theta \left( u\right) $ and $\theta \left( v\right) $ are the unit step functions introduced as the requirement of the collision problem. Let us note that insertion of the step functions must be checked critically to ensure the absence of any redundant current sheets. In most cases such an insertion fails to work but here, due to its em analogy it does work. The YM field 2-form $F^{i}$ are given by.
$$F^{i}=Q\sqrt{\delta }\left( \cos y,\sin y,\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{\delta }}\right) F,$$
where the 2-form $F$ is
$$F=\frac{1}{X^{2}}\left[ \left( \left( p+\tau \right) ^{2}-a_{0}^{2}\sigma
^{2}\right) d\sigma -2\sigma \left( p+\tau \right) d\tau \right] \wedge
\left( Bdy-a_{0}dx\right) ,$$
while its dual takes the form
$$^{\ast }F=\frac{1}{X^{2}}\left[ \left( \left( p+\tau \right)
^{2}-a_{0}^{2}\sigma ^{2}\right) d\tau \wedge \left( dx-a_{0}\delta
dy\right) -2a_{0}\sigma \left( p+\tau \right) d\sigma \wedge \left(
Bdy-a_{0}dx\right) \right] .$$
Without much difficulty, which is more transparent in the $\left( \tau
,\sigma ,x,y\right) $, compared with the $\left( u,v,x,y\right) $ coordinates, one can show that the integrability equations
$$dF+A\wedge F=0,$$
and the YM equations
$$d^{\ast }F+A\wedge ^{\ast }F=0,$$
are all satisfied. This solves the problem of colliding EYM plane waves where the YM field is obtained from the theorem of Yasskin while the metric is the inner horizon region of the KN geometry explored first within the context of EM by Chandrasekhar and Xanthopoulos [@CX2]. For a detailed analysis of this spacetime we refer to [@CX2].
The Linear Polarization Limit.
==============================
In this section we consider the metric obtained in the previous section and set $a_{0}=0$ to make waves linearly polarized. In the null coordinates after an overall scaling the line element takes the form
$$ds^{2}=\Sigma ^{2}\left( 2dudv-\delta dy^{2}\right) -\frac{\Delta }{\Sigma
^{2}}dx^{2},$$
where
$$\Sigma =1+\alpha \tau ,\ \ \ \ \Delta =1-\tau ^{2},\ \ \ \ \ \delta
=1-\sigma ^{2},\ \ \ \ \ \alpha =\sqrt{1-Q^{2}},$$
while the $SO(3)$ valued gauge potential 1-forms are
$$\begin{aligned}
A^{1} &=&Q\left[ \left( \sigma \sqrt{\delta }\cos y\right) dy-\left( \sin
y\right) \left( a\theta \left( u\right) du-b\theta \left( v\right) dv\right) \right] , \\
A^{2} &=&Q\left[ \left( \sigma \sqrt{\delta }\sin y\right) dy+\left( \cos
y\right) \left( a\theta \left( u\right) du-b\theta \left( v\right) dv\right) \right] , \notag \\
A^{3} &=&-Q\delta dy. \notag\end{aligned}$$
The YM field 2-form $F^{i}$ and $^{\ast }F^{i}$can be expressed as
$$\begin{aligned}
F^{i} &=&Q\delta \left( \cos y,\sin y,\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{\delta }}\right) \left[ a\theta \left( u\right) du-b\theta \left( v\right) dv\right] \wedge
dy, \\
^{\ast }F^{i} &=&\frac{Q\sqrt{\Delta \delta }}{\left( \Sigma \right) ^{2}}\left( \cos y,\sin y,\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{\delta }}\right) \left[ a\theta
\left( u\right) du+b\theta \left( v\right) dv\right] \wedge dx \notag\end{aligned}$$
In the null tetrad basis 1-forms $\left( l,n,m,\overline{m}\right) $ of Newman and Penrose
$$\begin{aligned}
l &=&\Sigma du, \\
n &=&\Sigma dv, \notag \\
m+\overline{m} &=&\sqrt{2}\Sigma \sqrt{\delta }dy, \notag \\
m-\overline{m} &=&\sqrt{2}i\frac{\sqrt{\Delta }}{\Sigma }dx, \notag\end{aligned}$$
the energy-momentum tensor $T_{\mu \nu }$ becomes,
$$4\pi T_{\mu \nu }=\frac{Q^{2}}{\Sigma ^{4}}\left[ a^{2}\theta \left(
u\right) l_{\mu }l_{\nu }+b^{2}\theta \left( v\right) n_{\mu }n_{\nu
}+ab\theta \left( u\right) \theta \left( v\right) \left( m_{\mu }m_{\nu }+\overline{m}_{\mu }\overline{m}_{\nu }\right) \right] .$$
Prior to the collision the incoming, coupled EYM plane waves are obtained by setting $v<0$ $(u<0)$ in Eq.(24). For $u<0$ and $v<0$ we have a flat space in which the YM field vanishes. For $u>0$ and $v>0$ , the Weyl scalars $\Psi
_{2},$ $\Psi _{0}$ and $\Psi _{4}$ are all regular as can be checked from
$$\begin{aligned}
\Psi _{2} &=&\frac{\alpha \left( \alpha +\tau \right) }{\Sigma ^{4}}ab\theta
\left( u\right) \theta \left( v\right) , \\
\Psi _{4} &=&-\frac{a\delta \left( u\right) \left[ \alpha +\sin \left(
bv\theta \left( v\right) \right) \right] }{\cos \left( bv\theta \left(
v\right) \right) \left[ 1+\alpha \sin \left( bv\theta \left( v\right)
\right) \right] }+3a^{2}\theta \left( u\right) \frac{\alpha \left( \alpha
+\tau \right) }{\Sigma ^{4}}, \notag \\
\Psi _{0} &=&-\frac{b\delta \left( v\right) \left[ \alpha +\sin \left(
au\theta \left( u\right) \right) \right] }{\cos \left( au\theta \left(
u\right) \right) \left[ 1+\alpha \sin \left( au\theta \left( u\right)
\right) \right] }+3b^{2}\theta \left( v\right) \frac{\alpha \left( \alpha
+\tau \right) }{\Sigma ^{4}}, \notag\end{aligned}$$
satisfying the type-D condition $\Psi _{0}\Psi _{4}=9\Psi _{2}^{2}.$ The invariants $I=2\left( \Psi _{0}\Psi _{4}+3\Psi _{2}^{2}\right) $ and $J=6\Psi _{2}\left( \Psi _{0}\Psi _{4}-\Psi _{2}^{2}\right) $ are both regular as they should be in the inside of the collision region. On the boudaries $u=0,bv=\pi /2$ $(v=0,au=\pi /2)$, however, there are null singularities which are also present in the problem of colliding em shock waves[@BS]. The pathology involved ( if any) on the hypersurfaces $\tau
=1$ and $\sigma =\pm 1$ has been discussed extensively in the literature of colliding waves ( see Ref.[@JB] and references therein). An analytic extension beyond the horizon $(\tau =1)$, albeit it is a non - unique process, reveals the geodesics completeness and other issues [@GH].
The metric (23) has well known limits. For $Q=0$ $\left( \alpha =1\right) $ the YM field vanishes and one recovers the colliding gravitational waves locally isometric to the Schwarzschild interior[@JB]. For $Q=1$ $\left(
\alpha =0\right) $ we have the case of colliding em waves [@BS]. This implies that the Bell-Szekeres metric can be interpreted at the same time to represent colliding YM plane waves for a unit charge $Q=1$.
The Wu-Yang ansatz solution[@WY] for the static YM fields has the gauge potential
$$A^{i}=-\frac{Q}{r^{2}}\epsilon _{jk}^{i}x^{k}dx^{j}$$
where $x^{i}$ stands for the Cartesian coordinates and $Q=Q^{3}\neq 0,$ is the only non-zero gauge charge. By the substitution, $x^{1}=r\sin \theta
\cos \varphi ,$ $x^{2}=r\sin \theta \sin \varphi $ and $x^{3}=r\cos \theta
, $ followed by $\cos \theta =\sin \left( au\theta \left( u\right)
-bv\theta \left( v\right) \right) $ and $y=\varphi $, one obtains potential 1-forms ( Eq.(25)). The YM potentials in Eq.(25) just corresponds to the curved space generalization of the Wu-Yang ansatz solution[@WY].
Conclusion.
===========
Customarily YM fields arise as part of a quantum theory inside nuclei. It carries its own gauge charge and self-interacts with itself. These properties are fundamentally different from em waves which correspond to the classical equivalence of photons. In this paper we treat YM waves along with gravitational waves as classical and consider their collision problem in a restricted form. This is not to be compared with a Feynman diagram of quantum chromodynamics. The highly non-linear YM waves acts in this simple picture parallel to gravitational waves to distort spacetime upon interaction. The example which we present here is a case that forms Cauchy horizon ( of Reissner-Nordstrom and KN types) instead of a singularity. Yasskin’s theorem and the Wu-Yang ansatz aided in obtaining this simple class. Different combinations/collisions which employ the full non-linearity and non-Abelian character may change this picture completely. This, however, remains as challenging as ever.
[9]{} J.B. Griffiths. *Colliding Plane Waves in General Relativity*, Oxford University Press, Oxford. (1991).
M. Halilsoy. *J. Math. Phys.* (NY), **31**, 2694-2698, (1990).
P.B. Yasskin, *Phys. Rev. D***12**, 2212-2217, (1975).
T.T. Wu and C.N. Yang, *in Properties of Matter Under Unusual Conditions*, edited by H. Mark and S. Fernbach ( Interscience, New York, 1969).
P. Bell and P. Szekeres. *Gen. Rel. and Grav*. **5**, 275. (1974).
S. Chandrasekhar and B.C. Xanthopoulos. *Proc. R. Soc. London,* **A414**, 1. (1987).
O. Gurtug and M. Halilsoy, *Int. Journal Mod. Phys. A.* **24**, 3171. (2009).
| {
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