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Florida is a popular destination for birdwatching, because of the many species that can be found in the state at various times of the year. The Florida Ornithological Society maintains the official state list of the birds of Florida, which currently contains 498 species.[61] A study published in 2003 by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission documented 196 species of birds which were confirmed to breed in the state, with an additional 19 species listed as possible or probable breeders.[62] The Great Florida Birding Trail, a 2000-mile (3200 km) long trail, is composed of 489 locations throughout the state which are optimal observation sites. [63]

Sport fishing is also popular in Florida; over 250 different species of fish (including 73 non-native species) can be found in Florida. There are more than 1000 species of fish in Florida's inshore waters.[64]

In 2010, NOAA, citing the Magnuson-Stevens Act, banned fishing of red snapper until the population has time to recover.[65]

Florida's Atlantic coast is home to the only extensive coral reefs in the continental United States,[66] and the third largest in the world.[67] The entire reef system in the Florida Keys is encompassed by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary,[68] and significant portions of reef are protected as part of Biscayne National Park.[67]

In 1977, the federal government placed alligators on the endangered list. They were removed from the endangered list in 1987 and Florida permitted selective hunting in 1988.[69]

Bird and turtle habitats
In 1987, Florida hosted the last member of the dusky seaside sparrow, now extinct.[70] There have been only two such avian failures since listing of endangered species began in 1973. This event has presented a challenge to ensure that other environmental concerns are addressed in a timely manner.

The Florida scrub jay has been thought to be threatened for many years, because the species is territorial and cannot move to better grounds when its habitat is jeopardized.[71]

Nesting beaches of loggerhead sea turtles are protected.[72]

Environmental issues
This section is an excerpt from Environmental issues in Florida.[edit]
There are a number of environmental issues in Florida. A large portion of Florida is a biologically diverse ecosystem, with large wetlands in the Everglades. Management of environmental issues related to the everglades and the larger coastal waters and wetlands have been important to the history of Florida and the development of multiple parts of the economy of Florida, including the influential agricultural industry. This biodiversity leaves much of Florida's ecological ecosystem vulnerable to invasive species and human sources of industrial pollution and waste.

Moreover, because of Florida's low geography, Florida has been described as "ground zero" in the United States for the impacts of climate change in the United States.
Invasive species
See also: List of invasive marine fish in Florida

Platydemus manokwari in Florida
Native flora is threatened by various invasive plants, including the Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius).[73] Possession and cultivation of this tree is illegal. Large numbers of volunteers periodically cut down these invaders, particularly along waterways. The Australian pine (Casuarina spp.) is being actively controlled to prevent it from spreading.

Other foreign pests include the Asian ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus) threatens the local avocado industry and redbay trees (Persea borbonia).[74]

It is illegal to import giant African land snails (Achatina fulica). These threaten buildings, 500 types of local plants, and carry meningitis.[75]

In 2015, the land flatworm Platydemus manokwari was reported from Miami.[76] It is a highly invasive species, and, as a predator of snails, a threat to biodiversity.

Climate change
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Florida.[edit]
The effects of climate change in Florida are attributable to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Floridians are experiencing increased flooding due to sea level rise, and are concerned about the possibility of more frequent or more intense hurricanes.[77]

The state has been described as America's "ground zero" for climate change, global warming and sea level rise, because "the majority of its population and economy is concentrated along low-elevation oceanfront."[78][79][80][81][82]

Florida residents think climate change is happening at higher rates than the national average. As of March 2023, about two-thirds of the state believes in anthropogenic climate change, up from 55% in April 2020.[83][84] However, the state remains politically divided: while Democrats have reached a general consensus on the issue, only half of Republicans agree and support teaching about climate change in schools.[85] Some communities in Florida have begun implementing climate change mitigation approaches; however, statewide initiatives have been hampered by the politicization of climate change in the United States, focusing on resilience rather than full scale mitigation and adaptation.[86

Citation: Androulidakis, Y.S.;
Kourafalou, V. Marine Heat Waves
over Natural and Urban Coastal
Environments of South Florida. Water
2022, 14, 3840. https://doi.org/
10.3390/w14233840
Academic Editor: Υiannis Savvidis
Received: 23 October 2022
Accepted: 22 November 2022
Published: 25 November 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
water
Article
Marine Heat Waves over Natural and Urban Coastal
Environments of South Florida
Yannis S. Androulidakis 1,2,* and Vassiliki Kourafalou 3
1 Laboratory of Maritime Engineering and Maritime Works, School of Civil Engineering,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
2 Laboratory of Physical and Chemical Oceanography, Department of Marine Sciences,
University of the Aegean, 81100 Mytilene, Greece
3 Department of Ocean Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric and Earth Science,
University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Marine Heat Wave (MHW) events are increasingly recognized as an important factor
in the sustainability of coastal environments (both natural and urban), in the context of climate
change. They are related to increasing trends of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) at the adjacent
ocean waters. SST is an important parameter of the earth’s climate and increasing SST trends have
been associated with adverse effects on coastal ecosystems, with important environmental and
socioeconomic implications. This study focuses on the SST interannual variability over the coastal
marine environment of South Florida, which contains several fragile ecosystems, and draws associate
effects with adjacent large urban coastal settlements. The methodology is based on high-resolution
satellite-derived SST data during a 40-year period (1982–2021), augmented by recent high-resolution
model simulations (2012–2020). A generally increasing trend has been detected in the observations
over the entire region (0.19 ◦C/decade). The unusual temperature levels have been associated with the
formation of extensive MHW events, which showed interannual positive trends (0.75 events/decade)
during the 40-year study period. Specifically, the six most recent years (2015–2021) were characterized
by the strongest formation of MHWs with a peak in 2015, 2019 and 2020, with more than 8 events/year
and approximately 70 to 110 days/year duration in total. The Florida Keys, especially along the
Straits of Florida (southern island coasts), revealed very strong increasing trends. Miami Beach is
also characterized by strong interannual trends (1.1 events/decade and 10 days/decade) compared
to the enclosed basin of Biscayne Bay. In addition to the influence of atmospheric conditions over
all regions around South Florida, the formation of MHWs near the eastern Florida coasts was also
controlled by ocean dynamics, related to the warm Florida Current (FC). The evolution of the FC
close to the eastern coasts (e.g., Miami Beach) was found to be a pre-condition of MHW formation.
Several disastrous events on the biotic environment of South Florida near large urban settlements
have been related to the formation of MHWs. The detected positive trends, and especially the recent
high peaks of MHW events, may enhance the loss of specific heat-sensitive species, damaging the
biodiversity of this tropical coastal environment and weakening the natural coastal protection against

Florida is a popular destination for birdwatching, because of the many species that can be found in the state at various times of the year. The Florida Ornithological Society maintains the official state list of the birds of Florida, which currently contains 498 species.[61] A study published in 2003 by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission documented 196 species of birds which were confirmed to breed in the state, with an additional 19 species listed as possible or probable breeders.[62] The Great Florida Birding Trail, a 2000-mile (3200 km) long trail, is composed of 489 locations throughout the state which are optimal observation sites. [63]

Sport fishing is also popular in Florida; over 250 different species of fish (including 73 non-native species) can be found in Florida. There are more than 1000 species of fish in Florida's inshore waters.[64]

In 2010, NOAA, citing the Magnuson-Stevens Act, banned fishing of red snapper until the population has time to recover.[65]

Florida's Atlantic coast is home to the only extensive coral reefs in the continental United States,[66] and the third largest in the world.[67] The entire reef system in the Florida Keys is encompassed by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary,[68] and significant portions of reef are protected as part of Biscayne National Park.[67]

In 1977, the federal government placed alligators on the endangered list. They were removed from the endangered list in 1987 and Florida permitted selective hunting in 1988.[69]

Bird and turtle habitats

In 1987, Florida hosted the last member of the dusky seaside sparrow, now extinct.[70] There have been only two such avian failures since listing of endangered species began in 1973. This event has presented a challenge to ensure that other environmental concerns are addressed in a timely manner.

The Florida scrub jay has been thought to be threatened for many years, because the species is territorial and cannot move to better grounds when its habitat is jeopardized.[71]

Nesting beaches of loggerhead sea turtles are protected.[72]

Environmental issues

This section is an excerpt from Environmental issues in Florida.[edit]

There are a number of environmental issues in Florida. A large portion of Florida is a biologically diverse ecosystem, with large wetlands in the Everglades. Management of environmental issues related to the everglades and the larger coastal waters and wetlands have been important to the history of Florida and the development of multiple parts of the economy of Florida, including the influential agricultural industry. This biodiversity leaves much of Florida's ecological ecosystem vulnerable to invasive species and human sources of industrial pollution and waste.

Moreover, because of Florida's low geography, Florida has been described as "ground zero" in the United States for the impacts of climate change in the United States.

Invasive species

See also: List of invasive marine fish in Florida

Platydemus manokwari in Florida

Native flora is threatened by various invasive plants, including the Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius).[73] Possession and cultivation of this tree is illegal. Large numbers of volunteers periodically cut down these invaders, particularly along waterways. The Australian pine (Casuarina spp.) is being actively controlled to prevent it from spreading.

Other foreign pests include the Asian ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus) threatens the local avocado industry and redbay trees (Persea borbonia).[74]

It is illegal to import giant African land snails (Achatina fulica). These threaten buildings, 500 types of local plants, and carry meningitis.[75]

In 2015, the land flatworm Platydemus manokwari was reported from Miami.[76] It is a highly invasive species, and, as a predator of snails, a threat to biodiversity.

Climate change

This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Florida.[edit]

The effects of climate change in Florida are attributable to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Floridians are experiencing increased flooding due to sea level rise, and are concerned about the possibility of more frequent or more intense hurricanes.[77]

The state has been described as America's "ground zero" for climate change, global warming and sea level rise, because "the majority of its population and economy is concentrated along low-elevation oceanfront."[78][79][80][81][82]

Florida residents think climate change is happening at higher rates than the national average. As of March 2023, about two-thirds of the state believes in anthropogenic climate change, up from 55% in April 2020.[83][84] However, the state remains politically divided: while Democrats have reached a general consensus on the issue, only half of Republicans agree and support teaching about climate change in schools.[85] Some communities in Florida have begun implementing climate change mitigation approaches; however, statewide initiatives have been hampered by the politicization of climate change in the United States, focusing on resilience rather than full scale mitigation and adaptation.[86

Citation: Androulidakis, Y.S.;

Kourafalou, V. Marine Heat Waves

over Natural and Urban Coastal

Environments of South Florida. Water

2022, 14, 3840. https://doi.org/

10.3390/w14233840

Academic Editor: Υiannis Savvidis

Received: 23 October 2022

Accepted: 22 November 2022

Published: 25 November 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in

published maps and institutional affiliations.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

This article is an open access article

distributed under the terms and

conditions of the Creative Commons

Attribution (CC BY) license (https://

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/

4.0/).

water

Article

Marine Heat Waves over Natural and Urban Coastal

Environments of South Florida

Yannis S. Androulidakis 1,2,* and Vassiliki Kourafalou 3

1 Laboratory of Maritime Engineering and Maritime Works, School of Civil Engineering,

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece

2 Laboratory of Physical and Chemical Oceanography, Department of Marine Sciences,

University of the Aegean, 81100 Mytilene, Greece

3 Department of Ocean Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric and Earth Science,

University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Marine Heat Wave (MHW) events are increasingly recognized as an important factor

in the sustainability of coastal environments (both natural and urban), in the context of climate

change. They are related to increasing trends of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) at the adjacent

ocean waters. SST is an important parameter of the earth’s climate and increasing SST trends have

been associated with adverse effects on coastal ecosystems, with important environmental and

socioeconomic implications. This study focuses on the SST interannual variability over the coastal

marine environment of South Florida, which contains several fragile ecosystems, and draws associate

effects with adjacent large urban coastal settlements. The methodology is based on high-resolution

satellite-derived SST data during a 40-year period (1982–2021), augmented by recent high-resolution

model simulations (2012–2020). A generally increasing trend has been detected in the observations

over the entire region (0.19 ◦C/decade). The unusual temperature levels have been associated with the

formation of extensive MHW events, which showed interannual positive trends (0.75 events/decade)

during the 40-year study period. Specifically, the six most recent years (2015–2021) were characterized

by the strongest formation of MHWs with a peak in 2015, 2019 and 2020, with more than 8 events/year

and approximately 70 to 110 days/year duration in total. The Florida Keys, especially along the

Straits of Florida (southern island coasts), revealed very strong increasing trends. Miami Beach is

also characterized by strong interannual trends (1.1 events/decade and 10 days/decade) compared

to the enclosed basin of Biscayne Bay. In addition to the influence of atmospheric conditions over

all regions around South Florida, the formation of MHWs near the eastern Florida coasts was also

controlled by ocean dynamics, related to the warm Florida Current (FC). The evolution of the FC

close to the eastern coasts (e.g., Miami Beach) was found to be a pre-condition of MHW formation.

Several disastrous events on the biotic environment of South Florida near large urban settlements

have been related to the formation of MHWs. The detected positive trends, and especially the recent

high peaks of MHW events, may enhance the loss of specific heat-sensitive species, damaging the

biodiversity of this tropical coastal environment and weakening the natural coastal protection against