patrickbdevaney/mia9 · Datasets at Hugging Face

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tropical storms. Urban planning for sustainable development in South Florida’s coastal cities must
take into account MHW trends.
Keywords: remote sensing; ocean warming; Straits of Florida; extreme events; climate change
1. Introduction
Marine Heat Wave (MHW) events [1,2] are extreme climatic episodes affiliated with
warm Sea Surface Temperature (SST) values that persist for days to months, over a specific
oceanic area (the full definition of MHWs is given in Section 2.5). SST is an important
parameter of the earth’s climate and one of the main indicators of the climate change
impacts on the ocean environment [3]. The interannual distribution of the SST and its
Water 2022, 14, 3840. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233840 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Water 2022, 14, 3840 2 of 28
increasing trends during the last decades are related both to the variability of the atmospheric conditions and to the ocean circulation dynamics. MHW events may affect the
vulnerability of marine organisms and ecosystems [4] and have been observed in all major
ocean basins (i.e., [5–12]), especially during the last decade. However, only a few MHWs
have been documented and examined in detail [13]. Oliver et al. [14], based on a large
range of ocean temperature data (in situ and satellite), showed that the global average of
MHW frequency and duration, during the 1925–2016 period, increased by 34% and 17%,
respectively. In this study, we assess the interannual and spatial variability of the SST levels
over the seas surrounding South Florida, focusing on their effects on the natural and urban
coastal environments. We investigate the formation of MHW events during the last 40 years
(1982–2021), based on continuous high-resolution satellite-derived data. We also investigate
the impact of ocean dynamics, with the aid of high-resolution model simulations and we
discuss MHW implications on adjacent natural and urban coastal environments.
We define the study area as the South Florida coastal region (Figure 1) that consists
of continental shelves, straits, islands, marine protected areas, and urban settlements. A
unique characteristic is the close proximity of a major, warm, deep oceanic current (the Gulf
Stream), which manifests itself as the Loop Current/Florida Current system around South
Florida. The environmental quality of this region is strongly affected by the temperature
levels of the coastal waters. The South Florida coastal region is surrounded by the shallow
Western Florida Shelf (WFS) in the west, the Florida Keys and the deeper Straits of Florida in
the south, and the narrow Eastern Florida Shelf (EFS) in the east, where the broader Miami
metropolitan area with millions of habitants is located. This coastal marine ecosystem
comprises mangrove forests, extensive seagrass beds, and the only tropical coral reef tract
in the continental United States. Intense human pressures and global climate change factors,
such as increased temperature during the last century, pose severe threats on the quality of
the South Florida coastal ecosystem [15].
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 31
impacts on the ocean environment [3]. The interannual distribution of the SST and its increasing trends during the last decades are related both to the variability of the atmospheric conditions and to the ocean circulation dynamics. MHW events may affect the vulnerability of marine organisms and ecosystems [4] and have been observed in all major
ocean basins (i.e., [5–12]), especially during the last decade. However, only a few MHWs
have been documented and examined in detail [13]. Oliver et al. [14], based on a large
range of ocean temperature data (in situ and satellite), showed that the global average of
MHW frequency and duration, during the 1925–2016 period, increased by 34% and 17%,
respectively. In this study, we assess the interannual and spatial variability of the SST
levels over the seas surrounding South Florida, focusing on their effects on the natural
and urban coastal environments. We investigate the formation of MHW events during the
last 40 years (1982–2021), based on continuous high-resolution satellite-derived data. We
also investigate the impact of ocean dynamics, with the aid of high-resolution model simulations and we discuss MHW implications on adjacent natural and urban coastal environments.
We define the study area as the South Florida coastal region (Figure 1) that consists
of continental shelves, straits, islands, marine protected areas, and urban settlements. A
unique characteristic is the close proximity of a major, warm, deep oceanic current (the
Gulf Stream), which manifests itself as the Loop Current/Florida Current system around
South Florida. The environmental quality of this region is strongly affected by the temperature levels of the coastal waters. The South Florida coastal region is surrounded by
the shallow Western Florida Shelf (WFS) in the west, the Florida Keys and the deeper
Straits of Florida in the south, and the narrow Eastern Florida Shelf (EFS) in the east, where
the broader Miami metropolitan area with millions of habitants is located. This coastal
marine ecosystem comprises mangrove forests, extensive seagrass beds, and the only
tropical coral reef tract in the continental United States. Intense human pressures and
global climate change factors, such as increased temperature during the last century, pose
severe threats on the quality of the South Florida coastal ecosystem [15].
Figure 1. Bathymetry (m) of the South Florida domain with characteristic geographical locations
(Western Florida Shelf: WFS and Eastern Florida Shelf: EFS). The locations of the National Data
Buoy Center (NDBC) SANF1, MLRF1, and FWYF1 buoys are marked with red stars. The insert map
shows the location of the study domain in South Florida.
Figure 1. Bathymetry (m) of the South Florida domain with characteristic geographical locations
(Western Florida Shelf: WFS and Eastern Florida Shelf: EFS). The locations of the National Data Buoy
Center (NDBC) SANF1, MLRF1, and FWYF1 buoys are marked with red stars. The insert map shows
the location of the study domain in South Florida.
Kuffner et al. [16], based on long-term in situ measurements, showed evidence of
approximately 0.8 ◦C warming in SST over the Florida Keys during the last century; the
Water 2022, 14, 3840 3 of 28
magnitude of warming was similar to the observed global trend. Carlson et al. [17], based
on daily 0.25◦ AVHRR SST data, showed that the August maximum SST in Florida Bay
has increased by 1 ◦C from 1981 to 2016 (~0.030 ◦C/year) contributing to the seagrass
mortality, especially during 1987–1991 and 2015–2016. The SST in the nearshore Atlantic
Ocean increased at a rate of 0.023 ◦C/year. However, Carlson et al. [17] argued that these
increasing trends over the WFS and EFS, based on the same low-resolution data (0.25◦
)
and using all months, were very weak and not statistically significant, with large pvalues,
on the basis of the Mann–Kendall [18,19] trend test. Liu et al. [20] presented four main
seasonal patterns of SST over the WFS: (a) the winter SST pattern related to the cooling
effect of shoaling isobaths on the shelf and the warming influence of advection by the Loop
Current, (b) the spring SST pattern that shows a mid-shelf cold tongue, (c) the summer SST
pattern characterized by the warming effect of shoaling isobaths on the shelf due to the
Loop Current, and d) the autumn SST pattern characterized by a warm tongue on the shelf.
Soto et al. [21] showed that years with the highest SST variance (>7 ◦C) suffered the greatest
coral cover lost, while years with intermediate (6–7 ◦C) and low (<5 ◦C) SST variances had
little or no loss in coral cover. The cold events and their respective cold fronts in the ocean
also impact the South Florida coastal waters, with fatal consequences for a large number of
corals and associated organisms. Barnes et al. [22], based on an SST climatology derived
from satellite data over the 1995–2010 period, showed that the 2010 cold event in January
2010 (https://www.weather.gov/media/mfl/news/2010WxSummary.pdf, accessed on
1 October 2022) was characterized by negative SST anomalies between 11 to 14 ◦C resulting
in extensive benthic mortality [23] and the loss of a large number of cold-sensitive wildlife
species [24]. The investigation of the spatial, seasonal and interannual variability of the SST,
and the detection of MHW extreme events are crucial to evaluate the quality and resilience
of the biotic environment over the entire South Florida coastal region. The study of MHW
events requires the understanding of the factors controlling the processes impacting SST.
The SST variability over the South Florida is determined by two main factors: the
meteorological forcing (air–sea exchanges and wind stresses), and the respective local
and regional ocean dynamics. The latter are mainly controlled by large scale circulation

tropical storms. Urban planning for sustainable development in South Florida’s coastal cities must

take into account MHW trends.

Keywords: remote sensing; ocean warming; Straits of Florida; extreme events; climate change

1. Introduction

Marine Heat Wave (MHW) events [1,2] are extreme climatic episodes affiliated with

warm Sea Surface Temperature (SST) values that persist for days to months, over a specific

oceanic area (the full definition of MHWs is given in Section 2.5). SST is an important

parameter of the earth’s climate and one of the main indicators of the climate change

impacts on the ocean environment [3]. The interannual distribution of the SST and its

Water 2022, 14, 3840. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233840 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2022, 14, 3840 2 of 28

increasing trends during the last decades are related both to the variability of the atmospheric conditions and to the ocean circulation dynamics. MHW events may affect the

vulnerability of marine organisms and ecosystems [4] and have been observed in all major

ocean basins (i.e., [5–12]), especially during the last decade. However, only a few MHWs

have been documented and examined in detail [13]. Oliver et al. [14], based on a large

range of ocean temperature data (in situ and satellite), showed that the global average of

MHW frequency and duration, during the 1925–2016 period, increased by 34% and 17%,

respectively. In this study, we assess the interannual and spatial variability of the SST levels

over the seas surrounding South Florida, focusing on their effects on the natural and urban

coastal environments. We investigate the formation of MHW events during the last 40 years

(1982–2021), based on continuous high-resolution satellite-derived data. We also investigate

the impact of ocean dynamics, with the aid of high-resolution model simulations and we

discuss MHW implications on adjacent natural and urban coastal environments.

We define the study area as the South Florida coastal region (Figure 1) that consists

of continental shelves, straits, islands, marine protected areas, and urban settlements. A

unique characteristic is the close proximity of a major, warm, deep oceanic current (the Gulf

Stream), which manifests itself as the Loop Current/Florida Current system around South

Florida. The environmental quality of this region is strongly affected by the temperature

levels of the coastal waters. The South Florida coastal region is surrounded by the shallow

Western Florida Shelf (WFS) in the west, the Florida Keys and the deeper Straits of Florida in

the south, and the narrow Eastern Florida Shelf (EFS) in the east, where the broader Miami

metropolitan area with millions of habitants is located. This coastal marine ecosystem

comprises mangrove forests, extensive seagrass beds, and the only tropical coral reef tract

in the continental United States. Intense human pressures and global climate change factors,

such as increased temperature during the last century, pose severe threats on the quality of

the South Florida coastal ecosystem [15].

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 31

impacts on the ocean environment [3]. The interannual distribution of the SST and its increasing trends during the last decades are related both to the variability of the atmospheric conditions and to the ocean circulation dynamics. MHW events may affect the vulnerability of marine organisms and ecosystems [4] and have been observed in all major

ocean basins (i.e., [5–12]), especially during the last decade. However, only a few MHWs

have been documented and examined in detail [13]. Oliver et al. [14], based on a large

range of ocean temperature data (in situ and satellite), showed that the global average of

MHW frequency and duration, during the 1925–2016 period, increased by 34% and 17%,

respectively. In this study, we assess the interannual and spatial variability of the SST

levels over the seas surrounding South Florida, focusing on their effects on the natural

and urban coastal environments. We investigate the formation of MHW events during the

last 40 years (1982–2021), based on continuous high-resolution satellite-derived data. We

also investigate the impact of ocean dynamics, with the aid of high-resolution model simulations and we discuss MHW implications on adjacent natural and urban coastal environments.

We define the study area as the South Florida coastal region (Figure 1) that consists

of continental shelves, straits, islands, marine protected areas, and urban settlements. A

unique characteristic is the close proximity of a major, warm, deep oceanic current (the

Gulf Stream), which manifests itself as the Loop Current/Florida Current system around

South Florida. The environmental quality of this region is strongly affected by the temperature levels of the coastal waters. The South Florida coastal region is surrounded by

the shallow Western Florida Shelf (WFS) in the west, the Florida Keys and the deeper

Straits of Florida in the south, and the narrow Eastern Florida Shelf (EFS) in the east, where

the broader Miami metropolitan area with millions of habitants is located. This coastal

marine ecosystem comprises mangrove forests, extensive seagrass beds, and the only

tropical coral reef tract in the continental United States. Intense human pressures and

global climate change factors, such as increased temperature during the last century, pose

severe threats on the quality of the South Florida coastal ecosystem [15].

Figure 1. Bathymetry (m) of the South Florida domain with characteristic geographical locations

(Western Florida Shelf: WFS and Eastern Florida Shelf: EFS). The locations of the National Data

Buoy Center (NDBC) SANF1, MLRF1, and FWYF1 buoys are marked with red stars. The insert map

shows the location of the study domain in South Florida.

Figure 1. Bathymetry (m) of the South Florida domain with characteristic geographical locations

(Western Florida Shelf: WFS and Eastern Florida Shelf: EFS). The locations of the National Data Buoy

Center (NDBC) SANF1, MLRF1, and FWYF1 buoys are marked with red stars. The insert map shows

the location of the study domain in South Florida.

Kuffner et al. [16], based on long-term in situ measurements, showed evidence of

approximately 0.8 ◦C warming in SST over the Florida Keys during the last century; the

Water 2022, 14, 3840 3 of 28

magnitude of warming was similar to the observed global trend. Carlson et al. [17], based

on daily 0.25◦ AVHRR SST data, showed that the August maximum SST in Florida Bay

has increased by 1 ◦C from 1981 to 2016 (~0.030 ◦C/year) contributing to the seagrass

mortality, especially during 1987–1991 and 2015–2016. The SST in the nearshore Atlantic

Ocean increased at a rate of 0.023 ◦C/year. However, Carlson et al. [17] argued that these

increasing trends over the WFS and EFS, based on the same low-resolution data (0.25◦

)

and using all months, were very weak and not statistically significant, with large pvalues,

on the basis of the Mann–Kendall [18,19] trend test. Liu et al. [20] presented four main

seasonal patterns of SST over the WFS: (a) the winter SST pattern related to the cooling

effect of shoaling isobaths on the shelf and the warming influence of advection by the Loop

Current, (b) the spring SST pattern that shows a mid-shelf cold tongue, (c) the summer SST

pattern characterized by the warming effect of shoaling isobaths on the shelf due to the

Loop Current, and d) the autumn SST pattern characterized by a warm tongue on the shelf.

Soto et al. [21] showed that years with the highest SST variance (>7 ◦C) suffered the greatest

coral cover lost, while years with intermediate (6–7 ◦C) and low (<5 ◦C) SST variances had

little or no loss in coral cover. The cold events and their respective cold fronts in the ocean

also impact the South Florida coastal waters, with fatal consequences for a large number of

corals and associated organisms. Barnes et al. [22], based on an SST climatology derived

from satellite data over the 1995–2010 period, showed that the 2010 cold event in January

2010 (https://www.weather.gov/media/mfl/news/2010WxSummary.pdf, accessed on

1 October 2022) was characterized by negative SST anomalies between 11 to 14 ◦C resulting

in extensive benthic mortality [23] and the loss of a large number of cold-sensitive wildlife

species [24]. The investigation of the spatial, seasonal and interannual variability of the SST,

and the detection of MHW extreme events are crucial to evaluate the quality and resilience

of the biotic environment over the entire South Florida coastal region. The study of MHW

events requires the understanding of the factors controlling the processes impacting SST.

The SST variability over the South Florida is determined by two main factors: the

meteorological forcing (air–sea exchanges and wind stresses), and the respective local

and regional ocean dynamics. The latter are mainly controlled by large scale circulation