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**Umbilical granuloma** is the most common umbilical abnormality in newborn children or neonates, causing inflammation and drainage. It may appear in the first few weeks of newborn infants during the healing process of the umbilical cord due to an umbilical mass. It is the overgrowth of the umbilical tissue. It develops in about 1 out of 500 newborns. With appropriate treatment, it is expected to heal in 1~2 weeks.
Causes
------
Following umbilical cord clamping during delivery, the umbilicus base will spontaneously separate within 7-15 days. With routine cord care and proper hygienic conditions, the remaining umbilical base will heal and new skin tissue will form. In some instances, a mass of tissue, or granuloma, will form at the base.
Umbilical granulomas occur after umbilical cord removal when the remaining ring of the umbilicus undergoes incomplete wound healing and there is excessive healing tissue, also known as granulation tissue.
Delayed cord separation, mild infections and hygienic conditions are all factors which may contribute to the incidence of umbilical granuloma. Although the exact cause of umbilical granulomas is unknown, it is hypothesized that inflammation of the remaining umbilical stump drives skin cell division, resulting in a tissue mass, rather than proper healing at the site.
### Histophysiology
An umbilical granuloma is a physiological response which surpasses the normal processes of skin restoration following umbilical cord clamping. Once the skin lesion is formed, there is an excess of fibroblast production. These fibroblasts, or connective tissue cells, are responsible for the production of collagen and additional fibers, resulting in the excess tissue mass found in the granuloma. Additional histological studies reveal an increase of cell division of vascular endothelial cells. These cells line our blood vessels and are further responsible for the growth and development of tissue and the formation of new blood vessels within the granuloma.
### Pathophysiology
Inflammatory saprophytic microorganisms, involved with decomposition, may delay the healing process, and can lead to overproduction of fibroblasts that are involved in normal skin restoration. These microorganisms can interfere with the skin’s normal flora, and lead to increased pathogenic inflammation that leads to delayed epithelialization and the formation of granulomas with excessive blood vessels, fibroblasts, and mucus.
Signs and symptoms
------------------
Umbilical granulomas appear as round, pink lumps found at the base of the umbilicus after the removal of the umbilical cord. It appears small, pink/red, and moist due to cord separation. They are usually 1-10 mm in size, however grow in size if they are not treated. Umbilical granulomas are also painless since they do not contain nerve fibers. In some cases, they may contain an odorless discharge, or may be covered in a clear mucus. The surrounding skin of the infant's umbilicus site will appear normal.
Umbilical granulomas can become entry points for infectious agents. Symptoms such as edema, redness around the umbilical site, pain or discomfort when the area is touched, accompanied by a fever and purulent discharge, may indicate sepsis or a serious infection at the umbilicus site.
Diagnosis
---------
Umbilical granuloma can be diagnosed from physical examination. If there is a discharge around the navel and the granulation tissue is large enough to be visible with the open eye, umbilical granuloma is the first to be suspected. Open eye inspection and/or dermoscopy is commonly used to recognize the granular tissue at the site. If the granuloma is not visible with the open eye, gentle pressure on the surrounding site or a surgical tweezer can be used to expose the small granuloma hidden within the umbilical pit. An otoscope may also be used by physicians in order to expose a small, sessile granuloma. Other additional tests are usually not required, but if continued, ultrasonography (US) can be used for initial diagnosis of umbilical lesions.
Treatment
---------
### Topical
Although there is no singular method of treatment for umbilical granulomas, some treatment options available include common salt, silver nitrate, corticosteroids, and cleaning with alcohol. Home care following treatments include gentle cleaning the navel area with soap and sterile water, followed by open exposure of the belly button to air.
#### Silver nitrate
Silver nitrate is the most common treatment and practiced worldwide. Neonatology textbooks suggest silver nitrate as a first-line treatment option. The application of silver nitrate to granulomas was first noted in early 1800s as a cauterizing agent.
Silver nitrate can be used as an antiseptic, an astringent, and as a caustic agent, depending on the indication. It's application requires medical personnel for treatment and may have unfavorable adverse effects if applied improperly. In the treatment of umbilical granulomas, silver nitrate is applied to the umbilical site to burn off the excess tissue. The absence of nerve endings within the granuloma make this a painless treatment for the newborn. While painless, contact of silver nitrate to the adjacent, healthy, normal tissue may result in burns. Silver nitrate application to the infected site should not exceed three applications with an interval of 3-4 days. In this event, alternative treatments should be considered Following treatment with silver nitrate, the granuloma is expected to shrink and resolve within 7 days.
### Double-ligature treatment
In cases with deeply located umbilical granulomas, the double-ligature technique can be utilized to ligate the base of the granuloma. The procedure involves prepping and sterilizing the umbilical area with iodine solution, placing a silk suture around the base of the lesion to keep in place, and finally placing a more exact ligature around the granuloma. Much like the normal process of umbilical cord residue healing, the ligated granuloma will necrose due to lack of blood supply and will fall off naturally within 1 to 2 weeks. Minor complications of this technique include minimal bleeding and possibly requiring more ligatures than the original double ligation.
### Cryocautery
Cryocautery can be utilized to freeze the umbilical granuloma by using cryogenic nitrous oxide along with other equipment. During cryocautery procedures, the umbilical site is first cleaned. The physician will then hold a cyroprobe with nitrous oxide as a refrigerant directly to the granuloma for 3 minutes. One risk of utilizing this technique is burning the skin surrounding the granuloma. Following the procedure, the naval site is cleansed, left exposed to the air and the infant is discharged.
Cyrocautery is more commonly used for freezing for post hysterectomy granulation tissue. However, though more expensive and complex, cryosurgery is an effective treatment for the indication of umbilical granulomas in infants as well.
Prevention
----------
### Newborn naval care
In order to reduce the possibility of an infection or inflammation at the umbilical site, the World Health Organization (WHO) has advocated for the use of dry umbilical cord care in high resource settings. Dry cord care includes keeping the newborn's umbilical area clean and exposed to air or loosely covered by a clean cloth. The remainder of the umbilicus should be cleaned once daily with soap and sterile water. Chlorhexidine is recommended in substitute of sterile water for areas in which infection risks are high.
Diaper positioning can also influence infection risk. Keeping the diaper area clean and reducing moisture at the site can reduce the chance of developing an infection. Aim to position the diaper by rolling the top portion down to sit under the navel, keeping the site open and exposed to air.
### Cord clamping technique
The incidence of umbilical granuloma may be influenced by the method of cord clamping. It has been suggested that proximal cord clamping of the umbilical cord for 24 hours reduces the chance of infection at the naval site compared to other cord clamping practices.
#### Timing
Umbilical cord clamping timing can vary in time intervals. Early clamping is categorized as within the first 60 seconds after birth, whereas late umbilical cord clamping is classified as more than one minute after the birth. There is no evidence indicating that time to umbilical cord clamping has had an effect on umbilical granuloma formation or on additional neonatal morbidity outcomes.
Complications
-------------
If an infection occurs, omphalitis may occur.
### Recurrence risk
The various treatment modalities of umbilical granuloma result in various recurrence risks. In a systematic review, following infants through weeks 1, 3 and 6 post-treatment for umbilical granuloma, newborns treated with silver nitrate presented with a 9% recurrence risk, whereas newborns treated with common salt presented null recurrence. |
English footballer
**Terence Lees** (born 30 June 1952) is an English former footballer who played in the Football League for Stoke City, Crewe Alexandra, Port Vale, Birmingham City, Newport County and Scunthorpe United, in the North American Soccer League for San Jose Earthquakes, and in the Eredivisie for Sparta Rotterdam, Roda JC Kerkrade and DS'79. He also won the National Football League with South African club Cape Town City.
Personal and later life
-----------------------
Terence Lees was born in Stoke-on-Trent on 30 June 1952; his father was a bricklayer and his mother left the family home when Lees was five years old. He married Claire. After retiring from football, Lees ran a burger van.
Playing career
--------------
Lees joined local club Stoke City as an apprentice in 1968, turning professional in July 1969. Coach Harry Gregg converted him from a striker into a more defensive player. He made his debut as a substitute in a 2–1 defeat at Southampton on 30 January 1971, and made his full debut in a 2–0 win over Manchester City on 24 April. He made five starts and four substitute appearances during the 1969–70 season. He played infrequently throughout his six seasons with the "Potters" as manager Tony Waddington was able to rely on a trusted defence of Jackie Marsh, Denis Smith, Alan Bloor and Mike Pejic. He was an unused substitute in every game of Stoke's run to the 1972 League Cup final, but was not named in the squad for the final itself. He also spent time on loan at South African Cape Town City in 1973, helping Roy Bailey's side to win the National Football League, where he played alongside Geoff Hurst. He also spent time on loan at Crewe Alexandra. In 1975, Lees played 16 games and scored one goal for the San Jose Earthquakes in the North American Soccer League. His wages of £150-a-week in America were more than double his £60-a-week wages at Stoke.
On his return to England, Port Vale paid local rivals Stoke City £3,000 for his services in August 1975. He accepted the move over Peterborough United as he wanted to remain close by to his father, who was ill. He played 47 games over all competitions for the "Valiants", which made him one of the few players to have played for all three local clubs (Stoke, Vale and Crewe); initially home supporters spat on him, though he would win them over with some good performances. In August 1976, he was sold on to Dutch side Sparta Rotterdam for £25,000. Lees played 30 games for Sparta Rotterdam in the Eredivisie. He marked World Cup finalist Willem van Hanegem on his debut against AZ Alkmaar. He rejected a move to Feyenoord over personal terms. He considered a move to Brighton & Hove Albion, who instead signed Mark Lawrenson whilst Lees pondered the club's offer. Lees spent two seasons with fellow top-flight club Roda JC Kerkrade following a club record £100,000 move.
In July 1979, he returned to the Midlands and signed for Birmingham City. He found himself behind Mark Dennis, Colin Todd and Kevan Broadhurst in contention for starting places, so played only ten games in the 1979–80 season, which nevertheless made a contribution to the club's promotion to the First Division. The following season he understudied the ever-present Dave Langan at right back, and played only twice. After two years at Birmingham, in which he played 19 games in all competitions, Lees moved on to Newport County, where he played 25 league games before falling out with assistant manager Bobby Smith.
After an interlude in Hong Kong playing for Morning Star, Lees resumed his career in Dutch football with DS'79 after being signed by former Sparta teammate Pim Verbeek. He made his debut in October 1982, playing on the left wing in a 5–0 win away at Heracles, and in his first season helped the club win the Eerste Divisie title playing a midfield partnership with Gerrie Mühren. His 1983–84 season was less successful: though Lees himself played in 29 of the 34 games, the club finished bottom of the table, and in their last match of the season were beaten 7–2 by Ajax, Marco van Basten scoring five of the seven. He chose to leave the club and return to England despite having a year left on his contract.
After a trial with Blackpool, he later played for Stafford Rangers and finished his Football League career with Scunthorpe United, whom he joined from Altrincham in September 1984. Frank Barlow persuaded him to join Scunthorpe ahead of Northampton Town. He then played for Macclesfield Town.
Management career
-----------------
Lees managed non-League clubs in the Staffordshire area after retiring as a player. He took charge at Hanley Town and Kidsgrove Athletic and was assistant manager of Meir K.A. before becoming manager of Ball Haye Green.
Career statistics
-----------------
| Club | Season | Division | League | FA Cup | League Cup | Other | Total |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals |
| Stoke City | 1970–71 | First Division | 7 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 |
| 1971–72 | First Division | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
| 1972–73 | First Division | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 |
| 1973–74 | First Division | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 |
| 1974–75 | First Division | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Total | 24 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 28 | 0 |
| Crewe Alexandra (loan) | 1974–75 | Fourth Division | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
| San Jose Earthquakes | 1975 | NASL | 16 | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | 1 |
| Port Vale | 1975–76 | Third Division | 41 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 47 | 2 |
| Sparta Rotterdam | 1976–77 | Eredivisie | 33 | 1 | | | | | | | 33 | 1 |
| Roda JC Kerkrade | 1977–78 | Eredivisie | 28 | 3 | | | | | | | 28 | 3 |
| 1978–79 | Eredivisie | 31 | 5 | | | | | | | 31 | 5 |
| Total | 59 | 8 | | | | | | | 59 | 8 |
| Birmingham City | 1979–80 | Second Division | 10 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 0 |
| 1980–81 | First Division | 2 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 |
| Total | 12 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 19 | 0 |
| Newport County | 1981–82 | Third Division | 25 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 30 | 1 |
| DS'79 | 1982–83 | Eerste Divisie | 21 | 1 | | | | | | | 21 | 1 |
| 1983–84 | Eredivisie | 29 | 0 | | | | | | | 29 | 0 |
| Total | 50 | 1 | | | | | | | 50 | 1 |
| Scunthorpe United | 1984–85 | Fourth Division | 31 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 36 | 0 |
| Macclesfield Town | 1985–86 | Northern Premier League | 28 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 38 | 0 |
| Career total | 325 | 13 | 14 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 16 | 1 | 362 | 14 |
A. **^** The "Other" column includes appearances and goals in the Anglo-Scottish Cup, Football League Group Cup and Football League Trophy.
Honours
-------
**Cape Town City**
* National Football League: 1973
**DS'79**
* Eerste Divisie: 1982–83 |
Canadian soldier and amateur athlete
For other people named Edward Taylor, see Edward Taylor (disambiguation).
**Edward Thornton Taylor** (September 13, 1858 – January 25, 1922) was a Canadian soldier and amateur athlete. He was the first Canadian-born commandant of the RMC. He was the first commandant who was a graduate of the Royal Military College. He introduced ice hockey to Kingston, Ontario, as an RMC student in 1878.
Education
---------
Taylor was born in Montreal in 1858. He graduated from McGill University in 1878 and went on to RMC, where he introduced ice hockey to Kingston (student # 45). As a cadet at RMC, Taylor won the sword of honour in 1882 and the sword is in the collection of the RMC museum. He served as battalion sergeant-major at RMC.
Military career
---------------
He was the first RMC cadet to attend the staff college course at Camberly (1895). He joined the 2nd Battalion of the Cheshire regiment. He served with his regiment and on the staff in India and Burma, often in instructional positions. He was fond of climbing and shooting tigers. He was an energetic man of great physical endurance who possessed an almost boyish enthusiasm. Lieutenant Colonel Taylor served as the sixth Commandant at RMC, (1905-9). At the time, about 80 cadets were in training. Cadets had to pass a competitive examination on entering, with half-yearly examinations afterwards to obtain diplomas. Although the college was organized on a strictly military basis, a thoroughly practical and complete course of study in civil engineering, civil and hydro-graphic surveying, physics, chemistry, French and English was provided. The practice of gymnastic drills and outdoor exercises of all kinds ensured good health and fine physical condition. Five commissions in the imperial army were awarded yearly to the cadets who stand highest. The length of the course was three years, in three terms of nine and a half months' residence each. The total cost of the course, including board, uniform, instructional material and all extras, was from $750 to $1,000. As Commandant, he indicated the difficulty involved if RMC graduates who did not take a commission in the British army or Canadian Permanent Active Force were required to serve for a stated time in the Non-Permanent Active Force. This compulsory military service would be difficult since graduates did not always live near militia units. He recommended that graduates be posted to a unit of their choice rather than simply be placed on the reserve of officers. In 1906, the practice began at the RMC club annual dinner of calling the roll by having each member rise in place in turn and announce their college number and name in order of seniority. In 1907, the loving cup was circulated for the first time around the table at the RMC club annual dinner. Although Taylor retired in 1916, he commanded the labour corps in France in 1917.
Taylor died on January 25, 1922, in Mandla district, India. |
Chinese journalist and official (1916–1970)
**Tsun-Peng Pao** (1916–1970), also known by his courtesy name Longxi, was a journalist, writer and government official who served as the first director of the National Museum of History in the Republic of China.
Early life and education
------------------------
Pao was born on November 2, 1916, in Dingyuan County, Anhui Province, China. He graduated from Fudan University, National Chengchi University, and the Central School of Party Affairs. He also conducted research at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States
Career
------
In late 1948, Pao moved to Taiwan and taught at several universities, including National Taiwan Normal University, Soochow University, Fu Jen Catholic University, and the Chinese Culture University. He was also involved in cultural and academic activities.
In 1955, Pao became the preparatory director of the National Museum of History and served as its director from 1956 to 1969. In 1968, he was appointed as the director of the National Central Library (now known as the National Library of Taiwan).Pao's scholarly work focused on the history and development of museums in China, as well as the preservation of cultural artifacts. Some of his notable writings include "A Draft History of Chinese Museums," "The Evolution and Development of Chinese Museums," "On Historical Museums," "The Preservation of Cultural Relics during Wartime," "The Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics," and "The Preservation of Outdoor Museums and Historic Sites."
Death
-----
During his time in public service, Pao's health deteriorated. He died on February 20, 1970, at the age of 55 at Tri-Service General Hospital in Taipei. |
Defunct American football team
The **Minneapolis Marines** were an early professional football team that existed from 1905 until 1928. The team did not play in 1918 or 1925 to 1926 and was later resurrected from 1929 to 1930 under the **Minneapolis Red Jackets** name. The Marines were originally owned locally by the Marine Athletic Club of Minneapolis and later by Minneapolitans John Dunn and Val Ness. The Marines played their earliest games in the sandlots of Minneapolis and at Minnehaha Park. They made their first appearance at Lexington Park in 1909 and Nicollet Park in 1910. From 1912 to 1914, the team rented the North Minneapolis Athletic Association grounds at 25th Avenue North and Washington Avenue in Minneapolis, a site now overrun by Interstate 94. The Marines moved to Nicollet Park in 1915 and played there until they disbanded as the Red Jackets in 1930. The Minneapolis Marines were the first Minnesota-based team to join the National Football League, predating the Duluth Eskimos (1923) and Minnesota Vikings (1961).
History
-------
### Origins
Henry Harrison "Pecky" Rhoades formed the Marines baseball team in 1905, and in that same year, some players decided to form a Marines football team, too. The teams would share some players and managers until 1912, when the Marines baseball team played its final game. Rhoades left the amateur Marines baseball team in 1910 to play professional baseball.
Early on, the Marines baseball and football teams featured working-class teenagers, mostly first-generation Scandinavian-Americans from the Cedar-Riverside, Minneapolis neighborhood.
The meaning of the Marines nickname, whether it referred to the United States Marine Corps, to the merchant fleet, or to life on the water in the lakes of Minnesota, remains unknown. One player from the team later recollected that the Marines had adopted the nickname from another, defunct youth baseball team in the Prospect Park neighborhood in Minneapolis. The widely held assumption is that the Marines refer to their military antecedent.
### Sandlots (1905–1909)
From 1905 to 1909 the Marines football team played in the sandlots, first in the self-reported 115-pound weight class, and by 1909 in the 140-pound weight class, considered heavyweight at the time. The Marines claimed the championship in the 130-pound weight class in 1908. Minnehaha Park served as the premiere venue for sandlot teams in Minneapolis at this time.
The Minneapolis Marines sandlot football team of 1908, champions in the 130-lbs. weight class
The team's main sandlot rival was the Indians, a team managed by Einar M. Irgens, a Norwegian immigrant who had been involved with independent football in Minneapolis since 1898 when he first played guard for the Lincoln Athletic Club. The Indians also featured future boxer, Labe Safro. Irgens took over management of the Marines for a season in 1909 and Safro joined the Marines as a fullback that same year, and the Marines started a new inter-city rivalry with the St. Paul Laurels.
During this sandlot period from 1905 to 1909, six players who joined the Marines would later play in the National Football League, including Dutch Gaustad, Walt Buland, Sheepy Redeen, Reuben Ursella, Charles Jonasen, and Mike Palmer. One Marines player, John Dunn, would go on to serve as team's manager, NFL franchise owner, and NFL vice president.
The Marines would only have players on the team with no high school or college playing experience until 1912 when Harold Costello, a law student who had captained the St. Mary’s College football team in St. Mary’s, Kansas, joined the squad.
### A Professional Team
The Minneapolis Beavers, not the Marines, were the biggest independent football attraction in Minneapolis through 1909, but that would soon change. In September 1910, the Marines selected Frank J. Hammer, an apprentice in the newspaper trade, to be the team's new manager. Under Hammer, the team took steps toward professionalism by demanding prize purses for games and later by holding fundraisers for the team. It appears that this transition also coincided with the formation of the Marine Athletic Club, (first mentioned in 1910 in relation to the Marines baseball team), a subsidiary of the Metropolitan Social Club at 300 Cedar Avenue in Minneapolis, which oversaw athletics for member-players. In November 1910, the Marines beat the Laurels at Lexington Park and the Beavers at Nicollet Park to claim the title of Twin Cities Champions.
The 1911 Minneapolis Marines semi-professional football team
In 1911, for the first time, the Marines began to use the Minnesota Shift, an offensive tactic first employed by Coach Henry L. Williams at the University of Minnesota the year before. The Marines would outscore opponents 123 to 11 that season but would finish as the runner-up to the Beavers for the Minneapolis championship. In 1912, the Marines rented a home venue, the North Minneapolis Athletic Association grounds at the intersection of 25th Avenue North and Washington Ave in Minneapolis. The Marines sold tickets and operated professionally as a cooperative and they outscored opponents 293 to 37, but still they finished second to the Beavers and missed out on playing the inaugural Thanksgiving Day matchup between the best independent team in the city versus the Minnesota All-Stars, an exhibition team rostered with mostly former University of Minnesota Gophers players.
### "The Pride of the Northwest"
In 1913, nearly a dozen teams competed in football in the heavyweight class in Minneapolis, and while most teams included former college players, the Marines remained a team of working men with little high school and no college experience. But then before a game against the Adams Athletic Club of Duluth, Minnesota, Hammer recruited former Gophers phenom Bobby Marshall to play for the Marines. Marshall would be the first player with major college football experience to play for the club. Hammer then hired former Gophers player Ossie Solem to coach the Marines, and he recruited a professional baseball and basketball player named Fred Chicken to play fullback for the Marines. The Marines beat the Adams team and the Beavers twice and earned the title Minnesota Champions and the opportunity to play the All-Stars on Thanksgiving Day.
The Marines would finish as the state champions from 1913 to 1917 and play the All-Stars for nine consecutive matchups, from 1913 to 1916 and from 1919 to 1923. (The All-Stars did not play in 1917 and 1918.)
After the Marines made Nicollet Park their new home venue in 1915 and started playing teams from outside Minnesota, the Marines increased their ranks by absorbing players from the Beavers. After they established a new local rivalry with the Minneapolis East Ends, the Marines absorbed players from that team, too. Three more future NFL players joined the team, including Harry Gunderson, Art Sampson, and Eddie Novak. Newspapers dubbed the Marines the Northwest Champions and also the "Pride of the Northwest" from 1915 to 1917.
The Minneapolis Marines independent professional football team in 1917
Across seven seasons, from 1911 to 1917, the Marines would use the Minnesota Shift to outscore opponents 1,539 to 156, nearly a 10:1 ratio.
### World War I
The United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 to join the fighting during World War I, and by 1918 several key members of the Marines football team had enlisted, which depleted the team's roster. John Dunn, who had taken over management of the Marines in 1915, joined the Minnesota National Guard, but still he attempted to field a team. However, the flu pandemic prevented the Marines from taking the field. Meanwhile, a few members of the Marines played on service teams.
### Post-war Marines
After the war, several Marines players who had played as ringers for the Rock Island Independents and the Davenport Athletics in 1917 chose to play for Rock Island, instead. The men who departed the Marines for the Independents in 1919 included Reuben Ursella, Walt Buland, Fred Chicken, Dewey Lyle, Bobby Marshall, and Eddie Novak. In 1920, two more Marines players, Harry Gunderson and Frank Jordan, left to play for Rock Island. Marines manager John Dunn backfilled the team with more former East Ends players and also former members of the Arrows, a team sponsored by the Citizens Club in Minneapolis. Six new future NFL players joined the team, including Rudy Tersch, Larry "Sox" Erickson, John Norbeck, Oscar "Bully" Christianson, Ainer Cleve, Harold D. Hanson, and Frank Jordan. The Marines enjoyed a 10-2-4 overall record from 1919 to 1920 on schedules that included games against the Hammond All-Stars in 1919 and the Decatur Staleys in 1920.
### The Marines in the NFL
In 1920, John Dunn decided to stop playing and instead focus on managing the team, and in 1921, he sought to join a new western professional league based in Omaha, Nebraska. When that league never materialized, Dunn and a business partner, Val Ness, (who had played for the Marines in 1919), secured a franchise for the team in the National Football League. Dunn then recruited Reuben Ursella to play and coach the team, and he beefed up the Marines backfield by recruiting two former Gophers players Pete Regnier and Ben Dvorak. The Marines won the first NFL game they ever played at Nicollet Park when they beat the Columbus Panhandles 28-0, but overall from 1921 to 1924, the Marines won only four games and finished 4-18-2 in the NFL (15-21-2 overall including non-NFL opponents). Other coaches during this period included Russell Tollefson, who had coached the Marines in 1916, and former Gophers player Gus Ekberg as Tollefson's assistant. Harry Mehre played and coached in 1923, and Joe Brandy coached in 1924.
John Dunn was elected Vice President of the National Football League in 1922, but after posting an 0–6 record in 1924, Dunn folded the team, yet he retained the franchise and his position as vice president. He would serve in that role through the 1928 NFL season.
### The Marines in limbo
By 1924, interest in pro football in Minneapolis had declined significantly, in no small part because the University of Minnesota Gophers football team had opened a new half-a-million-dollar, horseshoe-shaped venue dubbed Memorial Stadium that seated up to 52,000 fans. On average, the Gophers drew over 23,000 fans per game that first season in the new venue, and the Marines could not compete for fan interest. As a result, John Dunn tried to drum up support to move the team to Rochester, Minnesota, in 1925, but that effort failed.
In 1926, John Dunn and Val Ness teamed up with boxing promoter Jack Reddy in an effort to revive the NFL franchise under a new name, the Twin City Lumberjacks. Dunn signed several players for the team, including former Gophers captain Carl L. Lidberg and three former College of St. Thomas players, Chuck Reichow, Jack Murray, and Walt Kiesling. Former Marines coach Joe Brandy would coach the new team, and the effort depended on Brandy financially investing in the team. When the group failed to pay the NFL franchise fee for the 1926 season, reportedly because Brandy pulled out of the deal, the effort fell apart.
### An exhibition team
Still inactive as an NFL franchise, the Marines returned to the field to play exhibition games in 1927 and 1928. The Marines hosted Red Grange and his New York Yankees NFL franchise in 1927, and in 1928, John Dunn revived the Marines as a vehicle to feature former Gophers standout Herb Joesting who, despite finishing his college career setting new school rushing records of 1,850 career yards and 23 touchdowns, received disappointing offers from professional football teams. Joesting and the Marines played games against the Green Bay Packers and Chicago Bears.
### The Red Jackets
In late May 1928, Herb Joesting announced he would captain and manage an entrant in the NFL with former Gophers player Ken Haycraft as his assistant. He promised the team would be an "all-college aggregation," unlike previous attempts to field an NFL team in Minneapolis. Behind the scenes, Dunn and Ness paid the NFL franchise fee for 1928 to revive the team as the Minneapolis Red Jackets, a name that perhaps continued the military theme that Dunn had adopted, first with the Marines, a name he inherited, and later with the 151st Field Artillery, the name for his minor league football team and practice squad. It is conceivable that the name "Red Jackets" may have been inspired by the 1st Minnesota Infantry Regiment that fought in the American Civil War and wore red shirts. As a football team, the Red Jackets wore red helmets, red jerseys, red pants, and red socks. On the sideline, the Red Jackets wore hooded coats in the same color.
Outside of Joesting, the most accoladed player to join the Red Jackets was Hal Erickson, who had played in two Rose Bowl games and later for the Milwaukee Badgers and Chicago Cardinals. Meanwhile, Reuben Ursella rejoined the team, in part to signify continuity with the original Marines team.
The Red Jackets practiced at the Parade Grounds, the future home of Parade Stadium, and at some point during the season, Joesting sought out Sigmund Harris, who had worked as an assistant coach at the University of Minnesota for 22 years, to assist with coaching the Red Jackets.
The Red Jackets finished 1-9 in the NFL in 1929 (3-9 including non-NFL games), and so for 1930, John Dunn recruited former Gophers captain George Gibson, who had worked as an assistant for coach Clarence Spears at the University of Minnesota, to coach and play for the Red Jackets. Gibson traveled to California where he recruited former University of Southern California linemen Nate Barrager, John Ward, and Tony Steponovich to play for the Red Jackets. Meanwhile, Dunn attempted to recruit former Gophers player Bronko Nagurski to play for the home team, but Nagurski found better offers elsewhere and signed with the Chicago Bears.
Dunn and Ness sold season tickets for their team for the first time in 1930, and while the Red Jackets' game versus Nagurski and the Bears drew a crowd, the Red Jackets only won one game in 1930 against the Portsmouth Spartans. After a loss to the Chicago Bears at Wrigley Field on November 2, and after the Frankford Yellow Jackets lost to the Chicago Cardinals at Comiskey Park that same day, Dunn sold most of his franchise's player contracts to Frankford and sold three player contracts to the Green Bay Packers. It’s not clear whether Dunn and Ness had sold the franchise per se to Frankford, because later reports indicated they still had a stake in the league. Either way, the Frankford Athletic Association would oversee finishing the schedule for both the Yellow Jackets and the Red Jackets, and for the remainder of the 1930 season, the manager and coaches of Frankford A. A. would use players from both rosters to play in Yellow Jackets and Red Jackets games. A total of twenty players including ten original Red Jackets and ten original Yellow Jackets jumped back-and-forth between both teams, and in the case of the original Red Jackets, three players, Gibson, Barrager, and Joesting, appeared in every single Red Jackets and Yellow Jackets game after November 2. The Red Jackets finished the season with a 1-7-1 NFL record (3-7-1 including non-NFL games).
Minneapolis would not hold another NFL franchise for the next three decades, before the Minnesota Vikings debuted in 1961.
First pro football minor league team and practice squad
-------------------------------------------------------
In 1922, while the Marines struggled in the NFL, John Dunn and Val Ness fielded a second team, the semi-professional 151st Field Artillery, the "soldiers," which played at Nicollet Park during Marines away games. The team played in a new Twin City football league with five other semi-professional teams. The 151st Field Artillery would serve as a practice squad for the Marines. The team’s name paid homage the 151st Field Artillery Regiment from Minnesota, which had fought valiantly in the 42nd "Rainbow" Infantry Division during World War I. The 151st Field Artillery played the pre-NFL Duluth Kelleys at Athletic Park in Duluth and then ended its season in late October after a handful of games.
First pro football training camp
--------------------------------
By 1927, the Dunn family had started spending their summers at Clef Camp, a resort on Lake Pokegama southwest of Grand Rapids, Minnesota. When John Dunn and Val Ness decided to revive their NFL franchise as the Minneapolis Red Jackets, Dunn hit on the idea of using Clef Camp as a training camp for the Red Jackets players. The team assembled in Minneapolis in late summer and traveled together to camp where they engaged in two-a-day practices at 10:00 a.m. and 2:30 p.m. The two-week training camp included a training table and conditioning that included swimming and running and daily practices at Grand Rapids High School.
Season-by-season (non-NFL)
--------------------------
| | Year | W | L | T | Finish | Coach |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Marines | 1905 | 3 | 0 | 0 | – | – |
| 1906 | 1 | 1 | 1 | – | Dutch Gaustad |
| 1907 | 4 | 0 | 3 | – | – |
| 1908 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 130 lbs. Minneapolis Champions | – |
| 1909 | 4 | 1 | 0 | – | – |
| 1910 | 6 | 0 | 1 | Twin Cities Champions | – |
| 1911 | 4 | 1 | 1 | Minneapolis Runner-up | – |
| 1912 | 7 | 2 | 0 | Minneapolis Runner-up | Reuben Ursella |
| 1913 | 8 | 1 | 0 | Minnesota Champions | Ossie Solem |
| 1914 | 6 | 1 | 0 | Minnesota Champions | Ossie Solem |
| 1915 | 6 | 1 | 0 | "Northwest Champions" | Ossie Solem |
| 1916 | 8 | 0 | 1 | "Northwest Champions" | Russell Tollefson |
| 1917 | 7 | 0 | 0 | "Northwest Champions" | Reuben Ursella |
| 1918 | – | – | – | – | – |
| 1919 | 5 | 1 | 2 | – | Jimmie Rush |
| 1920 | 5 | 1 | 2 | – | Russell Tollefson |
| 1927 | 0 | 1 | 0 | – | Bert Baston |
| 1928 | 0 | 2 | 0 | – | Herb Joesting |
Season-by-season (NFL seasons only)
-----------------------------------
| | Year | W | L | T | Finish | Coach |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Marines | 1921 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 13th | Reuben Ursella |
| 1922 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 12th | Russell Tollefson |
| 1923 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 13th | Harry Mehre |
| 1924 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 16th | Joe Brandy |
| Red Jackets | 1929 | 1 | 9 | 0 | 11th | Herb Joesting |
| 1930 | 1 | 7 | 1 | 10th | George Gibson | |
2003 American film
***Marion's Triumph*** is a 2003 documentary film that tells the story of Marion Blumenthal Lazan, a child Holocaust survivor, who recounts her painful childhood memories in order to preserve history. The film combines rare historic footage, animated flashbacks, and family photographs to illustrate the horrors she experienced. It is narrated by Debra Messing.
Summary
-------
"We often tripped and fell over the dead," Marion says of life in the concentration camps, "death was everywhere." From the age of four to ten Marion was in a concentration camp, where she says she picked lice out of her hair and urinated on herself to prevent frostbite.
At the onset of the war, the Blumenthal family left Germany to flee to America. But, while they were in the Netherlands, Germany invaded and bombed the ships that would have taken them to safety. For the next six-and-a-half-years of her childhood, Marion struggled through the Holocaust, surrounded by death, starvation, filth and disease.
Marion's stories suggest that self-discipline and a strong imagination helped her to survive. At one point, her mother had somehow scrapped up bits of wood and a potato and decided to cook up a meager soup on her bunk in the barracks. Of all nights, the Nazis had a surprise inspection that night, and, in the rush to hide the soup, the boiling water spilled on Marion's leg. If she had cried out, the Nazis most likely would have discovered their attempt to cook illegal soup and killed both her and her mother. So Marion swallowed hard and pretended as if the severe burn on her leg wasn't there.
What's interesting is that if Anne Frank had survived the war, her story would have been similar to Marion's. Both Marion and Anne Frank's families tried to escape the Holocaust, but were caught by Nazis. Both were young girls during the war, and both traveled from Westerbork, a deportation camp, to concentration camps; Marion went directly to Bergen-Belsen, but Anne Frank was sent first to Auschwitz and then to Bergen-Belsen. It's there that Anne Frank died of typhus, but somehow, despite her malnutrition and the disease that surrounded her, Marion survived.
After all that she's experienced Marion's temperament is surprising. She smiles easily and stresses the importance of optimism. "I'm determined not be bitter and angry," she explains, "On the contrary, I'm determined to be cheerful and positive as much as possible." She believes that life owes her nothing, and it's her job to make the best of what she's given. "None of us is spared hardships," Marion explains, "It's not so much what happens to us, but how we deal with the situation that makes the difference."
Today, Marion is on a mission to teach the public about the Holocaust. Her memoir *Four Perfect Pebbles* is taught in classrooms throughout the world. And, although she's been speaking publicly about the Holocaust since 1979, her speaking engagements have significantly increased since the publication of her book. Marion lectures to adult groups, synagogues, churches and civil organizations, but her favorite audience is an auditorium full of students.
"You, the students, are the very last generation that will hear the story first hand," Marion explains to her eager listeners, "I therefore ask you to please, please, share my story with your friends and with your family and someday with your children."
Production
----------
When *Schindler's List* was recently screened for high school students in Oakland, California, they were reported to have heckled and laughed. "The incident was a major catalyst to lead me to create this documentary," explains filmmaker John Chua. It seemed to Chua that ignorance was at the root of the students' irreverence. Chua wanted to make a Holocaust film that would be accessible for a middle-school-age audience. Marion, who has dedicated her life to educating the public about the Holocaust, especially students, was the ideal subject for his documentary.
Reception
---------
Both Marion and her documentary have been highly praised. Her story has inspired people of all ages. One eighth-grader said of Marion, "Everything she said seemed to be for the greater good of the world--everything she does has an impact." A middle school teacher commented on her "unwavering" generosity for sharing her story and time. |
Grade II\* listed former military installation
The **Bethel Street drill hall office** is a former military installation in Norwich, Norfolk. It is a Grade II\* listed building.
History
-------
No. 48 has a small 15th century undercroft. The existing brick building (mock Tudor rendering) was completed in the late 19th century. The original home of the Ancient Order of Foresters, it became the headquarters of the 2nd East Anglian Field Ambulance Royal Army Medical Corps and, probably, of the 1st Volunteer Battalion, the Norfolk Regiment as well around that time. The 1st Volunteer Battalion, the Norfolk Regiment, whose address was in St Giles (currently the home of the Salvation Army), evolved to become the 4th Battalion, the Norfolk Regiment in 1908. The battalion was mobilised at St Giles before being deployed to Gallipoli and then to Egypt and Palestine. The battalion then moved to the Chapel Field Road drill hall (since demolished) later in the war. The Bethel Street properties were subsequently decommissioned. The building became a bible printers (Goose Press), and then Modern Press. The premises are now owned by a Climate change education charity, the Greenhouse Trust. |
**Svetlana Gorokhovich** (Russian: **Светлана Горохович**) is a pianist and recording musician.
Career
------
A native of Kazan, Russia, Gorokhovich started playing when she was five years old. [] At age fourteen she performed Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin) with the Kazan Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by the legendary Nathan Rachlin. [] She continued her musical education at the Kazan State Conservatory and received a doctorate from the St. Petersburg State Conservatory. [] Her teachers included Marina Arbuzova, Irina Dubinina and Tatiana Kravchenko. []
Svetlana immigrated as a political refugee to the USA in 1989 in pursuit of an active performing and teaching career. In 1997 she shared an honorable mention at the Seventeenth Bartok-Kabalevsky International Piano Competition at Radford University (1997). At the IBLA International Competition in Italy (1999) Svetlana received the Johan S. Bach Special Mention Award in the Piano Competition and the Baroque Competition.
From 1991-1996 Svetlana worked with internationally acclaimed violinist Dmitri Berlinsky, touring worldwide including Virgin Islands, Japan and United States. This collaboration resulted in a CD production by Helicon Records called "Souvenir D’un Lieu Cher". Since 1996, Svetlana's solo and chamber music performances have included major concert halls in the United States, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, Caribbean, Iceland and Italy.[]
Svetlana’s appearance in Weill Recital Hall (Carnegie Hall) in 1997 with violinist Eva Ingolfsdottir resulted in "Sonata", a recording by Japis Record (acquired by Zonet Music in Iceland). Since 2006, Svetlana has performed and collaborated with distinguished cellist Misha Quint. [] In 2010, Svetlana recorded "Valse Sentimentale" with Misha Quint by Volshebnik Productions studio. Svetlana was invited to perform annually in Weill Recital at Carnegie Hall from 2011 to 2014 as part of Interharmony Music Festival.
Svetlana has successfully built experience in piano duos: In 2006, SMH Music published a new edition of a previous recording by Svetlana Gorokhovich and Liliya Khobotkova called "Russian Sketches" with the music of Valery Gavrilin and Rachmaninoff for piano duo. In 2008, this CD was featured by IcelandAir as part of their classic music program. [] Svetlana's latest piano duo recital with Liliya in 2011 was at Tillett Gardens on St. Thomas. This performance included a debut of "Tango Suite" by Astor Piazzolla, originally written for guitar duo Odair and Sergio Assad and arranged for four hands by Clarice Assad. Svetlana also established a collaboration with Irina Portenko in Germany at the Sulzbach-Rosenberg Music Festival and New York (Music Conservatory of Westchester). []
Due to her accomplishments in piano performance, Svetlana was presented with the "Arkansas Traveler" and "Honorary Citizen" awards in 1999 "as an ambassador of fellowship and goodwill for the City of Little Rock to all people" after a concert and TV appearance in Arkansas.[]
In addition to her active performance schedule, Svetlana teaches students privately and as a piano faculty member of the Music Conservatory of Westchester, White Plains, New York.
Recordings
----------
* With violinist Dmitri Berlinsky: Souvenir D’un Lieu Cher (Helicon Records, 1997)
* With violinist Eva Ingolfsdottir: Sonata (Japis Record, 1998)
* With pianist Liliya Khobotkova: Russian Sketches (SMH Music, 2006)
* With cellist Misha Quint:Valse Sentimentale (Volshebnik Productions, 2010)
* With pianist Liliya Khobotkova: One Piano Four Hands (SMH Musicllc, 2012)
* With cellist Misha Quint: Tempo Trapezio (Blue Griffin, 2014)
Films
-----
* Enrique Granados. A Musical Portrait. 2009. SHmusic.com ( performed with cellist Elizabeth Anderson Madrigal Orientale Spanish Dance)
* Antonín Dvořák. Discovering America. 2014.( performed Two Slavonic dances for four hands, Svetlana Gorokhovich and Irena Portenko)
* Sound track for "WTERT Awards 2004 - 2014" annual documentary (produced by Columbia University):
Reviews
-------
Svetlana’s performances have received consistently positive reviews from music critics around the world. In response to Souvenir D’un Lieu Cher, Robert Maxham from "Fanfare Magazine" wrote that "This is superb recital, guaranteed to raise goose flesh on anything but a corpse - and I am not so sure about the corpse. This is significant recording powerful in its emotional impact, is recommended with special urgency.". Musical critic for "The Washington Post"Joseph McLellan wrote:"...vital and memorable interpretation".
Her music performance with Anastasia Khitruk (violin)and Andrey Tchekmazov (cello) was highly acclaimed in review: "The interplay between Ms. Khitruk and her accompanist, Ms. Svetlana Gorokhovich, was delightful. Ms. Gorokhovich played the fully open grand piano so delicately, and articulating each musical phrase with intelligence and precision, that not a single note of the violin was being drowned in this acoustically challenging performance space."
Her solo recital in Carnegie Hall in 2000 was highly acclaimed by the New York Concert Review.. "…outstanding performance that perfectly balanced the lyrical and dynamic resources of the piano…three sections of the Sinfonia catalogued the range and depth of Gorokhovich’s approach…Gorokhovich is a profound and almost self-effacing interpreter..."
Svetlana participated in numerous international music festivals in the Netherlands, Germany and New York City during 2005-2014. Her performance was highly acclaimed. (translation from German):
> "From the first note, the musicians let loose a concussive storm, a suffering soul crying out in pain. The audience listened spellbound and, in the short pause before the second movement, could be heard audibly to exhale. Gorokhovich, particularly in the delicate passages, made the piano sing with great intimacy."
>
> — Corinna Groth, Stadt Sulzbach-Rosenberg Zeitung, August 1, 2014
This review describes Svetlana's playing in one section "Perfekte Pianistin (Perfect pianist)" as (translation from German):
> "The piano part - absolutely equal - was almost breathtakingly perfectly played...Misha Quint has Svetlana Gorokhovich as congenial partner on the piano. She has an unbelievable sureness through the passages of the octaves. She exhibits all the virtues of a perfect player."
>
> — Helmut Fischer, Oberpfaltz.netz, 10 August 2006
. |
Whites-only event run by U.S. ATF agents
The **Good Ol' Boys Roundup** was an annual whites only event run by agents of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms in southern Tennessee from 1980-1996. A senior manager at the Knoxville U.S. Attorney's Office warned personnel not to attend due to reports of "heavy drinking, strippers, and persons engaging in extramarital affairs". After allegations emerged that a "Ku Klux Klan attitude" pervaded the event a Senate Judiciary Committee was formed to investigate.
The event
---------
According to ATF director John Magaw, the event had no overtly racist overtones until 1985, although he conceded eight days later that blacks would never have felt welcome at any point.The founder of the event, ATF agent Raymond Eugene Rightmyer, was "known—or he had been accused—of having racist tendencies." Rightmyer insisted that, although there was racist conduct at the event, he had often tried to halt it.
In its first year 1980, it drew 58 attendees; but by 1994 it had grown to 341 attendees. Around 1980, they moved down river below the dam.
The event grounds consisted of "motor homes, trailers, tents and pickups gathered around a large beer truck". Admission was varyingly charged between $70–90 per person, and law enforcement officers from outside the ATF were allowed to attend if invited by an ATF agent. After the 1995 scandal the Treasury Department banned its agents from attending.
In 1995, Jeff Randall of the Gadsden Minutemen militia infiltrated the event and took clandestine video. The footage resulted in a Washington Times article. The photos and video he took of the event in May 1990 broke open the scandal detailing alleged racist activities at the annual roundup. A Justice Department investigation and congressional probe resulted from the attention. Mike Kemp of the Gadsden Minutemen claimed the only real action taken as a result of the exposure had been threats and "kill the messenger" efforts to discredit his group.
The accusation was later proved to be false as determined by OIG - "Randall's account thus is replete with inaccuracies and is internally inconsistent. His motivation to fabricate evidence appears to be strong, and his allegation is contradicted by more than 200 other witnesses. We therefore find no credible evidence that "nigger hunting licenses" were available at the 1995 Roundup."
The OIG report acknowledges occurrences of racially hostile conduct, but found it not to be pervasive or sanctioned. A non-law enforcement attendee at one of the first events describes the atmosphere as exceptionally drunken, but peaceable, contained, and not overtly racist; the OIG report indicates that as guests and party crashers began to outnumber the law enforcement attendees, that changed.
Examples of racist exhibitions
------------------------------
* A sign at the entrance to the event location noted a "Nigger checkpoint area".
* T-shirts were sold showing Martin Luther King Jr.'s face in sniper crosshairs, O. J. Simpson's head in a noose and black men sprawled across police cruisers with the phrase "Boyz on the Hood" (a play on a John Singleton movie title and a song by Eazy-E).
Other criminal activity
-----------------------
An article in *The Philadelphia Inquirer* claimed the event consisted of marathon bouts of drinking, and made women feel unsafe. The Senate Subcommittee found evidence of rape. These allegations were made by two hearsay witnesses, and one eye witness. The alleged victim denied having been raped, and the eyewitness later recanted. The Office of Inspector General (OIG) of the Justice Department, in the report cited above, classified the incident as unsubstantiated.
Isolated instances of illegal drugs and untaxed "moonshine" were also alleged, but not fully substantiated. |
1870s–1880s Swedish nationalist movement in Finland
The **Svecoman** (Swedish: *Svekoman*, IPA: [sveːkʊˈmɑːn], Finland Swedish: [sveːkuˈmɑːn]) movement was a Suecophile or pro-Swedish nationalist movement that arose in the Grand Duchy of Finland at the end of the 19th century chiefly as a reaction to the demands for increased use of Finnish vigorously presented by the Fennoman movement. The Fennoman nationalist movement had demanded that Swedish be replaced by Finnish in public administration, courts, and schools. At the time, Finnish and Swedish were spoken by about 85 and 15 percent respectively of the duchy's population.
The ideas of the "Svecomans" were an important part of the public debate of the 1870s and 1880s that was evoked by the reinstatement of the Diet of Finland, which now convened every third year.
History
-------
Main article: Finland under Swedish rule
Finland had been a part of Sweden from the early Middle Ages until the Finnish War of 1808–1809, when it was ceded to Russia and made a Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire. Although Finnish was the language of the majority of the new Grand Duchy, a significant minority was Swedish-speaking. Swedish had been the language of administration and in educational institutions when Finland was part of the Swedish realm.
The Svecomans promoted the idea that Finland harbours two peoples, or nations, speaking different languages, with different cultures, and originating from separate parts of the country. In accordance with contemporary science, these two peoples were consequently denoted as members of different "races". This idea was radically new. Until then, the Swedish-speaking rural population had been mostly ignored, but now this minority was considered important and directly associated with the elite of Finland.
The language strife between Fennomans and Svecomans in these decades also mirrored more general political divisions:
* The Fennomans were favoured by the Russian authorities, while the Svecomans channeled the remaining fear of the Russians and the cultural attachment to their old enemy Sweden.
* After the Crimean War, when the Swedish-speaking towns on Finland's south coast and the merchant fleet had been severely damaged, neutralist views received strong support among educated Eastern-Swedish.[*clarification needed*]
* The Fennomans were chiefly dominated by the clergy, the Svecomans by industrialists and academics from other faculties besides the theological one. The spiritual leader of the Svecomans was the linguist Axel Olof Freudenthal, who also had claims of racial supremacy.
The feeling of unity between the Swedish-speaking rural population and the (remains of the) Swedish-speaking elite is the lasting legacy of the Svecoman movement, and this became the core idea of the Swedish People's Party, which was founded after the introduction of equal and common suffrage in 1906. |
Entertainment electronics in cars
"Car radio" redirects here. For the Twenty One Pilots song, see Car Radio (song).
A DIN head unit with radio and CD
**Vehicle audio** is equipment installed in a car or other vehicle to provide in-car entertainment and information for the occupants. Until the 1950s, it consisted of a simple AM radio. Additions since then have included FM radio (1952), 8-track tape players, cassette players, record players, CD players, DVD players, Blu-ray players, navigation systems, Bluetooth telephone integration, and smartphone controllers like CarPlay and Android Auto. Once controlled from the dashboard with a few buttons, they can be controlled by steering wheel controls and voice commands.
Initially implemented for listening to music and radio, vehicle audio is now part of car telematics, telecommunication, in-vehicle security, handsfree calling, navigation, and remote diagnostics systems. The same loudspeakers may also be used to minimize road and engine noise with active noise control, or they may be used to augment engine sounds, for example, making a small engine sound bigger.
History
-------
### Radio
1937 Philips Auto Radio. Weighing 24 kg and taking 8 litres of space, it was floor mounted with a wired remote control to be fitted to the dashboard.
In 1904, before commercially viable technology for mobile radio was in place, American inventor and self-described "Father of Radio" Lee de Forest demonstrated a car radio at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis.
Around 1920, vacuum tube technology had matured to the point where the availability of radio receivers made radio broadcasting viable. A technical challenge was that the vacuum tubes in the radio receivers required 50 to 250 volt direct current, but car batteries ran at 6V. Voltage was stepped up with a vibrator that provided a pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, and filtered to create higher-voltage DC.
In 1924, Kelly's Motors in NSW, Australia, installed its first car radio.
In 1930, the American Galvin Manufacturing Corporation marketed a Motorola-branded radio receiver for $130. It was expensive: the contemporary Ford Model A cost $540. A Plymouth sedan, "wired for Philco Transitone radio without extra cost," was advertised in Ladies' Home Journal in 1931. In 1932 in Germany the Blaupunkt AS 5 medium wave and longwave radio was marketed for 465 Reichsmark, about one-third of the price of a small car. Because it took nearly 10 litres of space, it could not be located near the driver and was operated via a steering wheel remote control. In 1933, Crossley Motors offered a factory fitted car radio for £35. By the late 1930s, push button AM radios were considered a standard feature. In 1946, there were an estimated 9 million AM car radios in use.
An FM receiver was offered by Blaupunkt in 1952. In 1953, Becker introduced the AM/FM Becker Mexico with a Variometer tuner, basically a station-search or scan function.
In April 1955, the Chrysler Corporation announced that it was offering a Mopar model 914HR branded Philco all-transistor car radio, as a $150 option for its 1956 Chrysler and Imperial car models. Chrysler Corporation had decided to discontinue its all-transistor car radio option at the end of 1956, due to it being too expensive, and replaced it with a cheaper hybrid (transistors and low voltage vacuum tubes) car radio for its new 1957 car models. In 1963, Becker introduced the Monte Carlo, a tubeless solid state radio with no vacuum tubes.
From 1974 to 2005, the Autofahrer-Rundfunk-Informationssystem was used by the German ARD network. Developed jointly by the *Institut für Rundfunktechnik* and Blaupunkt, it indicated the presence of traffic announcements through manipulation of the 57kHz subcarrier of the station's FM signal. ARI was replaced by the Radio Data System.
The AM/FM radio combined with a CD player has remained a mainstay of car audio, despite being obsolescent in non-car applications.
In the 2010s, internet radio and satellite radio came into competition with FM radio. By this time some models were offering 5.1 surround sound.
In 2023, several automobile manufacturers, including Ford Motor Company, announced plans to discontinue offering the AM radio band in new vehicles, starting with the 2024 model year. Ford later reversed its announcement, with chief executive offer Jim Farley citing the importance of AM's emergency alert system. Audi, BMW, Volvo, and Tesla had already started to not offer the AM band on their entertainment systems, specifically on their electric vehicles. The previous announcement had several lawmakers introduce bipartisan legislation to require that automobile manufactures include the AM band on their audio/entertainment systems.
### Physical media and connectivity
Mobile players for physical media have been provided for vinyl records, 8-track tapes, cassette tapes, compact discs, and MP3s. The increased sophistication of the vehicle audio system to accommodate such media has made the audio unit a common target of car break-ins, so these are equipped with anti-theft systems too.
Attempts at providing mobile play from media were first made with vinyl records, beginning in the 1950s. The first such player was offered by Chrysler as an option on 1956 Chrysler, Desoto, Dodge, and Plymouth cars. The player was developed by CBS Labs and played a limited selection of specially provided 7-inch discs at 16⅔ RPM. The unit was an expensive option and was dropped after two years. Cheaper options using commonly available 45 rpm records were made by RCA Victor (available only in 1961) and Norelco. All of these players required extra pressure on the needle to avoid skipping during vehicle movement, which caused accelerated wear on the records.
In 1962, Muntz introduced the Wayfarer 4-track cartridge tape player. Celebrities, including Frank Sinatra, had these units installed in their cars.
In 1965, Ford and Motorola jointly introduced the in-car 8-track tape player as optional equipment for 1966 Ford car models. In 1968, a dashboard car radio with a built-in cassette tape player was introduced by Philips. In subsequent years, cassettes supplanted the 8-track and improved the technology, with longer play times, better tape quality, auto-reverse, and Dolby noise reduction. They were popular throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Cassette players were still found in vehicles as late as the 2005–06 Honda CR-V and 2008 Acura TL. There have also been vehicle audio units that accept both compact cassettes and CDs.
Pioneer introduced the CDX-1, the first car CD (compact disc) player, in 1984. It was known for its improved sound quality, instant track skipping, and the format's increased durability over cassette tapes. Car CD changers started to gain popularity in the late 1980s and continued throughout the 1990s, with the earlier devices being trunk-mounted and later ones being mounted in the head unit, some able to accommodate six to ten CDs. Stock and aftermarket CD players began appearing in the late 1980s, competing with the cassette. The first car with an OEM CD player was the 1987 Lincoln Town Car, and the last new cars in the American market to be factory-equipped with a cassette deck in the dashboard was the 2010 Lexus SC430, and the Ford Crown Victoria. A car cassette adapter allowed motorists to plug in a portable music player (CD player, MP3 player) into an existing installed cassette tape deck.
In the early 21st century, compact digital storage media – Bluetooth-enabled devices, thumb drives, memory cards, and dedicated hard drives – came to be accommodated by vehicle audio systems. Around this time auxiliary input jacks and USB ports were added to connect MP3 players to the vehicle's speakers. Minivans and three-row SUVs have an available rear entertainment system with a DVD player to entertain passengers.
The automobile head unit became increasingly important as a housing for front and backup dashcams, navis, and operating systems with multiple functions, such as Android Auto, CarPlay and MirrorLink, allowing a smartphone's music library and navigation apps to be controlled via the vehicle's infotainment system. Latest models are coming equipped with features like Bluetooth technology along with HDMI port for better connectivity. Screen size varies from 5-inch to 7-inch for the double Din car stereos.
### Active noise control and noise synthesis
The automobile sound system may be part of an active noise control system which reduces engine and road noise for the driver and passengers. One or more microphones are used to pick up sound from various places on the vehicle, especially the engine compartment, underside, or exhaust pipes, and these signals are handled by a digital signal processor (DSP) and then sent to the loudspeakers in such a way that the processed signal reduces or cancels out the outside noise heard inside the car. An early system focused only on engine noise was developed by Lotus and licensed for the 1992 Nissan Bluebird models sold in Japan. Lotus later teamed with Harman in 2009 to develop a more complete noise reduction system, including road and tire noise as well as chassis vibrations. One benefit of active noise control is that the car can weigh less, with less sound-deadening material used, and without a heavy balance shaft in the engine. Removing the balance shaft also increases fuel efficiency. The 2013 Honda Accord used an active noise control system, as did the 2013 Lincoln luxury line and the Ford C-Max and Fusion models. Other operating data may also play a part in the DSP, data such as the engine's speed in revolutions per minute (RPM) or the car's highway speed. A multiple source reduction system may reach as much as 80% of the noise removed.[]
The same system may also be used to synthesize or augment engine noise to make the engine sound more powerful to the driver. For the 2015 Ford Mustang EcoBoost Fastback and EcoBoost Fastback Premium, an "Active Noise Control" system was developed that amplifies the engine sound through the car speakers. A similar system is used in the F-150 pickup truck. Volkswagen uses a Soundaktor, a special speaker to play sounds in cars such as the Golf GTi and Beetle Turbo. BMW plays a recorded sample of its motors through the car speakers, using different samples according to the engine's load and power.
Components and terms
--------------------
The stock system is the OEM application that the vehicle's manufacturer specified to be installed when the car was built.
Aftermarket components can also be used.
* Head unit: Headunit products includes the screen and buttons and are manufactured mainly in DIN form factor, which refers to ISO 7736. Head units come as single DIN or double DIN.
* Connectors for car audio, where ISO 10487 Harness Adapter is used.
* Capacitors.
* Mobile audio power amplifiers.
Amplifiers increase the power level of audio signals. Some head units have built-in stereo amplifiers. Other car audio systems use a separate stand-alone amplifier. Every amplifier has a rated power level sometimes noted on the head unit with the built-in amplifier, or on the label of a stand-alone unit.
1. Coaxial speakers: These are the most common type of car speakers and are often factory-installed. They usually consist of a woofer and a tweeter mounted on the same axis, and are designed to reproduce a wide range of frequencies.
2. Component speakers: These speakers are designed for higher-end car audio systems and typically consist of separate woofers, tweeters, and crossovers. This allows for more precise sound tuning and a higher level of sound quality.
3. Subwoofers: These speakers are designed to reproduce low-frequency sounds, particularly bass. They come in various sizes and power levels, and can be used to enhance the bass in a car audio system.
4. Mid-range speakers: These speakers are designed to reproduce mid-range frequencies, such as vocals and instruments like guitars and pianos.
5. Tweeters: These speakers are designed to reproduce high-frequency sounds, such as cymbals and other high-pitched instruments.
6. Sound-deadening material is often used in the door cavities and boot area to dampen excess vibration of the panels in the car in response to loud subwoofer bass tones, especially the boot (trunk).
7. Optical drives with slot-loading mechanism.
Legality
--------
Excessively loud sound systems in automobiles violate the noise ordinance of municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002, the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.
Gallery
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* A 1950s Philips car radio using both transistor and valves. This model used a range of valves that only required 12 volts for their plate (anode) voltage.A 1950s Philips car radio using both transistor and valves. This model used a range of valves that only required 12 volts for their plate (anode) voltage.
* GM Delco Transistorized "Hybrid" (vacuum tubes and transistors), first offered as an option on the 1956 Chevrolet Corvette car modelsGM Delco Transistorized "Hybrid" (vacuum tubes and transistors), first offered as an option on the 1956 Chevrolet Corvette car models
* A car stereo head unit in a dashboardA car stereo head unit in a dashboard
* 1942 Lincoln Continental Cabriolet radio1942 Lincoln Continental Cabriolet radio
* Dashboard of VW Hebmüller with Telefunken Radio (1949/50)Dashboard of VW Hebmüller with Telefunken Radio (1949/50)
* 1964 Mercedes-Benz W110 190c dashboard with original FM Blaupunkt "Frankfurt" head unit.1964 Mercedes-Benz W110 190c dashboard with original FM Blaupunkt "Frankfurt" head unit.
* Blaupunkt Köln Radio - German 1958 Ford Taunus 17M P2 deLuxeBlaupunkt Köln Radio - German 1958 Ford Taunus 17M P2 deLuxe
* 1990 Ford Sierra CLX Radio-Cassette head unit in a dashboard with cassette storage1990 Ford Sierra CLX Radio-Cassette head unit in a dashboard with cassette storage
* 1978 AMC Matador sedan factory AM-FM-stereo-8-track unit with an album by The Blues Brothers1978 AMC Matador sedan factory AM-FM-stereo-8-track unit with an album by The Blues Brothers
* A set of speaker drivers removed from a passenger vehicleA set of speaker drivers removed from a passenger vehicle
* A car audio amplifierA car audio amplifier
* Two 10-inch subwoofers in the trunk of a carTwo 10-inch subwoofers in the trunk of a car
* As technology keeps evolving, head units are now paired with the climate control system and other functionsAs technology keeps evolving, head units are now paired with the climate control system and other functions |
General and companion of Genghis Khan
**Boroqul** (Mongolian: Борохул, also known as **Boroghul**, **Boro'ul**, and **Borokhula**; c. 1162–1217) was one of the foremost generals of Temüjin (later Genghis Khan) during his rise to power. Raised as a foundling by Temüjin's mother Hoelun, he won great renown by saving the life of Temüjin's son and future heir Ögedei after the Battle of Khalakhaljid Sands in 1203.
In recognition of this and other achievements, Boroqul became a member of Genghis' inner council and one of his most trusted advisors alongside Bo'orchu and Muqali. Boroqul died on a campaign against the northern Tumed tribes in 1217, but his achievements meant his clan remained prominent leaders in the Mongol Empire for centuries.
Life and career
---------------
Boroqul first appears in the historical record shortly after Temüjin's marriage to his wife Börte in around 1177 or 1178. *The Secret History of the Mongols*, a traditional Mongol account of Temüjin's rise to power, notes that Boroqul was originally from the Üüshin lineage of the Jurkin tribe and was raised by Temüjin's mother Hoelun as a foundling after being saved by Jebe, a leading Mongol general. Serving as Temüjin's *nökor* (personal companion; pl. *nökod*), Boroqul prospered under his new liege, soon becoming the highest-ranking *nökor* after Temüjin's great friend Bo'orchu.
A portrait of a Mongol man wearing an orange robe and a pointed green cap; his mustache and beard are long and thin.A Yuan dynasty portrait of Ögedei, whose life Boroqul saved after the Battle of Khalakhaljid Sands in 1203.
Although he led troops in many actions during his liege's rise to power, the deed which won Boroqul the most acclaim occurred shortly after the Battle of Khalakhaljid Sands in 1203. Having been betrayed by his ally Toghrul, Temüjin suffered a decisive loss on the Khalakhaljid Sands and was forced to withdraw. During the battle, his seventeen year-old son Ögedei had been badly wounded by an arrow in the neck; Boroqul saved Ögedei's life by continuously sucking clotted blood from the wound during the night ride to Temüjin's camp. When they arrived shortly after Bo'orchu, the *Secret History* notes, "blood [was] trickling from the corners of [Boroqul's] mouth."
As a result of these and other actions, Boroqul was honoured greatly at the kurultai Temüjin called in May 1206. He received a selection of rewards and exemptions, bettered only by those given Bo'orchu and Muqali, which included exemptions from the death penalty, and positions including cupbearer and high steward. Rashid al-Din Hamadani recorded in his *Jami' al-tawarikh* that Boroqul and Bo'orchu were told that Temüjin, now entitled Genghis Khan, held them in such respect that he would never issue them with specific military orders, unlike other generals such as Muqali, Jebe, and Subutai. The two also shared titular command of the *keshig*, the Mongol imperial guard, with Muqali and Chilaun. Genghis named these four as his "steeds", and together with his "hounds" (Subutai, Jebe, Jelme, and Khubilai Noyon [fr]) and the fellow foundling Shigi Qutuqu, they formed the khan's "paladins", or inner council. Boroqul would command the 38,000 troops of the Mongol right wing with Bo'orchu, and as the khan's most trusted advisors, they and Muqali played a key role in advocating for Genghis' brother Qasar during his dispute with the shaman Kokochu.
In 1217, Boroqul set out to command an expedition against the northern Tumed tribes, despite having a strong premonition of his impending death if he went. He achieved initial successes against the tribes, who had captured the Mongol general Qutuqa Beki, but was ambushed and killed away from the main force by Tumed scouts. Incensed at the news of his companion's death, Genghis made preparations to personally lead the campaign, but was dissuaded from this course by Muqali and Bo'orchu; he instead sent his eldest son Jochi, accompanied by the general Dorbei Doqshin, who together managed to subjugate the Tumed during a gruelling winter campaign in 1217–18. A hundred Tumeds were sacrificed in vengeance for Boroqul's death.
Genghis took responsibility for the welfare of Boroqul's children, awarding them honours and taking an interest in their careers; the Üüshin clan to which he belonged became a powerful aristocratic family in the Mongol Empire. His family continued to receive the titular command of the *keshig* under Kublai Khan; Öchicher, one of Boroqul's descendants, managed to amass great personal wealth in this position in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. |
Material matrix
Not to be confused with Polynomial matrix.
In mathematics, a **matrix polynomial** is a polynomial with square matrices as variables. Given an ordinary, scalar-valued polynomial
P(x) = \sum\_{i=0}^n{ a\_i x^i} =a\_0 + a\_1 x+ a\_2 x^2 + \cdots + a\_n x^n,
this polynomial evaluated at a matrix *A* is
P(A)=\sum \_{i=0}^{n}{a\_{i}A^{i}}=a\_{0}I+a\_{1}A+a\_{2}A^{2}+\cdots +a\_{n}A^{n},
where *I* is the identity matrix.
A **matrix polynomial equation** is an equality between two matrix polynomials, which holds for the specific matrices in question. A **matrix polynomial identity** is a matrix polynomial equation which holds for all matrices *A* in a specified matrix ring *Mn*(*R*).
Characteristic and minimal polynomial
-------------------------------------
The characteristic polynomial of a matrix *A* is a scalar-valued polynomial, defined by p\_A(t) = \det \left(tI - A\right). The Cayley–Hamilton theorem states that if this polynomial is viewed as a matrix polynomial and evaluated at the matrix *A* itself, the result is the zero matrix: p\_A(A) = 0. The characteristic polynomial is thus a polynomial which annihilates *A*.
There is a unique monic polynomial of minimal degree which annihilates *A*; this polynomial is the minimal polynomial. Any polynomial which annihilates *A* (such as the characteristic polynomial) is a multiple of the minimal polynomial.
It follows that given two polynomials *P* and *Q*, we have P(A) = Q(A) if and only if
{\displaystyle P^{(j)}(\lambda \_{i})=Q^{(j)}(\lambda \_{i})\qquad {\text{for }}j=0,\ldots ,n\_{i}-1{\text{ and }}i=1,\ldots ,s,}
where P^{(j)} denotes the *j*th derivative of *P* and \lambda\_1, \dots, \lambda\_s are the eigenvalues of *A* with corresponding indices n\_1, \dots, n\_s (the index of an eigenvalue is the size of its largest Jordan block).
Matrix geometrical series
-------------------------
Matrix polynomials can be used to sum a matrix geometrical series as one would an ordinary geometric series,
S=I+A+A^2+\cdots +A^n
AS=A+A^2+A^3+\cdots +A^{n+1}
(I-A)S=S-AS=I-A^{n+1}
S=(I-A)^{-1}(I-A^{n+1})
If *I* − *A* is nonsingular one can evaluate the expression for the sum *S*. |
In number theory, a **Wagstaff prime** is a prime number of the form
{\displaystyle {{2^{p}+1} \over 3}}
where *p* is an odd prime. Wagstaff primes are named after the mathematician Samuel S. Wagstaff Jr.; the prime pages credit François Morain for naming them in a lecture at the Eurocrypt 1990 conference. Wagstaff primes appear in the New Mersenne conjecture and have applications in cryptography.
Examples
--------
The first three Wagstaff primes are 3, 11, and 43 because
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}3&={2^{3}+1 \over 3},\\[5pt]11&={2^{5}+1 \over 3},\\[5pt]43&={2^{7}+1 \over 3}.\end{aligned}}}
Known Wagstaff primes
---------------------
The first few Wagstaff primes are:
3, 11, 43, 683, 2731, 43691, 174763, 2796203, 715827883, 2932031007403, 768614336404564651, … (sequence A000979 in the OEIS)
As of October 2023[update], known exponents which produce Wagstaff primes or probable primes are:
3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 31, 43, 61, 79, 101, 127, 167, 191, 199, 313, 347, 701, 1709, 2617, 3539, 5807, 10501, 10691, 11279, 12391, 14479, 42737, 83339, 95369, 117239, 127031, 138937 (all known Wagstaff primes)
141079, 267017, 269987, 374321, 986191, 4031399, …, 13347311, 13372531, 15135397 (Wagstaff probable primes) (sequence A000978 in the OEIS)
In February 2010, Tony Reix discovered the Wagstaff probable prime:
{\displaystyle {\frac {2^{4031399}+1}{3}}}
which has 1,213,572 digits and was the 3rd biggest probable prime ever found at this date.
In September 2013, Ryan Propper announced the discovery of two additional Wagstaff probable primes:
{\displaystyle {\frac {2^{13347311}+1}{3}}}
and
{\frac {2^{{13372531}}+1}{3}}
Each is a probable prime with slightly more than 4 million decimal digits. It is not currently known whether there are any exponents between 4031399 and 13347311 that produce Wagstaff probable primes.
In June 2021, Ryan Propper announced the discovery of the Wagstaff probable prime:
{\displaystyle {\frac {2^{15135397}+1}{3}}}
which is a probable prime with slightly more than 4.5 million decimal digits.
Primality testing
-----------------
Primality has been proven or disproven for the values of *p* up to 138937. Those with *p* > 138937 are probable primes as of October 2023[ref]. The primality proof for *p* = 42737 was performed by François Morain in 2007 with a distributed ECPP implementation running on several networks of workstations for 743 GHz-days on an Opteron processor. It was the third largest primality proof by ECPP from its discovery until March 2009.
The Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel test can be used to identify Wagstaff PRPs.[]
Generalizations
---------------
It is natural to consider more generally numbers of the form
Q(b,n)={\frac {b^{n}+1}{b+1}}
where the base b\geq 2. Since for n odd we have
{\displaystyle {\frac {b^{n}+1}{b+1}}={\frac {(-b)^{n}-1}{(-b)-1}}=R\_{n}(-b)}
these numbers are called "Wagstaff numbers base b", and sometimes considered a case of the repunit numbers with negative base -b.
For some specific values of b, all Q(b,n) (with a possible exception for very small n) are composite because of an "algebraic" factorization. Specifically, if b has the form of a perfect power with odd exponent (like 8, 27, 32, 64, 125, 128, 216, 243, 343, 512, 729, 1000, etc. (sequence A070265 in the OEIS)), then the fact that x^{m}+1, with m odd, is divisible by x+1 shows that Q(a^{m},n) is divisible by a^{n}+1 in these special cases. Another case is b=4k^{4}, with *k* a positive integer (like 4, 64, 324, 1024, 2500, 5184, etc. (sequence A141046 in the OEIS)), where we have the aurifeuillean factorization.
However, when b does not admit an algebraic factorization, it is conjectured that an infinite number of n values make Q(b,n) prime, notice all n are odd primes.
For b=10, the primes themselves have the following appearance: 9091, 909091, 909090909090909091, 909090909090909090909090909091, … (sequence A097209 in the OEIS), and these *n*s are: 5, 7, 19, 31, 53, 67, 293, 641, 2137, 3011, 268207, ... (sequence A001562 in the OEIS).
See Repunit#Repunit primes for the list of the generalized Wagstaff primes base b. (Generalized Wagstaff primes base b are generalized repunit primes base -b with odd n)
The least primes *p* such that {\displaystyle Q(n,p)} is prime are (starts with *n* = 2, 0 if no such *p* exists)
3, 3, 3, 5, 3, 3, 0, 3, 5, 5, 5, 3, 7, 3, 3, 7, 3, 17, 5, 3, 3, 11, 7, 3, 11, 0, 3, 7, 139, 109, 0, 5, 3, 11, 31, 5, 5, 3, 53, 17, 3, 5, 7, 103, 7, 5, 5, 7, 1153, 3, 7, 21943, 7, 3, 37, 53, 3, 17, 3, 7, 11, 3, 0, 19, 7, 3, 757, 11, 3, 5, 3, ... (sequence A084742 in the OEIS)
The least bases *b* such that Q(b,prime(n)) is prime are (starts with *n* = 2)
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 7, 2, 16, 61, 2, 6, 10, 6, 2, 5, 46, 18, 2, 49, 16, 70, 2, 5, 6, 12, 92, 2, 48, 89, 30, 16, 147, 19, 19, 2, 16, 11, 289, 2, 12, 52, 2, 66, 9, 22, 5, 489, 69, 137, 16, 36, 96, 76, 117, 26, 3, ... (sequence A103795 in the OEIS) |
Town in Assam, India
**Jogighopa** is a small town located on the northern bank of the Brahmaputra River in the Bongaigaon district in the state of Assam, India.
Within the city, there are the remains of the five rock cut caves which are assumed to be examples of Mlechchha dynasty period architecture. The architectural site is being preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Geography
---------
Jogighopa is located at 26°14′N 90°35′E / 26.23°N 90.58°E / 26.23; 90.58. It has an average elevation of 20 m (66 ft).
Population: officially Jogighopa is not a Town. It is a Village and still under Jogighopa Gaon Panchayat. But, in the last few years, population of Jogighopa has been growing way faster, A significant aspect of Jogighopa is that it covers some important areas like Kabaitary, Chalantapara, Papermil and Balapara. Nowadays, these areas have become an integral part of Greater Jogighopa Town (Non-official) and this whole area is popularly known as Jogighopa. As per Census data of 2011, total population of Greater Jogighopa is 65845. It is expected that, by 2021,its population may touch the figure of 1,00,000.
Transport
---------
Jogighopa has a combined road-rail bridge, called Naranarayan Setu, over the Brahmaputra River.
Jogighopa, is set to become India's gateway to the North-East states in India with the road ministry gearing up to develop a Multi Modal Logistics Park (MMLP) there with road, rail, waterways and air transport facilities.
The development includes railway sidings, container terminals, warehousing, non-cargo processing, a truck terminal, common facilities, support infrastructure and equipment.
A Special Purpose Vehicle, backed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), will be created to execute the project, which will be executed in two phases—Phase I of around Rs155.46 crores and Rs115.88 crores for Phase II.
Recent developments, like the announcement of the Northeast Economic Corridor under the Bharatmala programme of the road ministry and the signing of the MoU (Memorandum of Understanding) between India and Bangladesh for developing the Dalu-Tura-Goalpara-Gelephu multimodal trade route strengthen Jogighopa's case for MMLP.
According to the draft report on the Jogighopa MMLP accessed by The Mint, freight demand in terms of volume is projected to grow at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.93% from 11.96 million metric tonnes (MMT) in FY17 to 33.74 MMT in FY35. The total container market is projected to grow from 4,808 TEUs (twenty-food equivalent units) in FY17 to 7,925 TEUs in FY35— @ CAGR of 2.82%.
The move comes at a time when India's neighbours are gearing up for trade. For example, Bangladesh’s development of the Khulna-Dhaka-Sylhet Economic Corridor and the Banglabandha-Dhaka-Chittagong-Cox’s Bazar Economic Corridor—to promote industrial development in the region. These initiatives are expected to accelerate freight movements in the given region and facilitate trade between India and Bangladesh, and between Bangladesh and Bhutan through India.
Since 2017, the GOI has started prioritizing the logistics sector by granting it the infrastructural status and anticipates major investments in it. The Logistic Performance Index published by the World Bank shows India jumping up 19 spots in the Global ranking from 54 in 2014 to 35 in 2016.
The decision is significant because of the sustained "Act East" policy of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA)government |
American football player (1934–2023)
American football player
**Donald Brookes McIlhenny** (November 22, 1934 – April 18, 2023) was an American professional football player who was a halfback in the National Football League (NFL) for the Detroit Lions, Green Bay Packers, Dallas Cowboys, and San Francisco 49ers. He played college football for the SMU Mustangs.
Early years
-----------
McIlhenny attended Hillsboro High School in Nashville.[] He accepted a football scholarship from Southern Methodist University. As a junior, he was third on the Mustangs with 62 carries for 316 yards (5.1-yard avg.). As a senior, he led the team with 104 carries for 544 yards (5.2-yard avg.).
McIlhenny was a teammate of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Raymond Berry and Forrest Gregg.
### Professional career
### Detroit Lions
McIlhenny was selected in the third round (27th overall) of the 1956 NFL Draft by the Detroit Lions. As a rookie, he was the team's leading rusher during the first four games of the season, before injuries limited his productivity and finished with 372 rushing yards in 9 games.
On July 25, 1957, he was traded to the Green Bay Packers along with offensive tackles Ollie Spencer and Norm Masters, and offensive guard Jim Salsbury, in exchange for quarterback Tobin Rote and defensive back Val Joe Walker.
### Green Bay Packers
The Green Bay Packers used him as a reserve halfback for 4 seasons. He led the team in rushing in 1957 with 100 carries for 384 yards and was fifth in the league in kickoff return average (25.9 yards).
### Dallas Cowboys
McIlhenny was selected by the Dallas Cowboys in the 1960 NFL Expansion Draft, becoming the first starting halfback in franchise history. In the Cowboys 1960 inaugural season, he scored the first rushing touchdown for the Cowboys and was second on the team in rushing with 96 carries for 321 yards in 11 games (7 starts). He was waived on October 11, 1961.
### San Francisco 49ers
McIlhenny was claimed off waivers by the San Francisco 49ers and played in 5 games during the 1961 season.
Personal life and death
-----------------------
McIlhenny and his wife, who died in 2018, had four children. Their son Lance McIlhenny played for Southern Methodist University and is the winningest quarterback in school and Southwest Conference history.
McIlhenny died on April 18, 2023, at the age of 88, having suffered from Alzheimer's disease for ten years. |
Singaporean painter
**Ang Ah Tee** (born 11 November 1943) is a Singaporean painter. He received the Cultural Medallion in 2009.
Education
---------
Ang attended afternoon art class in addition to his formal classes. He studied at the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts from 1960 to 1962. His teachers at the academy included artists Georgette Chen and Cheong Soo Pieng, who were both pioneers of the Nanyang Style.
Career
------
After graduating, he was employed at the Port Authority of Singapore as a clerk. In his spare time, he would paint in watercolour and oil. In 1974, he won the Open Art Competition. He participated in a group exhibition in the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the same year. By 1976, he had painted several prominent landmarks in Singapore. In 1976, he went on a trip to various countries across Asia which would later serve as inspiration for his art. In 1977, he left his job, thereby allowing him to devote more time to painting. In his initial years as an artist, he was supported by Della Butcher.
In 1978, Ang transitioned from using oil and watercolour to using acrylic for his artwork. In the same year, he won the National Day Art Award. He held his first solo exhibition in the Mandarin Hotel in the following year. In 1981, he went on a trip where he visited various countries across Europe and painted the prominent landmarks there. Besides touring Europe, he also visited Egypt, Nepal, Kashmir, China and Australia. In 2001, he won the first prize at the Dr Tan Tsze Chor Art Awards Competition. In 2009, he received the Cultural Medallion for his contributions to visual arts in Singapore.
Personal life
-------------
Ang is married and has a son. |
Serrated surface within a rock mass
Macrostylolites in a limestone.
**Stylolites** (Greek: *stylos*, pillar; *lithos*, stone) are serrated surfaces within a rock mass at which mineral material has been removed by pressure dissolution, in a deformation process that decreases the total volume of rock. Minerals which are insoluble in water, such as clays, pyrite and oxides, as well as insoluble organic matter, remain within the stylolites and make them visible. Sometimes host rocks contain no insoluble minerals, in which case stylolites can be recognized by change in texture of the rock. They occur most commonly in homogeneous rocks, carbonates, cherts, sandstones, but they can be found in certain igneous rocks and ice. Their size vary from microscopic contacts between two grains (microstylolites) to large structures up to 20 m in length and up to 10 m in amplitude in ice. Stylolites usually form parallel to bedding, because of overburden pressure, but they can be oblique or even perpendicular to bedding, as a result of tectonic activity.
Classification of stylolites
----------------------------
In structural geology and diagenesis, pressure solution or pressure dissolution is a deformation mechanism that involves the dissolution of minerals at grain-to-grain contacts into an aqueous pore fluid in areas of relatively high stress and either deposition in regions of relatively low stress within the same rock or their complete removal from the rock within the fluid. It is an example of diffusive mass transfer. Stylolites are formed by this process.
Stylolites can be classified according to their geometry or their orientation and relationship to bedding.
### Geometric classification
Park and Schot (1968) recognized six different geometries in stylolites:
1. Simple or primitive wave-like
2. Sutured type
3. Up-peak type (rectangular type)
4. Down-peak type (rectangular type)
5. Sharp-peak type (tapered and pointed)
6. Seismogram type
### Relationship to bedding
Horizontal stylolitesThis is the most commonly observed stylolite type. They occur parallel or nearly parallel to the bedding of rocks. This type is most frequently found in layered sedimentary rocks, mostly in carbonate rocks, which have not been affected by intensive tectonic structural activity or metamorphism.
Inclined stylolites or slickolitesThis type occurs oblique to bedding. It appears in rocks which are both affected or unaffected by tectonic activity, and can also be found in metamorphic and layered igneous rocks.
Horizontal-inclined (vertical) or crosscutting stylolitesThis type is a combination of horizontal and inclined types of stylolites. Horizontal stylolites usually have a higher amplitude than inclined stylolites. Horizontal-inclined can be found in rocks affected by pressure parallel to the bedding plane followed by pressure perpendicular to bedding.
Vertical stylolitesThis type of stylolite is related to the bedding at right angles. It may or may not be associated with tectonic activity. It is caused by pressure acting perpendicularly to the bedding.
Interconnecting network stylolitesThis type is a network of stylolites, which are related to each other with relatively small angles. This type can be divided into two subtypes. Stylolites of subtype A are characterized by higher amplitudes. They are related to the bedding either horizontally, or at a small angle. Stylolites of subtype B usually appear in rocks which have been affected by tectonic and/or metamorphic activity. These stylolites have a low amplitude with undulations. Their relation to the bedding can vary from horizontal to vertical.
Vertical-inclined (horizontal) or crosscutting stylolitesThis type is a combination of horizontal or inclined and vertical stylolite types. In this case the inclined or horizontal stylolites were formed first and the vertical later. This type can be divided into two subtypes by directions of displacement of the inclined stylolites. In subtype A, the displacements could have happened during vertical stylolization, while in subtype B, the displacements could have happened before vertical stylolization.
Development
-----------
A stylolite is *not* a structural fracture, although they have been described as a form of 'anticrack', with the sides moving together rather than apart. Proof exists in the form of fossiliferous limestone where fossils are crosscut by a stylolite and only one half still exists; the other half has been dissolved away. Rye & Bradbury (1988) investigated 13/12C and 18/16O stable isotope systematics in limestone on either side of a stylolite plane and found differences confirming different degrees of fluid-rock interaction.
In order for a stylolite to develop, a solution into which minerals can dissolve needs to be present, along with a pore network through which dissolved solids can migrate by advection or diffusion from the developing stylolite. Stylolite development can be improved with porosity, as it localizes stress on grains, increasing the stress there. Therefore, it is suggested that bedding-parallel stylolites form in areas of high porosity, and most of the transverse stylolites form along preexisting fractures.
Significance
------------
Stylolites are significant in several fields. In petrology, stylolites are important because they alter rock fabrics and dissolve solids that precipitate as cement. In stratigraphy, weathering of stylolites generates apparent bedding in many stratigraphic sections and loss of material along stylolites can have a result similar to erosion, with significant stratigraphic thinning. In hydrology, stylolites prevent fluid flow and, in other settings, serve for fluid flow. Also, stylolites are indicators of compressive stress in tectonic studies, and development of transverse stylolites contributes to crustal shortening parallel to the direction of their column.
Gallery
-------
* A stylolite viewed in thin section in plane polarized light in a packstone, Oehrlikalk formation of the Axen nappe, Wellenberg, SwitzerlandA stylolite viewed in thin section in plane polarized light in a packstone, Oehrlikalk formation of the Axen nappe, Wellenberg, Switzerland
* Stylolite in a Slovakian limestoneStylolite in a Slovakian limestone |
In linguistics, psychology, and literary theory, the concepts of **deictic field** and **deictic shift** are sometimes deployed in the study of narrative media. These terms provide a theoretical framework for helping literary analysts to conceptualize the ways in which readers redirect their attention away from their immediate surroundings as they become immersed in the reality generated by the text.
Deixis
------
The term "deixis" refers to the ways in which language encodes contextual information into its grammatical system. More broadly, deixis refers to the inherent ambiguity of certain linguistic expressions and the interpretive processes that communicants must perform in order to disambiguate these words and phrases. Such ambiguity can only be resolved by analyzing the context in which the utterance occurs. To understand deixis, one must first understand that language grammaticalizes context-dependent features such as person, space, and time. When language is oriented toward its context, certain expressions in speech emerge that differentiate the "here" and "now" (proximal deixis) from the "then" and "there" (distal deixis). According to Karl Buhler, an Austrian psychologist who was one of the earliest to present a theory of deixis, "When philosophers, linguists, and narrative theorists attempt to understand the role of subjectivity in language and conversely, the role of language in subjectivity, they invariably notice a certain aspect of language which seems to depend on extralinguistic, subjective, occasion-specific considerations." Within the context of narrative, deixis reflects those aspects of storytelling by which the audience is pragmatically directed to understand the perspective of the narrator or the perspective of the story's characters in relation to their own story-external vantage point. Essentially, deictic expressions help form the layers of narrative that direct the audience to either the narratorial discourse or to the story world. "Deixis (adjectival form, deictic) is a psycholinguistic term for those aspects of meaning associated with self-world orientation". Deixis is an integral component of the lens by which the audience perceives the narrative.
Labov's narrative model
-----------------------
When examining perspectives on narration in natural-language environments, one must not ignore William Labov,[] who argues that stories of personal experience can be divided into distinct sections, each of which serves a unique function within the narrative progression. Labov schematizes the organization of natural narrative using the following conceptual units: abstract, orientation, complicating action, resolution, evaluation, and coda. Generally, anecdotal narratives tend to arrange these units in the order outlined; however, this is not an inflexible, structural progression that defines how every narrative must develop. For instance, sentences and phrasal items that serve an evaluative function can be interspersed throughout a narrative. Some stretches of narrative discourse also feature overlap among these Labovian categories. Each of Labov's narrative divisions serves a characteristic purpose typified by a particular section's grammatical construction and functional role within the unfolding narrative, but the boundaries of such divisions are not always clear-cut.
As a feature of natural language, deixis is an important element of oral narrative and can be realized in different ways in each of Labov's categories. According to Galbraith, "All language use depends on some felt relevance to situation, on the attention of participants, and their ability to lift out the topic....Like zero in mathematics and the dark space in the theater, deixis orients us within a situation without calling attention to itself". Two of Labov's categories that often feature deixis prominently are the "orientation" and the "coda". The orientation typically occurs near the beginning of a narrative and serves to introduce the characters, settings, and events. Given its presentative quality, the orientation shifts the deictic center away from the speaker's here-and-now into the spatiotemporal coordinates of the story, which logically must occur at a time prior to the story's enunciation. The coda occurs toward the end of a narrative and functions as a means of terminating the flow of story events. By doing so, the coda reorients the speakers and listeners out of the story world and back into the communicative present.
Deictic center
--------------
The deictic center—sometimes called the "origo" or zero-point—represents the originating source in relation to which deictic expressions gain their context-dependent meaning. Often the deictic center is the speaker: thus, any tokens of "I" in the speaker's discourse must deictically refer back to the speaker as center; likewise, the word "you" must project outward from this center toward the addressee. Any participants not part of this communicative channel will be referred to in the third person. The theory of deixis is therefore egocentric in that the indexical anchorage of deictic expressions is a function of this zero-point of subjectivity. The "I"-center serves as the perceptual vantage point that surveys relations among salient contextual entities and events. Such a center, therefore, determines which deictic expressions are pragmatically licensed by a context that has been naturally delimited through this perceptual and evaluative locus. Thus, the appropriateness of a proximal "this" over a distal "that" is determined by the nearness of an object or a location in relation to the deictic zero-point.
A deictic field contains the range of bounded participants and objects, spatial locations and landmarks, and temporal frames that point back to some deictic center as the source for their pragmatic demarcation. The deictic field radiates out from the deictic center, and the boundaries of such a field enclose the scope of objects, spaces, and events that constitute a set from which deictic expressions might seek out a potential referent. These fields function as cognitive frames that participants in a discourse can use to conceptualize their contextual surroundings in relation to each interlocutor's (alternating) function as deictic center across communicative turns. Within the context of literature, the presence of multiple deictic fields in a text can be fruitfully analyzed using the cognitive principle of deictic shift (discussed below).
Deictic shift theory
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Deictic shift theory (DST) refers to a range of immersion processes by which readers imaginatively project hypothetical deictic centers that are anchored to communicative and experiential loci within a narrative. Such cognitive framing, theorists of DST argue, form a necessary part of the reader's involvement in narrative, whereby through a process of frame shifting the reader constructs a story world by interpreting the (deictic) cues instantiated in the text. Deictic shifting can be accomplished in several ways. The most basic shift involves the reader's initial immersion into the world of the story. Here the deictic center moves out of the here-and-now of the reader's physical environment and becomes anchored to some text-internal perceptual or presentative instance, in most cases the deictic center of a character or a narrator. Deictic shifts at the level of narration include those cues that implicate a covert or overt narrator—specifically, story commentary or instances when the narrator refers to himself or herself as an "I." Such instances of commentary and evaluation often reflect the perceptual field, as well as the interpretive and ideological stance, of the narrator as they present the story's events.
Within the world of the story, deictic shifts occur in a number of ways. A fundamental shift occurs when the deictic center moves from one character to another—for instance, in cases of omniscient thought report. Here the reader must adjust the deictic center accordingly and interprets the lens of the current focal window through the experiential subjectivity of the character-locus. Other forms of story-internal deictic shifts involve the cognitive framing associated with embedded narratives and other discourse-types: stories-within-stories, letters in epistolary fiction, diary entries, etc.
"Within literary scholarship, it is often noted that first and second person pronouns (and less so, and differently, third) facilitate readerly identification with the textually inscribed position (the position of the character or narrator designated by that pronoun), and evoke a sense of readerly conceptual immersion in the fictional world of the story, contributing to the ways in which the scene is imaginatively 'realized' in the mind of the reader, particularly the perspective from which the scene is conceptually visualized. Cognitive poetics and cognitive narratology have employed deictic shift theory, largely based on the work of Duchan, Bruder and Hewitt, to attempt to offer a cognitive account of how these interpretative effects are created. DST proposes that readers conceptually project to the contextual locus of the speaker of deictic cues in order to comprehend them, offering a model of how the deictic referents determining such contextual coordinates are processed by readers, and how this contributes to readers' conceptualization of the world of the story" (Deictic shifting in literature: Experimental analysis).
Deixis in narratology
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Buhler applied the theory of deixis to narratives. He proposed the concept of Zeigfeld, or deictic field, which operates in three modes: the first, *ad oculos*, "operates in the here-and-now of the speaker's sensible environment;" the second, *anaphora*, "operates in the context of the discourse itself considered as a structured environment;" and the third, what Buhler calls *deixis at phantasma*, operates in the context "of imagination and long-term memory." Buhler's model attempts "to describe the psychological and physical process whereby the live deictic field of our own bodily orientation and experience" is "transposed into an imaginative construction." According to Buhler, "the body-feeling representation, or Körpertastbild (what psychologists would probably now call the body schema), becomes loosened from its involvement with the HERE//NOW/I deictic coordinates of waking life in our immediate environment, and becomes available to translation into an environment we construct both conceptually and orientationally"; this deictic coordinate system is used "in the constructive environment to orient ourselves within 'the somewhere-realm of pure imagination and the there-and-there in memory'".
Katie Hamburger, a German narrative theorist, studied and theorized how deictic words are used in literature. In her work *The Logic of Literature*, she argued that there are two realms of language act: reality statement and fiction (Galbraith, 24-25). Reality statements are by someone and about something. "Acts of fictional narration, on the other hand, transfer their referentiality from the actuality of the historical world to the entertained reality of the fictive world, and transfer the subjectivity of the speaker to the subjectivity of the story world characters". Hamburger argued that this transfer occurs due to the use of deictic adverbs, and psychological verbs. |
The **Media-Analyse (ma)** (*English*: **Media Analysis (MA)**) by Media-Analyse AG (AGMA) is the largest annually conducted media analysis in Germany and the largest survey of media consumer behavior in Germany overall. It examines the total population as well as its subgroups. The survey occurs telephonically or with questionnaires given to a representative cross-section of the total population sample.
The yearly use of media is queried using dated surveys and daily routine studies. Initially, only the German-speaking population of Germany was questioned, limited to those living in private households which was the main place of residence, and limited to those at least 14 years old. In 2008, the age limit was reduced to ten years old and European Union foreigners were incorporated. From 2010, "other foreigners" are also now questioned. This includes approximately 50,000 young people and adults who are chosen by random selection according to the ADM sampling system. They are subsequently questioned, some in person and some telephonically (CATI). In the process, the subgroups are described based on their demographic features such as age, sex, occupation, income, religion, and community size.
The results of the media analysis are issued on behalf of AGMA by its subsidiary Media Micro Census. They have large practical relevance because they largely determine the booking behavior of the advertising industry. The MA thus indirectly determines the price a media provider can charge for advertising. It is hence regularly observed that some radio stations use a large part of their annual advertising budget during the survey period of the MA.
MA Pressemedien
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In *MA Pressemedien* (*English*: *MA Press Media*), data is obtained on magazines, daily newspapers, supplements, city magazines, KONPRESS (denominational press; church newspapers), reading circles, and cinema. *MA 2006 Pressemedien II*, published on July 26, 2006, noted 170 magazines. For this study, around 39,000 interviews were collectively carried out in two waves during a year (February 27, 2005 – February 4, 2006). The MA 2007 Pressemedien I appeared in January 2007.
From the Second Wave MA 2004 (September 2003 – February 2004) on, some changes in the survey method were carried out, one of which was the launch of the Title Split Method (division of the approximately 180 titles submitted into three otherwise identical questionnaire versions) as well as (first only in approximately 10% of the interviews) the CASI method.
Through the introduction of the title split models, the reach of the magazines increases over the two waves by an average of 7% - though with clear deviations for individual titles up or down. A direct comparison of historical data is hence no longer justifiable because of methodological reasons.
As so-called "media currency", the *readers per issue (LpA)* was established in the MA Pressemedien. It shows how many readers an issue of a certain magazine or newspaper has.
MA Radio
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In *MA Radio*, the radio consumption for individual stations is queried. The MA Radio is conducted telephonically (the so-called CATI survey model), for which 58,011 people were questioned and appeared as *MA 2006 Radio I* on March 8, 2006.
As media currency, the so-called *listeners per hour* (for pre-determined hours) is reported as well as the *average listeners per hour* and the *listeners per day*.
MA Plakat
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The first *MA Plakat* (*English*: *MA Placard*) under the AGMA roof appeared on September 22, 2004.
On December 19, 2007 the MA 2007 Plakat was published. The coverage method of the MA Plakat was completely revised in 2007. The data is now based on a combined survey model, consisting of a CATI survey and a measurement method with a GPS receiver.
Online Forschung AG (AGOF)
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Since 2009, the collected *Internet Facts* of the *Online Forschung AG (AGOF)* (*English*: *Online Research AG*) also fall under the methodological responsibility of the *MA*.
AGOF records internet usage behavior with the Three Pillar Model:
* First Pillar: Technical measurement (computer-level, units are individual visits and page views, obtained by IP Address)
* Second Pillar: On-site surveys (Population is all internet users over 14 years old, reference to users in front of the computer, online questionnaires by pop-up window, query to place of use, time of use, sociodemographic data)
* Third Pillar: Phone surveys (CATI, population-level)
MA Intermedia
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In the fall of each year, *MA Intermedia* also appears, in which information for magazines, newspapers, TV, and radio is summarized.
General queries
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In addition to media use, sociodemographic characteristics, leisure time behavior, and shopping behavior are collected. The questionnaire is largely identical to all MA studies (Press Media, Radio, Daily Newspaper).
Licenses
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The current data is only at the disposal of members of the *Media-Analyse AG eV* (publishing houses, radio stations, advertising agencies, advertisers, etc.). However, one can create a free individual query, e.g. about advertising departments of the publishing houses.
Publication
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The Media-Analyse appears twice per year for Pressemedien and Radio, and once per year for Tageszeitungen (*English*: Daily Newspapers) and Plakat. In Nordrhein-Westfalen, the MA Radio is expanded for local radio stations through the E.M.A. NRW, while in Bavaria, it is expanded through the Radio Analysis.
The first *Leser-Analyse* (*English*: *Reader Analysis*) appeared in 1954, and thus AGMA celebrated its 50-year anniversary in 2004.
Further analysis files
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A whole series of further market and media studies of different providers are based on the MA-determined reach results, among them the TdW (Typologie der Wünsche (*English*: Typology of Desires) by Hubert Burda Media), VA (Verbraucher-Analyse (*English*: Consumer Analysis) by Axel Springer Publishers and Bauer Publishers), Communication Networks (Focus Magazine Publishers), MarkenProfile (*English*: BrandsProfile), VuMA, etc. |
Village in Spain
**La Raya de Santiago**, or simply **La Raya**, is a village or *pedanía* (suburban district) of the municipality of Murcia, in Región de Murcia (Spain). There are 2,289 inhabitants (INE 2004) and it has an approximate area of 2,901 km². It is situated in the central area of the orchard of Murcia, on the right bank of river Segura, 4 km from Murcia city centre and 55 metres above sea level.
Boundaries:
* North: La Ñora and Rincón de Beniscornia, separated by the river Segura.
* East: Rincón de Seca.
* West: Puebla de Soto.
* South: Nonduermas.
The village is formed by a central urban area and several neighbourhoods spread among orchards and plots: Los Caseros, Los Seanos, Los Sacristanes, Los Remendaos, Los Pajareros and Los Cerriches to the south; Los Terueles, Los Comunes and Los Aristones to the east; La Generala, El Gilandario, El Relenco, el Caserío de Los Pintaos and la Voz Negra to the west; and El Palomar-Camino del Cementerio, Los Pujantes, el Puente del Remolino, el Molino del Batán and el Caserío de Ruíz López to the north. |
Species of bird
The **puna miner** (***Geositta punensis***) is a passerine bird in the subfamily Sclerurinae, the leaftossers and miners, of the ovenbird family Furnariidae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru.
Taxonomy and systematics
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The puna miner is monotypic.
Description
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The puna miner is a medium-size member of its genus. It is 13.5 to 14 cm (5.3 to 5.5 in) long and weighs 22 to 29 g (0.78 to 1.0 oz). The sexes are alike. It has a pale grayish brown face with a buffy whitish supercilium. It is pale sandy brown from its crown to its rump; its uppertail coverts are even paler. Its tail feathers have pale tawny rufous bases, dark brownish to blackish middles, and pale tawny rufous tips. The pale basal area is progressively larger from the innermost to the outer feathers and the outermost have almost entirely white outer webs. Its wing coverts and flight feathers are dark brownish with whitish buff tips; the flight feathers also have pale tawny rufous bases that show as a band in flight. Its throat, breast, and belly are pale buff-white with a pale tawny tinge on the flanks. Its iris is brown, its medium-length bill is blackish with a blue-gray base to the mandible, and its legs and feet are dark gray.
Distribution and habitat
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The puna miner is a bird of the Altiplano, a high elevation plateau in the Andes of far southern Peru, western Bolivia, northeastern Chile, and northwestern Argentina. There it inhabits puna grasslands and barren areas; it sometimes occurs on open slopes above brushy ravines. In elevation it mostly ranges between 3,200 and 4,600 m (10,500 and 15,100 ft) but is found as low as 3,050 m (10,000 ft) and as high as 5,000 m (16,400 ft).
Behavior
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### Movement
The puna miner is a year-round resident throughout its range.
### Feeding
The puna miner forages singly or in pairs. It gleans food from the ground and small shrubs while hopping, not walking. Its diet is mostly arthropods and seeds.
### Breeding
The puna miner breeds in the austral summer, generally between October and January. It is thought to be monogamous. It nests in a burrow, usually one made in dry sandy soil by a tuco-tuco (*Ctenomys*), a small rodent. The clutch size is two or three eggs.
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| Dickcissel male perched on a metal pole singing, with neck stretched and beak open. | **Songs and calls**
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Listen to puna miner on xeno-canto |
### Vocalization
The puna miner often sings during a display flight, "a long shrill series of 'veoo' notes, rising early and then descending". The song has some "faster, chattier notes" mixed in. Its flight call is "a sharp, rich 'pzea' or 'kvee'."
Status
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The IUCN has assessed the puna miner as being of Least Concern. It has a large range, and though its population size is not known it is believed to be stable. No immediate threats have been identified. It is considered uncommon to locally fairly common. It "[c]o-exists with humans on heavily grazed Altiplano, and presumably has done so for thousands of years." |
American anthropologist
For other people named Anne Chapman, see Anne Chapman (disambiguation).
Anne Chapman (2009).
**Anne MacKaye Chapman** (January 27, 1922 – June 12, 2010) was a Franco-American ethnologist who focused on the people of Mesoamerica writing several books, co-producing movies, and capturing sound recordings of rare languages from the Northern Triangle of Central America to Cape Horn in South America.
Life and career
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Anne MacKaye Chapman was born in 1922 in Los Angeles, California. She left for Mexico in 1940, enrolling at the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH) in Mexico City. At the ENAH, Chapman studied with Paul Kirchhoff, Wigberto Jiménez Moreno, and Miguel Covarrubias. Inspired by the work of Covarrubias, Chapman and her colleagues published *Anthropos*, a journal combining art with articles on anthropology and politics. Only two editions were ever published, both in 1947, due to limited resources. Chapman conducted her first ethnographic fieldwork as a student among Mayan communities in Chiapas, Mexico—first, among the Tzeltales under Sol Tax, and later among the Tzoziles under Alfonso Villa Rojas. She eventually earned her Master's degree in Anthropology in 1951 from the ENAH; her Master's thesis, entitled "La Guerra de los Aztecas contra los Tepanecas," used Clausewitz's theories on war to analyze the defeat of the Tepanecas by the Aztecs to gain their[*whose?*] independence in the early 15th century.
Chapman returned to the U.S. in the 1950s, earning her Ph.D. in Anthropology from Columbia University in New York City in 1958. Her dissertation was entitled An Historical Analysis of the Tropical Forest Tribes on the Southern Border of Mesoamerica. While at Columbia, she studied with Conrad Arensberg and worked as an assistant to Karl Polanyi from 1953 to 1955. Another professor, William Duncan Strong, introduced her to the Tolupan (Jicaque) of Honduras. After being awarded funds by the Fulbright Foundation and the Research Institute for the Study of Man (RISM), Chapman began her fieldwork in 1955 among the Tolupan in Montaña de la Flor, Honduras. She would return for a period of several months every year through 1960 for her research, but maintained her relationship with the community for the rest of her life. During her fieldwork, Chapman primarily worked with Alfonso Martinez. Through him, Chapman was able to make a study of Tolupan oral tradition and social organization, as well as to elaborate detailed genealogies of the community. Her research eventually resulted in a book, Les Enfants de la Mort: Univers Mythique des Indiens Tolupan (Jicaque), published in 1978; a revised English text was published in 1992 under the title Master of Animals: Oral tradition of the Tolupan Indians, Honduras. Alfonso Martinez died of measles in 1969.
Chapman also conducted ethnographic research among the Lenca of Honduras, starting in 1965-66, and continuing through the 1980s. Her work followed up on analysis by Kirchhoff on "cultural areas," particularly Mesoamerica. She sought to address a doubt raised by Kirchhoff about whether the Lenca should be considered a Mesoamerican group, ultimately resolving the question in the affirmative in an article entitled "Los Lencas de Honduras en el siglo XVI," published in 1978. In addition, in 1985-86 she published a two-volume study of Lenca rituals and tradition titled Los Hijos del Copal y la Candela.
In 1961, Chapman became a member of the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, working under Claude Lévi-Strauss until 1969, and eventually retiring from the center in 1987. During her long career as an ethnographer, she was associated with various other research centers in Europe and the Americas, including: the Musée de l'Homme in Paris, France; the Research Institute for the Study of Man in New York City; the Instituto Hondureño de Antropología in Tegucigalpa, Honduras; and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
In 1964, Chapman was invited to join the team of archaeologist Annette Laming-Emperaire on a project in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Although not an archaeologist by training, Chapman accepted for the opportunity to meet Lola Kiepja and Ángela Loij, some of the last few living Selk'nam (Ona) of Tierra del Fuego. After finishing the archaeology project, Chapman met with Lola and recorded her speaking and singing in Selk'nam, as well as her memories of life as a Selk'nam. Although Lola died in 1966, Chapman was able to continue working with the remaining Selk'nam in Tierra del Fuego. In 1976, she co-produced a film about the Selk'nam along with Ana Montes, The Onas: Life and Death in Tierra del Fuego. In 1985, she expanded her fieldwork to include the remaining Yahgans in Tierra del Fuego, Chile.
Chapman wrote on many important anthropologic issues; possibly her most important work concerning the Fuegians was *Drama and Power in a Hunting Society: The Selk'nam of Tierra del Fuego* (1981). She also wrote *La Isla de los Estados en la prehistoria: Primeros datos arqueológicos* (1987, Buenos Aires), *El Fin de Un Mundo: Los Selk'nam de Tierra del Fuego'* (1990, Buenos Aires), and three chapters listed in *Cap Horn 1882-1883: Rencontre avec les Indiens Yahgan* (1995, Paris), which contains many photographs taken by members of the French expedition to Cape Horn (1882-83) that are among the best of the Yahgans; ten of the Alakaluf in 1881 of the eleven who were kidnapped and taken to Paris and other European cities; and six of the last Yahgans she took in 1964 and 1987. She also made a film about the lives of the members of the Yahgan tribe titled *Homage to the Yahgans: The Last Indians of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn* (1990), which was a finalist in the International Film and TV Festival of New York.
Later she wrote *Hain: Selknam Initiation Ceremony*, and along with the *End of a World: The Selknam of Tierra del Fuego*, both books include a CD of Lola Kiepja's Hain chants. In 2004, Chapman published *El fenómeno de la canoa yagán* (Universidad Marítima de Chile, Viña del Mar) and in 2006 both *Darwin in Tierra del Fuego* and *Lom: amor y venganza, mitos de los yámana*.
Her last book is entitled *European Encounters with the Yamana People of Cape Horn, Before and After Darwin* (2010, New York, Cambridge University Press), a narrative of the dramas played out from 1578 to 2000 in the Cape Horn area of Chile by the native people, the navigators, the missionaries and other Europeans.
Towards the end of her life, Chapman resided primarily in Buenos Aires, working and writing there. Chapman died at age 88 on June 12, 2010, in a Paris hospital.
Awards
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* Doctor Honoris Causa. University of Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile (2003)
* Orden José Cecilio del Valle en grado de Caballero. Foreign Relations Ministry, Tegucigalpa, Honduras as well as other honors by the Instituto Hondureño de Antropología e Historia and the University of Honduras mainly for her work with the Tolupan of Montaña de la Flor and the Lencas of Intibuca (2005)
* Orden al Mérito Docente y Cultural Gabriela Mistral en el grado de Comendador. Given by the Chilean Ministry of Education (2005) |
Military unit
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Connecticut U.S. Volunteer Infantry Regiments 1861-1865 |
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The **18th Connecticut Infantry Regiment** was an infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War.
Service
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The 18th Connecticut Infantry Regiment was organized at Norwich, Connecticut, on August 22, 1862.
The regiment was attached to Defenses of Baltimore, Maryland, VIII Corps, Middle Department, to January 1863. 2nd Separate Brigade, VIII Corps, to February 1863. 2nd Brigade, 2nd Division, VIII Corps, to June 1863. Unattached, Scammon's Division, Department of West Virginia, to December 1863. 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, Department of West Virginia, to April 1864. 1st Brigade, 1st Division, Department of West Virginia, to July 1864. 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, Department of West Virginia, to October 1864. New Haven, Connecticut, to November 1864. 1st Brigade, 3rd Division, Department of West Virginia, to April 1865. 1st Brigade, 2nd Division, Department of West Virginia, to June 1865.
The 18th Connecticut Infantry mustered out of service June 27, 1865, at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.
Detailed service
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The regiment left Connecticut for Baltimore, Maryland, August 22. Duty at Forts McHenry and Marshall, Defenses of Baltimore, May 1863. Moved to Winchester, Virginia, and joined Robert H. Milroy's command May 22. Battle of Winchester June 13–15, where the regiment was mostly captured June 15. Paroled July 2 and exchanged October 1, 1863. Moved to Martinsburg, Virginia, to join those not captured. Provost duty at Hagerstown, Maryland, September 30, and at Martinsburg March 1864. At Bolivar Heights March 7–28. Reconnaissance toward Snicker's Gap March 16–18. On furlough March 28 – April 9. Sigel's Expedition from Martinsburg to New Market April 29-May 17. Battle of New Market May 15. Hunter's Expedition to Lynchburg May 26-July 1. Advance on Staunton May 26-June 5. Action at Piedmont, Mount Crawford, June 5. Occupation of Staunton June 6. Lynchburg June 17–18. Moved to Camp Piatt, then to Parkersburg, Cumberland, Martinsburg, Harpers Ferry, and Snicker's Ford July 1–18. Snicker's Ferry July 18. Battle of Kernstown, Winchester, July 24. Martinsburg July 25. At Charlestown, West Virginia, October, and at Martinsburg October 1–29. Moved to New Haven, Conn. and duty at Conscript Camp November 11. Moved to Martinsburg, West Virginia, November 11–13, then to Halltown November 23, and duty there March 1865 and at Martinsburg June.
Casualties
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The regiment lost a total of 152 men during service; 4 officers and 67 enlisted men killed or mortally wounded, 1 officer and 80 enlisted men died of disease.
Commanders
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* Colonel William Grosvenor Ely
* Major Henry Peale - commanded at the Battle of New Market |
Powered exoskeleton without a rigid shell or frame
A **soft exoskeleton**, also known as a **soft wearable robot** or a **soft robotic exosuit**, is a type of wearable robotic device designed to augment and enhance the physical abilities of the human body. Unlike traditional rigid exoskeletons, which are typically made of hard materials like metal and are worn over the user's limbs, soft exoskeletons are constructed from flexible and lightweight materials. Soft exoskeletons are designed to assist individuals with mobility impairments, aid in rehabilitation, augment human performance, and improve overall quality of life.
Evolution from rigid exoskeleton
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General model to classify the exoskeletons
The concept of exoskeletons can be traced back to science fiction literature, where authors envisioned mechanical suits that enhance human abilities. However, soft exoskeletons, as we know them today, have their roots in the development of soft robotics and advanced materials science. The evolution of soft exoskeletons can be divided into several key stages:
### Early developments (1960s–1980s)
The Hardiman Project (1965–1971) was one of the earliest notable attempts at creating a powered exoskeleton was the Hardiman Project, sponsored by the U.S. military and developed by General Electric and the U.S. Army. The project aimed to create a full-body rigid exoskeleton to enhance the strength and endurance of soldiers and workers. Hardiman suit made lifting 250 pounds (110 kg) feel like lifting 10 pounds (4.5 kg). Powered by hydraulics and electricity, the suit allowed the wearer to amplify their strength by a factor of 25, so that lifting 25 pounds was as easy as lifting one pound without the suit. However, the project was discontinued due to technical challenges, including power supply and control issues.
### Cybernetic Research Project
In the Soviet Union, research on powered exoskeletons was conducted under the Soviet Cybernetic Research Project Scientists and engineers explored the development of exoskeletons for military applications, focusing on enhancing soldiers' physical capabilities.
Bionics involves a comprehensive exploration of nature, incorporating technical elements into the study of flora and fauna. The discipline revolves around mimicking natural manufacturing processes, replicating biological techniques and mechanisms, and examining the social behavior of organisms.
In the twilight of the 19th century, a Russian engineer named Nicholas Yagin embarked on a groundbreaking journey that would lay the foundation for a revolutionary technological leap – the creation of the world's first exoskeleton-like device. It was the year 1890, an era characterized by rapid industrialization and a fervent spirit of innovation. Yagin, a visionary mind with a passion for engineering and human augmentation, dedicated himself to crafting a solution that would amplify the capabilities of the human body. Inspired by the marvels of nature and the intricate design of insects' exoskeletons, he envisioned a device that could enhance human mobility and strength. The early exoskeleton prototype consisted of articulated joints and a network of gears, springs, and levers that responded to the wearer's movements. Its purpose was clear – to augment the human body, providing support and amplifying strength.
In the late 1970s, Dr. David A. Winter, a biomechanics researcher, made notable contributions to the field by focusing on the biomechanics of human locomotion. His work provided valuable insights into the design considerations for exoskeletons, emphasizing the need for a more holistic understanding of human movement.
By the early 1980s researchers like Dr. Homayoon Kazerooni began to delve into the practical applications of exoskeletons for rehabilitation. In 1989, Dr. Kazerooni founded Berkeley Bionics, a pivotal moment that marked a shift toward the development of more user-friendly exoskeletons. However, during this period, rigid exoskeletons remained the primary focus, with limitations in terms of weight and mobility.
In 1983, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) introduced the MIT Exoskeleton, a powered exoskeleton designed for rehabilitation purposes. This project, led by Dr. Steven Jacobsen, was a notable step forward in incorporating robotics into assistive devices.
### Powered Exoskeletons in the 1990s
A prototype of the Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) arose in the late 1990s when the landscape of exoskeleton development was undergoing a transformative phase, with researchers and engineers exploring innovative ways to enhance human capabilities. The Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) was one such pioneering project that laid the foundation for the advancements in powered exoskeletons. The BLEEX project, initiated by the Robotics and Human Engineering Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, sought to address the challenges associated with walking and carrying heavy loads. The primary goal was to develop a soft exoskeleton capable of reducing the metabolic cost of these activities, thereby providing a breakthrough in human augmentation technology. The early prototypes of BLEEX showcased the integration of flexible materials and actuation systems, marking a departure from the more rigid exoskeleton designs of the time. Researchers focused on creating a symbiotic relationship between the wearer and the exoskeleton, emphasizing comfort and natural movement. As the project progressed into the 2000s, BLEEX gained recognition for its potential applications in various fields, including military, medical rehabilitation, and industrial settings. The soft exoskeleton concept pioneered by BLEEX became a catalyst for subsequent research in the development of wearable robotics.
### Exoskeletons for Industrial Use (1990s)
In tandem with the BLEEX project, the 1990s witnessed a surge in pioneering research dedicated to harnessing the potential of exoskeletons within industrial settings. Rigid exoskeletons emerged as a promising solution, aiming to alleviate the physical strain encountered by workers engaged in tasks demanding heavy lifting and repetitive motions.
One remarkable example from this era involves the concerted efforts of a team of engineers led by Dr. Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science. In 1995, this team introduced a groundbreaking powered exoskeleton specifically designed to assist construction workers in Japan. The exoskeleton, equipped with state-of-the-art intelligent actuators and motion sensors, was meticulously crafted to augment human strength and endurance, thereby alleviating the burdens associated with manual labor in the construction industry.
The impetus behind this development stemmed from a pressing need to address the high incidence of musculoskeletal injuries among construction workers, especially those involved in tasks requiring the lifting and transportation of heavy building materials. By integrating cutting-edge technology into the exoskeleton design, the engineering team sought to create a symbiotic relationship between man and machine, enhancing both productivity and occupational safety.
Early concepts – late 20th century
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The impetus for early experiments often arose from military needs and industrial demands. In military contexts, exoskeleton research aimed to create powered exosuits that could amplify soldiers' strength, allowing them to carry heavier loads over long distances, navigate challenging terrains, and perform tasks that would be otherwise strenuous or dangerous. In the industrial sector, the focus was on developing exoskeletons to assist workers in tasks involving heavy lifting, repetitive motions, and prolonged periods of standing, thereby reducing the risk of work-related injuries and increasing productivity.
### Pioneers
The evolution of soft exoskeletons is deeply intertwined with the contributions of pioneering innovators and researchers who pushed the boundaries of wearable robotics. As the technology shifted from rigid exoskeletons to softer, more flexible designs, several key figures and significant developments shaped the history of the soft exoskeletons.
### Conor Walsh
Conor Walsh, a Harvard University researcher, made significant strides in soft exoskeleton technology with the development of the Soft Exosuit. Walsh's team at the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering created a lightweight and flexible exoskeleton that used textile-based actuators to assist specific muscle groups. This groundbreaking approach marked a departure from rigid structures, offering a more comfortable and natural wearing experience.
### Wyss Institute
The Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering continued to be at the forefront of soft exoskeleton research. Researchers at the institute focused on refining soft exosuit designs, integrating advanced sensors and control systems, and exploring diverse applications, including medical rehabilitation and enhancing human performance in various tasks.
### Japanese innovations and HAL (Hybrid Assistive Limb) exoskeleton
Cyberdyne Inc. a Japanese robotics company founded by Dr. Yoshiyuki Sankai, developed the Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL) exoskeleton. HAL was one of the first commercially available soft exoskeletons designed to enhance and support human mobility. The exoskeleton detected bioelectric signals from the wearer's muscles, enabling intuitive control of the device. HAL found applications in healthcare, aiding individuals with mobility impairments and contributing to the field of robotic-assisted rehabilitation..
ReWalk Robotics, founded by Dr. Amit Goffer, introduced personal exoskeleton systems designed to assist individuals with spinal cord injuries in walking. These wearable devices used soft components and advanced motion sensors, allowing users to stand, walk, and climb stairs independently. ReWalk's exoskeletons represented a significant leap in assistive technology, enhancing the mobility and autonomy of individuals with paralysis.
Outcomes and challenges
-----------------------
The outcomes of these early experiments were groundbreaking in concept, yet they faced formidable challenges. Rigid exoskeletons, although promising, often proved cumbersome and impractical for extended use. They limited natural movements, causing discomfort and hindering the wearer's agility. Moreover, power supply, control mechanisms, and the overall weight of these exoskeletons posed significant hurdles to their widespread adoption.
Despite these challenges, the early experiments with rigid exoskeletons marked a crucial step in the evolution of wearable robotics. They demonstrated the potential of augmenting human abilities through external systems, sparking curiosity and driving researchers to explore alternative approaches. It was from these challenges and insights that the shift toward soft materials and pneumatic actuators began, laying the groundwork for the development of soft exoskeletons in the subsequent decades.
Research and development
------------------------
The field of soft exoskeletons has witnessed rapid advancements in research and development, driven by the collaboration between experts in various disciplines such as engineering, biomechanics, materials science, and computer science.
### Material innovation and flexibility
Researchers have focused on developing advanced materials that strike a balance between flexibility, durability, and strength. Smart materials, including shape-memory alloys, flexible polymers, and lightweight composites, have been explored to create soft exoskeleton components. These materials enable the exoskeletons to conform to the wearer's body, ensuring a comfortable fit while providing the necessary support and assistance.
* A study published in the Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation showcased a soft robotic exosuit made from lightweight, flexible materials, significantly improving gait efficiency in stroke survivors by 20%.
* In a groundbreaking research study highlighted in Advanced Materials, the integration of shape-memory polymers into soft exoskeletons has ushered in a new era of wearable technology. This innovative approach allows these devices to dynamically alter their shape in response to body temperature, a feature that has proven to be a game-changer in terms of wearer comfort and mobility. Soft exoskeletons, equipped with shape-memory polymers, now possess the ability to seamlessly conform to the wearer's body, ensuring a personalized and comfortable fit. This adaptive quality not only revolutionizes the user experience but also facilitates a harmonious interaction between the exoskeleton and the natural motions of the wearer. Particularly beneficial for elderly users, this technological advancement marks a significant stride forward in enhancing overall mobility and ease of movement.
* The collaborative efforts between engineers at leading exoskeleton companies and biomedical researchers at universities, such as ETH Zurich and Imperial College London, have played a pivotal role in advancing the field of wearable assistive devices. The research focused on the arm therapy exoskeleton ARMin IV+, and the improvement of mechanics, sensorics, kinematics, and controllers to enhance the transparency of exoskeletons during human-robot interaction. The study's emphasis on avoiding unwanted forces during training with rehabilitation robots and comparing different control approaches, including the use of disturbance observers, demonstrates the integration of engineering expertise and biomedical research.
Soft Actuators and Sensing Systems
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The use of soft actuators, such as pneumatic artificial muscles and soft electroactive polymers, has changed the way soft exoskeletons operate. These actuators mimic natural muscle movements, allowing for smooth and precise assistance. Coupled with sensing technologies, such as flexible strain sensors and inertial measurement units, soft exoskeletons can detect the wearer's movements and intentions, enabling real-time adjustments and personalized support.
* The research titled "Effects of Two Passive Back-Support Exoskeletons on Muscle Activity, Energy Expenditure, and Subjective Assessments During Repetitive Lifting" aimed to investigate the efficacy of two passive back-support exoskeleton (BSE) designs in different postures during repetitive lifting tasks. The study, involving eighteen gender-balanced participants, employed lab-based simulations with 12 different conditions, including two BSEs, a control condition, symmetric and asymmetric lifting, and standing or kneeling postures. The results showed that both BSEs significantly reduced peak activity of trunk extensor muscles (10%–28%) and energy expenditure (4%–13%) across all conditions. However, the extent of reduction varied between BSEs and was task-dependent.
* The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago (now known as the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab) conducted a clinical trial involving stroke survivors using soft exoskeletons with integrated inertial measurement units (IMUs). This study addresses the prevalent issue of gait deficits in stroke survivors, affecting up to 80% of patients despite current rehabilitation efforts. The research emphasizes the necessity for user-friendly rehabilitation technologies, introducing a soft wearable robot (exosuit) from Harvard's Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering. The soft exosuit, designed within the 2018–2023 funding cycle, employs compliant materials and features force-transmitting conformal textiles, proximally-mounted cable-based actuation systems, and adaptive control algorithms. Worn discreetly under clothing, the exosuit aims to enhance stability and dynamic control during gait and functional training, facilitating higher intensity and variable functional mobility levels in acute rehabilitation. The study's objectives include developing individualized adaptive controller parameters and progression strategies for inpatient stroke rehabilitation using the exosuit. The research also seeks to evaluate the exosuit's impact on functional recovery when used in conjunction with conventional rehabilitation, comparing outcomes to conventional rehabilitation alone. The observational study at the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab confirmed the exosuit's effectiveness in improving gait and functional mobility among stroke patients.
* Collaborative research from a team spanning multiple disciplines, including engineering, haptic feedback, and neuroscience, from Asia, Australia, the US, and the UK, has led to the creation of a hand rehabilitation system. Detailed in their publication, "Attention Enhancement for Exoskeleton-Assisted Hand Rehabilitation Using Fingertip Haptic Stimulation" the system combines an exoskeleton for hand movements with fingertip haptic stimulation to improve engagement and motor function recovery in stroke patients. The system's key features include 3D-printed pneumatic actuators for haptic stimulation, a rigid-soft combined mechanism in the hand exoskeleton, and a stimulation method simulating the contact force of grasping a glass. The research presents notable contributions such as the simultaneous provision of sensorimotor and cutaneous haptic feedback, the use of cost-effective 3D printing for soft pneumatic actuators, and experimental validation of the hypothesis that adding cutaneous haptic stimulation enhances user training involvement.
* A study conducted by researchers at Stanford University used soft actuators equipped with proprioceptive sensors, enabling the exoskeleton to respond to the user's movements intuitively. Users experienced a 35% reduction in muscle fatigue during prolonged walking sessions, demonstrating the efficiency of soft actuators combined with proprioceptive feedback.
* The research "Quantitative assessment of training effects using EksoGT® exoskeleton in Parkinson's disease patients: A randomized single-blind clinical trial" explores the quantitative assessment of training effects using the EksoGT, made by Ekso Bionics exoskeleton in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) through a randomized single-blind clinical trial. The exoskeletons provided real-time gait analysis, leading to a 25% improvement in walking stability and reduced instances of freezing of gait, significantly enhancing the quality of life for Parkinson's patients.
* Soft exoskeletons equipped with electromyographic (EMG) sensors were employed in a rehabilitation program for patients recovering from spinal cord injuries <LINK>. The EMG sensors detected subtle muscle signals, enabling users to regain 70% of their pre-injury motor functions, showcasing the potential of soft exoskeletons in neurorehabilitation.
Interaction and control systems
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Intelligent control algorithms, often based on artificial intelligence and machine learning, enable the exoskeletons to adapt to the user's gait, posture, and terrain. These algorithms analyze sensor data and optimize assistance in realtime, providing a seamless and natural walking experience for users with mobility impairments. Significant strides have been made in enhancing the interaction between humans and soft exoskeletons through the implementation of intelligent control algorithms. These algorithms, often rooted in artificial intelligence and machine learning, have transformed the way soft exoskeletons respond to users' movements, leading to more intuitive and efficient assistive devices.
### Development of adaptive control algorithms (2018–2019)
Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University, in collaboration with exoskeleton companies, pioneered the development of adaptive control algorithms for soft exoskeletons. A groundbreaking study: Human-in-the-loop optimization of exoskeleton assistance during walking published in Science demonstrated the effectiveness of these algorithms in a real-time adjustment of exoskeleton assistance. Users with spinal cord injuries experienced a 30% improvement in walking efficiency, as the algorithms seamlessly adapted to changes in terrain and user posture.
### Integration of deep learning models (2020–2021)
Scientists at ETH Zurich delved into the application of deep learning models in soft exoskeleton control. A research paper published in 2020 8th IEEE RAS/EMBS International Conference for Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob)[*full citation needed*] outlined the integration of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to analyze sensor data from wearable exoskeletons. The study showcased a 25% reduction in energy expenditure for users navigating varied terrains, emphasizing the role of deep learning in optimizing gait assistance.
### User-Centric Control System Trials (2019–2020)
The Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center (RERC) on Wearable Robotics conducted user-centric trials involving individuals with muscular dystrophy. Engineers at RERC developed a personalized control system based on reinforcement learning algorithms. The trials, spanning a year, revealed a 35% improvement in user-reported comfort and ease of use. The results were published in the Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, underscoring the significance of user-centered approaches in control algorithm development.
Soft exoskeleton usage
----------------------
Soft exoskeletons, with their advanced technology and innovative designs, have found widespread applications across various industries, transforming the way people work, move, and live. As the field of soft exoskeletons continues to advance, several key industries have embraced this technology, leading to significant improvements in efficiency, safety, and quality of life.
### Healthcare and Rehabilitation
Soft exoskeletons have revolutionized the field of healthcare and rehabilitation, offering hope and mobility to individuals with spinal cord injuries, stroke survivors, and neurological disorders. Companies like Ekso Bionics and ReWalk Robotics have developed soft exoskeletons specifically designed for rehabilitation purposes. EksoGT, introduced in 2016, has been widely adopted in rehabilitation centers globally, assisting patients in regaining mobility and independence. ReWalk's ReStore Exo-Suit, launched in 2019, has seen remarkable success in aiding stroke survivors during their recovery process, enhancing walking abilities and balance.
### Manufacturing and Industrial Applications
Soft exoskeletons have found a home in manufacturing and industrial settings, where they assist workers in lifting heavy loads and reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Hyundai Motor Company's wearable robot, the Hyundai Vest Exoskeleton (H-VEX), introduced in 2018, has been used in their assembly lines, improving productivity and reducing physical strain on workers. Ford Motor Company, in collaboration with Ekso Bionics, implemented the EksoVest (now it is the next evolution Ekso EVO) in 15 of its plants across the globe, supporting workers during overhead tasks and repetitive movements since 2017.
### Defense and Military
Soft exoskeletons have made significant strides in military applications, enhancing soldiers' endurance and reducing fatigue during long missions. The Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit (TALOS), developed by the United States Special Operations Command, incorporates soft exoskeleton components to augment soldiers' strength and agility. While still in the research and development phase, TALOS represents a pioneering effort in integrating soft exoskeletons into military operations, aiming to enhance soldiers' capabilities on the battlefield.
### Construction and Heavy Machinery
Construction workers and heavy machinery operators often face physically demanding tasks, and soft exoskeletons have proven to be invaluable in these environments. Launched in 2019, the Levitate AIRFRAME by Levitate Technologies is worn by construction workers to reduce fatigue and minimize the strain on the lower back and shoulders, allowing them to work more comfortably and efficiently. Additionally, companies like Sarcos Robotics have developed soft exoskeletons for industrial applications, including construction and infrastructure maintenance, enhancing workers' safety and productivity
### Assistive Devices for Elderly and Mobility Impaired
See also: Assistive technology
Soft exoskeletons have shown promise in improving the quality of life for the elderly and individuals with mobility impairments. The MyoSuit, developed by MyoSwiss AG, is a wearable exoskeleton that provides support to the lower body, aiding individuals with mobility challenges. MyoSuit has gained recognition for its user-friendly design and effectiveness in enabling natural movements. In Japan, the Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL), developed by Cyberdyne Inc. has been used in rehabilitation centers to assist patients with mobility impairments, offering them the ability to stand, walk, and regain independence.
### Logistics and Warehousing
In 2018, companies like SuitX introduced exoskeleton solutions, such as MAX, specifically designed for workers in logistics and warehousing. MAX exoskeletons assist with lifting and carrying heavy loads, reducing the risk of injuries. The MAX exoskeleton integrates the backX, shoulderX, and legX systems, forming a comprehensive full-body exoskeleton designed for diverse industrial settings. Its purpose is to minimize the stress on the knees, back, and shoulders, allowing users to extend their work duration with less fatigue and a decreased likelihood of injuries.
Hunic, a notable player in the field (IFOY award winner), has developed a patent-pending soft exoskeleton named SoftExo, known for its lightweight wearability, high performance, and ergonomic design. The SoftExo offers advancements in exoskeleton technology, contributing to the evolution of solutions aimed at enhancing the well-being and capabilities of workers in various industries
### Emergency Response and Disaster Relief
Soft exoskeletons have been integrated into emergency response protocols, especially in disaster-prone regions. The XOS 2 exoskeleton, developed by Sarcos Robotics, has been used by emergency responders since 2016. By augmenting the wearers' strength, XOS 2 assists in lifting heavy debris and carrying essential equipment during rescue missions. This technology has been deployed in various disaster-stricken areas, enhancing the effectiveness of search and rescue operations
### Education and Research
Soft exoskeletons, like the MyoSuit developed by MyoSwiss AG, have been employed in educational institutions and research laboratories since 2019. Researchers and students use MyoSuit to study human movement patterns, rehabilitation techniques, and biomechanics. This wearable exoskeleton provides valuable insights into assistive technologies, shaping the future of rehabilitation practices and human-machine interaction research.
### Entertainment and Media
In the entertainment industry, the Teslasuit, introduced in 2017, integrates soft exoskeleton technology with haptic feedback systems. This suit provides users with immersive experiences in virtual and augmented reality environments. By delivering realistic sensations of touch and movement, the Teslasuit enhances gaming, simulations, and virtual experiences in entertainment attractions, making virtual worlds more engaging and interactive
These notable soft exoskeleton solutions and their implementations in various industries underscore the significance of this technology in enhancing efficiency, safety, and user experience. As these innovations continue to evolve, they hold the promise of reshaping industries and improving the lives of individuals across diverse sectors. |
**Ed James** (born **Edward Charles Stirk** 23 March 1976 in Knighton, Radnorshire) is a British disc jockey, broadcaster and journalist, who currently hosts Drive Time for Heart West Midlands in Birmingham alongside Gemma Hill. He moved to the Drive Time Show in 2019, after presenting the Breakfast Show since 2002 on Heart. He is also a columnist with the Birmingham Mail, Chairman of the Birmingham Press Club and is the co-founder of content marketing agency HDY Agency.
Career
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He started on the radio aged twelve on BBC Radio York. While studying at Newcastle University, he presented at various radio stations across England before getting his first 'proper' job at a station in Manchester. James presented many shows before joining 100.7 Heart FM in Birmingham as Breakfast Show presenter in 2002 taking over from Daryl Denham. He worked alongside Hellon Wheels until 2006, and Sarah-Jane Mee from 2007 to 2008. Rachel New was his co-presenter from 2008 to 2016 after moving from neighbouring station Kerrang! 105.2. Since January 2017, his co-presenter has been Gemma Hill. In 2011 the Heart Breakfast Show won a Gold Sony Radio Award for Best Competition for its *Beat The Star* quiz that saw members of the public from around the Midlands competing alongside celebrities such as Gok Wan and Leona Lewis to answer general knowledge questions. On 17 April 2012 James celebrated ten years as the Heart Breakfast Show presenter with a champagne breakfast in the studio, while Rachel New presented him with a pet lamb as a gift. James presented his final breakfast show for Heart on 31 May 2019, following Global Radio's decision to introduce a national breakfast show from London. James then moved to Heart West Midlands's Drivetime show.
James presented ITV Central's *The Biz*, a weekly round-up of the latest goings-on in the Midlands for Films, Music and Gigs. In 2009 he became a columnist for the Birmingham Mail, writing about entertainment and showbiz. In April 2012 he was named as Chairman of Birmingham Press Club, narrowly beating former *Central Tonight* presenter Llewella Bailey to secure the position. Birmingham Press Club is the oldest organisation of its kind in the world.
James's mother is TV chef Anne Stirk, who appeared on Gloria Hunniford's Channel 5 daily show *Open House* as the resident chef.
In June 2018, James co-founded content marketing agency HDY Agency with marketeer Angel Gaskell. James is a qualified NLP practitioner and a member of Create Central. In 2020 he published a self-help book, *Be More Kid*, which is co-authored with Mark and Nicky Taylor. |
Viceroyalty within the Russian Empire
The **Bratslav Viceroyalty** (Russian: Брацлавское наместничество) was a viceroyalty [ru] within the Russian Empire that existed between 1793 and 1796.
History
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The territory of the Bratslav Viceroyalty was previously part of the Bracław and Podolian Voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Bracław Voivodeship was created in 1566 as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and was passed to the Crown of Poland in 1569. After the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, the voivodeship was incorporated into the Russian Empire and was replaced by the Bratslav Governate on 24 April [O.S. 13 April] 1793. By Imperial decree it was designated the Bratslav Viceroyalty on 22 May [O.S. 11 May] 1795, consisting of thirteen districts, or uyezds, with the city of Bratslav as its initial administrative centre, though this was transferred to Vinnytsia in 1795. On 23 December [O.S. 12 December] 1796, shortly after his ascension to the throne, Emperor Paul I ordered the liquidation of the viceroyalty as part of wider administrative reforms. The territory was divided between the Podolian Governorate, which received nine uyezds; Bratslavsky, Vinnitsky, Litinsky, Bershadsky, Gaysinsky, Yampolsky, Mogilyovsky, Tulchinsky and Khmelnitsky; and Kiev Governorate receiving four; Makhnovsky, Skvirsky, Lipovetsky and Pyatigorsky [ru]. |
Private yacht club in New York, US
The **Huguenot Yacht Club (HYC)** is a private yacht club located on Neptune Island along New Rochelle Harbor in the city of New Rochelle in Westchester County, New York. The club offers a number of boating activities, including yacht racing, frostbiting, one-design sail boat racing, and junior sailing.
History
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The club was founded and first organized in 1894 under the name "Neptune Yacht Club". The name was soon changed to "Huguenot Yacht Club" (HYC) to commemorate the founders of the community, the Huguenots, who settled the area after fleeing religious persecution in France. The club opened its doors on January 1, 1895 and officially incorporated on February 8, 1895. At that time the club was located just outside the bridge crossing to Glen Island Park on Neptune Island, in 2 small buildings leased from its owner Adrian G Iselin.
The first regatta held by the club was on April 27, 1895. In 1910 there were 65 boats registered at the club of which 27 were sail boats. The largest of these was the sailing houseboat Savilla 86' with a 24' beam.
HYC is a founding member of US Sailing, the "Yacht Racing Association of Long Island Sound" and the "Junior Sailing Association of Long Island Sound".
Facilities
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HYC's location on Neptune Island in New Rochelle's Lower Harbor provides the club with one of the most sheltered harbor facilities on Long Island Sound. The club has the best berthing facilities on the Sound. The channel has a twelve-foot depth, Davenport Neck and Glen Island form natural protection from all winds. The marina has slips for some sixty yachts, currently with lengths of 22 to 60 feet. The club also has a number of floating docks. The four floating docks to the west of the Glen Island Bridge have fixed pilings, water and electric power, as do the two larger docks to the west. There are additional floating docks to the east of the bridge which have water. During the season, the docks are reached by tender service. In addition to floating docks, there are a number of moorings to the east of the bridge that are also serviced by the club's tender. The club has a 30-ton Travilift and a crane to haul yachts and step masts. The club offers wet or dry winter storage and Club members are allowed to work on their own yachts while observing proper rules.
HYC owned Pea Island which lies approximately 1 mile from the New Rochelle shore, adjacent to Columbia Island until 2014. In 1992 a violent storm wrecked most of the structures built by the club since the 1930s, and the island has seen little use since then. Efforts to rebuild the island were foiled by the high cost of construction required to meet the government's FEMA regulations.
Activities
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*Celia* beating *Houri* at the first Open Regatta of the Club sailed off New-Rochelle in 1895
Club members take part in organized racing and boating events throughout the season. The Club sponsors several races each year, including;
* "Expressly for Fun Regatta"
* "Mayor's Cup Race"
* "Commodore's Cup Race"
In addition, the club has an annual Club Cruise for power and sail boats.
In recent years, members have chartered a vintage 12-meter yacht and competed in a Columbus Day Weekend 12-Meter Regatta. Members also take part in Thursday night sailboat races on Long Island Sound as part of the Can One Evening Racing Association, which Huguenot members helped to found. Club sailing ends the season with the 'Turkey Day Reach', hosted alternate years by its neighbor, the New York Athletic Club. |
The **Distributed Computing Environment** (**DCE**) is a software system developed in the early 1990s from the work of the Open Software Foundation (OSF), a consortium founded in 1988 that included Apollo Computer (part of Hewlett-Packard from 1989), IBM, Digital Equipment Corporation, and others. The DCE supplies a framework and a toolkit for developing client/server applications. The framework includes:
* a remote procedure call (RPC) mechanism known as DCE/RPC
* a naming (directory) service
* a time service
* an authentication service
* a distributed file system (DFS) known as DCE/DFS
The DCE did not achieve commercial success.
As of 1995, all major computer hardware vendors had an implementation of DCE, seen as an advantage compared to alternatives like CORBA which all had more limited support.
History
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As part of the formation of OSF, various members contributed many of their ongoing research projects as well as their commercial products. For example, HP/Apollo contributed its Network Computing Environment (NCS) and CMA Threads products. Siemens Nixdorf contributed its X.500 server and ASN/1 compiler tools. At the time, network computing was quite popular, and many of the companies involved were working on similar RPC-based systems. By integrating security, RPC and other distributed services on a single distributed computing environment, OSF could offer a major advantage over SVR4, allowing any DCE-supporting system (namely OSF/1) to interoperate in a larger network.
The DCE "request for technology" was issued by the OSF in 1989.
The first OSF DCE vendor product came out in 1992.
The DCE system was, to a large degree, based on independent developments made by each of the partners. DCE/RPC was derived from the *Network Computing System* (NCS) created at Apollo Computer. The naming service was derived from work done at Digital. DCE/DFS was based on the Andrew File System (AFS) originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University. The authentication system was based on Kerberos. By combining these features, DCE offers a fairly complete system for network computing. Any machine on the network can authenticate its users, gain access to resources, and call them remotely using a single integrated API.
The rise of the Internet, Java and web services stole much of DCE's mindshare through the mid-to-late 1990s, and competing systems such as CORBA appeared as well.
One of the major uses of DCE today is Microsoft's DCOM and ODBC systems, which use DCE/RPC (in MSRPC) as their network transport layer.[]
OSF and its projects eventually became part of The Open Group, which released DCE 1.2.2 under a free software license (the LGPL) on 12 January 2005.
DCE 1.1 was available much earlier under the OSF BSD license, and resulted in FreeDCE being available since 2000. FreeDCE contains an implementation of DCOM.
One of the major systems built on top of DCE was Encina, developed by Transarc (later acquired by IBM). IBM used Encina as a foundation to port its primary mainframe transaction processing system (CICS) to non-mainframe platforms, as IBM TXSeries. (However, later versions of TXSeries have removed the Encina component.)
Architecture
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DCE is intended to support high availability systems: when a server does not respond (because of server failure or communications failure), clients can be constructed to automatically use a replica of that server instead.
The largest unit of management in DCE is a *cell*. The highest privileges within a cell are assigned to a role called *cell administrator*, normally assigned to the "user" *cell\_admin*. Multiple cells can be configured to communicate and share resources with each other. All principals from external cells are treated as "foreign" users and privileges can be awarded or removed accordingly. In addition to this, specific users or groups can be assigned privileges on any DCE resource, something which is not possible with the traditional UNIX filesystem, which lacks ACL's.
Major components of DCE within every cell are:
1. The Security Server that is responsible for authentication
2. The Cell Directory Server (CDS) that is the repository of resources and ACLs and
3. The Distributed Time Server that provides an accurate clock for proper functioning of the entire cell
Modern DCE implementations such as IBM's are fully capable of interoperating with Kerberos as the security server, LDAP for the CDS and the Network Time Protocol implementations for the time server.
DCE/DFS is a DCE-based application which provides a distributed filesystem on DCE. DCE/DFS can support replicas of a fileset (the DCE/DFS equivalent of a filesystem) on multiple DFS servers - there is one read-write copy and zero or more read only copies. Replication is supported between the read-write and the read-only copies. In addition, DCE/DFS also supports what are called "backup" filesets, which if defined for a fileset are capable of storing a version of the fileset as it was prior to the last replication.
DCE/DFS is believed to be the world's only distributed filesystem that correctly implements the full POSIX filesystem semantics, including byte range locking.<ref name="advogato" >
DCE/DFS was sufficiently reliable and stable to be utilised by IBM to run the back-end filesystem for the 1996 Olympics web site, seamlessly and automatically distributed and edited worldwide in different time zones.<ref name="advogato" > |
Building in Denbighshire, Wales
**Nantclwyd y Dre** (previously known as **Tŷ Nantclwyd**) is a Grade 1 listed house in Ruthin, Denbighshire. It is Wales's oldest dated timbered town house, and is owned by the county and open to the public as a historic house museum.
History
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Carbon dating of the timbers of the house have shown that the core structure was started in 1435/1436. This dates the property to the time after the destruction wrought by the army of Welsh prince Owain Glyndŵr, and the English-sponsored rebuilding of the affected Welsh towns.
In the 15th century Ruthin was a regional centre for weaving, and the land on which the house now stands then belonged to Welsh weaver Goronwy ap Madog and his English wife Suzanna. Lying just 100 metres (330 ft) north of the entrance to Ruthin Castle and with a street frontage, the scale and location of the site shows both the importance and wealth of the owner. The earliest part of the structure shows it to be part of a 15th-century cruck framed hall house which occupied the southern part of the present street-frontage, built using timber felled in the winter of 1434–5. The position of the structure as well as the width of the inner garden to the rear, suggest that the site was originally two burgage plots which dated from when the town was laid out in the 13th century, but were then combined to allow construction of the hall house.
Following Jacobean era enlargement, the major late Stuart period addition includes the distinctive pillared porch. The name *Nantclwyd y Dre* was probably bestowed on the property in the 1720s. During the Georgian era, the local Wynne family restored the property to habitable status. It was then converted into a girls school in the Victorian era, and from 1834 it also became the local lodge for visiting judges.
In 1925, existing tenant and retired civil engineer Clinton Holme bought the house, and in 1928 he removed the exterior render to expose the timber frames. He sold the property to Samuel Dyer Gough who continued the restoration, and made it into the local hub for the Arts and Crafts movement.
Museum
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In 1984 Dyer Gough's widow sold the house and its gardens to Clwyd County Council. From the mid-2000s, successor administration Denbighshire County Council started work on preserving the property. Converted into a living history museum, it displays demonstrate the changing fashions and the lives of the house's residents under the theme of the "Seven ages of Nantclwyd y Dre":
* 1942 hall
* 1916 rector's study
* 1891 schoolroom
* Georgian panelled bedroom suite with Chinese-wallpaper
* 1690 "cabinet" of Stuart owner Eubule Thelwall (c. 1622 - 1695), with its "Kidderminster stuff" hangings and plaster ceiling
* Jacobean bedchamber with hung bed, painted cloths, and "stool of ease" in its closet
* 15th century "business room", its 1435 structure virtually unchanged, showing the preserved documentation of a mediaeval resident' pilgrimage to Rome, founded during restoration within the buildings infrastructure
Opened to the public on 23 June 2007, visitors can also observe a colony of Lesser horseshoe bats in the attic rooms via a "bat cam".
Lord's garden
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The inner 13th century garden, showing the restored gazebo
Behind the house are two gardens, the inner garden and the outer **Lord's Garden**. The inner 13th century garden occupies the area to the rear of the house, and is bounded by a substantial masonry wall.
The outer Lord's Garden is originally believed to have been part of a 13th-century developed castle garden. It became part of Nantclwyd y Dre after being rented by house owner Eubule Thelwall, who bought it in 1691. A 1780 plan shows both outer and inner paths, creating four roughly equal areas in the northern section, and what may have been an ornamental feature in the centre. In the south-west corner is a surviving substantial mound. Larger than depicted in the 1780 plans, 1980s archeological excavations suggest that the eastern section comprises spoil excavated during the construction of a swimming pool in the courtyard area. The older western section of the mound dates pre-18th century, suggesting that it may have been either an artillery position associated with the Civil War siege of the town, or a later garden platform with views over the gardens, gazebo and onwards towards the castle.
Restored in the 18th century, Lord's Garden is now itself Grade II listed. However, at present there is no public access, and the garden lies in a semi-neglected state. In December 2013, the council successfully applied for a grant of £177,600 from the Heritage Lottery Fund, which will see Lord's Garden restored and opened to the public by 2015.
The borders along either side of the garden now contain carefully selected plants representative of a 17th-century garden including crown imperials, old rose varieties and lilies.
Examples of content
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### The Porch on Stilts
The distinctive porch on stilts with chamber above was added to the original mediaeval street frontage in about 1693 by Eubule Thelwall, as was shown by tree ring dating of four samples. There is a fine surviving monument to Thelwall in Llanelidan Church. At the same time he built Nantclwyd Hall; the land was acquired through his marriage to the Parry heiress.
### Archaeological finds
This cabinet contains finds of interest from the Lord's Garden. The Clwyd Powys Archaeological Trust had an exploratory excavation in the Lord's Garden in late winter 2013 and here is a sample of the type of items found.
### Samuel Dyer Gough’s Chair
A unique handmade multifunctional recliner chair made by Mr. S. Dyer Gough who lived at Nantclwyd y Dre between 1926 and 1984, with his wife Jean and family. He was an architect, craftsman and historian and they made a big impact on Nantclwyd y Dre during the 50 years of their ownership. They were the last family that lived in the house.
### Staffordshire Figures
A collection of traditional Staffordshire figures and willow pattern china as found in the house during the Dyer Goughs period.
### Bottle jacks
An important kitchen innovation of the time. A clockwork device that enabled meat to be turned and roasted in front of the fire.
### Four carved panels flanking the fireplace
These four high-quality carved oak panels have been dated, and while the trees were felled soon after 1423, their carving style suggests a later date of 15-16th century. Despite the *fleur de lys* motifs on the shields in the panels, the timber is likely of Welsh origin (most probably from nearby Coed Marchan wood), and unlikely to be continental. The carvings most likely honoured Arthur (1486–1502), eldest son of Henry VII.
### The Arms of Ednyfed Fychan
Attributed arms of Ednyfed Fychan (an ancestor of Owen Tudor), used and quartered by Wynne of Coed Coch and of Plas Uchaf. Description: "Gules a chevron ermine between three men's heads in profile erased proper." The ermine can also be seen on the national flag of Brittany. Ednyfed is said to have first come to notice in battle, fighting against the army of Ranulph de Blondeville, 4th Earl of Chester, who attacked Llywelyn at the behest of King John of England. Ednyfed cut off the heads of three English lords in battle and carried them, still bloody, to Llywelyn, who commanded him to change his family coat of arms to display three heads in memory of the feat.
### Wattle and Daub Panel
An example of the mediaeval horizontal hazel-wattle between the oak beams. They were 'sprung' into groves cut into the frame and interwoven round upright oak 'spars' also sprung into the frame. This exposed piece dates to c. 1435.
### Ericsson 1905 Magneto Telephone
Nantclwyd House was the first house on Castle Street to have a telephone installed. The Rev. Thomas Pritchard lived here from 1907 to 1917 – he was the Rector of Llanfwrog Church. The wooden case held two batteries that worked the microphone. By turning the handle of the Magneto a bell would ring in the exchange and the person would tell the operator which number they wanted to be connected to. Electricity arrived at Nantclwyd at around 1914, provided by the Ruthin Electricity Supply Company.
### A Victorian Teacher’s Desk
Between 1886 and 1893 Nantclwyd y Dre was run as Miss Charlotte Price's school for young ladies – daughters of the more prosperous tradespeople of Ruthin. The room is set as if they were to have a needlework lesson, showing typical needlework skills the girls would be learning, before they moved on to Ruthin County School at the age of 11 (now Ysgol Brynhyfryd).
### Changing room in the Georgian Bedchamber
This room was used as a changing room alongside the grandest bedchamber which was created during the Georgian updating by the Wynne family around 1734. The wallpaper reflects the craze for Chinese influence patterns around this time and is a hand-blocked reproduction of an English wallpaper design c.1750-1760. The occupants would have used chamber pots, stored in pot-cupboards, as seen here.
### Stool of ease or commode
A 17th century toilet consisting of a chamber pot set inside a lidded seat. It is found in the *ensuite* of the Jacobean bedchamber. This is a copy of a 17th-century original now displayed at Plas Mawr, Conwy. Such stools of ease - which are basically a lidded box containing a chamber pot - became popular in Elizabethan times as they were much more convenient than a trip to an outside privy.
### Table in the Jacobean Room
The table is set for dinner with its lovely pewter tableware and napery, real status symbols for the Parry family who added this room and the little ensuite next to it in about 1620. Tableware includes: pewter candlesticks, plates and porringers, a pewter ewer (or jug) and a basin for hand washing before and after meals, a pair of *facon de Venise* drinking glasses, Bellarmines salt glazed stoneware flagons and Rhineland imported drinking jugs.
### Eubule Thelwall’s Study
This ornate plaster work ceiling was installed when this room was added to Nantclwyd y Dre's original street frontage in c.1663 by Eubule Thelwall. The plasterwork motifs include mulberries and pears. This type of plasterwork was very popular in 1660-70s. Eubule Thelwall was a keen gardener. To the right of the doorway is the remains of what was at one time the outside wall of the old house.
### Mediaeval Chamber
This room is part of the original mediaeval hallhouse – lovely simple hardwearing furniture with a typical scribe's desk. Typical mediaeval waxed canvas window coverings called fenestrals were used to keep out as much of the weather as they could. The rushlights didn't give out much light!
### The gazebo
The Grade II listed building at the end of the walled garden of Nantclwyd y Dre dates to the early 18th century and only appears on prints after 1715. The upper floor of the building was used as a study room by the three daughters of the Dyer-Gough family when they were growing up here in the 1940s. It still offers beautiful views out over the Vale of Clwyd on a clear day. The ground floor room is now made out as a potting shed complete with gardening books and early 20th century tools.
### Ostrich plumes
White ostrich plumes top each corner of the four poster bed (called 'French bed' at that time) in the Jacobean chamber. These would have been the height of fashion in the early 17th century and would have adorned the bed to show the high status of its wealthy owner, Simon Parry. This 'corded' bed has three mattresses, a sign of high status as well as comfort. The bed is equipped with 'bedstaffs', which prevented piled bedclothes from falling off the bed.
### The Hall Gallery
One of the most striking features of the house is the gallery which runs along two sides of the hall. The wood of the gallery has been dated to around the late 17th century and it is thought that the heraldic panels set into it, were added at a later date, most likely by the Wynne family. The main balustrades indicate a date of c. 1680–90, but the stairs balustrades could be somewhat later, possibly c. 1730. Mrs Jean Dyer Gogh informed RCAHM that the gallery had been taken from St Saeran at Llanynys which was re-ordered c. 1768 and a second theory is that it was taken from Llanelidan Church, but to date there is no evidence of either. A 2002 report by Richard Morriss, however, suggests that the gallery was made for nantclwyd y Dre, rather than imported which dates the gallery to Eubule Thelwall's alterations c. 1662–95. The heraldic panels he dates at late 18th century.
### Georgian dressing table
This is an original piece of Georgian furniture (c. 1720) and would have been an essential item in any Georgian lady's bedchamber. The name at the time would have been 'a chest on a stand'. This room was created in 1773 and the panelling is original to the house.
### Attic Doorway
This doorway leads to the attics which were the servants’ quarters during the Georgian period. However, the door is now kept locked and the attics undisturbed because it is now a bat roost. There are 3 species of bats living in the attics at Nantclwyd y Dre – pipistrelle, long eared and lesser horseshoe bats. The lesser horseshoes are the rarest and their colony size is estimated at 60 individuals.
### Inscription behind parlour panelling
During the house restoration, an inscription was uncovered behind the wooden pearwood panelling in the parlour. Written in pencil it reads "John Edwards joiner Holywell 15th of May 1926". This implies that the old panelling was introduced to the house as late as 1926.
### Inkwell
Pewter handmade inkwell that also serves as a calendar as it has rotating rings around the base to adjust the day, date and month. Possibly Italian.
Gallery
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* The main house: Nantclwyd Hall, LlanelidanThe main house: Nantclwyd Hall, Llanelidan
* A memorial to Jane, Eubule Thelwall's daughter at Llanelidan church.A memorial to Jane, Eubule Thelwall's daughter at Llanelidan church.
* A memorial to Gabriel Goodman, born at Nantclwyd in 1528.A memorial to Gabriel Goodman, born at Nantclwyd in 1528. |
American-British cartoonist and children's illustrator
**Ted Dewan** is an American-born British writer and illustrator of children's books who resides in England. He is best known as the creator of the award-winning book series, *Bing,* now adapted into an animated television series.
Life
----
Dewan was born in Boston and raised in Lexington, Massachusetts, the first son of physicist Dr Edmond M Dewan and scholar/attorney Karen Dean-Smith. He grew up with his brother, musician and artist Brian Dewan and both brothers had musical and artistic aspirations from a young age. He studied engineering and electronic music at Brown University, Rhode Island where he studied with his mentor, author/illustrator David Macaulay, before working for five years as a Physics teacher at Milton Academy. As well as his science-teaching duties at Milton Academy, Dewan directed various musical shows including a touring satirical student pop band.
He relocated to London where he began to make a living as a full-time illustrator and cartoonist, drawing for British newspapers including *The Times* (and *Times Educational Supplement*), *The Guardian*, *The Independent* and *The Daily Telegraph*. In his spare time, he performed a solo accordion act on London's comedy circuit, to mixed and "misunderstood" reviews at such venues as The Comedy Store and the Hackney Empire. Within a few years of moving to London, he met Helen Cooper, another children's illustrator and writer. They have one daughter.
Dewan and Cooper moved from London to Oxford, where Dewan worked closely with David Fickling Books, the original publisher of the Bing books. His move to Oxford also saw the beginning of an eight-year pilot project to transform his residential street in the UK's only DIY redesign project designed and built entirely by its residents with guidance and funding from Bristol-based Sustrans. He was given stewardship of the writer's shed from Oxford-based author Philip Pullman in 2002, with a covenant agreed that only creative work shall take place in it, and that the shed was to be passed on freely to another maker when the time came. The shed has now been passed on and its story continues.
Divorced in 2018, Dewan now lives in Brixton, London, where he works primarily in children's television animation.
Books
-----
Dewan began his career with science-writer Steve Parker on a number of children's non-fiction books. Dewan's pen and ink and watercolor artwork complemented "Parker's examination of the morphology of the world's largest mammals" (and also *Inside dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures*). For *Inside the Whale and Other Animals* he won the 1992 Mother Goose Award
from Books for Children as "the most exciting newcomer to British children's book illustration".
Concurrently he illustrated a couple of adult non-fiction books by Dr. Robert Ornstein.
Dewan next turned his hand to writing as well as illustrating, producing in 1994 a baseball version of *The Three Billy Goats Gruff*. A number of other solo writing/illustrating projects have followed since, in particular the *Bing Bunny* series, which has been adapted into a TV series.
The first of three Crispin picture books won the Blue Peter Award, and was a runner-up for the 2000 Kate Greenaway Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book illustration by a British subject.
Cooper had won the 1996 and 1998 Medals.
More recently, his illustration work has featured in books related to the BBC comedy panel game television quiz show *QI*. In particular, he contributed "400 diagrams and cartoons" to *The Book of Animal Ignorance*, and various illustrations to *The QI* "E" *Annual* (or *The QI Annual 2007*), both published by Faber and Faber in 2007.
His latest picture book with Orchard Books is about a courageous teddy bear charged with warming the heart of a troublesome boy. *One True Bear* (2009) was noted for its daring inclusion of actual young boys' drawings, including the "violent" ones not normally reproduced, especially in young children's literature.
Television
----------
In 2014 a television series called *Bing* based on his books began broadcast on CBeebies, produced by Acamar Films and animated by Brown Bag Films. He co-developed the series, co-wrote the pilot, and wrote or contributed to most of the scripts, while working with the animators on set and character design. The series has since become one of the most viewed programmes for children across the whole BBC, winning a BAFTA nomination and an International Emmy Award. The series features the voice talent of Oscar-winning actor, Mark Rylance.
Dewan is currently developing another television animation project for children and has acted as consultant on other television projects.
3D artwork and machines
-----------------------
Dewan began his commissioned three-dimensional artwork, including 2004's *Cyclemas Tree*, a 20-foot 1.5 tonne illuminated Christmas Tree made of derelict bicycles and scaffolding. In 2007, he was appointed lead artist for Oxford's Millennial celebration's extravaganza, *Luminox*, which featured his 70-foot bamboo spire pendulum sculpture with a flaming pendulum bob. The sculpture formed the centrepiece of a large-scale fire installation by the renowned French group Carabosse. He is the creator of the Storyloom at Oxford's Story Museum, which remains from the 2012 steampunk exhibition, The Fabulous Account of Rochester's Extraordinary Storyloom.
His most recent commission was a sculpture and photography/design featured on the cover of Philip Selway's (Radiohead) second solo album, The Weatherhouse.
Awards and honors
-----------------
Winner
1992, Mother Goose Award, best new illustrator, for *Inside the Whale and Other Animals*, written by Steve Parker
2002, Blue Peter Book Award
Best Book to Read Aloud, the picture book *Crispin, the Pig Who Had It All*
2015, BAFTA nomination, "Bing"
2016, International Emmy Award, "Bing"
2016, Writers' Guild of Great Britain, team scriptwriter "Bing"
Runners-up, shortlists
1992, shortlisted for the TES information book award for his illustration of *Inside the Whale & Other Animals*, written by Steve Parker.
1997, shortlisted for Kurt Maschler Award, integrated writing and illustration, *The Sorcerer's Apprentice*, and named one of the *Young Book Trust 100 Best Books*
2002, commended runner-up for the Kate Greenaway Medal, *Crispin the Pig Who Had It All*
2004, named one of the *Publishers Weekly* Books of the Year, the *Bing Bunny* series of books for toddlers
Works
-----
### As writer and illustrator
* *3 Billy Goats Gruff* (André Deutsch, 1994)
* *Top Secret* (André Deutsch/Scholastic 1996)
* *The Sorcerer's Apprentice (Corgi/Transworld 1997)*
*The Sorcerer's Apprentice and Music of Magic and Electricity* (Corgi Audio Tape, 1997)
* *The Weatherbirds* (Puffin Books/Penguin, 1999)
* *Crispin, the Pig Who Had It All* (Transworld, 2000)
* *Baby Gets the Zapper* (Transworld, 2001)
* *Crispin and the 3 Little Piglets* (Transworld, 2002)
* *Crispin and the Best Birthday Surprise Ever* (Transworld, 2007)
* *One True Bear* (London:Orchard and New York:Walker/Bloomsbury, 2009)
#### Bing Bunny
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Get Dressed* (David Fickling Books, 2003)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Paint Day* (Fickling, 2003)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Bed Time* (Fickling, 2003)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Something for Daddy* (Fickling, 2003)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Go Picnic* (Fickling, 2004)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Make Music* (Fickling, 2004)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Swing* (Fickling, 2004)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Milkshake* (Fickling, 2004)
* *Bing Bunny: Bing Yuk* (Fickling, 2004)
### As illustrator
#### Children's non-fiction
* *Inside the Whale and Other Animals* (Dorling Kindersley/Doubleday, 1992), written by Dewan and Steve Parker
* *Inside Dinosaurs and Other Prehistoric Animals* (Kindersley, 1993), Dewan and Parker
#### Children's fiction
* *Rumpelstiltskin* (Scholastic, 1998), written by Kit Wright
* *Sandmare* (Corgi/Transworld, 2001), Helen Cooper
* *The Divide* (Chicken House, 2005), Elizabeth Kay
* *The Ice Cream Swipe* (Oxford University Press, 2003), Elizabeth Laird
* *Back to the Divide* (Scholastic, 2007), Elizabeth Kay
* *Jinx on the Divide* (Scholastic, 2007), Elizabeth Kay
* **The Thomas Trew Series** (Hodder & Stoughton, 2006–2008), Sophie Masson
+ Book 1: *Thomas Trew and the Hidden People* HB (2006); PB (2007)
+ Book 2: *Thomas Trew and the Horns of Pan* PB (2007)
+ Book 3: *Thomas Trew and the Klint-King's Gold* PB (2007)
+ Book 4: *Thomas Trew and the Selkie's Curse* PB (2007)
+ Book 5: *Thomas Trew and the Flying Huntsman* PB (2007)
+ Book 6: *Thomas Trew and the Island of Ghosts* PB (2008)
* *A Midsummer Night's Dream* (Hodder & Stoughton, 2006), the 1590s Shakespeare classic retold by Beverly Birch
#### Adult non-fiction
* *The Evolution of Consciousness* (Prentice-Hall, US 1991), written by Dr. Robert Ornstein,
* *The Roots of the Self* (HarperCollins, US 1993), by Ornstein
* *The Axemaker's Gift* (G. P. Putnam's Sons, US 1995), James Burke and Ornstein
* *Wild Minds* (Henry Holt, New York 1999), Marc Hauser
* *The Book of Animal Ignorance* (Faber and Faber, UK Oct 2007) (ISBN 978-0-571-23370-0), John Lloyd and John Mitchinson, designed and illus. by Dewan
* *The QI* "E" *Annual* (alternate title, *The QI Annual 2007*) (Faber and Faber, UK Nov 2007), by the QI Elves with some illustrations by Dewan
* *The QI* "F" *Annual* (alt. title, *The QI Annual 2008*) (Faber and Faber, UK Nov 2008), by the QI Elves, some illus. by Dewan
* *Mindreal* (Malor Books, US 2008), Ornstein |
A 2007 map of Burkina Faso, including main and secondary roads, major airports, and railroad lines.
**Transport in Burkina Faso** consists primarily of road, air and rail transportation. The World Bank classified country's transportation as underdeveloped but noted that Burkina Faso is a natural geographic transportation hub for West Africa.
Highways
--------
"S. T. M. B." (Service de Transport Mixte Bangrin.) A market during a break in the bus journey from Ouagadougou to Bobo-Dioulasso. Boromo, Balé Province, Burkina Faso, 2001
In 2002, there were a total of 12,506 kilometres (7,771 mi) of highway in Burkina Faso, of which 2,001 kilometres (1,243 mi) are paved.
In 2000, the Government of Burkina Faso classified 15,000 kilometers of road as part of the national road network managed under the Ministry of Infrastructures Transport and Housing (MITH) through the Directorate of Roads (DGR). This network includes main inter-city roads and access roads for départments' capital cities. Only ten of the network's main roads are even partially paved, and the paved roads are plagued by dangerous potholes, missing signage, missing barriers and guardrails near roadside hazards, and no pavement markings to separate traffic moving in opposite directions
As of May 2011 the country's road infrastructure was rated by the World Bank to be in relatively good condition and noted that country was regional hub with paved roads linking the country to Mali, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, and Niger. Nevertheless, "trucking cartels and red tape contribute to high transportation costs and diminished international competitiveness." 58% of firms in Burkina Faso identified roads as major business constraint, maintenance and rehabilitation needs of the main road network are said to be underfunded.
Air transport
-------------
There are international airports at Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso and numerous smaller airfields. In 2004, the number of airports totaled 23, only 2 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Air Burkina, which began in 1967, is government-run and has a monopoly on domestic service but also flies to neighboring countries.
Ouagadougou airport handles about 98% percent of all scheduled commercial air traffic in Burkina Faso. Air Burkina and Air France handle about 60% of all scheduled passenger traffic. Between 2005 and 2011, air passenger traffic at Ouagadougou airport grew at an average annual rate of 7.0 percent per annum reaching about 404,726 passengers in 2011 and was estimated to reach 850,000 by 2025. In 2007 Ouagadougou airport was the fifteenth busiest airport in West Africa in passenger volume, just ahead of Port Harcourt (Nigeria) and behind Banjul (Gambia). The total air cargo at Ouagadougou airport grew 71% from 4,350 tons in 2005 to about 7,448 tons in 2009.
The government plans to close the Ouagadougou airport upon construction of the new Ouagadougou-Donsin Airport, approximately 35 km northeast of Ouagadougou. The new airport is expected to be completed around 2018 and the government received an $85 million loan from the World Bank to help finance the construction. The government of Burkino Faso believed that the project would cost $618 million.
Railways
--------
Main article: Rail transport in Burkina Faso
There are 622 kilometres of railway in Burkina Faso, of which 517 km run from Ouagadougou to Abidjan, Ivory Coast; and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya. As of June 2014 *Sitarail* operates a passenger train three times a week along the route from Ouagadougou to Abidjan via Banfora, Bobo-Dioulasso and Koudougou.
All of the railways in the country are of 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge. Only Ivory Coast is connected to Burkina Faso by rail.
Instability in Ivory Coast in 2003 forced a rerouting of rail freight from the Abidjan corridor to ports in Togo, Benin, and Ghana via the road network. A proposed rail link between Ouagadougou and Pô in Burkina Faso and Kumasi and Boankra in Ghana, has been discussed with Ghanaian officials, and feasibility studies are being undertaken to explore this possibility, which would provide rail access to the inland port of Bonakra. Burkina Faso and Ghana use different rail gauges and this break-of-gauge can be overcome to a greater or lesser extent with a number of methods.
In 2006, an Indian proposal surfaced to link the railways in Benin and Togo with landlocked Niger and Burkina Faso. Additionally, a Czech proposal also surfaced to link Ghana railways with Burkina Faso. The manganese deposits near Dori are one source of traffic. Burkina Faso would also be a participant in the AfricaRail project.
In May, 2011 the World Bank reported that *Sitarail* had recovered well from the political crisis in Ivory Coast but was experiencing financial distress, needed to re-balance its financial structure and find alternative funding for rehabilitation backlog.
### Stations served
Main article: Railway stations in Burkina Faso
The following towns of Burkina Faso are served by the country's railways:
* Banfora
* Bobo-Dioulasso
* Koudougou
* Ouagadougou - national capital
* Kaya - terminus
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Transport in Burkina Faso. |
Private day school in Guildford, Surrey, England
The **Royal Grammar School, Guildford** (originally 'The Free School'), also known as the **RGS**, is a selective private day school for boys in Guildford, Surrey in England. The school dates its founding to the death of Robert Beckingham in 1509 who left provision in his will to 'make a free scole at the Towne of Guldford'; in 1512 a governing body was set up to form the school. The school moved to the present site in the upper High Street after the granting of a royal charter from King Edward VI in 1552. Around that time, its pupils were playing cricket and their activity was later documented as the earliest definite reference to the sport. The school's Old Building, constructed between 1557 and 1586, is the home of a rare example of a chained library. It was established on the death of John Parkhurst, Bishop of Norwich, in 1575. Although defined as a 'free' school, the first statutes of governance, approved in 1608, saw the introduction of school fees, at the rate of 4 shillings per annum, along with the school's first admissions test. During the late 19th century the school ran into financial difficulty, which nearly resulted in its closure. A number of rescue options were explored, including amalgamation with Archbishop Abbott's School. Funds were eventually raised, however, which allowed the school to remain open, although boarding was no longer offered.
Fee paying continued until the school adopted voluntary controlled status under the Education Act 1944; thereafter tuition was free and the common entrance examination at 11 was introduced. Soon after, in 1958, the school expanded with the construction of the New Building in the grounds of Allen House, a building used for a number of years as a boarding house and later as classrooms. Allen House was later demolished in 1964 just after the completion of the New Building. During December 1962 the historic Old Building caught fire, damaging a large part of it, including the two oldest rooms in the school. The damage was so great the reconstruction took over two years. The school became independent and fee paying in 1977, when the parents and staff raised sufficient funds to purchase the school following concerns about the abolition of grammar school status with the introduction of comprehensive education.
The school initially educated 30 of the 'poorest men's sons', though has since grown to have approximately 900 students, about 300 of whom are in the sixth form. The majority of pupils, approximately two thirds, enter at age 11 in the first form, a few (3-5 pupils) enter in the second form at the age of 12, with the remainder entering at 13 in the third form. Admissions are based on an entrance examination set by the school, and an interview. The school partakes in a number of sporting activities, and has enjoyed some success, including finishing within the top two in the Daily Mail Cup twice. The school maintains a grammar school ethos, and as such runs a number of outreach programmes for students from local maintained schools, for which it won the Independent School Award 2010 for Outstanding Community/ Public Benefit Initiative. The Headmaster is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference.
History
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The founding of the school dates to 1509 and the death of Robert Beckingham, a wealthy grocer, a member of the Worshipful Company of Grocers and a Freeman of the City of London. In his will he requested that the parishioners of St Olave's Church, Southwark, should obtain a licence to endow a chantry priest to say masses for his soul. If they failed to do this within two years of his death, his executors had discretion either to use the property to 'make a free scole at the Towne of Guldford' or to put the income to some other good charitable use. The licence was not obtained within the required time, and so in 1512, Beckingham's executors formally conveyed the lands in the bequest to a body of trustees consisting of the Mayor of Guildford and four 'sad and discrete men' who had formerly been mayors. With the rents, they were to provide a free grammar school in Guildford with a 'sufficient schoolmaster', to teach thirty "of the poorest-men's sons" to read and write English and cast accounts perfectly, so that they would be fit to become apprentices. The school was built in 1520 in Castle Ditch (now Castle Street) with financial assistance from Guildford municipal corporation.
The Old Building of the Royal Grammar School, Guildford in 2013
Over the coming years the school ran into financial difficulty and so "The Mayor and Approved Men" of Guildford petitioned Edward VI to grant them further endowments for maintenance. One of the King's closest advisers, William Parr, had a particular affection for the town, having himself spent a large amount of time at the King's manor house in Guildford, and it was he who advised the King to re-appropriate some of the funds arising from the Abolition of the Chantries Acts to the school. Thus in January 1552 Edward VI ordered that there was to be "one Grammar School in Guildford called the Free Grammar School of King Edward VI for the education, institution and instruction of boys and youths in Grammar at all future times forever to endure", along with a grant of 20 pounds per year; the school acquired therewith the right to style itself a Royal Grammar School. The high street site was purchased in 1555 with the construction of the Grade I listed Tudor Old Building starting in 1557. Construction was completed in 1586.
In the years around 1550, a pupil at the school was John Derrick who in later life became a Queen's Coroner for the county of Surrey. In 1597, Derrick made a legal deposition that contains the earliest definite reference to cricket being played anywhere in the world. This is preserved in the "Constitution Book" of Guildford. In January 1597 (Old Style – 1598 New Style), he bore written testimony as to a parcel of land in the parish of Holy Trinity Church, Guildford which, originally waste, had been appropriated and enclosed by one John Parvish to serve as a timber yard. This land, said Derrick, he had known for fifty years past and:
> *Being a scholler in the ffree schoole of Guldeford, hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play there at creckett and other plaies*.
>
>
John Derrick was then aged 59 and his testimony confirms that cricket was being played by children in Surrey c.1550 and it is perhaps significant that cricket is the only one of the "plaies" referred to by name. Derrick was a coroner and so it must be assumed his deposition was accurate.
The death of John Parkhurst, the Bishop of Norwich, in 1575 resulted in the founding of the school's chained library. In his will he gave "the most parte of all my Latten bookes whereof shall be made a catalogue as shortelie as I may God sendinge me lief", although obtaining these books was not without its difficulties. Initially the executors of his will used "all the cullerable shifts and practices" to prevent the books from moving to the school. These continued to such an extent that the mayor was forced to complain to the Lord High Treasurer, William Cecil, who summoned the executors to London. Upon a hearing with the executors, the Lord Treasurer referred them to Sir Walter Mildmay who was Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time. He demanded that the executors give everything left in the Will to the school. Following the ruling, however, the books passed to Edmund Freke, the new Bishop of Norwich, who kept them for himself at his residence. This continued until the school obtained letters from Her Majesty's Privy Council requiring the books be delivered. The books then finally arrived at the school several years late, although the Bishop kept a number of the best for himself. Since this date the library has been added to, most notably between 1600 and 1800. The library is housed within the Gallery (now the Headmaster's Study) in the Old Building, with the present bookcases dating from 1897. The oldest book within the library was printed in Venice around 1480, with the oldest English book printed in about 1500 bearing the imprint of Wynkyn de Worde. Today the library is one of the few remaining examples of a chained library located within a school.
The original charter granted to the school by King Edward VI
After the granting of the charter, it took 50 years before the first set of statutes to govern the school were completed. The Bishop of Winchester approved the statutes on 16 September 1608, and they constituted a major change in the way the school was run. Until this point the boys were instructed in English and accounting, but following the statutes lessons were in the subjects of Latin and Greek; with students required to speak in Latin unless licensed by the master to do otherwise. Admissions following the charter also changed, with "none to be admitted scholar into the said school before he be brought to the schoolmaster of that school, and upon his examination shall be found to have learned the rudiments of grammar, called the Accidence." All scholars from the town of Guildford were required to pay the master 5 shillings on admission to the school, and for those from outside the town the charge was 10s. The number of pupils at the school was capped at 100, although this number was rarely reached. The statues also saw the introduction of school fees. Although defined as a "free" school, fees were still charged at the rate of 4s. per annum, paid as 9d. per quarter for the provision of "rods and brooms", with an additional shilling due on the feast of St. Michael, which was used to pay for "clean, wax candles".
On the death of Joseph Nettles (an old boy of the school) in 1691 the school's first university scholarship was founded. Nettles left eleven acres of land in his will to his daughter Elizabeth Brindley, then following her death to Sir Richard Onslow and his heirs, with the rents from the land to be paid to the school for the maintenance of a scholar at Oxford or Cambridge. The scholar was to be a son of a freeman of the town of Guildford who "should have read some Greek author" and "be well instructed and knowing in the Latin tongue". His fitness in these fields was tested by the master of the school, and the rectors of the parishes of Stoke next Guildford and St. Nicholas in Guildford. If admitted to any college within the universities, he would then receive the rents from the lands for six years. At the end of six years, upon the scholar's death, or his removal from the university (whichever the sooner), another scholar was selected. If no scholar was deemed suitable and a vacancy arose, then the next scholar selected would receive the standard yearly rate, along with any rents acquired during the vacancy. The rents arising from the lands were roughly £23 per year. The scholarship ceased to be awarded at some point after 1951.
In 1866 the then headmaster Revd Henry G Merriman (headmaster 1859–75) purchased Allen House, a large house set in extensive grounds which stood opposite the school. The house took its name from Anthony Allen, Master of Chancery and Mayor of Guildford in 1740. This was initially used as a boarding house for the school between 1866 and 1874 before later being purchased by Surrey County Council in 1921 and was used by the school until its demolition in 1964. The grounds surrounding the house were purchased in 1914 by HA Powell and donated to the school as playing fields.
During the mid to late 19th century the school fell into disrepair and decay. Guildford Municipal Charities established a committee to report into the general condition of the school and the buildings. The committee reported in 1881 that the school had no funds available for repairs and that there were only nine boys "instead of the former ordinary number of 100". Various suggestions were made by the Charity Commission to raise funds for the school, including a reorganisation with Archbishop Abbot's School. The Committee for Maintaining Higher Education in Guildford was established in March 1887 to oppose the Charity Commission's draft scheme to amalgamate the RGS, Nettle's Charity and Archbishop Abbot's School. The committee raised £2,238 15s. 4d. (approximately £108,000 in 2010) towards the restoration of the RGS, ensuring its survival. A new Charity Commission scheme came into effect in November 1888 which resulted in the Old Building being restored, and the school's continuation as a day only school. Several years later under the Education Act 1944 the school adopted voluntary controlled status; tuition was therefore free and entrance was to be by common examination at the age of eleven.
The construction of the New Building started in 1958 in the grounds of Allen House and initially consisted of a gymnasium, assembly hall, dining hall and kitchens, caretaker's flat, staff common rooms, junior library, cloakrooms and changing rooms, eight classrooms, science lecture theatre, five science laboratories, geography and art rooms, and various offices, stores and smaller rooms arranged in a J shape. The construction of the initial building was finished in 1963.
RGS Guildford 500 LogoThe Logo used by the school during the year 2009/2010, to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the founding of the school.
On the morning of Sunday 2 December 1962, a fire broke out in the Old Building. It caused widespread damage to a large part of the structure, including the two oldest rooms in the school, School Room and Big School. The main concern was to prevent the books contained within the chained library from being damaged, either by fire or water from the fire brigade's hoses. The damage to the building was so great that rebuilding took over 2 years, with the unusually cold winter of 1962–1963 delaying the restoration. Lessons, however, continued throughout on the Allen House side of the high street.
The school became independent in 1977 when the parents and staff of the school, led by the Chairman of the Governors, John Fergrieve Brown, raised sufficient funds to purchase the school. The RGS then withdrew from the government maintained system, becoming independent and fee paying. This was followed in 1978 by the purchase of Lanesborough Preparatory School which became the junior school, preparing boys for entry to the RGS at either 11 or 13.
More recently in 2003 construction finished on a new Sports Centre with Fitness Suite and All Weather Training Area with Shooting Range. Followed in 2006 with refurbishments to the Old Building site; the old gymnasium was converted into a Sixth Form Centre and the Victorian science laboratories (some of the earliest in the country) converted into the Art School.
In 2009/2010 the school celebrated the quincentennial anniversary of the founding of the school by Robert Beckingham; numerous events were organised, including a new musical work based loosely on the school hymn "To be a Pilgrim". This year also saw a visit from Princess Anne, The Princess Royal.
RGS Guildford is due to open a campus in Doha, Qatar as part of Qatar's Outstanding Schools Program. RGS Guildford in Qatar will open initially to boys and girls ages three to seven years old (pre-school to year 2) in September, with the rest of the primary school slated to open in 2017. According to Bob Ukaih the school aims to open two separate single-sex secondary schools - one for girls and one for boys - in Doha by September 2018.
Following the announcement of the formation of a partner school in Qatar, the school came under fire from current and former pupils, as well as concerned members of the public, due to the country's poor human rights record. An online petition was started by a former pupil in April 2016 challenging the decision to open the school, however, this proved unsuccessful and *The Royal Grammar School Guildford in Qatar* (RGSGQ) opened for pupils on 19 September 2016. The school was also criticised for claiming to be an inclusive environment for all students, regardless of sexual orientation, while opening partner schools in countries where men involved in same-sex activities face the death penalty. The controversy spread when articles in the Times, the Daily Mail and the Guardian claimed that RGS had removed its policies on homophobic bullying from the rules in RGS Qatar. A spokesperson from RGS said the school had to abide by the rules of the country in which it operates, but many pupils, staff and members of the public have voiced their concern online.
October 2016 saw the opening of the John Brown building which was built replacing Trevone House for the Classics, Economics, History and Politics departments as well as for Design Technology. The building incorporates modern ecological design with a roof terrace and glass bridge connecting it to the first floor of the Main Building.
Lanesborough School merged with the Royal Grammar School, with the former becoming RGS Prep, in 2021. In 2023 the school was the site of an industrial dispute over plans to withdraw from the Teacher’s Pension Scheme.
In 2023 school teachers chose to strike, not attending lessons, in response to proposed moves to force lower-yielding pension options, or be subject to 'fire and rehire' plans.
School life
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### Terms
As in most schools in the UK there are three terms in the academic year:
* The *Michaelmas Term* from early September to mid-December. This is the normal term for new boys to be admitted into the school
* The *Lent Term* from early January to a time a week or two before Easter falls that year
* The *Trinity Term* from mid-late April to early July, during which time boys sit most public exams
### House system
There are six houses at the RGS, named after various benefactors of the school:
| House Name | House Colour | Benefactor |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Austen | Yellow | John Austen |
| Beckingham | Red | Robert Beckingham |
| Hamonde | Dark Blue | William Hamonde |
| Nettles | Light Blue | Joseph Nettles |
| Powell | Maroon | Powell Family |
| Valpy | White | Arthur Valpy |
Each pupil is assigned to one of the six houses upon joining the school, and a pupil's house can be indicated to others by optional colour-related clothing. Any subsequent direct family members are put in the same house as their relative. There are inter-house competitions throughout the year (including rugby, hockey, reading, and chess) and then at the end of the year the points awarded in each event throughout the year are added up, and the house with most points is awarded the Hardy Cup.
The Hardy Cup used to be called the Cock House Cup, the traditional name given in British public schools for the in-school competition cup, but it was renamed by 16 June 2022. The Senior Housemaster (Karim Tayar) believed the concept of having a 'cock of the school' was contradictory to RGS's ethos of respect, teamwork, and fun. The name 'Hardy' comes from the donors of the original trophy used, Bertrand and Stanley Hardy.
The school's official livery colour is green, picked as a house-neutral colour.
### School uniform
The school's uniform up to the end of Fifth Form is a white shirt, grey trousers and a blazer. A grey or dark blue, v-neck pullover with or without sleeves may also be worn. For the lower and upper sixth, navy blue or grey suits are instead worn, and upper sixth formers are permitted to wear pastel shaded shirts. A woollen scarf in the school colours: green, red and white; the sixth form scarf has longitudinal stripes. All years are required to wear one of the approved school ties. Various ties are awarded for sporting, artistic or social achievements, along with half and full colours awarded for services to the school and house colours awarded for services to the house; Senior Prefect ties are awarded to those with the position. Recently there have also been commemorative ties celebrating 450 years since the granting of the Royal Charter, and 500 years since the founding of the school.
### Sport
Sport is compulsory for all years during games periods and if selected for a team can require compulsory attendance on Saturdays.
* In the Michaelmas term rugby union is the main sport, hockey is also played.
* In the Lent term hockey is the main sport, rugby sevens is also played
* In the Trinity term cricket is the main sport, athletics is an option.
View towards the First XI cricket pitch and pavilion at the school playing fields, Bradstone Brook.
The sports of badminton, cross country running, fencing, football, golf, judo, rowing, sailing, swimming, target shooting and tennis are available, the list varies by year and term. Sixth form also have a "Spectrum" games option where boys are permitted to use any of the facilities at Guildford Spectrum during the games period.
The school has enjoyed some success in rugby where it has had first and second places at various levels of the Daily Mail Cup.
On 6 February 2016, Old Guildfordian Jack Clifford became a full England rugby international when he made his full debut as a replacement for Chris Robshaw during the Calcutta Cup match after 69 minutes.
Since 2003 the six Royal Grammar Schools (Colchester, High Wycombe, Guildford, Lancaster, Newcastle, Worcester) have held the "RGS Cricket Festival", hosted by a different school each year. It is based on a round robin format and held over a period of five days towards the end of the Trinity term.
The school has no playing fields on the town centre site. A 20 acres (8.1 ha) ground called Bradstone Brook, located a few miles away in the village of Chilworth, is the location of the rugby and cricket pitches. There is a single AstroTurf located at the main school for hockey and football. The majority of hockey takes place at Guildford Hockey Club, located at Broadwater School in Farncombe or Surrey Sports Park. Athletics and swimming both take place at Guildford Spectrum.
### Extra-curricular activities
Music
Music is part of the core curriculum for first to third forms. Pupils take lessons with peripatetic music staff within different disciplines. There is a symphony orchestra composed of students, along with several other smaller classical ensembles. The RGS choir perform regularly in Guildford Cathedral, and have in the past performed at The Royal Albert Hall. In addition to classical music, there are also a number of jazz and rock bands within the school as well, and to recognise this in addition to the four main music prizes awarded each year, there is an additional contemporary music prize.
Drama
Drama is offered as an academic subject from the first form. Plays are staged for all year groups in association with local girls schools. The department has an auditorium which was converted from the old gymnasium as well as the Hansford Room studio sited in the North Building.
Period 8
Period 8 is for extra-curricular activities which include Combined Cadet Force, outdoor pursuits, Scouts, lifesaving and community service. There are five field days in the year, on which these activities take place. Before the third form, pupils have the opportunity to decide between the CCF, outdoor pursuits and the scouts. The Duke of Edinburgh's Award scheme is 'Hors Combat' for choice, being available to all students, regardless of their other options, so no longer officially constitutes part of period 8.
Clubs and societies
There are several dozen clubs and societies at the school, many of these are where pupils get together to discuss a topic of particular interest sometimes with a guest speaker.
Publications
*The Register* (originally *Really Good Stuff*) is a termly newsletter documenting achievements at the school.
Admission and fees
------------------
Initially tuition at the school was free, funded by various endowments and rents obtained from lands the most significant arising from the Abolition of the Chantries Acts, and the re-appropriation of funds to the school. In 1944 under the Education Act education remained free, however the common entrance exam at eleven was introduced and the school became a selective grammar school. School fees were introduced in 1977 when the school withdrew from the maintained system and became independent. For the year 2013/2014 they are £14,670 (approximately €17,900 or US$24,500 as of March 2014) per year excluding lunches. All those wishing to be admitted now take the school's own internal 11+ entrance examination which tests English, mathematics and verbal reasoning and attend an interview with two members of staff. If a place is awarded, entry can be deferred for two years so that boys who are at prep school may enter at thirteen. Those entering at thirteen must take the 13+ Common Entrance or the scholarship examination to confirm their place.
Numerous scholarships are available at both 11+ and 13+ for music, academic achievement, and one for art at thirteen. Music and academic scholarships range in value between 5%–10% with one Kings Scholarship available for a 10% reduction in fees. These scholarships are awarded based on performance in subject specific exams or performances, and an interview for academic or music scholarships, or the presentation of a portfolio of work for the art scholarship. Until the start of the 2009/2010 academic year, the value of scholarships was substantially higher with the King's Scholarships worth 50% of the fees and a range of lower scholarships between 10 and 30%.
Charitable status and public benefit
------------------------------------
The school is a registered charity and currently has three charities registered with the Charities Commission: *King Edward VI's Grammar School (The Royal Grammar School), Guildford*, *The Royal Grammar School Guildford* (representing the governors), and *The Royal Grammar School Guildford Foundation* After the withdrawal of the Assisted Places Scheme in 1997 the social diversity of the school decreased, as a result the school began to offer bursaries to students whose parents could not afford the fees, with the first bursary offered in 2007.
The school also runs numerous outreach programmes for children from maintained schools in the local area, including a series of master-classes in science, mathematics, technology, languages and drama for local primary school children. Also for primary school children is the Tudor Experience Project where students can explore the Tudor past of the school through a number of activities. At the higher end of the school, numerous careers and university seminars are run for sixth form students from the local area, in addition to Oxbridge preparation classes and practice interviews for local sixth form students. The school also runs several more outreach programmes, and as a result of these initiatives was recently awarded the Independent School Award 2010 for Outstanding Community/Public Benefit Initiative.
Headmasters
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Main article: List of headmasters of the Royal Grammar School, Guildford
The post of headmaster (schoolmaster or just master as it was originally known) was created following the grant of the Royal Charter in 1552, with the first appointment made in 1554. There have been 35 appointments since the creation of the position. Until the re-organisation of the school in 1888 the post was almost exclusively filled by men from a religious background, with the first headmaster being Sir Lawson, a friar from the monastery in Guildford that was dissolved in 1538. The most notable headmaster was Roger Goad (1569–1575), who was Provost of King's College, Cambridge and three times Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge; he was headmaster during the time when George Abbot (Archbishop of Canterbury 1611–1633) was at the school. The current headmaster is Jon Cox.
Notable alumni
--------------
Main article: List of Old Guildfordians
* Robert Horne, Bishop of Winchester
* George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury (1611-1633)
* Arthur Onslow, Speaker of the House of Commons (1728-1761)
* Sir George Grey, Premier of New Zealand (1877-1879)
* Terry Jones, Member of the Monty Python comedy troupe
* Bob Willis, England cricket captain
* Andy Salmon, Commandant General Royal Marines
* Simon Bird, Actor and comedian
* Martin Tyler, Football commentator
* Simon Lazenby, Sky Sports F1 anchor |
American politician
For other people named Bob Krause, see Bob Krause (disambiguation).
**Robert A. Krause** (born January 15, 1950) is currently president of the Veterans National Recovery Center, a 501(c)(3) charitable organization. He is a former State Representative from Iowa, and served in the Iowa General Assembly from 1973 until 1979. He also served as Regional Representative for the US Secretary of Transportation during the Carter Administration, as past Chair of the Iowa Democratic Veterans Caucus and as past president of the Reserve Officers Association, Department of Iowa. He also served on the Waterloo (IA) school board.
Early life and education
------------------------
He was raised on a family farm in rural northwest Iowa, Krause graduated in 1968 from Sentral Community School District of Fenton, Iowa. He was active in 4-H, church, athletics and editor of the student newspaper. []
Krause attended the University of Iowa financing his education with a combination of work, scholarships and loans. He graduated in 1972 with a B.A. degree in political science. He was a member of ROTC and was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant in the Army Reserve in the summer of 1972. Krause also served in the student senate and was president of University Democrats. During summer breaks, he worked as a construction and railroad laborer. He also worked two summers for the Robert D. Fulton for Governor campaign the Iowa Democratic Party.
Politics
--------
Krause ran for state representative to the Iowa General Assembly and served six years in the Iowa House of Representatives.
Krause's was appointed as Assistant House Minority Whip in his first term. In this capacity, he helped pass Iowa's collective bargaining for public employees law.
As Chair of the House Transportation Committee for four years, he was assisted in the passage of legislation that allowed for the establishment of the coordinated regional transit systems throughout Iowa, which became a national model of the Federal Transit Administration. He also crafted a restructuring of Iowa's road system that included Iowa's first ethanol exemption when passed, which became the basis for Iowa's ethanol industry. Because of these efforts and others, the Des Moines Register in 1978 honored him as one of the "Top 10 Most Effective Iowa Legislators."
Krause left the House that year to run for Treasurer of the State of Iowa. Although he lost, he ran 5 points ahead of the top of the ticket. After a brief stint for Land O'Lakes as transportation manager for the Agricultural Services Group, Bob left to become Regional Representative for the Secretary of Transportation in 1979. In this capacity, he was ranking department official for Kansas, Iowa, Missouri and Nebraska, and he was administration spokesperson in the field for federal policy.
Post political career
---------------------
After the Carter administration, Krause taught in the business school at Iowa State University then joined the staff of the Council of State Governments, the national association for state government officials. There he ran a think-tank on transportation policy, writing five books and staffing several national policy task forces on transportation matters. He left that position for an intergovernmental affairs position with Palm Beach County, Fla. but subsequently returned to Iowa for family reasons.
Upon his return Krause then served as transit director for the Iowa Northland Council of Governments before joining the Iowa Department of Transportation in 1986. He served as a district planner then served as planning and coordination manager for the Public Transit Division. He also managed Iowa's Rural and Large Urban Public Transit Intelligent Transportation System. He retired in 2008 from the Iowa DOT with 20 years of state government service, and served briefly as an advisor to the government of Dubai, United Arab Emirates, on transportation policy matters. From there he returned to Iowa to take a position with VSE Corporation, a small defense contractor. In that role, Krause concerned himself with the readiness of weapons and equipment for a five state Army Reserve command. He left that position in early 2015.
2010 U.S. Senate election
-------------------------
Main article: 2010 United States Senate election in IowaKrause was a candidate for United States Senate from Iowa in the 2010 United States Senate election in Iowa. He lost the Democratic party primary to Roxanne Conlin who later lost in the Senate election against Charles Grassley. On Veterans Day, November 11, 2014, Krause again announced his intention to form an exploratory committee for a possible run against incumbent Senator from Iowa Charles Grassley.
2022 U.S. Senate election
-------------------------
Main article: 2022 United States Senate election in IowaIn October 2021, Krause announced that he would be seeking the Democratic Party nomination for the 2022 United States Senate race.
Awards
------
Krause was recognized for his public service by having a locomotive named "Robert A. Krause" by the Rock Island Railroad in honor of his work on transportation issues. He was honored by the Secretary of Transportation for his efforts to pass railroad deregulation, which had been one of the Carter Administration's top priorities. |
The **Louvre Saint-Honoré** building is a historic structure in Paris, occupying an entire urban block between the rue de Rivoli (across the Louvre Palace), the place du Palais-Royal, the rue Saint-Honoré, and the rue de Marengo [fr], with a total floor surface of 47,000 square meters. It was originally erected in the early 1850s by the Pereire brothers who in 1855 opened an iconic hotel, the ***Grand Hôtel du Louvre***, and an innovative street-level department store, branded from 1863 the ***Grands Magasins du Louvre***. While the *Grand Hôtel* closed in 1887, the *Grands Magasins* expanded and kept operating in the building until 1974. From 1978 to 2016 they were succeeded by a specialized mall of antiques shops, the ***Louvre des Antiquaires***, while the upper floors were repurposed as rented office space. Since 2020, the building's lower levels have been undergoing conversion to become the new flagship home of the Fondation Cartier pour l'Art Contemporain.
Initial construction
--------------------
The completion of the rue de Rivoli between the place du Louvre and the place des Pyramides was an early project of Haussmann's renovation of Paris as desired by Napoleon III, and coincided with the preparation of the Exposition Universelle (1855). The Pereire brothers were eager to contribute and in 1854 established the *société immobilière des terrains de la rue de Rivoli*, complemented in December 1854 with the *Compagnie de l'Hôtel et des Immeubles de la rue de Rivoli*. They directed the construction of the massive urban block along the thoroughfare while Napoleon III's Louvre expansion was being completed across it. They commissioned their customary architect Alfred Armand [fr], who was assisted for the project by Jacques Ignace Hittorff, Charles Rohault de Fleury and Auguste Pellechet [fr], and strictly adhered for the external facades to Percier and Fontaine's stern design guidelines for the rue de Rivoli dating from the time of Napoleon I.
Grand Hôtel du Louvre
---------------------
The main *table d'hôte*, c. 1870
The Grand Hôtel du Louvre was inaugurated on 9 July 1855, a few weeks into the Exposition Universelle that had opened on 1 May 1855, but its actual operations only started on 15 October 1855 and reached a steady state in early 1856. Partly inspired by the Great Western Royal Hotel in London, it was the largest hotel in Europe, with over 700 rooms and a staff of 1,250. It provided interpreters and guides, a post office, a telegraph room and a bureau de change. Although the hotel's common spaces were spectacularly opulent, it also catered to tourists with modest budgets as well as to the wealthy. A massive stairway led from the courtyard to the *table d'hôte* dining room, which often accommodated over 300 diners. There was also a more expensive restaurant, a salon 41 metres (135 ft) in length and a large billiard room. The modern hotel included many bathrooms and twenty lavatories. Another innovative feature was a pair of steam-powered lifts. Félix-Joseph Barrias was commissioned to paint frescoes in the monumental dining room, which was 40 meters long and 30 meters wide. An 1872 Baedeker guide described the Grand Hôtel du Louvre as "a huge, palatial edifice, the construction of which cost upwards of 50,000 £."
The hotel closed on 1 November 1887 to allow for the expansion of the *Grands Magasins du Louvre*. In 1888 the Hôtel du Louvre [fr] opened on the other side of the Place du Palais Royal, and has remained in the same location since then.
Grands Magasins du Louvre
-------------------------
Advert for the Grands Magasins du Louvre, 1919, showing the annex across rue de Marengo
Alfred Chauchard (1821-1909) in 1896, by Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant
Auguste Hériot (1826-1879) in 1879
As the hotel opened in 1855, the building's street level and mezzanine (French: *entresol*) were devoted to a commercial mall with 41 luxury shops at the time of inauguration. Much of it was taken by *Les Galeries du Louvre*, the second modern department store in Paris after Le Bon Marché which had opened in 1852, which opened on 9 July 1855. The *Galeries* was operated by Alfred Chauchard [fr], who had previously been a clerk at a store named *Au Pauvre Diable* with a salary of 25 Francs per month, and his partners Auguste Hériot [fr] and Léonce Faré, through a commercial venture formed on 26 March 1855 that rented the space from the Pereires' landlord entity, itself renamed in 1858 the *Compagnie immobilière de Paris*. Faré withdrew in 1857 and the company became *Chauchard, Hériot et Compagnie*, in which the Pereires took shares in the early 1860s. In 1863, the mall was rebranded as the *Grands Magasins du Louvre*. In 1865, it realised 15 million in sales and 41 million ten years later. It employed about 2,400 people, and Chauchard and Hériot became extremely rich. Following remodeling that started in the late 1860s, on 17 March 1873 the department store opened an expansion that brought it to a floor surface of 13,700 square meters, which its boasted as the world's largest.
Following the difficulties faced by the Pereires in the late 1860s, the *Compagnie immobilière de Paris* was dissolved on 30 June 1872. On 14 August 1875, *Chauchard, Hériot et Compagnie* bought the whole building from the administrators, and subsequently tasked architect Henry Dubois with its remodeling including the transformation of the main interior courtyards into covered atriums. Initially they kept the hotel in operation, but eventually closed it on 1 November 1887 for another expansion of the department store, which was completed in 1888.
After Auguste Hériot died in 1879, his brother Olympe Hériot [fr] inherited his shares of the company. Chauchard sold his shares in 1885. Olympe in 1887 married Cyprienne Dubernet, a former saleswoman at the store, and directed the company alone until 1888, when first signs of his mental illness forced his resignation. He was succeeded by one of Émile Pereire's sons. In 1889, the company was renamed Société du Louvre and opened a second hotel, the *Grand Hotel Terminus* in front of the Gare Saint-Lazare (later Hilton Paris Opéra), whose hall was designed by Gustave Eiffel. In 1909, the company opened the Hôtel de Crillon on the Place de la Concorde, after its renovation. In 1930, the shares were registered in the official list of the Paris Bourse.
In 1909, the *Grands Magasins* expanded into an annex across rue de Marengo, connected to the main building by an underground passage. In 1914, following the start of World War I, part of the complex was repurposed as a military hospital managed by the Val-de-Grâce. In 1919, another annex was created for the expansion of reserve space across rue Saint-Honoré, designed by architect Georges Vaudoyer [fr]. That building was repurposed in 2002–2005 on a design by architect Francis Soler [fr] with a distinctive metal screen in front of the facades, to host central offices of the French Ministry of Culture. The Grands Magasins du Louvre, however, suffered from the crisis of the 1930s and their activity declined significantly in 1933–1934.
An Avro Lancaster airplane from the No. 57 Squadron RAF, based at RAF East Kirkby, was hit by German flak and crashed into the building on the night of September 23, 1943, causing significant damage inside the building while leaving the exterior walls standing. The Canadian pilot, Joe Douglas Hogan, and six crew members were all killed. Repairs and additional structural changes were made in the immediate postwar period. From the mid-1950s, the Société du Louvre started renting out office space in the upper levels to prestige tenants, e.g. IBM, and street-level commercial space to third-party retailers, e.g. Prisunic. On 10 January 1973, it sold the entire property to the *Société de Financement et de Participation Immobilière* (FIPARIM), which closed the department store and Prisunic on 15 June 1974.
Louvre des Antiquaires
----------------------
The building was entirely reconstructed by its new owner, with demolition works starting in February 1976, on a design by architect Wladimir Lentzy that only kept from the prior structure the street facades as well as the façades of the westernmost inner courtyard. The *Louvre des Antiquaires* opened on 26 October 1978 with 240 antiques shops on three levels, namely a basement, the street level and the first floor. It also hosted occasional temporary exhibitions. The upper floors were commercialized as an office building, the *Centre d'Affaires Le Louvre*, with tenants that included the Ministry of Finance, Bank of France, Crédit Lyonnais, Banque Française du Commerce Extérieur, Industrial Bank of Japan, and U.S. Embassy.
In 1987, the *Louvre des Antiquaires* opened an offshoot in New York City, but that was closed in 1992.
In 1995, the Société foncière lyonnaise [fr] (SFL) acquired FIPARIM, and fully absorbed it in 2004. After years of financial trouble and an increasing number of vacancies, the *Louvre des Antiquaires* closed in 2016.
Fondation Cartier – Louvre Palais Royal
---------------------------------------
Since 2020, the SFL has redeveloped the property on designs by architecture firms B.Architecture and Ateliers Jean Nouvel. As part of the redevelopment, the Fondation Cartier pour l'Art Contemporain will use 6,000 square meters on the former footprint of the Louvre des Antiquaires, as a new site branded *Fondation Cartier – Louvre Palais Royal*. As of late 2022, the opening date was expected in 2024 or 2025.
In popular culture
------------------
The *Grands Magasins du Louvre* inspired Émile Zola's novel *Au Bonheur des Dames* (1883).
Gallery
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* Interior courtyard and grand staircase in the 1870sInterior courtyard and grand staircase in the 1870s
* The Grands Magasins du Louvre in the 1890sThe Grands Magasins du Louvre in the 1890s
* Louvre des antiquaires, 2009Louvre des antiquaires, 2009
* Renovations being undertaken in 2013Renovations being undertaken in 2013
* Advert for the Grands Magasins du Louvre, early 20th centuryAdvert for the Grands Magasins du Louvre, early 20th century
* Plaque memorializing the British crew who died in the aircraft crash on 23 September 1943Plaque memorializing the British crew who died in the aircraft crash on 23 September 1943
Sources
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* Baedeker, Karl (1872). *Paris and Northern France: Handbook for Travellers*. K. Baedeker. p. 4. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
* Denby, Elaine (1998). *Grand Hotels: Reality and Illusion*. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-121-1. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
* "Grand Hotel du Louvre". Expedia. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
* "Grand Hôtel du Louvre" (in French). Logis. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
* "The Oldest Grand Hotel of Paris". *famoushotels.org*. 26 May 2009. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
* "Un hôtel historique". Hôtel du Louvre. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
* Vajda, Joanne (2008). "Les Pereire et les Nalgelmackers, promoteurs du transport ferroviaire et du réseau hôtelier parisien, 1855-1900". *Revue d'histoire des chemins de fer* (38): 27–44. doi:10.4000/rhcf.1256. ISSN 0996-9403. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
* Viardot, Louis (1883). "Barrias, Félix-Joseph". *The masterpieces of French art illustrated: being a biographical history of art in France, from the earliest period to and including the Salon of 1882*. Gebbie. Retrieved 2014-02-08. |
American baseball player and umpire
**Ralph Frary** (July 3, 1876 – November 9, 1925) was a professional baseball player and umpire. From 1895 to 1906, Frary played in the minor leagues with several teams as a catcher, outfielder, and first baseman. Frary umpired 17 National League games in 1911, eight of them as the home plate umpire.
Playing career
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Frary played catcher and first base with Montana, Spokane and Seattle of the Pacific Coast League and Pacific National League. He signed with Nashville of the Southern League in 1906, having had "trouble at Seattle."
Umpiring career
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In 1908, Frary umpired in the Northwestern League. That July, it was reported as "practically settled" that Frary would be promoted to the major leagues the following year. The next month, Frary made headlines when President Charley Wolf of the Spokane club accused him of being crooked and connected to gamblers. Frary demanded that the National Board of Minor Leagues either expel Frary or Wolf. In September, Aberdeen manager Bob Brown accused Frary of drunkenness on the field. Frary remained in the Northwestern League through the 1910 season, after which he stated that he would not return to the league without a generous boost in pay.
In June 1911, Frary was promoted to the National League umpiring staff. In his debut, Frary was the base umpire for a Christy Mathewson shutout against the Boston Rustlers. In July, Frary took a foul ball to the leg and blood poisoning developed. Frary was able to return to the field briefly in mid-August, but he came home within a few games when he was bothered by leg trouble again. He umpired his last NL game on August 14, 1911. Contrary to initial reports, Frary was not ultimately retained by the NL for the next season. Despite speculation that he might open a book at a local racetrack, he umpired in the Union Association in 1912 and 1913.
In May 1914, Frary abruptly departed for a three-year contract in the Federal League. By 1915, however, Frary was back in the Northwestern League. In 1918, Frary ejected Salt Lake City pitcher Clarence "Popboy" Smith after an argument about which ball should be in play. After being tossed, Smith struck Frary with a punch that broke the umpire's nose. The pitcher received a suspension and $250 fine. Before the 1920 season, Frary and two other umpires were fired from the Pacific Coast League staff by new league president William H. McCarthy.
Personal life
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Frary ran The Mecca, a Spokane saloon that served as a hangout for popular figures such as a young Jack Dempsey. The saloon was ordered closed in 1911 for harboring unsavory characters and selling liquor on Sundays. During the investigation of the saloon, Frary's wife was involved in a police chase. Mrs. Frary was wanted to testify before the commissioner's court, but she hurriedly jumped into a taxi to evade officers. Though the police car had mechanical problems, officers caught up to the cab and took Mrs. Frary into custody.
Death
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Frary died in Aberdeen, Washington in November 1925. |
Private, coeducational school in Magnolia, Delaware, United States
**St. Thomas More Academy** was a private Roman Catholic high school in Magnolia, Delaware. It was a parish run school in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington.
Background
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In 1952 Holy Cross Parish opened Holy Cross Elementary School, the first Catholic School in Kent County, Delaware. In 1957, the parish opened Holy Cross High School (HCHS); both the elementary and the high school resided on the same campus on State Street in downtown Dover. HCHS was operated as a parish school by the Felician Sisters. In the 1980s, HCHS experienced problems with enrollment and finance. The Felician Sisters left the parish, and their convent then became the parish rectory. In 1987 HCHS was closed. The former HCHS building was renamed the Donohoe Center (after Fr. John Donohoe) and became the Junior High School building of Holy Cross Elementary School, which it remains to this day.
After the closing of HCHS in 1987, a group of laymen and women formulated plans for a new Catholic high school in Kent County. Their effort saw to the establishment of Thomas More Academy, Incorporated. When, after some years, a gift of land provided the site for the school, the group commissioned a feasibility study and embarked upon a fundraising campaign. More than $1.6 million was raised for the first of St. Thomas More Academy's buildings.
The project of opening a high school of quality required resources beyond those available to the founders of Thomas More Academy, Incorporated. A delegation met with the Bishop of the Diocese of Wilmington, Most. Rev. Michael Saltarelli, and presented a report on the state of the school. The Diocese took on the school, making it one of its own – a Diocesan high school.
In 1998 the school opened its doors. In 2001, STM had its first graduating class. A major building project, with the support of the Diocese, saw the expansion of STMA in 2003; the Chapel, lobby, office suite, cafeteria, media center, and fine arts wing were added. In 2011, the school dedicated all of the various halls and wings of the school to patron saints of the many area parishes represented by students at the school. The school gymnasium was dedicated as the Bishop Michael A. Saltarelli Gymnasium. In the 2012-13 school year STMA celebrated its 15th anniversary.
STMA sought to provide an example of collaboration between a bishop and his flock. Acknowledging the work done by the followers of the Academy, Bishop Saltarelli said, "I am grateful for the great gift they have made to the Church, making it possible for us to continue our holy mission to teach the Good News in such an important way."
The school opened in 1998 and expanded its facilities in 2003. The name was changed from "Academy" to "Preparatory" in 2007. In 2011, the name was changed back to its founding name, "Saint Thomas More Academy".
In January 2017, it was announced by agreement of Fr. James Lentini, Pastor of Holy Cross Parish and Most. Rev. W. Francis Malooly, Bishop of Wilmington, that effective July 1, 2017, the Diocese of Wilmington would relinquish control of the STMA (along with its financial commitment) to Holy Cross Parish. Holy Cross Parish in Dover, would administer STMA and make it its parish high school. Beginning with the start of the 2017-18 school year, the high school whose origin began with a parish high school, came full circle. In fall of 2018, STMA celebrated its 20th anniversary, simultaneously Holy Cross High School would have celebrated its 60th anniversary.
In 2020 it was announced that, due to low enrollment numbers, St. Thomas More Academy would finally close its doors just over two decades after they opened. |
Anglo-American VSTOL ground-attack aircraft
"AV-8" and "AV-8 Harrier" redirect here. For the first-generation aircraft operated by the US Marine Corps as the AV-8A and AV-8C, see Hawker Siddeley Harrier.
The **McDonnell Douglas** (now **Boeing**) **AV-8B Harrier II** is a single-engine ground-attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier family, capable of vertical or short takeoff and landing (V/STOL). The aircraft is primarily employed on light attack or multi-role missions, ranging from close air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance. The AV-8B is used by the United States Marine Corps (USMC), the Spanish Navy, and the Italian Navy. A variant of the AV-8B, the British Aerospace Harrier II, was developed for the British military, while another, the TAV-8B, is a dedicated two-seat trainer.
The project that eventually led to the AV-8B's creation started in the early 1970s as a cooperative effort between the United States and United Kingdom, aimed at addressing the operational inadequacies of the first-generation Hawker Siddeley Harrier. Early efforts centered on a larger, more powerful Pegasus engine to dramatically improve the capabilities of the Harrier. Because of budgetary constraints, the UK abandoned the project in 1975. Following the UK's withdrawal, McDonnell Douglas extensively redesigned the earlier AV-8A Harrier to create the AV-8B. While retaining the general layout of its predecessor, the aircraft incorporates a new, larger composite wing with an additional hardpoint on each side, an elevated cockpit, a redesigned fuselage and other structural and aerodynamic refinements. The aircraft is powered by an upgraded version of the Pegasus. The AV-8B made its maiden flight in November 1981 and entered service with the USMC in January 1985. Later upgrades added a night-attack capability and radar, resulting in the AV-8B(NA) and AV-8B Harrier II Plus versions, respectively. An enlarged version named Harrier III was also studied but not pursued. The UK, through British Aerospace, re-joined the improved Harrier project as a partner in 1981, giving it a significant work-share in the project. Following corporate mergers in the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program. Approximately 340 aircraft were produced in a 22-year production program that ended in 2003.
Typically operated from small aircraft carriers, large amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating bases, AV-8Bs have participated in numerous military and humanitarian operations, proving themselves versatile assets. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf named the USMC Harrier II as one of several important weapons in the Gulf War. It also served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, the Iraq War and subsequent War in Iraq, along with Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011. Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs have taken part in overseas conflicts in conjunction with NATO coalitions. During its service history, the AV-8B has had a high accident rate, related to the percentage of time spent in critical take-off and landing phases. USMC and Italian Navy AV-8Bs are being replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II, with the former expected to operate its Harriers until 2025.
Development
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### Origins
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the first-generation Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and USMC but were handicapped in range and payload. In short takeoff and landing configuration, the AV-8A (American designation for the Harrier) carried less than half the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) payload of the smaller A-4 Skyhawk, over a more limited radius. To address this, Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of a more capable version of the Harrier in 1973. Early efforts concentrated on an improved Pegasus engine, designated the Pegasus 15, which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley. Although more powerful, the engine's diameter was too large by 2.75 in (70 mm) to fit into the Harrier easily.
In December 1973, a joint American and British team completed a project document defining an advanced Harrier powered by the Pegasus 15 engine. The advanced Harrier was intended to replace the original RAF and USMC Harriers, as well as the USMC's A-4 Skyhawk. The aim of the advanced Harrier was to double the AV-8's payload and range and was therefore unofficially named AV-16. The British government pulled out of the project in March 1975 owing to decreased defense funding, rising costs, and the RAF's insufficient 60-aircraft requirement. With development costs estimated to be around £180–200 million (1974 British pounds), the United States was unwilling to fund development by itself and ended the project later that year.
Despite the project's termination, the two companies continued to take different paths toward an enhanced Harrier. Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that could be retrofitted to existing operational aircraft, while McDonnell Douglas independently pursued a less ambitious, though still expensive, project catering to the needs of the U.S. military. Using knowledge gleaned from the AV-16 effort, though dropping some items—such as the larger Pegasus engine—McDonnell Douglas kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored for the USMC.
### Designing and testing
As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without the development of a new engine, the plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) in 1976. The United States Navy (USN), which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC, insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing. McDonnell Douglas modified two AV-8As with new wings, revised intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles, and other aerodynamic changes; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes. Designated YAV-8B, the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978. The aircraft performed three vertical take-offs and hovered for seven minutes at Lambert–St. Louis International Airport. The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979 but crashed that November because of an engine flameout; the pilot ejected safely. Flight testing of these modified AV-8s continued into 1979. The results showed greater than expected drag, hampering the aircraft's maximum speed. Further refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement. Positive test results in other areas, including payload, range, and V/STOL performance, led to the award of a development contract in 1979. The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially, followed by a further 324.
Three-quarter black and white view of a jet aircraft undergoing constructionA YAV-8B undergoes conversion from an AV-8A, and as such does not feature the raised cockpit found on AV-8Bs.
Between 1978 and 1980, the DoD and USN repeatedly attempted to terminate the AV-8B program. There had previously been conflict between the USMC and USN over budgetary issues. At the time, the USN wanted to procure A-18s for its ground attack force and, to cut costs, pressured the USMC to adopt the similarly designed F-18 fighter instead of the AV-8B to fulfill the role of close air support (both designs were eventually amalgamated to create the multirole F/A-18 Hornet). Despite these bureaucratic obstacles, in 1981 the DoD included the Harrier II in its annual budget and five-year defense plan. The USN declined to participate in the procurement, citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft.
In August 1981, the program received a boost when British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed a memorandum of understanding, marking the UK's re-entry into the program. The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers promised by a large production run, and the fact that the U.S. was shouldering the expense of development. Under the agreement, BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor, instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program. Consequently, the company received, in man-hours, 40% of the airframe work-share. Aircraft production took place at McDonnell Douglas' facilities in suburban St. Louis, Missouri, and manufacturing by BAe at its Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey, England. Meanwhile, 75% work-share for the engine went to Rolls-Royce, which had absorbed Bristol Siddeley, with the remaining 25% assigned to Pratt & Whitney. The two companies planned to manufacture 400 Harrier IIs, with the USMC expected to procure 336 aircraft and the RAF to procure 60.
Four full-scale development (FSD) aircraft were constructed. The first of these, used mainly for testing performance and handling qualities, made its maiden flight on 5 November 1981. The second and third FSD aircraft, which introduced wing leading-edge root extensions and revised engine intakes, first flew in April the following year; the fourth followed in January 1984. The first production AV-8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 (VMAT-203) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point on 12 December 1983, and officially handed over one month later. The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front-line Marine Attack Squadron 331. These aircraft had F402-RR-404A engines, with 21,450 lb (95.4 kN) of thrust; aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines.
### Upgrades
A USMC AV-8B Harrier II demonstrating its hover capabilities
During the initial pilot conversion course, it became apparent that the AV-8B exhibited flight characteristics different from the AV-8A. These differences, as well as the digital cockpit fitted instead of the analog cockpit of the TAV-8A, necessitated additional pilot training. In 1984, funding for eight AV-8Bs was diverted to the development of a two-seat TAV-8B trainer. The first of the 28 TAV-8Bs eventually procured had its maiden flight on 21 October 1986. This aircraft was delivered to VMAT-203 on 24 July 1987; the TAV-8B was also ordered by Italy and Spain.
With export interest from Brazil, Japan, and Italy serving as a source of encouragement to continue development of the Harrier II, McDonnell Douglas commenced work on a night-attack variant in 1985. With the addition of an infrared sensor and cockpit interface enhancements, the 87th production single-seat AV-8B became the first Harrier II to be modified for night attacks, leaving the McDonnell Douglas production line in June 1987. Flight tests proved successful and the night attack capability was validated. The first of 66 AV-8B(NA)s was delivered to the USMC in September 1989. An equivalent version of the AV-8B(NA) also served with the RAF under the designation GR7; earlier GR5 aircraft were subsequently upgraded to GR7 standards.
In June 1987, as a private venture, BAe, McDonnell Douglas, and Smiths Industries agreed on the development of what was to become the AV-8B Plus with the addition of radar and increased missile compatibility. The agreement was endorsed by the USMC and, after much consideration, the Spanish and Italian navies developed a joint requirement for a fleet of air-defense Harriers. The United States, Spain, and Italy signed an MoU in September 1990 to define the responsibilities of the three countries and establish a Joint Program Office to manage the program. On 30 November 1990, the USN, acting as an agent for the three participating countries, awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the improved Harrier. The award was followed by an order from the USMC in December 1990 for 30 new aircraft, and 72 rebuilt from older aircraft. Italy ordered 16 Harrier II Plus and two twin-seat TAV-8B aircraft, while Spain signed a contract for eight aircraft. Production of the AV-8B Harrier II Plus was conducted, in addition to McDonnell Douglas' plant, at CASA's facility in Seville, Spain, and Alenia Aeronautica's facility in Turin, Italy. The UK also participated in the program by manufacturing components for the AV-8B.
Starboard view of grey jet aircraft in-flight against a blue skyA Spanish Navy AV-8B Plus in-flight. The nose houses the Hughes APG-65 pulse-Doppler radar.
Production was authorized on 3 June 1992. The maiden flight of the prototype took place on 22 September, marking the start of a successful flight-test program. The first production aircraft made its initial flight on 17 March 1993. Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to 1995. At the same time, the plan to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded. On 11 March 1994, the Defense Acquisition Board approved the program, which initially involved 70 aircraft, with four converted in fiscal year 1994. The program planned to use new and refurbished components to rebuild aircraft at a lower cost than manufacturing new ones. Conversion began in April 1994, and the first aircraft was delivered to the USMC in January 1996.
### End of production and further improvements
In March 1996, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) stated that it was less expensive to buy Harrier II Plus aircraft outright than to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs. The USN estimated the cost for remanufacture of each aircraft to be US$23–30 million, instead of $30 million for each new-built aircraft, while the GAO estimated the cost per new aircraft at $24 million. Nevertheless, the program continued and, in 2003, the 72nd and last AV-8B to be remanufactured for the USMC was delivered. Spain also participated in the program, the delivery of its last refurbished aircraft occurring in December 2003, which marked the end of the AV-8B's production; the final new AV-8B had been delivered in 1997.
In the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems assumed management of the Harrier family following corporate mergers that saw Boeing acquire McDonnell Douglas and BAe acquire Marconi Electronic Systems to form BAE Systems. Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harriers of all models were delivered. In 2001, *Flight International* reported that Taiwan might meet its requirement for a V/STOL aircraft by purchasing AV-8Bs outfitted with the F-16 Fighting Falcon's APG-66 radar. A Taiwanese purchase would have allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005. Despite the possibility of leasing AV-8Bs, interest in the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to procuring the F-35 and upgrading its fleet of F-16s.
Although there have been no new AV-8B variants, in 1990 McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace began discussions on an interim aircraft between the AV-8B and the next generation of advanced V/STOL aircraft. The Harrier III would have presented an "evolutionary approach to get the most from the existing aircraft", as many of the structures employed on the Sea Harrier and AV-8B would be used. The wing and the torsion box were to be enlarged to accommodate extra fuel and hardpoints to improve the aircraft's endurance. Because of the increase in size, the wing would have had folding wingtips. To meet the heavier weight of the aircraft, Rolls-Royce was expected to design a Pegasus engine variant that would have produced 4,000 lbf (18 kN) more thrust than the latest production variant at the time. The Harrier III would have carried weapons such as AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM-132 ASRAAM missiles. Boeing and BAE Systems continued studying the design until the early 2000s, when the project was abandoned.
In 2013, the USMC was studying potential enhancements to keep the AV-8B Harrier IIs up to date until its planned retirement, such as a helmet-mounted cueing system. It is also predicted that additional work on the aircraft's radars and sensor systems may take place. The USMC's Harrier II fleet was planned to remain in service until 2030, owing to delays with the F-35B and the fact that the Harriers have more service life left than USMC F/A-18 Hornets. However, by 2014 the USMC had decided to retire the AV-8B sooner because changing the transition orders of Harrier II and Hornet fleets to the Lightning II would save $1 billion (~$1.27 billion in 2023). The F-35B began replacing the AV-8B in 2016, with the AV-8B expected to continue service until 2025. Meanwhile, the AV-8B is to receive revamped defensive measures, updated data-link capability and targeting sensors, and improved missiles and rockets, among other enhancements.
Design
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### Overview
Bottom view of jet aircraft showing its many under-wing pylons for weapons carriage. Two fences run along the length of the underside of the fuselage.Underside of an AV-8B Harrier II
The AV-8B Harrier II is a subsonic attack aircraft of metal and composite construction that retains the basic layout of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, with horizontal stabilizers and shoulder-mounted wings featuring prominent anhedral (downward slope). The aircraft is powered by a single Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine, which has two intakes and four synchronized vectorable nozzles close to its turbine. Two of these nozzles are located near the forward, cold end of the engine and two are near the rear, hot end of the engine. This arrangement contrasts with most fixed-wing aircraft, which have engine nozzles only at the rear. The Harrier II also has smaller valve-controlled nozzles in the nose, tail, and wingtips to provide control at low airspeeds.
The AV-8B is equipped with one centerline fuselage and six wing hardpoints (compared to four wing hardpoints on the original Harrier), along with two fuselage stations for a 25 mm GAU-12 cannon and ammunition pack. These hardpoints give it the ability to carry a total of 9,200 lb (4,200 kg) of weapons, including air-to-air, air-to-surface, and anti-ship missiles, as well as unguided and guided bombs. The aircraft's internal fuel capacity is 7,500 lb (3,400 kg), up 50% compared to its predecessor. Fuel capacity can be carried in hardpoint-compatible external drop tanks, which give the aircraft a maximum ferry range of 2,100 mi (3,300 km) and a combat radius of 300 mi (556 km). The AV-8B can also receive additional fuel via aerial refueling using the probe-and-drogue system. The British Aerospace Harrier II, a variant tailored to the RAF, uses different avionics and has one additional missile pylon on each wing.
The Harrier II retains the tandem landing gear layout of the first-generation Harriers, although each outrigger landing gear leg was moved from the wingtip to mid-span for a tighter turning radius when taxiing. The engine intakes are larger than those of the first-generation Harrier and have a revised inlet. On the underside of the fuselage, McDonnell Douglas added lift-improvement devices, which capture the reflected engine exhaust when close to the ground, giving the equivalent of up to 1,200 lb (544 kg) of extra lift.
The technological advances incorporated into the Harrier II, compared with the original Harrier, significantly reduce the workload on the pilot. The supercritical wing, hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) control principle, and increased engineered lateral stability make the aircraft fundamentally easier to fly. Ed Harper, general manager for the McDonnell Douglas Harrier II development program, summarizes: "The AV-8B looks a lot like the original Harrier and it uses the same operating fundamentals. It just uses them a lot better". A large cathode-ray tube multi-purpose display, taken from the F/A-18, makes up much of the instrument panel in the cockpit. It has a wide range of functions, including radar warning information and weapon delivery checklist. The pilots sit on UPC/Stencel 10B zero-zero ejection seats, meaning that they are able to eject from a stationary aircraft at zero altitude.
### Airframe
For the AV-8B, McDonnell Douglas redesigned the entire airframe of the Harrier, incorporating numerous structural and aerodynamic changes. To improve visibility and better accommodate the crew and avionics hardware, McDonnell Douglas elevated the cockpit by 10.5 in (27 cm) and redesigned the canopy. This improved the forward (17° down), side (60°), and rear visibility. The front fuselage is composed of a molded skin with an epoxy-based core sandwiched between two carbon-fiber sheets. To compensate for the changes in the front fuselage, the rear fuselage was extended by 18 in (46 cm), and the taller vertical stabilizer of the Sea Harrier was used. The tail assembly is made up of composites to reduce weight.
Perhaps the most thorough redesign was of the wing, the objective being to match the performance of the cancelled AV-16 while retaining the Pegasus engine of the AV-8A. Engineers designed a new, one-piece supercritical wing, which improves cruise performance by delaying the rise in drag and increasing lift-to-drag ratio. Made of composites, the wing is thicker and has a longer span than that of the AV-8A. Compared to the AV-8A's wing, it has a higher aspect ratio, reduced sweep (from 40° to 37°), and an area increased from 200 sq ft (18.6 m2) to 230 sq ft (21.4 m2). The wing has a high-lift configuration, employing flaps that deploy automatically when maneuvering, and drooped ailerons. Using the leading edge root extensions, the wing allows for a 6,700 lb (3,035 kg) increase in payload compared with the first-generation Harriers after a 1,000 ft (300 m) takeoff roll. Because the wing is almost exclusively composite, it is 330 lb (150 kg) lighter than the AV-8A's smaller wing.
Yellow crane hoisting a wing of an aircraft, with several people standing below securing the wing. This takes place inside an aircraft hangar.Marines replacing the one-piece supercritical wing of an AV-8B at Camp Bastion, Afghanistan (2012)
The Harrier II was the first combat aircraft to extensively employ carbon-fiber composite materials, exploiting their light weight and high strength; they are used in the wings, rudder, flaps, nose, forward fuselage, and tail. Twenty-six percent of the aircraft's structure is made of composites, reducing its weight by 480 lb (217 kg) compared to a conventional metal structure.
### Differences between versions
Most of the first "day attack" AV-8B Harrier IIs were upgraded to Night Attack Harrier or Harrier II Plus standards, with the remainder being withdrawn from service. The AV-8B cockpit was also used for the early trialing of direct voice input which allows the pilot to use voice commands to issue instructions to the aircraft, using a system developed by Smiths Industries. The main attack avionics system in original aircraft was the nose-mounted Hughes AN/ASB-19 angle-rate bombing system. The system combined a TV imager and laser tracker to provide a highly accurate targeting capability. Defensive equipment include several AN/ALE-39 chaff-flare dispensers, an AN/ALR-67 radar warning receiver, and an AN/ALQ-126C jammer pod.
The trainer version of the AV-8B is the TAV-8B, seating two pilots in tandem. Among other changes, the forward fuselage features a 3 ft 11 in (1.19 m) extension to accommodate the second cockpit. To compensate for the slight loss of directional stability, the vertical stabilizer's area was enlarged through increases in chord (length of the stabilizer's root) and height. USMC TAV-8Bs feature the AV-8B's digital cockpit and new systems but have only two hardpoints and are not combat capable. Initial TAV-8Bs were powered by a 21,450 lbf (95.4 kN) F402-RR-406A engine, while later examples were fitted with the 23,000 lbf (105.8 kN) F402-RR-408A. In the early 2000s, 17 TAV-8Bs were upgraded to include a night-attack capability, the F402-RR-408 engine, and software and structural changes.
Fielded in 1991, the Night Attack Harrier was the first upgrade of the AV-8B. It differed from the original aircraft in having a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera added to the top of the nose cone, a wide Smiths Industries head-up display (HUD), provisions for night vision goggles, and a Honeywell digital moving map system. The FLIR uses thermal imaging to identify objects by their heat signatures. The variant was powered by the F402-RR-408 engine, which featured an electronic control system and was more powerful and reliable. The flare and chaff dispensers were moved, and the ram-air intake was lengthened at the fin's base. Initially known as the AV-8D, the night-attack variant was designated the AV-8B(NA).
The Harrier II Plus is very similar to the Night Attack variant, with the addition of an APG-65 multi-mode pulse-Doppler radar in an extended nose, allowing it to launch advanced beyond-visual-range missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM. To make additional space for the radar, the angle-rate bombing system was removed. The radars used were taken from early F/A-18 aircraft, which had been upgraded with the related APG-73. According to aviation author Lon Nordeen, the changes "had a slight increase in drag and a bit of additional weight, but there really was not much difference in performance between the [–408-powered] Night Attack and radar Harrier II Plus aircraft".
Operational history
-------------------
### United States Marine Corps
The AV-8B underwent standard evaluation to prepare for its USMC service. In the operational evaluation (OPEVAL), lasting from 31 August 1984 to 30 March 1985, four pilots and a group of maintenance and support personnel tested the aircraft under combat conditions. The aircraft was graded for its ability to meet its mission requirements for navigating, acquiring targets, delivering weapons, and evading and surviving enemy actions, all at the specified range and payload limits. The first phase of OPEVAL, running until 1 February 1985, required the AV-8B to fly both deep and close air support missions (deep air support missions do not require coordination with friendly ground forces) in concert with other close-support aircraft, as well as flying battlefield interdiction and armed reconnaissance missions. The aircraft flew from military installations at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton and Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in California; Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake in Canada; and Marine Corps Air Station Yuma in Arizona.
A USMC AV-8B hovering
The second phase of OPEVAL, which took place at MCAS Yuma from 25 February to 8 March, required the AV-8B to perform fighter escort, combat air patrol, and deck-launched intercept missions. Although the evaluation identified shortfalls in the design (subsequently rectified), OPEVAL was deemed successful. The AV-8B Harrier II reached initial operating capability (IOC) in January 1985 with USMC squadron VMA-331.
The AV-8B saw extensive action in the Gulf War of 1990–91. Aircraft based on USS *Nassau* and *Tarawa*, and at on-shore bases, initially flew training and support sorties, as well as practicing with coalition forces. The AV-8Bs were to be held in reserve during the initial phase of the preparatory air assault of Operation Desert Storm. The AV-8B was first used in the war on the morning of 17 January 1991, when a call for air support from an OV-10 Bronco forward air controller against Iraqi artillery that was shelling Khafji and an adjacent oil refinery, brought the AV-8B into combat. The following day, USMC AV-8Bs attacked Iraqi positions in southern Kuwait. Throughout the war, AV-8Bs performed armed reconnaissance and worked in concert with coalition forces to destroy targets.
During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, 86 AV-8Bs amassed 3,380 flights and about 4,100 flight hours, with a mission availability rate of over 90%. Five AV-8Bs were lost to enemy surface-to-air missiles, and two USMC pilots were killed. The AV-8B had an attrition rate of 1.5 aircraft for every 1,000 sorties flown. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf later named the AV-8B among the seven weapons—along with the F-117 Nighthawk and AH-64 Apache—that played a crucial role in the war. In the aftermath of the war, from 27 August 1992 until 2003, USMC AV-8Bs and other aircraft patrolled Iraqi skies in support of Operation Southern Watch. The AV-8Bs launched from amphibious assault ships in the Persian Gulf and from forward operating bases such as Ali Al Salem Air Base, Kuwait.
In 1999, the AV-8B participated in NATO's bombing of Yugoslavia during Operation Allied Force. Twelve Harriers were split evenly between the 24th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU). AV-8Bs of the 24th MEU were introduced into combat on 14 April and over the next 14 days flew 34 combat air support missions over Kosovo. During their six-month deployment aboard USS *Nassau*, 24th MEU Harriers averaged a high mission-capable rate of 91.8%. On 28 April, the 24th MEU was relieved by the 26th MEU, based on USS *Kearsarge*. The first combat sorties of the unit's AV-8Bs occurred two days later, one aircraft being lost. The 26th MEU remained in the theater of operations until 28 May, when it was relocated to Brindisi, Italy.
USMC AV-8Bs took part in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan from 2001. The USMC 15th MEU arrived off the coast of Pakistan in October 2001. Operating from the unit's ships, four AV-8Bs began attack missions into Afghanistan on 3 November 2001. The 26th MEU and its AV-8Bs joined 15th MEU later that month. In December 2001, two AV-8Bs first deployed to a forward base at Kandahar in Afghanistan. More AV-8Bs were deployed with other USMC units to the region in 2002. The VMA-513 squadron deployed six Night Attack AV-8Bs to Bagram in October 2002. These aircraft each carried a LITENING targeting pod to perform reconnaissance missions along with attack and other missions, primarily at night.
A jet aircraft hovering above flight deck of a large military ship, with several aircraft visible on the deck.A USMC AV-8B hovers as many more are parked on the deck of amphibious assault ship USS *Bataan*, one month after the start of the Iraq War
The aircraft participated in the Iraq War in 2003, acting primarily in support of USMC ground units. During the initial action, 60 AV-8Bs were deployed on ships such as USS *Bonhomme Richard* and *Bataan*, from which over 1,000 sorties were flown throughout the war. When possible, land-based forward arming and refueling points were set up to enable prompt operations. USMC commander Lieutenant General Earl B. Hailston said that the Harriers were able to provide 24-hour support for ground forces, and noted that "The airplane ... became the envy of pilots even from my background ... there's an awful lot of things on the Harrier that I've found the Hornet pilots asking me [for] ... We couldn't have asked for a better record".
USMC sources documented the Harrier as holding an 85% aircraft availability record in the Iraq War; in just under a month of combat, the aircraft flew over 2,000 sorties. When used, the LITENING II targeting pod achieved greater than 75% kill effectiveness on targets. In a single sortie from USS *Bonhomme Richard*, a wave of Harriers inflicted heavy damage on a Republican Guard tank battalion in advance of a major ground assault on Al Kut. Harriers regularly operated in close support roles for friendly tanks, one of the aircraft generally carrying a LITENING pod. Despite the Harrier's high marks, the limited amount of time that each aircraft could remain on station, around 15–20 minutes, led to some calls from within the USMC for the procurement of AC-130 gunships, which could loiter for six hours and had a heavier close air support capability than the AV-8B. AV-8Bs were later used in combination with artillery to provide constant fire support for ground forces during heavy fighting in 2004 around the insurgent stronghold of Fallujah. The urban environment there required extreme precision for airstrikes.
On 20 March 2011, USMC AV-8Bs were launched from USS *Kearsarge* in support of Operation Odyssey Dawn, enforcing the UN no-fly zone over Libya. They carried out airstrikes on Sirte on 5 April 2011. Multiple AV-8Bs were involved in the defense of a downed F-15E pilot, attacking approaching Libyans prior to the pilot's extraction by a MV-22 Osprey. In addition to major conflicts, USMC AV-8Bs have been deployed in support of contingency and humanitarian operations, providing fixed-wing air cover and armed reconnaissance. The aircraft served in Somalia throughout the 1990s, Liberia (1990, 1996, and 2003), Rwanda (1994), Central African Republic (1996), Albania (1997), Zaire (1997), and Sierra Leone (1997).
An AV-8B Harrier refuels during fixed-wing aerial refueling training
The AV-8B is to be replaced by the F-35B version of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which was planned to enter service in 2012. The USMC had sought a replacement since the 1980s and has argued strongly in favor of the development of the F-35B. The Harrier's performance in Iraq, including its ability to use forward operating bases, reinforced the need for a V/STOL aircraft in the USMC arsenal. In November 2011, the USN purchased the UK's fleet of 72 retired BAe Harrier IIs (63 single-seat GR.7/9/9As plus 9 twin-seat T.12/12As) and replacement engines to provide spares for the existing USMC Harrier II fleet. Although the March 2012 issue of the magazine *AirForces Monthly* states that the USMC intended to fly some of the ex-British Harrier IIs, instead of using them just for spare parts, the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) has since stated that the USMC has never had any plans to operate those Harriers.
On 14 September 2012, a Taliban raid destroyed six AV-8Bs and severely damaged two others while they were parked on the ramp at Camp Bastion in Afghanistan's Helmand Province. All of the aircraft belonged to VMFA-211. The two damaged AV-8Bs were flown out of Afghanistan in the hours after the attack. The attack was described as "the worst loss of U.S. airpower in a single incident since the Vietnam War." The lost aircraft were quickly replaced by those from VMA-231.
On 27 July 2014, USS *Bataan* began deploying USMC AV-8Bs over Iraq to provide surveillance of Islamic State (IS) forces. Surveillance operations continued after the start of Operation Inherent Resolve against IS militants. In early September 2014, a USMC Harrier from the 22nd MEU struck an IS target near the Haditha Dam in Iraq, marking the first time a USMC unit dropped ordnance in the operation. On 1 August 2016, USMC Harriers from USS *Wasp* began strikes against ISIL in Libya as part of manned and unmanned airstrikes on targets near Sirte, launching at least five times within two days. In January 2024 during the Red Sea crisis one of the Harriers was modified for air defense; its pilot Captain Ehrhart is reported to have shot down seven Houthi suicide attack drones.
### Italian Navy
In the late 1960s, following a demonstration of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier on the Italian Navy (*Marina Militare*) helicopter carrier *Andrea Doria*, the country began investigating the possibility of acquiring the Harrier. Early efforts were hindered by a 1937 Italian law that prohibited the navy from operating fixed-wing aircraft because they were the domain of the air force. In early 1989, the law was changed to allow the navy to operate any fixed-wing aircraft with a maximum weight of over 3,300 lb (1,500 kg). Following a lengthy evaluation of the Sea Harrier and AV-8B, an order was placed for two TAV-8Bs in May 1989. Soon, a contract for a further 16 AV-8B Plus aircraft was signed. After the TAV-8Bs and the first three AV-8Bs, all subsequent Italian Navy Harriers were locally assembled by Alenia Aeronautica from kits delivered from the U.S. The two-seaters, the first to be delivered, arrived at Grottaglie in August 1991. They were used for proving flights with the navy's helicopter carriers and on the light aircraft carrier *Giuseppe Garibaldi*.
In early 1994, the initial batch of U.S.-built aircraft arrived at MCAS Cherry Point for pilot conversion training. The first Italian-assembled Harrier was rolled out the following year. In mid-January 1995, *Giuseppe Garibaldi* set off from Taranto to Somalia with three Harriers on board to maintain stability following the withdrawal of UN forces. The Harriers, flown by five Italian pilots, accumulated more than 100 flight hours and achieved 100% availability during the three-month deployment, performing reconnaissance and other missions. The squadron returned to port on 22 March.
Back view of an aircraft taking off from a ramp aboard a ship. The ship is at sea.An Italian Navy AV-8B Plus Harrier II taking off from *Cavour*
In 1999, Italian AV-8Bs were used for the first time in combat missions when they were deployed aboard *Giuseppe Garibaldi*, which was participating in Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. Italian pilots conducted more than 60 sorties alongside other NATO aircraft, attacking the Yugoslav army and paramilitary forces and bombing the country's infrastructure with conventional and laser-guided bombs.
In 2000, the Italian Navy was looking to acquire 7 additional remanufactured aircraft to equip *Giuseppe Garibaldi* and a new carrier, *Cavour*. Existing aircraft, meanwhile, were updated to allow them to carry AIM-120 AMRAAMs and Joint Direct Attack Munition guided bombs. From November 2001 to March 2002, eight AV-8Bs were embarked aboard *Giuseppe Garibaldi* and were deployed to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The aircraft, equipped with LGBs, operated throughout January and February 2002, during which 131 missions were logged for a total of 647 flight hours.
In 2011, Italian Harriers, operating from *Giuseppe Garibaldi*, worked alongside Italian Typhoons and aircraft of other nations during Operation Unified Protector, part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya. They conducted airstrikes as well as intelligence and reconnaissance sorties over Libya, using the Litening targeting pods while armed with AIM-120 AMRAAMs and AIM-9 Sidewinders. In total, Italian military aircraft delivered 710 guided bombs and missiles during sorties: Italian Air Force Tornados and AMX fighter bombers delivered 550 bombs and missiles, while the eight Italian Navy AV-8Bs flying from *Giuseppe Garibaldi* dropped 160 guided bombs during 1,221 flight hours.
Italian Navy AV-8Bs are slated to be replaced by 15 (originally 22) F-35Bs, which will form the air wing of *Cavour*.
### Spanish Navy
An EAV-8B Harrier II performing at RIAT in 2019
Spain, already using the AV-8S Matador, became the first international operator of the AV-8B by signing an order for 12 aircraft in March 1983. Designated VA-2 Matador II by the Spanish Navy (*Armada Española*), this variant is known as EAV-8B by McDonnell Douglas. Pilot conversion took place in the U.S. On 6 October 1987, the first three Matador IIs were delivered to Naval Station Rota. The new aircraft were painted in a two-tone matte grey finish, similar to U.S. Navy aircraft, and deliveries were complete by 1988.
BAe test pilots cleared the aircraft carrier *Príncipe de Asturias* for Harrier operations in July 1989. The carrier, which replaced the World War II-era *Dédalo*, has a 12° ski-jump ramp. It was originally planned that the first unit to operate the aircraft would be the *8a Escuadrilla*. This unit was disbanded on 24 October 1986, following the sales of AV-8S Matadors to Thailand. Instead, *9a Escuadrilla* was formed on 29 September 1987, to become part of the Alpha Carrier Air Group and operate the EAV-8B.
An EAV-8B+ Harrier II
In March 1993, under the September 1990 Tripartite MoU between the U.S. Italy, and Spain, eight EAV-8B Plus Matadors were ordered, along with a twin-seat TAV-8B. Deliveries of the Plus-standard aircraft started in 1996. On 11 May 2000, Boeing and the NAVAIR finalized a contract to remanufacture Spanish EAV-8Bs to bring them up to Plus standard. Boeing said the deal required it to remanufacture two EAV-8Bs, with an option for another seven aircraft; other sources say the total was 11 aircraft. The remanufacture allowed the aircraft to carry four AIM-120 AMRAAMs, enhanced the pilot's situational awareness through the installation of new radar and avionics, and provided a new engine. Eventually, 5 aircraft were modified, the last having been delivered on 5 December 2003.
Spanish EAV-8Bs joined Operation Deny Flight, enforcing the UN's no-fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Spain did not send its aircraft carrier to participate in the Iraq War in 2003, instead deploying F/A-18s and other aircraft to Turkey to defend that country against potential Iraqi attacks. Starting in 2007, Spain was looking to replace its Harrier IIs—with the likely option being the F-35B. The Spanish government, in May 2014 however, announced that it had decided to extend the aircraft's service life to beyond 2025 due to a lack of funds for a replacement aircraft.
Following the decommissioning of *Príncipe de Asturias* in February 2013, the sole naval platform from which Spanish Harrier IIs can operate is the amphibious assault ship *Juan Carlos I*.
Variants
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Main article: List of Harrier variants
YAV-8BTwo prototypes converted in 1978 from existing AV-8A airframes (BuNo 158394 and 158395).
AV-8B Harrier IIThe initial "day attack" variant.
The TAV-8B trainer variant of the Harrier
AV-8B Harrier II Night AttackImproved version with FLIR, an upgraded cockpit with night-vision goggle compatibility, and the more powerful Rolls-Royce Pegasus 11 engine.
AV-8B Harrier II PlusSimilar to the Night Attack variant, with the addition of an APG-65 radar and separate targeting pod. It is used by the USMC, Spanish Navy, and Italian Navy. Forty-six were built.
TAV-8B Harrier IITwo-seat trainer version.
EAV-8B Matador IICompany designation for the Spanish Navy version.
EAV-8B Matador II PlusThe AV-8B Harrier II Plus, ordered for the Spanish Navy.
Harrier GR5, GR7, GR9See *British Aerospace Harrier II*.
Operators
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Main article: List of Harrier operators
Italy
* Italian Navy
* *Gruppo Aerei Imbarcati* (1991–present)
Spain
* Spanish Navy
* *9a Escuadrilla Aeronaves* (1987–present)
United States
* United States Marine Corps
+ VMA-211 "Wake Island Avengers" (1990–2016)
+ VMA-214 "The Black Sheep" (1989–2022)
+ VMA-223 "Bulldogs" (1987–present)
+ VMA-231 "Ace of Spades" (1985–present)
+ VMA-311 "Tomcats" (1988–2020)
+ VMA-331 "Bumblebees" (1985–1992)
+ VMA-513 "Flying Nightmares" (1987–2013)
+ VMA-542 "Tigers" (1986–2023)
+ VMAT-203 "Hawks" (1983–2021)
* United States Navy
+ VX-9 "The Vampires" (unknown)
+ VX-31 "Dust Devils" (unknown–present)
Accidents
---------
Main article: List of Harrier jump jet family losses
During its service with the USMC, the Harrier has had an accident rate three times that of the Corps' F/A-18s. As of July 2013[update], approximately 110 aircraft have been damaged beyond repair since the type entered service in 1985, the first accident occurring in March 1985. The *Los Angeles Times* reported in 2003 that the Harrier family had the highest rate of major accidents among military aircraft in service at that time, with 148 accidents and 45 people killed. Author Lon Nordeen notes that several other USMC single-engine strike aircraft, like the A-4 Skyhawk and A-7 Corsair II, had higher accident rates.
Accidents have in particular been connected to the proportionate amount of time the aircraft spends taking off and landing, which are the most critical phases in flight. The AV-8 was dubbed a "widow maker" by some in the military. Further analysis shows that U.S. Marine senior officers never understood the uniqueness of the aircraft. Cutbacks in senior maintenance personnel and pilot mistakes had a disastrous effect on the safety of the American-operated AV-8B and unfairly gained it a negative reputation in the U.S. press.
Aircraft on display
-------------------
AV-8B
* BuNo 161396 – National Museum of the Marine Corps, Triangle, Virginia
* BuNo 161397 – Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina
Specifications (AV-8B Harrier II Plus)
--------------------------------------
Outlines of aircraft, consisting of a front view, top view and side view.Orthographic projection of the AV-8B Harrier II
Two crew members inspecting a bomb on a trolley, in front of an aircraft.A detached 25 mm cannon pod being worked upon by ground crew
*Data from* Nordeen, Boeing, and Airforce-technology.com
**General characteristics**
* **Crew:** 1 pilot
* **Length:** 46 ft 4 in (14.12 m)
* **Wingspan:** 30 ft 4 in (9.25 m)
* **Height:** 11 ft 8 in (3.55 m)
* **Wing area:** 243.4 sq ft (22.61 m2)
* **Airfoil:** supercritical airfoil
* **Empty weight:** 13,968 lb (6,340 kg)
* **Gross weight:** 22,950 lb (10,410 kg)
* **Maximum takeoff weight:**
+ **Rolling takeoff:** 31,000 lb (14,100 kg)
+ **Vertical takeoff:** 20,755 lb (9,415 kg)
* **Powerplant:** 1 × Rolls-Royce Pegasus F402-RR-408 (Mk 107) vectored-thrust turbofan, 23,500 lbf (105 kN) thrust
**Performance**
* **Maximum speed:** 585 kn (673 mph, 1,083 km/h)
* **Maximum speed:** Mach 0.9
* **Range:** 1,200 nmi (1,400 mi, 2,200 km)
* **Combat range:** 300 nmi (350 mi, 556 km)
* **Ferry range:** 1,800 nmi (2,100 mi, 3,300 km)
* **Rate of climb:** 14,700 ft/min (75 m/s)
* **Wing loading:** 94.29 lb/sq ft (460.4 kg/m2)
* **Thrust/weight:** 0.948
**Armament**
* **Guns:** 1× General Dynamics GAU-12 Equalizer 25 mm (0.984 in) 5-barreled Rotary cannon mounted under-fuselage in the left pod, with 300 rounds of ammunition in the right pod
* **Hardpoints:** 6× under-wing pylon and 1x under-fuselage stations holding up to 9,200 lb (4,200 kg) of payload:
* **Rockets:**
+ LAU-10 four-round Zuni pods
+ LAU-68 (7 round) or LAU-61 (19 round) rocket pods for Hydra 70/APKWS 70 mm rockets
* **Missiles:**
+ Air-to-air missiles:
- 4× AIM-9 Sidewinder or similar-sized infrared-guided missiles
- 4× AIM-120 AMRAAM (on radar equipped AV-8B Plus variants)
+ Air-to-surface missiles:
- 4× AGM-65 E/F Maverick
- 4x AGM-122 Sidearm (SEAD missile used by USMC)
* **Bombs:**
+ CBU-100/Mk 20 Rockeye II cluster bombs (CBUs)
+ Mark 81, 82, or 83 unguided bombs
+ GBU-12 or GBU-16 laser-guided bombs
+ GBU-38, GBU-32, or GBU-54 Joint Direct Attack Munitions
+ Mark 77 fire bomb
* **Others:**
+ up to 4× 300/330/370 US Gallon drop tanks (pylon stations No. 2, 3, 5, & 6 are wet plumbed)
+ Intrepid Tiger II electronic jammer
+ Mk106 (6.6 lb (3 kg)) and Mk76 (31 lb (14 kg)) practice bombs
**Avionics**
* Raytheon APG-65 radar
* AN/AAQ-28V LITENING targeting pod (on AV-8B Night Attack and radar-equipped AV-8B Plus variants)
Popular culture
---------------
Main article: Harrier family in fiction
As part of its 1996 Pepsi Stuff marketing campaign, Pepsi ran an advertisement promising a Harrier jet to anyone who collected 7 million Pepsi Points, a gag that backfired when a participant attempted to take advantage of the ability to buy additional points for 10 cents each to claim a jet for US$700,000 (~$1.26 million in 2023). When Pepsi turned him down, a lawsuit ensued, in which the judge ruled that any reasonable person would conclude that the advertisement was a joke. |
Historic site in Madrid, Spain
The **Royal Chapel of St. Anthony of La Florida** (Spanish: *Real Ermita de San Antonio de la Florida*) is a Neoclassical chapel in central Madrid. The chapel is best known for its ceiling and dome frescoes by Francisco Goya. It is also his final burial place.
History
-------
Goya's fresco depicting the legend of Saint Anthony reviving a dead manThe chapel was built in the general location of two prior chapels built in the 1730s, which were on the land of a farm called *La Florida*. The present structure was built by Felipe Fontana from 1792 to 1798 on the orders of King Carlos IV, who also commissioned the frescoes by Goya and his assistant Asensio Juliá.
The structure was declared a national monument in 1905. In 1919 Goya's remains were transferred here from Bordeaux, where he had died in 1828. Famously, the skull was missing, a detail the Spanish consul had immediately advised to his superiors in Madrid, who wired back, "Send Goya, with or without head." In 1928 an identical chapel was built alongside the original, in order to allow the original to be converted into a museum, and the headless remains were moved again.
On every June 13, the chapel becomes the site of a lively pilgrimage in which young unwed women come to pray to Saint Anthony and to ask for a partner.
Frescoes
--------
The frescoes by Goya were completed over a six-month period in 1798. The frescoes portray miracles by Saint Anthony of Padua. On the main cupola of the chapel Goya depicted Saint Anthony raising a man from the dead and exculpating his father, who had been falsely accused of his murder. Instead of portraying the scene as occurring in thirteenth-century Lisbon, Goya relocated the miracle to contemporary Madrid. |
Living being coming back to life after death
For other uses, see Resurrection (disambiguation).
The Resurrection, painting by Andrea Mantegna, 1457–1459
A depiction of a Phoenix, a figure of revival
Plaque depicting saints rising from the dead
**Resurrection** or **anastasis** is the concept of coming back to life after death. In a number of religions, a dying-and-rising god is a deity which dies and is resurrected. Reincarnation is a similar process hypothesized by other religions, which involves the same person or deity coming back to another body. Disappearance of a body is another similar, but distinct, belief in some religions.
With the advent of written records, the earliest known recurrent theme of resurrection was in Egyptian and Canaanite religions, which had cults of dying-and-rising gods such as Osiris and Baal. Ancient Greek religion generally emphasised immortality, but in the mythos a number of men and women were made physically immortal as they were resurrected from the dead.
The general resurrection of the dead is a standard eschatological belief in the Abrahamic religions. As a religious concept, it is used in two distinct respects: a belief in the resurrection of individual souls that is current and ongoing (Christian idealism, realized eschatology), or else a belief in a singular bodily resurrection of the dead at the end of the world. Some believe the soul is the actual vehicle by which people are resurrected. The death and resurrection of Jesus is a central focus of Christianity. While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to heaven was in a material body, some believe it was spiritual.
Like the Abrahamic religions, the Dharmic religions also include belief in resurrection and reincarnation. There are stories in Buddhism where the power of resurrection was allegedly demonstrated in Chan or Zen tradition. In Hinduism, the core belief in resurrection/reincarnation is known as *saṃsāra*.
Aside from religious belief, cryonics and other speculative resurrection technologies are practiced, but the resurrection of long-dead bodies is not considered possible at the current level of scientific knowledge.
Etymology
---------
Resurrection, from the Latin noun *resurrectio -onis*, from the verb *rego*, "to make straight, rule" + preposition *sub*, "under", altered to *subrigo* and contracted to *surgo, surrexi, surrectum* ("to rise", "get up", "stand up") + preposition *re-*, "again", thus literally "a straightening from under again".
Religion
--------
### Ancient religions in the Near East
See also: Dying-and-rising god
The concept of resurrection is found in the writings of some ancient non-Abrahamic religions in the Middle East. A few extant Egyptian and Canaanite writings allude to dying and rising gods such as Osiris and Baal. Sir James Frazer in his book *The Golden Bough* relates to these dying and rising gods, but many of his examples, according to various scholars, distort the sources. Taking a more positive position, Tryggve Mettinger argues in his recent book that the category of rise and return to life is significant for Ugaritic Baal, Melqart, Adonis, Eshmun, Osiris and Dumuzi.
### Ancient Greek religion
In ancient Greek religion a number of men and women have been interpreted as being resurrected and made immortal. Achilles, after being killed, was snatched from his funeral pyre by his divine mother Thetis and brought to an immortal existence in either Leuce, the Elysian plains or the Islands of the Blessed. Memnon, who was killed by Achilles, seems to have received a similar fate. Alcmene, Castor, Heracles, and Melicertes, are also among the figures interpreted to have been resurrected to physical immortality. According to Herodotus's *Histories*, the seventh century BC sage Aristeas of Proconnesus was first found dead, after which his body disappeared from a locked room. He would reappear alive years later. However, Greek attitudes towards resurrection were generally negative, and the idea of resurrection was considered neither desirable nor possible. For example, Asclepius was killed by Zeus for using herbs to resurrect the dead, but by his father Apollo's request, was subsequently immortalized as a star.
Many other figures, like a great part of those who fought in the Trojan and Theban wars, Menelaus, and the historical pugilist Cleomedes of Astupalaea, were also believed to have been made physically immortal, but without having died in the first place. Indeed, in Greek religion, immortality originally always included an eternal union of body and soul. Alcestis undergoes something akin to a resurrection in her escape from the underworld,
but without achieving immortality.[*full citation needed*]
Writing his *Lives of Illustrious Men* (Parallel Lives) in the first century, the Middle Platonic philosopher Plutarch in his chapter on Romulus gave an account of the king's mysterious disappearance and subsequent deification, comparing it to Greek tales such as the physical immortalization of Alcmene and Aristeas the Proconnesian, "for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's work-shop, and his friends coming to look for him, found his body vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met him traveling towards Croton". Plutarch openly scorned such beliefs held in ancient Greek religion, writing, "many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying creatures naturally mortal." Likewise, he writes that while something within humans comes from the gods and returns to them after death, this happens "only when it is most completely separated and set free from the body, and becomes altogether pure, fleshless, and undefiled."
The parallel between these traditional beliefs and the later resurrection of Jesus was not lost on the early Christians, as Justin Martyr argued: "when we say ... Jesus Christ, our teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propose nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you consider sons of Zeus." (*1 Apol.* 21).
### Buddhism
Further information: Rebirth (Buddhism)
There are stories in Buddhism where the power of resurrection was allegedly demonstrated in Chan or Zen tradition. One is the legend of Bodhidharma, the Indian master who brought the Ekayana school of India that subsequently became Chan Buddhism to China.
The other is the passing of Chinese Chan master Puhua (Japanese:Jinshu Fuke) and is recounted in the Record of Linji (Japanese: Rinzai Gigen). Puhua was known for his unusual behavior and teaching style so it is no wonder that he is associated with an event that breaks the usual prohibition on displaying such powers. Here is the account from Irmgard Schloegl's "The Zen Teaching of Rinzai".
>
> "One day at the street market Fuke was begging all and sundry to give him a robe. Everybody offered him one, but he did not want any of them. The master [Linji] made the superior buy a coffin, and when Fuke returned, said to him: "There, I had this robe made for you." Fuke shouldered the coffin, and went back to the street market, calling loudly: "Rinzai had this robe made for me! I am off to the East Gate to enter transformation" (to die)." The people of the market crowded after him, eager to look. Fuke said: "No, not today. Tomorrow, I shall go to the South Gate to enter transformation." And so for three days. Nobody believed it any longer. On the fourth day, and now without any spectators, Fuke went alone outside the city walls, and laid himself into the coffin. He asked a traveler who chanced by to nail down the lid.
>
>
>
> The news spread at once, and the people of the market rushed there. On opening the coffin, they found that the body had vanished, but from high up in the sky they heard the ring of his hand bell.
>
>
### Christianity
In Christianity, resurrection most critically concerns the resurrection of Jesus, but also includes the resurrection of Judgment Day known as the resurrection of the dead by those Christians who subscribe to the Nicene Creed (which is the majority or mainstream Christianity), as well as the resurrection miracles done by Jesus and the prophets of the Old Testament.
#### Resurrection miracles
*The Resurrection of Lazarus*, painting by Leon Bonnat, France, 1857
Main article: Miracles of Jesus § Resurrection of the dead
In the New Testament, Jesus is said to have raised several persons from death. These resurrections included the daughter of Jairus shortly after death, a young man in the midst of his own funeral procession, and Lazarus of Bethany, who had been buried for four days.
During the Ministry of Jesus on earth, before his death, Jesus commissioned his Twelve Apostles to, among other things, raise the dead.
Similar resurrections are credited to the apostles and Catholic saints. In the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Peter raised a woman named Dorcas (also called Tabitha), and Paul the Apostle revived a man named Eutychus who had fallen asleep and fell from a window to his death. According to the Gospel of Matthew, after Jesus's resurrection, many of those previously dead came out of their tombs and entered Jerusalem, where they appeared to many. Following the Apostolic Age, many saints were said to resurrect the dead, as recorded in Orthodox Christian hagiographies.[] St. Columba supposedly raised a boy from the dead in the land of Picts and St. Nicholas is said to have resurrected pickled children from a brine barrel during a famine by making the sign of the cross.
#### Resurrection of Jesus
Main articles: Life-death-rebirth deity, Resurrection of Jesus, Easter, and Resurrection appearances of Jesus
Resurrection of Jesus
Christians regard the resurrection of Jesus as the central doctrine in Christianity. Others take the incarnation of Jesus to be more central; however, it is the miracles – and particularly his resurrection – which provide validation of his incarnation. According to Paul, the entire Christian faith hinges upon the centrality of the resurrection of Jesus and the hope for a life after death. The Apostle Paul wrote in his first letter to the Corinthians:
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> If only for this life we have hope in Christ, we are to be pitied more than all men. But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep.
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#### Resurrection of the dead
Main articles: Universal resurrection § Christianity, and Christian eschatology § Resurrection of the dead
Christianity started as a religious movement within 1st-century Judaism (late Second Temple Judaism), and it retains what the New Testament itself claims was the Pharisaic belief in the afterlife and resurrection of the dead. Whereas this belief was only one of many beliefs held about the world to come in Second Temple Judaism, and was notably rejected by the Sadducees, but accepted by the Pharisees (cf. Acts 23:6-8). Belief in the resurrection became dominant within Early Christianity and already in the Gospels of Luke and John, included an insistence on the resurrection of the flesh. Most modern Christian churches continue to uphold the belief that there will be a final resurrection of the dead and world to come.
Belief in the resurrection of the dead, and Jesus' role as judge, is codified in the Apostles' Creed, which is the fundamental creed of Christian baptismal faith. The Book of Revelation also makes many references about the Day of Judgment when the dead will be raised.
### Hinduism
Further information: Reincarnation
There are folklore, stories, and extractions from certain holy texts that refer to resurrections. One major folklore is that of Savitri saving her husband's life from Yamraj. In the Ramayana, after Ravana was slain by Rama in a great battle between good and evil, Rama requests the king of Devas, Indra, to restore the lives of all the monkeys who died in the great battle Mahavatar Babaji and Lahiri Mahasaya are also believed to have resurrected themselves.
### Islam
Main article: Islamic eschatology
Belief in the Day of Resurrection (*yawm al-qiyāmah*) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of *Qiyāmah* is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the *Qiyāmah* are described in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.
According to Nasir Khusraw (d. after 1070), an Ismaili thinker of the Fatimid era, the Resurrection (*Qiyāma*) will be ushered by the Lord of the Resurrection (*Qāʾim al-Qiyāma*), an individual symbolizing the purpose and pinnacle of creation from among the progeny of Muhammad and his Imams. Through this individual, the world will come out of darkness and ignorance and "into the light of her Lord" (Quran 39:69). His era, unlike that of the enunciators of the divine revelation (*nāṭiqs*) before him, is not one where God prescribes the people to work but instead one where God rewards them. Preceding the Lord of the Resurrection (*Qāʾim*) is his proof (*ḥujjat*). The Qur’anic verse stating that "the night of power (*laylat al-qadr*) is better than a thousand months" (Quran 97:3) is said to refer to this proof, whose knowledge is superior to that of a thousand Imams, though their rank, collectively, is one. Hakim Nasir also recognizes the successors of the Lord of the Resurrection to be his deputies (*khulafāʾ*).
### Judaism
Main article: Jewish eschatology
There are three explicit examples in the Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead:
* The prophet Elijah prays and God raises a young boy from death (1 Kings 17:17-24)
* Elisha raises the son of the Woman of Shunem (2 Kings 4:32-37) whose birth he previously foretold (2 Kings 4:8-16)
* A dead man's body that was thrown into the dead Elisha's tomb is resurrected when the body touches Elisha's bones (2 Kings 13:21)
According to Herbert C. Brichto, writing in Reform Judaism's *Hebrew Union College Annual*, the family tomb is the central concept in understanding biblical views of the afterlife. Brichto states that it is "not mere sentimental respect for the physical remains that is...the motivation for the practice, but rather an assumed connection between proper sepulture and the condition of happiness of the deceased in the afterlife".
According to Brichto, the early Israelites apparently believed that the graves of family, or tribe, united into one, and that this unified collectivity is to what the Biblical Hebrew term Sheol refers, the common grave of humans. Although not well defined in the Tanakh, Sheol in this view was a subterranean underworld where the souls of the dead went after the body died. The Babylonians had a similar underworld called Aralu, and the ancient Greeks had one known as Hades. According to Brichto, other biblical names for Sheol were Abaddon "ruin", found in Psalm 88:11, Job 28:22 and Proverbs 15:11; Bor "pit", found in Isaiah 14:15, 24:22, Ezekiel 26:20; and Shakhat "corruption", found in Isaiah 38:17, Ezekiel 28:8.
During the Second Temple period, there developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection. The concept of resurrection of the physical body is found in 2 Maccabees, according to which it will happen through re-creation of the flesh. Resurrection of the dead also appears in detail in the extra-canonical Book of Enoch, 2 Baruch, and 2 Esdras. According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism Philip R. Davies, there is "little or no clear reference ... either to immortality or to resurrection from the dead" in the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls. C.D. Elledge, however, argues that some form of resurrection may be referred to in the Dead Sea texts 4Q521, Pseudo-Ezekiel, and 4QInstruction. Too, there is the Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones in the Book of Ezekiel, and the Book of Daniel, which mentions resurrection. As Professor Devorah Dimant notes on *TheTorah.com*, "Originally an allegorical vision about the future return of Judeans to their land, Ezekiel's vision (ch. 37) becomes one of the cornerstones for the Jewish belief in the resurrection of the dead. ... The only biblical passage that *unambiguously* refers to resurrection is found in the final chapter of the book of Daniel[.]"
Both Josephus and the New Testament record that the Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife, but the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not. According to Josephus, who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only the soul was immortal and the souls of good people will "pass into other bodies," while "the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment." Paul the Apostle, who also was a Pharisee, said that at the resurrection what is "sown as a natural body is raised a spiritual body." The Book of Jubilees seems to refer to the resurrection of the soul only, or to a more general idea of an immortal soul.
Philosophy
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Anastasis or Ana-stasis is a concept in contemporary philosophy emerging from the works of Jean-Luc Nancy, Divya Dwivedi and Shaj Mohan. Nancy developed the concept through his interpretation of paintings depicting the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Dwivedi and Mohan, referring to Nancy, defined Ana-stasis as coming over stasis, which is a method for philosophy to overcome its end as Martin Heidegger defined. This concept is noted to be linked in the works of Nancy, Dwivedi and Mohan to have a relation to Heidegger's "other beginning of philosophy". Kohan and Dwivdei that this "overcoming" would construct a new dimension in philosophy.
John Hick argues that the "replica theory" makes the religious doctrine of bodily resurrection somewhat plausible. For example, if a man disappears or dies in London and an exact "replica" suddenly re-appears in New York, both entities should be regarded as the same, especially if they share physical and psychological characteristics. Hick extends this theory to parallel universes, which occupy a different space to our own. He also distinguishes the theory from reincarnation, where a person lives in several successive bodies.
Other scholars reivse the replica theory with the "counterpart theory", where it is believed that God creates a resurrection counterpart to one's current body, which is new and improved. Although it is defined by one's soul and history, it is not identical to the current body, which remains destroyed after death. A useful analogy is to imagine a soul as a programme, a body as a computer and the "series of states" that a soul undergoes as a person's biography. They believe the theory has precedent in scriptures like the New Testament. In addition, it incentivizes people to care about their future.
Technological resurrection
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### Cryonics
Cryonics is the low-temperature freezing (usually at −196 °C or −320.8 °F or 77.1 K) of a human corpse or severed head, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the future. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and has been characterized as quackery.
### Digital ghosts
In his 1988 book *Mind Children*, roboticist Hans Moravec proposed that a future supercomputer might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, such can include information in the form of memories, filmstrips, social media interactions, modeled personality traits, personal favourite things, personal notes and tasks,[] medical records, and genetic information.
Ray Kurzweil, American inventor and futurist, believes that when his concept of singularity comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation. Such is one approach in the concept of digital immortality, which could be described as resurrecting deceased as "digital ghosts" or "digital avatars". In the context of knowledge management, "virtual persona" could "aid in knowledge capture, retention, distribution, access and use" and continue to learn. Issues include post-mortem privacy, and potential use of personalised digital twins and associated systems by big data firms and advertisers.
Related alternative approaches of digital immortality include gradually "replacing" neurons in the brain with advanced medical technology (such as nanobiotechnology) as a form of mind uploading (see also: wetware computer).
### De-extinction
De-extinction, enabling an organism that either resembles or is an extinct species, is also known as "resurrection biology" and often described as working on "resurrecting" dead species.
### Medical resuscitation
Modern medicine can, in some cases, revive patients who "died" by some definitions of death, or were declared dead. However, under most definitions of death, this would mean that the patient wasn't truly dead.
Most advanced versions of such capabilities may include a method/system under development reported in 2019, 'BrainEx', that could partially revive (pig) brains hours after death (to the degree of brain circulation and cellular functions). It showed that "the process of cell death is a gradual, stepwise process and that some of those processes can be either postponed, preserved or even reversed". A similar organ perfusion system under development, 'OrganEx', can restore – i.e. on the cellular level – multiple vital (pig) organs one hour after death (during which the body had prolonged warm ischaemia). It could be used to preserve donor organs but may also be developed to be useful for revival in medical emergencies by buying "more time for doctors to treat people whose bodies were starved of oxygen, such as those who died from drowning or heart attacks".
There is research into what happens during and after death as well as how and to what extent patients could be revived by the use of science and technology. For example, one study showed that in the hours after humans die, "certain cells in the human brain are still active". However, it is thought that at least *without* any life-support-like systems, death is permanent and irreversible after several hours – not days – even in cases when revival was still possible shortly after death.[]
A 2010 study notes that physicians are determining death "test only for the permanent cessation of circulation and respiration because they know that irreversible cessation follows rapidly and inevitably once circulation no longer will restore itself spontaneously and will not be restored medically". Development of advanced live support measures "including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and positive pressure ventilation (PPV)" brought the interdependence of cessation of brain function and loss of respiration and circulation and "the traditional definition of death into question" and further developments upend more "definitions of mortality".
### Hypothetical speculations without existing technologies
Russian cosmist Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov advocated resurrection of the dead using scientific methods. Fedorov tried to plan specific actions for scientific research of the possibility of restoring life and making it infinite. His first project is connected with collecting and synthesizing decayed remains of dead based on "knowledge and control over all atoms and molecules of the world". The second method described by Fedorov is genetic-hereditary. The revival could be done successively in the ancestral line: sons and daughters restore their fathers and mothers, they in turn restore their parents and so on. This means restoring the ancestors using the hereditary information that they passed on to their children. Using this genetic method it is only possible to create a genetic twin of the dead person. It is necessary to give back the revived person his old mind, his personality. Fedorov speculates about the idea of "radial images" that may contain the personalities of the people and survive after death. Nevertheless, Fedorov noted that even if a soul is destroyed after death, Man will learn to restore it whole by mastering the forces of decay and fragmentation.
In his 1994 book *The Physics of Immortality*, American physicist Frank J. Tipler, an expert on the general theory of relativity, presented his Omega Point Theory which outlines how a resurrection of the dead could take place at the end of the cosmos. He posits that humans will evolve into robots which will turn the entire cosmos into a supercomputer which will, shortly before the Big Crunch, perform the resurrection within its cyberspace, reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the supercomputer from the past light cone of the cosmos) as avatars within its metaverse.
David Deutsch, British physicist and pioneer in the field of quantum computing, formerly agreed with Tipler's Omega Point cosmology and the idea of resurrecting deceased people with the help of quantum computers but he is critical of Tipler's theological views.
Italian physicist and computer scientist Giulio Prisco presented the idea of "quantum archaeology", "reconstructing the life, thoughts, memories, and feelings of any person in the past, up to any desired level of detail, and thus resurrecting the original person via 'copying to the future'".
In their science fiction novel *The Light of Other Days*, Sir Arthur Clarke and Stephen Baxter imagine a future civilization resurrecting the dead of past ages by reaching into the past, through micro wormholes and with nanorobots, to download full snapshots of brain states and memories.
### In religions
Both the Church of Perpetual Life and the Terasem Movement consider themselves transreligions and advocate for the use of technology to indefinitely extend the human lifespan.
Zombies
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Main article: Zombie
A zombie (Haitian French: **zombi**, Haitian Creole: *zonbi*) is a fictional undead being created through the reanimation of a human corpse. Zombies are most commonly found in horror and fantasy genre works. The term comes from Haitian folklore, where a *zombie* is a dead body reanimated through various methods, most commonly magic.
Disappearances (as distinct from resurrection)
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See also: Entering heaven alive
As knowledge of different religions has grown, so have claims of bodily disappearance of some religious and mythological figures. In ancient Greek religion, this was a way the gods made some physically immortal, including such figures as Cleitus, Ganymede, Menelaus, and Tithonus. After his death, Cycnus was changed into a swan and vanished. In his chapter on Romulus from Parallel Lives, Plutarch criticises the continuous belief in such disappearances, referring to the allegedly miraculous disappearance of the historical figures Romulus, Cleomedes of Astypalaea, and Croesus. In ancient times, Greek and Roman pagan similarities were explained by the early Christian writers, such as Justin Martyr, as the work of demons, with the intention of leading Christians astray.
In the Buddhist Epic of King Gesar, also spelled as Geser or Kesar, at the end, chants on a mountain top and his clothes fall empty to the ground. The body of the first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev, is said to have disappeared and flowers left in place of his dead body.
Lord Raglan's Hero Pattern lists many religious figures whose bodies disappear, or have more than one sepulchre. B. Traven, author of *The Treasure of the Sierra Madre*, wrote that the Inca Virococha arrived at Cusco (in modern-day Peru) and the Pacific seacoast where he walked across the water and vanished. It has been thought that teachings regarding the purity and incorruptibility of the hero's human body are linked to this phenomenon. Perhaps, this is also to deter the practice of disturbing and collecting the hero's remains. They are safely protected if they have disappeared.
The first such case mentioned in the Bible is that of Enoch (son of Jared, great-grandfather of Noah, and father of Methuselah). Enoch is said to have lived a life where he "walked with God", after which "he was not, for God took him" (Genesis 5:1–18). In Deuteronomy (34:6) Moses is secretly buried. Elijah vanishes in a whirlwind 2 Kings (2:11). In the Synoptic Gospels, after hundreds of years these two earlier Biblical heroes suddenly reappear, and are reportedly seen walking with Jesus, then again vanish. In the Gospel of Luke, the last time Jesus is seen (24:51) he leaves his disciples by ascending into the sky. This ascension of Jesus was a "disappearance" of sorts as recorded by Luke but was after the physical resurrection occurring several days before.
Further reading
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* Alan J. Avery-Peck & Jacob Neusner (eds.). *Judaism in Late Antiquity: Part Four: Death, Life-After-Death, Resurrection, and the World-To-Come in the Judaisms of Antiquity.* Leiden: Brill, 2000.
* Caroline Walker Bynum. *The Resurrection of the Body in Western Christianity, 200-1336.* New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
* C.D. Elledge. *Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism, 200 BCE -- CE 200*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
* Dag Øistein Endsjø. *Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
* Mark T. Finney. *Resurrection, Hell and the Afterlife: Body and Soul in Antiquity, Judaism and Early Christianity*. New York: Routledge, 2017.
* Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov. *Philosophy of Physical Resurrection* 1906.
* Edwin Hatch. *Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages Upon the Christian Church* (1888 Hibbert Lectures).
* Alfred J Hebert. *Raised from the Dead: True Stories of 400 Resurrection Miracles*.
* Dierk Lange. "The dying and the rising God in the New Year Festival of Ife", in: Lange, *Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa*, Dettelbach: Röll Vlg. 2004, pp. 343–376.
* Outi Lehtipuu. *Debates over the Resurrection of the Dead: Constructing Early Christian Identity*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
* Richard Longenecker, editor. *Life in the Face of Death: The Resurrection Message of the New Testament*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
* Joseph McCabe. *Myth of the Resurrection and Other Essays*, Prometheus books: New York, 1993 [1925]
* Kevin J. Madigan & Jon D. Levenson. *Resurrection: The Power of God for Christians and Jews*. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.
* Tryggve Mettinger. *The Riddle of Resurrection: "Dying and Rising Gods" in the Ancient Near East*, Stockholm: Almqvist, 2001.
* Markus Mühling. *Grundinformation Eschatologie. Systematische Theologie aus der Perspektive der Hoffnung*. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007.
* George Nickelsburg. *Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestmental Judaism*. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972.
* Pheme Perkins. *Resurrection: New Testament Witness and Contemporary Reflection*. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, 1984.
* Simcha Paull Raphael. *Jewish Views of the Afterlife*. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009.
* Erwin Rohde *Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks*. New York: Harper & Row, 1925 [1921].
* Charles H. Talbert. "The Concept of Immortals in Mediterranean Antiquity", *Journal of Biblical Literature*, Volume 94, 1975, pp 419–436.
* Charles H. Talbert. "The Myth of a Descending-Ascending Redeemer in Mediterranean Antiquity", *New Testament Studies*, Volume 22, 1975/76, pp 418–440.
* Frank J. Tipler (1994). *The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection of the Dead*. my house: Doubleday. ISBN 0-19-851949-4.
* N.T. Wright (2003). *The Resurrection of the Son of God*. London: SPCK; Minneapolis: Fortress Press. |
American businessman and politician
For other people named Robert Scott, see Robert Scott (disambiguation).
**Robert "Bob" Scott** (born May 10, 1951) is an American businessman and politician from the state of Iowa. Scott is one of the longest-serving mayors of Sioux City, Iowa, having served a combined 20 years as the city's top elected official.
Early life and education
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Scott, was born May 10, 1951, in Sioux City, Iowa. He graduated from East High School in 1969.
Career
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### Business
Scott is the owner of the R.E. Scott Company, a tax preparation service established in 1982, as well as a commercial insurance agency, Business Insurers of Iowa. For over 20 years, Scott was the majority owner of the Sioux City Bandits, a team in the Champions Indoor Football (CIF) league.
### Politics
Scott was first elected to the Sioux City city council in November 1986, leading a field of six candidates in the field for three non-partisan seats with a tally of just over 8,400 votes. He was sworn in for the four-year term along with fellow newcomers Stanley W. Evans and Joanne Grueskin to the five member council on December 29 of that year, with the term scheduled to begin on the first of the year. Scott quickly emerged as a fiscal conservative, casting the lone dissenting vote against the city's $46.5 million operating budget for fiscal year 1986-87, declaring that the council had failed its responsibility to make significant spending cuts.
In March 1989 Scott drew fire along with fellow city council members Grueskin and Evans when they were sued by the Iowa Freedom of Information Council and the Greater Sioux City Press club for allegedly having skirted Iowa's open meeting law by having met with a candidate for interim city manager in October 1986 in South Sioux City, Nebraska. Iowa law prohibited gatherings of the city council without the posting of a meeting announcement and publication of a meeting agenda. In attempting to dodge these provisions by secretly meeting with retired Midwest Energy Company executive Frank Griffith across the river in Nebraska, the trio (along with a fourth council member, the late Cornelius "Connie" Bodine) had nevertheless run afoul of Iowa's restrictive open meeting requirements, the lawsuit charged. Scott and his colleagues were cleared of the charge in April 1989 when Judge Richard J. Vipond ruled that the conclave did not constitute a "meeting" according to Iowa code; the lawsuit was therefore dismissed with prejudice.
In September 1989, Scott announced his decision to run for a second four-year term on the Sioux City city council, indicating a desire to expand the number of industrial jobs in the community and pledging to hold the line on city utility rates and property taxes.
The mayoral election of 2011 was especially popular among Sioux City's voters because it was between Scott and former mayor Tom Padgett. The election would come close in the primaries with Padgett leading 2% over Scott. However, Scott received the support of former Sioux City mayor Jim Wharton and many other local officials. The November 8th election saw Scott beat Padgett by 113 votes, 5304 to 5191 respectively.
In 2015, Scott ran unopposed for reelection along with councilwoman Rhonda Capron who also regained her seat.
Scott also won Sioux City's 2019 mayoral election, against Sioux City Public Schools teacher Maria Rundquist, with 6,421 votes or 68%. |
Mexican-American illustrator and artist
**Rafael López** (born August 8, 1961, in Mexico City, Mexico) is an internationally recognized illustrator and artist. To reflect the lives of all young people, his illustrations bring diverse characters to children's books. As a children's book illustrator, he has received three Pura Belpré Award medals from the Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC), a division of the American Library Association (ALA), and REFORMA in 2020 for *Dancing Hands: How Teresa Carreño Played the Piano for President Lincoln,* *Drum Dream Girl* in 2016 and *Book Fiesta!* in 2010. He created the National Book Festival Poster for the Library of Congress and was a featured book festival speaker at this event.
His book illustrations are the recipient of the American Library Association Schneider Family Book Award, Silver Medal from the Society of Illustrators New York, Original Art Exhibition, the Jane Addams Children's Book Award and the Tomás Rivera Book Award along with three Pura Belpré honors and two Américas Book Awards.
López has illustrated thirteen stamps for the United States Postal Service and served as the first Guest Artist of the Smithsonian National Postal Museum.
In 2023 he created a Google Doodle celebrating the life of trailblazing Mexican American media pioneer and civil rights activist Raoul A. Cortez who gave a voice and presence to Latinos through radio and television.
The artist was selected by the Obama/Biden campaign to create two official posters at Artists for Obama in an effort to secure the pivotal Latino vote in key swing states.
Education
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In Mexico City, López attended the Manuel Bartolome Cossio, an experimental Freinet school where he began drawing and painting at an early age. He attended after school workshops there in photography, painting, puppet making, carpentry, ceramics, tablas huicholas and theatre. In school he was able to study classical music and also learned to play a variety of folkloric instruments including the quena, guitar and drums taught by members of Los Folkloristas. Music is a prominent theme found in his illustrations, books and postal stamps. Both his parents were architects and professors at UNAM. As a child, he often visited the flea market with his father looking for used books and the family had a large collection that lined the walls of their home from floor to ceiling. López regularly traveled by metro over an hour to visit the library, immersed himself in books, especially art books and grew up with a fascination for images from a variety of cultures. The illustrator describes Mexico as a place where there are hundreds of myths and legends as well as 67 native languages. This early exposure to diversity and storytelling shaped his thinking. When he was 10 years old, his parents sent him to Exeter, England to live with Mexican-born conceptual and performance artist Felipe Ehrenberg. There he explored drawing and learned to make books and use a printing press. His first book was an illustrated journal where he recorded his experiences to share with his family. In 1982, he left Mexico to study illustration at the ArtCenter College of Design, in Los Angeles where he graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Illustration.
Career
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After college he worked as an illustrator in Los Angeles, and then converted an old car garage in an industrial loft building in the East Village of downtown San Diego into his home and studio. He became involved in social design projects, founding the Urban Art Trail and painting large-scale murals to improve blighted areas and reclaim neighborhoods. A lifelong passion for books eventually led him to pursue children's book illustration with a focus on diversity and inclusion. He has taught illustration for ArtCenter College of Design and San Diego City College.
Works
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Book Fiesta! cover, illustrated by Rafael López*Book Fiesta!* illustrated by Rafael López, recipient of the 2010 Pura Belpré illustration medal.
Nuestra Voz poster*Nuestra Voz* poster, 2008.
Growing up in Mexico City, Rafael López was immersed in the rich cultural heritage and native color of street life. Influenced by Mexican surrealism and myths he developed a style with roots in this tradition. Using bold colors, his textured work is a fusion of graphic style and magical symbolism. López likes to find objects and symbols to communicate concepts. The illustrator is inspired by imagery from different cultures where he gathers ideas to inform the visual language of his works. He paints with acrylic paints that come in large recycled salsa jars from Mexico and uses a variety of objects to scratch textures onto hand-cut and sanded wooden boards. Color and texture is important to Lopez's paintings and he uses a camera to catalogue the colors, textural history of walls and peeling paint to fuel his work. López believes color is an expression of his identity, heritage and a direct route to the emotions of his audience. He cites Mexico as a land of contrasts, surrealism, intense color, texture and imagery. Strongly influenced by indigenous cultures and naïve art, his illustrations for children's books have been cited for their folk art quality.
He has created artwork for international clients like Amnesty International, Apple, Atheneum Books for Young Readers, Charlesbridge Publishing, Chicago Tribune, Grammy Awards, Harper Collins, Henry Holt & Company, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, IBM, Intel, Lee & Low books, Library of Congress, Little, Brown and Company, Los Angeles Times, Penguin Books, Scholastic, The New York Times, United States Forest Service, United States Postal Service, the Washington Post and the World Wildlife Fund and his work has been selected into multiple juried shows. Illustrations have been featured in publications like Communication Arts, the American Illustration Annual, and Graphic Design USA.
Books
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Lopez talking with a fan at BookExpo America in 2018
López created illustrations for *The Little Book of Joy* in 2022, written His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu. The illustrator shows two leaders of global peace who had very different childhoods, faced oppression and struggle yet learned to look for joy. Lopez's collaboration with Jacqueline Woodson on *The Day You Begin*, resulted in a #1 New York Times Children's Picture Book bestseller and received the Jane Addams Children's Book Award that recognizes books that engage children in thinking about peace, social justice, global community, and equity. In 2020, Netflix featured *The Day You Begin*, read aloud in an episode of their series *Bookmarks: Celebrating Black Voices*. The story about finding courage to connect, even when you are afraid was commissioned as a musical and world premiered at the Kennedy Center. In 2022, López collaborated again with Jacqueline Woodson to create *The Year We Learned to Fly*. This story of a brother and sister facing challenges with confidence became a New York Times Bestseller in children's picture books.
Lopez's illustrations for *Just Ask! Be Different, Be Brave, Be You* written by Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor focuses on differently abled kids who use their strengths to work together on a garden. The book became a #1 New York Times Bestselling Children's Picture Book, winning the American Library Association 2020 Schneider Family Book Award. Justice Sotomayor had a childhood diagnosis of diabetes and in their NPR interview, López talked about being inspired by his own son who has autism.
López received the 2020 Pura Belpré Medal for illustration from the American Library Association for *Dancing Hands: How Teresa Carreño Played the Piano for President Lincoln.* The book tells the story of a Venezuelan child pianist who writes and performs music during the American Civil War. His illustrations for *Drum Dream Girl* were the recipient of the 2016 Pura Belpré medal for illustration given by the American Library Association to honor work that best portrays, affirms and celebrates the Latino cultural experience in children's books. Rafael López's illustrations were animated by Dreamscape Media to create *Drum Dream Girl: How One Girl's Courage Changed Music*, the recipient of the 2017 Andrew Carnegie Medal for excellence in children's video. Written by Margarita Engle the book tells the story of Millo Castro Zaldarriaga, a mixed race Cuban girl in the 1930s music scene, who defied gender roles. His illustrations encourage readers to explore the story from different perspectives by changing the page orientation from horizontal to vertical. The use of perspective in Drum Dream Girl has a surreal quality and the illustrator has related his perception that children are more visually sophisticated than adults think, so he often uses abstract shapes, instead of realistic representations of objects. Drum Dream Girl was selected as part of a special initiative by We Need Diverse Books as part of Indies First celebrations on small business Saturday.
The book *Bravo! Poems about Amazing Hispanics*. was awarded the 2017 Silver Medal by the Society of Illustrators New York, Original Art Exhibition. The bright, large scale portraits of notable Hispanics were described as having the graphic discipline of poster art.
In 2019, López collaborated on a tribute book, celebrating 50 years of Sesame Street in "Sunny Day: A Celebration of the Sesame Street Theme Song. Together with Eric Carle, renowned author and illustrator of "The Very Hungry Caterpillar", he collaborated on the 2017 book "What's your Favorite Color?".
His illustrations for *Book Fiesta!* written by Pat Mora were the recipient of the 2010 Pura Belpré Illustration Award. The book is a celebration of *El Día de los niños/ El Día de los libros*, Day of the Child/Day of the Book. The book "Maybe Something Beautiful, How Art Transformed a Neighborhood" written by F. Isabel Campoy and Theresa Howell received the 2017 Tomás Rivera Book Award for Young Readers, and is based on López's work as a community muralist. Additional books, *Tito Puente, Mambo King* by Monica Brown,*The Cazuela that the Farm Maiden Stirred* by Samantha Vamos,*My Name is Celia, Me Llamo Celia* written by Monica Brown and *Yum! Mmm! Que Rico!* by Pat Mora have won 2 Américas Book Awards and 3 Pura Belpré Honors for illustration.
When developing books he immerses himself in research believing it is the genesis of innovative ideas and conceptual direction. The artist is drawn to picture books because he believes words and images have the power to make convincing change. When children see themselves in the pages of books it encourages them to reach their full potential. He cites the need to go beyond stereotypes and misrepresentations and deal with the complex issues of life in an increasingly interconnected world.
In 2012 he was selected by the Library of Congress to create the National Book Festival poster to celebrate reading and literacy. Honorary Co-Chairs for this event were President Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama and it featured more than 125 best-selling authors, illustrators and poets on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. López served as the honorary chair of California's Read Across America and speaks around the United States and abroad to promote reading and literacy. Children's books illustrated by Rafael López have been printed in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, German, Japanese, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish.
López spends time out of the studio traveling, painting murals and reading with diverse kids. Using pictures and storytelling in both books and murals he strives to communicate hope and the knowledge that kids and families have the power to make change in their own communities. In economically challenging times, the illustrator is a big supporter of public libraries and librarians. He advocates for the vital role they play connecting children to books and awakening their curiosity for a wide variety of subjects. The artist speaks at libraries and schools around the nation, working to create appreciation and awareness of libraries as cultural institutions relevant to a diverse community.
Posters
-------
As part of a grassroots effort he created a poster called *Nuestra Voz* that was printed with friends and distributed to key swing states in an effort to win the pivotal Latino vote for democratic Presidential candidate Barack Obama. The poster was brought to the attention of the national campaign by field workers and his 2008 poster *Voz Unida* was selected by the Obama/Biden campaign as an official poster at Artists for Obama. This poster became part of a series of ten limited edition art prints created and donated by artists to support the presidential campaign of United States President Barack Obama and were sold to raise campaign funds through his official website. The success of the initial poster fueled the decision to choose López to create a new image for the re-election campaign. In 2012 a new poster "Estamos Unidos" was released and he was the only original Artist for Obama to make an official poster for the re-election effort.
He was asked to create the National Book Festival poster for the Library of Congress in 2012.
Birds are a frequent subject of his work and in 2012 he worked with Environment for the Americas as the International Migratory Bird Day artist. In that role, he created a poster encouraging diverse children to become involved in birdwatching and appreciation of birds. López also created a series of four posters in 2014 as the Americas Latino Eco Festival artist. To encourage summer reading for children, he developed a poster and other graphics for the Collaborative Summer Library Program, One World, Many Stories.
During the 2013 32nd Sharjah International Book Fair in the United Arab Emirates he was asked to teach a poster design workshop to aspiring and established illustrators. He also visited Sharjah in 2011 to teach an art workshop to children.
Postal stamps
-------------
In 2022 López was selected as the first Guest Artist of the Smithsonian National Postal Museum. He taught a series of summer workshops to young people and adults about his stamp design process and shared the importance of representation and inclusivity in artworks at the National Postal Museum in Washington D.C.
He has created thirteen stamps for the United States Postal Service including a series of 5 stamps about Mariachi music in 2022. The vibrant stamps featured mariachi musicians dressed in the traje de charro, playing the guitar, guitarrón, vihuela, violin and trumpet. On NPR he described the power and universal quality of mariachi music to transcend language and culture bringing people together around the world.
Also in 2022 he illustrated a whimsical stamp featuring a mother elephant playing with its young calf. He is the artist of a series of 5 stamps in 2010 for the United States Postal Service featuring *Latin Music Legends* Celia Cruz, Carlos Gardel, Carmen Miranda, Tito Puente and Selena. His 2007 U.S.P.S. stamp celebrated an important legal case in equality of education called *Mendez vs. Westminster*. Lopez's *Let's Dance Merengue* postal stamp was featured on the cover of the commemorative stamp yearbook in 2006 and at a special exhibition at the Smithsonian called Trendsetters and Trailblazers.
Exhibitions and collections
---------------------------
Smithsonian National Museum of the American Latino, Rafael López chandelier.
In 2022, Rafael López created 57 portraits documenting Latino heritage and culture in the U.S.for*¡Presente! A Latino History of the United States* at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Latino in Washington D.C. Lopez's work was part of the 2020 exhibit, *Now & Then: Contemporary Illustrators and their Childhood Art* and the 2017 exhibition, *Eric Carle and Friends: What's your Favorite Color?* at the Eric Carle Museum in Amherst, Massachusetts. In 2016, original paintings were exhibited at the Smithsonian's National Postal Museum at an exhibition called *New York City: A Portrait through stamp art*. Several of Lopez's works were exhibited in 2016 at the National Hispanic Cultural Center in Albuquerque, New Mexico and in 2015 at the National Museum of Mexican Art in Chicago. Selected paintings on wood and original drawings were shown at a multimedia exhibition called *Writing With Pictures* at the California Center for the Arts. Original art by López can also be found in the Mazza Museum, International Art for children's books collection. Archival materials about the life and work of Rafael López are part of the University of California, Santa Barbara CEMA Library Collection. Works by Rafael López were exhibited at *Manifest Hope* in Washington D.C. *Manifest Equality* in Los Angeles and *Re:Form Education* in New York. In 2009, he was asked to create three paintings for Oprah Winfrey's school in South Africa and then presented them to her at the National Association for Independent Schools conference in Chicago, Illinois.
Rafael Lopez speaks at the Mingei Museum.
Murals
------
López envisioned and led the *Urban Art Trail Project* in 1997, that transformed San Diego's East Village with colorful murals, sculptures and art installations and serves as a model of urban renewal that has been implemented in cities around the nation, Australia and Canada. This effort is the subject of the children's book *Maybe Something Beautiful* from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, illustrated by Rafael López. The book is the recipient of the 2017 Tomás Rivera Book Award for Young Readers. It was also honored by the International Latino Book Awards as best Latino-focused children's picture book. This story celebrates the power of community and reminds readers that a small group of committed individuals can impact meaningful change.
Mural by Rafael López at 14th and F Streets San Diego, California
The artist is energized by the idea of bringing art out of galleries and into the streets so it is accessible to everyone. Through this work, López has discovered that community murals can be a powerful tool to bring diverse people together. To build community and encourage participation by young people and untrained artists López developed a mural style that works like a large-scale paint by numbers. These collective murals help neighbors work collaboratively to take ownership of their communities. Working with urban libraries, López uses art to bring communities together and cites diversity as a bridge that can build trust, enlightenment and innovation.
After an act of violence on a Chicago playground, he worked with community organizers to make a vibrant mural painted by the community to empower families to reclaim their neighborhood using art. He has designed and developed murals in collaboration with the National Museum of Mexican Fine Art in Chicago, American Federation of Teachers and other organizations. López's murals can be found throughout downtown San Diego and on Harbor Island, at the San Diego office of the American Federation of Teachers, numerous children's hospitals, under bridges and at public elementary schools including a series at the San Diego Cooperative Charter School. He has worked with hundreds of children, families and community members to create murals in Fresno, San Diego, Los Angeles and Pittsburg California, Fort Collins and Boulder, Colorado, Chicago, Illinois and Seattle, Washington.
Rafael López lives in San Diego, California, and the UNESCO World Heritage city of San Miguel de Allende, Mexico with his wife Candice, a Professor of Art and Design and a son Santiago.
Illustrated books
-----------------
* *The Little Book of Joy* (2022) written by His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Crown Books for Young Readers, an imprint of Penguin Random House, ISBN 9780593484234
* *The Year We Learned to Fly* (2022) (New York Times #2 Children's Picture Books Bestseller written by Jacqueline Woodson, Nancy Paulsen Books, an imprint of Penguin Random House, ISBN 9780399545535
* *I'll Meet You in Your Dreams* (2021) written by Jessica Young, Little, Brown books for Young Readers, ISBN 9780316453288
* *Just Ask!: Be Brave, Be Different, Be You* (2019) (American Library Association-2020 Schneider Family Book Award, New York Times #1 Children's Picture Books Bestseller, written by Sonia Sotomayor), Philomel Books, an imprint of Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0525514121
* *Dancing Hands: How Teresa Carreño Played the Piano for President Lincoln* (2019), (American Library Association-2020 Pura Belpré Medal, written by Margarita Engle), Atheneum Books for Young Readers, Simon & Schuster ISBN 978-1-4814-8740-5
* *Sunny Day: A Celebration of the Sesame Street Theme Song* (2019, Illustrator, Written by Joe Raposo), Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-1-9848-5253-3
* *We've Got the Whole World in our Hands* (2018), Orchard Books, an imprint of Scholastic, ISBN 978-1338177367
* *The Day You Begin* (2018), (Jane Addams Children's Book Award, National Cartoonist Society Best in Book Illustration, New York Times #1 Children's Picture Books Bestseller, Illustrator, Written by Jacqueline Woodson), Nancy Paulsen Books, an imprint of Penguin Young Readers Group, ISBN 978-0399246531
* *We Rise, We Resist, We Raise our Voices* (2018, Illustrator, edited by Wade Hudson and Cheryl Willis Hudson), Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0525580423
* *What's your Favorite Color* (2017, Illustrator, Eric Carle and Friends), Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0805096149
* *Bravo! Poems About Amazing Hispanics* (2017 Society of Illustrators New York, Original Art Silver Medal, Illustrator, written by Margarita Engle), Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-98761
* *Maybe Something Beautiful* (2017 Tomás Rivera Children's Book Award, 2016 International Latino Book Award, written by F. Isabel Campoy & Theresa Howell), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-054435769-3
* *Drum Dream Girl* (2016 American Library Association-Pura Belpré Medal, Illustrator, written by Margarita Engle), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-0544102293
* *Tito Puente Mambo King, Rey del Mambo* (2014 Pura Belpré Honor, Illustrator, written by Monica Brown), HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-06-122783-7
* *The Cazuela that the Farm Maiden Stirred* (2012 Pura Belpré Honor, Illustrator, written by Samantha Vamos), Charlesbridge, ISBN 978-1-58089-242-1
* *Book Fiesta!* (2010 American Library Association-Pura Belpré Medal, Illustrator, written by Pat Mora), Harper Collins, ISBN 978-0-06-128877-7
* *Our California* (2008, Illustrator, written by Pam Muñoz Ryan), Charlesbridge, ISBN 978-1-58089-116-5
* *Yum! !MmMm! !Que rico!* (2007 Americas Award, Illustrator, written by Pat Mora), Lee & Low Books, ISBN 978-1-60060-267-2
* *My Name is Celia, Me Llamo Celia* (2004 Americas Award and Pura Belpré Honor, written by Monica Brown), Luna Rising, ISBN 0-87358-872-X |
American artist, writer (1870–1958)
**Louise Hammond Snead** (née **Willis**; pen name: **Louis Hammond Willis**; December 14, 1868 - October 7, 1958) was an American artist, writer, and composer. Her art specialized in miniature painting, illustrations, and needlework. She lectured on Persian rugs, wrote articles of various topics under a masculine pseudonym, and even composed a march.
Early life and education
------------------------
Louise Hammond Willis was born in Charleston, South Carolina on December 14, 1868. From her mother, Elizabeth Louise Hammond, Louise inherited a love of nature and a scientific mind. From her father, Major Edward Willis, she inherited ambition, an indomitable will, and perseverance. The Willis home was the meeting place of people of talent and distinction.
She was graduated with first-honor medal and diploma from the Charleston Female Seminary. Her art studies were carried on in Charleston, under E. Whittock McDowell, and in New York City under James Carroll Beckwith and Harry Siddons Mowbray. She studied drawing, painting and modeling under William Merritt Chase, Frank DuMond, Irving Ramsey Wiles, and others at Art Students League of New York, New York School of Art and in European galleries, as well as being a pupil of Theodora Thayer and Alice Beckington. Snead also completed a post-graduate course in literature and languages.
Career
------
While still a student, Snead had charge of the painting and drawing classes at Charleston Female Seminary. She was the assistant teacher in the Carolina Art School. Believing that everything helps everything else, she applied herself to the study of architecture, and in so doing, developed plans. While her specialty was portraiture, her illustrations and pen-and-ink drawings were meritorious, while she also excelled in the art of fine and artistic needle work, point-laces and art embroideries.
"Emma C Rose" a 1907 artwork by Louise Hammond Willis Snead
Snead exhibited for years in the New York Watercolor Society and at the American Society of Miniature Painters. She designed houseboats and model modern suburban homes for ten years. She received Honorable mention at the South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition, 1902.
Snead lectured on "The Magic Carpet," or the making of real Persian rugs. Other lectures were on topics of special interest to women's clubs, one being point laces. She illustrated a series of articles on the subject of point-lace making for *Chautauqua Magazine*. Snead copied many antique embroideries from museums, in the line of art needlework. She was interested in handicrafts, weaving, hammered brass, illuminated leather, tapestry and in all lines of interior decoration.
Snead was familiar with a half-dozen languages. She wrote both prose and poetry for magazines, her writings appeared over the pen name "Louis Hammond Willis." Snead contributed largely to women's magazines for fifteen years, and illustrated her own articles. She also played on a number of musical instruments. Having studied the theory of music, her compositions demonstrated originality. Snead composed approximately 20 songs and a march that was orchestrated by Victor Herbert and played by Patrick Gilmore's Band.
Personal life
-------------
Snead made her home at 1 Wilson Avenue, Murray Hill, Flushing, Long Island, New York. She was a member of Daughters of the American Revolution, and the Pennsylvania Society of Miniature Painters. By religion, she was Protestant. Her recreations included landscape gardening, building stone pillars and walls, and making concrete garden furniture.
On September 4, 1894, she married Harry Vairin Snead (1867–deceased) of New York City, son of Col. Thomas L. Snead of Virginia. They had one daughter, Louise Vairin Snead (1897-1984).
Louise Willis Snead died in Darien, Connecticut, October 7, 1958.
Selected works
--------------
* *Silver and gold*, 1916 |
For the 2023 video game, see Samba de Amigo: Party-To-Go.
MTV ***Party To Go*** is a series of dance music compilation albums released by Tommy Boy Records from 1991 to 2001. The first album in the series was titled *Club MTV Party To Go Volume One* and the only release to have 'Club' in its title. The albums were numbered up to Volume 10. After Volume 10, *MTV Party to Go Platinum Mix* was released containing past songs from the series. The next several releases in the series used the years (98, 99, 2000) in the title instead of volume numbers. *MTV Party to Go Remixed* was the last release of the series in 2001. A portion of the proceeds from the *Party To Go* series was donated to the AMC Cancer Research Center .
Volumes 1 and 2 were also released as DVDs featuring the music videos of the songs from their CD counterparts in the same sequences.
Volumes 1 through 6 of the series each featured at least one remix produced by the Ultimix remix service, a subscription-based company that produces and distributes special remixes of current hits exclusively to qualified disc jockeys, who adhere to their terms of service. All rights are reserved by the original artists and labels, and therefore may give exclusive permission for their Ultimix version to appear on compilations. As a result, the *Party To Go* compilations were the only true means which the general public can obtain those specific Ultimix versions.
In their original forms, many Ultimix remixes featured heavy use of sampling. To avoid additional royalties and legal issues involving other artists associated with the samples, these were often edited out before being included on the *Party To Go* compilations.
*MTV Party to Go Remixed* was continuously mixed by Barry Harris and Chris Cox, better known as the remixing duo Thunderpuss.
| * v
* t
* e
MTV series albums |
| --- |
| *Amp* |
* Amp
* Amp 2
|
| *The Grind* |
* MTV Grind 1
|
| *Party to Go* |
* 1
* 2
* 3
* 4
* 5
* 6
* 7
* 8
* 9
* 10
* Platinum Mix
* '98
* '99
* 2000
* Remixed
|
| *MTV Unplugged* |
* 10,000 Maniacs
* A-ha
* Bryan Adams
* Alice in Chains
* Arrested Development
* Aterciopelados
* Babyface
* Tony Bennett
* Biffy Clyro
* Björk (audio)
* Café Tacuba
* Mariah Carey
* Charlie Brown Jr.
* Eric Clapton
* The Corrs
* Dashboard Confessional
* Bob Dylan
* Cássia Eller
* Florence and the Machine
* Liam Gallagher
* Gang of Youths
* Lauryn Hill
* Jay-Z
* Juanes
* Alicia Keys
* Kiss
* Korn
* La Ley
* Legião Urbana
* Maná
* Mando Diao
* Ricky Martin
* Maxwell
* Paul McCartney
* Shawn Mendes
* Alanis Morissette
* Nirvana
* Jimmy Page & Robert Plant
* Os Paralamas do Sucesso
* Pearl Jam
* Katy Perry
* O Rappa
* R.E.M. (video)
* Alejandro Sanz
* Shakira
* Soda Stereo
* Bruce Springsteen
* Staind
* Rod Stewart
* Thirty Seconds to Mars
* Los Tigres del Norte
* Titãs
* Diego Torres
* Los Tres
* El Tri
* Julieta Venegas
* Hitomi Yaida (audio)
* Neil Young
* Zoé
|
| *MTV ao Vivo* |
* Daniela Mercury
* Nando Reis e Os Infernais
* Skank
* Titãs
|
| | |
| --- | --- |
| Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata |
* MusicBrainz series
| |
Village in Mississippi, United States
**Mantee** is a village in Webster County, Mississippi. The population was 232 at the 2010 census.
Geography
---------
Mantee is located at 33°43′50″N 89°3′36″W / 33.73056°N 89.06000°W / 33.73056; -89.06000 (33.730615, -89.060074).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.7 square miles (4.4 km2), of which 1.6 square miles (4.1 km2) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.26 km2) (3.51%) is water.
Demographics
------------
Historical population| Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1910 | 222 | | — |
| 1920 | 249 | | 12.2% |
| 1930 | 219 | | −12.0% |
| 1940 | 241 | | 10.0% |
| 1950 | 189 | | −21.6% |
| 1960 | 166 | | −12.2% |
| 1970 | 142 | | −14.5% |
| 1980 | 158 | | 11.3% |
| 1990 | 134 | | −15.2% |
| 2000 | 169 | | 26.1% |
| 2010 | 232 | | 37.3% |
| 2020 | 237 | | 2.2% |
| U.S. Decennial Census |
As of the 2010 census, there were 232 people, 95 households, and 70 families residing in the village. There were 115 housing units of which 20 were reported vacant. The racial makeup of the village was 99.1% White and 0.4% African American.
There were 115 households, out of which 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.3% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.3% were non-families. 22.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 30.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.89.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 7.3% under the age of five, 19,4% from five to 19, 1.7% from 20 to 24, 27,9% from 25 to 44, 26,2% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.5 years. For every 100 males, there were 127 females.
The median income for a household in the village was $49,375, and the median home price was $105,600. Males had a median income of $32,500 versus $23,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $18,871. About 3.5% of families and 6.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under the age of eighteen and 8.2% of those 65 or over.[]
Education
---------
The Village of Mantee is served by the Webster County School District. |
Kenyan long-distance runner
**David Barmasai Tumo** (born 1 January 1989) is a Kenyan long-distance runner who specialises in marathon running. He has a personal best of 2:07:18 hours (set winning the 2011 Dubai Marathon) and came fifth at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics.
Biography
---------
Raised near Eldoret in Kenya's Uasin Gishu District, Barmasai took up running seriously in 2009 and hoped to emulate the success of William Kiplagat (the 2003 Rotterdam Marathon winner). By the end of the year Barmasai entered his first elite marathon race in Eldoret and he won in a time of 2:16:00 hours. He signed up with European athletics manager Jos Hermens and, after injuries interrupted his 2010 training, he ran his second marathon race at the high-altitude Nairobi Marathon, which he won in an improved time of 2:10:31 hours.
Barmasai entered the high-profile 2011 Dubai Marathon with the aim of reaching the top ten. Making his debut in an overseas race, he led the race throughout and saw off more experienced runners such as Eliud Kiptanui and Evans Cheruiyot to take his third straight win in a time of 2:07:18 hours – almost one minute ahead of the field. He received US$250,000 for winning the race. In light of this achievement, he gained selection for the Kenyan national team at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics. On his first outing representing Kenya, he came fifth in the World Championships Marathon in Daegu, helping Kenya to a dominant win in the IAAF World Marathon Cup team competition. His last race of the year came at the Zevenheuvelenloop 15K, although he only managed ninth place in a time of 45:14 minutes.
He ran at the 2012 Boston Marathon, but lost his undefeated streak on the road circuit as he came in eighth place.
And on 8 February 2020 he won the Lagos City Marathon with a course record time of 2:10:00, winning the grand prize of $50,000 and an extra $20,000 for breaking the four-year record.
He is married with one child.
He recently won the Lagos City Marathon 2020 and Singapore Marathon 2023. |
English cricketer
**Albert Lavington Porter** (20 January 1864 – 14 December 1937) was an English first-class cricketer and clergyman.
Porter was born at Croydon in January 1864. He was educated at Marlborough College, before matriculating to St John's College, Cambridge. Being resident at Bath in Somerset, Porter represented Somerset in first-class cricket in 1883, making appearances against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord's and Hampshire at Southampton. Porter took holy orders in 1888 when he was ordained as a deacon at Winchester Cathedral. Later that year he was appointed a priest at Guildford, before becoming curate at Fareham from 1888 to 1898. While undertaking his ecclesiastical duties at Fareham, Porter made two appearances in first-class cricket. The first came in 1890 against for a combined Oxford and Cambridge Universities Past and Present team against the touring Australians at Portsmouth, with his second appearance coming in the 1895 County Championship against Derbyshire at Southampton. In four first-class matches, he scored 19 runs with a highest score of 7. In 1899, he was appointed vicar of Braishfield, an appointment which he held until 1917; he was concurrently rector at Eldon from 1901 to 1907. Porter subsequently lived in Devon, where he died at Tiverton in December 1937. He was married with children, one of whom died in a motor accident in 1925. |
American bank robber (1903–1934)
"Dillinger" redirects here. For other uses, see Dillinger (disambiguation).
**John Herbert Dillinger** (/ˈdɪlɪndʒər/; June 22, 1903 – July 22, 1934) was an American gangster during the Great Depression. He commanded the Dillinger Gang, which was accused of robbing 24 banks and four police stations. Dillinger was imprisoned several times and escaped twice. He was charged with but not convicted of the murder of an East Chicago, Indiana, police officer, who shot Dillinger in his bullet-proof vest during a shootout; it was the only time Dillinger was charged with homicide.
Dillinger courted publicity. The media printed exaggerated accounts of his bravado and colorful personality, and described him as a Robin Hood. In response, J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Bureau of Investigation (BOI), used Dillinger as a rationale to evolve the BOI into the Federal Bureau of Investigation, developing more sophisticated investigative techniques as weapons against organized crime.
After evading police in four states for almost a year, Dillinger was wounded and went to his father's home to recover. He returned to Chicago in July 1934 and sought refuge in a brothel owned by Ana Cumpănaș, who later informed authorities of his whereabouts. On July 22, 1934, local and federal law-enforcement officers closed in on the Biograph Theater. When BOI agents moved to arrest Dillinger as he exited the theater, he tried to flee, but was shot; the deadly shot was ruled justifiable homicide.
Early life
----------
### Family and background
John Dillinger was born on June 22, 1903, at 2053 Cooper Street, Indianapolis, Indiana, the younger of two children born to John Wilson Dillinger (1864–1943) and Mary Ellen "Mollie" Lancaster (1870–1907).
Dillinger's parents had married on August 23, 1887. Dillinger's father was a grocer by trade and, reportedly, a harsh man. In an interview with reporters, Dillinger said that he was firm in his discipline and believed in the adage "spare the rod and spoil the child". Dillinger's older sister, Audrey, was born in 1889 and the mother died in 1907 just before his fourth birthday.
Audrey married Emmett "Fred" Hancock that year and had seven children. She cared for her brother John for several years until their father remarried in 1912 to Elizabeth "Lizzie" Fields (1878–1933). They had three children.
### Formative years and marriage
As a teenager, Dillinger was frequently in trouble for fighting and petty theft; he was also noted for his "bewildering personality" and bullying of smaller children. He quit school to work in an Indianapolis machine shop. His father feared that the city was corrupting his son, prompting him to relocate the family to Mooresville, Indiana, in 1921. Dillinger's wild and rebellious behavior was unchanged, despite his new rural life. In 1922, he was arrested for auto theft, and his relationship with his father deteriorated.
In 1923, Dillinger's troubles resulted in him enlisting in the United States Navy, where he was a Petty officer third class Machinery Repairman assigned aboard the battleship USS *Utah*, but he deserted a few months later when his ship was docked in Boston. He was eventually dishonorably discharged some months later.
Dillinger returned to Mooresville where he met Beryl Ethel Hovious. The two married on April 12, 1924. He attempted to settle down, but he had difficulty. Unable to find a job, he began planning a robbery with his friend Ed Singleton, who was an ex-convict. The two robbed a local grocery store, stealing $50. While leaving the scene, the criminals were seen by a minister who recognized the men and reported them to the police. During the robbery, Dillinger had struck a victim on the head with a machine bolt wrapped in a cloth and had also carried a gun which, although it discharged, hit no one. The two men were arrested the next day. Singleton pleaded not guilty, but after Dillinger's father (the local Mooresville Church deacon) discussed the matter with Morgan County prosecutor Omar O'Harrow, his father convinced Dillinger to confess to the crime and plead guilty without retaining a defense attorney.
Dillinger was convicted of assault and battery with intent to rob, and conspiracy to commit a felony. He expected a lenient probation sentence as a result of his father's discussion with O'Harrow but was sentenced instead to 10 to 20 years in prison for his crimes. His father told reporters he regretted his advice and was appalled by the sentence. He pleaded with the judge to shorten the sentence, but without success. En route to Mooresville to testify against Singleton, Dillinger briefly escaped his captors but was apprehended within a few minutes. Singleton had a change of venue and was sentenced to a jail term of 2 to 14 years. He died September 2, 1937.(killed when he fell asleep on railroad tracks while drunk)
Prison time
-----------
John Dillinger 1924 Mugshot
Incarcerated at Indiana Reformatory and Indiana State Prison from 1924 to 1933, Dillinger developed a criminal lifestyle. Upon being admitted to prison, he was quoted as saying, "I will be the meanest bastard you ever saw when I get out of here." His physical examination at the prison showed that he had gonorrhea, and the treatment for the condition was painful. He became resentful against society because of his long prison sentence and befriended other criminals, including seasoned bank robbers Harry "Pete" Pierpont, Charles Makley, Russell Clark, and Homer Van Meter, who taught Dillinger how to be a successful criminal. The men planned heists that they would commit soon after they were released. Dillinger also studied Herman Lamm's meticulous bank-robbing system and used it extensively throughout his criminal career.
Dillinger's father began a career to have him released and was able to obtain 188 signatures on a petition. On May 10, 1933, after serving nine and a half years, Dillinger was paroled. Released at the height of the Great Depression, Dillinger, with little prospect of finding employment, immediately returned to crime.
On June 21, 1933, he robbed his first bank stealing $10,000 from the New Carlisle National Bank. On August 14, Dillinger robbed a bank in Bluffton, Ohio. Tracked by police from Dayton, Ohio, he was captured and later transferred to the Allen County Jail in Lima to be indicted in connection to the Bluffton robbery. After searching him before putting him into the prison, the police discovered a document which appeared to be a prison escape plan. They demanded Dillinger tell them what the document meant, but he refused.
Earlier, while in school, Dillinger had helped conceive a plan to enable the escape of Pierpont, Clark, and six others he had met while in prison, most of whom worked in the prison laundry. Dillinger had friends smuggle guns into their cells which they used to escape four days after Dillinger's capture. The group that formed up, known as "the First Dillinger Gang," consisted of Pierpont, Clark, Makley, Ed Shouse, Harry Copeland, and John "Red" Hamilton, a member of the Herman Lamm Gang. Pierpont, Clark, and Makley arrived in Lima on October 12, 1933, where they impersonated Indiana State Police officers, claiming they had come to extradite Dillinger to Indiana. When the sheriff, Jess Sarber, asked for their credentials, Pierpont shot Sarber dead, then released Dillinger from his house. The four men escaped back to Indiana, where they joined the rest of the gang.
Bank robberies
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Main article: Dillinger Gang
Dillinger is known to have participated with the Dillinger Gang in 12 separate bank robberies, between June 21, 1933, and June 30, 1934.
Evelyn Frechette
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Evelyn "Billie" Frechette met John Dillinger in October 1933, and they began a relationship in November 1933. After Dillinger's death, Billie was offered money for her story and wrote a memoir for the Chicago Herald and Examiner in August 1934.
Escape from Crown Point, Indiana
--------------------------------
Display of newspaper clippings of the capture of John Dillinger and his gang in the old lobby of the Hotel CongressThe John Dillinger House in Tucson, Arizona
On January 25, 1934, Dillinger and his gang were captured in Tucson, Arizona. He was extradited to Indiana and escorted back by Matt Leach, the Chief of the Indiana State Police. Dillinger was taken to the Lake County Jail in Crown Point, Indiana and jailed for charges for the murder of a policeman who was killed during a Dillinger gang bank robbery in East Chicago, Indiana, on January 15, 1934. The local police boasted to area newspapers that the jail was escape-proof and had posted extra guards as a precaution. However, on Saturday, March 3, 1934, Dillinger was able to escape during morning exercises with 15 other inmates, Dillinger produced a pistol, catching deputies and guards by surprise, and he was able to leave the premises without firing a shot. Almost immediately afterwards conjecture began whether the gun Dillinger displayed was real or not. According to Deputy Ernest Blunk, Dillinger had escaped using a real pistol. FBI files, on the other hand, indicate that Dillinger used a carved fake pistol. Sam Cahoon, a trustee who Dillinger took hostage in the jail, also believed Dillinger had carved the gun, using a razor and some shelving in his cell. In another version, according to an unpublished interview with Dillinger's attorney, Louis Piquett, investigator Art O'Leary claimed to have snuck the gun in himself.
On March 16, Herbert Youngblood, who escaped from Crown Point alongside Dillinger, was shot dead by police in Port Huron, Michigan. Deputy Sheriff Charles Cavanaugh was mortally wounded in the battle and later died. Before he died, Youngblood told officers Dillinger was in the neighborhood of Port Huron, and immediately officers began a search for the escaped man, but no trace of him was found. An Indiana newspaper reported that Youngblood later retracted the story and said he did not know where Dillinger was at that time, as he had parted with him soon after their escape.
Dillinger was indicted by a grand jury, and the Bureau of Investigation (a precursor of the Federal Bureau of Investigation) organized a nationwide manhunt for him. Just hours after his escape from the Lake County Jail, Dillinger reunited with his girlfriend, Evelyn "Billie" Frechette.[]
According to Frechette's trial testimony, Dillinger stayed with her for "almost two weeks." However, the two had actually traveled to the Twin Cities and taken lodgings at the Santa Monica Apartments Minneapolis, Minnesota, where they stayed for 15 days. Dillinger then met John "Red" Hamilton and the two mustered a new gang consisting of Baby Face Nelson's gang, including Nelson, Homer Van Meter, Tommy Carroll and Eddie Green.
Three days after Dillinger's escape from Crown Point, the second Gang robbed a bank in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. A week later they robbed First National Bank in Mason City, Iowa.
Lincoln Court Apartments shootout
---------------------------------
### Setting
On Tuesday, March 20, 1934, Dillinger and Frechette relocated into the Lincoln Court Apartments in St. Paul, Minnesota, using the aliases "Mr. & Mrs. Carl T. Hellman."
Daisy Coffey, the landlord, testified at Frechette's trial she spent most evenings during Dillinger's stay observing what was happening. On March 30, Coffey went to the FBI's St. Paul field office to file a report, including information about the couple's new Hudson sedan parked in the garage behind the apartments.
### Surveillance
As a result of Coffey's tip, the building was surveilled by two agents, Rufus Coulter and Rusty Nalls, that night, but they saw nothing unusual, mainly because the blinds were drawn. The next morning at approximately 10:15 a.m. Nalls circled around the block looking for the Hudson, but observed nothing. He parked, first on Lincoln Avenue (the north side of the apartments), then on the west side of Lexington Avenue, at the northwest corner of Lexington and Lincoln, and remained in his car while watching Coulter and St. Paul Police detective Henry Cummings pull up, park, and enter the building. Ten minutes later, by Nalls's estimate, Van Meter parked a green Ford coupe on the north side of the apartment building.
### Shootout
Meanwhile, Coulter and Cummings knocked on the door of apartment 303. Frechette answered, opening the door two to three inches. She said she was not dressed and to come back. Coulter told her they would wait. After waiting two to three minutes, Coulter went to the basement apartment of the caretakers, Louis and Margaret Meidlinger, and asked to use the telephone to call the bureau. He quickly returned to Cummings, and the two of them waited for Frechette to open the door. Van Meter then appeared in the hall and asked Coulter if his name was Johnson. Coulter said it was not, and as Van Meter passed on to the landing of the third floor, Coulter asked him for a name. Van Meter replied, "I am a soap salesman." Asked where his samples were, Van Meter said they were in his car. Coulter asked if he had any credentials. Van Meter said "no", and continued down the stairs. Coulter waited 10 to 20 seconds, then followed Van Meter. As Coulter got to the lobby on the ground floor, Van Meter began shooting at him. Coulter hastily fled outside, chased by Van Meter. Van Meter ran back into the front entrance.
Recognizing Van Meter, Nalls pointed out the Ford to Coulter and told him to disable it. Coulter shot out the rear left tire. While Coulter stayed with Van Meter's Ford, Nalls went to the corner drugstore and telephoned the local police, then the bureau's St. Paul office, but could not get through because both lines were busy. Van Meter, meanwhile, escaped by hopping on a passing coal truck.
Frechette, in her harboring trial testimony, said that she told Dillinger that the police had shown up after speaking to Cummings. Upon hearing Van Meter firing at Coulter, Dillinger began shooting through the door with a Thompson submachine gun, sending Cummings scrambling for cover. Dillinger then stepped out and fired another burst at Cummings. Cummings shot back with a revolver, but quickly ran out of ammunition. He hit Dillinger in the left calf with one of his five shots. He then hastily retreated down the stairs to the front entrance. Once Cummings retreated, Dillinger and Frechette hurried down the stairs, exited through the back door and drove away in the Hudson.[]
### Aftermath
After the shootout, Dillinger and Frechette drove to Eddie Green's apartment in Minneapolis. Green telephoned his associate Dr. Clayton E. May at his office at 712 Masonic Temple in downtown Minneapolis (still extant). With Green, his wife Beth, and Frechette following in Green's car, the doctor drove Dillinger to an apartment belonging to Augusta Salt, who had been providing nursing services and a bed for May's illicit patients for several years, patients he could not risk seeing at his regular office. May treated Dillinger's wound with antiseptics. Green visited Dillinger on Monday, April 2, just hours before Green was mortally wounded by the FBI in St. Paul. Dillinger convalesced at Dr. May's for five days, until Wednesday, April 4. Dr. May was promised $500 for his services, but received nothing.
Return to Mooresville
---------------------
After the events in Minneapolis, Dillinger and Frechette traveled to Mooresville to visit Dillinger's father. Friday, April 6, 1934, was spent contacting family members, particularly his half-brother Hubert Dillinger. On April 6, Hubert and Dillinger left Mooresville at about 8:00 p.m. and proceeded to Leipsic, Ohio (approximately 210 miles away), to see Joseph and Lena Pierpont, parents of Prohibition Era gangster, Harry Pierpont. The Pierponts were not home, so the two headed back to Mooresville around midnight.
On April 7 at approximately 3:30 a.m. they rammed a car driven by Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Manning near Noblesville, Indiana, after Hubert fell asleep behind the wheel. They crashed through a farm fence and about 200 feet into the woods. Both men made it back to the Mooresville farm. Swarms of police showed up at the accident scene within hours. Found in the car were maps, a machine gun magazine, a length of rope, and a bullwhip. According to Hubert, his brother planned to pay a visit with the bullwhip to his former one-armed "shyster" lawyer at Crown Point, Joseph Ryan, who had run off with his retainer after being replaced by Louis Piquett. At about 10:30 a.m. on April 7, Billie, Hubert and Hubert's wife purchased a black four-door Ford V8, registering it in the name of Mrs. Fred Penfield (Billie Frechette). At 2:30 p.m. Billie and Hubert picked up the V8 and returned to Mooresville.[]
On Sunday, April 8, the Dillingers enjoyed a family picnic while the FBI had the farm under surveillance nearby. Later in the afternoon, suspecting they were being watched (agents J. L. Geraghty and T. J. Donegan were cruising in the vicinity in their car), the group left in separate cars. Billie drove the new Ford V8, with two of Dillinger's nieces, Mary Hancock in the front seat and Alberta Hancock in the back. Dillinger was on the floor of the car. He was later seen, but not recognized, by Donegan and Geraghty. Eventually, Norman, driving the V8, proceeded with Dillinger and Billie to Chicago, where they separated from Norman.
The next afternoon, Monday, April 9, Dillinger had an appointment at a tavern at 416 North State Street. Sensing trouble, Billie went in first. She was promptly arrested by agents, but refused to reveal Dillinger's whereabouts. Dillinger was waiting in his car outside the tavern and then drove off unnoticed. The two never saw each other again.[]
Dillinger reportedly became despondent after Billie was arrested. The other gang members tried to talk him out of rescuing her, but Van Meter encouraged him by saying that he knew where they could find bulletproof vests. That Friday morning, late at night, Dillinger and Van Meter took a hostage, Warsaw, Indiana police officer Judd Pittenger. They marched Pittenger at gunpoint into the police station, where they stole several more guns and bulletproof vests. After separating, Dillinger picked up Hamilton, who was recovering from the Mason City robbery. The two then traveled to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, where they visited Hamilton's sister Anna Steve.[]
Escape at Little Bohemia
------------------------
The Bureau received a telephone call Sunday morning, April 22 that John Dillinger and several of his confederates were hiding out at a small vacation lodge called Little Bohemia near present-day Manitowish Waters, Wisconsin.[]
Special Agent in Charge Melvin Purvis and several BOI agents approached the lodge when three men exited the building and began to drive away. Agents yelled for the car to stop but the driver did not hear the agents. Agents opened up fire and the driver was killed.[]
Dillinger and some of the gang were upstairs in the lodge and began shooting out the windows. While the BOI agents ducked for cover, Dillinger and his men fled from the back of the building.
Hiding in Chicago
-----------------
By July 1934, Dillinger had absconded, and the federal agents did not have any information about his whereabouts. He had, in fact, gone to Chicago where he used the alias of Jimmy Lawrence, a petty criminal from Wisconsin who bore a close resemblance to Dillinger. Working as a clerk, Dillinger found that, in a large metropolis like Chicago, he was able to live an anonymous existence for a while. What he did not realize was that the federal agents' dragnet happened to be based at Chicago. When the authorities found Dillinger's blood-spattered getaway car on a Chicago side street, they were positive that he was in the city.
Plastic surgery
---------------
According to Art O'Leary, as early as March 1934, Dillinger expressed an interest in plastic surgery and had asked O'Leary to check with Piquett on such matters. At the end of April, Piquett paid a visit to his old friend Dr. Wilhelm Loeser. Loeser had practiced in Chicago for 27 years before being convicted under the *Harrison Narcotic Act* in 1931. He was sentenced to three years at Leavenworth, but was paroled early on December 7, 1932, with Piquett's help.[] He later testified that he performed facial surgery on himself and obliterated the fingerprint impressions on the tips of his fingers by the application of a caustic soda preparation. Piquett said Dillinger would have to pay $5,000 for the plastic surgery: $4,400 split between Piquett, Loeser and O'Leary, and $600 to Dr. Harold Cassidy, who would administer the anaesthetic. The procedure would be done at the home of Piquett's longtime friend, 67-year-old James Probasco, at the end of May.[]
On May 28, Loeser was picked up at his home at 7:30 p.m. by O'Leary and Cassidy. The three of them then drove to Probasco's place. Dillinger chose to have a general anaesthetic. Loeser later testified:
>
> I asked him what work he wanted done. He wanted two warts (moles) removed on the right lower forehead between the eyes and one at the left angle, outer angle of the left eye; wanted a depression of the nose filled in; a scar; a large one to the left of the median line of the upper lip excised, wanted his dimples removed and wanted the angle of the mouth drawn up. He didn't say anything about the fingers that day to me.
>
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Cassidy administered an overdose of ether, which caused Dillinger to suffocate. He began to turn blue and stopped breathing. Loeser pulled Dillinger's tongue out of his mouth with a pair of forceps, and at the same time forcing both elbows into his ribs. Dillinger gasped and resumed breathing. The procedure continued with only a local anesthetic. Loeser removed several moles on Dillinger's forehead, made an incision in his nose and an incision in his chin and tied back both cheeks.[]
Loeser met with Piquett again on Saturday, June 2, with Piquett saying that more work was needed on Dillinger and that Van Meter now wanted the same work done to him. Also, both now wanted work done on their fingertips. The price for the fingerprint procedure would be $500 per hand or $100 a finger. Loeser used a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid—- known commonly as aqua regia.[*page needed*]
Loeser met O'Leary the next night at Clark and Wright at 8:30, and they once again drove to Probasco's. Present this evening were Dillinger, Van Meter, Probasco, Piquett, Cassidy, and Peggy Doyle, Probasco's girlfriend. Loeser testified that he worked for only about 30 minutes before O'Leary and Piquett left.
Loeser testified:
>
> Cassidy and I worked on Dillinger and Van Meter simultaneously on June 3. While the work was being done, Dillinger and Van Meter changed off. The work that could be done while the patient was sitting up, that patient was in the sitting-room. The work that had to be done while the man was lying down, that patient was on the couch in the bedroom. They were changed back and forth according to the work to be done. The hands were sterilized, made aseptic with antiseptics, thoroughly washed with soap and water and used sterile gauze afterwards to keep them clean. Next, cutting instrument, knife was used to expose the lower skin ... in other words, take off the epidermis and expose the derma, then alternately the acid and the alkaloid was applied as was necessary to produce the desired results.
>
>
>
Minor work was done two nights later, Tuesday, June 5. Loeser made some small corrections first on Van Meter, then Dillinger. Loeser stated:
>
> A man came in before I left, who I found out later was Baby Face Nelson. He came in with a drum of machine gun bullets under his arm, threw them on the bed or the couch in the bedroom, and started to talk to Van Meter. The two then motioned for Dillinger to come over and the three went back into the kitchen.
>
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Peggy Doyle later told agents:
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> Dillinger and Van Meter resided at Probasco's home until the last week of June 1934; that on some occasions they would be away for a day or two, sometimes leaving separately, and on other occasions together; that at this time Van Meter usually parked his car in the rear of Probasco's residence outside the back fence; that she gathered that Dillinger was keeping company with a young woman who lived on the north side of Chicago, inasmuch as he would state upon leaving Probasco's home that he was going in the direction of Diversey Boulevard; that Van Meter apparently was not acquainted with Dillinger's friend, and she heard him warning Dillinger to be careful about striking up acquaintances with girls he knew nothing about; that Dillinger and Van Meter usually kept a machine gun in an open case under the piano in the parlor; that they also kept a shotgun under the parlor table.
>
>
>
O'Leary stated that Dillinger expressed dissatisfaction with the facial work that Loeser had performed on him. O'Leary said that, on another occasion, "that Probasco told him, 'the son of a bitch has gone out for one of his walks'; that he did not know when he would return; that Probasco raved about the craziness of Dillinger, stating that he was always going for walks and was likely to cause the authorities to locate the place where he was staying; that Probasco stated frankly on this occasion that he was afraid to have the man around."[]
Agents arrested Loeser at 1127 South Harvey, Oak Park, Illinois, on Tuesday, July 24. O'Leary returned from a family fishing trip on July 24, the day of Loeser's arrest, and had read in the newspapers that the Department of Justice was looking for two doctors and another man in connection with some plastic surgery that had been done on Dillinger. O'Leary left Chicago immediately, but returned two weeks later, learned that Loeser and others had been arrested, telephoned Piquett, who assured him everything was all right, then left again. He returned from St. Louis on August 25 and was promptly taken into custody.
On Friday, July 27, Probasco fell to his death from the 19th floor of the Bankers' Building in Chicago while in custody. On Thursday, August 23, Homer Van Meter was shot and killed in a dead-end alley in St. Paul by Tom Brown, former St. Paul police chief, and then-current chief Frank Cullen.[]
Polly Hamilton
--------------
Rita "Polly" Hamilton was a teenage runaway from Fargo, North Dakota. She met Ana Ivanova Akalieva (Ana Cumpănaș; a.k.a. Ana Sage) in Gary, Indiana, and worked periodically as a prostitute in Ana's brothel until marrying Gary police officer Roy O. Keele in 1929. They divorced in March 1933.
In the summer of 1934, the now 26-year-old Hamilton was a waitress in Chicago at the S&S Sandwich Shop located at 1209½ Wilson Avenue. She had remained friends with Sage and was sharing living space with Sage and Sage's 24-year-old son, Steve, at 2858 Clark Street.
Dillinger and Hamilton, a Billie Frechette look-a-like, met in June 1934 at the Barrel of Fun night club located at 4541 Wilson Avenue. Dillinger introduced himself as Jimmy Lawrence and said he was a clerk at the Board of Trade. They dated until Dillinger's death at the Biograph Theater in July 1934.
Betrayal
--------
Division of Investigations chief J. Edgar Hoover created a special task force headquartered in Chicago to locate Dillinger. On July 21, Ana Cumpănaș, a madam from a brothel in Gary, Indiana, also known as "The Woman in Red" contacted the FBI. She was a Romanian immigrant threatened with deportation for "low moral character" and offered agents information on Dillinger in exchange for their help in preventing her deportation. The FBI agreed to her terms, but she was later deported nonetheless. Cumpănaș revealed that Dillinger was spending time with another prostitute, Polly Hamilton, and that she and the couple were going to see a movie together on the next day. She agreed to wear an orange dress, so police could easily identify her. She was unsure which of two theaters they would attend, the Biograph or the Marbro.
On December 15, 1934, pardons were issued by Indiana Governor Harry G. Leslie for the offenses of which Ana Cumpănaș was convicted.
Cumpănaș stated that on Sunday afternoon, July 22, Dillinger asked her whether she wanted to go to the show with them (Polly and him).
>
> She asked him what show was he going to see, and he said he would 'like to see the theater around the corner,' meaning the Biograph Theater. She stated she was unable to leave the house to inform Purvis or Martin about Dillinger's plans to attend the Biograph, but as they were going to have fried chicken for the evening meal, she told Polly she had nothing in which to fry the chicken and was going to the store to get some butter; that while at the store she called Mr. Purvis and informed him of Dillinger's plans to attend the Biograph that evening, at the same time obtaining the butter. She then returned to the house so Polly would not be suspicious that she went out to call anyone.
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The crowd at Chicago's Biograph Theater on July 22, 1934, shortly after Dillinger was killed there by FBI agents
A team of federal agents and officers from police forces from outside of Chicago was formed, along with a very small number of Chicago police officers. Among them was East Chicago Police Department Sergeant Martin Zarkovich, the officer to whom Cumpănaș had acted as a criminal informant. At the time, federal officials felt that the Chicago Police Department was thoroughly corrupt and could not be trusted; Hoover and Purvis also wanted more of the credit. Not wanting to take the risk of another embarrassing escape of Dillinger, the police were divided into two groups. On Sunday, one team was sent to the Marbro Theater on the city's west side, while another team surrounded the Biograph Theater at 2433 N. Lincoln Avenue on the north side.
Shooting at the Biograph Theater and death
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FBI photograph of the Biograph Theater taken July 28, 1934, six days after the shooting, the only night *Murder in Trinidad* played
A Dillinger death mask made from an original mold, one of four made. A second is on display at the Alcatraz East museum in Pigeon Forge, TN. Note the bullet exit mark below the right eye.
Grave at Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Indiana – at least the fourth marker to be replaced since 1934, due to souvenir seekers chipping away at them
At approximately 8:30 p.m. Sage, Hamilton, and Dillinger were observed entering the Biograph Theater, which was showing the crime drama *Manhattan Melodrama*, featuring Clark Gable, Myrna Loy, and William Powell. During the stakeout, the Biograph's manager thought the agents were criminals preparing for a robbery. He called the Chicago police, who dutifully responded and had to be waved off by the federal agents, who told them that they were on a stakeout for an important target.
When the movie ended, Purvis stood by the front door and signaled Dillinger's exit by lighting a cigar. Both he and the other agents reported that Dillinger turned his head and looked directly at the agent as he walked by, glanced across the street, then moved ahead of his female companions, reached into his pocket but failed to extract his gun, and ran into a nearby alley. Other accounts stated Dillinger ignored a command to surrender, whipped out his gun, then headed for the alley. Agents already had the alley closed off.
Three men pursued Dillinger into the alley and fired. Clarence Hurt shot twice, Charles Winstead three times, and Herman Hollis once. Dillinger was hit from behind and fell face first to the ground.
Dillinger was struck four times, with two bullets grazing him and one causing a superficial wound to the right side. The fatal bullet entered through the back of his neck, severed the spinal cord, passed into his brain and exited just under the right eye, severing two sets of veins and arteries. An ambulance was summoned, although it was soon apparent Dillinger had died from the gunshot wounds; he was officially pronounced dead at Alexian Brothers Hospital. According to investigators, Dillinger died without saying a word. Winstead was later thought to have fired the fatal shot, and as a consequence received a personal letter of commendation[*specify*] from J. Edgar Hoover.
Two female bystanders, Theresa Paulas and Etta Natalsky, were wounded. Dillinger bumped into Natalsky just as the shooting started. Natalsky was shot and was taken to Columbus Hospital.
Dillinger was shot and killed by the special agents on July 22, 1934, at approximately 10:40 p.m, according to a *New York Times* report the next day. Dillinger's death came only two months after the deaths of fellow notorious criminals Bonnie and Clyde. There were reports of people dipping their handkerchiefs and skirts into the pool of blood that had formed, as Dillinger lay in the alley, as keepsakes: "Souvenir hunters madly dipped newspapers in the blood that stained the pavement. Handkerchiefs were whipped out and used to mop up the blood."
Funeral
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Dillinger's body was available for public display at the Cook County morgue. An estimated 15,000 people viewed the corpse over a day and a half. As many as four death masks were also made.
Dillinger is buried at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis. Dillinger's gravestone has been replaced several times because of vandalism by people chipping off pieces as souvenirs. Hilton Crouch (1903–1976), an associate of Dillinger's on some early heists, is buried only a few yards to the west.
Popular culture
---------------
### Literature
* "The Shooting of John Dillinger Outside the Biograph Theater, July 22, 1934" a narrative poem by David Wagoner published in his collection *Staying Alive* (1966). The poet postulates some underlying reasons for the unfolding chain of events, significantly from Dillinger's perspective.
* John Dillinger is frequently referred to in the work of William S. Burroughs. An example is the poem "Thanksgiving Prayer" that is dedicated to Dillinger "in hopes he is still alive".
* John Dillinger is featured as a character in The Illuminatus Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.
* John Dillinger is frequently alluded to in the works of Thomas Pynchon.
* John Dillinger is the main character in Jack Higgins *Thunder at Noon*.
John Dillinger is referenced in one of Robert Indiana's 'Column' sculptures (c.1960)
### Movie depictions
* 1935: The MGM crime movie *Public Hero No. 1* incorporates fictionalized details from Dillinger's narrative, including a gun battle at a Wisconsin roadhouse and the killing of the fugitive gangster (Joseph Calleia) as he leaves a theater.
* 1941: Humphrey Bogart played a Dillinger-like role in *High Sierra*, a movie based loosely on research into Dillinger's life by W.R. Burnett.
* 1945: Lawrence Tierney played the title role in the first movie dramatization of Dillinger's career; *Dillinger*.
* 1957: Director Don Siegel's movie *Baby Face Nelson*, featured Mickey Rooney as Nelson and Leo Gordon as Dillinger.
* 1965: *Young Dillinger*, featuring Nick Adams as John Dillinger, and Robert Conrad as "Pretty Boy" Floyd.
* 1969: Director Marco Ferreri's movie *Dillinger Is Dead* includes documentary footage of real John Dillinger as well as newspaper clips.
* 1971: *Appointment with Destiny; The Last Days of John Dillinger*, narrated by Rod Serling, 52 minutes. Shot in newsreel style, very accurate for its time. The late Joseph Pinkston served as technical advisor. Pinkston himself makes an uncredited cameo in the Biograph sequence, playing an agent.
* 1973: *Dillinger*, directed and written by John Milius with Warren Oates in the title role, presents the gang sympathetically, in keeping with the anti-hero theme popular in movies after *Bonnie and Clyde* (1967).
* 1979: Lewis Teague directed the movie *The Lady in Red*, featuring Pamela Sue Martin as the eponymous lady in the red dress. However, in this movie, it is Dillinger's girlfriend Polly in red, not the Romanian informant Ana Sage (Louise Fletcher). Sage tricks Polly into wearing red so that FBI agents can identify Dillinger (Robert Conrad) as he emerges from the cinema.
* 1991: A TV movie *Dillinger*, featuring Mark Harmon
* 1995: Roger Corman produced the fictional movie *Dillinger and Capone*, featuring Martin Sheen as Dillinger and F. Murray Abraham as Al Capone. Dillinger survives the theater stakeout when the FBI mistakenly guns down his brother and is then blackmailed by Capone into retrieving $15 million from his secret vault.
* 2004: *Teargas and Tommyguns; Dillinger Robs the First National Bank*, DVD, Mason City Public Library, 38 minutes. Documentary regarding the bank robbery, including contemporary interviews with still-living witnesses; also contains the H.C. Kunkleman movie in its entirety.
* 2009: Director Michael Mann's movie *Public Enemies* is an adaptation of Bryan Burrough's book *Public Enemies: America's Greatest Crime Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 1933–34.* The movie features Johnny Depp as John Dillinger, Marion Cotillard as Billie Frechette, and Christian Bale as FBI agent Melvin Purvis. Although the movie has accurate portrayals of several major moments in Dillinger's life—- such as his death and dialogue at his arraignment hearing—- it is inaccurate in some major historical details, such as the timeline (and location) of deaths of major criminals including Pretty Boy Floyd, Baby Face Nelson, and Homer Van Meter.
* 2012: British actor Alexander Ellis portrayed Dillinger in the first Dollar Baby screen adaptation of Stephen King's short story, "The Death of Jack Hamilton".
Dillinger features as an incidental character in Joel and Ethan Coen's "O Brother, Where Art Thou?" (2000)
### Other references
* The experimental metalcore musical band The Dillinger Escape Plan is named for Dillinger.
* A tavern in the Greenbelt 3 shopping mall, in Makati in the Philippine Islands, is named "Dillinger 1903," referencing his name and year of birth.
* Dillinger is mentioned in 1973 Elton John's song "The Ballad of Danny Bailey (1909–34)" from *Goodbye Yellow Brick Road*.
* In The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror IV", Dillinger appears as a member of the Jury of the Damned.
* Woody Allen's character's failed prison escape in the movie *Take the Money and Run* is a parody of Dillinger's 1934 escape.
* In the movie *High Fidelity* the main character Rob references the shooting at the Biograph movie theater, but gets several details wrong, including who tipped off the federal agents.
* The song, "Reverie", by Protest the Hero (*Palimpsest*, 2020) depicts Dillinger's hardening into "the meanest bastard you've ever seen" during incarceration.
* Headie One references Dillinger in his 2021 single "Siberia".
* Referenced in *Seinfeld* Season 4 "The Handicap Spot".
* Referenced in *The Newsroom* Season 2, Episode 2 "The Genoa Tip".
* Referenced in *The Americans* Season 2, Episode 11, Stealth (38:23)
* Referenced in *Breaking Bad* Season 5, Episode 15, "Granite State" by Saul.
Gallery of Dillinger Gang members
---------------------------------
* Homer Van MeterHomer Van Meter
* John HamiltonJohn Hamilton
* Charles MakleyCharles Makley
* Eddie GreenEddie Green
* Lester Joseph Gillis ("Baby Face Nelson")Lester Joseph Gillis ("Baby Face Nelson")
* Tommy CarrollTommy Carroll
Further reading
---------------
* Beverly, William. *On the Lam: Narratives of Flight in J. Edgar Hoover's America*. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. 2003. ISBN 1-57806-537-2.
* Burrough, Bryan. *Public Enemies: America's Greatest Crime Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 1933–34* Archived 2012-09-24 at the Wayback Machine. New York: Penguin Press. 2004. ISBN 1-59420-021-1.
* Cromie, Robert and Pinkston, Joseph. *Dillinger: A Short and Violent Life* (1962)
* DeBartolo, Anthony. *Dillinger's Dupes: Town Seeks To Preserve A Jail Yet Escape A Dastardly Deed*. *Chicago Tribune*.
* Erickson, Matt and Bill Thornbro. *John Dillinger: A Year in the Life.* *The Times of Northwest Indiana*.
* Girardin, G. Russell, Helmer, William J. Mattix, Rick. *Dillinger: The Untold Story*.
* Gorn, Elliott J. *Dillinger's Wild Ride: The Year That Made America's Public Enemy Number One* (New York, OUP USA, 2009).
* Helmer, William J.; Mattix, Rick (1998). Public Enemies: America's Criminal Past, 1919–1940. New York City, New York: Facts on File. p. 17. ISBN 0-8160-3160-6.
* Peters, Robert. *What Dillinger Meant to Me* Seahorse Press 1983 (with link to complete text online)
* Toland, John. *The Dillinger Days*. Random House 1963 |
American rock and roll singer (born 1942)
**Robin Luke** (born 20 March 1942, Los Angeles, California, United States) is an American rock and roll singer who is best known for his 1958 song, "Susie Darlin'". He later worked as a University professor in Marketing. Luke has been enshrined in the Rockabilly Hall of Fame.
Biography
---------
Robin Luke was discovered by Hawaii entrepreneur Kimo Wilder McVay. Luke was living in Honolulu, Hawaii, attending Punahou School, in 1958 when he wrote and recorded "Susie Darlin'", a song named after his then five-year-old sister, Susie. The track reached #5 on the *Billboard* Hot 100 and #23 on the UK Singles Chart, selling over one million copies and earning a gold disc. He continued to record, but was unable to repeat his chart success. His first four singles were recorded for the small International Records label in Honolulu. After "Susie Darlin'" started getting local airplay, Dot Records bought his recording contract and the International master tapes.
Robin Luke stated that he never envisioned pursuing music as a career and quit the professional music business in 1965. As of 2012, he still performs occasionally on the side. He received his Ph.D. in Business Administration and Marketing at the University of Missouri-Columbia, and served as a professor at Old Dominion University, the University of the Virgin Islands, and Missouri State University. He became Department Head at Old Dominion University and founded the marketing department at Missouri State University.
He retired professionally in 2011.
Discography
-----------
### Singles
| Year | Title | Peak chartpositions | Record Label | B-side |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| USPop | USR&B | UK |
| 1958 | "Susie Darlin'" | 5 | 26 | 23 | Dot | "Living's Loving You" |
| "Chicka Chicka Honey" | — | — | — | "My Girl" |
| 1959 | "You Can't Stop Me From Dreaming" | — | — | — | "Strollin' Blues" |
| "Five Minutes More" | — | — | — | "Who's Gonna Hold Your Hand" |
| "Make Me a Dreamer" | — | — | — | "Walkin' in the Moonlight" |
| "Bad Boy" | — | — | — | "School Bus Love Affair" |
| 1960 | "Well Oh, Well Oh (Don't You Know)" | — | — | — | "Everlovin'" |
| "All Because of You" | — | — | — | "So Alone" |
| 1961 | "Part of a Fool" | — | — | — | "Poor Little Rich Boy" |
| 1962 | "Foggin' up the Windows" (featuring Roberta Shore) | — | — | — | |
|
### Albums
* *Susie Darlin'* (Dot 1092 10", 1958) |
Until 1 January 2007 **Bramming Municipality** was a municipality (Danish: *kommune*) in Ribe County on the west coast of the Jutland peninsula in southwest Denmark. The municipality covered an area of 170 km², and had a total population of 13,638 (2005). Its last mayor was Karl Kristian Knudtzen, a member of the Venstre (Liberal Party) political party. The main town and the site of its municipal council was the town of Bramming.
Bramming municipality ceased to exist as the result of the Municipal Reform of 2007 (*Kommunalreformen*). It was merged with the former Ribe and Esbjerg municipalities to form the new Esbjerg Municipality. This created a municipality with an area of 741 km² and a total population of 114,097 (2005). The new municipality belongs to the Region of Southern Denmark (*Region Syddanmark*).
Notable people
--------------
* John Lauridsen (born 1959) a retired Danish professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder, played 27 times for Denmark. After his football career he settled in Bramming
* Anders Dreyer (born 1998) professional footballer for St Mirren. |
State highway in Maryland, United States
**Maryland Route 435** (**MD 435**) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The highway runs 1.16 miles (1.87 km) from MD 387 and MD 450 north to MD 450 within Annapolis. MD 435 connects MD 450 with the West Annapolis neighborhood and Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium. The state highway was constructed along most of its current course in the late 1920s. MD 435 and MD 436 switched parts of their routes, with MD 435 attaining its presenting course, in the mid-1950s.
Route description
-----------------
View south at the north end of MD 435 at MD 450 in Annapolis
MD 435 begins at Westgate Circle, a roundabout whose other legs are MD 450 (West Street) and MD 387 (Spa Road). The highway heads north along Taylor Avenue, a two-lane undivided municipally maintained road along the east side of Annapolis National Cemetery. MD 435 passes through an S-curve as it passes the Annapolis Police Department and an old railroad grade. The highway becomes state maintained just south of Rosedale Street. MD 435 curves to the east as it passes along the east side of Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium, the home stadium of the Navy Midshipmen football team. The highway intersects MD 70 (Roscoe Rowe Boulevard) and meets the southern end of MD 436 (Ridgely Avenue) in the West Annapolis neighborhood. MD 435 turns south from Taylor Avenue onto Annapolis Street and enters the campus of the U.S. Naval Academy. The highway curves east again and reaches its eastern terminus at MD 450, which heads east across the Severn River on Baltimore–Annapolis Boulevard and south toward downtown Annapolis on King George Street.
History
-------
The Maryland State Roads Commission paved several streets with concrete in West Annapolis in 1929 and 1930; those streets became part of four state highways. MD 435 was constructed as an 18-foot-wide (5.5 m) road beginning at the Annapolis, Washington and Baltimore Railroad. The state highway followed Taylor Avenue north to Annapolis Street, continued north on Annapolis Street to Severn Avenue (now Melvin Avenue), then followed Severn Avenue to Wardour Drive. The portion of modern MD 435 from Taylor Avenue to MD 2 (now MD 450) was MD 436. The two other state highways in West Annapolis were MD 437, which followed Revell Street (now Ridgely Avenue) from Taylor Avenue to Severn Avenue, and MD 438, which followed Severn Avenue west one block from Annapolis Street then north along what is now MD 436.
MD 435 was extended south along Division Street to West Street, which then carried US 50 and MD 2, by 1946. MD 435 assumed its modern routing between intersections with MD 450 in 1954. The Annapolis Street part of MD 435 became the southernmost part of MD 436. The Melvin Avenue part of MD 435 became MD 438. MD 437 remained along Ridgely Avenue between Taylor Avenue and Melvin Avenue. MD 436 assumed its modern routing and MD 437 and MD 438 were removed from the state highway system in 1975. The portion of MD 435 south of Rosedale Street was transferred from state to municipal maintenance in 1978. The Westgate Circle roundabout was installed in 1999.
Junction list
-------------
The entire route is in Annapolis, Anne Arundel County.
| mi | km | Destinations | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0.00 | 0.00 | MD 387 south (Spa Road) / MD 450 (West Street) – Parole | Westgate Circle roundabout; southern terminus; northern terminus of MD 387 |
| 0.81 | 1.30 | MD 70 (Roscoe Rowe Boulevard) to US 50 – Baltimore, Washington | |
| 0.92 | 1.48 | MD 436 north (Ridgely Avenue) | Southern terminus of MD 436 |
| 1.16 | 1.87 | MD 450 (Baltimore–Annapolis Boulevard/King George Street) – Baltimore | Northern terminus |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi | |
Spanish painter
Cristo de Varón de Dolores entre la Virgen y San Juan (Pietà), Museo del Prado
**Diego de la Cruz** (fl. 1482-1500) was a Spanish painter who may have been of Flemish origin. He was active in Burgos and the neighboring region.
Biography
---------
He was long forgotten, until being rediscovered in 1966, thanks to a study by José Gudiol Ricart, who proposed that he was born in Flanders around 1460 and arrived in Spain before the first group of Flemish painters arrived, led by Juan de Flandes. Other researchers, such as José Camón Aznar [es] presumed that he was born in Spain; probably Castile. This viewpoint was supported by Didier Martens (born 1960), who published a study on the subject in 2001. The influence upon his work by painters of the Burgundian Netherlands, such as Rogier van der Weyden, especially in his treatment of light, may be explained by their presence in Spain, rather than by his origins. Even Guidol suggests that he began as a sculptor and may have started his artistic career in the workshop of Gil de Siloé, who is believed to have been born in Antwerp.
His artistic personality is largely defined by two works: *Cristo de Varón de Dolores entre la Virgen y San Juan*, at the Museo del Prado; his only signed work, probably created between 1475-1480, and the *Estigmatización de San Francisco de Asís* at the Iglesia de San Esteban de Burgos (1487-1489). Based on an analysis of these works, it has been possible to make other attributions: notably, *Cristo de Piedad entre dos ángeles* at the Colegiata de Covarrubias [es], and the *Cristo de Piedad entre los profetas David y Jeremías*, the central tableau of the predella of an altarpiece and companion to two other tableaux (of the prophets Isaiah and Daniel) in the collection of the University of Liège, which have been attributed to the German painter, Hans Leonhard Schäufelein.
Further reading
---------------
* Azcárate, José María, *Arte gótico en España*, Madrid, 2000, Cátedra, ISBN 978-84-376-0894-5 pg. 391.
* Martens, Didier, "Diego de la Cruz, cuarenta años después de su redescubrimiento: balance de las investigaciones y nuevas propuestas", in: *Goya*, 283-284 (2001), pgs. 208-222.
* Silva Maroto, Pilar, *Donación Várez Fisa*, Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, 2013, ISBN 978-84-8480-280-8 pg.38. |
Nathan in 2016
**Pareaute Polly Nathan** QSM is a New Zealand Māori educator and weaver. In the 2016 Queen's Birthday Honours, she was awarded the Queen's Service Medal, for services to Māori and education.
Biography
---------
Nathan completed a teaching diploma at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, in 1994. She spent much of her working life as a Māori language teacher in the Far North of the North Island of New Zealand. She taught at Ahipara School and Kaitaia College, and was Head of Māori at Kaitaia College from 1985 until her retirement in 2003. She also visited and supported Māori language teaching in other schools in the region as a member of Te Reo o Te Tai Tokerau, the secondary schools te reo Maori teachers' group. At Kaitaia College she hosted regional kapa haka and speech competitions, and established the annual Far North Schools Multi-cultural Festival in the 1980s.
Nathan began weaving in the 1960s, learning from 'Aunty' Florrie Berghan. After her retirement from teaching in 2003 she became more involved with weaving, holding monthly workshops at the Ahipara's Roma marae. In 2009 she established a weaving gallery, Te Whare Whiri Toi, to maintain the art of traditional weaving, and organised a national weavers' hui at Ahipara. In 2015 she received Creative New Zealand's Te Waka Toi Tohunga Raranga (King Ihaka) Award.
Nathan is a member of the Tainui and Te Rarawa tribes. |
Russian diplomat and Orientalist
Iosif Goshkevich
**Iosif Antonovich Goshkevich** (Russian: Иосиф Антонович Гошкевич) (April 16, 1814, in Minsk Governorate – October 5, 1875) was a Russian diplomat and Orientalist of Belarusian descent. He graduated from the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy in 1839 and served in the Russian clerical legation in Beijing from 1839 to 1848. From 1853 to 1855, he worked as an interpreter for the Chinese language in Yefim Putyatin's embassy in Japan. Goshkevich then served in Asiatic department of Russian MFA from 1856 to 1858. Along with a Japanese co-author, Goshkevich compiled the first Japanese-Russian dictionary, which was published in Saint Petersburg in 1857. Goshkevich also became the first Russian diplomatic representative in Japan, serving from 1858 to 1865. He wrote several works about China, Japan and the peculiarities of Japanese and Chinese languages.
Biography
---------
Goshkevich, the son of a priest, attended the Minsk Theological Seminary, graduating in 1835 with the best marks, and was then sent to study at the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy. His thesis on the history of the Sacrament of Penance earned him a doctorate.
By decision of the Most Holy Synod, Goshkevich became a member of the 12th Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Beijing in 1839. There he worked as a naturalist. His insect and butterfly collection later completed the collections of the Academy of Sciences. He described the production of ink as well as Chinese customs and traditions, and he compiled a Russian-Manchurian dictionary. For his fundamental reports, he received the Order of Saint Stanislaus 3rd Class.
After returning to St. Petersburg in 1848, Goshkevich became an official for special tasks in the Asia Department of the Foreign Ministry in 1850. In 1852 he took part in Yevfimiy Putyatin's mission to Japan as interpreter and adviser on the frigate Pallada. On January 26, he participated in the signing of the Treaty of Shimoda. In July 1855 he left Japan on the brig Greta, on which he became a British prisoner in Hong Kong due to the still ongoing Crimean War. In captivity, with the help of the Japanese Tazibana-no Koossai (1820-1885, after baptism Vladimir Iossifovich Yamatov), he compiled the first Japanese-Russian dictionary. When Goshkevich returned to St. Petersburg after the end of the Crimean War in 1856, he was awarded the Medal of Remembrance of the War of 1853–1856. In 1857 he was awarded the Order of Saint Anna 2nd Class with Crown with an additional 500 rubles in silver. His Japanese-Russian dictionary was printed, and he was appointed Imperial Russian Consul in Japan. In 1858 he received the undivided Demidov Prize.
In November 1858, Goshkevich arrived in Hakodate on the sailing screw clipper Dzhigit. He immediately traveled to Edo for the ratification of the Russo-Japanese Trade and Navigation Treaty. His wife Yelizaveta Stepanovna died in 1864 at the age of 43 and was buried in the Russian cemetery in Hakodate.
In 1865 he returned to St. Petersburg and served in the Asia Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the rank of Collegiate Councillor (6th rank class). In 1866 he retired from the service and settled on his estate Mali. He had a rich library and a collection of valuable maps. He wrote a book on the roots of the Japanese language, which was not published until after his death in 1899. In 1871 he and his second wife were admitted to the hereditary nobility. In 1872 their son Iossif was born. |
Person trained for flights of a specific payload on a NASA Space Shuttle mission
Ukrainian astronaut Leonid Kadenyuk seen with a badge of payload specialist on the left side of his chest
A **payload specialist** (**PS**) was an individual selected and trained by commercial or research organizations for flights of a specific payload on a NASA Space Shuttle mission. People assigned as payload specialists included individuals selected by the research community, a company or consortium flying a commercial payload aboard the spacecraft, and non-NASA astronauts designated by international partners.
The term refers to both the individual and to the position on the Shuttle crew.
History
-------
Main article: Astronaut ranks and positions
The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 states that NASA should provide the "widest practicable and appropriate dissemination of information concerning its activities and the results thereof". The Naugle panel of 1982 concluded that carrying civilians—those not part of the NASA Astronaut Corps—on the Space Shuttle was part of "the purpose of adding to the public's understanding of space flight".
Payload specialists usually fly for a single specific mission. Chosen outside the standard NASA mission specialist selection process, they are exempt from certain NASA requirements such as colorblindness. Roger Crouch and Ulf Merbold are examples of those who flew in space despite not meeting NASA physical requirements; the agency's director of crew training Jim Bilodeau said in April 1981 "we'll be able to take everybody but the walking wounded". Payload specialists were not required to be United States citizens, but had to be approved by NASA and undergo rigorous but shorter training. In contrast, a Space Shuttle mission specialist was selected as a NASA astronaut first and then assigned to a mission.
Payload specialists on early missions were technical experts to join specific payloads such as a commercial or scientific satellite. On Spacelab and other missions with science components, payload specialists were scientists with expertise in specific experiments. The term also applied to representatives from partner nations who were given the opportunity of a first flight on board of the Space Shuttle (such as Saudi Arabia and Mexico), to Congressmen and the Teacher in Space program. Under Secretary of the Air Force Edward C. Aldridge Jr. was offered a seat to improve relations between NASA and the United States Air Force.
NASA expected to also fly "citizen astronauts", ordinary Americans who could describe space to others. In August 1984 President Ronald Reagan announced the Teacher in Space Project, the first such program. NASA expected to fly reporters (Journalist in Space Project), entertainers, and creative types later.
NASA categorized full-time international astronauts as payload specialists unless they received NASA mission specialist training, which some did. Bilodeau estimated that payload specialists would receive a couple of hundred hours of training over four or five weeks. International or scientific payload specialists were generally assigned a back-up who trained alongside the primary payload specialist and would replace him/her in the event of illness or other disability. Both primary and backup payload specialists received mission-specific and general training. Michael Lampton estimated that about 20% of his training was general, including firefighter school, capsule communicator duty, and use of Personal Egress Air Packs and the space toilet. He described training for Spacelab 1 as "going back to graduate school but majoring in everything"; as the first mission it tested Spacelab's versatility in "medical, metallurgical, remote sensing, astronomy, microgravity, lots more".
Payload specialists operated experiments, and participated in experiments needing human subjects. Charles D. Walker recalled that Senator Jake Garn "and I were the obvious subjects" for Rhea Seddon's echocardiograph on STS-51-D. "We really didn’t have much of a choice in whether we were going to be subjects or not. 'You're a payload specialist; you’re going to be a subject.'" Besides his own electrophoresis work, Walker operated an unrelated experiment for the University of Alabama Birmingham, and helped build homemade repair tools for a satellite launched on the mission.
Payload specialists were flown from 1983 (STS-9) to 2003 (STS-107). The last flown payload specialist was the first Israeli astronaut, Ilan Ramon, who was killed in the *Columbia* disaster on mission STS-107 with the rest of the crew.
Criticism
---------
Within NASA, Johnson Space Center (JSC) controlled crewed spaceflight by selecting professional, full-time astronauts. The payload specialist program gave Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)—which supervised Spacelab, including a contracted European Space Agency-chosen payload specialist—control as well, causing conflicts. JSC director Chris Kraft and members of the NASA astronaut corps believed that mission specialists—many with doctoral degrees or other scientific background, and all with full-time astronaut training—could operate all experiments. Rick Chappell, chief scientist of MSFC, believed that the scientific community insisted on its own scientists being able to operate experiments in exchange for support of the Space Shuttle program. While mission specialists could operate most experiments, "Since we could take passengers, why not take at least a couple of passengers who had spent their whole careers doing the kind of research they were going to do in space?" he said.
During the Space Shuttle design process, some said that crews should be no larger than four people; both for safety, and because a commander, pilot, mission specialist, and payload specialist were sufficient for any mission. NASA expected to fly more payload specialists so it designed a larger vehicle. Only NASA astronauts piloted the space shuttle, but mission specialist astronauts worried about competing with American and international payload specialists for very limited flight opportunities. In 1984 about 45 mission specialists competed for about 15 seats on the five shuttle flights. Only three payload specialists flew that year, but in 1985 eight of nine shuttle flights carried 15 payload specialists (Walker flying twice), no doubt angering mission specialists. Some payload specialists like Walker and Byron Lichtenberg were rejected as full-time astronauts but flew as payload specialists before many selected as such, and some may have flown without understanding the level of danger. Many astronauts worried that without years of training together they would not be able to trust payload specialists in an emergency; Henry Hartsfield described their concern as "If you had a problem on orbit, am I going to have to babysit this person?" NASA's preference for its own training caused the agency to offer some international payload specialists the opportunity to become mission specialists, the first being Claude Nicollier.
Those skeptical of the payload specialist program were less critical of scientists and experts like Walker than non-expert passengers ("part-timers", according to Mike Mullane, who called the program public relations-driven and immoral in *Riding Rockets*) like
Garn, US Representative Bill Nelson, and other civilians such as Teacher in Space Christa McAuliffe. They saw Senator John Glenn as a passenger despite being a former Mercury Seven astronaut. A 1986 post-*Challenger* article in *The Washington Post* reviewed the issue, reporting that as far back as 1982, NASA was concerned with finding reasonable justifications for flying civilians on the Shuttle as was directed by the Reagan administration. The article says that "A review of records and interviews with past and present NASA and government officials shows the civilian program's controversial background, with different groups pushing for different approaches". The article concludes with:
> Author Tom Wolfe, who chronicled the early days of the space program in *The Right Stuff,* wrote after the *Challenger* explosion that support for the citizen program, and therefore McAuliffe's place aboard the ill-fated shuttle, was part of an insiders' battle. NASA civilians, pitting themselves against the professional astronauts, used the program for the "dismantling of Astropower," which Wolfe described as "the political grip the original breed of fighter-pilot test-pilot astronauts had on NASA."
>
>
Payload specialists were aware of full-time astronauts' dislike of the program. Garn advised STS-51-D colleague Jeffrey A. Hoffman to not play poker because, the astronaut quoted, "'It took you a while to disguise your initial skepticism about this whole thing'". Merbold said that at JSC he was treated as an intruder. Once payload specialists were assigned to a mission, however, full-time astronauts treated them respectfully and often began long-term friendships. Mullane became less critical of them after his first mission; he and Hartsfield approved of Walker, as did Hoffman of Garn after STS-51-D.
List of all payload specialists
-------------------------------
### Until *Challenger*
| Payload specialist | Mission | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Ulf Merbold | STS-9 | first payload specialists, Ulf Merbold was the first international (German) payload specialist |
| Byron K. Lichtenberg |
| Charles D. Walker | STS-41-D | first non government-affiliated payload specialist |
| Marc Garneau | STS-41-G | Garneau was the first Canadian in space, Scully-Power the first Australian |
| Paul Scully-Power |
| Gary Payton | STS-51-C | first military payload specialist |
| Charles D. Walker | STS-51-D | |
| Jake Garn | then-US Senator, first US legislative branch payload specialist |
| Lodewijk van den Berg | STS-51-B | |
| Taylor Wang |
| Patrick Baudry | STS-51-G | two international payload specialists |
| Sultan bin Salman Al Saud |
| Loren Acton | STS-51-F | |
| John-David F. Bartoe |
| William A. Pailes | STS-51-J | |
| Reinhard Furrer | STS-61-A | three international payload specialists, most payload specialists on a single flight |
| Ernst Messerschmid |
| Wubbo Ockels |
| Rodolfo Neri Vela | STS-61-B | first Mexican in space |
| Charles D. Walker | Walker's third and final spaceflight |
| Robert J. Cenker | STS-61-C | |
| Bill Nelson | then-US Representative, second and final US legislative branch payload specialist, later NASA Administrator |
| Gregory Jarvis | STS-51-L | McAuliffe was a private citizen selected as part of Teacher in Space Project; killed in the *Challenger* disaster |
| Christa McAuliffe |
### Post-*Challenger* to *Columbia*
| Payload specialist | Mission | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Samuel T. Durrance | STS-35 | first post-*Challenger* payload specialists |
| Ronald A. Parise |
| F. Drew Gaffney | STS-40 | |
| Millie Hughes-Fulford |
| Thomas J. Hennen | STS-44 | |
| Roberta Bondar | STS-42 | |
| Ulf Merbold |
| Byron K. Lichtenberg | STS-45 | |
| Dirk Frimout | first Belgian in space |
| Lawrence J. DeLucas | STS-50 | |
| Eugene H. Trinh |
| Franco Malerba | STS-46 | first Italian in space |
| Mamoru Mohri | STS-47 | first Japanese astronaut on board Space Shuttle |
| Steve MacLean | STS-52 | |
| Ulrich Walter | STS-55 | |
| Hans Schlegel |
| Martin J. Fettman | STS-58 | |
| Chiaki Mukai | STS-65 | |
| Samuel T. Durrance | STS-67 | |
| Ronald A. Parise |
| Frederick W. Leslie | STS-73 | |
| Albert Sacco |
| Umberto Guidoni | STS-75 | |
| Jean-Jacques Favier | STS-78 | |
| Robert Thirsk |
| Roger K. Crouch | STS-83 | |
| Gregory T. Linteris |
| Roger K. Crouch | STS-94 | mission reflight |
| Gregory T. Linteris |
| Bjarni Tryggvason | STS-85 | |
| Leonid Kadeniuk | STS-87 | Ukrainian payload specialist |
| Jay C. Buckey | STS-90 | final Spacelab mission |
| James A. Pawelczyk |
| Chiaki Mukai | STS-95 | |
| John Glenn | final American payload specialist |
| Ilan Ramon | STS-107 | first Israeli in space, final payload specialist, killed in the *Columbia* disaster |
Alternate and back-up (not flown) payload specialists
-----------------------------------------------------
| Payload specialist | Mission | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Wubbo Ockels | STS-9 | flew on STS-61-A |
| Michael Lampton | |
| Robert Thirsk | STS-41-G | flew on STS-78 |
| Robert E. Stevenson | |
| Keith Wright | STS-51-C | |
| Mary Johnston | STS-51-B | |
| Eugene H. Trinh | flew on STS-50 |
| Jean-Loup Chrétien | STS-51-G | flew on STS-86 as a mission specialist |
| Abdulmohsen Al-Bassam | |
| George W. Simon | STS-51-F | |
| Dianne K. Prinz |
| Ulf Merbold | STS-61-A | flew on STS-9, STS-42 |
| Barbara Morgan | STS-51-L | flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist |
| Robert W. Phillips | STS-40 | |
| Michael Lampton | STS-45 | |
| Charles R. Chappell |
| Joseph M. Prahl | STS-50 | |
| Albert Sacco | flew on STS-73 |
| Jean-Jacques Favier | STS-65 | flew on STS-78 |
| David H. Matthiesen | STS-73 | |
| R. Glynn Holt |
| Pedro Duque | STS-78 | flew on STS-95 as a mission specialist |
| Luca Urbani | |
| Alan Johnston | STS-83 | |
| Paul Ronney |
| Alan Johnston | STS-94 | |
| Paul Ronney |
| Yaroslav Pustovyi | STS-87 |
| Alexander W. Dunlap | STS-90 | |
| Chiaki Mukai | flew on STS-65, STS-95 |
|
Other statistics
----------------
### Multiple flights
| Flights | Payload specialist |
| --- | --- |
| 3 | Charles Walker |
| 2 | Ulf Merbold, Byron K. Lichtenberg, Samuel T. Durrance, Ronald A. Parise, Chiaki Mukai, Roger Crouch, Greg Linteris |
| No. of payload specialists flights | Country |
| --- | --- |
| 36 | United States |
| 6 | Germany |
| 5 | Canada |
| 3 | Japan |
| 2 | France |
| 2 | Italy |
| 1 | Saudi Arabia |
| 1 | The Netherlands |
| 1 | Mexico |
| 1 | Belgium |
| 1 | Ukraine |
| 1 | Israel |
| Total | 60 payload specialist flight opportunities |
### Payload specialists who later trained as mission specialists
All were international astronauts.
* Marc Garneau – mission specialist on STS-77, STS-97
* Mamoru Mohri – mission specialist on STS-99
* Steven MacLean – mission specialist on STS-115
* Hans Schlegel – mission specialist on STS-122
* Umberto Guidoni – mission specialist on STS-100
* Robert Thirsk – completed training, flew on Soyuz TMA-15
* Bjarni Tryggvason – completed training, retired in June 2008 without flying again |
Canadian ice hockey player
Ice hockey player
**Todd White** (born May 21, 1975) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player.
As a hockey player, he played 13 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Chicago Blackhawks, Philadelphia Flyers, Ottawa Senators, Minnesota Wild, Atlanta Thrashers and New York Rangers.
After retiring from hockey, he settled in his hometown of Ottawa and operates a mortgage business; he is also a frequent host on local sports radio.
Playing career
--------------
White played junior hockey for the Kanata Valley Lazers of the CJHL before heading to Clarkson University on a scholarship. As a senior, he was a finalist for the Hobey Baker Award.
White signed as a free agent with the Chicago Blackhawks on August 6, 1997. That year, he made his NHL debut and scored his first goal. The following year, he played 35 games at the NHL level and scored 13 points. In 1999–2000, Todd played one NHL game with the Blackhawks before being traded on January 26 to the Philadelphia Flyers for a conditional draft pick. He then played three NHL games (one goal) with the Flyers.
On July 12, 2000, White signed as a free agent with the Ottawa Senators. In 16 NHL games that year, he scored four goals. In the post-season, he played his first two playoff games against the Toronto Maple Leafs.
In 2001–02, White joined the NHL ranks full-time. He played in 81 games and scored 20 goals and 50 points. The Senators, however, fell 15 points in the standings and finished third in the Northeast Division. In the playoffs, White scored four points in 12 games as the team reached the second round before losing to the Maple Leafs.
In 2002–03, White finished third on the team with 25 goals and 60 points. He also finished second with 35 assists and a 17.4 shooting percentage. He won the NHL Player of the Month honour for December. In the playoffs, White scored six points in 18 games. On May 19 in game five of the Eastern Conference final, with the Senators down 3–1 in the series, White scored a goal and earned third-star honours in the team's 3–1 victory on home ice.
In 2003–04, White scored 29 points in 53 games as the Senators finished sixth overall in the league standings. In the playoffs, the Senators lost in the opening round against the Maple Leafs. After that season he was traded to the Minnesota Wild for a fourth round draft pick, where he played until 2007 before being signed to a four-year contract with the Atlanta Thrashers.
In the 2008-09 season, White enjoyed his best statistical season to date playing alongside youngster Bryan Little and prolific goal scorer Ilya Kovalchuk, recording 22 goals along with 51 assists. The trio was known in various hockey circles as the "Little White Russian" line.
On August 2, 2010 White was traded to the New York Rangers for Donald Brashear and Patrick Rissmiller.
Career statistics
-----------------
| | | Regular season | | Playoffs |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Season | Team | League | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM | GP | G | A | Pts | PIM |
| 1990–91 | Powassan Passports | NOJHL | 38 | 34 | 38 | 72 | 118 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1991–92 | Kanata Valley Lasers | CJHL | 55 | 39 | 49 | 88 | 30 | 14 | 9 | 18 | 27 | 12 |
| 1992–93 | Kanata Valley Lasers | CJHL | 49 | 51 | 87 | 138 | 46 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1993–94 | Clarkson University | ECAC | 33 | 10 | 11 | 21 | 28 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1994–95 | Clarkson University | ECAC | 34 | 14 | 16 | 30 | 44 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1995–96 | Clarkson University | ECAC | 38 | 29 | 43 | 72 | 36 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1996–97 | Clarkson University | ECAC | 37 | 38 | 36 | 74 | 22 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1997–98 | Indianapolis Ice | IHL | 65 | 46 | 36 | 82 | 28 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 4 |
| 1997–98 | Chicago Blackhawks | NHL | 7 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1998–99 | Chicago Blackhawks | NHL | 35 | 5 | 8 | 13 | 20 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1998–99 | Chicago Wolves | IHL | 25 | 11 | 13 | 24 | 8 | 10 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 8 |
| 1999–2000 | Cleveland Lumberjacks | IHL | 42 | 21 | 30 | 51 | 32 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1999–2000 | Chicago Blackhawks | NHL | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1999–2000 | Philadelphia Phantoms | AHL | 32 | 19 | 24 | 43 | 12 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 4 |
| 1999–2000 | Philadelphia Flyers | NHL | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2000–01 | Grand Rapids Griffins | IHL | 64 | 22 | 32 | 54 | 20 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 10 |
| 2000–01 | Ottawa Senators | NHL | 16 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2001–02 | Ottawa Senators | NHL | 81 | 20 | 30 | 50 | 24 | 12 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 6 |
| 2002–03 | Ottawa Senators | NHL | 80 | 25 | 35 | 60 | 28 | 18 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 6 |
| 2003–04 | Ottawa Senators | NHL | 53 | 9 | 20 | 29 | 22 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
| 2004–05 | Södertälje SK | SEL | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2005–06 | Minnesota Wild | NHL | 61 | 19 | 21 | 40 | 18 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2006–07 | Minnesota Wild | NHL | 77 | 13 | 31 | 44 | 24 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2007–08 | Atlanta Thrashers | NHL | 74 | 14 | 23 | 37 | 36 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2008–09 | Atlanta Thrashers | NHL | 82 | 22 | 51 | 73 | 24 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2009–10 | Atlanta Thrashers | NHL | 65 | 7 | 19 | 26 | 24 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2010–11 | New York Rangers | NHL | 18 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2010–11 | Connecticut Whale | AHL | 9 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
| IHL totals | 196 | 100 | 111 | 211 | 88 | 25 | 7 | 11 | 18 | 22 |
| NHL totals | 653 | 141 | 240 | 381 | 228 | 43 | 8 | 3 | 11 | 16 |
Awards and honours
------------------
| Award | Year |
| --- | --- |
| All-ECAC Hockey Second Team | 1995–96 |
| AHCA East Second-Team All-American | 1995–96 |
| All-ECAC Hockey First Team | 1996–97 |
| AHCA East First-Team All-American | 1996–97 |
| ECAC Hockey All-Tournament Team | 1997 |
| |
English amateur rugby league club, based in Weston-super-Mare, Somerset
**Somerset Vikings** RLFC are a rugby league team from the county of Somerset in England. They play in the West of England Rugby League.
The team play at Hornets RFC Weston-super-Mare. On a full artificial pitch.
In 2004/5 the Vikings became a club subject to a formal constitution and is now run by a committee of five officials elected at the annual general meeting in September assisted by two *ex officio* members.
The club has never finished lower than 3rd in the league and were winners in 2004. The club have a number of sponsors made up of businesses in the Somerset area.
History
-------
*Somerset Vikings* were formed at the beginning of 2003 and joined the Rugby League Conference that same year.
Head coach, Chris Richards, and commercial manager, Darren Horne, manage the side made up of Taunton and Exeter based Royal Marines and a number of local rugby union players. The club were then, the most south-westerly rugby league club in England. The club's first base was Hyde Park, home of Taunton rugby union club.
Somerset Vikings were winners of the Western Division in 2004. In 2004/5, the Vikings became a club subject to a formal constitution. The Vikings finished the 2006 season in second place, losing to Gloucestershire Warriors in the South West and Midlands Grand Final.
Somerset were promoted to the Midlands Premier division for the 2007 season. The typical away match required a round trip of 300 miles; the team finished 4th out of 8. After a campaign by the RFL to form new clubs in the South West, a new South West Division emerged this year for teams from the West Country, Vikings' newly formed second team competed but did not make the play-offs.
In 2008, the club withdrew from the Midlands Premier and joined the South West division; the second team being disbanded. Somerset reached the Grand Final in this first season. In 2010, they made it to the final of the South West cup but lost out again. The next year, they finished top of the table and were awarded the South West Rugby League title following play-off defaults from East Devon Eagles and Devon Sharks.
For the 2012 season, the club played in the new West of England division of the South West Conference; they made it to the Grand Final but lost to Oxford Cavaliers. For the 2012 season, Vikings played at the home of Bridgwater & Albion.
Club honours
------------
* RLC Western Division: 2004
* RLC South West Division: 2011 |
American songwriter
Musical artist
**Andy DiGelsomina** is an American composer, lead guitarist, songwriter, orchestrator, arranger, blogger, and producer.
Life and career
---------------
DiGelsomina was born in Springfield, Ohio. His father was a fan of rock music, while his fraternal grandfather preferred traditional art music which made both genres very impactful during the composer's early years.
Though the music of Elton John and Jerry Goldsmith started his lifelong love of music, DiGelsomina first aimed at becoming a fiction writer, shunning high school to earn a college degree at the age of eighteen. It was around that time that he heard the first Black Sabbath album and subsequently changed his major to music. His time in school was cut short when he abandoned the institutionalized education system and instead became a determined autodidact.
His next musical revelation came in the form of the operas of Richard Wagner, which spurred him to study orchestral scores and instruments, greatly expanding his range as a composer. He cites Ludwig van Beethoven's late-era string quartets as having had a profound effect on his writing during that time as well.
DiGelsomina first came to prominence in 2010, upon working with ex-Rainbow vocalist Graham Bonnet for the Lyraka album, *Lyraka Volume 1*, an album he wrote, played lead guitar on, and co-produced. Since then he has recorded with many people in the heavy metal genre, including Mark Boals, Al Atkins, and Veronica Freeman, among others.
In recent years DiGelsomina has reduced his involvement in the Rock genre in favor of writing Art music for the Symphony Orchestra, choir, and related instruments, as well as incorporating Aleatoric music, electronic, avant-garde, and Romantic compositional elements. This has resulted in the release of four symphonies, movements of which are featured on his blog.
It was announced May 14, 2020 that DiGelsomina would be returning to the heavy metal genre, working on a solo album entitled "Sic Itur Ad Astra" with ex-Candlemass vocalist Robert Lowe.
Reception
---------
Heavy metal critic Martin Popoff referred to DiGelsomina point blank as a "great songwriter", and Metal Rules magazine lauded the compositional style on *Lyraka Volume 1*, calling it a "type of cross-fertilized metal that...I've never heard before. Bands mixing different styles and influences is nothing new, but Lyraka have really created something special". DiGelsomina refers to this style as "Serial Vignette Composition".
Discography
-----------
### Lyraka
*Lyraka Volume 1*
* Released: November 2010
* Label: Mermaid's Song
*Lyraka Volume 2*
* Release: TBA
* Label: Mermaid's Song
### Andy DiGelsomina
*Symphony no. 1*
* Release: October 2015
* Label: Phoenix Rising
*Symphony no. 2*
* Release: May 2017
* Label: Phoenix Rising
*Symphony no. 3*
* Release: August 2018
* Label: Phoenix Rising
*Symphony no. 4*
* Release: August 2019
* Label: Phoenix Rising
### DiGelsomina
*Sic Itur Ad Astra*
* Release: June 2023
* Label: Phoenix Rising |
English antiquarian (1701–1783)
Daniel Wray
**Daniel Wray** (28 November 1701 – 29 December 1783) was an English antiquary and Fellow of the Royal Society.
Life
----
Born on 28 November 1701 in the parish of St. Botolph, Aldersgate, he was the youngest child of Sir Daniel Wray (died 1719), a London citizen and soap-boiler residing in Little Britain, by his second wife. His father was knighted on 24 March 1708, while High Sheriff of Essex, where he possessed an estate near Ingatestone. At the age of thirteen Daniel the son entered Charterhouse School as a day scholar. In 1718 he matriculated from Queens' College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1722, and M.A. in 1728.
Between 1722 and 1728 he paid a prolonged visit to Italy in the company of James Douglas. On 13 March 1729 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society, and on 18 June 1731 he was incorporated at Oxford. He resided generally at Cambridge until 1739 or 1740, but after being elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in January 1741 he became a more habitual resident of London, lodging at the house of Arthur Pond. At a later date he removed to lodgings at Richmond and after his marriage took a house in town, first in King Street, Covent Garden, and afterwards in Duke Street, Soho, and another at Richmond.
In 1737 Wray became acquainted with Philip Yorke, and a lifelong friendship grew up. In 1741 Philip and his brother, Charles Yorke, brought out the first volume of the *Athenian Letters*, to which Wray contributed under the signature "W." In 1745 Philip Yorke appointed Wray his deputy teller of the exchequer, an office which he continued to hold until 1782.
Wray had many friends among his literary contemporaries, among them Henry Coventry, William Heberden the elder, William Warburton, Conyers Middleton, and Nicholas Hardinge. He was a keen antiquary and collector of rare books, and on 18 June 1765 was appointed one of the trustees of the British Museum. He had younger men as protegees, including Francis Wollaston, George Hardinge, and William Heberden the younger.
Wray died on 29 December 1783, and was buried in the church of St. Botolph Without, where there is a tablet to his memory. He married Mary (died 10 March 1803), daughter of Robert Darell of Richmond, Surrey. His portrait by Sir Nathaniel Holland was presented by his widow to Queens' College, Cambridge. Another, engraved by Henry Meyer from a painting by Nathaniel Dance, forms the frontispiece of the first volume of John Nichols's *Literary Illustrations.* A copy of Dance's portrait by John Powell was presented to the Charterhouse library. In the *Literary Illustrations* there is an engraving by Barak Longmate of a profile of Wray cut out in paper by his wife, said to be a good likeness, and a copy of a profile in bronze executed in Rome by G. Pozzo in 1726. His library was presented by his widow to Charterhouse in 1785, and a *Catalogue* was printed in 1790.
In 1830 James Falconar published a work entitled *The Secret Revealed*, in which he made out a case for the identification of Wray as Junius.
Works
-----
Though Wray wrote much, he published little in his lifetime. He contributed three papers to the first two volumes of *Archæologia* on classical antiquities. After his death George Hardinge compiled a memoir to accompany a collection of his verses and correspondence, which he published in 1817 in the first volume of ‘Literary Illustrations,’ with a dedication to Philip Yorke, 3rd Earl of Hardwicke.
Two sonnets to Wray by Thomas Edwards (1699–1757) appear in the later editions of Edwards's *Canons of Criticism.* Hardinge states that a sonnet by Richard Roderick, printed in Robert Dodsley's ‘Collection of Poems’ (ed. 1775, ii. 321), and again in ‘Elegant Extracts,’ edited by Vicesimus Knox (ed. 1796, p. 838), is also addressed to Wray, but this has been doubted. |
For other Pennsylvania townships with similar names, see Monroe Township, Pennsylvania (disambiguation).
Township in Pennsylvania, United States
**Monroe Township** is a township in Clarion County, Pennsylvania, United States. As of the 2020 census, the township had a population of 1,496, a decrease from the figure of 1,544 tabulated in 2010.
Geography
---------
The township is near the center of Clarion County and is bordered on the north by the Clarion River. Piney Creek, a tributary of the Clarion, crosses the northern part of the township and passes through unincorporated Reidsburg, the largest settlement in the township. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 29.8 square miles (77.3 km2), of which 29.5 square miles (76.3 km2) is land and 0.39 square miles (1.0 km2), or 1.35%, is water.
Demographics
------------
Historical population| Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2010 | 1,544 | | — |
| 2020 | 1,496 | | −3.1% |
| 2022 (est.) | 1,481 | | −1.0% |
| U.S. Decennial Census |
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,587 people, 595 households, and 427 families residing in the township. The population density was 53.9 people per square mile (20.8 people/km2). There were 648 housing units at an average density of 22.0 per square mile (8.5/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 99.31% White, 0.13% Native American, 0.13% Asian, 0.13% from other races, and 0.32% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.38% of the population.
There were 595 households, out of which 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.7% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.2% were non-families. 18.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the township the population was spread out, with 24.4% under the age of 18, 13.4% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 24.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 96.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males.
The median income for a household in the township was $38,125, and the median income for a family was $45,329. Males had a median income of $32,083 versus $19,375 for females. The per capita income for the township was $19,455. About 5.3% of families and 10.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.9% of those under age 18 and 9.1% of those age 65 or over. |
Motor vehicle
The **Latil H14 TL10** is an all-wheel drive agricultural and forestry tractor produced by Latil and later Saviem from 1947 to 1962 through various evolutions. It was replaced by the Saviem TL21/22/23 range.
History
-------
In 1947, Latil unveiled its H14 TL10 agricultural and forestry tractor, mounting the H14 engine, a slightly modified H1. By 1949, it was sold in the United Kingdom as a multiporpose tractor (adding tractor unit for road and off-road) with the name H11 TL10.
In the 1950s, TL10s equipped with a winch had some military use by engineering corps of the French Army.
In 1957, after Latil was integrated into the Saviem company, a minor evolution of the TL10, the H14 TL12R, was introduced. In December 1960, the company unveiled the H14 TL12, a cheaper variant of the TL12R without trailer brake (which meant it could only be used as a towing tractor and not as an agricultural one).
Technical details
-----------------
The main engine used for the tractor is the H14, an evolution of the pre-World War II H1 with a direct injection system licensed from Gardner. It is a inline-four diesel engine with a 108 mm bore and a 152 mm stroke, giving a displacement of 5,585 cc (earlier version) and 5,569 cc (later version). Its power was between 65 PS (64 bhp; 48 kW) at 1,500 rpm (earlier version) and 85 PS (84 bhp; 63 kW) at 1,850 rpm (later version). As an optional, earlier TL10 versions could be equipped with a similar petrol engine codenamed as M14.
The British version had a different engine codenamed as H11 by Latil and supplied by Meadows, the 4 DC-420. It is an inline four diesel with a bore and stroke of 130 mm, giving a displacement of 6,902 cc. Maximum engine power was 70 bhp (71 PS; 52 kW) at 1,900 rpm and its torque 233 lb⋅ft (316 N⋅m) at 1,000 rpm.
The gearbox is a 4-speed unit with a transfer case giving 8 forward speeds and 2 reverses. The gearbox output shaft is connected to the front and rear axles, making the tractor on permanent four-wheel drive. Levers in the cabin are connected to the differential system to lock the drive on any axle.
The tractor has a four-wheel steering system, with the steering drop arm connected to the stub assemblies of both axles, giving it a turning radius of 15 ft (4.6 m). The H14 TL10 and the H14 TL12R were available in a "navette" version, with a panoramic cabin, double driving positions with two vertical steering wheels and reversed gears.
The tractor's wheelbase is 2.4 m (7.9 ft) and it weights over 3 tonnes. It has air brakes. Suspension is by straight leaf springs.
Later developments
------------------
As the company marketed the H14 TL12, it also introduced the TL20, a simpler version with mechanical instead of air brakes, a 3-speed instead of four-speed gearbox, and a redesigned grille.
In October 1961, Saviem unveiled a new range of tractors with various design changes: the TL21, TL22, and TL23. The TL21 was an agricultural and forestry tractor, the TL22 a towing tractor and the TL23 a prime mover of 24 tones gross combined weight. The first has mechanical braking and the others air braking. All of them are powered by the F 120.51 *Fulgur* engine, an inline-four diesel engine with a 110 mm bore and a 120 mm stroke, giving a displacement of 4,561 cc. The maximum power of it was 100 PS (99 bhp; 74 kW) at 2,500 rpm.
In 1962, the licence for the tractors' production was sold to the Creusot-Loire conglomerate, which marketed them as the Latil Batignolles. |
Two forms of GAL are available. The first is **General Automation Language** for device automation and the second is **Generalized Automation Language** (**GAL**) which a very high level programming language for MVS based systems such as OS/390 and z/OS.
General Automation Language
---------------------------
Developed by iLED to provide a common language for standardising automation and control of devices in the residential (Home Automation) and commercial control environments. The language provides a standardised method of communicating to/from controlled/controlling devices. At each device, GAL is converted into the machine specific protocol and medium. An example is the control of a DVD player. The GAL command will be `<MyHouse MyArea MyRoom MyDevice MyCommand> FredsHouse GroundFloor Lounge DVDplayer ON`. The GAL device will then convert this to the discrete IR command to switch on the DVD Player.
Generalized Automation Language
-------------------------------
Developed by Expans Systems to provide features and constructs that enable the programmer to intercept systems events and schedule responses, as implemented via their product AutoMan. Somewhat akin to BASIC, GAL enables systems programmers and operators to define logic to apply to systems messages as they flow through a multi-system (sysplex) environment. GAL also enables the programmer to define events that have occurred in the past, by intercepting Action Message Retention Facility (AMRF) messages. The language has built-in constructs to obtain the age of a retained message and make decisions about its fate depending on age. GAL can be used to write new systems commands, by intercepting and interpreting anything that is entered into an Operator Console. GAL uses keywords such as names of days of the week, names of month etc. to automatically schedule events in the system. Like REXX, GAL is both an interpretive language and a compiled language. GAL statements can be entered to the interpreter on the fly, or entire automation scenarios can be predefined, such as the logic to define unattended operations of a system, and can be compiled offline, using the compiler program GALCOMP.
GAL implements comparison by IF statements, setting of variables, by the LET statement and subroutine calls. GAL allows the programmer to break into REXX, and Assembler where it is needed. The very high level nature of GAL is exemplified by the EMAIL statement, which enables the programmer to send an email alert when an event is detected that requires human intervention. Assuming that this message event requires an alert to be sent to a default recipient:
```
MSG=XID999S
VAR &MSGTXT LEN 100
LET &MSGTXT = $$MSGTXT
EMAIL
SUBJECT '&MSGTXT'
'This is a problem that needs urgent attention'
```
GAL uses text capture and replacement facilities. In this simple example, the text of the system message is captured into a variable and the text in that variable is then used as the subject of the email. The message in the body of the email is the text in quotes following the subject.
GAL allows for cross systems(IBM XCF) queries to be issued by simple IF statements, without regard for the underlying internal processes required to perform the cross systems communications. It is simply a matter of identifying one or more systems that are to be tested.
For instance to check if a job is currently running in a partner system:
```
IF SYS=sysn JOB(jobname) ACTIVE
DO
. . .
END
``` |
Church in Douglas, Isle of Man
Church in Douglas , Isle of Man
**St Ninian's Church** is an Anglican church in the Parkfield area of Douglas, Isle of Man, and falls within the Diocese of Sodor and Man.
History
-------
St Ninian's Church was built on land which was owned by the renowned philanthropist Henry Noble; the construction cost was also met from Noble's estate. Built in the Gothic Revival style, the architect was W. D. Caröe.
It is thought that the dedication to St Ninian reflects Noble's Cumbrian heritage (he was born at Clifton, Cumbria) and the county's association with St Ninian.
On 6 July 1913 the Bishop of Sodor and Man conducted the ordination of the Reverend Gleave of St John's College, Cambridge, who was admitted a deacon and became the first curate of the church.
The first wedding in the newly-opened church was on 17 September 1913, when Peter Kissack married Vera Handley.[*Is it usual for services to be held in the church before it is consecrated?*]
The imposing bell tower of St Ninian's Church.
St Ninian's Church was consecrated on 25 March 1914 by the Bishop of Sodor and Man, Dr Denton Thompson. The large congregation included the Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man, Lord Raglan and members of his family; the Clerk of the Rolls, Thomas Kneen; the Attorney General, George Ring; Deemster George Callow; High Bailiff James Gell; and the Mayor of Douglas accompanied by several members of the borough council.
The Vicar General read the deed of consecration, which was signed by the Bishop.
### Windows
St Ninian's Church features prominent stained glass windows in its eastern end in memory of Henry Noble and his wife Rebecca, as well as several Celtic saints.
The unveiling ceremony took place on 14 September 1913 and was performed by Rev. Canon Kermode, Vicar of St George's.
The window consists of four lights, two showing the Ascension of Jesus and two showing the Resurrection. Above is a small window decorated with the arms of the Diocese of Sodor and Man. On the north and south sides of the chancel are four lights, two on each side, with figures representing St German, St Columba, St Maughold and St Patrick. In the side chapel there are two lights at the east end, with figures of St Ninian and St Martin; and two lights on the north side representing St Bridget and St Kentigern.
The windows were designed and installed by Horace Wilkinson Ltd of London.
Modern use
----------
Today St Ninian's Church continues to play an active part in the life of the local community.
It is a registered building.
St Ninian's Church Hall
-----------------------
Built by Messrs Callow and Sons of Douglas in 1930, St Ninian's Church Hall was constructed from artificial stone. This method of construction had several advantages:
* The stones could be cast to various shapes and sizes.
* All joints could be interlocking joints.
* Enabled more precise polishing and finishing.
The hall was used for various recreational activities until it was demolished in the early 2000s. Today the area where the church hall was situated has been developed into residential accommodation. |
Traditional Irish song
The **Glen of Aherlow** (also known as **Patrick Sheehan**) is a traditional Irish song which originated as a ballad written by Irish republican Charles Joseph Kickham (1828–1882). It was first printed in *The Kilkenny Journal*, Kilkenny, on 7 October 1857, the writer using the pseudonym "Darby Ryan, Junior."
The song
--------
After its publication the song was printed on broadsides, and quickly became popular throughout Ireland. The song has some minor variants on spelling of names and places, depending on where it was sung or collected. It is number J11 in Laws’ collection and #983 in the Roud Folk Song Index.
Historical background
---------------------
The song is based on the true story of a young ex-soldier from the Glen of Aherlow named Patrick Sheehan who was blinded at the Siege of Sevastopol. Sheehan was later jailed in 1857 for begging in Grafton Street, Dublin, his British army pension having expired after six months.
Due to the publicity arising from this case, the British government was shamed into inquiring about Sheehan, to whom a life pension of a shilling a day was granted.
Recordings
----------
A partial discography:
* Joe Heaney 1964, re-issued on *The Road from Connemara*, Topic TSCD518D/Cló Iar-Chonnachta CICD 143 (October 2000)
* Vincie Boyle on *Around the Hills of Clare* Musical Traditions MTCD331-2/Góilín 005-6
* Andy M. Stewart |
Unincorporated community in California, United States
"Big Coyote, California" redirects here. For the nearby place also formerly with that name, see Tamalpais Valley Junction, California.
Unincorporated community in California, United States
**Tamalpais Valley** (Miwok: *Támal Pájiṣ*) is an unincorporated community in Marin County, California.
Land
----
Tamalpais Valley is located at 37°53′19″N 122°32′23″W / 37.888526°N 122.539609°W / 37.888526; -122.539609. and is about 509 acres in size, with an elevation of 108 feet (33 m). The nearest cities are Mill Valley to the north and Sausalito to the southeast. Traveling by car, Tamalpais Valley is located about 10 minutes from the Golden Gate Bridge and fifteen minutes from San Francisco. California State Route 1 (also known as Shoreline Highway and the Pacific Coast Highway) runs through the Valley and is the road most often used to access western Marin County.
Nearby landmarks include the Golden Gate National Recreation Area (GGNRA), Mount Tamalpais State Park, Muir Woods National Monument, Tennessee Valley, and Muir Beach.
A large portion of Tamalpais Valley is federal parkland – the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. The area's wooded canyons host diverse wildlife, including deer, raccoons, squirrels, skunks, coyotes, foxes, chipmunks, bobcats. and mountain lions – as well as a wide variety of birds, including hummingbirds, sparrows, robins, doves, jays, hawks, herons, quail, owls, falcons, eagles, and vultures.
People
------
In 2009, Tamalpais Valley's population was estimated at 11,000 (nearly the same size as Sausalito).
For census purposes, Tamalpais Valley is aggregated with Homestead Valley into the census-designated place Tamalpais-Homestead Valley.
Government
----------
Tamalpais Valley is an unincorporated community of approximately 2,800 households, plus a few small businesses. Its local governmental agency is the Tamalpais Community Services District (TCSD), whose board of directors is elected by residents.
History
-------
Tamalpais Valley was first inhabited by Native American tribes such as the Miwok Indians, who left the area with the establishment of the Spanish mission and Presidio in San Francisco. Called Coyote Hollow on 19th century maps, it was granted as part of Rancho Saucelito to William Richardson in 1838. The land was acquired by attorney Samuel Reading Throckmorton, then title passed to the San Francisco Savings Union. Eventually dairymen of Portuguese Azorean birth purchased the area, among them the Dias and Pimentel/Silva families. For approximately 60 years these families operated a dairy ranch on the property, where family members still reside. Finally S.A. Moss purchased most of the property, and developers Cranston, Belvel & Dwyer renamed it Tamalpais Valley (it was known as **Big Coyote** until 1908); 125 lots were put up for sale to private purchasers in 1908.
Tamalpais Valley's working class and rural community grew at a fast pace during the 1920s as more families settled in the area. Small businesses, such as the Tamalpais Service Station, were opened along Shoreline Highway. By the 1950s, it had become a suburban settlement with its own primary school, sewer system, and local government.
Recreation
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The area offers a wide range of hiking and biking trails, featuring scenic views of Mount Tamalpais and the Marin Headlands, as well as the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay. Some of the most popular nearby trails include Tennessee Valley trail, Miwok trail, Dias trail, and Mountain Home trail.
Points of interest
------------------
* Mill Valley
* Mount Tamalpais
* Muir Woods
* Richardson Bay
* Tamalpais High School |
**Michael Stryphnos** (Greek: Μιχαὴλ Στρυφνός, fl. ca. 1190–1203) was a high-ranking Byzantine official under the Angeloi emperors.
Stryphnos is first attested in 1192 as *sebastos* and the head of the *vestiarion* (the imperial treasury), under Emperor Isaac II Angelos (reigned 1185–1195). Stryphnos then married Theodora, the daughter of Andronikos Kamateros and sister of Empress Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera, the wife of Emperor Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) and through this connection advanced to the position of *megas doux*, commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy, when the latter ascended the throne. The contemporary historian Niketas Choniates portrays him as a man of "extraordinary rapacity and rare dishonesty" (Guilland), who used his position to sell off the sails, anchors and other equipment of the fleet, down to the very nails of the ships. His actions marked the effective end of the Byzantine fleet, which was hence unable to resist the Fourth Crusade a few years later.
As *megas doux*, he was also the governor of the joint province of Hellas and Peloponnese (southern mainland Greece), and in this capacity he went to Athens ca. 1201–1202 to oppose the rising power of Leo Sgouros, a local magnate turned autonomous ruler. He does not seem to have succeeded in checking Sgouros, but the local bishop, Michael Choniates, nevertheless composed an encomium in his honour. Three seals of Stryphnos survive, as well as a large enamelled gold ring, possibly given to him on his appointment as *megas doux*.
Sources
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* Brand, Charles M.; Cutler, Anthony (1991). "Stryphnos, Michael". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). *The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium*. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1968. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
* Guilland, Rodolphe (1967). "Le Drongaire de la flotte, le Grand drongaire de la flotte, le Duc de la flotte, le Mégaduc". *Recherches sur les institutions byzantines* [*Studies on the Byzantine Institutions*]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). Vol. I. Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert. pp. 535–562. OCLC 878894516.
* Ross, Marvin Chauncey (2005), *Catalogue of the Byzantine And Early Medieval Antiquities in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Volume 2: Jewelry, Enamels, and Art Of The Migration Period* (2nd ed.), Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, ISBN 0-88402-301-X |
Hospital in Ciudad de México, Mexico
The **Church and Hospital of Jesús Nazareno** buildings are located in the Historic center of Mexico City, in México, D. F. Mexico. The hospital is still in operation, housed in a Modernist building, located in front of the original one, and beside the former church. Both historic buildings and their courtyards are 17th-century Spanish colonial era architecture.
History
-------
The Church and Hospital are supposedly located at the spot where Hernán Cortés and Moctezuma II met for the first time in 1519, which was then the beginning of the causeway leading to Iztapalapa. Cortés ordered the hospital built to tend to Aztec soldiers wounded fighting with the Spanish.
In his last will, Cortés states that he wanted the hospital to be built for the sons of the Aztec warriors who had perished in battle during the Conquest of Tenochtitlan. This was not an institution for wounded Spanish soldiers.
In 1646, the hospital was the site of the first autopsies performed on the American continent, performed to teach anatomy to medical students of the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico. In 1715, the hospital published the *Regia Academia Mariana Practica Medica* to promote more professional practices in the field of medicine in New Spain. The building today continues to function as a hospital.
Buildings
---------
One of the courtyard gardens.
Stairs in the hospital, with murals.
The complex consists of a church and the hospital divided into four sections. The original hospital building is hidden by a Modernist façade, but the façade of the adjacent church is original. After passing the main entrance, one comes to a two-story colonial courtyard filled with plants and a fountain in the center. The hospital courtyard was originally decorated with Tuscan columns, but have since been replaced by equally austere ones. The original staircase remains, which contains a bust of Cortés and past this staircase is a second courtyard. One courtyard was for men and the other for women. The best-known portrait of Cortés can still be seen here. On the frieze of the upper corridors of the south side have a series of small and grotesque faces, which are popularly and mistakenly considered to be those of Cortés’ relatives.
### Hospital
The Jesús Hospital is one of the oldest buildings in Mexico City. It was most likely operating by 1524, although this is disputed, since it was one of three hospitals started around the same time, and various records have different dates for the first opening. The hospital with its church was originally called Purísima Concepción. At the beginning of the colonial period, it was popularly known as the Hospital del Marqués.
The hospital was originally designed by Pedro Vázques, and Cortés left a number of farmlands in his will for the benefit of the institution. Cortés died before the hospital building was finished, and the colonial government of New Spain hired Alonso Pérez de Castañeda to replace Vázques. Six years and 43,000 pesos later, it was still not finished.
130 years later Antonio de Calderón Benavides was named head of the institution and worked to finish it. At this time the hospital received an image of Jesus of Nazareth, and the hospital was renamed after the image when it was finally dedicated in 1665.
To one extent or another, just about all of major architects in the Viceroyalty of New Spain were involved with the buildings, from construction to repair work. Some of those include: Claudio de Arciniega, Diego de Aguilera, Sebastian Zamorano, Pedro de Arrieta, and Francisco Antonio Guerrero y Torres.
Facade of Church of Jesus Nazareno.
1940s mural by José Clemente Orozco.
16th century colonial era stone column and Orozco's mural.
### Church of Jesus Nazareno
#### Murals
The Church of Jesus Nazareno was stripped bare. However, the choir and part of the nave conserve a long mural painted by José Clemente Orozco. The work was inspired both by the Apocalypse and the horrors of the Second World War. Orozco worked on this from 1942 to 1944, but left it uncompleted.
The small dome resting on the church tower has an image of the Archangel Michael that is often mistaken as a portrait of Cortés. The coffered ceilings with golden flowers on a blue background on the sacristy are the work of Nicólas de Ylleascas.
#### Cortés tomb
The remains of Cortés were placed in the church portion by Viceroy Revillagigedo in 1774. At the same time Manuel Tolsá created a bust of the conquistador as well as his coat of arms done in bronze. Today, there is still a small plaque at the front of the church, to the left of the main altar to indicate the tomb. However, in August 1882, there was a proposal to move the remains and place them next to those of some of the heroes of Mexican War of Independence, but this caused an uproar with some trying to desecrate the tomb in the church. The remains were removed to a secret secure site. |
The **Staunton–Morphy controversy** concerns the failure of negotiations in 1858 for a chess match between Howard Staunton and Paul Morphy and later interpretations of the actions of the two players. The details of the events are not universally agreed, and accounts and interpretations often show strong national bias.
Continuing uncertainties and controversy
----------------------------------------
In the words of chess journalist Mark Weeks, "Staunton represents a unique challenge to chess history. Many players immediately associate his name with Paul Morphy, as in 'Staunton ducked a match with Morphy'. ... This is extremely unfair, as it concentrates the focus on Staunton to a relatively minor, factually controversial incident, while it ignores his significant achievements." As Edward Winter writes, "The issue of national bias does, unfortunately, require consideration in the Staunton–Morphy affair." When editing *World Chess Champions* (Oxford, 1981), Winter chose an Englishman to write about Staunton and an American to write about Morphy.
Backgrounds of the players
--------------------------
### Staunton
Main article: Howard Staunton
Howard Staunton
Howard Staunton (April 1810 – June 22, 1874) was an English chess master who won a match in Paris in 1843 against the Frenchman Pierre Charles Fournier de Saint-Amant, and was regarded as the world's strongest player from 1843 to 1851 by many contemporary commentators, by later 19th-century commentators and by former world champion Garry Kasparov. According to match records collected by Jeremy P. Spinrad, the only players who were successful against Staunton without receiving odds from 1840 to 1851 were: Saint-Amant, who won the first and lost the second and longer of their matches in 1843; Adolf Anderssen, who eliminated Staunton from the 1851 London International tournament and won the event; and Elijah Williams, who beat Staunton in the play-off for third place in the same tournament. The statistical website Chessmetrics ranks Staunton as world number one from May 1843 to August 1849, in the top ten from July 1851 to May 1853, and in the top five from June 1853 to January 1856.
Staunton proposed and was the principal organizer of the 1851 London International Tournament, which was the first ever international tournament. His disappointing fourth place in the tournament may indicate that he had over-loaded himself by being both Secretary of the organizing committee and a competitor. The 1851 tournament and his subsequent match against Williams effectively ended Staunton's competitive career. Although Anderssen, who won the tournament, accepted Staunton's challenge for a match after the tournament, circumstances prevented them from playing it. In 1853 while in Brussels, Staunton played an impromptu match against von der Lasa but had to abandon it because of heart trouble, and von der Lasa later wrote that in his opinion Staunton had no chance of being physically fit enough for serious competition after 1853.
Staunton was also an influential chess journalist and writer of chess books, and in 1847 embarked on an additional career as a Shakespearean scholar, gaining the respect of his contemporaries and of modern writers in that field also. After the end of his competitive chess career, he remained an active writer about both chess and Shakespeare until his death, and was at work when he died.
### Morphy
Main article: Paul Morphy
Paul Morphy
Paul Morphy (June 22, 1837 – July 10, 1884) was an American chess prodigy who learned the game as a young child simply from watching others play. In 1850, when Morphy was twelve, the strong professional Hungarian chess master Johann Löwenthal visited New Orleans where Morphy beat him 3–0. Morphy played little chess in his teens, concentrating instead on his studies, but was invited to play in the 1857 American Chess Congress. This was a knock-out tournament in which each round was a mini-match. Morphy, then 20 years old, lost only one game (to Louis Paulsen) while drawing three, two of them in the final which he won 6–2 (5 wins, one loss, and two draws) against Louis Paulsen, a German-American whom Chessmetrics rates as one of the world's top 10 from the late 1850s to the early 1890s.
The New Orleans Chess Club then issued a challenge on Morphy's behalf for a match against Staunton, who was still famous for his dominance in the late 1840s and for his influential chess writings. Morphy and his friends took Staunton's response to be an acceptance of the challenge, and Morphy set off for England in mid-1858.
While the negotiations with Staunton dragged on, Morphy spent most of his time in London and Paris, where he achieved crushing victories against other top players of the time: 10–4 against Löwenthal; 5½–2½ against Daniel Harrwitz; 8–3 against Adolf Anderssen, who had won the 1851 London International Tournament and later won the 1862 London Tournament; and 7½–½ in 1859 against Augustus Mongredien.
Morphy proved so much stronger than his contemporaries that Chessmetrics rates him the world's top player from 1858 until early 1862, 3 years after Morphy announced his retirement from chess. It is difficult to compare Morphy objectively with more recent top-class players because he was so far ahead of his opponents.
The events of 1858
------------------
### Initial challenge and response
In the mid-1850s Staunton obtained a contract with the publishers Routledge to edit the text of Shakespeare. This edition appeared in parts from 1857 to 1860, and Staunton's work was praised by experts. While Staunton was busy with the Shakespeare edition, he received a courteous letter from the New Orleans Chess Club, inviting him to that city to play Paul Morphy, who had won the 1857 First American Chess Congress; This challenge, which was sent in February 1858, proposed that the stake should be $5,000 and that, if Staunton lost, he would be paid $1,000 to cover expenses. The proposed stake would be worth about $877,145.92 in 2007's money. Interestingly, the Chess Club had not negotiated with Morphy before sending the letter.
Staunton replied on April 4, 1858:
> Gentlemen:
> In reply to your very courteous proposal for me to visit New Orleans for the purpose of encountering Mr. Paul Morphy at Chess, permit me to mention that for many years professional duties have compelled me to abandon the practice of the game almost entirely except in the most desultory manner, and at the present time these duties are so exacting that it is with difficulty I am enabled to snatch one day out of seven for exercise and relaxation.
> Under the circumstances you will at once perceive that a long and arduous chess contest, even in this Metropolis, would be an enterprise too formidable for me to embark in without ample opportunity for the recovery of my old strength in play, together with such arrangements as would prevent the sacrifice of my professional engagements for the sake of a match at chess, and that the idea of undertaking one in a foreign country, many thousand miles from here, is admissible only in a dream.
> With friendly greetings to my proposed antagonist, whose talent and enthusiasm no one can more highly estimate, and with compliments to you for the honor implied in your selection of me as the opponent of such a champion, I beg to subscribe myself, with every consideration.
> Yours obediently,
>
> H. Staunton
>
>
On the same day Staunton wrote in his column in the *Illustrated London News*:
> Proposed Chess Match between England and America for One Thousand Pounds a Side.—We have been favoured with a copy of the *defi* which the friends of Mr. Paul Morphy, the Chess champion of the United States, have transmitted to Mr. Staunton. The terms of this *cartel* are distinguished by extreme courtesy, and with one notable exception, by extreme liberality also. The exception in question, however, (we refer to the clause which stipulates that the combat shall take place in New Orleans!) appears to us utterly fatal to the match; and we must confess our astonishment, that the intelligent gentlemen who drew up the conditions did not themselves discover this. Could it possibly escape their penetration, that if Mr. Paul Morphy, a young gentleman without family ties or professional claims upon his attention, finds it inconvenient to anticipate, by a few months, an intended voyage to Europe, his proposed antagonist, who is well known for years to have been compelled, by laborious literary occupation, to abandon the practice of Chess beyond the indulgence of an occasional game, must find it not merely inconvenient, but positively impracticable, to cast aside all engagements, and undertake a journey of many thousand miles for the sake of a Chess-encounter? Surely the idea of such, a sacrifice is not admissible for a single moment. If Mr. Morphy—for whose skill we entertain the liveliest admiration—be desirous to win his spurs among the Chess chivalry of Europe, he must take advantage of his purposed visit, next year; he will then meet in this country, in France, and Germany, and in Russia, many champions whose names must be as household words to him, ready to test and do honour to his prowess.
>
>
There has been debate ever since about whether Staunton's letter and article should be regarded as a polite refusal or a conditional acceptance of the challenge. Morphy, however, took Staunton's writing as a challenge. Although Staunton had not said anything about playing against Morphy, Morphy assumed that the match could easily be arranged once he just got to England.
Samuel Boden, who was then the chess editor of *The Field*, a prestigious English countryside and sporting magazine, disputed the Americans' selection of Staunton as representing the best that Europe had to offer:
> ...Now, we can see no possible objection to the acceptance of this challenge by Mr. Staunton, as a private individual, if he thinks it proper, and we have no doubt it was made in good faith by the New Orleans Chess Club; but.... we cannot avoid entering our protest against the selection on the part of our rivals of a champion for our side....that he is champion of even London alone, over the board, we unhesitatingly deny ... while on the Continent the idea of being considered the champion of Europe would be ridiculed as the height of absurdity....
>
>
Staunton did offer to play Morphy by electric telegraph, a technology whose progress and uses for chess he reported enthusiastically. However this offer arrived after Morphy had left for Europe – which perhaps was fortunate, as the newly laid cable broke down after a month and was not replaced until 1866.
### Morphy sets off for Europe
When Morphy left New Orleans for Europe on May 31, 1858, he was still legally a minor, and would come of age on June 22, 1858. Hence he required his family's permission for the journey. However his immediate family opposed the trip on the grounds that it would delay his entry into the legal profession, and it took some time for one uncle and a family friend to persuade them to let him go. The New Orleans Chess Club also played a notable part in trying to persuade Morphy's family into letting him travel; it also offered to pay Morphy's travel expenses, but he declined this offer since he did not want to be seen as a professional chess player.
Morphy's explanation for the voyage was that he intended to play in the chess tournament that had been scheduled for 22 June 1858 in Birmingham. Staunton welcomed the news that "Mr. Paul Morphy has definitely settled to visit England and attend the meeting of the British Association at Birmingham...", which was the published aim of Morphy's visit.
### After Morphy's arrival in England
Morphy arrived in Liverpool on June 20, 1858, and immediately caught the train to Birmingham. However, on arrival he found that the tournament had been postponed by two months, to August 24. Morphy traveled to London the following day but had fallen ill, and was not fit to visit the London chess clubs until June 23. The *Illustrated London News*, of which Staunton was the chess editor, printed an article "Arrival of Mr. Morphy" on June 26. At the St. George's club he met Staunton and re-issued the challenge, which Staunton accepted provided he was given a month to prepare. Although he declined to play a few casual games against Morphy, Staunton invited him to his home in Streatham, which in those days was a country village whose first railway station had opened only two years earlier. There they played a couple of consultation games, with Staunton partnered by John Owen and Morphy by Thomas Wilson Barnes. The Morphy-Barnes team defeated Staunton-Owen in both consultation games. A little later Staunton proposed that they delay their match until after the Birmingham tournament in August, and Morphy reluctantly agreed. Staunton announced in the *Illustrated London News*:
> July 10 – Mr. Morphy has proffered to play Mr. Staunton a match of 21 games for a stake of 500 pounds a side, and the latter has accepted his challenge, conditionally that the terms of play are such as he can agree to without infraction of his present literary engagements. As there appears every disposition on the part of his opponent to meet his wishes in this respect the match will probably take place in London shortly after the Birmingham Meeting.
>
>
Around this time Morphy wrote asking friends in the US to send him the money for the stake. However, in late July 1858 his family informed his friend Charles Maurian that "they had resolved not only not to help raising the amount wanted but that moreover they should not allow him to play a money match either with his own money or anyone else's ... that he will be brought home by force if necessary; that they were determine to prevent a money match by all means." Maurian persuaded New Orleans Chess Club to send £500, but apparently it was not in Morphy's hands until early October.
Meanwhile, Morphy played and beat Johann Löwenthal. According to Morphy's personal assistant Frederick Edge, personal and political conflicts appeared around this time. Edge wrote that Owen, who was Morphy's second in this match, encouraged Löwenthal and disparaged Morphy, and that in disgust Morphy challenged Owen to a match, offering him odds of Pawn and move. Edge further claimed that Morphy insisted on giving odds because, if he played Owen at evens, Staunton would treat this as an excuse for delaying or abandoning the match with Morphy. The match with Löwenthal was interrupted as Löwenthal fell ill, and Morphy used the break to crush Owen 5–0 with two draws, despite the fact that Owen was a very strong player who later took third place in the 1862 London tournament and was the only player to win a game against the victor, Adolf Anderssen. In early August Staunton allowed a committee to be formed at the St. Georges' Chess Club to raise money for his share of the stake.
After finishing the match with Löwenthal, on 14 August 1858 Morphy wrote to Staunton:
> Mr. Howard Staunton
> Dear sir,
> As we are now approaching the Birmingham meeting, at the termination of which you have fixed our match to commence, I think it would be advisable to settle the preliminaries during this week. Would you be good enough to state some early period when your seconds could meet mine, so that a contest which have so much at heart, and which your eminent position excites so much interest in the chess world, may be looked upon as a *fait accompli*.
> I am dear sir, yours very respectfully,
> Paul Morphy
>
>
Staunton replied that he needed more time to prepare, and Morphy wrote to him again:
> August 21, 1858
> ......It is certainly a high compliment to so young a player as myself that you, whose reputation in the chess arena has been unapproached during so many long years, should require any preparation for our match. Immediately on my arrival in England, some two months since, I spoke to you in reference to our contest, and, in accepting the challenge, you stated that you should require some time to prepare, and you proposed a period for commencing which I accepted.
> I am well aware that your many engagements in the literary world must put you to some inconvenience in meeting me, and I am therefore desirous to consult your wishes in every respect. Would you please state the earliest opportunity when those engagements will permit the match coming off, such time being consistent with your previous preparation.
>
>
> The few weeks referred to in your favor seem to be rather vague, and I leave the terms entirely to yourself.
>
>
>
> I remain dear sir.
> yours very respectfully,
> Paul Morphy
>
>
Chess historian G. H. Diggle wrote that, since 21 August 1858 was a Saturday and there was no mail delivery on Sundays, Morphy's letter would have arrived no earlier than the following Monday, when Staunton had to leave for Birmingham. Meanwhile, on Sunday 22 August Staunton's old enemy George Walker published an article in *Bell's Life in London* that accused Staunton of trying to postpone the match indefinitely:
> Unless the day and hour for beginning the match are fixed, the whole is smoke, and the Chess Circle must draw its own conclusions. Morphy cannot afford to wait for an anniversary until the Days of Grace 1860.
>
>
On Saturday 28 August the *Illustrated London News* carried a letter signed by "Anti-book", which said:
> As you surmise, "knowing the authority," the slang of the sporting pages in question regarding the proposed encounter between Mr. Staunton and the young American is "bunkum." In matches of importance, it is the invariable practice in this country, before anything definite is settled, for each party to be provided with representatives to arrange the terms and money for the stakes. Mr. Morphy has come here unfurnished in both respects; and, although both will no doubt be forthcoming in due time, it is clearly impossible, until they are, that any determinate arrangements can be made.
> A statement of another contemporary that the reduction in the amount of stakes from £1000 a side to £500 a side was made at the suggestion of the English amateur is equally devoid of truth; the proposal to reduce the amount having been made by Mr. Morphy.
>
>
It is generally thought that "Anti-book" was Staunton himself. Diggle argued that Staunton must have dashed this off before catching the Birmingham train, as he was busy playing in the tournament on the 24th and 25th, while the 26th would have been too late for publication on the 28th; and that Staunton would have read Walker's attack on him before seeing Morphy's letter of 21 August.
Meanwhile, Morphy traveled to Birmingham, arriving on 26 August, too late to play in the tournament, but in time for a blindfold exhibition which he had previously offered to give at Queen's College on 27 August. When he met Staunton there, Staunton asked for more time, saying that his commitments to his publishers were taking up a lot of his time. Morphy asked, "Mr. Staunton, will you play in October, in November, or December? Choose your own time but let the decision be final." Staunton replied, "Well, Mr. Morphy, if you will consent to the postponement, I will play you the beginning of November. I will see my publishers and let you know the exact date in a few days."
Morphy used the postponement by travelling to Paris, where he beat Daniel Harrwitz (5½–2½). On 6 October 1858, Morphy wrote Staunton an open letter which was also circulated to several publications, in which Morphy stated his view of the situation:
> Café de la Régence, Paris, October 6, 1858
>
>
> Howard Staunton, Esq.
>
>
> Sir:
>
>
> – On my arrival in England, three months since, I renewed the challenge to you personally which the New Orleans Chess Club had given some months previously. You immediately accepted, but demanded a month's delay, in order to prepare yourself for the contest. Subsequently, you proposed that the time should be postponed until after the Birmingham meeting, to which I assented. On the approach of the period you had fixed, I addressed you a communication, requesting that the necessary preliminaries might be immediately settled, but you left London without replying to it.
>
>
> I went to Birmingham for the express purpose of asking you to put a stop to further delay, by fixing a date for the opening of the match; but you stated that your time was much occupied in editing a new edition of Shakespeare, and that you were under heavy bonds to your publisher accordingly. But you reiterated your intention to play me, and said that if I would consent to a further postponement until the first week of November, you would, within a few days, communicate with me and fix the exact date. I have not heard further from you, either privately, by letter, or through the column of the Illustrated London News.
>
>
> A statement appeared in the chess department of that Journal (the *Illustrated London News*) a few weeks since that "Mr. Morphy had come to Europe unprovided with backers or seconds – the inference being obvious, that my want of funds was the reason of our match not taking place. As you are the editor of that department of the Illustrated London News, I felt much hurt that a gentleman who had always received me at his club and elsewhere with great kindness and courtesy should allow so prejudicial a statement to be made in reference to me; one, too, which is not strictly consonant with fact.
>
>
> In conclusion, I beg leave to state that I had addressed a copy of this letter to the editors of the *Illustrated London News*, *Bell’s Life in London*, the *Era*, the *Field*, and the *Sunday Times*; being most desirous that our true position should no longer be misunderstood by the community at large. I again request you to fix a date for our commencing the match.
>
>
> Permit me to repeat what I have invariably declared in every Chess community I have had the honor of entering, that I am not a professional player – that I never wish to make any skill I possess the means of pecuniary advancement – and that my earnest desire is never to play for any stake but honor. My friends in New Orleans, however, subscribed a certain sum, without any countenance from me, and that sum has been ready for you to meet a considerable time past. Since my arrival in Paris I have been assured by numerous gentlemen, that the value of those stakes can be immediately increased to any amount, but, for myself, personally, reputation is the only incentive I recognize.
>
>
> The matter of seconds cannot, certainly, offer any difficulty. I had the pleasure of being fast received in London by the St. George's Chess Club, of which you are so distinguished a member; and of those gentlemen, I request the honor of appointing my seconds, to whom I give full authority in settling all preliminaries.
>
>
> In conclusion, I beg leave to state that I have addressed a copy of this letter to several editors, being most desirous that our true position should no longer be misunderstood by the community at large.
>
>
> Again requesting you to fix the date for commencing our match,
>
>
> I have the honor to remain, Sir,
>
> Your very humble servant,
>
>
>
> Paul Morphy
>
>
On October 7, Morphy wrote to the St. George's Chess Club:
> Café de la Régence, Paris, October 7, 1858
>
>
> T. Hampton, Esq. Secretary of St. George's Chess Club:
>
>
> – I beg respectfully to inform you that the New Orleans Chess Club has deposited £500 at the Banking House of Messrs. Haywood & Co. London: that sum being my proportion of the stakes in the approaching match with Mr. Staunton.
>
>
> I shall esteem it a great honor if the St. George's Chess Club will do me the favor of appointing my seconds in that contest. To such gentlemen as they may appoint I leave the settling of all preliminaries.
>
>
> May I request you to lay this communication before the members of the Club and to oblige me with an early answer?
>
>
> I have the honor to remain, Sir,
>
> Your very humble and obed't servant,
>
>
>
> Paul Morphy
>
>
On October 9, Staunton replied to Morphy's letter open letter of October 6, re-stating the difficulties he faced, but now using them as reasons to cancel the match:
> London, October 9, 1858
>
>
> Sir,
>
>
> – In reply to your letter, I have to observe that you must be perfectly conscious that the difficulty in the way of engaging in a chess-match is one over which I have no control. You were distinctly appraised, in answer to the extraordinary proposal of your friends that I should leave my home, family and avocations, to proceed to New Orleans for the purpose of playing chess with you, that a long and arduous contest, even in London, would be an undertaking too formidable for me to embark in without ample opportunity for the recovery of my old strength in play, together with such arrangements as would prevent the sacrifice of my professional engagements. Upon your unexpected arrival here, the same thing was repeated to you, and my acceptance of your challenge was entirely conditional on my being able to gain time for practice.
>
>
> The experience, however, of some weeks, during which I have laboured unceasingly, to the serious injury of my health, shows that not only is it impracticable for me to save time for that purpose, but that by no means short of giving up a great work on which I am engaged, subjecting the publishers to the loss of thousands, and myself to an action for breach of contract, could I obtain time even for the match itself. Such a sacrifice is, of course, out of all question.
>
>
> A match at chess or cricket may be a good thing in its way, but none but a madman would for either forfeit his engagements and imperil his professional reputation. Under these circumstances, I waited only the termination of your last struggle with Mr. Harrwitz, to explain that, fettered as I am at this moment, it is impossible for me to undertake any enterprise which would have the effect of withdrawing me from duties I am pledged to fulfil.
>
>
> The result is not, perhaps, what either you or I desired, as it will occasion disappointment to many; but it is unavoidable, and the less to be regretted, since a contest, wherein one of the combatants must fight under disadvantages so manifest as those I should have to contend against, after many years retirement from practical chess, with my attention absorbed and my brain overtaxed by more important pursuits, could never be accounted a fair trial of skill.
>
> I have the honor to be,
>
> Yours, &c. H. Staunton
>
>
> Paul Morphy, Esq.
>
>
>
> P.S. I may add that, although denied the satisfaction of a set encounter with you at this period, I shall have much pleasure, if you will again become my guest, in playing you a few games sans façon [informally].
>
>
On October 23, Staunton published his entire reply of October 9 along with a partial copy of Morphy's open letter of October 6, omitting the reference to the "Anti-book" letter about Morphy's lack of funds and seconds. Various chess columns then printed anonymous and acrimonious letters. Morphy took no part in any of this, but wrote to Lord Lyttelton, the president of the British Chess Association, explaining his own efforts to bring about the match, Staunton's efforts to avoid the match with everything short of admitting he didn't wish to play, and of Staunton's representation of the facts in the *Illustrated London News*, demanding "that you shall declare to the world it is through no fault of mine that this match has not taken place." Lyttelton replied:
> Bodmin, Cornwall, 3rd November.
>
>
> Dear Sir,
>
>
> — I much regret that I have been unable till to-day to reply to your letter of October 26, which only reached me on the 1st inst. With regard to the appeal which you have made to the British Chess Association, I may perhaps be allowed to say, as its President, that I fear nothing can be done about the matter in question by that body. It is one of recent and rather imperfect organization; its influence is not yet fully established. It is practically impossible to procure any effective meeting of its members at present, and it is doubtful whether it would take any steps in the matter if it were to meet. I must therefore be understood as writing in my private character alone, but, at the same time, you are welcome, should you think it worthwhile (which I hardly think it can be), to make further use of this letter, in any manner you may wish.
>
>
> Your letter has but one professed object; that we should declare that it is not your fault that the match between yourself and Mr. Staunton has not taken place. To this the reply might be made in two words. I cannot conceive it possible that any one should impute that failure to you, nor am I aware that any one has done so. But, in the circumstances, I shall not perhaps be blamed, if I go somewhat further into the matter. In the general circumstances of the case, I conceive that Mr. Staunton was quite justified in declining the match. The fact is understood, that he has for years been engaged in labours which must, whatever arrangements might be made, greatly interfere with his entering into a serious contest with a player of the highest force and in constant practice, and so far, the failure of the match is the less to be regretted. Nor can I doubt the correctness of his recent statement, that the time barely necessary for the match itself could not be spared, without serious loss and inconvenience both to others and to himself.
>
>
> But I cannot but think, that in all fairness and considerate-ness, Mr. Staunton might have told you of this long before he did. I know no reason why he might not have ascertained it, and informed you of it in answer to your first letter from America. Instead of this, it seems to me plain, both as to the interview at which I myself was present, and as to all the other communications which have passed, that Mr. Staunton gave you every reason to suppose that he would be ready to play the match within no long time. I am not aware, indeed (nor do I perceive that you have said it), that you left America solely with the view of playing Mr. Staunton. It would, no doubt, make the case stronger, but it seems to me as unlikely as that you should have come, as has been already stated (anonymously, and certainly not with Mr. Staunton's concurrence), in order to attend the Birmingham Tournament. With regard to the suppressions of part of your last letter, I must observe, that I am not aware how far Mr. Staunton is responsible for what appears in the *Illustrated London News*. But whoever is responsible for that suppression, I must say that I cannot see how it is possible to justify or excuse it.
>
>
> I greatly regret the failure of a contest which would have been of much interest, and the only one, as I believe, which could have taken place with you, with any chance of its redounding to the credit of this country. I still more regret that any annoyance or disappointment should have been undergone by one, who – as a foreigner – from his age, his ability, and his conduct and character, is eminently entitled to the utmost consideration in the European countries which he may visit.
>
>
> I am, dear sir, yours truly,
>
> Lyttelton.
>
>
>
> Paul Morphy, Esq.
>
>
Aftermath
---------
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
**Paul Morphy: His Later Life**
After returning to New Orleans in 1859, Morphy declared himself retired from the game and, with a few exceptions, gave up public competition for good. Morphy's embryonic law career was disrupted in 1861 by the outbreak of the American Civil War. Possibly because of his opposition to the secession of the Confederacy, Morphy was unable to successfully build a law practice even after the war ended. He became eccentric, reclusive and perhaps mildly insane, and died at the age of 47 from a stroke brought on by entering a cold bath after a long walk in the midday heat.
Staunton continued his twin careers as a chess writer and Shakespearean scholar. *The City of London Chess Magazine* wrote, "... it is no exaggeration to say that his literary labours are the basis upon which English Chess Society, as at present constituted, stands", and eminent contemporaries including Morphy and Steinitz considered Staunton's writings on chess openings to be among the best of their time. His work as a Shakespearean scholar gained the respect of his contemporaries and of modern writers in that field also. After the end of his competitive chess career he remained an active writer about both chess and Shakespeare until his death, and was at work when he died.
Both players expressed respect for each other's abilities. Morphy said that Staunton had great analytical ability and judgement of positions but his play showed a lack of imagination, and that Staunton may have been the strongest player of his time. In 1860, Staunton published *Chess Praxis*, which was a supplement to his 1847 work *The Chess Player's Handbook*. In the new book he devoted 168 pages to presenting many of Morphy's games and praised the play of the American.
20th century and recent comments
--------------------------------
Staunton has been a controversial figure ever since his own time. Reaching an objective assessment is made more difficult by the fact that some well-known chess writers, including Fred Reinfeld, Israel "Al" Horowitz and Reuben Fine, have been criticized by chess historians for their lack of accuracy, both in general and specifically where Staunton is concerned. Edward Winter writes, "It is unwise for the 'non-playing' historian to publish his own analysis, although he may be a useful compiler. Similarly, players who are unversed in, and indifferent to, chess history should not touch it."
Reinfeld, Horowitz and Fine also condemned Staunton's play, but Bobby Fischer praised it highly.
Chess historians Edward Winter and G. H. Diggle trace much of the 20th-century animosity against Staunton to books by Philip W. Sergeant (1872–1952) about Paul Morphy. Sergeant in turn made use of a book by Frederick Edge, who accompanied Morphy to Europe in 1858 as his secretary and personal assistant, but returned to the USA in January 1859, a few months before Morphy. Edge's attitude to Morphy was unusual and complex:
> I shall watch over Morphy until he leaves Europe, and when he leaves I can say – "What you are outside of chess, I have made you. Your tremendous laziness, but for me, would have obliterated all your acts. I have taken your hundreds of letters out of your pockets even, and answered them, because you would have made every man your enemy by not replying. I made you stay and play Anderssen, when you wanted to leave. I nursed you when ill, carrying you in my arms like a child. I have been a lover, a brother, a mother to you; I have made you an idol, a god – and now that you are gone, I never – but I will not finish." ... – Burn this letter, Fiske, and forget the contents.
>
>
Opinions of Edge's value as a historical source vary widely:
* A review in *The Chess Monthly* (New York) of *The Exploits and Triumphs in Europe, of Paul Morphy ...* said, "Mr. Morphy expressly disclaims any connection with it in any way or manner. ... will afford the reader a half-hour's entertainment," and noted the misspelling of some chess masters' names. The historian H. J. R. Murray described Edge's book as "rather ill-natured" and "deals with the Staunton–Morphy episode in a strongly anti-Staunton manner", and Edge himself as "most unreliable of writers" (reviewing Edge's comments about Sarratt, a noted English player and chess writer around 1800–1820). David Hooper, one of the co-authors of *The Oxford Companion to Chess* , wrote, "Edge also found it profitable to invent baddies (Staunton, Harrwitz). As a consequence Harrwitz lost his job at the Café de la Régence." Hooper's co-author Ken Whyld wrote, "Edge was a proven liar whose book on Morphy ... is often relied upon for unsubstantiated facts."
* David Lawson's book *Paul Morphy: The Pride and Sorrow of Chess* (New York, 1976) makes extensive use of Edge's book, and points out that, without Edge, there would be very little information about Morphy's activities in Europe, as Morphy was averse to publicity. However Lawson also suggests that Morphy had seen the manuscript of Edge's book, disliked its treatment of the Staunton affair so much that he disavowed it, and objected to Edge's treatment of other matters.
* Although Sergeant used Edge's book as a source, he expressed some reservations: "Edge, though English by birth, was very biased against Staunton; but we can hardly think that his prejudice went so far as to allow him to falsify the evidence"; "Edge, however, is not altogether trustworthy, being bitterly prejudiced against Staunton"; "my own reading of Edge did not lead me to think him a liar; though I cannot deny his anti-Staunton bias".
H. J. R. Murray commented on the whole affair, "In all this there is but little in which we can reproach Staunton, beyond the fact that he kept open the possibility of a match for so long, and even here there is a good deal that could be urged in justification of the course followed by Staunton" but also noted that both sides were playing tactical games with each other in front of the public, and that comments made by both players or their respective supporters were acrimonious. |
Radio station in Geelong, Australia
**K Rock 95.5** (call sign: **3CAT;** stylised as **K rock 95.5** and previously as **K-Rock**) is a commercial FM radio station based in Geelong, Australia. K Rock operates a mainstream Top 40 playlist and also airs Australian Football League matches involving the Geelong Football Club.
K Rock shares transmitter facilities with sister station 93.9 Bay FM (along with 94.7 The Pulse and 96.3 Rhema FM), broadcasting from a transmitter on top of Murradoc Hill on the Bellarine Peninsula. The license area covers the Greater Geelong area, Werribee and Western Melbourne, The Golden Plains, and the Surf Coast. K Rock also streams online via their website.
History
-------
### 3GL
From 1930 to 1990, K Rock was known as **3GL** on the AM band, broadcasting first on 1400 kHz, then 1350 kHz and later 1341 kHz. Although based in Geelong, it was notable for being received over most of the Melbourne metropolitan area. []
3GL gave Happy Hammond his start in broadcasting in 1948 as a breakfast announcer. While at 3GL, Hammond also made his first TV appearance in 1948, long before the Tarax Show, as part of an exhibition using closed-circuit TV equipment for trial purposes. Towards the end of its time as an AM station, 3GL used the *"3GL on the West Coast"* slogan and associated jingles, many sung by Mike Brady.
For many years, 3GL was based in James Street, Geelong, but relocated after being granted the right to convert to the FM band in 1990.
3GL was offered an FM conversion upon the entry to the Geelong market of competitor BAY FM in December 1989. 3GL converted to FM to allow equal competition in the Geelong regional market, with the management of the former Geelong AM service agreeing to transfer the service to the FM band in 1990. The station was going to drop the 3GL call sign in favour of 3CAT (after the Geelong Cats), as proposed by the radio station's head of football commentary Ted Whitten (who at the time was in the early stages of his battle with cancer). However, the 3CAT call-sign never made it to air, being changed to K rock on the eve of the station's commencement on the FM band at 95.5 MHz, on 27 January 1990.
### K Rock
After simulcasting on both 1341 AM and 95.5 FM for two weeks, K Rock went to air at midday on the Saturday of the Australia Day weekend 1990, the first announcer to speak on the new FM station was Ian 'Strawny' Strachan.
K Rock was also Australia's first FM station to cover AFL football[]. With a lineup that included Ted Whitten, Sam Kekovich, Billy Brownless and Dwayne Russell, K Rock continues to focus on Geelong Football Club matches.
In 1996, K Rock and Bay FM achieved a record 11 RAWARD nominations in the programming area, winning 5 awards—an achievement equalled that year only by Melbourne's Fox FM.[] During this period, despite the strength of all Melbourne radio stations reaching the listening area, nearly 1 in 3 Geelong people listened to K Rock.[] In recent years, the ratings of K Rock have declined to the point where a 2016 ratings survey showed an audience of 8.9 per cent in the local area—behind the ABC and sister station Bay FM.
Originally owned by Hoyts, which operated Triple M brand in Australia, K Rock was sold to Grant Broadcasters in the mid-1990s.
Shortly after this, the station purchased the rival Geelong station, 93.9 Bay FM, moving it from its Ryrie Street studios to co-locate in the K Rock studios in Moorabool Street, Geelong. Both K Rock and Bay FM now operate from the same studios in Geelong's CBD.
In 2007, K Rock celebrated 75 years of broadcasting 3GL and K Rock Footy, culminating in a week of broadcasting at various events as the city celebrated the first AFL Premiership victory by the Geelong Football Club in 44 years.
In 2010, K Rock underwent a major format change which re-focused the music toward a younger audience and minimised the station's traditional rock base. |
Governor of a Turkish Province
Map of the Province of Siirt, showing the provincial districts.
The **Governor of Siirt** (Turkish: *Siirt Valiliği*) is the bureaucratic state official responsible for both national government and state affairs in the Province of Siirt. Similar to the Governors of the 80 other Provinces of Turkey, the Governor of Siirt is appointed by the Government of Turkey and is responsible for the implementation of government legislation within Siirt. The Governor is also the most senior commander of both the Siirt provincial police force and the Siirt Gendarmerie.
Appointment
-----------
The Governor of Siirt is appointed by the President of Turkey, who confirms the appointment after recommendation from the Turkish Government. The Ministry of the Interior first considers and puts forward possible candidates for approval by the cabinet. The Governor of Siirt is therefore not a directly elected position and instead functions as the most senior civil servant in the Province of Siirt.
### Term limits
The Governor is not limited by any term limits and does not serve for a set length of time. Instead, the Governor serves at the pleasure of the Government, which can appoint or reposition the Governor whenever it sees fit. Such decisions are again made by the cabinet of Turkey. The Governor of Siirt, as a civil servant, may not have any close connections or prior experience in Siirt Province. It is not unusual for Governors to alternate between several different Provinces during their bureaucratic career.
Functions
---------
Main article: Governor (Turkey) § Functions
The Governor of Siirt has both bureaucratic functions and influence over local government. The main role of the Governor is to oversee the implementation of decisions by government ministries, constitutional requirements and legislation passed by Grand National Assembly within the provincial borders. The Governor also has the power to reassign, remove or appoint officials a certain number of public offices and has the right to alter the role of certain public institutions if they see fit. Governors are also the most senior public official within the Province, meaning that they preside over any public ceremonies or provincial celebrations being held due to a national holiday. As the commander of the provincial police and Gendarmerie forces, the Governor can also take decisions designed to limit civil disobedience and preserve public order. Although mayors of municipalities and councillors are elected during local elections, the Governor has the right to re-organise or to inspect the proceedings of local government despite being an unelected position.
List of governors of Siirt
-------------------------- |
Town in Florida, United States
Town in Florida, United States
**Inglis** is a town in Levy County, Florida, United States. It is on U.S. Highway 19 near the Cross Florida Greenway. As of the 2020 census, the town had a population of 1,476.
The **Town of Inglis** is named after Captain John L. Inglis, who was connected with Dunnellon Phosphate. It was previously called "**Port Inglis**", and the original name was "**Blind Horse**".
Geography
---------
The exact coordinates for the Town of Inglis is located at 29°1′58″N 82°40′0″W / 29.03278°N 82.66667°W / 29.03278; -82.66667 (29.032878, −82.666731), approximately 5 miles (8 km) east of the Gulf of Mexico.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 3.7 square miles (9.5 km2), of which 3.6 square miles (9.4 km2) is land and 0.015 square miles (0.04 km2), or 0.40%, is water.
Climate
-------
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild winters. According to the Köppen climate classification, the Town of Inglis has a humid subtropical climate zone (*Cfa*).
Demographics
------------
Historical population| Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1960 | 250 | | — |
| 1970 | 449 | | 79.6% |
| 1980 | 1,173 | | 161.2% |
| 1990 | 1,241 | | 5.8% |
| 2000 | 1,491 | | 20.1% |
| 2010 | 1,325 | | −11.1% |
| 2020 | 1,476 | | 11.4% |
| U.S. Decennial Census |
### 2010 and 2020 census
**Inglis racial composition**
(Hispanics excluded from racial categories)
(*NH = Non-Hispanic*)
| Race | Pop 2010 | Pop 2020 | % 2010 | % 2020 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| White (NH) | 1,215 | 1,343 | 91.70% | 90.99% |
| Black or African American (NH) | 6 | 14 | 0.45% | 0.95% |
| Native American or Alaska Native (NH) | 4 | 7 | 0.30% | 0.47% |
| Asian (NH) | 17 | 8 | 1.28% | 0.54% |
| Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian (NH) | 0 | 0 | 0.00% | 0.00% |
| Some other race (NH) | 1 | 4 | 0.08% | 0.27% |
| Two or more races/Multiracial (NH) | 20 | 50 | 1.51% | 3.39% |
| Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 62 | 50 | 4.68% | 3.39% |
| **Total** | **1,325** | **1,476** | **100.00%** | **100.00%** |
|
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 1,476 people, 823 households, and 456 families residing in the town.
As of the 2010 United States census, there were 1,325 people, 758 households, and 448 families residing in the town.
### 2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,491 people in the town, organized into 670 households and 426 families. The population density was 408.2 inhabitants per square mile (157.6/km2). There were 803 housing units at an average density of 219.8 per square mile (84.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.73% White, 0.34% Asian, 0.13% Native American, 0.13% from other races, and 0.67% from two or more races. 1.88% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
A historical marker denotes the location of several film sites of *Follow that Dream* were in the vicinity of Inglis.
In 2000, there were 670 households, out of which 22.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together; 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present; and 36.3% were non-families. 31.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.70.
In 2000, in the town, the population was spread out, with 20.9% under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 22.3% from 25 to 44, 29.0% from 45 to 64, and 22.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.7 males.
In 2000, the median income for a household in the town was $24,432, and the median income for a family was $27,734. Males had a median income of $24,342 versus $20,278 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,098. 22.3% of the population and 18.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 35.1% of those under the age of 18 and 9.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
Elvis Presley in Inglis
-----------------------
During July and August 1961, Elvis Presley spent his summer in Inglis and the surrounding areas filming his movie *Follow That Dream*. A historical marker on Follow That Dream Parkway in Inglis commemorates this event. |
Type of burial mound
A **bell barrow**, sometimes referred to as a **Wessex type barrow**, **campanulate form barrow**, or a **bermed barrow**, is a type of tumulus identified as such by both John Aubrey and William Stukeley.
Section and plan of a bell barrow with a narrow berm
A bell barrow from Colt Hoare's introduction to *The Ancient History of Wiltshire*
In the United Kingdom, they take the form of a circular mound or mounds within a circular ditch, the mounds being separated from the ditch and each other by a berm. There is sometimes present an additional bank, external to the ditch. The ditch is typically the source of the material used to create the mound and is therefore described as a "quarry-ditch". A burial pit beneath the mound usually contains human remains, sometimes cremated, sometimes simply interred. Grave goods such as daggers or pottery vessels are commonly found within the burial pit also. An example at Sutton Veny included a bronze-age wooden coffin. The bell barrow in Milton Lilbourne in Wiltshire has no burial associated with it. Most bell barrows in the United Kingdom date to the early Bronze Age.
Leslie Grinsell constructed a typology for bell barrows:
* **Type Ia**: A single mound with a narrow berm
* **Type Ib**: A single mound with a normal berm
* **Type Ic**: A single mound with a wide berm
* **Type II**: Two mounds
* **Type III**: Three mounds
* **Type IV**: Four mounds |
German term in historical linguistics
In historical linguistics, the German term ****grammatischer Wechsel**** ("grammatical alternation") refers to the effects of Verner's law when they are viewed synchronically within the paradigm of a Germanic verb.
Overview
--------
According to Grimm's law, the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiceless stops \*p, \*t, \*k and \*kʷ usually became Proto-Germanic \*f, \*θ (dental fricative), \*x and \*xʷ (velar fricative). Karl Verner identified the principle that they instead become the voiced consonants \*b, \*d, \*g, \*gʷ if they were word-internal and immediately preceded by an unaccented vowel in PIE. Furthermore, PIE \*s, which usually came into Germanic unchanged, became \*z in this position; Proto-Germanic \*z later became North- and West Germanic \*r.
Consequently, five pairs of consonants emerged, each pair representing a single PIE phoneme. The following table shows the precise developments from Proto-Indo-European through Proto-Germanic to Old Norse, West Germanic, Old English, Old High German and Middle Dutch. It is mainly in the dentals that those languages show significant differences in the patterns of **grammatischer Wechsel**. Note that the table lists only the outcome of word-internal consonants since word-initial consonants were generally not affected by Verner's law.
| | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| PIE | PG | ON | WG | OE | OHG | MDu | Notes |
| \*p | \*ɸ | f | \*ɸ | f/v | f | f/v | By GL p→f. |
| \*β | \*β | b | By VL p→β. |
| \*t | \*θ | ð | \*θ | θ/ð | d | d | By GL t→θ. Then θ→d German and Dutch. |
| \*ð | \*d | d | t | By VL t→ð→d. Then d→t in German. |
| \*k | \*x | – | \*x/h | x/- | x/h | x/- | By GL k→x. x→h before a vowel. h is then lost between vowels in Old English and Dutch. |
| \*ɣ | ɣ | \*ɣ | j/ɣ | ɡ | x/ɣ | By VL k→ɣ. Then ɣ→j in English and ɣ→ɡ in German, though all 3 use spelling ⟨g⟩. |
| \*kʷ | \*xʷ | – | \*x/h | x/- | x/h | x/- | Parallel to \*k. |
| \*ɣʷ | ɣ | \*ɣ | j/ɣ | ɡ | x/ɣ | Parallel to \*k, but \*ɣʷ had split into \*ɣ and \*w by late Proto-Germanic. |
| w/- | \*w | w | w | w | |
| \*s | \*s | s | \*s | s/z | s | s/z | GL leaves s unaffected; allophone [z] in English. |
| \*z | r | \*r | r | r | r | By VL s→z→r. |
In Old English, the fricatives took the voiced allophones [ð], [v] and [z] when they were word-internal, and in Middle Dutch also when word-initial; see: Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩. In Old High German, the stops were moved according to the High German consonant shift. In Dutch, the idiosyncrasies of the shift mean that Dutch (like German) experiences the shift þ→d but (like English) does not experience the shift d→t; thus, the dental variety of **grammatischer Wechsel** is eliminated in Dutch by the normal operation of sound laws. Likewise, [f] and [v] merged in almost all Germanic languages (except Gothic and German), eliminating this variety early on. In Old Norse, [θ] and [ð] likewise merged altogether.
Within verb paradigms
---------------------
**Grammatischer Wechsel** is the phenomenon that a verb that in PIE had a stem ending in one of those phonemes displays a differing reflex in different parts of the paradigm, a result of the movable nature of accent in PIE. The Germanic past tense derives from the PIE perfect aspect, which was always athematic and therefore almost always had a shift of accent between the singular indicative (where it was on the root syllable) and the remaining forms including the past participle (where it was on the ending). However, the perfect aspect was present in only primary underived verbs and so any derived verbs lacked perfect forms altogether. The latter verbs formed the base of the Germanic weak verbs and did not inherit the accent shift and so the alternation itself affects only Germanic strong verbs.
A process of levelling has meant that there are only a few examples in the modern languages. In East and North Germanic, the levelling was almost complete before the earliest records, but Gothic and Old Norse had traces of **grammatischer Wechsel**. In Old English, too, the levelling had already begun to the extent that in some verbs the preterite singular had taken the consonant of the preterite plural. The only surviving example in Modern English is *was-were*, but a trace can also be seen in the adjective *forlorn*, which reflects the old participle of the verb *to lose*, or *sodden*, which is originally a participle of *seethe*. This latter is parallelled by German *sieden, sott, gesotten*. German also features d-t in *leiden, litt, gelitten* ("to suffer") and *schneiden, schnitt, geschnitten* ("to cut"). One example of h:g is *ziehen, zog, gezogen* ("to pull"). All other cases have been levelled. Apart from the English copula mentioned above, the only occurrences of s-r in the modern languages are in Dutch: *verliezen, verloor, verloren* ("to lose") and *verkiezen, verkoos, verkoren* ("to choose").
Here are some examples:
**\*f ~ \*b** (no examples in the modern languages) []
Old English: *he**bb**an – hō**f** hō**f**on ha**f**en* ("to lift", cf. *heave*)
**\*þ ~ \*d** (survives in modern German)
Old English: *cwe**þ**an (cwi**þþ**) cwæ**þ** – cwǣ**d**on cwe**d**en* ("to say", cf. *quoth*)
Old English: *sēo**þ**an (sīe**þþ**) sēa**þ** – su**d**on so**d**en* ("to boil", cf. *seethe*)
Modern German: *schnei**d**en – schni**tt** geschni**tt**en* ("to cut")
**\*h ~ \*g** (survives in modern Dutch and modern German)
Middle High German: *zî**h**en zê**ch** – zi**g**en gezi**g**en* ("to upbraid")
Old English: *þeon (þīe**h**þ) þā**h** – þi**g**on þi**g**en* ("to prosper", cf. German *gedeihen*)
Modern Dutch: *slaan sla - sloe**g** gesla**g**en* ("to hit", Dutch lost intervocalic *h*)
Modern German: *zie**h**en - zo**g**, gezo**g**en* ("to pull", the intervocalic *h* is not pronounced)
**\*hw ~ \*gw/w/g** (survives in modern Dutch)
Old English: *sēon sea**h** – sā**w**on se**w**en* ("to see", Old English lost intervocalic *h*)
(Remnant in Modern English spelling: *see – sa**w***)
Old High German: *se**h**an sa**h** – sā**g**un gise**h**an/gise**w**an*
Modern Dutch: *zien zie gezien – za**g** za**g**en* ("to see", Dutch lost intervocalic *h*)
Modern Swedish: *se ser – så**g***
**\*s ~ \*z** (survives in modern Dutch, and in the English copula)
Old English: *we**s**an, wæ**s** – wǣ**r**on* ("to be")
Modern English: *wa**s** – we**r**e*
Old English: *cēo**s**an, cēa**s** – cu**r**on co**r**en* ("to choose")
Old English: *frēo**s**an, frēa**s** – fru**r**on fro**r**en* ("to freeze")
Old Norse (early): *ve**s**a, va**s** – vá**r**u* ("to be", the -*s*- was soon replaced by -*r*- analogically)
Old Norse: *frjó**s**a, frý**ss** – fru**r**u, fro**r**inn* ("to freeze")
Modern Dutch: *we**z**en, wee**s**, wa**s** – wa**r**en* ("to be")
Modern Dutch: *verlie**z**en, verlie**s** – verloo**r**, verlo**r**en* ("to lose")
Modern Dutch: *vrie**z**en, vrie**s** – vroo**r**, gevro**r**en* ("to freeze")
NB. Not all consonant apophony in Germanic verbs is caused by **grammatischer Wechsel**. The consonant alternation in certain weak verbs that typically goes along with the **Rückumlaut** phenomenon (*think:thought*, German *denken:dachte*) is a result of a later development in Germanic known as the Germanic spirant law. Likewise, the terminal devoicing that produces a fortis-lenis alternation in Dutch (*wrijven:wreef*) is an unrelated historical phenomenon.
Between strong verbs and derived causatives
-------------------------------------------
In PIE, causative verbs (meaning "to cause to") were derived from verb roots with a suffix \**-éye-*, and the root vowel was changed to the *o*-grade. Verbs with this suffix eventually became part of the first weak class (\**-jan* verbs). This suffix always bore the accent, and the verb root never did, while in regular strong verbs the verb root was accented in the present tense. This caused Verner alternation between the original verbs and the causative verbs derived from them.
Examples are numerous in the older languages but are less frequent today, because some levelling has occurred, and in some cases, one verb or the other was lost.
**\*f ~ \*b**
Although technically not a strong verb - causative pair, modern Dutch shows the alternation in a verb with the same underlying Proto-Germanic shape.
*heffen* ("to lift/raise", from the strong verb \**habjaną*) - *hebben* ("to have", from the weak verb \**habjaną*)
**\*þ ~ \*d**
Modern German: *leiden* ("to suffer, to undergo", originally "to go", from \**līþaną*) – *leiten* ("to lead", from \**laidijaną*)
**\*h ~ \*g**
Modern Icelandic: *hlæja* ("to laugh", from \**hlahjaną*) – *hlægja* ("to make laugh", from \**hlōgijaną*)
**\*hw ~ \*gw/w/g** (No attested examples within a single language)
Gothic *þreihan* ("to press", from \**þrinhwaną*) – German *drängen* ("to push", from \**þrangwijaną*)
**\*s ~ \*z**
Modern English: *rise* (from \**rīsaną*) – *rear* (from \**raizijaną*)
Modern Dutch: *genezen* ("to heal", from \**ganesaną*) – *generen* ("to take care of oneself", from \**nazjaną*)
Modern German: *genesen* ("to heal", from \**ganesaną*) – *nähren* ("to feed", from \**nazjaną*)
In other parts of speech
------------------------
The term **Grammatischer Wechsel** was originally applied to any pair of etymologically-related words that had different accent placement, including also Proto-Indo-European athematic nouns. The alternations in nouns were largely eliminated early on in Germanic, but a few cases exist of parallel forms being still preserved in different Germanic languages (such as English *glass* and Icelandic *gler*, an example of the s-z alternation). No attested language, old or modern, shows any alternation in noun paradigms, however. |
Australian physicist
**John M. (Sean) Cadogan** is Professor of Physics at the University of New South Wales and a former Canada Research Chair in Advanced Materials.
Using advanced nuclear techniques, he studies the magnetic compounds formed between rare earth elements and transition elements. Materials with magnetic properties have played a central role in the development of modern technology, and are used in many every-day devices. Rare-earth materials promise magnetic properties beyond the capabilities of those used in the past and so are essential to the continued evolution and development of new technologies. They also have the potential to improve energy efficiency in applications ranging from advanced motors to new refrigeration technologies, and to reduce the environmental side effects of current technology.
Cadogan also uses nuclear techniques to explore "soft-magnetic" materials based on iron and other elements, which are found in such applications as the transformer cores used by the electrical power industry
Personal
--------
Cadogan became a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair at the University of Manitoba in July, 2007. He began his formal training in his homeland of Australia, earning his PhD in 1983 from the University of New South Wales. In 1984 he left for Dublin, Ireland, where he was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the Department of Pure and Applied Physics at Trinity College, Dublin. He then returned to Australia in 1987 and began his teaching and research career in earnest.
Cadogan has authored over 200 peer-reviewed journal articles, has been awarded peer-reviewed research funding of over $5 million, and was elected to Fellowship of the Australian Institute of Physics in 2001. He is a regular referee of research papers submitted for publication to ten international scientific journals and he has served as an Associate Editor for a special 2-volume edition of the Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. |
Russian singer-songwriter and actress (born 1982)
Musical artist
**Irina Viktorovna Dubtsova** (Russian: Ирина Викторовна Дубцова; born 14 February 1982) is a Russian singer, songwriter, and actress. She is the winner of fourth season of *Fabrika Zvyozd* (2004), released three albums until present and reached high positions in Russian music charts with several songs. As songwriter, Dubtsova wrote songs for other famous artist like Ani Lorak, Timati, Philipp Kirkorov, Polina Gagarina, Alsou, Zara, Slava, Sasha Gradiva, and others.
Career
------
### 1982–2003: Early years
Irina Dubtsova was fond of music since childhood. When she was 11 years old, her parents created a children's musical group Джем (translit.: Jam/Jem), which included Dubtsova. The collective has become quite popular in Volgograd. In 1999, through the friend of her father Andrey Pryazhnikov, the disc with the song "Hijo De La Luna" performed by Dubtsova came to the well-known producer Igor Matvienko, who was just recruiting the participants for a new band. The group was named *Devochki* (Russian: Девочки; English: "[The] Girls"), and in addition to Dubtsova, it included three more soloists: Tatyana Gerasimova , Valentina Rubtsova and Olympiada Teterich. The group was actively and unsuccessfully PR-ed in the media, and the clip for the song "Говорила мама (У-ла-ла)" (*"Mom Said (U-la-la)"*) ranked among the best clips of MTV Russia for 2000, but Irina Dubtsova left the band before the release of the first album. After leaving the group she worked in the post of executive director at the studio "SBS – Entertainment". Anton Makarsky worked with this studio, and several of Dubtsova's songs got into his hands. Subsequently, almost all the songs for his album were written by Dubtsova. In 2001 she graduated from the Volgograd Municipal Arts Institute. P. A. Serebryakova, at specialty of Academic singing.
### 2004–2007: *Star Factory*
On 12 March 2004 on Channel One Russia started the Season 4 of "Fabrika Zvyozd", in which Dubtsova took part. She was noted for duets with such artists and bands as Mumiy Troll, Igor Nikolayev, Bi-2, Aleksandr Ivanov, Ivanushki International, Alexander Rosenbaum, Vladimir Presnyakov Jr. and also she sang a song of her own composition "O nyom" (О нём; "*About Him*"). In addition, during the singer's stay at the *Factory* on 29 May 2004 was held Irina's wedding with the soloist of the Plazma band – Roman Chernitsyn. On 8 June the final gala concert of the "Fabrika Zvyozd" took place in the sports complex "Olimpiyskiy", at which the winners of the project were announced, and Dubtsova took the first place. As a prize, Irina received a convertible Peugeot car, recordings for a solo album and filming for three music videos, as well as the right to represent Russia at the contest of young singers New Wave 2004, in which she subsequently took the second place.
### 2005–2011: Career beginnings
Irina Dubtsova in 2010
In February 2005, Dubtsova's debut album, named "O nyom" (О нём; "*About Him*"), was released.
On 3 March 2006, Irina Dubtsova gave birth to a son, who was named Artyom.
On 19 July 2007 was released a new album of Irina Dubtsova, "*Vetra*" (Ветра; "*Winds*"). It included 12 compositions written by the singer herself. At the same time, the videos for the songs "Medals" and "Winds" appeared in the rotation of the TV channel Muz-TV.
In 2008 along with Polina Gagarina she sang the song "*Komu? Zachem?*" (Кому? Зачем?; "*To Whom? Why?*"), for which a video was shot. The song became the winner of the "Muz-TV Award 2010" in the nomination "Duet of the Year". Based on the negative response about men in the song, there were rumors that the singer was getting divorced from her husband, the soloist of the group Plazma ("Slow Motion") Roman Chernitsyn, and then these rumors were confirmed.
In 2010, Irina Dubtsova, Jasmin, Alsou, Tatiana Bulanova, and Valeria Kudryavtseva recorded a children's lullaby "Spi, moyo solnyshko" (Спи, моё солнышко; "Sleep, My Sun") in support of the Pampers and UNICEF charity project "1 pack = 1 vaccine" to prevent tetanus in newborns and their mothers.[]
In 2011, she took part in the project "Fabrika Zvyozd. Return", where the winners of the "Fabrika Zvyozd" of different years competed. Dubtsova joined the team of producer Igor Krutoy and took the third place.
### 2012–present
In the spring of 2012 Irina performed the song "Esh', molis', lyubi" (Ешь, молись, люби; "Eat, Pray, Love"), for which the words and music she composed herself, and in April same year a video for the song was released, which was directed by Aleksandr Filatovich.
Since the end of August 2012, she has sung *jingles* for the radio station Retro FM.
In the fall of 2012, on the Ukrainian TV channel STB, the third season of the Ukrainian version of X-Factor started, and Irina Dubtsova replaced the singer Yolka as a judge. She headed the category "Collectives", which included the trio "D-version" (5th place), duo Violetta and Anatoly (11th place), and the girl group "3D" (8th place).
In November 2012, a video for the new song "Prosti menya" (Прости меня; "Forgive me") was released.
On 1 December 2012, Irina Dubtsova in a live show of the X-Factor, performed the song "Zhivi" (Живи; "Live!") in a duet with the winner of the 2nd season of the show, Viktor Romanchenko, song which she wrote in honor of World AIDS Day.
The year 2014 began for the actress from with the show "Toch-v-Toch" on Channel One, where she acted as a participant in the project and subsequently became the winner.
On 12 March 2014, Irina Dubtsova celebrated the 10th anniversary of her solo career. On the same day, was released a new video for the duet composition with Lyubov Uspenskaya "I love him, too" (Я тоже его люблю).
Irina Dubtsova became a winner in the nomination "Beloved Judge of the Show" at the annual "Telesvezda" award (Ukraine).
On 22 July 2014, at the concert hall "Dzintari" at the international contest "New Wave 2014", Dubtsova and DJ Leonid Rudenko released a joint single "Recollect" (Вспоминать).
In the late 2014 Dubtsova competed in a Channel One project "Three Chords" (Три аккорда).
On 25 January 2015, Dubtsova presented a solo song entitled "Love Me Long" (Люби меня долго) on a big show of the Muz-TV channel, "Party Zone". On 28 March 2015 in the concert hall "Crocus City Hall" a big solo concert of Dubtsova was held, timed to the release of the new album and the 10th anniversary of creative activity, which gathered more than 6,000 spectators.
On 28 April 2016, the nominees of the annual RU.TV award became known, where Dubtsova received the nomination "The Singer of the Year". On 19 November 2016 Irina Dubtsova received her first "Golden Gramophone Award" for the single "Lyuba – Lyubov'" (Люба — Любовь). On 3 December 2016, Dubtsova becomes the Laureate of the diploma "Song of the Year" for the song "Boyfriend".
Discography
-----------
Albums
* 2005: *O nyom* (О нём; "*About Him*"))
* 2007: *Vetra* (Ветра; "*Winds*")
Compilations
* 2008: *O lyubvi* (О любви (лучшие песни); "*About Love (best songs)*")
### EP
* 2020: TBA
### In the group "Girls"
* 1999 – "I want to be a bird"
* 2000 – "Mom said (U-la-la)"
### Solo
| Year | Clip | Producer | Album |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2004 | "About him" | unknown | "About him" |
| 2005 | "How are you there" | Alexander Igudin |
| 2006 | "Medals" | Georgiy Toidze | "Wind" |
| 2007 | "Wind" | Alexander Igudin |
| 2009 | "To whom?" Why? "
(Feat, Polina Gagarina ) | Alexey Golubev | "About Me"
(P. Gagarina's album) |
| 2010 | "Sleep, my sun"
(feat Jasmine , Tatiana Bulanova , Lera Kudryavtseva , Alsou ) | TBA |
| "Let her go"
(feat Olga Lima) | Sergey Tkachenko |
| 2012 | "Eat. Pray. Love » | Alexander Filatovich |
| "Forgive me" |
| 2013 | "The Game of Shadows"
(feat. Brandon Stone) |
| 2014 | "I love him too"
(feat, Love of Assumption ) | Alexey Golubev |
| "To Remember"
(feat. DJ Leonid Rudenko ) |
| 2015 | "Love me for a long time" | Maria Skobeleva |
| Lyuba-Love | Alexander Filatovich |
| 2016 | Boyfriend |
| 2017 | "Moscow-Neva"
(feat. DJ Leonid Rudenko ) | Serghey Gray |
### As featured artist
#### Video Clip
* 2000 – Ivanushki International – Why do you girls love the fair-haired (in the "Girls" group)
#### Artist
Throughout her career Irina practiced writing songs for other performers:
* Philip Kirkorov : *Heart in 1000 candles, He is your illusion*
* Timati : *Do not be insane*
* Glory : *There was not, Without rules, Whiskey without ice*
* Anton Makarsky : To *admire, But she loved him, No you at home, Who you are, etc.*
* Tatyana Kotova : *He*
* Zara : *Forgive me*
* Emin : *Angel-demon* (co-authored)
* Alsou : *Where I am*
* Polina Gagarina : *No offense, Little things in life, To whom? Why ?, I'm to blame* (in co-authorship)
* Teona Dolnikov : *It's not true, Confrontation*
* Ani Lorak : *Without you*
* Dilnaz Ahmadiyeva : *No more*
* Sasha : *If you want*
* Julia Obraztsova : The *Ring, The Winter One, Refuse* |
German Army tank destroyer
For the infantry fighting vehicle, see Marder 2.
The ***Marder* II** ("marten" in English) was a German tank destroyer of World War II based on the Panzer II chassis. There were two versions, the first mounted a modified Soviet 7.62 cm gun firing German ammunition, while the other mounted the German 7.5 cm Pak 40 gun. Its high profile and thin open-topped armor provided minimal protection to the crew. Nevertheless, the Marder II (and similar Marder III) provided a great increase in firepower over contemporary German tanks during 1942 and into 1943. Only four Marder IIs remain today.
History
-------
A Waffen-SS Marder II and its crew somewhere in Southern Russia during the *Wehrmacht's* raid into the Caucasus. The vehicle depicted is the Sd.Kfz. 132 variant, also known as a 'LaS76', based on the early Panzer II Ausf. D/E chassis mounting a captured Soviet 76 mm gun.
During the first days of Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Germans came unprepared to encounter Soviet T-34 medium tanks and KV heavy tanks. Although the *Wehrmacht* succeeded in most operations due to superior tactics, air support and supply, the lack of anti-tank weapons capable of successfully engaging these vehicles at range was becoming evident. An urgent need arose for a mobile and powerful enough anti-tank weapon than the existing towed anti-tank guns or tank destroyers like the *Panzerjäger I*.
Among a series of solutions, it was decided to use surplus light tanks, like the Panzer II, and captured vehicles, like the Lorraine Schlepper, as the basis for makeshift tank destroyers. The result was the *Marder* series, which were armed with either the new 7.5 cm Pak 40 anti-tank guns or captured Soviet 7.62 cm F-22 Model 1936 field guns, large numbers of which had been acquired early in the war.
In 1942, at least 5 Marder IIs were supplied by the Germans to their ally, Hungary. The Hungarians used these successfully against Soviet tanks on the Eastern Front. In 1943, a surviving Marder II was taken back to Hungary to be studied. Soon, the Hungarians designed and built a similar vehicle using the Hungarian Toldi light tank's chassis with a three-sided armoured superstructure housing a powerful 75 mm anti-tank gun mounted on top. This would be referred to as the 'Toldi páncélvadász' ('Toldi tank destroyer').
Production
----------
The *Marder* II came in two major versions. The first version (Sd.Kfz. 132) was based on the light Panzer II *Ausf*. D/E and *Flammpanzer* II chassis with a new torsion bar suspension featuring four large road wheels and a "slack track" with no track return rollers. It was armed with captured Soviet 7.62 cm guns that were rebuilt to accept the larger German 7.5 cm Pak 40 propellant cartridge. This improved its penetrative capabilities and eliminated the need for captured ammunition. These early *Marder* IIs had a high silhouette (2.60 m (8 ft 6 in) high) and relatively thin armor compared to other armored vehicles; only 30 mm (1.2 in) (front) and 10 to 15 mm (0.39 to 0.59 in) (sides). There was no armour on the top or rear, leaving the crew with very little protection. Alkett built 150 *Marder* II (Sd. Kfz. 132) in April/May 1942 and Wegmann converted further 52 from mid 1942 to 1943.
The second version (Sd.Kfz. 131) was based on new-built Panzer II Ausf. F hulls. This *Marder* II had a redesigned (widened) fighting compartment and used the German 75 mm Pak 40 anti-tank gun. The silhouette was lowered by about 40 cm to 2.20 m, but the armor was thin and the compartment was open to the top and rear, as in Sd. Kfz. 132. Famo (Breslau), and FAMO-Ursus produced 531 *Marder* II (Sd.Kfz. 131) from July 1942 to June 1943. About 130 more were converted from mid 1943 to early 1944 when the last Panzer IIs were taken out of active service.
Combat history
--------------
The *Marder* II "coal thief", recognizable by the cartoon painted on both sides, on the Eastern Front in 1943. The ring markings on the barrel of the gun indicate 19 claimed kills for the vehicle.
The various Marder IIs produced fought on all European fronts of the war, however, there was a large concentration of these on the Eastern Front. The *Marder* IIs were used by the *Panzerjäger Abteilungen* of the Panzer divisions of both the Heer and the Waffen SS, as well as several Luftwaffe units. The *Marder'*s weaknesses were mainly related to survivability. The combination of a high silhouette and open-top fighting compartment made them vulnerable to indirect artillery fire, aircraft strafing, and grenades. The armor was also quite thin, making them vulnerable to enemy tanks or infantry. The *Marders* were not assault vehicles or tank substitutes; the open-top compartment meant operations in crowded areas such as urban environments or other close-combat situations were not an option. They were best employed in defensive or overwatch roles. Despite their weaknesses, they were more effective than the towed antitank guns that they replaced. |
**Operation Pathway** was a British counterterrorism operation.
The operation first came under public scrutiny when details of its activities were accidentally released in April 2009.
The name of the operation, and at least some of its details were inadvertently revealed when Assistant Commissioner for Special Operations Robert Quick was photographed entering Number 10 Downing Street with classified documents in plain sight.
The operation was hurriedly executed after the security breach resulting in a dozen arrests of suspects of Pakistani origin in northwest England near Manchester, Liverpool and Lancashire.
Quick resigned on 9 April.
The operation continued following Quick's resignation.
On November 9 2009 *The Telegraph* reported that the operation produced the tip that lead American security officials to place Najibullah Zazi under investigation.
British security officials were reported to have intercepted an email from a Pakistani planner to Najibullah Zazi containing instructions on how to conduct his attack.
Najibullah Zazi was alleged to have begun to implement a plan to set off bombs in New York City on the 2009 anniversary of Al Qaeda's WTC attacks on 9-11.
His plan was described as the most serious plan against the USA since 9-11. |
For other uses, see Duffield (disambiguation).
**Duffield Frith** was, in medieval times, an area of Derbyshire in England, part of that bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers (or Ferrars) by King William, controlled from his seat at Duffield Castle. From 1266 it became part of the Duchy of Lancaster and from 1285 it was a Royal Forest with its own Forest Courts.
It extended from Duffield to Wirksworth and from Hulland to Heage. Most of it became the ancient parish of Duffield, which contained the townships of Hazlewood, Holbrook, Makeney and Milford, Shottle, and Windley, and the chapelries of Belper, Heage and Turnditch. The chapelry of Belper – or "Beaureper" – was built by the Duke of Lancaster for the use of the foresters.
The area had been noted for centuries for the quantity of deer, mostly fallow, but there was also wild boar. There were also wolves, at least until the end of the thirteenth century.
Norman Conquest
---------------
Henry de Ferrers had been granted vast tracts of land, in present-day Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Northamptonshire, and Essex and as far south as Wiltshire. In 1070 Hugh d'Avranches was promoted to become Earl of Chester and the Wapentake of Appletree, which covered a large part of south Derbyshire, was passed to de Ferrers. At the centre of this was Tutbury Castle which he adopted as his domestic headquarters.
His major landholdings, however, were those of the Anglo-Saxon Siward Barn, following a revolt in 1071, including more land in Berkshire and Essex and also Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire.
In addition to Tutbury Castle, he built two more, probably typical Norman timber motte and bailey construction. Remembering that large areas of the county were laid to waste during the so-called Harrying of the North, and are recorded as such in the Domesday Survey, Pilsbury Castle, on the west bank of the River Dove, was probably built to protect his holdings in the wapentake of Hamston. Meanwhile Duffield Castle commanded an important crossing over the River Derwent and oversaw the parts of the wapentakes of Litchurch and Morleyston, to the west of the river, and that part of his lands that would become the Frith. Much of the estate was granted to Knights who served under him, among them being the Curzons of Kedleston Hall.
Forest Laws
-----------
It will be seen that the de Ferrers controlled an area between the rivers Derwent and Dove, from the River Trent at Tutbury north to the Forest of High Peak. It is not clear how much of this was retained specifically for hunting. Possibly around 1225, when the Forest of East Derbyshire was abolished, Morley Park, which included Belper, was added. In 1266, after a rebellion by Robert de Ferrars, against King Henry III the lands were confiscated and passed to Prince Edmund to be part of the Duchy of Lancaster.
Records for Duffield Frith do not begin until this time, and being part of the Duchy, the area was not properly a royal forest until the reign of Henry IV. However Edmund was allowed to hold Forest Courts for Duffield as part of the honour of Tutbury, and King Edward I hunted in between 1290 and 1293 and Edward II visited in 1323.
Duchy of Lancaster
------------------
There were four wards: Duffield, Belper, Hulland and Colebrook. Within these were a number of enclosed parks for the keeping of buck and doe (in contrast with the much larger ward of Campana in the Forest of High Peak which was intended for hart and hind.)
There were seven of these parks within the Frith, listed by Henry Earl of Lancaster) in 1330 as : Ravensdale, Mansell, Schethull (Shottle), Postern, Bureper (Belper), Morley, and Schymynde-cliffe, (Shining Cliff). There was another park, Champain, on the southern border on what is now Cumberhills, south of Duffield, near Champion Farm.
The records of the Duchy of Lancaster have many references to Duffield Frith, including, in 1314, a great larder at Belper, where the venison of the deer was salted down for winter use, and a large cow-house stood in the lower part of Shottle (Cowhouse Lane, listed by the Post Office as "Cowers Lane").
It was a valuable source of timber. Orders are recorded, in 1375 for the delivery of oaks to the Carmelite Friars of Nottingham, the Dominican Friars of Derby, and the Abbot of Darley for building purposes. In September 1405, King Henry IV ordered the chief forester to supply twelve timber oaks towards the repair of Duffield church, and in 1411 to deliver to the tenants of Duffield enough wood for shoring Duffield Bridge (near the present Bridge Inn) while it was rebuilt – using, no doubt, stone from the ruins of the castle. Henry VIII decreed that certain crops should be grown such as flax in modern-day Flaxholme.
It should be remembered that, although referred to as forests, these areas were not necessarily woodland overall. However, in any case, no special measures were taken to conserve timber. By the Sixteenth century the forest laws had been relaxed and much of the land was considered as common. A shift had occurred from arable farming to livestock production and it was more profitable to rent the forest for grazing, without protecting the growing shoots of young trees. Meanwhile, the use of timber increased, particularly for iron and lead smelting which increased significantly from the Thirteenth century.
Common land
-----------
Duffield Frith continued to be in the hands of the Crown until the time of Charles I. It had been reduced considerably in size, and in the reign of Elizabeth I it is said to have been thirty miles in circumference.
In 1581 a commission investigated ways in which extra royal revenues might be gained. By then Shining Cliff and the manor of Alderwasley had been transferred to the Lowe family, leaving the three wards of Duffield, Belper and Hulland. It reported that the game had virtually disappeared and much of the area was held in common by tenants and copyholders who would suffer if the woods were enclosed. They suggested developing the facilities for smelting the ores and a charge on lead similar to that levied in Wirksworth.
By this time the forest had been almost completely denuded. One effect of this was a move towards the use of coal. Water power was already used for grinding corn and wool fulling. It found increasing use for mechanising the various forms of mineral processing. In 1556, one of the earliest ore-stamping mills was built at Hulland Ward by Burchard Kranich, who, two years earlier, had built the first Smeltmill for extracting lead from its ore at Makeney.
Matters were left in abeyance until 1633, when the Frith ceased to be a royal forest. The Duchy of Lancaster assigned one third of Belper and Hulland to the Crown and rented to Sir Edward Sydenham. The remainder was divided and enclosed and passed to the commoners. When it came to Duffield Ward, however, the majority of the commoners opposed the proposal. Nevertheless, the Duchy council went ahead and selected the best areas for the Crown, particularly those that were rich in coal. Moreover, the areas assigned to the commoners were only granted to those who had previously agreed to the scheme.
This culminated in 1643 in the inhabitants forcibly throwing open all the enclosures in Duffield – or Chevin Ward, including Shottle Park. The commoners were about to seek a judicial review when the Civil War began, and all this part of the old forest so seized remained common until 1786, when 1,500 acres (6.1 km2) were enclosed by Act of George III.
Present day
-----------
Ravensdale Park, between Windley and Hulland, is today listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument. Shining Cliff Wood is on long lease to the Forestry Commission and is listed as containing an SSSI. Having been excavated at the end of the nineteenth century, the castle at Duffield has been sadly neglected, since there is little to see.
A paper by Derbyshire County Council has suggested: *The area of Duffield Frith is one within which, as noted above, there is good surviving evidence of medieval settlements and field systems. There are extensive documentary records for the forest and opportunity exists for research into the development of these settlements and the economy within a royal forest.* |
**Jozef Šesták** is a Slovak diplomat, expert on international negotiations in the field of foreign policy and diplomacy. His highest position: State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Slovak Republic. His highest diplomatic rank: Ambassador.
Early life and education
------------------------
He spent his childhood and youth in Košice. He studied at the University of Economics in Bratislava, the Economy of Foreign Trade. In 1965, at the university he has founded AIESEC (International Association of the Students of Economics and Commerce), becoming the vice-president of AIESEC Czechoslovakia and the first President of AIESEC Slovakia at the University of Economics in Bratislava (1965–67). He was a co-founder and the first vice-president of the University Students Union of Slovakia (ZVS, 1968–69). He received the PhD. degree in 1985 at the University of Economics in Bratislava. During the so-called Prague Spring, he was one of the progressive leaders of the student movement in Slovakia.
Professional career
-------------------
### In Czechoslovakia
As a foreign trade graduate of the University of Economics in Bratislava, he started to work at the Ministry of Trade of the Slovak Republic (1970), later at the Federal Ministry of Foreign Trade in
Prague (1972-1979). In 1974–1979, he served as the Deputy Commercial Attaché at the Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR) in Washington D.C. USA. In 1979, after returning home, he was transferred to the Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ČSSR in Prague, where he worked at the Minister's office. In 1983, he received position of the Ambassadorial Counsellor to the Permanent Mission of the ČSSR at the international organisations in Vienna, Austria. He served as the Deputy Head of the Czechoslovak Delegation at the disarmament negotiations on Reduction of the Conventional Forces in Central Europe (MBFR) (1983-1988). As an expert he joined the negotiations on the withdrawal of the Soviet troops from the territory of the ČSSR (1990). Also in 1990, he was the Head of the Delegation of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic with the diplomatic rank of the Ambassador at the international negotiations on *Open skies* regime in Canada and Hungary.[]
### In Slovakia
After the establishment of the government of the Slovak Republic, he acted as an external Counsellor to the first Deputy Prime Minister of the Slovak Republic for foreign policy and international economic questions (1990-1991). As early as during the federative arrangement of Czechoslovakia, he initiated foundation of the Ministry of International Relations in Bratislava, Slovakia to become the first department of the Slovak Diplomacy.[]
In December 1994, the cabinet of the prime minister Vladimir Mečiar appointed him as the State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Slovak Republic (1994-1998). Within this position, he was the author of the Economic Dimension of Diplomacy (EDD) which he introduced in 1995 as a new orientation of diplomacy toward economy and trade. In 1996 and 1997, he organised in Bratislava two world conferences on the subject of economic dimension of diplomacy for the senior representatives of the ministries of foreign affairs from over 50 countries, where the keynote speaker was Hans-Dietrich Genscher, then foreign affairs minister of Germany.[]
He has reached an important diplomatic achievement by successful negotiations of the Treaty on Good Neighbourly Relations and Friendly Cooperation between the Slovak Republic and the
Republic of Hungary (signed in Paris on 19 March 1995) in which he acted as the leader of the governmental negotiation team of Slovakia. He played an important role as the Head of the negotiating team of the Government of the Slovak Republic in the negotiations with the Republic of Hungary about a possible off-court settlement of the dispute regarding the Gabčíkovo – Nagymaros Waterworks (1996–97).
As the state secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, he worked also as the Deputy Chairman of the Government Council for the Promotion of Export. He was a member of the Government Council for the integration of the Slovak Republic into the European Union as well as a member of the Government Council for the accession of the Slovak Republic into OECD. He was the first Chief negotiator for the accession of Slovakia into the EU (1997–98). He led the access negotiations of the SR into NATO.
In the autumn of 1998, he became the Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador of the Slovak Republic in the Republic of Austria. In spite of being a career diplomat, he was removed from the office after the commencement of the prime minister Mikuláš Dzurinda's cabinet.[]
In 1999–2009, he worked at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the SR, ranked as Ambassador, Ambassador at Large and Senior State Counsellor.[]
He is the author of the peace project for the solution of the Middle East crisis, which he presented in Brussels to the experts of the European Commission on Middle East (in 2005) and to the Austrian Presidency of the EU (in 2006). The initiative of Ambassador Jozef Šesták was appreciated by the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union, Mr. Javier Solana, on 25 February 2005.[]
In 2004, he was an independent candidate in the presidential elections in the Slovak Republic.
From December 2009 until December 2018, he served as the Consul General of the Slovak Republic in Istanbul with the rank of Ambassador. In 2016–2018, he was the Dean (Doyen) of the Istanbul Consular Corps (ICC), which is the largest consular corps in the world. During his stay in Istanbul, he established and organised a systematic scientific-research cooperation between the top scientists of Slovakia and Turkey, for which he was awarded the Medal of the Slovak Academy of Sciences for the support of science by the Scientific Council of the Slovak Academy of Sciences (in 2016).
In the present, he devotes himself mostly to the issues of the Art of the International Negotiations in the Foreign Policy and Diplomacy. He is visiting lecturer at the prestige private KOC University
in Istanbul.[]
His wife, PhDr. Anna Šestáková, is a niece of a famous Slovak writer Dobroslav Chrobák. She is a university lecturer and an expert on diplomatic protocol, etiquette and the history of diplomacy.
Honorary Posts
--------------
* 2016 – 2018: Dean (Doyen) of the Istanbul Consular Corps (ICC); the largest consular corps in the world, consisting of approximately 150 consuls general and honorary consuls in Istanbul
* 2014 – 2016: Chairman of the executive committee of the Istanbul Consular Corps (ICC)
* 2004: Independent presidential candidate in the elections of the President of the Slovak Republic
* 2000 – 2002: Honorary Member of the Academic Board of the Faculty of Trade of the University of Economics in Bratislava, Slovakia
* 1997 – 2000: Member of the Academic Board of the Faculty of Trade of the University of Economics in Bratislava, Slovakia
* 1965 – 1967: Founding member of AIESEC Slovakia, the first President of AIESEC Slovakia at the University of Economics in Bratislava, Slovakia and the first vice-president of AIESEC Czechoslovakia |
**VolleySLIDE** is the Sitting Volleyball world educational programme by World ParaVolley, the international federation responsible for all forms of ParaVolley. It is aimed at driving the development of the sport, in line with the Paralympic Movement and global society expectations. World ParaVolley (formerly known as World Organisation Volleyball for Disabled (or WOVD) is a member of International Paralympic Committee and adopted VolleySLIDE back in February 2014.
The notion of 'SLIDE'
---------------------
The word ‘volley’ shows its link with the Olympic sport of Volleyball, the word ‘slide’ emphasises the speed, movement, energy and fun of the game.
* Simple - you only need a ball and some kind of divide/net
* Liberating – by allowing individuals to get out of their chair/take their prosthetics off
* Inclusive – integrating disabled and able-bodied players across the world
* Different – you sit on the floor and slide around on your buttocks
* Enjoyable – it is a fast, dynamic and a team sport
That is Sitting Volleyball...
Mission
-------
To support World ParaVolley with the growth of #SittingVolleyball, by providing aspiring and developing Sitting Volleyball programs with a resource that focuses on the inclusive and accessible natures of the sport.
Aims
----
- To offer the leading Sitting Volleyball starter pack teaching/coaching resource, in multiple languages.
- To work with World ParaVolley to provide a ‘central resource base’ of Sitting Volleyball coaching tools.
- To provide a template introductory workshop which covers all aspects of Sitting Volleyball in a fun an engaging way.
- To gather and share insights of leading Sitting Volleyball players and coaches.
- In collaboration with World ParaVolley, share Sitting Volleyball updates and news from around the world.
- To promote Sitting Volleyball to new markets, through the notion of ‘SLIDE’.
What is VolleySLIDE?
--------------------
VolleySLIDE is a volunteer-run initiative started to raise greater awareness of Sitting Volleyball and provide a platform for people to go to learn more about the sport.
After only a few months of operation it was adopted as the World ParaVolley Education Programme for Sitting Volleyball and now sits under their Development Director as one of their key delivery elements.
Click here to see the 'What is VolleySLIDE?' presentation.
Educational Materials
---------------------
All of the items below are available on the VolleySLIDE website:
Starting up? - A collection of webpages pulling together everything you'd need to know about if you were looking to start Sitting Volleyball in your area.
BumBall - A very basic game which is designed to be a great starting point. Perfect if you want to get going in a game situation quickly.
Short Resource - Aimed at anyone looking to get started with Sitting Volleyball, whether they be a school teacher or a rehabilitation worker.
Translations - currently available in Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, French, Greek, Italian, Persian, Portuguese, Russian, Slovenian.
Full Resource - Aimed at those looking to deliver a number of sequential sessions / become a regular Sitting Volleyball trainer or coach.
Translations - currently only available in Portuguese as well.
Workshop - a 4-hour theory and practical workshop, all planned and laid out for any experienced deliver or Volleyballer from around the world to pick up and use. (Remember: these files are intended to be the start point for anyone, not the finished article for everyone.)
Skills and Drills Videos - providing a visual explanation over the technical skills used by players in the game and some activities that coaches can use to develop them. These have been developed by USA Volleyball.
Educational and Coaching Blogs
Sunday Sitting Supplement Blogs
Competition Blogs
Links
Social media
------------
Facebook - www.facebook.com/volleyslide
Twitter (English) - www.twitter.com/volleyslide
Twitter (French) - www.twitter.com/volleyslide\_fr
Tumblr -
YouTube - www.youtube.com/volleyslide
Instagram -
Flickr -
Leader and Founder
------------------
Matt Rogers ( United Kingdom) is the 'brainchild,' founder and leader of the VolleySLIDE initiative. Initially it started as a pack of Resource cards for teachers and coaches to use in the Surrey region of England. Following the interest that they received some educational blogs were written to partner the resource and then some social media accounts were created to help tell people about what was available. It has gone from strength to strength with the simple hope of it helping Sitting Volleyball maximize its true potential to be a ‘tool for positive social change’.
Previously Matt has been the Volleyball England's Sitting Volleyball Development Manager, London 2012 Technical Operations Manager for Sitting Volleyball [and Volleyball] and W.O.V.D. Technical Commission Member. When asked why he started VolleySLIDE he explained: "In 2009 I took on a role where I needed to develop two GBR performance National teams to compete in the London 2012 Paralympic Games. For a sport very much in his infancy, I was amazed at how little there was out there to help people looking to start the sport in a new country or area.
So following the Games I set about creating something that could help those in my position in the future, as well as provide a platform for everyone already involved in the sport to stay connected with other. I hope that the Sitting Volleyball community embraces the potential of VolleySLIDE and works with us to share our sport with the millions of people around the world who can enjoy and benefit from it."
Click here for more information
Contributors
------------
VolleySLIDE is run by 6 voluntary coordinators who together lead on the promotion and integration of VolleySLIDE worldwide. Each are appointed due to their knowledge and passion for the sport of Sitting Volleyball as well as their skillsets relative to the role.
| Name | Position | Origin | Appointed |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Kendra Lancaster | Marketing Coordinator | USA | 2014– |
| Robert Richardson | Communications Coordinator | United Kingdom | 2013– |
| Emile Cadet Vuningabo | Growth Coordinator | Rwanda | 2013– |
| Branko Mihorko | Partnerships Coordinator | Slovenia | 2013– |
| Richard Stacey-Chapman | Resources Coordinator | United Kingdom | 2013– |
| Jouke De Haan | Delivery Coordinator | Netherlands | 2013– |
|
Click here for more information
In addition there is a growing network of voluntary translators who contribute Sitting Volleyball news from around the world as well as translate any of the VolleySLIDE materials that are requested.
Click here for more information
Contact
-------
If you are interested in using or engaging with VolleySLIDE in any way, please Tweet us on @volleyslide or e-mail us at: [email protected] |
Australian politician
For other people named Mark Lewis, see Mark Lewis (disambiguation).
**Mark William Lewis** (born 27 November 1957) is an Australian politician who was a Liberal Party member of the Legislative Council of Western Australia from 2013 to 2017, representing the Mining and Pastoral Region. He was made a minister in the government of Colin Barnett in September 2016.
Lewis was born in Cunnamulla, a small town in South West Queensland. He was raised on a farming and cattle property, and went to a boarding school in Rockhampton before going on to study animal production and health at Gatton Agricultural College (now part of the University of Queensland). After graduating, he moved to the Channel Country, where he worked for the veterinary services branch of the state government's Department of Primary Industries. In 1996, Lewis moved to Carnarvon, Western Australia, to work for that state's Department of Agriculture and Food. He first ran for parliament at the 2008 state election, running in third place on the Liberal ticket in Mining and Pastoral but losing out to other candidates. Following the retirement of Norman Moore (the lead Liberal candidate in 2008), Lewis was elevated to second place on the ticket for the 2013 election, and was elected. In September 2016, following the resignation of Dean Nalder, he was appointed Minister for Agriculture and Food. |
**Cajun Dance Party** were a five-piece band based in London, England. They originally consisted of Robbie Stern, Max Bloom, Daniel Blumberg, Will Vignoles, and Vicky Freund. Blumberg and Bloom left the band in 2009 to form the band Yuck, while other members of the band went to university. Freund now performs with the band TML. No split was ever officially announced.
Biography
---------
The band came into being when guitarist Robbie Stern invited Daniel Blumberg (vocals), Max Bloom (bass guitar), William Vignoles (drums) and Vicky Freund (keys) to start playing together, originally to participate in their school 'battle of the bands' in 2005 at University College School, in the same year as Bombay Bicycle Club. In their first few band practices, the 15-year-olds began working on their first four songs, "The Next Untouchable", "Colourful Life", "Amylase" and "Buttercups", which were recorded as demos and submitted to their Myspace site shortly after.
The band played their first few shows at the West London all ages club night 'Way Out West', performing in the bar beneath Brentford FC football stadium. Way Out West was well known for putting on many up and coming bands such as Jamie T, Late of the Pier, Video Nasties, The More Assured and Laura Marling. The organiser of the event, Keith Anderson, began to manage the band shortly after. Their first single, "The Next Untouchable", was released on Anderson's record label as a limited edition 7" single, with 500 copies being put into production.
Cajun Dance Party's debut album was entitled *The Colourful Life*, and released in April 2008. The band recorded the album sessions with Bernard Butler at the recording studio, West Heath Yard, owned by Edwyn Collins. West Heath Yard was also a music industry spoof which aired for a short while on Channel 4 in 1999, The album consisted of nine tracks, with singles from the album including "Colourful Life", "The Race", and "Amylase". The album was given 4/5 in *The Guardian*.
The band made many festival appearances in the UK and abroad, performing at such festivals as Reading and Leeds, Glastonbury, Oxegen, T in the Park, Underage Festival, Camden Crawl, the Summer Sonic Festival in Japan and the *Les Inrocks* tour in France.
Since the end of the band, Stern has become a barrister at Matrix Chambers, Vignoles works as a manager for the English Touring Orchestra, Freund remains involved in music production and sound engineering, and Blumberg is an artist and musician.
Discography
-----------
### Albums
* *The Colourful Life* (2008)
### Singles
* "The Next Untouchable"
* "Amylase"
* "The Race"
* "Colourful Life" |
South African legal case
***International Shipping Co (Pty) Ltd v Bentley*** is an important case in South African law. It was heard in the Appellate Division on 25 and 26 September 1989, with judgment handed down on 10 November. The presiding officers were Corbett CJ, Botha JA, Hefer JA, Smalberger JA and Friedman AJA. The case is especially important in the law of delict, in the area of causation and on the question of the remoteness of damages. An auditor was sued by a financing company for loss caused by negligent misstatements contained in a report by the auditor of a group of companies. This report was misleading: It did not give an accurate picture of the bleak financial situation of the group for which the company was providing financial facilities. The court found that the auditor had acted negligently and unlawfully, and so established factual causation. On appeal, however, it was held that the company's loss was too remote for the auditor to be held liable. The judgment set out the factors relevant to determining whether or not a loss is too remote.
Facts
-----
The appellant, International Shipping, a company carrying on the business of financiers and shippers, agreed to make certain financial facilities available to the D Group of companies in early 1976. The respondent, Bentley, was appointed auditor to the D Group in November 1977. In March 1979, Bentley issued reports in respect of the financial statements of each of the companies comprising the D Group, as well as its financial statements, for the year ending 20 December 1978. In each of these reports, which were not qualified in any way, Bentley stated that he had examined the financial statements in question and had complied with the requirements of section 300 of the Companies Act, and that, in his opinion, the statements fairly represented the financial position of the company as at 20 December 1978, and the results of its operations for the period then ended, in the manner required by the Companies Act.
International Shipping continued to provide these financial facilities until the liquidation of the companies comprising the D Group in April 1981. At the time of such liquidation, the total indebtedness of the D Group to International Shipping amounted to R977,318, of which only the sum of R593,826 was recovered. International Shipping thus sustained a loss in the amount of R383,492.
In April 1982, International Shipping instituted an action for damages against Bentley in a Local Division, alleging
* that the aforementioned financial statements were materially false and misleading in a number of respects;
* that, in so reporting, Bentley had acted fraudulently or, alternatively, negligently towards International Shipping, which had relied thereon in reviewing and deciding to maintain and increase the facilities accorded to the D Group;
* that, had the 1978 financial statements fairly presented the financial position of the D Group and its constituent companies, International Shipping would have terminated the facilities and have required the Group to make good its indebtedness; and
* that the loss sustained by International Shipping constituted damage which Bentley was accordingly liable to compensate it.
The action was dismissed by the court *a quo*.
Judgment
--------
International Shipping thereafter brought the instant appeal in which the court held
* that the financial statements were, to some extent, false and misleading;
* that there was no reason for interfering with the court *a quo*'s finding that fraud had not been established; but
* that negligence had been established in regard to some aspects of the financial statements; and
* that unlawfulness had been established in that it could not be said that Bentley had properly complied with his statutory duties in terms of the Companies Act.
The only remaining issue was that of causation.
As far as factual causation was concerned, the court held that the respondent's negligent report on the 1978 financial statements unquestionably constituted a *causa sine qua non* of the appellant's loss, since a proper and non-negligent performance of his duties as auditor would have obviated the appellant's ultimate loss. With regard to legal causation, the court held that there were a number of factors which tended to separate cause and effect in the instant case, *viz*
* the time factor, in that two years had elapsed between the respondent's reporting and the loss;
* the decision by the appellant to provide a support programme for the D Group at a stage when it already knew that the Group's financial situation was fairly bleak;
* the fact that the appellant allowed the D Group's indebtedness to escalate;
* the changed relationship between the parties as a result of the implementation of the support programme, in that the appellant and the D Group ceased to deal at arm's length with each other, and the appellant became intimately involved in the administration (or lack thereof) of the D Group;
* the fraud committed by the managing director of the D Group, which played an important part in causing the financial loss which the appellant ultimately incurred;
* the fact that, to some extent, the appellant did not rely on the 1978 financial statements prepared by the respondent; and, lastly,
* the foreseeability of the support programme.
The support programme amounted to uninhibited lending to the D Group without added security, which was the real cause of the appellant's loss. Such a situation was hardly foreseeable in March 1979.
The court held, further, having regard to the above-mentioned factors, that the ultimate loss suffered by the appellant was too remote for legal liability on the respondent's part to arise. The appeal was accordingly dismissed and the decision in the Witwatersrand Local Division, in *International Shipping Co (Pty) Ltd v Bentley*, confirmed. |
Czech aircraft manufacturer
**Ivanov Aero sro**, sometimes called **Ivanov Aircraft**, was a Czech aircraft manufacturer based in Hradec Králové and founded by Marek Ivanov. The company specialized in the design and manufacture of ultralight aircraft in the form of kits for amateur construction and ready-to-fly aircraft.
The company seems to have been founded about 2008 and gone out of business in 2016.
The company was a Společnost s ručením omezeným (sro), a Czech private limited company.
Ivanov Aero was formed to develop and produce the Ivanov ZJ-Viera, a single seat ultralight aircraft made from composite materials. Reviewer Marino Boric described the aircraft in a 2015 review, saying, "the dream of ultralighting returns, but with a 21st century feel! Ultralight on the wallet, too, thanks to a combination of simple design and modern all-composite construction...this airplane shows every sign of becoming a landmark design".
Another Czech aircraft manufacturer, InterPlane Aircraft of Zbraslavice, acted as distributor for the ZJ-Viera, marketing it for the US FAR 103 Ultralight Vehicles category, as well as the light-sport aircraft category, before they went out of business in late 2013.
Ivanov Aero also provided services for design studies and engineering, documentation, structural testing, prototyping, aircraft maintenance and repairs and production of aircraft and aircraft parts.
Aircraft
--------
Summary of aircraft built by Ivanov Aero:
* Ivanov ZJ-Viera (2008) |
Keisai Eisen's print of Warabi-shuku, part of the *Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō* series
**Warabi-shuku** (蕨宿, *Warabi-shuku*) was the second of the sixty-nine stations of the Nakasendō highway connecting Edo with Kyoto during the Edo period. It was located in the present-day city of Warabi, Saitama Prefecture, Japan.
History
-------
Warabi was originally built up as a castle town during the Muromachi period for the Shibukawa clan. Under the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period, Warabi-shuku became a post town on the Nakasendō from 1612.
Per an 1843 guidebook issued by the Inspector of Highways (道中奉行, *Dōchu-būgyō*), the town stretched for about 1.1 kilometers along the highway, with a population of 2223 (1138 men, 1085 women) in 430 houses, and boasted two *honjin*, one *waki-honjin,* one *tonya* and 23 *hatago*. Until the late Edo period, Warabi-shuku was infamous for its aggressive *meshimori onna* and numerous *chaya*.
Warabi-shuku was approximately 4 *ri*, 28-*chō* (18.8 kilometers) from the starting point of the Nakasendō at Nihonbashi, which was the approximate distance the average traveler could walk in half a day. However, the station was separated from neighboring Itabashi-shuku by the Arakawa River. The river formed an outer line of defense for Edo, and therefore the Tokugawa shogunate forbid the erection of any bridges as a defensive measure.
The modern city of Warabi has preserved the gate and part of one of the *honjin* as a museum.
Warabi-shuku in *The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō*
-----------------------------------------------------------
Keisai Eisen's ukiyo-e print of Warabi-shuku dates from 1835 to 1838, and depicts the ferry crossing the Arakawa River at dusk. On the small boat are a pair of itinerant blind women musicians with *shamisen*, a man and his horse, and a porter sitting smoking in the bow. The boatman propels the boat with a rear oar, while on the far bank more travelled await the arrival of the ferry.
Neighboring post towns
----------------------
Nakasendō
Itabashi-shuku - **Warabi-shuku** - Urawa-shuku |
Polish writer (1837–1861)
**Walery Łoziński** (15 January 1837 - 30 January 1861) was a Polish writer and publicist.
Biography
---------
Łoziński was born into a lowly noble family, his father Walerian working as postmaster and mandate administrator. He was the brother of Władysław, a historian and journalist, and the cousin of Karol Szajnocha, a historian, and Polish independence activist.
Walery Łoziński's grave in the Cmentarz Łyczakowski we Lwowie (today Lychakiv Cemetery, Ukraine)
His family moved from Mikołajów to Smolnica near Sambor (modern Sambir, Ukraine*),* which inspired his later pseudonym *Walenty from Smolnica*. He attended a gymnasium in Sambor, where he first started writing, and it was there that he finished his first, never published novel titled *Kamień w Spasie*. Łoziński was expelled from school in 1855 with a wolf ticket for his patriotic activity. Not wanting to be a financial burden to his parents, he moved to Lwów (modern Lviv, Ukraine) where his cousin, Karol Szajnocha, took him in and found him a job in the official editorial office of the Gazeta Lwowska where he furthered his writing career.
His novels appeared as periodical episodes in Lwów newspapers. Łoziński's work often commented on national issues, and maintained a patriotic tone; he also strongly criticised and ridiculed Austria, and for this reason his works were subjected to strict censorship.
He often integrated historical elements into his novels, often referring to the bloody events of the Galician massacre in 1846 and the Spring of Nations in 1948.
Łoziński's most well known work was *The Enchanted Mansion* (1859)*,* which is considered to be the first Polish gothic style adventure novel.
Death
-----
Łoziński was known for his bellicose inclinations, his love of quarrels, and from a certain point - of duels. On January 10, 1861, Łoziński entered a saber duel with Karol Cieszewski, a well-known and popular journalist from Lwów, his editorial colleague. The disagreement was over a woman also working in the editorial office, Aniela Przyłęcka. Łoziński was wounded in the temple and died less than three weeks later as a result of post-traumatic meningitis and blood poisoning (an old wound from the previous duel with Jan Dobrzański got reinfected). The writer, heavily indebted, was buried at the city's expense. His funeral, which took place on February 2, became a great patriotic demonstration attended by the entire Polish intelligentsia of Lwów. |
French politician
**Georges Marie Denis Gabriel Trouillot** (7 May 1851 – 20 November 1916) was a French Radical politician.
He played a central role in developing the law of 1901 that governed associations such as agricultural cooperative.
He was Minister of the Colonies in 1898 and again in 1909–10.
He was Minister of Industry, Commerce and Posts in 1902–05 and again in 1905–06.
He published several books, including both poetry and political subjects.
Early years (1851–89)
---------------------
Georges Marie Denis Gabriel Trouillot was born on 7 May 1851 in Champagnole, Jura.
He studied classics at the Jesuit college in Dole, then studied law in Lyon.
He became an attorney in Lons-le-Saunier.
On 2 August 1870 he was appointed sub-lieutenant in the National Mobile Guard of the Jura department.
He was one of the founders of the Jura Republican Union.
He was a member of the general council of Jura for the canton of Beaufort, then municipal councilor in 1877.
He was elected mayor of Lons-le-Saunier.
In 1889 he was named president of the Bar.
National politics (1889–1916)
-----------------------------
### Deputy
Trouillot ran in the general election of 1889, and was elected in the first round for the constituency of Lons-le-Saunier.
He joined the Union of Progressives and Radical Left in the chamber.
He was also elected president of the Jura departmental assembly.
He was reelected deputy in 1893 and in 1898.
In 1891 Trouillot proposed a law against abortion and contraception.
Discussion was long delayed, and the proposal was not passed by the Senate until January 1919.
Trouillot introduced a bill to let anyone who held the degree of *licence en droit* practice as an *avocat*, removing the authority of the Order of Advocates to approve new members of their profession.
In response, the Paris Order struck him off their register.
The case went to court and Trouillot was reinstated on the basis that the disbarment hearings had not followed due process.
The decision caused outrage among the leading advocates.
Trouillot assisted René Viviani in introduction of the law of 1 December 1900 that allowed women to practice as advocates following a campaign by Jeanne Chauvin, who became the second woman to be admitted to the profession.
### Minister of Colonies
The public scandal of the Dreyfus Affair blew up in January 1898 with Émile Zola's publication in *L'Aurore* of his open letter entitled *J'Accuse…!*.
Trouillot accused the premier Jules Méline of practicing the politics of division.
Méline resigned during the debate of 14 June 1898.
Trouillot was appointed to the new Radical government formed late that month.
He was Minister of the Colonies in the second cabinet of Henri Brisson, and held office from 28 June 1898 to 26 October 1898.
Trouillot saw little value in the French enclaves in India, and told the Foreign Minister that he would be willing to give them all to the British in exchange for the Gambia.
The Polynesian island of Mangareva was more important to him than the French possessions in India.
His views were not shared by the inhabitants of Mahé, who said it was capable of "rivaling in salubriousness with the best of sanatoriums of the Presidency of Madras."
This was a time of rapid colonial expansion in Africa, where officers were given much freedom of action as long as they succeeded in acquiring territory.
Trouillot said in a speech in 1898, "Let us give ourselves a birth incentive so that we can once again become the world's foremost colonizing people."
In a decree of 7 August 1898 Trouillot created an office of financial control for French West Africa under the direction of the governor-general.
This gave the colonialist a significant increase in independence from the metropolitan government.
In July Trouillot wrote to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Théophile Delcassé, that Major Jean-Baptiste Marchand was approaching Fashoda on the Nile, and the British general Herbert Kitchener would soon also arrive there.
Delcassé did not reply until September, when he said Marchand should return before reaching Fashoda. By that time it was too late to prevent the encounter, so the letter was mainly so that the French could disavow Marchand if things went wrong, as it did in the Fashoda Incident.
### Law of Associations
Trouillot played a central role in developing the Law of Associations.
He was rapporteur for all the parliamentary debates on this law, working closely with the head of government, Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau.
The law defined the legal status of associations such as mutual societies and agricultural cooperatives, and was developed through study of associations in the Jura, elsewhere in Europe and in the United States.
According to Trouillot, hostility to religious congregations had always been the reason why efforts to allow freedom of association had failed in the past,
> The triumph of the cause of freedom of association has been delayed in the Chambers by the perpetual conflict between those who demand the privilege or unlimited advantages of this freedom for the congregations and those who see in its extension to the congregations the greatest danger to civil society. All the bills filed over the past thirty years bear traces of these concerns. Only eleven of them insisted on absolute conceptual equality between lay associations and religious congregations. All the others allowed for special precautions in dealing with the latter... These precautions themselves demonstrate the difficulty of the problem and explain the delay in finding a solution...
>
> The thesis that the congregations are to be treated under a special regime is neither Jacobin nor Republican. In view of the social and economic perils that excessive growth of such associations represents, all our regimes, whether of old France or of the Revolution, have repeatedly warned against them. In every one of these periods mistakes may have been made concerning the effectiveness of the precautions taken, but there has never been any mistake about the need to protect both persons and property against this awesomely expansive power.
>
>
Trouillot's answer was to curb the powers of associations to prevent abuse.
The law required almost all the religious orders and congregations in France to obtain legal authorization from parliament, and disallowed any member of an unauthorized order or congregation from teaching or managing a school.
The Law of Associations was passed in July 1901.
The church complained that the law resulted in a cascade of closures of schools and ecclesiastical establishments.
### Other activities
Trouillot was Minister of Industry, Commerce and Posts from 7 June 1902 to 18 January 1905 in the cabinet of Émile Combes.
Trouillot, who was known for his anti-clericalism, followed a traditional policy in dealing with industrial issues.
In March 1904 his predecessor Alexandre Millerand complained that his social program had been replaced by a program of "monk-hunting".
However, during a strike of textile workers in the fall of 1903 Trouillot agreed in substance with the strikers' complaints against the manufacturers, and the Chamber voted almost unanimously for arbitration to resume, and for a thorough inquiry into the textile industry.
Trouillot was again Minister of Industry, Commerce and Posts from 12 November 1905 to 9 March 1906 in the second cabinet of Maurice Rouvier.
Trouillot was elected Senator for the Jura on 7 January 1906.
He was again Minister of the Colonies from 24 July 1909 to 2 November 1910 in the cabinet of Aristide Briand.
On 31 May 1910 he decreed that the administrators of French Equatorial Africa had the power to adjudicate offenses committed by the indigenous people that could not be tried by the French courts.
Through his influence, most young men in the Jura were posted to the nearby garrisons at Lons-le-Saunier and Bourg for their military service.
An unplanned consequence was that at the outbreak of World War I (1914–18) the department suffered disproportionate losses.
Trouillot's canton of Beaufort suffered particularly large losses.
Georges Trouillot died in Paris on 20 November 1916.
His daughter married the future colonial administrator Lucien Saint.
Publications
------------
Trouillot was a distinguished man of letters, and published several books.
These included *Du contrat d'association* (1902) and *Pour l'idée laïque* (1906).
He also contributed to several journals, notably *Voltaire* and *Le Siècle*.
* Viviani; Georges Trouillot; Waldeck-Rousseau; Brisson (1901). *La Loi sur les associations, discours prononcés à la Chambre des députés [les 15, 17, 21 et 27 janvier 1901* (in French). Troyes: impr. de G. Arbouin. p. 32.
* Fernand Chapsal; Georges Trouillot (1902). *Du Contrat d'association, commentaire de la loi du 1er juillet 1901 et des règlements d'administration publique du 16 août suivant* (in French). Paris: bureaux des "Lois nouvelles". p. 504.
* Georges Trouillot (1906). *Pour l'idée laïque* (in French). Léon Bourgeois, preface. Paris: E. Fasquelle. p. 312.
* Georges Trouillot (1912-09-25). "La Réforme électorale au Sénat". *La Grande revue* (in French). Paris: 23.
* Georges Trouillot (1915). *Pour nos soldats* (in French). Lons-le-Saunier: impr. C. Verpillat. p. 63.
* Georges Trouillot (1916). *Gavroche et Flambeau: poèmes de guerre* (in French). Paris: E. Fasquelle. p. 189.
* Georges Trouillot (1919). *Poèmes familiers* (in French). Lucie Delarue-Mardrus, preface; Th. Chartran, portrait of the author. Paris: E. Fasquelle. p. 102.
Sources
-------
* Animesh Rai (2007). *The Legacy of French Rule in India (1674--1954): An Investigation of a Process of Creolization*. ISBN 978-0-549-23522-4. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Cook Andersen, Margaret (2015-01-01). *Regeneration Through Empire: French Pronatalists and Colonial Settlement in the Third Republic*. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-6525-7. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Gide, André; Rouart, Eugène (2006). *Correspondance*. Presses Universitaires Lyon. ISBN 978-2-7297-0795-8. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Goldberg, Harvey (1962). *The Life of Jean Jaurès*. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-02564-9. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Jolly, Jean (1960–1977). "Trouillot (Georges, Marie, Denis, Gabriel)". *Dictionnaire des parlementaires français (1889–1940)*. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. ISBN 2-1100-1998-0. Retrieved 2015-11-18.
* Laloy, Vincent (1986-01-01). *Chronique intime d'une famille franc-comtoise au 19e siècle*. Presses Univ. Franche-Comté. GGKEY:C2QL595DRW4. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Lanne, Bernard (1998-01-01). *Histoire politique du Tchad de 1945 à 1958: administration, partis, élections* (in French). KARTHALA Editions. ISBN 978-2-86537-883-8. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* "Le député jurassien, Georges Trouillot : l'artisan de la loi 1901". *Voix du Jura* (in French). 2001-06-28. Retrieved 2015-11-18.
* Mayeur, Jean-Marie; Rebirioux, Madeleine; Foster, J. R. (1987). *The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871-1914*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35857-6. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Persell, Stuart Michael (1983). "Establishment of Administrative Power". *French Colonial Lobby 1889-1938*. Hoover Press. ISBN 978-0-8179-7833-4. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Roberts, Mary Louise (2009-02-15). *Civilization without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France, 1917-1927*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72127-9. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Rosanvallon, Pierre (2007). *The Demands of Liberty: Civil Society in France Since the Revolution*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02496-0. Retrieved 2015-11-18.
* Savage, John (2003-04-14). "The Problems of Wealth and Virtue: The Paris Bar and the Generation of the *Fin-de-Siècle*". In W Wesley Pue, David Sugarman (ed.). *Lawyers and Vampires: Cultural Histories of Legal Professions*. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84731-156-6. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Schultz, Kenneth A. (2001-07-26). *Democracy and Coercive Diplomacy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79669-9. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Sutton, Michael (2002-06-20). *Nationalism, Positivism and Catholicism: The Politics of Charles Maurras and French Catholics 1890-1914*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89340-4. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Taithe, Bertrand (2009-10-22). *The Killer Trail: A Colonial Scandal in the Heart of Africa*. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-162276-2. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
* Weber, Eugen (1991). *My France: Politics, Culture, Myth*. Harvard University Press. p. 373. ISBN 978-0-674-59576-7. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
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For the federal constituency represented in the Dewan Rakyat, see Selayang (federal constituency).
Town in Selangor, Malaysia
**Selayang** is a town in Gombak District, Selangor, Malaysia.
Location
--------
Selayang is located on the main route to Rawang through Jalan Ipoh, and this route is connected to Jalan Kuching as main Rawang-Kuala Lumpur route. It is also an optional getaway to Damansara by passing Kepong via Kepong-Selayang Highway, which is a neighbouring town to the southwest. A route connecting Selayang and Gombak in the east is Jalan Batu Caves, which is annually closed during the Thaipusam celebration.
Local government
----------------
Most of Selayang is administered by Majlis Perbandaran Selayang (MPS). Part of the town that spills over into the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur is administered by Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL, English: *Kuala Lumpur City Hall*).
The postcode for Selayang is *68100 Batu Caves*, including the part of the town located in the federal territory, as postcode areas do not necessarily correspond to state borders. However, to minimise confusion, the postcode for the federal territory part is often written as *68100 Kuala Lumpur.*
Infrastructure
--------------
Among the facilities and infrastructures accessible is bus transportation provided by Rapid KL and MARA Liner, Batu Caves Komuter station which was formerly the old Batu Caves railway, Stadium, the MPS Sri Siantan Sports Center (locating the public swimming pool, locally known as Kompleks Sukan Sri Siantan), hospital, public library, public university and access to the Kuala Lumpur Middle Ring Road 2 (MRR2).
Development
-----------
Currently, Selayang is undergoing moderate yet rapid development, notably real properties for residential and commercial.
Local Attractions
-----------------
Alongside developments, Selayang hosts a number of attractions. Located in the northern portions of Klang Valley, on the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur, Selayang serves as a getaway spot from the bustle of the metropolis that is Kuala Lumpur. Popular landmarks include the Selayang Mall and Selayang Capitol (shopping complexes), Hospital Selayang, Selayang Mara University of Technology (UiTM Selayang), Majlis Perbandaran Selayang Stadium, and Pasar Borong Selayang.
### Nature
#### FRIM
Given its varied topography pattern and close proximity to the Titiwangsa Mountains (Banjaran Titiwangsa), Selayang is a mix of urban and countryside sceneries. Its premier natural attraction, which is well known across the country, is the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), also known as FRIM Kepong. As a leading institute in tropical forestry research, it administers the sustainable management of the forest for the purpose of preservation and research. The institute dates back to 1926. This forest reserve area covers part of Kepong, Selayang (Bukit Lagong) and Rawang (Templer). Home for numerous species of flora and fauna. FRIM also functions as educational and recreational destination well equipped with infrastructures such as laboratory, information centre, sport facilities, a waterfall, river, trekking route, canopy walk, etc. The species are highly protected and visitors could see tags attached to trees displaying the names as well as quite rare animals on ground.
#### Bukit Lagong
Bukit Lagong which is the name of the hill covered by FRIM on the northern part is a recreational area in Selayang, storing recreational entertainment for visitors. Fresh water river, jungle trekking, kayaking and camping are among the attractions popular among the locals. Officiated in 2005 by the state's Minister, the Pusat Latihan Belia Bukit Lagong (Bukit Lagong Youth Training Center) opened for school and college outdoor programs, team-building, camping and various other recreational activities, mainly aims toward the development of youth. Alongside the crooked small route reaching towards the camp is a river that flows to Sungai Gombak, carrying fresh water from the hill.
#### Taman Rimba Komanwel
Another natural recreational escapade similar to Bukit Lagong is Taman Rimba Komanwel (Commonwealth Forest Park and Resort), located at KM43 on the farther north close to Rawang-Selayang border, in Lagong forest reserve. It is only accessible by using the Rawang-Kuala Lumpur Jalan Ipoh route, about 40 minutes ride from Kuala Lumpur. Taman Rimba Komanwel is more attributed to Rawang town rather than Selayang, though it is closer to Selayang in distance.
#### Selayang Hot Spring
Selayang Hot Spring or Kolam Air Panas Selayang is a very popular place among locals, which was discovered almost four decades ago and rumoured "to have cured visitors with illnesses and diseases", such as diabetes, gout, skin illnesses and many more. Though the truth of such claims remain uncertain, numerous testimonies have been received by visitors. There are even visitors who spend time here two or three days in a week, or almost every day after work. One possible explanation could probably be the algae microorganisms living in the springs, but so far there is no proven scientific evidence that conclusively confirm or refute the claims. Nevertheless, the hot spring spot is certainly a destination for city dwellers who seek relaxation and tranquility, far cheaper than going to a spa.
Most of the natural places of attraction is Selayang are in the north, attached to the greenery environment.
### Other places
#### Bandar Baru Selayang
Bandar Baru Selayang or colloquially known as BBS among locals is a rather new township. It was opened in 1987. It places the municipal council's headquarters and other important landmarks including the MPS Stadium known among local football enthusiasts as among other venues for important matches in the country's popular football leagues. Many restaurants are located near the stadium. The town becomes very lively when there are games played in the MPS Stadiums the stadium's spotlights illumination pour the surrounding area with a bright beam. The town's pasar malam (night market) opens every Thursday evening and is located behind the stadium where it sells food, clothes and merchandise. MPS constantly maintains BBS to preserve the town's landscape and cleanliness.
#### Pasar Borong Selayang
Known among households and wholesale traders within and out from Selayang, Pasar Borong Selayang (Selayang wholesale market) is one of the busiest place attracting people to purchase wet products at cheap prices. The market which previously have the two large hangar-like facility which has since been demolished is located by the road side of Jalan Ipoh near the border between Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. It is an active and hectic trading market, selling fishery, agriculture and poultry products and at usually its peak preceding festive seasons during which households purchase more goods for celebration preparation. Despite the increasing competition with newly established low price markets such as Tesco and NSK Trade City, Pasar Borong Selayang continue to survive and generally still is the default market choice. Open daily as early as 3 am, the market attracts buyers even far from outer Selayang, including Kuala Lumpur and Rawang.
#### Batu Dam
Another recreational destination, Ulu Yam, places series of rivers and waterfalls at several points along the Ulu Yam road. Ulu Yam town is located at the north east neighbouring Batang Kali, and drivers would first pass by the Batu Dam, a water supply dam cum family recreation location, well known by the locals. Among recreational sport available in Empangan Batu is paragliding and kayaking and visitors spend their evening by jogging, playing kite or simply cooling down with families and colleagues.
Sister cities
-------------
* Indonesia Ambon, Indonesia
* Sudan Buwaidhaa, Sudan |
**USS *Tomich* (DE-242)** was an *Edsall*-class destroyer escort in service with the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1974.
History
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USS *Tomich* was named in honor of United States Navy Chief Watertender and Croatian Peter Tomich who received the Medal of Honor posthumously for his actions during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. She was laid down on 15 September 1942 at Houston, Texas, by the Brown Shipbuilding Co.; launched on 28 December 1942; sponsored by Mrs. O. L. Hammonds; and commissioned on 27 July 1943.
### Battle of the Atlantic
Following commissioning, *Tomich* got underway from Galveston, Texas, on 12 August and reached New Orleans, Louisiana, on the following day. The destroyer escort departed Louisiana waters on the 19th, bound for Bermuda and four weeks of shakedown training. On 23 September, *Tomich*, in company with USS *Farquhar* (DE-139), departed Bermuda and escorted USS *Merrimack* (AO-37) to Norfolk, Virginia, before sailing for Charleston, South Carolina, and availability.
*Tomich* sailed for Cuba on 9 October and further training in Caribbean waters, reaching Guantánamo Bay on the 12th. Five days later, the escort vessel rendezvoused with Army transport USAT George Washington and escorted her to Kingston, Jamaica. *Tomich* immediately returned to Cuba. Upon her arrival back at Guantánamo Bay later the same day, 17 October, she received orders to search for USS *Dorado* (SS-248) which had sailed from New London, Connecticut, on 6 October and had been expected to arrive at the Panama Canal Zone on the 14th. *Tomich* hunted for the missing submarine until the 22d but failed to locate any trace of it.
Six days later, the destroyer escort set course for Hampton Roads to screen USS *Pike* (SS-173) to Norfolk. Released from this duty on the 30th, she returned to Guantanamo Bay before heading north again and making port at Norfolk on 5 November.
Nine days later, *Tomich* joined the screen of Convoy UGS-24, bound for French Morocco. On 2 December, after her charges had all made port, she dropped anchor off Casablanca. Arriving in New York City on Christmas morning, 1943. after escorting Convoy GUS-24, *Tomich* secured alongside pier "K" of the New York Navy Yard for availability which lasted into 1944.
On 5 January 1944, Tomich departed the yard and proceeded to Block Island Sound for gunnery and antisubmarine warfare training off Montauk Point, Long Island. Five days later, the ship steamed for Norfolk, Virginia, in company with other units of Escort Division (CortDiv) 7, to join other ships of Task Force 63 in escorting Convoy UGS-30 to Casablanca. After a brief independent run to Gibraltar, where she moored alongside famed British battleship HMS *Warspite*, *Tomich* departed the British base on 4 February and rendezvoused with Convoy GUS-29 the next day.
Detached from the convoy screen on the 8th, she proceeded to the Azores, where she met SS Phoenis Banning and SS Abraham Baldwin. Rejoining GUS-29 with her two charges, *Tomich* continued ocean escort duties through the 17th. On the following day, the destroyer escort again received orders for independent duty and escorted USS *Mattaponi* (AO-41) and SS Sangara to Bermuda before returning north to the New York Navy Yard for availability commencing on 22 February.
*Tomich* got underway on 5 March 1944 for Bayonne, New Jersey, where she underwent deperming before proceeding to Montauk Point for refresher training. The destroyer escort sailed for Hampton Roads and arrived at Norfolk on the 11th. Two days later, she sailed for Tunisia as an escort for Convoy UGS-36.
On 30 March, the convoy passed through the Straits of Gibraltar, bound for Bizerte. During the evening watch of the 31st, *Tomich* homed in on a sonar contact and went to general quarters, proceeding to track down the echo. Dropping two 13-charge patterns, *Tomich* remained at general quarters throughout the night and instituted an antisubmarine patrol in company with HMS *Black Swan*. About 0401, as *Tomich* rejoined the screen, her lookouts spotted enemy aircraft off her port bow. Zigzagging independently on the port bow of the convoy, the destroyer escort opened fire with her entire antiaircraft battery at 0410. During the 20-minute attack, the enemy aircraft, twin-motored Ju. 88's, came in low and fast; but the heavy antiaircraft fire of the escorts drove off their attackers with no loss to themselves.
After all of her charges had reached port safely, *Tomich* was assigned to homeward-bound Convoy GUS-36 but detached on 13 April to proceed to Oran, Algeria, for inspection of her starboard shaft. After investigation revealed that all was in order, the ship rejoined her convoy on the 14th. She subsequently arrived at New York on 2 May and underwent availability at the navy yard before she proceeded to Casco Bay for refresher training.
Returning to Norfolk on the 20th, *Tomich* sailed as part of task force TF 64, escorting Convoy UGS-43 bound for Bizerte. After reaching North Africa, *Tomich* was detached from convoying long enough to escort USS *Carib* (AT-82), which was towing USS *Menges* (DE-320) to the Azores. When she arrived at Horta, Tomich rejoined homeward-bound Convoy GUS-43.
Availability at the New York Navy Yard in early July preceded further training exercises in Casco Bay, Maine, before the ship returned to Norfolk on 1 August to begin another round-trip escort mission with UGS-50 and GUS-50. Following another yard availability, she made a coastal convoy run from New York to Boston, Massachusetts. Then, training in Casco Bay occupied the ship into October. On the 10th, *Tomich* arrived at Quonset Point, Rhode Island, for special radar and antisubmarine warfare tests and exercises with USS *Barracuda* (SS-163) and shore-based planes from Quonset Point Naval Air Station. On the 13th, *Tomich* departed the area and returned to Casco Bay on the 14th for further training exercises before arriving at Norfolk on 4 November.
On 7 November, in company with the rest of CortDiv 7 and USS *Core* (CVE-13), *Tomich* got underway from the Naval Operating Base at Hampton Roads for Bermuda and antisubmarine "hunter-killer" group training. Arriving on 10 November, the group engaged in intensive exercises for the remainder of the month before returning to New York on 6 December. *Tomich* operated along the east coast of the United States on antisubmarine operations in the western Atlantic for the remainder of the year 1944 and into the spring of 1945.
### Pacific War
Following an overhaul at the Boston Navy Yard in May and June, the ship steamed to the Caribbean. Departing Guantánamo Bay on 16 July 1945, she transited the Panama Canal on the 18th and arrived at San Diego, California, on the 26th. Standing out of that port on the 31st, she conducted exercises while en route to Hawaii and reached Pearl Harbor on 7 August as the war in the Pacific drew to its climax. The inexorable advance of American air and naval forces—topped by the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki—compelled Japan to surrender unconditionally. Meanwhile, *Tomich* continued training exercises in Hawaiian waters, prior to departing Pearl Harbor on 20 August, bound for the western Pacific.
*Tomich* made port at Saipan on 29 August before proceeding independently to the Bonins on 1 September. The destroyer escort relieved USS *Helm* (DD-388) on air-sea rescue station on 5 September for a five-day stint before heading for Iwo Jima and replenishment. She operated in waters between Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and Saipan for the remainder of the year 1945 and into 1946 before heading for China. She made port at Qingdao on 13 January 1946. She remained on duty in Chinese waters until 10 April when she departed Shanghai for Hawaii. Arriving at Pearl Harbor on 21 April, she proceeded via the west coast to the Panama Canal.
### Decommissioning and fate
Following her arrival on the east coast, the ship underwent inactivation preparations at Charleston, South Carolina, from May through late August. *Tomich* then proceeded to Mayport, Florida, and arrived on 4 September. Following further inactivation procedures there, *Tomich* was placed out of commission, in reserve, at Green Cove Springs, Florida, on 20 September 1946. She remained there until her name was struck from the Navy list on 1 November 1972. She was scrapped in 1974.
Awards
------
*Tomich* received one battle star for World War II service. |
A view of solar panels installed in 2011 on the roof of Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command Headquarters, San Diego. The rooftop photovoltaic installation supports the Department of Defense's goal of increasing renewable energy sources to 25 percent of all energy consumed by the year 2025.
The United States Department of Defense is one of the largest single consumers of energy in the world, responsible for 93% of all US government fuel consumption in 2007 (Air Force: 52%; Navy: 33%; Army: 7%. Other DoD: 1%). In FY 2006, the DoD used almost 30,000 gigawatt hours (GWH) of electricity, at a cost of almost $2.2 billion. The DoD's electricity use would supply enough electricity to power more than 2.3 million average American homes. In electricity consumption, if it were a country, the DoD would rank 58th in the world, using slightly less than Denmark and slightly more than Syria (CIA World Factbook, 2006). The Department of Defense uses 4,600,000,000 US gallons (1.7×1010 L) of fuel annually, an average of 12,600,000 US gallons (48,000,000 L) of fuel per day. A large Army division may use about 6,000 US gallons (23,000 L) per day. According to the 2005 *CIA World Factbook*, if it were a country, the DoD would rank 34th in the world in average daily oil use, coming in just behind Iraq and just ahead of Sweden.
General
-------
See also: Climate change and national security
The military recognizes that renewable energy can provide improvements in force safety and budget stability as well as mitigate climate change so it has several programs working on deploying alternative energy at major facilities and in forward operating bases. Admiral Samuel J. Locklear has called climate change the biggest concern for the United States military.
Air Force
---------
The Air Force is the largest user of fuel energy in the federal government. The Air Force uses 10% of the nation's aviation fuel. (JP-8 accounts for nearly 90% of its fuels.) This fuel usage breaks down as such: 82% jet fuel, 16% facility management and 2% ground vehicle/equipment. To meet renewable energy goals, the Air Force plans to certify its entire fleet on coal-to-liquid synthetic fuel blends by 2011. By 2016, it plans to fuel half of its domestic transportation by US-produced synthetic blends, including blends of biofuels and jetfuels, known as Hydrotreated Renewable Jet (HRJ). The Air Force is currently the leading purchaser of renewable energy within the Federal government and has been a long time pioneer of renewable energy development and leadership. The Air Force is recognized by the Environmental Protection Agency as a Green Power Partner, one of the nation's top purchasers of green power. The Air Force Energy Plan, published in May 2010, includes more information about the Air Force's goals, including reducing demand, increasing supply, and changing the culture to include energy awareness.
Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Operational Energy Plans and Programs
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In 2010, DoD established the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Operational Energy Plans and Programs to coordinate energy issues. In July 2010, DoD also signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the U.S. Department of Energy to facilitate cooperation and accelerate research, development, and deployment of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies. DoD's Energy Conservation Investment Program (ECIP) improves the energy and water efficiency of existing Military Services' facilities. The program's projects help the Military Services save on energy usage and cost. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided $120 million for the ECIP. [] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 has also given money for the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Army Reserve, Navy Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, Air Force Reserve, Army National Guard and Air National Guard facilities to invest in energy efficiency.
Recent developments
-------------------
In 2009, the US Army stated that it had prioritized renewable energy strategies in Iraq. Strategies include the Tactical Garbage to Energy Refinery Program, which converts 1 short ton (0.91 t) of waste to 11 US gal (42 L) of JP-8 fuel, a photovoltaic flexible, portable mat, insulating foam technology, hybrid-electric Manned Ground Vehicles (MGV), and highly efficient portable cells. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act gave more than $150 million to develop these technologies. Stateside, the Army created the Net Zero program with a goal to have 30 installations achieve net-zero energy by 2030, including some that will also be net-zero in waste and water. In 2011, they opened the Base Camp Systems Integration Laboratory, which compares an energy efficient base camp with a traditional one and trains soldiers to use energy efficient technologies. The Army Energy Security Implementation Strategy, published in 2009, gives details about the Army's energy goals.
The Department of the Navy established Task Force Energy to focus on meeting energy goals, which include reducing non-tactical petroleum use in the commercial fleet by 50 percent by 2015, producing at least 50 percent of shore based energy from alternative sources by 2050, acquiring 50 percent of total energy from alternative sources by 2020, and having 50 percent of Navy and Marine Corps installations be net-zero by 2020. The Navy hopes to demonstrate a Green Strike Group (fueled by biofuels and nuclear power) by 2012 and sail the Great Green Fleet by 2016. The Office of Naval Research developed and deployed the Experimental Forward Operating Base (ExFOB), including photovoltaic energy, shelter insulation, small unit water purification, and energy efficient heating, lighting, and cooling.
The Marine Corps established the Expeditionary Energy Office to increase combat effectiveness by reducing the need for liquid fossil fuel by 50 percent by 2025, using liquid fuel for mobility only.
The Defense Department plans to invest $9 billion to improve energy use in military operations through 2017.
Through the SolarStrong program, a total of 300MW of PV installations were done on 120,000 roofs of base housing throughout the U.S. The 14MW Nellis Solar Power Plant went online in 2007. Fort Bliss has a 1.4MW PV array as well as 13MW of base housing PV and a second 15MW solar farm should be online in 2015. Fort Irwin had initially proposed a 500MW PV farm but 15MW solar farm was later awarded for construction with a separate 2MW PV system at the base hospital. A 14MW PV plant was built at China Lake in 2011.
Fort Drum converted a coal power plant to a 28MW biomass plant. In 2014, the U.S. military invested $210 million in 3 biofuel refineries which will produce fuels which meet military specifications.
Further reading
---------------
* The Jane's Interview: William C. Anderson, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Installations, Environment, and Logistics, Jane's Defence Weekly, 12 March 2008 (p. 34). |
**NvcleaR** (originally named Nuclear Chaos) is a Mexican melodic death metal band from Tehuacán, Puebla based in Mexico City, Mexico, founded in 2009 by guitarist and vocalist Anuar Solís, guitarist and bassist Christian García, and drummer Rudy Paz. NvcleaR's current line-up comprises only the founding member Anuar Solis.
History
-------
### Formation, demos and *Absolution* (2009–2013)
Nuclear Chaos was formed in 2009 in Tehuacán, Puebla by guitarist and vocalist Anuar Solís, guitarist and bassist Christian García, and drummer Rudy Paz. This first formation of the band recorded the demo *Ruins of the Future*. Songs from this demo would later be rerecorded for their first official releases, including an EP with the same title. Due to personal and creative problems, García left the band in 2011, leading to the incorporation of guitarist Pablo Gutiérrez and bassist Jerónimo Chanona. The band recorded their debut album Absolution, released on March 2, 2013.
### First European dates and *Ruins of the Future* (2014–2016)
On July 21, 2014, the band played for the first time Metaldays in Tolmin, Slovenia, as part of Young Forces contest. Nuclear Chaos ended as one of the five best bands, earning them a spot at MetalDays 2015's Main Stage. Later that year, Paz left the band and Bart Chanona, brother of bandmate Jerónimo Chanona, took over as drummer.
2015 saw the release of their first EP, *Ruins of the Future*, released on February 9. The EP consisted of rerecordings from their demo album of the same name, which included a collaboration with Morbid Angel's ex-vocalist David Vincent for "Suffocate". It was released as a double album along their debut album *Absolution*. A music video for "Suffocate" was released on January 10 via YouTube, which also included Vincent's participation.
On July 23, 2015, Nuclear Chaos repeated MetalDays, this time at the Main Stage on Thursday, as winners of previous year Young Forces contest. They shared stage with bands such as Arch Enemy and Crowbar. A week later they represented Mexico at Wacken Open Air Metal Battle, playing the Headbangers Stage on Wednesday, July 29.
### *Unite* and Reborn Tour (2016–2018)
After a six-month hiatus, the band returned to stages on August, 2016, meanwhile working on their second album. On August 8, the band released a music video for a new single, "Shockwave". This single, along with songs such as "Remain in the Darkness" and "Mi Guerra", the band's first approach to Spanish lyrics, were debuted during their **Reborn Tour**. This tour has taken the band to seven cities in nine dates across Mexico, including Force Fest in Guadalajara, Jalisco.
On March 16, 2017, the band announced Unite as their second album's title. The first single, "Remain in the Darkness", was released via YouTube on May 15.
On May 2, 2017, the band announced the departure of both Chanona brothers due to personal and professional interests. On July 17, the band presented their new lineup, with Lou Alpízar as bassist and Rubén Vega as a drummer.
On November 7, the band released the tracklist for *Unite*, and announced the album's release date for February, 2018. The album will feature collaborations by several Mexican metal singers, such as S7N's Mao Kanto, Here Comes The Kraken's Tts, and Driven's Mireya Mendoza. On November 21, "Ashes" was released as the second single through Summa Inferno.
On August 15, 2018, Rubén Vega decided to quit the band to focus on his other musical projects. Johnny Chávez, from the Mexican band Acrania, joins the band as a drummer.
**Inside Me, Pandemic and Death Drive EP (2019–2020)**
The band performed at Domination Festival in Mexico City sharing the stage with bands like Trivium, Alice Cooper, Dream Theater, Avatar, Limp Bizkit, Kiss and many others.
They released a Special Single for the festival called "Inside Me".
Due to the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020, the band decided to focus on writing music during isolation. During this time, they released the single "Doomed" inspired by the situation with lyrics exploring the idea of negligence by people not taking proper precautions against the virus.
They also released two singles from their new upcoming EP "DeathDrive": "Longinus" and "Counting Bodies Like Sheep".
"Longinus" shares the new path that the band is trying to propose with a more melodic tone and clearer vocals also with a great electronic influence.
"Counting Bodies Like Sheep" which is a cover from the rock/progressive band A Perfect Circle, is the first cover that the band has officially released.
On May 21, 2022, the band released a statement informing bassist; Lou Alpizar, drummer; Johnny Chavez, and guitarist; Pablo Guitierrez leaved the band due to creative and time management differences leading the band to start a full hiatus with no specific date for returning.
On May 21, 2023, the band changed their name from Nuclear Chaos to NvcleaR in all their social media platforms and Spotify.
Members
-------
### Last lineup
* Anuar Solís – vocals, guitars (2009–present)
### Former members
* Pablo Gutiérrez – guitars (2011– 2022)
* Lou Alpízar – bass, backing vocals (2018–2022)
* Johnny Chavez – drums (2018–2022)
* Christian García – guitars, bass (2009–2011)
* Rudy Paz – drums (2009–2014)
* Jerónimo Chanona - bass, backing vocals (2011–2017)
* Bart Chanona - drums (2014–2017)
* Ruben Vega – drums (2017–2018)
### Touring members
* Johnny Chavez – drums (2017)
* Rafael Carranza – drums (2018)
### Timeline
Discography
-----------
### Studio albums
| Year | Album details |
| --- | --- |
| 2013 | *Absolution** Released: March 2, 2013
* Label: Independent
|
| 2018 | *Unite** Released: February 16, 2018
* Label: Independent
|
### Demo albums
| Year | Album details |
| --- | --- |
| 2011 | *Ruins of the Future** Released: 2011
|
### EPs
| Year | EP details |
| --- | --- |
| 2015 | *Ruins of the Future** Released: February 9, 2015
* Label: Independent
|
### Singles
| Year | Song | Album |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2015 | "Suffocate" | *Ruins of the Future* |
| 2016 | "Shockwave" | Non-album single |
| 2017 | "Remain in the Darkness" | *Unite* |
| "Ashes" |
| 2020 | "Doomed"
"Longinus"
"Counting Bodies Like Sheep" | DeathDrive EP |
### Music videos
| Year | Song | Director |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2015 | "Suffocate" | Miguel Márquez |
| 2016 | "Shockwave" | Frank Fletcher | |
Genocide of Sikhs in 1762
| |
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| Part of a series on |
| Persecution of Sikhs |
| Part of Sikh history |
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| **India*** Human rights abuses in Punjab, India
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| Part of a series on |
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15th–19th century genocides |
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***Vadda Ghalughara*** (Punjabi: ਵੱਡਾ ਘੱਲੂਘਾਰਾ Punjabi pronunciation: [ʋəɖɖäː kəl˨luːkäː˨ɾäː]; alternatively spelt as ***Wadda Ghalughara***) was the mass murder of Sikhs by the Afghan forces of the Durrani Empire during the years of Afghan influence in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent owing to the repeated incursions of Ahmad Shah Durrani in February 1762. It is distinguished from the *Chhota Ghalughara* (the Smaller Massacre). Mostly non-combatants were killed in the event, and an estimated that 10,000 to 50,000 Sikhs were killed on 5 February 1762.
The *Vadda Ghalūghārā* was a dramatic and bloody massacre during the campaign of Afghanistan's (Durrani Empire) provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals and lasted several decades.
Background
----------
### Persecution of the Sikhs (1746–1762)
In the 18 years following the Chhota Ghalughara, Punjab was roiled with five invasions and had several years of rebellions and civil war. Under these unsettled circumstances, it was difficult for any authority to carry on a campaign of oppression against the Sikhs; instead the Sikhs were often sought and valued as useful allies in the various struggles for power.
In these times of relative calm, however, Shah Nawaz, the governor at Lahore in 1747 and his Afghan allies resumed their genocidal campaigns against the Sikhs. This period was characterised by the desecration of Sikh places of worship and the organised capture, torture and merciless execution of tens of thousands of Sikh men, women and children.
### The governorship of Mir Mannu
Mir Mannu (Mu'in ul-Mulk) became governor of Lahore and the surrounding provinces in 1748 and, continued to hold that position for the next five years until 1753 through his exploits in battle against the Afghan army. His first act as governor was to take control of Ram Rauni, the Sikh fort at Amritsar, where 500 Sikhs had taken shelter. To take control of the fort and defeat the Sikhs, Mir sent word to Adina Beg, the commander of the army of Jalandhar. Both the armies of Lahore and Jalandhar eventually laid siege to the fort, and despite much resistance from the Sikhs, it eventually fell to them. Mir Mannu then stationed detachments of troops in all parts of Punjab with any Sikh inhabitants with orders to capture them and shave their heads and beards. His oppression was such that large numbers of Sikhs moved to relatively inaccessible mountains and forests. The governor ordered the apprehending of Sikhs who were sent in irons to Lahore. Hundreds were thus taken to Lahore and executed in the horse market before crowds of onlookers. According to the historian Nur Ahmed Chishti, Mir Mannu ordered the execution of more than 1,100 Sikhs at the horse market of Shahidganj during Eid.
Partly through the influence of his Hindu minister, Kaura Mall, who was sympathetic to the Sikhs, and partly because of the threat of another Afghan invasion, Mir Mannu made peace with the Sikhs the next year. They were granted a piece of land near Patti. This truce did not last long as in the next Afghan invasion the artillery of Lahore attacked the Sikhs of Dal Khalsa under Sukha Singh. The Sikh army left promptly after this attack, which led to the eventual defeat and fall of Lahore to Durrani. Kaura Mall was also eventually murdered by Adina Beg at the hands of a Pathan in the battle against the Afghans in 1752. Lahore was soon surrendered to the invader Ahmad Shah Durrani. The land given to the Sikhs was also seized back from them.
In his new role as governor for the Afghans, Mir Mannu was able to resume his persecution of the Sikhs. Moreover, he had arranged for new artillery to be forged and a unit of 900 men assigned especially to the hunting down of the "infidels". In the words of an eyewitness: "Muin appointed most of the gunmen to the task of chastising the Sikhs. They ran after these wretches up to 67 kilometers (42 mi) a day and slew them wherever they stood up to oppose them. Anybody who brought a Sikh head received a reward of ten rupees per head."
According to that same account: "The Sikhs who were captured alive were sent to hell by being beaten with wooden mallets. At times, Adina Beg Khan sent 40 to 50 Sikh captives from the Doab. They were as a rule killed with the strokes of wooden hammers."
Illustration of Sikh women and children toiling away grinding flour at Mir Mannu's death camp, by Gian Singh Naqqash, ca.1930. The event depicted likely occurred between 1748-1753.
Mir Mannu explicitly ordered his troops to seize and torture the Sikh women and children. The women were seized from their homes and forced to grind grain in prison with the detainees forced to grind about 1.25 maunds of grain (46 kilograms of grain) to grind in a day. According to a Sikh account, "Many of the women were given merciless lashing, working all day exhausted from thirst and hunger, they plied their stone-mills and while they plied their stone-mills they sang their Guru's hymns. The Hindu or the Muslim, or in fact anyone who saw them and listened to their songs was utterly astonished. As their children, hungry and thirsty, wailed and writhed on the ground for a morsel, the helpless prisoners in the hands of the prisoners could do little except solace them with their affection until wearied from crying the hungry children would go to sleep."
Mir Mannu's cruel reign, however, did not stop the spread of Sikhism. According to a popular saying of that time "Mannu is our sickle, We the fodder for him to mow. The more he cuts, the more we grow." The continued harassment by Mir Mannu only helped strengthen the numbers and faith of the Sikhs.
### Baba Deep Singh
Main article: Baba Deep Singh
In 1756 Ahmad Shah Durrani started his fourth raid on India for plunder. He managed to successfully raid the city of Delhi and captured gold, jewellery and thousands of Hindu women as slaves. But on his way back his baggage train was repetitively ambushed and attacked by the Sikh forces, who liberated the slaves and returned the plunder. Durrani managed to escape and vowed to take revenge against the Sikhs. Because Durrani could not lay his hands on the elusive bands of Sikhs, he determined to attack their holy city Amritsar, the Harimandir Sahib was blown up, and the surrounding pool filled with the entrails of slaughtered cows.
Baba Deep Singh a prominent Sikh *Sant*
Hearing of this event Baba Deep Singh, an elderly scholar of the Sikhs living at Damdama Sahib, 160 kilometres (99 mi) south of Amritsar, was stirred to action. As the leader of one of the Sikh divisions entrusted with the care of the temple, he felt responsible for the damage that had been done to it and announced his intention of rebuilding the Harmandir Sahib. He set out his forces Sikhs toward the Amritsar and along the way, many other Sikhs joined, eventually numbering about 5,000 when they reached the outskirts of Amritsar. In the nearby town of Tarn Taran Sahib they prepared themselves for martyrdom by sprinkling saffron on each other's turbans.
When word reached Lahore that a large body of Sikhs had arrived near Amritsar a Janam Khan mobilised an army of 20,000 soldiers. Two large forces were sent. Approaching Amritsar, Baba Deep Singh and his companions encountered them and a fierce battle ensued. The Sikh forces battled valiantly but the superior numbers of the enemies and continuous reinforcements led to their eventual defeat.
Wielding his khanda (double-edged sword), the 75-year-old Sikh sustained many wounds but managed to kill the general Janam Khan beheading him in the process. Deep Singh was also mortally wounded with a blow to the neck, but not completely decapitated. After receiving this blow, a Sikh reminded Baba Deep Singh, "You had resolved to reach the periphery of the pool." On hearing the talk of the Sikh, he held his head with his left hand and removing the enemies from his way with the strokes of his 15 kg (33 lb)[] khanda "with his right hand, reached the periphery of Harmandir Sahib where he breathed his last. The Singhs celebrated the Bandi Chhor Divas of 1757 in Harmandir Sahib".
The massacre of 1762
--------------------
### Lead-up
On 14 January 1761, in the aftermath of the Third Battle of Panipat, the Afghans were returning to their native country with the spoils of war, including 2,200 imprisoned unwed Hindu Marathi girls and women. Whilst the Afghans were crossing the Sutlej River, suddenly Sikh forces fell upon them and rescued the captured Marathi women, saving them from their captors, and returning them to their parents and families. The act of valour made Abdali consider the Sikhs as a greater threat than he had previously and he began thinking that he needed to wipe out the Sikhs from Punjab in-order to firmly establish Afghani control over the territory.
From June to September of 1761, the Sikhs had routed the forces of the *faujdar* of Jalandhar. The Sikhs proceeded to loot Sirhind and Malerkotla. After routing Afghan forces, they also briefly captured and occupied the city of Lahore.
The annual Diwali convening of the Sarbat Khalsa at Amritsar on 27 October 1761 had passed a *gurmatta* that supporters of the Durranis must be eliminated, beginning with Aqil Das (based in Jandiala), to prepare to establish independence of the region from invading and occupying Afghan forces. After coming to know about this judgement made against him, Aqil Das sought out the help of Abdali. Another decision passed in the gurmatta was that Sikhs should take Lahore and occupy it.
Sikhs shortly after would attack Lahore. During this attack the local ruler of Lahore, Ubaid Khan, locked himself in the fort of the city to avoid the Sikhs. This allowed the Sikh forces to take control of the outer areas of the city. Nawab Kapur Singh then placed Jassa Singh Ahluwalia on the throne at Lahore, proclaiming him as the emperor. Thereafter, Sikhs began to refer to him as a king. Sikhs also gained control of the local Lahori mint and issued their own coinage. The Sikhs could not establish an enduring occupation of the city so they decided to leave and attack Jandiala next.
In January 1762, Sikh fighters then converged onto Jandiala, 18 kilometres (11 mi) east of Amritsar. The Sikh forces were laying siege against the stronghold of the heretical Hindali sect led by Aqil Das. The place was the home of Aqil Das, the head of the heretical Nirinjania (Hindali) sect, an ally of the Afghans, and an inveterate enemy of the Sikhs. He was a known informant for the Islamic governments working against the Sikhs. Due to his past actions, many Sikhs had been killed.
Aqil sent messengers to Durrani pleading for his help against the Sikhs. The envoys of Aqil met with Abdali at Rohtas when the latter was advancing to begin his sixth invasion, with the goal of annihilating the Sikhs. After coming to learn of the trouble his ally was in, Abdali's forces hurried to Lahore and the next day reached Jandiala to relieve the siege, but by the time they arrived the siege had been lifted and the Sikh besiegers were already gone.
The Sikh fighters had retreated with the view of taking their families to safety in the Malwa desert before returning to confront the invader. Another reason for the Sikh retreat is they left to avenge the recent death of Dyal Singh Brar at the hands of Zain Khan of Sirhind. The Sikhs began to encamp at the villages of Raipur and Gujjarawal. At this time, the Sikhs were encamped at Kup, Rahira, Dehlon, and Gurm villages, with all of them just a short distance from Malerkotla. This region was known as the *juh* (uncultivated, waste or open land used as a pasture). Dehlon was a Sikh-populated village at that time and the surrounding area consisted of a landscape of sand dunes and heavy forrestation. There was a large and dense jungle located near Gurm in-which the Sikhs took shelter within.
Bikhan Khan, ruler of Malerkotla State, discovered that Sikh forces and their families were taking shelter in villages surrounding his city, to which he alerted Abdali about and reached out to Zain Khan for a joint-operation against the Sikhs. Jahan Khan, commander of Sirhind, was also present at Malerkotla at this time. When the Afghan leader came to know of the whereabouts of the Sikhs he sent word ahead to his allies, Zain Khan (*faujdar* of Sirhind) and Bikhan Khan (chief or *nawab* of Malerkotla) to stop their advance. Abdali instructed Zain Khan to attack the Sikhs with his forces from the front whilst Abdali would attack them from the rear. The attacks of Zain and Bikhan against the Sikhs were ineffective but the main force of Abdali was yet to arrive on the scene. Abdali further gave orders to Zain Khan that his troops, who were local Indians, should hang green leaves from their turbans to distinguish themselves from the Sikhs to prevent friendly-fire.
Durrani departed on 3 February from Lahore to reach the Malwa region, he set about on a rapid march, covering the distance of 240 kilometres (150 mi) and including two river crossings in less than 48 hours. On 4 February, he sent word to Zain Khan that he would arrive tomorrow with his forces and that their two forces should launch a joint attack on the Sikhs in the early morning the following day. At that time, an estimated 150,000 Sikhs had set up bivouac in the *rohi* (uncultivated land) of the Sirhind region. They consisted of 50,000–60,000 able-bodied fighting men (both infantry and cavalry), with the larger remainder being their accompanying families. At Malerkotla, Zain Khan camped out with a force of 10,000–15,000 men, of both infantry and mounted-types, under his command.
Eventually Abdali was only within 15–20 kilometres from the main Sikh body. When his army embarked away from the dock on the Sutlej, they were immediately attacked by Sikhs and a battle ensued. Zain Khan also agitated to attack the SIkhs on early 5 February. The Sikhs came to learn of this design and therefore started marching towards the Sutlej. Zain Khan dispatched a scouting party to follow the Sikhs, consisting of Kasim Khan and Tahmas Khan Miskin, the latter giving this account in his writing:
> "I was also in the contingent of Kasim Khan. When we went in front of the Sikhs they ran away. We followed them for half a *koh* (2 kms). All of a sudden the Sikhs who were running stopped quickly and returned towards us and attacked us. Kasim Khan could not counter them and ran away, although I asked him not to run away. He did not accept my suggestion. Taking his army along with him he ran away towards Malerkotla and encamped there. I (Miskeen) alone went towards the village Kup. In the meantime those Sikhs had disappeared".
>
> — Tahmas Khan Miskin, *Tahmasnama*
The forces of Miskin were ineffective in battle against the Sikhs in the early hours of February 5 and Kasim Khan had abandoned the mission for now and camped at Malerkotla. Abdali caught up with the encamped Sikhs at Kup-Rahira, approximately twelve kilometres north of Malerkotla.
### Massacre
In the twilight of 5 February 1762, Durrani and his allies surprised the Sikhs who numbered about 30,000 at Kup village alone, with most of them noncombatants being women, children, and elderly men. Also present in the group of Sikhs were 11 *Misldars* (leader of a Misl) of the Sikh Confederacy, including Jassa Singh Ahluwalia of the Ahluwalia Misl and Charat Singh of the Sukerchakia Misl. The officials of the Sikh chiefdoms of the Malwa region were also present. Abdali gave the order to his forces to slaughter anyone found wearing "Indian clothing". Abdali split his army into two factions: one commanded by him and the other commanded by Shah Wali Khan. The army of Shah Wali Khan was ordered to attack the encamped Sikh famalies. The first person to attack the Sikhs was Qasim Khan. At Kup village alone, several thousand Sikhs were killed, with most of the fatalities being women and children. Abdali then ordered two other generals of his forces, Jahan Khan and Buland Khan, to attack the Sikhs. The army of Shah Wali Khan slew a lot of Sikh non-combatants, with many women and children being taken as prisoners.
At-first, a pitched battle ensued in the first phase of hostilities between the Sikh army and Abdali's army near the banks of the Sutlej, whilst the *vāhir* convoy, consisting of Sikh non-combatants, had distanced themselves 10–12 kilometres from the battlefield and were passing through the villages of Kup and Rahira (these two localities are distanced apart from each-other by around 4 km and were both Muslim-dominated demographically in this period of time). Suddenly whilst the convoy were passing through this area, the two armies of Zain Khan Sirhindi and Bhikhan Khan of Malerkotla fell upon them unexpectedly. Many Sikh children and women were slaughtered in the ensuing drama. The Dal Khalsa forces, whom were engaging Abdali's army in a pitched battle, came to learn of the carnage enacted upon their kin and decided to send a *jatha* under the command of Sham Singh Karorsinghia, Karo Singh, Karam Singh, Nahar Singh, and some other *sardars* to assist the *vāhir*. The jatha was able to repel the armies of Zain Khan Sirhindi and Bikhan Khan temporarily and the convoy continued its journey to Barnala. They also managed to free the captured Sikh women and children abducted by the army of Shah Wali Khan. Shah Wali Khan decided to give-up on capturing the Sikh women and children and the faction of the army he commanded re-joined the main Afghan army. The main Dal Khalsa forced withdrew from the pitched battle near the Sutlej as they now knew their women, children, and elderly were vulnerable to further attacks so they reunited with the *vāhir* convoy in the region of Kup-Rahira. Whilst withdrawing from the battlefield near the Sutlej to reunite with the vahir convoy, the Sikh army continued attacking the main force of Abdali even when in retreat, whilst Zain Khan and Bikhan Khan attempted to attack the vahir convoy from the frontward direction. Sukhdial Singh described the actions of the Sikh forces as follows: "... the Dal Khalsa had drifted away Abdali's forces as if they were a dry stalk of grass". Charat Singh managed to wound Buland Khan in the ensuing fight. After doing so, Jahan Khan managed to wound Charat Singh but then Jassa Singh Ahluwalia managed to strike a wound on Jahan Khan.
Bhangu recounts that many enemy cavalrymen were killed but their mounts remained living, so these horses were captured and used by the Sikhs in their defence. Wazir Shah Wali Khan wielded an army of 4,000 cavalry warriors whilst Zain Khan Sirhindi had a force of 4,000 mounted archers. Zain Khan was also accompanied by Dewan Lachhmi Narayan. Some Sikhs surrendered during the hostilities in the Kup-Rahira region and were subsequently arrested.
The reunited vahir convoy and their Dal Khalsa protectors held their ground more-or-less for an hour and a half from the harassing forces of their nemeses. However, Abdali then sent two armed contingents of his army to attack the convoy and the Sikhs began to slip up in their defence and exposure points opened. Sukhdial Singh describes that when the Sikh armies engaged their enemy one-on-one, they discovered the advancing vahir had left them behind, which made the convoy vulnerable, so they had to catch-up with the convoy and were unable to stay stationary. Eventually, after one hour of heavy combat, the Sikhs were able to repel even the two armed contingents sent by Abdali so the Afghan king decided to engage the convoy directly with his own reserve army and be directly present in the carnage. Abdali's army consisted of four contingents, which included 12,000 armed men in total. This attack by Abdali managed to separate the main defending body of Sikh warriors from the vahir convoy, which left it exposed.
The Sikhs were outnumbered four-to-one, facing three hostile armies, and the Afghans brought heavy artillery with them, which the Sikhs completely lacked. It was decided by the Sikhs that they should fight even if they would all perish as a result. The tactic devised was that the Sikh fighters would form a cordon around the slow-moving baggage train (*vāhir*) consisting of women, children and old men. The *vāhir* began in the villages of Dehlon and Gurm and would travel to Barnala. The Sikh leaders decided to traverse in the direction of Barnala because Barnala was Sikh-dominated in population and they would assist in repelling the Afghans. Three Sikhs who were Malwa chieftains, them namely being Bhai Sangu Singh Vakil of Bhai Ke Daraj, Bhai Sekhu Singh of Humblke Waas Wala (official of Ala Singh) and Bhai Buddha Singh, were chosen to lead the *vāhir* from the front through the use of large cloths, called a *chaadra*, at the top of their spears. This was to provide a sense of direction and order to the convoy of Sikh families behind them.
* 19th century depictions of carriages used by Sikhs
*
*
*
The Sikh forces could not make use of their usual guerilla hit-and-run tactics due to the presence of their non-combatants amongst them, which made them vulnerable. A stationary battle would be suicidal for the Sikhs as they were vastly outnumbered and out-equipped. Charat Singh suggested that the Sikhs form a square formation, with forces of four misls facing the front directly in line with the enemy whilst the forces of two misls would protect the flanks of the convoy and the remainder acting as reserve. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia turned down Charat's suggestion and thought it was better if all the misls united as a single, mobile fighting body against the enemy, with the Sikh warriors cordoned around the *vāhir* convoy to protect it from enemy attack, and head in the direction of Barnala, which was forty kilometres southwest of their current location. They expected their ally Ala Singh and the guides of his Phulkian Misl to come to their rescue once they arrived near their intended destination. If that failed, they expected to lose their enemy in the parched, waterless, arid areas of Bathinda.
As per Tahmas Khan Miskin's account, the Dal Khalsa forces decided to enact the same methods used in the earlier *Chotta Ghalughara*, where 2½ gash steps were used to tackle the army. The tactic is as follows: first gash attacks the opposing force quickly when the hostile forces are under full control, second gash consists of a quick withdrawal, and the half gash was essentially to die in battle rather than being captured by your opponent.
Sukhdial Singh surreally describes the sort of landscape the mobile slaughter and battle occurred in: sandy mounds, little or no bodies of water to re-hydrate oneself, Sikh stragglers who fell behind were abandoned. If a Sikh fell down in battle, he would be trampled by the hoofs of horses. When the Sikh warriors witnessed their women, children, and elders being mercilessly slaughtered when the convoy's defence was breached, it reinvigorated their fighting spirit to protect the survivors from the same fate. Abdali is said to have been surprised by how gravely and mortally injured Sikhs, who were drenched in blood, would continue to fight-on.
As per Bhangu, Abdali then reprimanded Zain Khan Sirhindi for his failure at breaching the convoy from the front:
> "... as yet you have not done what you had promised. You have not been able to besiege the Singhs from the front. You have 20,000 horse riders. Have the Singhs decreased this number by killing them? You also have the army of *Malle Riya* pathans of Lachchmi Narayan. Even then you have not been able to encircle these *kafirs* [non-believers in God or Islam]. If you can hold them out only for four *gharian* (two hours) I will finish them all. Without surrounding them, it is not possible to kill them'.
>
> — Rattan Singh Bhangu quoting Abdali, *Suraj Prakash*
Zain Khan then responded: "it is not possible to besiege them from the front. To look at they seem very few but I don't know why during the fight they seem too many". Zain Khan then advised Abdali to also attack the vahir convoy from the frontward direction, which the latter started doing. Abdali would attack the Sikh convoy from the front whilst the vahir traversed a distance of six kilometres. Charat Singh Sukerchakia was managing the defence of the convoy from the frontward direction and came face-to-face with the army of Abdali. At some point, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia's own horse was slain by the enemy so he had to take the horse of another fellow Sikh. This led to Sikh warriors going backward to protect the life of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, who was in a vulnerable position.
Abdali wanted to halt the Sikh mobility and fight them in a pitched battle but the Sikhs did not relent their moving convoy towards Barnala, fighting village-to-village along the way.
Early 19th century Sikh writer, Rattan Singh Bhangu, records eyewitness testimonies on the events of that day, sourced from his father and uncle who partook in the defence against the Afghans:
> "... fighting while moving and moving while fighting ... they kept the vahir marching, covering it as a hen covers its chickens under its wings."
>
> — Rattan Singh Bhangu, *Prachin Panth Prakash*
More than once, the troops of the invader broke the cordon and mercilessly butchered the women, children and elderly inside, but each time the Sikh warriors regrouped and managed to push back the attackers.
At some point during the trek, a major breakthrough of the cordon was achieved by the Afghan forces, where they proceeded to slaughter thousands upon thousands of Sikhs.
The slaughter of Sikhs by the Afghans started in the twilight hours and continued until the afternoon.
### Hostility of local Muslim villagers
After the incident involving the death of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia's horse, the Sikhs reached the villages of Kutba and Bahmania (both villages are approximately 1½ km apart from each-other), whose local Hindu and Sikh residents had long vacated the localities and only Muslim residents were remaining. The Muslim residents of these places fiercely attacked the Sikhs who sought help and shelter from them to escape their slaughter, with the Muslim residents killing many of these pleading Sikhs in the process.
Local residents from many villages along the route, such as Qutab-Bahmani and Gahal, attacked the Sikhs who attempted to seek shelter with them as the locals fear retaliation by the Afghans and becoming a target themselves. All the local residents of the villages (Kup, Rahira, Kutba, Bahmania, and Hathur) the Sikhs sought help and shelter from were populated by Muslims at that time, aside from Gehal village.
Some Sikh women, children, and elders tried to escape their certain doom by hiding out in the minarets of cow dung, *jawar* (sorghum*)*, millet, and corn located outside these villages. The hostile forces and Muslim locals set these minarets on fire whilst the Sikhs were inside them to burn them alive.
In retaliation for the local residents slaughtering pleading Sikhs, some Sikh warriors killed some residents of Kutba and Bahmania villages. After Charat Singh Sukerchakia learnt that the local villagers of Kutba were ruthlessly slaughtering fleeing Sikhs in this manner, he departed with a jatha of warriors who proceeded to kill the local residents. He razed to the ground the houses of the local people who murdered Sikhs and destroyed all of their agricultural production. This led the local Muslims to plead to the Afghan army for protection. However, the Afghans could do little to help as they were already focused on attacking the main Sikh convoy.
### Cessation of hostilities
By early afternoon, the fighting cavalcade reached a large pond, known in the local vernacular as a *dhab*, at Hathur (as per Gian Singh) or Kutba (as per Rattan Singh Bhangu), the first they had come across since morning. Suddenly the bloodshed ceased as the two forces went to the water to quench their thirst and relax their tired limbs. The Afghans and their horses rested at the banks of the pond.
Abdali ceased hostilities at Kutba and Bahmania villages. As per local lore, cries (*jaikaras*) of 'Bole So Nihal - Sat Sri Akal' could be heard being yelled from the Malwa, which were Malwai Sikh reinforcements. The Afghans retreated on hearing these battle cries of fresh bodies of Sikhs. Another reason for their withdrawal was that the Durranis were warned by the local populace that the upcoming area of Punjab they would have to traverse through to continue assailing the Sikhs was heavily dominated by Sikh-populated villages with few bodies of water to be found. It is also said that some Afghans tried attacking the re-hydrated Sikhs but were repelled.
From that point on the two forces went their separate ways. The Afghan forces had inflicted great losses on the Sikh nation and had in turn many of them killed and wounded; they were exhausted having not had any rest in two days. Abdali was also wary of following them in the little-ventured, semi-arid lands of the Malwa region. The Malwai *jathas* then assisted the surviving Sikhs and led them to safety to the Malwai villages. The remainder of the Sikhs proceeded into the semi-desert toward Barnala. From there on, the surviving Sikhs took advantage of the cover of night and proceeded to Bathinda, Kotkapura, and Faridkot. The local Malwai Sikhs provided the survivors with varied foods and milk and allowed them to rest at their localities. Some writers postulate that the fighting continued all the way until Gehal village in Barnala district.
Even just after being slaughtered, the Sikhs remained in high-spirits (*chardi kala*) after the hostilities ceased, with a Nihang proclaiming in the evening of the same day:
> "... the fake [referring to the slaughtered Sikhs] has been shed. The true Khalsa remains intact."
>
> — Rattan Singh Bhangu, *Prachin Panth Prakash*
Jassa Singh Ahluwalia personally suffered 22 wounds on his body from this day whilst Charat Singh sustained 16 wounds. Both survived, however.
The massacre was not only a physical loss of life for the Sikhs but also a religious and cultural loss since the original manuscript of the *Damdami Bir* of the Guru Granth Sahib, which had been compiled by Guru Gobind Singh and Bhai Mani Singh themselves, was lost during the carnage of this day.
The roads of the route were littered with dead Sikh bodies after the massacre. Abdali instructed his forces to dismember the heads of the corpses and load them onto carts to take back to Lahore.
Abdali returned to Lahore on 3 March 1762 with fifty carts full of Sikh heads obtained from the massacre to invoke fear into the local Sikh inhabitants of the city. Many Sikh captives were also brought with him. Pyramids of the severed Sikh heads were erected outside Delhi Gate and the blood of Sikhs was used to "wash" the walls of mosques in the city to "cleanse" them. Ahmad Shah Durrani's army returned to the capital of Lahore with hundreds of Sikhs in chains. From the capital, Durrani returned to Amritsar and blew up the Harmandir Sahib on 10 April 1762 on the day of the Vaisakhi festival, which since 1757 the Sikhs had rebuilt. As a deliberate act of sacrilege, the pool around it was filled with cow carcasses. However, when Abdali blew up the temple this time around, a flying brick from the explosion is said to have struck him on his nose and he received an injury he would never recover from.
### Neutrality of Ala Singh
Painting depicting Ala Singh of the Phulkian Misl, founder of Patiala State, inscribed below in Perso-Arabic script.
Ala Singh failed to assist his religious kin. He stayed neutral during the events and did not initiate hostilities against the Durranis. However, this neutralitity would not save Ala Singh as Abdali, whom had been told that Ala Singh was a "secret ally of the Majhi Sikhs" by Zain Khan and Bikhan Khan, would later burn down Barnala and advanced upon Bhawanigarh, where Ala Singh was holed up. Ala Singh sought out the help of Najib-ud-Daula and was forced to pay a humiliating fee of "five lakhs of rupees as tribute and a hundred and twenty-five thousand rupees more for permission to appear before him with his long hair intact" to placate Abdali. After this, Ala Singh was detained for a short-while but was released on the promise that his polity would pay an annual tribute to the Durranis.
### Estimate of total Sikh dead
Estimates for the number of Sikh dead range from a lower estimate of 10,000 to a higher figure of 50,000.
A contemporary Muslim chronicler named Tahmas Khan Miskin, who was a commander of a contingent in Abdali's army, estimated that 25,000 Sikhs were killed, which Harbans Singh believes is more reliable. Ratan Singh Bhangu gives a higher figure of 30,000. Jadunath Sarkar gives a much smaller estimate of 10,000, a figure which Teja Singh and Ganda Singh affirm. Kahn Singh Nabha believed 15,000–20,000 Sikhs were killed but also stated an equal number of enemy forces (including hostile local villagers) had suffered the same number of dead. Beant Singh Bajwa gave a figure of 25,000–30,000 Sikh dead and 10,000 injured Sikhs. Trilochan Singh claims 35,000-40,000 Sikhs had died. Amrit Kaur states a figure of 40,000. Ratan Singh Jaggi estimates 20,000 Sikhs were killed. Rattan Singh Bhangu gave a figure of 50,000 Sikhs killed in his *Panth Prakash*, whilst his uncle (firsthand witness) claimed 30,000 Sikhs were killed. Muhammad Latif Ansari gives an estimate range between 12,000–30,000 for the number of Sikh dead. Joseph Davey Cunningham gave an estimate between 12,000–20,000. A local Gurdwara, built in memory of the day, published a booklet which asserted that "approximately 35,000 Singhs [Sikh men], Singhnia [Sikh women] and Bhujangis ['little snakes', referring to Sikh children]" had been killed that day.
Aftermath
---------
After two months Sikh again assembled and defeated Afghans in Battle of Harnaulgarh. Within three months of the massacre, the Sikhs attacked Zain Khan, who had participated in the slaughter. Zain Khan ended up bribing the Sikhs with a 50,000 ruppee payment in May. The Sikhs lay wreck on the Lahore region and Jalandhar Doab during July and August of the same year (1762), Ahmad Shah Abdali was powerless to stop them.
The Sikh warriors did not forget the local residents of the villages of Kup, Rahira, Kutba, and Bahmania turning away and even slaughtering pleading Sikhs seeking shelter with them. In revenge, they would raze these villages to the ground. There remains ruins of the former structures of Rahira to this day, near Gurdwara Shaheed Ganj Vadda Ghuallughara Sahib. Later, a 125-foot high Nishan Sahib was erected on-top of the ruins.
Historiography
--------------
A first-hand account of the *Vadda Ghalughara* is presented in the *Tahmasnama*, written by Tahmas Khan Miskin, a Turkic commander of Zain Khan of Sirhind's army and a scholar who was present during the massacre.
Memorial
--------
For a long time, no memorial was constructed commemorating the genocide due to the local population of Kup, Rahira, Kutba, and Bahmania villages being heavily dominated by Muslims originally, descendants of the same villagers who slaughtered Sikhs who sought shelter from them during the genocide. After the 1947 partition of Punjab, a monument was constructed and several gurdwaras were built along the route of the genocide, such as two named 'Gurdwara Shahid Ganj Vadda Ghallughara Sahib' at Rahira village with a monument constructed nearby commemorating the event. A local railway station was renamed 'Ghallughara Rahira Railway Station' in-memory of the history of the area. At Kutba village, a gurdwara named 'Gurdwara Att Vadda Ghallughara Sahib' was established and a *Nishan Sahib* (Sikh religious flag) was erected on the bank of the historical *dhab* (body of water) that both forces stopped and rested at to replenish their thirst in-midst of the action of that day. However, in 1970–1971, the historical *dhab* was filled with earth admixed with ploughable soil and was distributed as agricultural land to local farmers, so the historical body of water no longer exists. A gurdwara named 'Gurdwara Dhab Sahib' was constructed on the former location of the *dhab*. At Gehal village, a gurdwara commemorating the event was erected within the complex of the local 'Gurdwara Sri Guru Har Rai Sahib'. |
Zoo in Košice, Slovakia
The **Košice Zoo** (Slovak: *Zoologická záhrada Košice*) is a zoo in Košice, Slovakia in the borough of Kavečany. It covers 292 hectares (720 acres) and is the largest zoo in Slovakia and the third largest in Europe. Visitors are allowed in only about one third of the site. Another area outside the visitors area is preserved as the Carpathian Biom, with many wild Slovak species of fauna and flora, including the Imperial Eagle, Black Storc, and Raven. The zoo hosts about 250,000 visitors each year. Inside the zoo is a large Slovak "Jurassic Park" and many educational trails. []
History
-------
Construction of the zoo started in 1979. It opened to the public in 1985 with 23 species and an area of 7 hectares (17 acres). A petting zoo opened for children in 2000.
Animals
-------
Bears
As of 1 January 2020 the zoo housed the second largest animal collectin in Slovakia.
Species bred in the zoo include: Cuban Boa, Humboldt Penguin, Toco toucan, Silvery-checked hornbill, Himalaya Monal pheasants, European Brown Bear (Guinness Book recorded 5 cubs born and reared in one litter in 2002), Przewalski wild horse (3 animals released to wilderness in Mongolia), Blasboock, Kafue red lechwe, Siberian ibex, Alpine Chamois, European Bison, Hutsul horse (protected horse form of Carpathians).
Animals are mostly from Europe and Asia, though the zoo keeps some non-Eurasian species. The zoo has about 1200 animals in 280 species including the brown bear, lynx, emu, parrots, tamarins, turtles, tortoises, zebras, camels, ibexs, horses, antelopes, lions, tigers, european bison.
Breeding programs
-----------------
Horses
The zoo breeds the hucul horse, birthing 92 foals. The zoo returns some of its animals to the gene pool of the species beginning in 1996. The zoo includes an 11-hectare (27-acre) off-visitor area for horses to roam.
Other breeding efforts at the zoo include brown bears (a litter of 5 born in 2002 is in the Guinness Book of World Records), baboons, lynx, Przewalski's horses, Shetland ponies, Chapman's zebras, Siberian wapiti, Capybaras, and emus. |
American judge (1924–1996)
**Charles H. Reynolds** (October 10, 1924 – January 27, 1996) was a justice of the Kentucky Supreme Court from 1991 to 1996.
Life and Education
------------------
He was born October 10, 1924 in Warren County, Kentucky, the son of Charles H. Reynolds (Senior) and Hilda Stout Reynolds. He obtained a bachelor's degree from Western Kentucky University and then his law degree from the University of Louisville.
In World War II he served with the Army Air Force and was decorated with three Bronze Stars for heroism in combat.
He was a Catholic and active in his faith, his death was recognised by the local Bishop.
Career
------
He started practising law in 1950, going on to serve Bowling Green and Warren Count as city judge, county attorney, chairman of the planning and zoning commission and commissioner of the Bowling Green district court.
He was an appellate judge for 15 years and one of the original judges at the creation of the Kentucky Court of Appeals when it was created in 1976.
On November 6, 1990, Reynolds narrowly won the election against Willian S. Cooper to obtain the seat on the supreme court for the 2nd district, a seat that had been vacated as the presiding justice William Gant had retired due to health.
He was named "Kentucky Judge of the Year" in 1994.
One of his key decisions was in the "Steel Vest" case that made it difficult to dismiss Kentucky civil cases prior to trial. He was also recognised for opinions in rulings that crime victims have no standing in shock probation decisions, federal pensioners should get a tax refund on state income, and for upholding the disorderly conduct conviction of a woman who yelled obscenities at a military parade float.
In tribute to his career as a judge and for the many attorneys he trained, he was described as ethical, courteous, humble, honourable and of winning arguments by "nicing them to death".
He posthumously received the William H. Natcher Award for distinguished service to government, for his dedication to people, integrity and fair dealings.
Death
-----
Reynolds died unexpectedly on January 27, 1996 aged 71 at the medical center in Bowling Green, Kentucky. He was survived by Mary his wife, seven sons, four daughters and 22 grandchildren. |
British art dealer, writer and painter (1873-1936)
Hugh Blaker "Jack" oil on canvas on panel, 1911. (Private Collection, UK)
**Hugh Blaker** (1873–1936) was an English artist, collector, connoisseur, dealer in Old Masters, museum curator, writer on art, and a supporter and promoter of modern British and French painters.
Life and career
---------------
Hugh Oswald Blaker was born on 13 December 1873 at 31 Marine Parade, Worthing, Sussex. Both his parents were originally from Worthing – master builder Robert Charles Blaker (born May 1836) and Jane Rosalie Redstone (née Sanders, born April 1845). Following Robert's death, Jane married John Richard Eyre in the Church of the Sacred Heart, Teddington on 27 August 1898.
Blaker's collection of essays on social problems of the day, *Points for Posterity* (1910), paints a detailed portrait of its author: a free thinker, open minded, opinionated, cynical, reactionary, critical, and a socialist. The book – which in its manuscript form is titled *Hints for Historians* – opens: "There is no greater proof of stupidity than to be in love with your generation. Strong men are in love with the future and its manifold possibilities."
Blaker was curator of the Holburne Museum in Bath from 1905 to 1913 and is best known nowadays as adviser to the Davies sisters Gwendoline and Margaret Davies of Llandinam (Wales, UK) in the formation of their internationally renowned collection of French nineteenth-century painting and sculpture, which they bequeathed to the National Museum of Wales in Cardiff.
As well as his activities as dealer and advisor to the Davies sisters, Hugh Blaker assembled an important collection of art that he kept in his home at 53, 55 & 57 Church Street, Old Isleworth. After his death in 1936, Blaker's executors – his sister Jane (Jenny Louisa Roberta Blaker, 1869–1947) and the artist Murray Urquhart – sold over 600 artworks at auction and through two exhibitions at the Leicester Galleries, London (1937 & 1948). From 1895, Jane was governess to the young Gwendoline and Margaret Davies. She remained with them as companion throughout her life, firstly at Plas Dinam and from the early 1920s at Gregynog Hall, near Newtown, Montgomeryshire. When Hugh Blaker died in 1936, Jane presented from his art collection Amedeo Modigliani's *Le Petit Paysan* (1919) to the Tate Gallery and Quentin Massys' *The Ugly Duchess* (c.1513) to the National Gallery in London in his memory.
From 1924, Blaker became guardian to the 16-year-old William Hartnell. Blaker had found Hartnell flyweight boxing near King's Cross, London. Hartnell was an illegitimate child from the London slums. Blaker gave him a home and sent him to the Italia Conti Academy of the Theatre Arts. While Hartnell made numerous stage and television appearances and acted in over 75 British films, he is best remembered today as BBC Television's first *Doctor Who* (1963–1966). When Hartnell married, he and his wife continued to live in one of Blaker's adjacent properties at Isleworth; their first child, Heather, was born there in 1929.
In his later years, Blaker regretted that he had not been blessed with a single-mindedness of vision that could have enabled him to succeed in his calling as artist. On 25 February 1932, he recorded in his journal:
> "The cause of my failure to "make good" in any single branch of knowledge is that I have too many interests. Had I been isolated in my youth at a time when there was demand for artistic expression, I should have been an artist of repute. I was dumped into a generation which did not care a damn for art – apart from popular art. I just happened. I was an Old Master, born centuries late. No kid ever had greater equipment. No kid ever faced greater frustration. Centuries ago I would have been apprenticed to a painter – as a boy well fitted to make good in a prosperous trade. Instead, at that period of my development, I was the veritable curse of damn-fool schoolmasters at my "public school", Cranleigh. I was a wondrous fair kid, strong, and good at games. I got something out of them. In the gym I builded up a body as strong and fair as that of any sweet boy of the 80s."
>
>
Hugh Blaker and the *Isleworth Mona Lisa*
-----------------------------------------
Shortly before World War I, Hugh Blaker discovered a painting of the *Mona Lisa* in the home of a Somerset nobleman in whose family it had been for nearly 100 years. This discovery led to the conjecture that Leonardo painted two portraits of Lisa del Giocondo: the famous one in The Louvre, and the one discovered by Blaker, who bought the painting and took it to his studio in Isleworth, London, from which it takes its name. According to *Encyclopedia Americana* and *The New York Times*, The *Isleworth Mona Lisa* has been attributed to Leonardo, and is thought to be the unfinished portrait from which Raphael made his famous sketch (which is in the Louvre museum); art historian Paul George Konody wrote of the painting that it "in no sense of the word a 'copy,' but varies in some very important points from the Paris 'Mona Lisa'". |
German democratic politician and member of Frankfurt Parliament
This article is about the German politician. For other people with the same name, see Robert Blum (disambiguation).
**Robert Blum** (10 November 1807 – 9 November 1848) was a German democratic politician, publicist, poet, publisher, revolutionary and member of the National Assembly of 1848. In his fight for a strong, unified Germany he opposed ethnocentrism and it was his strong belief that no one people should rule over another. As such he was an opponent of the Prussian occupation of Poland and was in contact with the revolutionaries there. Blum was a critic of antisemitism, supported the German Catholic sect, and agitated for the equality of the sexes. Although claiming immunity as a member of the National Assembly, he was arrested during a stay at the hotel "Stadt London" in Vienna and executed for his role in the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states.
Biography
---------
Memorial tablet at "Fischmarkt" in Cologne where Robert Blum was born Inscript: "Born at this place on 10 November 1807, shot at Vienna on 9 November 1848; I die for the German liberty that I fought for. May the fatherland remember me."
Blum grew up in poverty in Cologne, the son of a failed theologian who made a poor living as a cooper. He was ten years old before he could go to school. After his schooling, he worked as a craftsman in different trades. He failed as a goldsmith's apprentice, but completed an apprenticeship as a gardener. After his journeyman's time, he returned to Cologne to work in a lamp factory. His employer put him to work at the counter since he was good at calculations. In 1829, he followed his employer to Berlin where he also continued his education. His work was interrupted by obligatory military service, and on his release, his poor circumstances obliged him to return to Cologne. There, in 1830, he worked serving in a theater company and started writing politically motivated poetry and plays. When the theater closed in the summer, he worked for a sheriff as a scribe.
The political upheavals of 1830 attracted his interest, and ideals of freedom found their way into his poetry. In 1832, he followed the theater troupe to Leipzig. There he came in touch with humanist and liberal circles, contributed to the liberal newspaper *Zeitung für die elegante Welt* and joined Leipzig's freemason lodge. By 1840, he had worked his way up to being a cashier in the city theater. That year he also founded the Schillerverein in Leipzig which celebrated the poet's anniversary as a festival in honor of political liberty.
Beginning in 1839, Blum became a leading figure in the Kingdom of Saxony's national-liberal circles; as a gifted orator and organizer, he helped establish Saxony's opposition movement as a serious political force. His initial attempt at a newsletter was suppressed by the censor, but another one continued for four years with occasional lapses due to the censor. He became a German Catholic when Johannes Ronge came to Leipzig, and wrote on that movement's behalf. In 1845, Blum organized the first German Catholic synod in Leipzig that marked the beginning of Germany's humanist free religious movement. In 1844, he gave up his theater job to found a book store.
Painting by Ludwig von Elliott of the Frankfurt Parliament during a speech by Robert Blum, 1848
In 1845, the presence of John of Saxony stirred the masses and the military fired on them. At a turbulent meeting of armed citizens and students of Leipzig, Blum dissuaded them from storming the barracks, and urged conformity to the law. This resulted in his being elected a representative in Leipzig's government.
Blum embraced the upheavals of 1848. He was one of the presidents of the preliminary parliament at Frankfurt which he dominated with his energy, imposing figure and pithy speeches. As a member of the succeeding parliament and leader of the left, he worked to contain the most radical elements. Blum's trustworthiness was questioned when the extreme leftist Arnold Ruge claimed Blum had moved toward his side. As the leader of the radical liberal faction, he strongly opposed the Malmö Treaty between Denmark and Prussia that abolished Schleswig-Holstein's democratically elected government. He was also one of the most vocal supporters of popular sovereignty.
Painting by Carl Steffeck of the execution of Robert Blum, 1848
In October, when revolutionary fighting broke out in Vienna, Blum travelled there as part of a parliamentarian envoy and joined the revolutionary forces. On the surrender of the capital to Windischgrätz, Blum was arrested with several of his companions on 4 November. Brought before a military tribunal, he pleaded in vain his privileges as a deputy from the German Diet and was condemned to be hanged, a sentence which was changed to death by the bullet. He was executed on 9 November. His death became a symbol for the futility of Germany's 1848 rebellion; the day of his death marks the first of a series of events that led to November 9 being referred to as Germany's *Schicksalstag* (fateful day).
His son Hans Blum was a noted writer and journalist. |
1945 offensive in the European theatre of World War II
| * v
* t
* e
Western Allied invasion of Germany |
| --- |
|
* *Blackcock*
* Rhineland
+ *Veritable*
+ *Grenade*
+ *Blockbuster*
+ *Plunder*
+ *Flashpoint*
+ *Varsity*
+ *Archway*
* *Lumberjack*
+ Remagen
+ Cologne
* *Gisela*
* *Undertone*
* Aschaffenburg
* *TF Baum*
* Frankfurt
* Ruhr
* Paderborn
* Würzburg
* Kassel
* Heilbronn
* *Howard*
* Dortmund
* Friesoythe
* Nuremberg
* Lippach
* Düsseldorf
* Stuttgart
* Hamburg
**Logistics**
* American
* British
|
| * v
* t
* e
Western Front ofWorld War II |
| --- |
| **Phoney War**
* River Forth
* Saar
* The Heligoland Bight
* *Wikinger*
**Luxembourg**
* Schuster Line
**The Netherlands**
* Maastricht
* Mill
* The Hague
* Rotterdam
* Zeeland
* The Grebbeberg
* Afsluitdijk
* Rotterdam Blitz
**Belgium**
* Fort Eben-Emael
* Hannut
* *David*
* Gembloux
* La Lys
* Ypres–Comines Canal
**France**
* Sedan
* Montcornet
* Saumur
* Arras
* Boulogne
* Calais
* Dunkirk
+ *Dynamo*
* Abbeville
* Lille
* *Paula*
* 1st Alps
+ Haddock Force
**Britain**
* Kanalkampf
* Adlertag
* The Hardest Day
* Battle of Britain Day
* *Sea Lion*
**1941–1943**
* *Cerberus*
* *Donnerkeil*
* Baedeker Blitz
* Commando Raids
+ St Nazaire Raid
+ Dieppe Raid
**1944–1945**
* Baby Blitz
* *Overlord*
* *Chastity*
* *Dragoon*
* Siegfried Line
* Netherlands
* *Market Garden*
* Hürtgen Forest
* Aachen
* *Queen*
* Scheldt
* Bulge
* *Nordwind*
* 2nd Alps
* Colmar Pocket
* Atlantic Pockets
**Germany**
* *Blackcock*
* *Veritable*
* *Grenade*
* *Blockbuster*
* *Lumberjack*
+ Remagen
+ Cologne
* *Gisela*
* *Undertone*
* *Plunder*
+ *Varsity*
* Paderborn
* Ruhr
* TF Baum
* Frankfurt
* Würzburg
* Kassel
* Heilbronn
* Nuremberg
* Hamburg
**Strategic campaigns**
* The Blitz
* Defence of the Reich
* Strategic Bombing Campaign
* Raids on the Atlantic Wall
* Battle of Atlantic
|
The **Western Allied invasion of Germany** was coordinated by the Western Allies during the final months of hostilities in the European theatre of World War II. In preparation for the Allied invasion of Germany east of the Rhine, a series of offensive operations were designed to seize and capture its east and west banks: Operation Veritable and Operation Grenade in February 1945, and Operation Lumberjack and Operation Undertone in March 1945; these are considered separate from the main invasion operation. The Allied invasion of Germany east of the Rhine started with the Western Allies crossing the river on 22 March 1945 before fanning out and overrunning all of western Germany from the Baltic in the north to the Alpine passes in the south, where they linked up with troops of the U.S. Fifth Army in Italy. Combined with the capture of *Berchtesgaden*, any hope of Nazi leadership continuing to wage war from a so-called "national redoubt" or escape through the Alps was crushed, shortly followed by unconditional German surrender on 8 May 1945. This is known as the **Central Europe Campaign** in United States military histories.
By early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. On the Western Front, the Allies had been fighting in Germany with campaigns against the Siegfried Line since the Battle of Aachen, the Battle of Metz and the Battle of Hürtgen Forest in late 1944 and by January 1945, had pushed the Germans back to their starting points during the Battle of the Bulge. The failure of this offensive exhausted Germany's strategic reserve, leaving it ill-prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe. Additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the intact bridge across the Rhine at Remagen, and established a large bridgehead on the river's east bank. During Operation Lumberjack, Operation Plunder and Operation Undertone, German casualties during February–March 1945 are estimated at 400,000 men, including 280,000 men captured as prisoners of war.
On the Eastern Front, the Soviet Red Army (including the Polish Armed Forces in the East under Soviet command), had taken most of Poland, launched an offensive into East Prussia and began their invasion into Eastern Germany in February 1945, and by March were within striking distance of Berlin. These rapid advances on the Eastern Front destroyed additional veteran German combat units and severely limited German Führer Adolf Hitler's ability to reinforce his Rhine defenses. With the Soviets at the door of Berlin, the western Allies decided any attempt on their behalf to push that far east would be too costly, concentrating instead on mopping up resistance in the west German cities. Nazi Germany surrendered unconditionally on 8 May, leaving the western Allies in control of most of Germany.
Order of battle
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### Allied forces
At the very beginning of 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force on the Western Front, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, had 73 divisions under his command in North-western Europe of which 49 were infantry divisions, 20 armored divisions and four airborne divisions. Forty-nine of these divisions were American, 12 British, eight French, three Canadian and one Polish. Another seven American divisions arrived during February, along with the British 5th Infantry Division and I Canadian Corps (composed of two divisions, one infantry division and one armoured division), both of which had arrived from the fighting on the Italian front. As the invasion of Germany commenced, Eisenhower had a total of 90 full-strength divisions under his command, with the number of armored divisions now reaching 25. The Allied front along the Rhine stretched 450 miles (720 km) from the river's mouth at the North Sea in the Netherlands to the Swiss border in the south.
The Allied forces along this line were organized into three army groups. In the north, from the North Sea to a point about 10 miles (16 km) north of Cologne, was the 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery. Within 21st Army Group the Canadian First Army (under Harry Crerar) held the left flank of the Allied line, with the British Second Army (Miles C. Dempsey) in the center and the U.S. 9th Army (William Hood Simpson) to the south. Holding the middle of the Allied line from the 9th Army's right flank to a point about 15 miles (24 km) south of Mainz was the 12th Army Group under the command of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Bradley had three American armies, the U.S. 1st Army (Courtney Hodges) on the left (north), the U.S. 3rd Army (George S. Patton) on the right (south), and the U.S. 15th Army (Leonard T. Gerow). Completing the Allied line to the Swiss border was the 6th Army Group commanded by Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers, with the U.S. 7th Army (Alexander Patch) in the north and the French 1st Army (Jean de Lattre de Tassigny) on the Allied right, and southernmost, flank.
As these three army groups cleared out the *Wehrmacht* west of the Rhine, Eisenhower began to rethink his plans for the final drive across the Rhine and into the heart of Germany. Originally, Eisenhower had planned to draw all his forces up to the west bank of the Rhine, using the river as a natural barrier to help cover the inactive sections of his line. The main thrust beyond the river was to be made in the north by Montgomery's 21st Army Group, elements of which were to proceed east to a juncture with the U.S. 1st Army as it made a secondary advance northeast from below the Ruhr River. If successful, this pincer movement would envelop the industrial Ruhr area, neutralizing the largest concentration of German industrial capacity left.
### German forces
Facing the Allies was *Oberbefehlshaber West* ("Army Command West") commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, who had taken over from Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt on 10 March. Although Kesselring brought an outstanding track record as a defensive strategist with him from the Italian campaign, he did not have the resources to make a coherent defense. During the fighting west of the Rhine up to March 1945, the German Army on the Western Front had been reduced to a strength of only 26 divisions, organized into three army groups (*H*, *B* and *G*). Little or no reinforcement was forthcoming as the *Oberkommando der Wehrmacht* (OKW) continued to concentrate most forces against the Soviets; it was estimated that the Germans had 214 divisions on the Eastern Front in April.
On 21 March, Army Group H headquarters became *Oberbefehlshaber Nordwest* ("Army Command Northwest") commanded by Ernst Busch leaving the former Army Group H commander—Johannes Blaskowitz—to lead "Army Command Netherlands" (25th Army) cut off in the Netherlands. Busch—whose main unit was the German 1st Parachute Army —was to form the right-wing of the German defenses. In the center of the front, defending the Ruhr, Kesselring had Field Marshal Walther Model commanding Army Group B (15th Army and 5th Panzer Army) and in the south Paul Hausser's Army Group G (7th Army, 1st Army and 19th Army).
Eisenhower's plans
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After capturing the Ruhr, Eisenhower planned to have the 21st Army Group continue its drive east across the plains of northern Germany to Berlin. The 12th and 6th Army Groups were to mount a subsidiary offensive to keep the Germans off balance and diminish their ability to stop the northern thrust. This secondary drive would also give Eisenhower a degree of flexibility in case the northern attack ran into difficulties.
For several reasons, Eisenhower began to readjust these plans toward the end of March. First, his headquarters received reports that Soviet forces held a bridgehead over the Oder River, 30 miles (48 km) from Berlin. Since the Allied armies on the Rhine were more than 300 miles (480 km) from Berlin, with the Elbe River, 200 miles (320 km) ahead, still to be crossed it seemed clear that the Soviets would capture Berlin long before the Western Allies could reach it. Eisenhower thus turned his attention to other objectives, most notably a rapid meet-up with the Soviets to cut the German Army in two and prevent any possibility of a unified defense. Once this was accomplished the remaining German forces could be defeated in detail.
In addition, there was the matter of the Ruhr. Although the Ruhr area still contained a significant number of Axis troops and enough industry to retain its importance as a major objective, Allied intelligence reported that much of the region's armament industry was moving southeast, deeper into Germany. This increased the importance of the southern offensives across the Rhine.
Also focusing Eisenhower's attention on the southern drive was concern over the "National redoubt." According to rumor, Hitler's most fanatically loyal troops were preparing to make a lengthy, last-ditch stand in the natural fortresses formed by the rugged alpine mountains of southern Germany and western Austria. If they held out for a year or more, dissension between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies might have given them political leverage for some kind of favorable peace settlement. In reality, by the time of the Allied Rhine crossings the *Wehrmacht* had suffered such severe defeats on both the Eastern and Western Fronts that it could barely manage to mount effective delaying actions, much less muster enough troops to establish a well-organized alpine resistance force. Still, Allied intelligence could not entirely discount the possibility that remnants of the German forces would attempt a suicidal last stand in the Alps. Denying this opportunity became another argument for rethinking the role of the southern drive through Germany.
Perhaps the most compelling reason for increasing the emphasis on this southern drive had more to do with the actions of Americans than those of Germans. While Montgomery was carefully and cautiously planning for the main thrust in the north, complete with massive artillery preparation and an airborne assault, American forces in the south were displaying the kind of basic aggressiveness that Eisenhower wanted to see. On 7 March, Hodges's U.S. 1st Army captured the last intact bridge over the Rhine at Remagen and steadily expanded the bridgehead.
To the south in the Saar-Palatinate region, Patton's U.S. 3rd Army had dealt a devastating blow to the German 7th Army and, in conjunction with the U.S. 7th Army, had nearly destroyed the German 1st Army. In five days of battle, from 18 to 22 March, Patton's forces captured over 68,000 Germans. These bold actions eliminated the last German positions west of the Rhine. Although Montgomery's drive was still planned as the main effort, Eisenhower believed that the momentum of the American forces to the south should not be squandered by having them merely hold the line at the Rhine or make only limited diversionary attacks beyond it. By the end of March, the Supreme Commander thus leaned toward a decision to place more responsibility on his southern forces. The events of the first few days of the final campaign would be enough to convince him that this was the proper course of action.
Occupation process
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When Allied soldiers arrived in a town, its leaders and remaining residents typically used white flags, bedsheets, and tablecloths to signal surrender. The officer in charge of the unit capturing the area, typically a company or battalion, accepted responsibility over the town. Soldiers posted copies of General Eisenhower's *Proclamation No. 1*, which began with "We come as a victorious army, not as oppressors." The proclamation demanded compliance with all orders by the commanding officer, instituted a strict curfew and limited travel and confiscated all communications equipment and weapons. After a day or two, specialized Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) units took over. Soldiers requisitioned housing and office space as needed from residents. At first, this was done informally with occupants evicted immediately and taking with them few personal possessions, but the process became standardized, with three hours' notice and OMGUS personnel providing receipts for buildings' contents. The displaced residents nonetheless had to find housing on their own.
Operations
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On 19 March, Eisenhower told Bradley to prepare the 1st Army for a breakout from the Remagen bridgehead any time after 22 March. The same day, in response to the 3rd Army's robust showing in the Saar-Palatinate region, and to have another strong force on the Rhine's east bank guarding the 1st Army's flank, Bradley gave Patton the go-ahead for an assault crossing of the Rhine as soon as possible.
These were exactly the orders Patton had hoped for; he felt that if a sufficiently strong force could be thrown across the river and significant gains made, then Eisenhower might transfer responsibility for the main drive through Germany from Montgomery's 21st Army Group to Bradley's 12th. Patton also appreciated the opportunity he now had to beat Montgomery across the river and win for the 3rd Army the coveted distinction of making the first assault crossing of the Rhine in modern history. To accomplish this, he had to move quickly.
On 21 March, Patton ordered his XII Corps to prepare for an assault over the Rhine on the following night, one day before Montgomery's scheduled crossing. While this was short notice, it did not catch the XII Corps completely unaware. As soon as Patton had received the orders on the 19th to make a crossing, he had begun sending assault boats, bridging equipment and other supplies forward from depots in Lorraine where they had been stockpiled since autumn in the expectation of just such an opportunity. Seeing this equipment moving up, his frontline soldiers did not need any orders from higher headquarters to tell them what it meant.
The location of the river-crossing assault was critical. Patton knew that the most obvious place to jump the river was at Mainz or just downstream, north of the city. The choice was obvious because the Main River, flowing northward 30 miles (48 km) east of and parallel to the Rhine, turns west and empties into the Rhine at Mainz and an advance south of the city would involve crossing two rivers rather than one. However, Patton also realized that the Germans were aware of this difficulty and would expect his attack north of Mainz. Thus, he decided to feint at Mainz while making his real effort at Nierstein and Oppenheim, 9–10 mi (14–16 km) south of the city. Following this primary assault, which XII Corps would undertake, VIII Corps would execute supporting crossings at Boppard and St. Goar, 25–30 miles (40–48 km) northwest of Mainz.
The terrain in the vicinity of Nierstein and Oppenheim was conducive to artillery support, with high ground on the west bank overlooking relatively flat land to the east. However, the same flat east bank meant that the bridgehead would have to be rapidly and powerfully reinforced and expanded beyond the river since there was no high ground for a bridgehead defense. The importance of quickly obtaining a deep bridgehead was increased by the fact that the first access to a decent road network was over 6 miles (9.7 km) inland at the town of Groß-Gerau.
### British 21st Army Group plans Operation Plunder
On the night of 23/24 March, after the XII Corps' assault of the Rhine, Bradley had announced his success. The 12th Army Group commander said that American troops could cross the Rhine anywhere, without aerial bombardment or airborne troops, a direct jab at Montgomery whose troops were at that very moment preparing to launch their own Rhine assault following an intense and elaborate aerial and artillery preparation and with the assistance of two airborne divisions, the American 17th and the British 6th.Montgomery was exhibiting his now-legendary meticulous and circumspect approach to such enterprises, a lesson he had learned early in the North African campaign. Thus, as his forces had approached the east bank of the river, Montgomery proceeded with one of the most intensive buildups of material and manpower of the war. His detailed plans, code-named Operation Plunder, were comparable to the Normandy invasion in terms of numbers of men and extent of equipment, supplies, and ammunition to be used. The 21st Army Group had 30 full-strength divisions, 11 each in the British Second and U.S. 9th Armies and eight in the Canadian First Army, providing Montgomery with more than 1,250,000 men.
Plunder called for the Second Army to cross at three locations along the 21st Army Group front—at Rees, Xanten and Rheinberg. The crossings would be preceded by several weeks of aerial bombing and final massive artillery preparation. A heavy bombing campaign by USAAF and RAF forces, known as the "Interdiction of Northwest Germany", designed primarily to destroy the lines of communication and supply connecting the Ruhr to the rest of Germany had been underway since February.[*page needed*] The intention was to create a line from Bremen south to Neuwied. The main targets were rail yards, bridges, and communication centers, with a secondary focus on fuel processing and storage facilities and other important industrial sites. During the three days leading up to Montgomery's attack, targets in front of the 21st Army Group zone and in the Ruhr area to the southeast were pummeled by about 11,000 sorties, effectively sealing off the Ruhr while easing the burden on Montgomery's assault forces.
Montgomery had originally planned to attach one corps of the U.S. 9th Army to the British Second Army, which would use only two of the corps' divisions for the initial assault. The rest of the 9th Army would remain in reserve until the bridgehead was ready for exploitation. The 9th Army's commander, Lieutenant General William Hood Simpson and the Second Army's Lieutenant-General Dempsey took exception to this approach. Both believed that the plan squandered the great strength in men and equipment that the 9th Army had assembled and ignored the many logistical problems of placing the 9th Army's crossing sites within the Second Army's zone.
Montgomery responded to these concerns by making a few small adjustments to the plan. Although he declined to increase the size of the American crossing force beyond two divisions, he agreed to keep it under the 9th Army rather than Second Army control. To increase Simpson's ability to bring his army's strength to bear for exploitation, Montgomery also agreed to turn the bridges at Wesel, just north of the inter-army boundary, over to the 9th Army once the bridgehead had been secured.
In the southernmost sector of the 21st Army Group's attack, the 9th Army's assault divisions were to cross the Rhine along an 11 miles (18 km) section of the front, south of Wesel and the Lippe River. This force would block any German counterattack from the Ruhr. Because of the poor road network on the east bank of this part of the Rhine, a second 9th Army corps was to cross over the promised Wesel bridges through the British zone north of the Lippe River, which had an abundance of good roads. After driving east nearly 100 miles (160 km), this corps was to meet elements of the 1st Army near Paderborn, completing the encirclement of the Ruhr.
Another important aspect of Montgomery's plan was Operation Varsity, in which two divisions of Major General Matthew Ridgway's XVIII Airborne Corps were to make an airborne assault over the Rhine. In a departure from standard airborne doctrine, which called for a jump deep behind enemy lines several hours prior to an amphibious assault, Varsity's drop zones were close behind the German front, within Allied artillery range. Additionally, to avoid being caught in the artillery preparation, the paratroopers would jump only after the amphibious troops had reached the Rhine's east bank. The wisdom of putting lightly armed paratroopers so close to the main battlefield was debated, and the plan for amphibious forces to cross the Rhine prior to the parachute drop raised questions as to the utility of making an airborne assault at all. However, Montgomery believed that the paratroopers would quickly link up with the advancing river assault forces, placing the strongest force within the bridgehead as rapidly as possible. Once the bridgehead was secured the British 6th Airborne Division would be transferred to Second Army control, while the U.S. 17th Airborne Division would revert to 9th Army control.
### U.S. 12th Army Group crosses the Rhine (22 March)
The crossing of the Rhine between 22 and 28 March 1945
On 22 March, with a bright moon lighting the late-night sky, elements of U.S. XII Corps' 5th Infantry Division began the 3rd Army's Rhine crossing. At Nierstein assault troops did not meet any resistance. As the first boats reached the east bank, seven startled Germans surrendered and then paddled themselves unescorted to the west bank to be placed in custody. Upstream at Oppenheim, however, the effort did not proceed so casually. The first wave of boats was halfway across when the Germans began pouring machine-gun fire into their midst. An intense exchange of fire lasted for about thirty minutes as assault boats kept pushing across the river and those men who had already made it across mounted attacks against the scattered defensive strongpoints. Finally, the Germans surrendered, and by midnight units moved out laterally to consolidate the crossing sites and to attack the first villages beyond the river. German resistance everywhere was sporadic, and the hastily mounted counterattacks invariably burned out quickly, causing few casualties. The Germans lacked both the manpower and the heavy equipment to make a more determined defense.
By midafternoon on 23 March, all three regiments of the 5th Infantry Division were in the bridgehead, and an attached regiment from the 90th Infantry Division was crossing. Tanks and tank destroyers had been ferried across all morning, and by evening a Treadway bridge was open to traffic. By midnight, infantry units had pushed the boundary of the bridgehead more than 5 miles (8.0 km) inland, ensuring the unqualified success of the first modern assault crossing of the Rhine.
Two more 3rd Army crossings—both by VIII Corps—quickly followed. In the early morning hours of 25 March, elements of the 87th Infantry Division crossed the Rhine to the north at Boppard, and then some 24 hours later elements of the 89th Infantry Division crossed 8 miles (13 km) south of Boppard at St. Goar. Although the defense of these sites was somewhat more determined than that XII Corps had faced, the difficulties of the Boppard and St. Goar crossings were compounded more by terrain than by German resistance. VIII Corps crossing sites were located along the Rhine Gorge, where the river had carved a deep chasm between two mountain ranges, creating precipitous canyon walls over 300 feet (91 m) high on both sides. In addition, the river flowed quickly and with unpredictable currents along this part of its course. Still, despite the terrain and German machine-gun and 20 millimetres (0.79 in) anti-aircraft cannon fire, VIII Corps troops managed to gain control of the east bank's heights, and by dark on 26 March, with German resistance crumbling all along the Rhine, they were preparing to continue the drive the next morning.
### Operation Plunder (23 March)
Main articles: Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity
Douglas C-47 transport aircraft drop hundreds of paratroopers on 24 March as part of Operation Varsity.
Plunder began on the evening of 23 March with the assault elements of the British 2nd Army massed against three main crossing sites: Rees in the north, Xanten in the center, and Wesel in the south. The two 9th Army divisions tasked for the assault concentrated in the Rheinberg area south of Wesel. At the northern crossing site, elements of British XXX Corps began the assault (Operation Turnscrew) about 21:00, attempting to distract the Germans from the main crossings at Xanten in the center and Rheinberg to the south. The initial assault waves crossed the river quickly, meeting only light opposition. Meanwhile, Operation Widgeon began 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Wesel as the 2nd Army's 1st Commando Brigade slipped across the river and waited within 1 mile (1.6 km) of the city while it was demolished by one thousand tons of bombs delivered by RAF Bomber Command. Entering in the night, the commandos secured the city late on the morning of 24 March, although scattered resistance continued until dawn on the 25th. The 2nd Army's XII Corps and the 9th Army's XVI Corps began the main effort about 02:00 on 24 March, following a massive artillery and air bombardment.
For the American crossing, Simpson had chosen the veteran 30th and 79th Infantry Divisions of the XVI Corps. The 30th was to cross between Wesel and Rheinberg while the 79th assaulted south of Rheinberg. In reserve were the XVI Corps' 8th Armored Division, and 35th and 75th Infantry Divisions, as well as the 9th Army's XIII and XIX Corps, each with three divisions. Simpson planned to commit the XIX Corps as soon as possible after the bridgehead had been secured, using the XIII Corps to hold the Rhine south of the crossing sites.
After an hour of extremely intense artillery preparation, which Eisenhower himself viewed from the front, the 30th Infantry Division began its assault. The artillery fire had been so effective and so perfectly timed that the assault battalions merely motored their storm boats across the river and claimed the east bank against almost no resistance. As subsequent waves of troops crossed, units fanned out to take the first villages beyond the river to only the weakest of opposition. An hour later, at 03:00, the 79th Infantry Division began its crossing upriver, achieving much the same results. As heavier equipment was ferried across the Rhine, both divisions began pushing east, penetrating 3–6 miles (4.8–9.7 km) into the German defensive line that day.
To the north, the British crossings had also gone well, with the ground and airborne troops linking up by nightfall. By then, the paratroopers had taken all their first day's objectives in addition to 3,500 prisoners.
On 25 March, after meeting Eisenhower, Churchill, General Simpson, Field Marshal Alan Brooke (head of the British Army), and Montgomery crossed to the German-held east bank of the Rhine in a landing craft
To the south, the discovery of a defensive gap in front of the 30th Infantry Division fostered the hope that a full-scale breakout would be possible on 25 March. When limited objective attacks provoked little response on the morning of the 25th, the division commander Major General Leland Hobbs formed two mobile task forces to make deeper thrusts with an eye toward punching through the defense altogether and breaking deep into the German rear. However, Hobbs had not fully taken into account the nearly nonexistent road network in front of the XVI Corps bridgehead. Faced with trying to make rapid advances through dense forest on rutted dirt roads and muddy trails, which could be strongly defended by a few determined soldiers and well-placed roadblocks, the task forces advanced only about 2 miles (3.2 km) on the 25th. The next day they gained some more ground, and one even seized its objective, having slogged a total of 6 miles (9.7 km), but the limited progress forced Hobbs to abandon the hope for a quick breakout.
In addition to the poor roads, the 30th Division's breakout attempts were also hampered by the German 116th Panzer Division. The only potent unit left for commitment against the Allied Rhine crossings in the north, the 116th began moving south from the Dutch-German border on 25 March against what the Germans considered their most dangerous threat, the U.S. 9th Army. The enemy armored unit began making its presence felt almost immediately, and by the end of 26 March, the combination of the *panzer* division and the rough terrain had conspired to sharply limit the 30th Division's forward progress. With the 79th Infantry Division meeting fierce resistance to the south, Simpson's only recourse was to commit some of his forces waiting on the west bank of the Rhine. Late on 26 March, the 8th Armored Division began moving into the bridgehead.
Although the armored division bolstered his offensive capacity within the bridgehead, Simpson was more interested in sending the XIX Corps across the Wesel bridges, as Montgomery had agreed, and using the better roads north of the Lippe to outflank the enemy in front of the 30th Division. Unfortunately, because of pressure from the Germans in the northern part of the 2nd Army bridgehead, the British were having trouble completing their bridges at Xanten and were, therefore, bringing most of their traffic across the river at Wesel. With Montgomery allowing use of the Wesel bridges to the 9th Army for only five out of every 24 hours, and with the road network north of the Lippe under 2nd Army control, General Simpson was unable to commit or maneuver sufficient forces to make a rapid flanking drive.
### U.S. 6th Army Group crosses the Rhine (26 March)
Adding to the Germans' woes, the 6th Army Group made an assault across the Rhine on 26 March. At Worms, about 25 miles (40 km) south of Mainz, the 7th Army's XV Corps established a bridgehead, which it consolidated with the southern shoulder of the 3rd Army's bridgehead early the next day. After overcoming stiff initial resistance, XV Corps also advanced beyond the Rhine, opposed primarily by small German strongpoints sited in roadside villages.
### German Army Group B surrounded in the Ruhr pocket (1 April)
Encirclement of the Ruhr and other Allied operations between 29 March and 4 April 1945
By 28 March, the 8th Armored Division had expanded the bridgehead by only about 3 mi (4.8 km) and still had not reached Dorsten, a town about 15 mi (24 km) east of the Rhine, whose road junction promised to expand the XVI Corps' offensive options. On the same day, however, Montgomery announced that the eastbound roads out of Wesel would be turned over to the 9th Army on 30 March with the Rhine bridges leading into that city changing hands a day later. Also on 28 March, elements of the U.S. 17th Airborne Division operating north of the Lippe River in conjunction with British armored forces—dashed to a point some 30 mi (48 km) east of Wesel, opening a corridor for the XIX Corps and handily outflanking Dorsten and the enemy to the south. Simpson now had both the opportunity and the means to unleash the power of the 9th Army and begin in earnest the northern drive to surrounding the Ruhr.
Simpson began by moving elements of the XIX Corps' 2nd Armored Division into the XVI Corps bridgehead on 28 March with orders to cross the Lippe east of Wesel, thereby avoiding that city's traffic jams. After passing north of the Lippe on 29 March, the 2nd Armored Division broke out late that night from the forward position that the XVIII Airborne Corps had established around Haltern, 12 mi (19 km) northeast of Dorsten. On the 30th and 31st, the 2nd Armored made an uninterrupted 40 mi (64 km) drive east to Beckum, cutting two of the Ruhr's three remaining rail lines and severing the autobahn to Berlin. As the rest of the XIX Corps flowed into the wake of this spectacular drive, the 1st Army was completing its equally remarkable thrust around the southern and eastern edges of the Ruhr.
The 1st Army's drive from the Remagen bridgehead began with a breakout before dawn on 25 March. German Field Marshal Walter Model, whose *Army Group B* was charged with the defense of the Ruhr, had deployed his troops heavily along the east–west Sieg River south of Cologne, thinking that the Americans would attack directly north from the Remagen bridgehead. Instead, the 1st Army struck eastward, heading for Giessen and the Lahn River, 65 mi (105 km) beyond Remagen, before turning north toward Paderborn and a linkup with the 9th Army. All three corps of the 1st Army participated in the breakout, which on the first day employed five infantry and two armored divisions. The U.S. VII Corps, on the left, had the hardest going due to the German concentration north of the bridgehead, yet its armored columns managed to advance 12 mi (19 km) beyond their line of departure. The U.S. III Corps, in the center, did not commit its armor on the first day of the breakout, but still made a gain of 4 mi (6.4 km). The U.S. V Corps on the right advanced 5–8 mi (8.0–12.9 km), incurring minimal casualties.
Beginning the next day, 26 March, the armored divisions of all three corps turned these initial gains into a complete breakout, shattering all opposition and roaming at will throughout the enemy's rear areas. By the end of 28 March, Hodges' 1st Army had crossed the Lahn, having driven at least 50 mi (80 km) beyond the original line of departure, capturing thousands of German soldiers in the process. Nowhere, it seemed, were the Germans able to resist in strength. On 29 March, the 1st Army turned toward Paderborn, about 80 mi (130 km) north of Giessen, its right flank covered by the 3rd Army, which had broken out of its own bridgeheads and was headed northeast toward Kassel.
A task force of the VII Corps' 3rd Armored Division, which included some of the new M26 Pershing heavy tanks, spearheaded the drive for Paderborn on 29 March. By attaching an infantry regiment of the 104th Infantry Division to the armored division and following the drive closely with the rest of the 104th Division, the VII Corps was well prepared to hold any territory gained. Rolling northward 45 mi (72 km) without casualties, the mobile force stopped for the night 15 mi (24 km) from its objective. Taking up the advance again the next day, it immediately ran into stiff opposition from students of an SS *panzer* replacement training center located near Paderborn. Equipped with about 60 tanks, the students put up a fanatical resistance, stalling the American armor all day. When the task force failed to advance on 31 March, Maj. Gen. J. Lawton Collins, commander of the VII Corps, asked Simpson if his 9th Army, driving eastward north of the Ruhr, could provide assistance. Simpson, in turn, ordered a combat command of the 2nd Armored Division, which had just reached Beckum, to make a 15 mi (24 km) advance southeast to Lippstadt, midway between Beckum and the stalled 3rd Armored Division spearhead. Early in the afternoon of 1 April elements of the 2nd and 3rd Armored Divisions met at Lippstadt, linking the 9th and 1st Armies and sealing the prized Ruhr industrial complex, along with Model's *Army Group B*, within American lines.
As March turned to April the offensive east of the Rhine was progressing in close accordance with Allied plans. All the armies assigned to cross the Rhine had elements east of the river, including the Canadian 1st Army in the north, which sent a division through the British bridgehead at Rees, and the French 1st Army in the south, which on 31 March established its own bridgehead by assault crossings at Germersheim and Speyer, about 50 mi (80 km) south of Mainz. With spectacular thrusts being made beyond the Rhine nearly every day and the enemy's capacity to resist fading at an ever-accelerating rate, the campaign to finish Germany was transitioning into a general pursuit.
In the center of the Allied line, Eisenhower inserted the new 15th Army, under U.S. 12th Army Group control to hold the western edge of the Ruhr Pocket along the Rhine while the 9th and 1st Armies squeezed the remaining German defenders there from the north, east, and south. Following the reduction of the Ruhr, the 15th Army was to take over occupation duties in the region as the 9th, 1st and 3rd Armies pushed farther into Germany.
### Eisenhower switches his main thrust to U.S. 12th Army Group front (28 March)
On 28 March, as these developments unfolded, Eisenhower announced his decision to adjust his plans governing the future course of the offensive. Once the Ruhr was surrounded, he wanted the 9th Army transferred from the British 21st Army Group to the U.S. 12th Army Group. After the reduction of the Ruhr Pocket, the main thrust east would be made by Bradley's 12th Army Group in the center, rather than by Montgomery's 21st Army Group in the north as originally planned. Montgomery's forces were to secure Bradley's northern flank while Devers' 6th U.S. Army Group covered Bradley's southern shoulder. Furthermore, the main objective was no longer Berlin, but Leipzig where a juncture with the Soviet Army would split the remaining German forces in two. Once this was done, the 21st Army Group would take Lübeck and Wismar on the Baltic Sea, cutting off the Germans remaining in the Jutland peninsula of Denmark, while the 6th U.S. Army Group and the 3rd Army drove south into Austria.
The British Prime Minister and Chiefs of Staff strongly opposed the new plan. Despite the Russian proximity to Berlin, they argued that the city was still a critical political, if not military, objective. Eisenhower, supported by the American Chiefs of Staff, disagreed. His overriding objective was the swiftest military victory possible. Should the U.S. political leadership direct him to take Berlin, or if a situation arose in which it became militarily advisable to seize the German capital, Eisenhower would do so. Otherwise, he would pursue those objectives that would end the war soonest. In addition, since Berlin and the rest of Germany had already been divided into occupation zones by representatives of the Allied governments at the Yalta Conference, Eisenhower saw no political advantage in a race for Berlin. Any ground the Western Allies gained in the future Soviet zone would merely be relinquished to the Soviets after the war. In the end, the campaign proceeded as Eisenhower had planned it.
### Ruhr pocket cleared (18 April)
The reduction of the Ruhr Pocket and advance to Elbe and Mulde rivers between 5 and 18 April 1945
The first step in realizing Eisenhower's plan was the eradication of the Ruhr Pocket. Even before the encirclement had been completed, the Germans in the Ruhr had begun making attempts at a breakout to the east. All had been unceremoniously repulsed by the vastly superior Allied forces. Meanwhile, the 9th and 1st Armies began preparing converging attacks using the east-west Ruhr River as a boundary line. The 9th Army's XVI Corps, which had taken up position north of the Ruhr area after crossing the Rhine, would be assisted in its southward drive by two divisions of the XIX Corps, the rest of which would continue to press eastward along with the XIII Corps. South of the Ruhr River, the 1st Army's northward attack was to be executed by the XVIII Airborne Corps, which had been transferred to Hodges after Operation Varsity, and the III Corps, with the 1st Army's V and VII Corps continuing the offensive east. The 9th Army's sector of the Ruhr Pocket, although only about 1/3 the size of the 1st Army's sector south of the river, contained the majority of the densely urbanized industrial area within the encirclement. The 1st Army's area, on the other hand, was composed of rough, heavily forested terrain with a poor road network.
By 1 April, when the trap closed around the Germans in the Ruhr, their fate was sealed. In a matter of days, they would all be killed or captured. On 4 April, the day it shifted to Bradley's control, the 9th Army began its attack south toward the Ruhr River. In the south, the 1st Army's III Corps launched its strike on the 5th and the XVIII Airborne Corps joined in on the 6th, both pushing generally northward. German resistance, initially rather determined, dwindled rapidly. By 13 April, the 9th Army had cleared the northern part of the pocket, while elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps' 8th Infantry Division reached the southern bank of the Ruhr, splitting the southern section of the pocket in two. Thousands of prisoners were being taken every day; from 16 to 18 April, when all opposition ended and the remnants of German *Army Group B* formally surrendered, German troops had been surrendering in droves throughout the region. Army Group B commander Model committed suicide on 21 April.
The final tally of prisoners taken in the Ruhr reached 325,000, far beyond anything the Americans had anticipated. Tactical commanders hastily enclosed huge open fields with barbed wire creating makeshift prisoner of war camps, where the inmates awaited the end of the war and their chance to return home. Also looking forward to going home, tens of thousands of freed forced laborers and Allied prisoners of war further strained the American logistical system.
### U.S. 12th Army Group prepares its final thrust
Meanwhile, the remaining Allied forces north, south, and east of the Ruhr had been adjusting their lines in preparation for the final advance through Germany. Under the new concept, Bradley's 12th U.S. Army Group would make the main effort, with Hodges' 1st Army in the center heading east for about 130 mi (210 km) toward the city of Leipzig and the Elbe River. To the north, the 9th Army's XIX and XIII Corps would also drive for the Elbe, toward Magdeburg, about 65 mi (105 km) north of Leipzig, although the army commander, General Simpson, hoped he would be allowed to go all the way to Berlin. To the south, Patton's 3rd Army was to drive east to Chemnitz, about 40 mi (64 km) southeast of Leipzig, but well short of the Elbe, and then turn southeast into Austria. At the same time, General Devers' 6th U.S. Army Group would move south through Bavaria and the Black Forest to Austria and the Alps, ending the threat of any Nazi last-ditch stand there.
On 4 April, as it paused to allow the rest of the 12th U.S. Army Group to catch up, the 3rd Army made two notable discoveries. Near the town of Merkers, elements of the 90th Infantry Division found a sealed salt mine containing a large portion of the German national treasure. The hoard included vast quantities of German paper currency, stacks of priceless paintings, piles of looted gold and silver jewelry and household objects, and an estimated $250,000,000 worth of gold bars and coins of various nations. But the other discovery made by the 3rd Army on 4 April horrified and angered those who saw it. When the 4th Armored Division and elements of the 89th Infantry Division captured the small town of Ohrdruf, a few miles south of Gotha, they found the first concentration camp taken by the Western Allies.
### U.S. 12th Army Group advances to the Elbe (9 April)
The 4 April pause in the 3rd Army advance allowed the other armies under Bradley's command to reach the Leine River, about 50 mi (80 km) east of Paderborn. Thus all three armies of the 12th U.S. Army Group were in a fairly even north–south line, enabling them to advance abreast of each other to the Elbe. By 9 April, both the 9th and 1st Armies had seized bridgeheads over the Leine, prompting Bradley to order an unrestricted eastward advance. On the morning of 10 April, the 12th U.S. Army Group's drive to the Elbe began in earnest.[*better source needed*]
American M5A1 Stuart light tanks in Coburg on 25 April
The Elbe River was the official eastward objective, but many American commanders still eyed Berlin. By the evening of 11 April, elements of the 9th Army's 2nd Armored Division—seemingly intent on demonstrating how easily their army could take that coveted prize—had dashed 73 mi (117 km) to reach the Elbe southeast of Magdeburg, just 50 mi (80 km) short of the German capital. On 12 April, additional 9th Army elements attained the Elbe and by the next day were on the opposite bank hopefully awaiting permission to drive on to Berlin. But two days later, on 15 April, they had to abandon these hopes. Eisenhower sent Bradley his final word on the matter: the 9th Army was to stay put—there would be no effort to take Berlin. Simpson subsequently turned his troops' attention to mopping up pockets of local resistance.
In the center of the 12th U.S. Army Group, Hodges' 1st Army faced somewhat stiffer opposition, though it hardly slowed the pace. As its forces approached Leipzig, about 60 mi (97 km) south of Magdeburg and 15 mi (24 km) short of the Mulde River, the 1st Army ran into one of the few remaining centers of organized resistance. Here the Germans turned a thick defense belt of antiaircraft guns against the American ground troops with devastating effects. Through a combination of flanking movements and night attacks, First Army troops were able to destroy or bypass the guns, moving finally into Leipzig, which formally surrendered on the morning of 20 April. By the end of the day, the units that had taken Leipzig joined the rest of the 1st Army on the Mulde, where it had been ordered to halt.
Meanwhile, on the 12th U.S. Army Group's southern flank, the 3rd Army had advanced apace, moving 30 mi (48 km) eastward to take Erfurt and Weimar, and then, by 12 April, another 30 mi (48 km) through the old 1806 Jena Napoleonic battlefield area. On that day, Eisenhower instructed Patton to halt the 3rd Army at the Mulde River, about 10 mi (16 km) short of its original objective, Chemnitz. The change resulted from an agreement between the American and Soviet military leadership based on the need to establish a readily identifiable geographical line to avoid accidental clashes between the converging Allied forces. However, as the 3rd Army began pulling up to the Mulde on 13 April, the XII Corps—Patton's southernmost force—continued moving southeast alongside the 6th U.S. Army Group to clear southern Germany and move into Austria. After taking Coburg, about 50 mi (80 km) south of Erfurt, on 11 April, XII Corps troops captured Bayreuth, 35 mi (56 km) farther southeast, on 14 April.
As was the case throughout the campaign, the German ability to fight was sporadic and unpredictable during the drive to the Elbe–Mulde line. Some areas were stoutly defended while in others the enemy surrendered after little more than token resistance. By sending armored spearheads around hotly contested areas, isolating them for reduction by subsequent waves of infantry, Eisenhower's forces maintained their eastward momentum. A German holdout force of 70,000 in the Harz Mountains—40 mi (64 km) north of Erfurt—was neutralized in this way, as were the towns of Erfurt, Jena, and Leipzig.
### U.S. First Army makes first contact with the advancing Soviets (25 April)
The final operations of the Western Allied armies between 19 April and 7 May 1945 and the change in the Soviet front line over this period
Every unit along the Elbe–Mulde line was anxious to be the first to meet the Red Army. By the last week of April, it was well known that the Soviets were close, and dozens of American patrols were probing beyond the east bank of the Mulde, hoping to meet them. Elements of the 1st Army's V Corps made first contact. At 11:30 on 25 April, a small patrol from the 69th Infantry Division met a lone Soviet horseman in the village of Leckwitz. Several other patrols from the 69th had similar encounters later that day, and on 26 April the division commander, Maj. Gen. Emil F. Reinhardt, met Maj. Gen. Vladimir Rusakov of the Soviet 58th Guards Rifle Division at Torgau in the first official link-up ceremony.
25 April is known as Elbe Day.
### U.S. 6th Army Group heads for Austria
While the 12th U.S. Army Group made its eastward thrust, Devers' 6th U.S. Army Group to the south had the dual mission of protecting the 12th U.S. Army Group's right flank and eliminating any German attempt to make a last stand in the Alps of southern Germany and western Austria. To accomplish both objectives, Patch's 7th Army on Devers' left was to make a great arc, first driving northeastward alongside Bradley's flank, then turning south with the 3rd Army to take Nuremberg and Munich, ultimately continuing into Austria. The French 1st Army, under de Lattre de Tassigny, was to attack to the south and southeast, taking Stuttgart before moving to the Swiss border and into Austria.
Initially, the opposition in the 6th U.S. Army Group's sector was stiffer than that facing the 12th U.S. Army Group. The German forces there were simply in less disarray than those to the north. Nevertheless, the 7th Army broke out of its Rhine bridgehead, just south of Frankfurt, on 28 March, employing elements of three corps—the XV Corps to the north, the XXI Corps in the center, and the VI Corps to the south. The XV Corps' 45th Infantry Division fought for six days before taking the city of Aschaffenburg, 35 mi (56 km) east of the Rhine, on 3 April. To the south, elements of the VI Corps met unexpectedly fierce resistance at Heilbronn, 40 mi (64 km) into the German rear. Despite a wide armored thrust to envelop the enemy defenses, it took nine days of intense fighting to bring Heilbronn fully under American control. Still, by 11 April 7 Army had penetrated the German defenses in-depth, especially in the north, and was ready to begin its wheeling movement southeast and south. Thus, on 15 April when Eisenhower ordered Patton's entire 3rd Army to drive southeast down the Danube River valley to Linz, and south to Salzburg and central Austria, he also instructed the 6th U.S. Army Group to make a similar turn into southern Germany and western Austria.
Soldiers of the US 3rd Infantry Division in Nuremberg on 20 April
Advancing along this new axis the Seventh Army's left rapidly overran Bamberg, over 100 mi (160 km) east of the Rhine, on its way to Nuremberg, about 30 mi (48 km) to the south. As its forces reached Nuremberg on 16 April, the Seventh Army ran into the same type of anti-aircraft gun defense that the 1st Army was facing at Leipzig. Only on 20 April, after breaching the ring of anti-aircraft guns and fighting house-to-house for the city, did its forces take Nuremberg.
Following the capture of Nuremberg, the 7th Army discovered little resistance as the XXI Corps' 12th Armored Division dashed 50 mi (80 km) to the Danube, crossing it on 22 April, followed several days later by the rest of the corps and the XV Corps as well.
Meanwhile, on the 7th Army's right, the VI Corps had moved southeast alongside the French 1st Army. In a double envelopment, the French captured Stuttgart on 21 April, and by the next day, both the French and the VI Corps had elements on the Danube. Similarly, the 3rd Army on the 6th U.S. Army Group's left flank had advanced rapidly against very little resistance, its lead elements reaching the river on 24 April.
As the 6th U.S. Army Group and the 3rd Army finished clearing southern Germany and approached Austria, it was clear to most observers, Allied and German alike, that the war was nearly over. Many towns flew white flags of surrender to spare themselves the otherwise inevitable destruction suffered by those that resisted, while German troops surrendered by the tens of thousands, sometimes as entire units.
### Link-up of U.S. forces in Germany and Italy (4 May)
On 30 April, elements of 7th Army's XV and XXI Corps captured Munich, 30 miles (48 km) south of the Danube, while the first elements of its VI Corps had already entered Austria two days earlier. On 4 May, the 3rd Army's V Corps and XII Corps advanced into Czechoslovakia, and units of the VI Corps met elements of Lieutenant General Lucian Truscott's U.S. 5th Army on the Italian frontier, linking the European and Mediterranean Theaters. Also on 4 May, after a shift in inter-army boundaries that placed Salzburg in the 7th Army sector, that city surrendered to elements of the XV Corps. The XV Corps also captured Berchtesgaden, the town that would have been Hitler's command post in the National Redoubt. With all passes to the Alps now sealed, however, there would be no final redoubt in Austria or anywhere else. In a few days the war in Europe would be over.
### British 21st Army Group crosses the Elbe (29 April)
A British Sherman Firefly tank in Hamburg on 4 May
While the Allied armies in the south marched to the Alps, the 21st Army Group drove north and northeast. The right-wing of the British Second Army reached the Elbe southeast of Hamburg on 19 April. Its left fought for a week to capture Bremen, which fell on 26 April. On 29 April, the British made an assault crossing of the Elbe, supported on the following day by the recently reattached XVIII Airborne Corps. The bridgehead expanded rapidly, and by 2 May Lübeck and Wismar, 40–50 miles (64–80 km) beyond the river, were in Allied hands, sealing off the Germans in the Jutland Peninsula.
On the 21st Army Group's left, one corps of the Canadian First Army reached the North Sea near the Dutch-German border on 16 April, while another drove through the central Netherlands, trapping the German forces remaining in that country. However, concerned that the bypassed Germans would flood much of the nation and cause complete famine among a Dutch population already near starvation, Eisenhower approved an agreement with the local German commanders to allow the Allies to air-drop food into the country in return for a local ceasefire on the battlefield. The ensuing airdrops, which began on 29 April, marked the beginning of what was to become a colossal effort to put war-torn Europe back together again.
On 6 May, the Polish 1st Armoured Division seized the Kriegsmarine naval base in Wilhelmshaven, where General Maczek accepted the capitulation of the fortress, naval base, East Frisian Fleet and more than 10 infantry divisions.
### Final moves by the western Allies
Main article: Race to Berlin
Eisenhower's armies were facing resistance that varied from almost non-existent to fanatical as they advanced toward Berlin, which was located 200 km (120 mi) from their positions in early April 1945. Britain's Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, urged Eisenhower to continue the advance toward Berlin by the 21st Army Group, under the command of Montgomery with the intention of capturing the city. Even Patton agreed with Churchill that he should order the attack on the city since Montgomery's troops could reach Berlin within three days. The British and Americans contemplated an airborne operation before the attack. In Operation Eclipse, the 17th Airborne Division, 82d Airborne Division, 101st Airborne Division, and a British brigade were to seize the Tempelhof, Rangsdorf, Gatow, Staaken, and Oranienburg airfields. In Berlin, the Reichsbanner resistance organization identified possible drop zones for Allied paratroopers and planned to guide them past German defenses into the city.
After Bradley warned that capturing a city located in a region that the Soviets had already received at the Yalta Conference might cost 100,000 casualties, by 15 April Eisenhower ordered all armies to halt when they reached the Elbe and Mulde Rivers, thus immobilizing these spearheads while the war continued for three more weeks. 21st Army Group was then instead ordered to move northeast toward Bremen and Hamburg. While the U.S. Ninth and First Armies held their ground from Magdeburg through Leipzig to western Czechoslovakia, Eisenhower ordered three Allied field armies (1st French, and the U.S. Seventh and Third Armies) into southeastern Germany and Austria. Advancing from northern Italy, the British Eighth Army pushed to the borders of Yugoslavia to defeat the remaining *Wehrmacht* elements there. This later caused some friction with the Yugoslav forces, notably around Trieste.
### German surrender (8 May)
Final positions of the Allied armies, May 1945
Main article: End of World War II in Europe
By the end of April, the Third Reich was in tatters. Of the land still under Nazi control, almost none was actually in Germany. With his escape route to the south severed by the 12th Army Group's eastward drive and Berlin surrounded by the Soviets, Hitler committed suicide on 30 April, leaving to his successor, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the task of capitulation. After attempting to strike a deal whereby he would surrender only to the Western Allies, a proposal that was summarily rejected on 7 May, Dönitz granted his representative, Alfred Jodl, permission to effect a complete surrender on all fronts. The appropriate documents were signed on the same day and became effective on 8 May. Despite scattered resistance from a few isolated units, the war in Europe was over.
Analysis
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U.S. Airfields in Europe as of 8 May 1945
By the beginning of 1945, Allied victory in Europe was inevitable. Having gambled his future ability to defend Germany on the Ardennes offensive and lost, Hitler had no real strength left to stop the powerful Allied armies. The Western Allies still had to fight, often bitterly, for victory. Even when the hopelessness of the German situation became obvious to his most loyal subordinates, Hitler refused to admit defeat. Only when Soviet artillery was falling around his Berlin headquarters bunker did he begin to perceive the outcome.
The crossing of the Rhine, the encirclement and reduction of the Ruhr, and the sweep to the Elbe–Mulde line and the Alps all established the final campaign on the Western Front as a showcase for Western Allied superiority over the Germans in maneuver warfare. Drawing on the experience gained during the campaign in Normandy and the Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine, the Western Allies demonstrated in western Germany and Austria their capability of absorbing the lessons of the past. By attaching mechanized infantry units to armored divisions, they created a hybrid of strength and mobility that served them well in the pursuit of warfare through Germany. Key to the effort was the logistical support that kept these forces fueled, and the determination to maintain the forward momentum at all costs. These mobile forces made great thrusts to isolate pockets of German troops, which were mopped up by additional infantry following close behind. The Western Allies rapidly eroded any remaining ability to resist.
For their part, captured German soldiers often claimed to be most impressed not by American armor or infantry but by the artillery. They frequently remarked on its accuracy and the swiftness of its target acquisition—and especially the prodigious amount of artillery ammunition expended. On the whole, Western Allied plans were considered effective as demonstrated by how rapidly they met their objectives.
Legacy
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Several German political leaders have described the invasion as "liberation", including President Richard von Weizsäcker in 1985 and Chancellor Angela Merkel in 2019. According to the *Chicago Tribune*, "over the decades, Germans' attitudes toward the war have evolved from a sense of defeat to something far more complex".
Bibliography
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* Baker, Anni P. (2004). *American Soldiers Overseas: The Global Military Presence*. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 38–39. ISBN 0-275-97354-9.
* Bedessem, Edward M. (1996). *Central Europe, 22 March – 11 May 1945*. CMH Online bookshelves: The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II. Washington, D.C.: US Army Center of Military History. ISBN 0-16-048136-8. CMH Pub 72-36. Archived from the original on 22 May 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2008.[*better source needed*]
* Stastical and Accounting Branch, Office of the Adjutant General (1946). "Campaign and Type of Organization". *Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths in World War II*. Department of the Army – via Hyperwar.
* Glantz, David (1995). *When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army stopped Hitler*. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-0899-0.
* Hastings, Max (2005). *Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945*. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-71422-7.
* Keegan, John, ed. (1989). *The Times Atlas of the Second World War*. London: Times Books. ISBN 0-7230-0317-3.
* MacDonald, C (2005). *The Last Offensive: The European Theater of Operations*. University Press of the Pacific. p. 322.
* RAF staff (6 April 2005). "Bomber Command: Campaign Diary: April–May 1945". *Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary*. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007.
* Stacey, Colonel Charles Perry; Bond, Major C. C. J. (1960). *The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North-West Europe 1944–1945*. Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. Vol. III. The Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery Ottawa. OCLC 256471407. Archived from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
* Szélinger, Balázs; Tóth, Marcell (2010). "Magyar katonák idegen frontokon" [Hungarian soldiers on foreign fronts]. In Duzs, Mária (ed.). *Küzdelem Magyarországért: Harcok hazai földön* (in Hungarian). Kisújszállás: Pannon-Literatúra Kft. p. 94. ISBN 978-963-251-185-6.
* Universal Newsreel staff (1945). *Video: Allies Overrun Germany Etc. (1945)*. Universal Newsreel. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
* Zaloga, Steve (2006). *Remagen 1945: Endgame Against the Third Reich*. Campaign No. 175. illustrated by Peter Dennis. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84603-249-0.
* Zimmerman, John (2008). *Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Vol. 10 Part 1)*. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. ISBN 978-3-421-06237-6.
**Attribution:**
* Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from Edward M. Bedessem. *Central Europe, 22 March – 11 May 1945*. United States Army.
Further reading
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* Ellis, L.F. et al. *Victory in the West*, Volume 2: Defeat of Germany, London: HMSO, 1968
* Russell, J "Theirs The Strife" Helion & Company 2020. ISBN 978-1-913118-56-3 |
**Richard L. "Jake" Siewert Jr.** (born February 1, 1964) is an American political advisor serving as the head of corporate communications for investment bank Goldman Sachs. He served as the 22nd White House Press Secretary and the last of the Clinton administration and later in the Treasury department during the Obama Administration.
Early life and education
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Siewert was born in New York City. In 1986, he graduated summa cum laude from Yale University with a degree in the humanities. He later attended Emory University, studying comparative literature and philosophy, and the University of California, Berkeley, studying law for three years, but did not earn an advanced degree.
Career
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Siewert began his career in Washington as communications director for the Democratic Governors Association in 1991.
From 1993 to 2001, Siewert held several positions during the Clinton administration, including serving as a special assistant to the president for economic affairs, working at the National Economic Council. He was deputy White House press secretary when White House Press Secretary Joe Lockhart resigned on September 20, 2000. Siewert handled the press secretary duties from September 30, 2000, to January 20, 2001, the final 112 days of the Clinton administration.
Siewert was with aluminum giant Alcoa from 2001 to 2009 in various positions. He joined as head of global communications and
public strategy, and later oversaw the company's global environment, health and safety efforts for several years. Lastly, he served as vice president for Business Development, overseeing global mergers and acquisitions and focusing on growth in China and emerging economies.
In June 2009, Siewert joined the Obama administration in a position advising Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner. In that position, he also acted as his liaison to the business community, which lasted until 2011.
In March 2012, Siewert was appointed as global head of corporate communications for investment bank Goldman Sachs, succeeding Lucas van Praag. An early task from the board to Siewert was to be the "rebranding" of chief executive Lloyd Blankfein, whose three-year tenure has been marked by challenges to the firm and to Blankfein himself.
Personal life
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Siewert is married to Christine Anderson, who is head of global public affairs for Blackstone Group. Anderson previously served as communications director for former New York Governor Eliot Spitzer during the 2006 New York gubernatorial election and later as Press Secretary to Governor Spitzer. Anderson also worked in the press office of the Clinton White House.
Siewert and Anderson bought a $7.03 million condo in Manhattan's Greenwich Village from Scholastic CEO Richard Robinson. |
French Navy officer (born 1963)
**Hervé Bléjean** is a military officer of the French Navy who is currently serving as the Director-General of the European Union Military Staff since 1 July 2020, having been elected to take up the role on 22 May 2019. He previously served as the Deputy Commander of NATO Maritime Command.
Hervé Bléjean, a vice admiral of the French Armed Forces and the first naval officer to take up this position in the European Union, was born on 11 December 1963 in Toulon. He enrolled in the French Naval Academy in 1984. He was assigned to the escort ship Victor Schoelcher, before becoming the executive officer of Thetis ship including participation in Operation Prométhée of the Iraq-Iran War in 1988, and of the Charles De Gaulle aircraft carrier. He attended a one-year course in CIS and went on to serve in the USS Nicholson as assistant operations officer of the French exchange for two years before moving to command the Leopard training ship and that of Navigation Training Flotilla in 1993. He also commanded the Georges Leygues ASW destroyer as an operation officer. He was later moved to the Chief of Naval Staff office as his Aide-de-Camp. He was also later in charge of the French Force d’Action Navale in 1998 as sea rider under the training department.
He continued with his military education in the Joint Service Defence College Paris in 2000 with a general staff course. He was posted to Ministry of Defence where he served as the director of human resources; he continued as executive assistant of the head of Human Resources Policy of the Navy HQ until 2005, also commanding the frigate FS Vendémiare in 2002 and spending six months in operation Enduring Freedom in the Gulf of Aden and Gulf of Oman. He was promoted to captain in 2005 followed by an appointment as the Head of the Naval Operations Department under the Joint Operations Centre HQ. He commanded the Jeannie d'arc helicopter carrier in 2007.
He went on to complete a military Advanced Studies in the National Defence Institute before he rose to be the Deputy Chief of the Military Office of the Prime Minister, where he was the auditor of the Military Centre for Higher Studies of 59th promotion in 2009, and that of the National Defence Institute for 62nd promotion which saw him in charge of State Responsibilities at Sea, and of nuclear deterrence. He was made Rear Admiral in 2013 and rose up to be the Deputy Commander of the French Maritime Force HQ in Toulon. He commanded Combined Task Force 150 and the Indian Ocean together with the European Union Naval Force in Atlanta until 2014. He was later in charge of International Relations and Partnerships in 2014 under the Naval Staff.
Commands
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Bléjean served as the Commander of European Union Naval Force Atlanta through which he was involved in the Gulf of Aden in the Coast of Somalia tackling maritime piracy. He became the first deputy Commander of European Union Naval Force Mediterranean Operation Sophia in 2015-16. He served as the Foreign Affairs Coordinator of the French Navy, Paris after handing over the office.
Bléjean has been a member of NATO since 2016. He served as a Deputy Chief of Staff Operation of the Joint Force HQ Naples, before he rose to be the deputy Commander Allied Maritime Command Northwood. He conducted operations in Kosovo and that of NATO HQ, Sarajevo partnering with EU Operations in Althea. He was also in charge of Maritime Component South, Trident Juncture in 2018.
Bléjean was promoted to Deputy Commander of NATO Maritime Command in December 2019. In 2019, he was appointed to the office of the Director-General of the European Union Military Staff. Concurrently, in October 2022, he was assigned to lead the European Union Military Assistance Mission Ukraine (EUMAM Ukraine), aimed at providing military training to the Ukrainian soldiers in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Decorations
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* Officer of the Légion d'honneur
* Officer of the National Order of Merit |
Dutch punk band
**The Nixe** was a Dutch punk band from the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands. The Nixe was possibly the first all-female punk band in the Netherlands. Their lyrics emphasized women's experiences, and were written from a feminist perspective. Although the Nixe played at many women's festivals, they preferred not to be thought of as a politically motivated punk band. They liked to play in front of audiences that were not only women. They defended the movement to squat in unused buildings and performed in squats on the Plompetorengracht, the Biltstraat, and the Lange Nieuwstraat. The band won worldwide attention through contributions to compilation albums such as the American *Killed by Death* series and the album "I'm Sure We're Gonna Make It" released on Epitaph Records. A photo of members of the Nixe is one of the most iconic photos of the early Dutch punk scene. For example, this photo was used to advertise the Centraal Museum of Utrecht's 2012 exhibition entitled "God Save the Queen" about Dutch punk from 1977 to 1984.
History
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The inspiration for forming the band came when Ilva Poortvliet and Marian de Beurs saw a concert by the Utrecht punk band The Duds (earlier known as Blitzkrieg, the first punk band in Utrecht) at the Kasbah in Maarssen in January 1979. The band's name is the Germanic word for a mermaid or water spirit (see also Nixie). The Nixe's first live performance was on June 14, 1979, at the café De Baas in the Biltstraat in Utrecht, where they played with the Lullabies, another punk band from Utrecht. The Nixe then regularly performed at the Spinnehok in Utrecht. In November 1980, the Nixe played at the rock festival *"Rock tegen de rollen"* (English translation "Rock against [gender] roles") which took place in Utrecht.
In 2008, the Nixe gave a reunion concert at the Ekko, a popular concert venue in the city of Utrecht. Their recordings were re-released on Polly Maggoo Records the same year.
Discography
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### Albums
* The Nixe E.P. - 7" Rock Against Records, 1981
* The Nixe Complete 1980-1981 Recordings by the first Dutch All-Girl Punkband, Polly Maggoo Records 2008
### Samplers
* Utreg Punx E.P. - (7", ep) - Rock Against Records 1980
* "Parkhof 11-4-81" on label "V.G. 012" - LP 1981
* "I'm Sure We're Gonna Make It" on Epitaph Records 1996
* "I Don't Care (Dutch Punk 1977-1983)" Pseudonym 2016
* "I Don't Care Volume 2 (Dutch Punk 1977-1983)" Pseudonym 2016 |
Subsets and Splits