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1966–67 Queens Park Rangers F.C. season
|
{
"id": [
141808
],
"name": [
"RJFJR"
]
}
|
7v138hly1phuor545jfxs15yokwd5zt
|
2024-07-30T21:33:55Z
| 1,237,659,971 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Season summary",
"League standings",
"Results",
"Third Division",
"London Challenge Cup",
"Football League Cup",
"FA Cup",
"Squad",
"Transfers In",
"Transfers Out",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
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2
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"content": [
"\n \nDuring the **1966–67** English football season, [Queens Park Rangers](/wiki/Queens_Park_Rangers_F.C. \"Queens Park Rangers F.C.\") competed in the [Third Division](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division \"Football League Third Division\")\n\n",
"Season summary\n--------------\n\nQpr won the third division for the and shocked first division West Bomwich Albion in the first wembley final of the League Cup \n\n",
"League standings\n----------------\n\n",
"Results\n-------\n\nQPR scores given first\n\n### Third Division\n\n| Date | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance | Position |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 20 August 1966 | Shrewsbury Town | H | 2\\-2 | Allen, Marsh | 6,343 | 14 |\n| 27 August 1966 | Watford | A | 0\\-1 | | 9,957 | 20 |\n| 3 September 1966 | Swindon Town | H | 3\\-1 | Keen, Ian Morgan | 7,900 | 11 |\n| 6 September 1966 | Middlesbrough | H | 4\\-0 | Morgan, Morgan, Allen | 8,807 | 4 |\n| 10 September 1966 | Reading | A | 2\\-2 | Langley, Ian Morgan | 8,148 | 10 |\n| 17 September 1966 | Doncaster Rovers | H | 6\\-0 | Roger Morgan 2, Keen 2, Sanderson, Marsh | 8,090 | 6 |\n| 24 September 1966 | Mansfield Town | A | 7\\-1 | Marsh 3, Allen 2, Langley, Sanderson | 6,260 | 4 |\n| 26 September 1966 | Middlesbrough | A | 2\\-2 | Marsh, Lazarus | 13,091 | 2 |\n| 1 October 1966 | Grimsby Town | H | 5\\-1 | Allen 2, Marsh, Lazarus, Roger Morgan | 9,097 | 4 |\n| 8 October 1966 | Swansea | H | 4\\-2 | Marsh, Allen 2, Sanderson | 11,047 | 3 |\n| 15 October 1966 | AFC Bournemouth | A | 3\\-1 | Roger Morgan 2, Marsh | 12,164 | 1 |\n| 19 October 1966 | Torquay | A | 1\\-1 | Langley | 7,887 | 2 |\n| 22 October 1966 | Orient | H | 4\\-1 | Marsh, Allen 2, Lazarus | 16,719 | 1 |\n| 29 October 1966 | Gillingham | A | 2\\-2 | Keen, Marsh | 11,951 | 2 |\n| 5 November 1966 | Workington | H | 4\\-1 | Marsh 2, Allen, Langley | 9,094 | 2 |\n| 12 November 1966 | Scunthorpe United | A | 2\\-0 | Marsh 2 | 5,052 | 2 |\n| 15 November 1966 | Torquay | H | 2\\-1 | Roger Morgan, Allen | 10,385 | 1 |\n| 19 November 1966 | Oldham Athletic | H | 0\\-1 | | 14,413 | 1 |\n| 7 December 1966 | Bristol Rovers | H | 3\\-0 | Allen, Sanderson, Lazarus | 13,312 | 1 |\n| 10 December 1966 | Colchester United | A | 3\\-1 | Marsh, Roger Morgan 2 | 8,195 | 1 |\n| 17 December 1966 | Shrewsbury | A | 0\\-0 | | 6,520 | 1 |\n| 26 December 1966 | Brighton And Hove Albion | H | 3\\-0 | Marsh, Sanderson, Lazarus | 17,875 | 1 |\n| 27 December 1966 | Brighton And Hove Albion | A | 2\\-2 | Wilks, Roger Morgan | 22,947 | 1 |\n| 31 December 1966 | Watford | H | 4\\-1 | Marsh 2, Sibley, Lazarus | 17,073 | 1 |\n| 14 January 1967 | Reading | H | 2\\-1 | Marsh, Roger Morgan | 14,341 | 1 |\n| 21 January 1967 | Doncaster Rovers | A | 1\\-1 | Keen | 12,062 | 1 |\n| 4 February 1967 | Mansfield Town | H | 0\\-0 | | 14,728 | 1 |\n| 11 February 1967 | Grimsby Town | A | 1\\-1 | Ian Morgan | 7,157 | 1 |\n| 20 February 1967 | Peterborough United | A | 2\\-0 | Lazarus, Crawford OG | 6,411 | 1 |\n| 25 February 1967 | Swansea City | A | 3\\-1 | Lazarus 3 | 10,141 | 1 |\n| 7 March 1967 | AFC Bournemouth | H | 4\\-0 | Keen, Marsh 2, Allen | 21,558 | 1 |\n| 11 March 1967 | Peterborough United | H | 0\\-0 | | 16,716 | 1 |\n| 18 March 1967 | Orient | A | 0\\-0 | | 14,607 | 1 |\n| 24 March 1967 | Darlington | H | 4\\-0 | Marsh, Allen, Langley, Lazarus | 18,601 | 1 |\n| 25 March 1967 | Gillingham | H | 2\\-0 | Marsh, Ian Morgan | 14,612 | 1 |\n| 27 March 1967 | Darlington | A | 0\\-0 | | 9,914 | 1 |\n| 1 April 1967 | Workington | A | 2\\-0 | Langley, Ian Morgan | 4,010 | 1 |\n| 8 April 1967 | Scunthorpe United | H | 5\\-1 | Marsh 2, Keen, Lazarus 2 | 13,113 | 1 |\n| 11 April 1967 | Walsall | A | 0\\-2 | | 11,181 | 1 |\n| 15 April 1967 | Oldham Athletic | A | 1\\-0 | Wilks | 14,729 | 1 |\n| 22 April 1967 | Oxford United | H | 3\\-1 | Wilks 2, Lazarus | 15,365 | 1 |\n| 25 April 1967 | Walsall | H | 0\\-0 | | 11,860 | 1 |\n| 29 April 1967 | Bristol Rovers | A | 1\\-2 | Leach | 17,721 | 1 |\n| 2 May 1967 | Swindon Town | A | 1\\-1 | Wilks | 21,367 | 1 |\n| 6 May 1967 | Colchester | H | 2\\-1 | Sanderson, Allen | 10,935 | 1 |\n| 13 May 1967 | Oxford United | A | 1\\-2 | Marsh | 10,189 | 1 |\n\n### London Challenge Cup\n\n| Date | Round | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 28 September 1966 | First Round | Wembley | H | 5\\-0 | | |\n| 18 October 1966 | Quarter\\-Finals | Barnet | H | 1\\-3 | | |\n\n### Football League Cup\n\n| Date | Round | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 23 August 1966 | First Round | Colchester United | H | 5\\-0 | Marsh 4, Lazarus | 5,497 |\n| 14 September 1966 | Second Round First Leg | Aldershot Town | A | 2\\-1 | Leach, Keen | 5,349 |\n| 20 September 1966 | Second Round second leg | Aldershot Town | H | 2\\-0 | Langley, Marsh | 7,848 |\n| 12 October 1966 | Third Round | Swansea City | H | 2\\-1 | Hazell, Keen | 12,988 |\n| 25 October 1966 | Fourth Round | Leicester City | H | 4\\-2 | Roger Morgan, Allen 2, Lazarus | 20,735 |\n| 7 December 1966 | Fifth Round | Carlisle United | H | 2\\-1 | Marsh 2 | 19,146 |\n| 17 January 1967 | Semi final First leg | Birmingham City | A | 4\\-1 | Roger Morgan, Allen, Marsh, Lazarus | 34,295 |\n| 7 February 1967 | Semi final Second leg | Birmingham City | H | 3\\-1 | Marsh 2, Keen | 26,404 |\n| 4 March 1967 | Final | West Bromwich Albion | Wembley | 3\\-2 | Roger Morgan, Marsh, Lazarus | 97,952 |\n\n### FA Cup\n\n| Date | Round | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 26 November 1966 | First Round | Poole Town | H | 3\\-2 | Marsh 3 | 9,534 |\n| 7 January 1967 | Second Round | AFC Bournemouth | H | 2\\-0 | Langley, Lazarus | 12,102 |\n| 28 January 1967 | Third Round | Sheffield Wednesday | A | 0\\-3 | | 40,038 |\n\n",
"### Third Division\n\n| Date | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance | Position |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 20 August 1966 | Shrewsbury Town | H | 2\\-2 | Allen, Marsh | 6,343 | 14 |\n| 27 August 1966 | Watford | A | 0\\-1 | | 9,957 | 20 |\n| 3 September 1966 | Swindon Town | H | 3\\-1 | Keen, Ian Morgan | 7,900 | 11 |\n| 6 September 1966 | Middlesbrough | H | 4\\-0 | Morgan, Morgan, Allen | 8,807 | 4 |\n| 10 September 1966 | Reading | A | 2\\-2 | Langley, Ian Morgan | 8,148 | 10 |\n| 17 September 1966 | Doncaster Rovers | H | 6\\-0 | Roger Morgan 2, Keen 2, Sanderson, Marsh | 8,090 | 6 |\n| 24 September 1966 | Mansfield Town | A | 7\\-1 | Marsh 3, Allen 2, Langley, Sanderson | 6,260 | 4 |\n| 26 September 1966 | Middlesbrough | A | 2\\-2 | Marsh, Lazarus | 13,091 | 2 |\n| 1 October 1966 | Grimsby Town | H | 5\\-1 | Allen 2, Marsh, Lazarus, Roger Morgan | 9,097 | 4 |\n| 8 October 1966 | Swansea | H | 4\\-2 | Marsh, Allen 2, Sanderson | 11,047 | 3 |\n| 15 October 1966 | AFC Bournemouth | A | 3\\-1 | Roger Morgan 2, Marsh | 12,164 | 1 |\n| 19 October 1966 | Torquay | A | 1\\-1 | Langley | 7,887 | 2 |\n| 22 October 1966 | Orient | H | 4\\-1 | Marsh, Allen 2, Lazarus | 16,719 | 1 |\n| 29 October 1966 | Gillingham | A | 2\\-2 | Keen, Marsh | 11,951 | 2 |\n| 5 November 1966 | Workington | H | 4\\-1 | Marsh 2, Allen, Langley | 9,094 | 2 |\n| 12 November 1966 | Scunthorpe United | A | 2\\-0 | Marsh 2 | 5,052 | 2 |\n| 15 November 1966 | Torquay | H | 2\\-1 | Roger Morgan, Allen | 10,385 | 1 |\n| 19 November 1966 | Oldham Athletic | H | 0\\-1 | | 14,413 | 1 |\n| 7 December 1966 | Bristol Rovers | H | 3\\-0 | Allen, Sanderson, Lazarus | 13,312 | 1 |\n| 10 December 1966 | Colchester United | A | 3\\-1 | Marsh, Roger Morgan 2 | 8,195 | 1 |\n| 17 December 1966 | Shrewsbury | A | 0\\-0 | | 6,520 | 1 |\n| 26 December 1966 | Brighton And Hove Albion | H | 3\\-0 | Marsh, Sanderson, Lazarus | 17,875 | 1 |\n| 27 December 1966 | Brighton And Hove Albion | A | 2\\-2 | Wilks, Roger Morgan | 22,947 | 1 |\n| 31 December 1966 | Watford | H | 4\\-1 | Marsh 2, Sibley, Lazarus | 17,073 | 1 |\n| 14 January 1967 | Reading | H | 2\\-1 | Marsh, Roger Morgan | 14,341 | 1 |\n| 21 January 1967 | Doncaster Rovers | A | 1\\-1 | Keen | 12,062 | 1 |\n| 4 February 1967 | Mansfield Town | H | 0\\-0 | | 14,728 | 1 |\n| 11 February 1967 | Grimsby Town | A | 1\\-1 | Ian Morgan | 7,157 | 1 |\n| 20 February 1967 | Peterborough United | A | 2\\-0 | Lazarus, Crawford OG | 6,411 | 1 |\n| 25 February 1967 | Swansea City | A | 3\\-1 | Lazarus 3 | 10,141 | 1 |\n| 7 March 1967 | AFC Bournemouth | H | 4\\-0 | Keen, Marsh 2, Allen | 21,558 | 1 |\n| 11 March 1967 | Peterborough United | H | 0\\-0 | | 16,716 | 1 |\n| 18 March 1967 | Orient | A | 0\\-0 | | 14,607 | 1 |\n| 24 March 1967 | Darlington | H | 4\\-0 | Marsh, Allen, Langley, Lazarus | 18,601 | 1 |\n| 25 March 1967 | Gillingham | H | 2\\-0 | Marsh, Ian Morgan | 14,612 | 1 |\n| 27 March 1967 | Darlington | A | 0\\-0 | | 9,914 | 1 |\n| 1 April 1967 | Workington | A | 2\\-0 | Langley, Ian Morgan | 4,010 | 1 |\n| 8 April 1967 | Scunthorpe United | H | 5\\-1 | Marsh 2, Keen, Lazarus 2 | 13,113 | 1 |\n| 11 April 1967 | Walsall | A | 0\\-2 | | 11,181 | 1 |\n| 15 April 1967 | Oldham Athletic | A | 1\\-0 | Wilks | 14,729 | 1 |\n| 22 April 1967 | Oxford United | H | 3\\-1 | Wilks 2, Lazarus | 15,365 | 1 |\n| 25 April 1967 | Walsall | H | 0\\-0 | | 11,860 | 1 |\n| 29 April 1967 | Bristol Rovers | A | 1\\-2 | Leach | 17,721 | 1 |\n| 2 May 1967 | Swindon Town | A | 1\\-1 | Wilks | 21,367 | 1 |\n| 6 May 1967 | Colchester | H | 2\\-1 | Sanderson, Allen | 10,935 | 1 |\n| 13 May 1967 | Oxford United | A | 1\\-2 | Marsh | 10,189 | 1 |\n\n",
"### London Challenge Cup\n\n| Date | Round | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 28 September 1966 | First Round | Wembley | H | 5\\-0 | | |\n| 18 October 1966 | Quarter\\-Finals | Barnet | H | 1\\-3 | | |\n\n",
"### Football League Cup\n\n| Date | Round | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 23 August 1966 | First Round | Colchester United | H | 5\\-0 | Marsh 4, Lazarus | 5,497 |\n| 14 September 1966 | Second Round First Leg | Aldershot Town | A | 2\\-1 | Leach, Keen | 5,349 |\n| 20 September 1966 | Second Round second leg | Aldershot Town | H | 2\\-0 | Langley, Marsh | 7,848 |\n| 12 October 1966 | Third Round | Swansea City | H | 2\\-1 | Hazell, Keen | 12,988 |\n| 25 October 1966 | Fourth Round | Leicester City | H | 4\\-2 | Roger Morgan, Allen 2, Lazarus | 20,735 |\n| 7 December 1966 | Fifth Round | Carlisle United | H | 2\\-1 | Marsh 2 | 19,146 |\n| 17 January 1967 | Semi final First leg | Birmingham City | A | 4\\-1 | Roger Morgan, Allen, Marsh, Lazarus | 34,295 |\n| 7 February 1967 | Semi final Second leg | Birmingham City | H | 3\\-1 | Marsh 2, Keen | 26,404 |\n| 4 March 1967 | Final | West Bromwich Albion | Wembley | 3\\-2 | Roger Morgan, Marsh, Lazarus | 97,952 |\n\n",
"### FA Cup\n\n| Date | Round | Opponents | H / A | Result F – A | Scorers | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 26 November 1966 | First Round | Poole Town | H | 3\\-2 | Marsh 3 | 9,534 |\n| 7 January 1967 | Second Round | AFC Bournemouth | H | 2\\-0 | Langley, Lazarus | 12,102 |\n| 28 January 1967 | Third Round | Sheffield Wednesday | A | 0\\-3 | | 40,038 |\n\n",
"Squad\n-----\n\n| Position | Nationality | **Name** | League Appearances (substitute) | League Goals | Cup Appearances | F.A.Cup Goals | League Cup Goals | Total Appearances | Total Goals |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| GK | | Peter Springett | 46 | | 11 | | | 57 | |\n| GK | | [Mick Kelly](/wiki/Mike_Kelly_%28footballer%2C_born_1942%29 \"Mike Kelly (footballer, born 1942)\") | | | 1 | | | 1 | |\n| DF | | [Dave Clement](/wiki/Dave_Clement \"Dave Clement\") | 1 | | | | | 1 | |\n| DF | | [Tony Hazell](/wiki/Tony_Hazell \"Tony Hazell\") | 37 | | 7 | | 1 | 44 | 1 |\n| DF | | [Ron Hunt](/wiki/Ron_Hunt_%28footballer%2C_born_1945%29 \"Ron Hunt (footballer, born 1945)\") | 44 | | 12 | | | 56 | |\n| DF | | [Frank Sibley](/wiki/Frank_Sibley_%28footballer%29 \"Frank Sibley (footballer)\") | 42 | 1 | 11 | | | 53 | 1 |\n| DF | | [Bobby Keetch](/wiki/Bobby_Keetch \"Bobby Keetch\") | 1(1\\) | | | | | 2 | |\n| DF | | [Ian Watson](/wiki/Ian_Watson_%28footballer%2C_born_1944%29 \"Ian Watson (footballer, born 1944)\") | 15 | | 6 | | | 21 | |\n| DF | | [Colin Moughton](/wiki/Colin_Moughton \"Colin Moughton\") | 3 | | | | | 3 | |\n| DF | | [Jim Langley](/wiki/Jim_Langley \"Jim Langley\") | 40(1\\) | 6 | 11 | 1 | 1 | 52 | 8 |\n| MF | | [Alan Wilks](/wiki/Alan_Wilks \"Alan Wilks\") | 7(1\\) | 5 | | | | 8 | 5 |\n| MF | | [Mark Lazarus](/wiki/Mark_Lazarus \"Mark Lazarus\") | 44 | 14 | 12 | 1 | 4 | 56 | 19 |\n| MF | | [Mick Leach](/wiki/Mick_Leach \"Mick Leach\") | 2 | | | | 1 | 2 | 1 |\n| MF | | [Mike Keen](/wiki/Mike_Keen \"Mike Keen\") | 46 | 5 | 12 | | 3 | 58 | 8 |\n| MF | | [Roger Morgan](/wiki/Roger_Morgan_%28footballer%29 \"Roger Morgan (footballer)\") | 44 | 11 | 12 | | 3 | 56 | 15 |\n| MF | | [John Collins](/wiki/John_Collins_%28footballer%2C_born_1942%29 \"John Collins (footballer, born 1942)\") | 1 | | | | | 1 | |\n| MF | | [Keith Sanderson](/wiki/Keith_Sanderson_%28footballer%29 \"Keith Sanderson (footballer)\") | 40 | 6 | 12 | | | 52 | 6 |\n| FW | | [Les Allen](/wiki/Les_Allen \"Les Allen\") | 42 | 15 | 12 | | 3 | 54 | 18 |\n| FW | | [Rodney Marsh](/wiki/Rodney_Marsh \"Rodney Marsh\") | 41 | 30 | 12 | 3 | 11 | 53 | 44 |\n| FW | | [Ian Morgan](/wiki/Ian_Morgan \"Ian Morgan\") | 10(6\\) | 4 | 1 | | | 17 | 4 |\n\n",
"Transfers In\n------------\n\n| **Name** | from | Date | Fee |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Bobby Keetch | Fulham | November 1966 | |\n| Bobby Finch | Queens Park Rangers Juniors | August 1966 | |\n| Ron Springett | Sheffield Wednesday | May 1967 | [£16,000](/wiki/Peter_Springett \"Peter Springett\") |\n| Alan Spratley | Queens Park Rangers Juniors | May 1967 | |\n\n",
"Transfers Out\n-------------\n\n| **Name** | from | Date | Fee | **Date** | Club | **Fee** |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Peter Springett](/wiki/Peter_Springett \"Peter Springett\") | Queens Park Rangers Juniors | May 1963 | | May 1967 | Sheffield Wednesday | £40,000 |\n| Jim Langley | Fulham | July 1965 | £5,000 | July 1967 | Hillingdon Borough (player\\-manager) | |\n| John Collins | Queens Park Rangers Juniors | August 1959 | | October 1966 | Oldham Athletic | |\n\n \n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Queens Park Rangers F.C. seasons](/wiki/Category:Queens_Park_Rangers_F.C._seasons \"Queens Park Rangers F.C. seasons\")\n[Category:English football clubs 1966–67 season](/wiki/Category:English_football_clubs_1966%E2%80%9367_season \"English football clubs 1966–67 season\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Huntington Children's Museum
|
{
"id": [
44664612
],
"name": [
"Samz73428091"
]
}
|
467ixqu1yf93hrxmmcsw33fydz799n4
|
2024-09-11T14:08:15Z
| 1,245,179,520 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"See also",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Huntington Children's Museum** is a children activity museum located in [West Huntington](/wiki/West_Huntington%2C_Huntington%2C_West_Virginia \"West Huntington, Huntington, West Virginia\"), [Huntington, West Virginia](/wiki/Huntington%2C_West_Virginia \"Huntington, West Virginia\"). The museum features dozens of interactive activity exhibits including an interactive sand table, a water table, an indoor climbing area, and a [stop\\-motion video](/wiki/Stop_motion \"Stop motion\") creation station.\n\nIn 2021, the city of Huntington purchased a vacant lot, a former [Shoneys](/wiki/Shoneys \"Shoneys\"), to redevelop it into the Huntington Children's Museum. Three years later in 2024, the museum opens its doors to the public.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of museums in Huntington, West Virginia](/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Huntington%2C_West_Virginia \"List of museums in Huntington, West Virginia\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n \n\n[Category:Science museums in West Virginia](/wiki/Category:Science_museums_in_West_Virginia \"Science museums in West Virginia\")\n[Category:2024 establishments in West Virginia](/wiki/Category:2024_establishments_in_West_Virginia \"2024 establishments in West Virginia\")\n[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 2024](/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_completed_in_2024 \"Buildings and structures completed in 2024\")\n[Category:Museums in Huntington, West Virginia](/wiki/Category:Museums_in_Huntington%2C_West_Virginia \"Museums in Huntington, West Virginia\")\n[Category:Children's museums in West Virginia](/wiki/Category:Children%27s_museums_in_West_Virginia \"Children's museums in West Virginia\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Bollard
|
{
"id": [
8005368
],
"name": [
"Bagumba"
]
}
|
dl9revzy5m7g33q9p19ffwbw76mqy45
|
2024-09-20T10:46:09Z
| null | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Bollard",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"**Bollard** is a [surname](/wiki/Surname \"Surname\"). Notable people with the name include:\n\n* [Alan Bollard](/wiki/Alan_Bollard \"Alan Bollard\") (born 1951\\), governor of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand\n* [Arthur Bollard](/wiki/Arthur_Bollard \"Arthur Bollard\") (1879−1919\\), Australian rugby league footballer\n* [Barbara Bollard](/wiki/Barbara_Bollard \"Barbara Bollard\"), New Zealand academic\n* [David Bollard](/wiki/David_Bollard \"David Bollard\") (born 1942\\), Australian pianist\n* [John Bollard (judge)](/wiki/John_Bollard_%28judge%29 \"John Bollard (judge)\") (1940–2009\\), New Zealand judge\n* [John Bollard (politician)](/wiki/John_Bollard_%28politician%29 \"John Bollard (politician)\") (1839–1915\\), New Zealand politician\n* [John Bollard (Catholic priest)](/wiki/John_Bollard_%28Catholic_priest%29 \"John Bollard (Catholic priest)\") (born 1965\\), former Jesuit who sued the Society of Jesus over claims of sexual harassment\n* [Richard Bollard](/wiki/Richard_Bollard \"Richard Bollard\") (1863–1927\\), New Zealand politician\n* [Ted Bollard](/wiki/Ted_Bollard \"Ted Bollard\") (1920–2011\\), New Zealand plant physiologist and science administrator\n* [Tom Bollard](/wiki/Tom_Bollard \"Tom Bollard\") (1890–1920\\), Australian rules footballer\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Ballard (surname)](/wiki/Ballard_%28surname%29 \"Ballard (surname)\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Ninong Ry
|
{
"id": [
47890739
],
"name": [
"Indo360"
]
}
|
lgc9cxkxnpqdmm9kgwhf2ffwrg4s9iz
|
2024-10-12T11:06:24Z
| 1,249,538,316 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life and education",
"Career",
"Personal life",
"Filmography",
"Book by Reyes",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n* + \n\n**Ryan Morales Reyes** (born April 19, 1989\\), known professionally as **Ninong Ry**, is a Filipino vlogger and chef known for his cooking videos that combine humor with culinary instruction. He gained success by posting his video featuring the Filipino dish *[Kare\\-kare](/wiki/Kare-kare \"Kare-kare\")* on [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"). He has also collaborated in cooking with celebrities such as [Bea Alonzo](/wiki/Bea_Alonzo \"Bea Alonzo\"), [Arthur Nery](/wiki/Arthur_Nery \"Arthur Nery\"), [Cong TV](/wiki/Cong_TV \"Cong TV\"), and [Sarah Geronimo](/wiki/Sarah_Geronimo \"Sarah Geronimo\").\n\nReyes chose \"Ninong\" ([godfather](/wiki/Godparent \"Godparent\")) as his screen name, considering it more uncommon than \"Tito\" (uncle), and made it a distinctive part of his branding. His audience is referred to as his \"*inaanak*\". He also expanded his career by authoring his first [cookbook](/wiki/Cookbook \"Cookbook\"), *Hindi Ito Cookbook ni Ninong Ry*, which is set to be officially launched in May 2024\\.\n\n",
"Early life and education\n------------------------\n\nRyan Morales Reyes was born and raised in Malabon. He previously worked as a restaurant chef before taking over the family's [poultry](/wiki/Poultry \"Poultry\") business in the market after the passing of his father. He cites his father as his greatest influence, having honed his culinary skills as a child while assisting him in the kitchen.\n\nHe graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Hotel, Restaurant, and Institution Management (BS HRIM), majoring in [Culinary arts](/wiki/Culinary_arts \"Culinary arts\"), from [De La Salle\\-College of Saint Benilde](/wiki/De_La_Salle%E2%80%93College_of_Saint_Benilde \"De La Salle–College of Saint Benilde\").\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\nReyes began sharing cooking videos in July 2020 as a way to pass the time. His first video, which demonstrated how to cook *Kare\\-kare*, went viral within two months of being uploaded.\n\nIn June 2022, Reyes collaborated with celebrity chef [Boy Logro](/wiki/Boy_Logro \"Boy Logro\") for a cooking session in his kitchen, followed by sharing aspects of Logro's life after the cooking experience.\n\nIn October 2022, Reyes shared a memorable experience in one of his vlogs where he cooked for over 300 [detainees](/wiki/Detainees \"Detainees\") at the San Juan City Jail Male Dormitory. He was joined by fellow vlogger Karen Bordador and partnered with Caritas Manila, a branch of [Caritas Philippines](/wiki/Caritas_Philippines \"Caritas Philippines\"), to be a part of the National Correctional Consciousness Week initiative.\n\nIn September 2023, Filipino singer and songwriter [Jose Mari Chan](/wiki/Jose_Mari_Chan \"Jose Mari Chan\") made an unexpected visit to Reyes' kitchen vlog.\n\nReyes played the role of Chef Kino in the 2023 horror anthology film [Shake, Rattle \\& Roll Extreme](/wiki/Shake%2C_Rattle_%26_Roll_Extreme \"Shake, Rattle & Roll Extreme\"), specifically in the \"[Mukbang](/wiki/Shake%2C_Rattle_%26_Roll_Extreme%23%22Mukbang%22 \"Shake, Rattle & Roll Extreme#\")\" episode.\n\n",
"Personal life\n-------------\n\nBefore starting his career as a vlogger, Reyes faced significant financial challenges and accumulated substantial debt. He recalled that he hoped to repay his debts through earnings from social media, with the intention of eventually returning to his previous work as a [market vendor](/wiki/Vendor \"Vendor\").\n\nHe suffered second and third degree burns to his face and arms following an accident during a [breadmaking](/wiki/Breadmaking \"Breadmaking\") workshop, when an oven exploded. He expressed concern about his restaurant, medical expenses, and the potential long\\-term effects of his burns.\n\nReyes introduced his newborn son in May 2023\\. He had announced the pregnancy of his partner Belle Cruz in November 2023 and confirmed they were expecting a boy during a [gender reveal party](/wiki/Gender_reveal_party \"Gender reveal party\") in December.\n\n",
"Filmography\n-----------\n\n| \\+ Film |\n| --- |\n| Year | Title | Role | |\n| 2023 | *[Shake Rattle \\& Roll Extreme](/wiki/Shake%2C_Rattle_%26_Roll_Extreme \"Shake, Rattle & Roll Extreme\")* | Chef Kino | |\n\n| \\+ Television |\n| --- |\n| Year | Title | Role | Network | |\n| 2023 | *[Fast Talk with Boy Abunda](/wiki/Fast_Talk_with_Boy_Abunda \"Fast Talk with Boy Abunda\")* | Himself | [GMA Network](/wiki/GMA_Network \"GMA Network\") | |\n| 2023 | *[Family Feud](/wiki/Family_Feud_%28Philippine_game_show%29 \"Family Feud (Philippine game show)\")* | Himself | GMA Network | |\n| 2023 | *[Bubble Gang](/wiki/Bubble_Gang \"Bubble Gang\")* | Himself | GMA Network | |\n| 2024 | *[Regal Studio Presents](/wiki/Regal_Studio_Presents \"Regal Studio Presents\")* | Mitoy | GMA Network | |\n\n",
"Book by Reyes\n-------------\n\n* 2024 *Hindi Ito Cookbook ni Ninong Ry*, Self\\-published, \n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:Filipino YouTubers](/wiki/Category:Filipino_YouTubers \"Filipino YouTubers\")\n[Category:People from Malabon](/wiki/Category:People_from_Malabon \"People from Malabon\")\n[Category:De La Salle–College of Saint Benilde alumni](/wiki/Category:De_La_Salle%E2%80%93College_of_Saint_Benilde_alumni \"De La Salle–College of Saint Benilde alumni\")\n[Category:Filipino chefs](/wiki/Category:Filipino_chefs \"Filipino chefs\")\n[Category:1989 births](/wiki/Category:1989_births \"1989 births\")\n\n"
]
}
|
2024 Women's U21 South American Volleyball Championship
|
{
"id": [
18966246
],
"name": [
"Thiago89"
]
}
|
ft907krsunw0qm45y7wheae8krff1iy
|
2024-10-04T00:28:51Z
| 1,248,845,236 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Host and venue",
"Teams",
"Squads",
"Competition format",
"Preliminary round",
"Group A",
"Group B",
"Final round",
"Bracket",
"Semi-finals",
"5th place match",
"3rd place match",
"Final",
"Final standing",
"Individual awards",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
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"content": [
"\nThe **2024 Women's U21 South American Volleyball Championship** was the 26th edition of the [Women's U21 South American Volleyball Championship](/wiki/Women%27s_U21_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"Women's U21 South American Volleyball Championship\"), the biennial international youth [volleyball](/wiki/Volleyball \"Volleyball\") tournament organised by the [Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol](/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Sudamericana_de_Voleibol \"Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol\") (CSV) for the women's under\\-21 national teams of South America. It was held in [Osorno](/wiki/Osorno%2C_Chile \"Osorno, Chile\"), [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") from 25 to 29 September 2024\\.\n\nSame as previous editions, the tournament acted as the CSV qualifiers for the [FIVB Volleyball Women's U21 World Championship](/wiki/FIVB_Volleyball_Women%27s_U21_World_Championship \"FIVB Volleyball Women's U21 World Championship\"). The top three teams qualified for the [2025 FIVB Volleyball Women's U21 World Championship](/wiki/2025_FIVB_Volleyball_Women%27s_U21_World_Championship \"2025 FIVB Volleyball Women's U21 World Championship\") in [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\") as the CSV representatives.\n\nThe sixteen\\-time defending champions [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil_women%27s_national_under-21_volleyball_team \"Brazil women's national under-21 volleyball team\") successfully retained their title after by beating [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_women%27s_national_under-21_volleyball_team \"Argentina women's national under-21 volleyball team\") 3–2 in the final. [Chile](/wiki/Chile_women%27s_national_under-21_volleyball_team \"Chile women's national under-21 volleyball team\") completed the podium after defeating [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia_women%27s_national_under-21_volleyball_team \"Colombia women's national under-21 volleyball team\") 3–0 in the third\\-place match.\n\n",
"Host and venue\n--------------\n\n| [Osorno](/wiki/Osorno%2C_Chile \"Osorno, Chile\") |\n\n| --- |\n| [Gimnasio Monumental María Gallardo](/wiki/Gimnasio_Monumental_Mar%C3%ADa_Gallardo \"Gimnasio Monumental María Gallardo\") |\n| Capacity: **5,500** |\n| [250px](/wiki/File:Gimnasio_Monumental_Mar%C3%ADa_Gallardo%2C_Osorno%2C_20190218_-_06.jpg \"Gimnasio Monumental María Gallardo, Osorno, 20190218 - 06.jpg\") |\n\nChile was named host country of the tournament on 11 April 2024 by the Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol. The host city Osorno was confirmed as such during the 76th CSV Annual Congress held on 13 July 2024 in [Belo Horizonte](/wiki/Belo_Horizonte \"Belo Horizonte\"), Brazil. This is only the second time that Chile has hosted the tournament, the only previous event being the [1980 Women's Junior South American Championship](/wiki/1980_Women%27s_Junior_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1980 Women's Junior South American Volleyball Championship\").\n\nThe competition was entirely played at the [Gimnasio Monumental María Gallardo](/wiki/Gimnasio_Monumental_Mar%C3%ADa_Gallardo \"Gimnasio Monumental María Gallardo\").\n\n",
"Teams\n-----\n\nSix of the twelve CSV member associations entered the tournament.\n\n| Team | | Previous best performance |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| | 26th | (10 times, most recent [2022](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_U21_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2022 Women's U21 South American Volleyball Championship\")) |\n| | 10th | ([1976](/wiki/1976_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1976 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [1992](/wiki/1992_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1992 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [2004](/wiki/2004_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2004 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\")) |\n| (holders) | 26th | (21 times, most recent [2022](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_U21_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2022 Women's U21 South American Volleyball Championship\")) |\n| (hosts) | 16th | ([1972](/wiki/1972_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1972 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [1980](/wiki/1980_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1980 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [1982](/wiki/1982_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1982 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [2012](/wiki/2012_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2012 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [2018](/wiki/2018_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2018 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\")) |\n| | 17th | ([1984](/wiki/1984_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1984 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [2012](/wiki/2012_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2012 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [2022](/wiki/2022_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2022 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\")) |\n| | 26th | ([1980](/wiki/1980_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1980 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [1982](/wiki/1982_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1982 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [1986](/wiki/1986_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1986 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\"), [1988](/wiki/1988_Women%27s_U20_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"1988 Women's U20 South American Volleyball Championship\")) |\n\n### Squads\n\nEach national team had to register a squad of a minimum of 12 and a maximum of 14 players players. Players born on or after 1 January 2005 were eligible to compete in the tournament.\n\n",
"### Squads\n\nEach national team had to register a squad of a minimum of 12 and a maximum of 14 players players. Players born on or after 1 January 2005 were eligible to compete in the tournament.\n\n",
"Competition format\n------------------\n\nThe competition format depends on the number of participating teams. With 6 teams two groups of three teams were formed, which were played on a single [round\\-robin](/wiki/Round-robin_tournament \"Round-robin tournament\") basis. The group standing procedure was as follows:\n\n1. Number of matches won;\n2. Match points;\n\t* Match won 3–0: 3 match points for the winner, 0 match points for the loser\n\t* Match won 3–1: 3 match points for the winner, 0 match point for the loser\n\t* Match won 3–2: 2 match points for the winner, 1 match points for the loser\n3. Sets ratio;\n4. Points ratio;\n5. If the tie continues between two teams: result of the last match between the tied teams;\n6. If the tie continues between three or more teams: a new classification would be made taking into consideration only the matches between involved teams.\n\n",
"Preliminary round\n-----------------\n\nAll match times are local times, [CLST](/wiki/Time_in_Chile \"Time in Chile\") ([UTC\\-3](/wiki/UTC-03:00 \"00\")).\n\n### Group A\n\n\\|}\n### Group B\n\n\\|}",
"### Group A\n\n\\|}",
"### Group B\n\n\\|}",
"Final round\n-----------\n\n### Bracket\n\n### Semi\\-finals\n\n\\|}\n### 5th place match\n\n\\|}\n### 3rd place match\n\n\\|}\n### Final\n\n\\|}\n\n",
"### Bracket\n\n",
"### Semi\\-finals\n\n\\|}",
"### 5th place match\n\n\\|}",
"### 3rd place match\n\n\\|}",
"### Final\n\n\\|}",
"Final standing\n--------------\n\n| Qualified for [2025 FIVB Women's U21 World Championship](/wiki/2025_FIVB_Volleyball_Women%27s_U21_World_Championship \"2025 FIVB Volleyball Women's U21 World Championship\"). |\n| --- |\n\n|Rank\n\nTeam\n\n| |\n\n |\n\n |\n\n |\n\n| 4 |\n\n| 5 |\n\n| 6 |\n\n \n\nMaila Ribeiro ([L](/wiki/Libero_%28volleyball%29 \"Libero (volleyball)\")), Ana Luiza Berto, Laura Perugini, Lara Nascimento, Rebeca Viana, Aline Segato ([C](/wiki/Captain_%28sports%29 \"Captain (sports)\")), Isabella Nunes, Bianca Coimbra, Amanda Mutuano, Vittoria Kuehn, Ana Lídia Scopinho, Sofia Will ([L](/wiki/Libero_%28volleyball%29 \"Libero (volleyball)\")), Luana Kuskowski, Juliana Palhano.\n\n",
"Individual awards\n-----------------\n\nThe following individual awards were presented at the end of the tournament.\n\n* **[Most valuable player](/wiki/Most_valuable_player \"Most valuable player\") (MVP)**\n\n* **Best middle blockers**\n\n* **Best setter**\n\n* **Best opposite spiker**\n\n* **Best outside spikers**\n\n* **Best libero**\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [2024 Men's U21 South American Volleyball Championship](/wiki/2024_Men%27s_U21_South_American_Volleyball_Championship \"2024 Men's U21 South American Volleyball Championship\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Tournament results](https://live.app.fivb.com/tournaments/1528/matches) at FIVB Live Center\n\n[Category:2024 in volleyball](/wiki/Category:2024_in_volleyball \"2024 in volleyball\")\n[Category:Volleyball in Chile](/wiki/Category:Volleyball_in_Chile \"Volleyball in Chile\")\n[Volleyball](/wiki/Category:2024_in_Chilean_sport \"2024 in Chilean sport\")\n[Women](/wiki/Category:2024_in_youth_sport \"2024 in youth sport\")\n[Women](/wiki/Category:2024_in_women%27s_volleyball \"2024 in women's volleyball\")\n[Category:International volleyball competitions hosted by Chile](/wiki/Category:International_volleyball_competitions_hosted_by_Chile \"International volleyball competitions hosted by Chile\")\n[Volleyball](/wiki/Category:September_2024_sports_events_in_South_America \"September 2024 sports events in South America\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Latvian
|
{
"id": [
21871917
],
"name": [
"The Skeptical Ham"
]
}
|
2hzvt7du32pvma55r1jc0t1vzncyocg
|
2019-03-15T14:20:42Z
| 887,891,566 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Latvian** may refer to: \n* Something of, from, or related to [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\")\n\t+ [Latvians](/wiki/Latvians \"Latvians\"), a Baltic ethnic group, native to what is modern\\-day Latvia and the immediate geographical region\n\t+ [Latvian language](/wiki/Latvian_language \"Latvian language\"), also referred to as Lettish\n\t+ [Latvian cuisine](/wiki/Latvian_cuisine \"Latvian cuisine\")\n\t+ [Latvian culture](/wiki/Latvian_culture \"Latvian culture\")\n\t+ [Latvian horse](/wiki/Latvian_horse \"Latvian horse\")\n* [Latvian Gambit](/wiki/Latvian_Gambit \"Latvian Gambit\"), an opening in chess\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Latvia (disambiguation)](/wiki/Latvia_%28disambiguation%29 \"Latvia (disambiguation)\")\n[Category:Language and nationality disambiguation pages](/wiki/Category:Language_and_nationality_disambiguation_pages \"Language and nationality disambiguation pages\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Sara Jane Olson
|
{
"id": [
1546014
],
"name": [
"GauchoDude"
]
}
|
lrwrgvl09fltaau4iw3svanis7j626m
|
2024-10-01T13:30:03Z
| 1,248,665,928 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life and education",
"Symbionese Liberation Army",
"Crocker National Bank robbery and Myrna Opsahl murder",
"Los Angeles Police Department bombs",
"Underground life, capture, and prosecution",
"Plea controversy",
"Sentencing in explosives charges",
"Sentencing in Opsahl murder",
"Incarceration and release",
"Release from prison and rearrest",
"Release and parole",
"Interstate 94 protest",
"Personal life",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
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"content": [
"\n\n**Sara Jane Olson** (born **Kathleen Ann Soliah** on January 16, 1947\\) is an American [far\\-left](/wiki/American_Left \"American Left\") activist who was a member of the [Symbionese Liberation Army](/wiki/Symbionese_Liberation_Army \"Symbionese Liberation Army\") (SLA) in 1975\\. The group disbanded and she was a fugitive for decades before being arrested. In 2001, she pleaded guilty to attempted murder related to a failed bombing plot. In 2003 she pleaded guilty to second\\-degree murder related to the death of a customer during a botched bank robbery the SLA committed in California. Known then as Soliah, she was also accused of helping a group hide [Patty Hearst](/wiki/Patty_Hearst \"Patty Hearst\"), a kidnapped newspaper heiress, in 1974\\. After being federally indicted in 1976, Soliah was a wanted fugitive for several decades. She lived for periods in [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") and the U.S. states of [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\") and [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\").\n\nWhile in Minnesota, she legally changed her name to Sara Jane Olson, married, and had a family. Arrested in 1999, she pleaded guilty in 2001 to two counts of possessing explosives with intent to murder, and in 2003 to second\\-degree murder, both stemming from her SLA activities in the 1970s. She was sentenced to 14 years in prison. She was mistakenly released for five days in March 2008 due to an error made in calculating her parole and was rearrested. She was released on parole on March 17, 2009\\.\n\nOn November 4, 2020, Olson was arrested along with several others for blocking [Interstate 94](/wiki/Interstate_94_in_Minnesota \"Interstate 94 in Minnesota\") in Minneapolis during a protest.\n\n",
"Early life and education\n------------------------\n\nKathleen Soliah was born on January 16, 1947, in [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota \"Fargo, North Dakota\"), while her family was living in [Barnesville, Minnesota](/wiki/Barnesville%2C_Minnesota \"Barnesville, Minnesota\"). When she was eight, her conservative [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\") family relocated to Southern California. Soliah attended the [University of California, Santa Barbara](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara \"University of California, Santa Barbara\"), where she initially majored in English. While a student at university, she participated in theater and was cast in a production of *[J.B.](/wiki/J.B._%28play%29 \"J.B. (play)\")*\n\n",
"Symbionese Liberation Army\n--------------------------\n\nAfter graduating with a bachelor of arts degree in theater, Soliah moved to [Berkeley, California](/wiki/Berkeley%2C_California \"Berkeley, California\"), with her boyfriend, [James Kilgore](/wiki/James_Kilgore \"James Kilgore\").\n\nShe met [Angela Atwood](/wiki/Angela_Atwood \"Angela Atwood\") at an acting audition where they both won lead roles. They became inseparable during the play's run. Atwood tried to sponsor Soliah as a member of the [Symbionese Liberation Army](/wiki/Symbionese_Liberation_Army \"Symbionese Liberation Army\") (SLA), a leftist group she had joined. Soliah, Kilgore, and Soliah's brother Steve and sister Josephine followed the SLA closely without joining.\n\nAtwood and five other core members of the SLA, including leader [Donald DeFreeze](/wiki/Donald_DeFreeze \"Donald DeFreeze\"), were killed in May 1974 during a standoff and shootout with police at a house near [Watts, Los Angeles](/wiki/Watts%2C_Los_Angeles \"Watts, Los Angeles\"). They were being pursued for armed robbery of banks, the November 1973 murder of Oakland school superintendent [Marcus Foster](/wiki/Marcus_Foster \"Marcus Foster\"), and the 1974 kidnapping of heiress [Patty Hearst](/wiki/Patty_Hearst \"Patty Hearst\").\n\nThe Soliahs organized memorial rallies for the SLA victims, including one in Berkeley's Willard Park (called [Ho Chi Minh](/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh \"Ho Chi Minh\") park by activists), where Soliah spoke in support of Atwood and was covertly filmed by the [FBI](/wiki/FBI \"FBI\").\n\nShe said that SLA members had been: \n\nSoliah asserted that Atwood \"was a truly revolutionary woman ... among the first white women to fight so righteously for their beliefs and to die for what they believed in\".\n\nFounding SLA member and fugitive [Emily Harris](/wiki/Emily_Harris_%28SLA%29 \"Emily Harris (SLA)\") visited Soliah, who was working at a bookstore. Soliah later recalled, \"I was glad she was alive. I expected them to be killed at any time.\" She felt sorry for the group and agreed to help the remaining members hide from the police and FBI. She assisted them by procuring supplies for their San Francisco hideout, and birth certificates of dead infants that could be reused for false identification.\n\n### Crocker National Bank robbery and Myrna Opsahl murder\n\nOn April 21, 1975, SLA members robbed the [Crocker National Bank](/wiki/Crocker_National_Bank \"Crocker National Bank\") in [Carmichael, California](/wiki/Carmichael%2C_California \"Carmichael, California\"). In the process they killed [Myrna Opsahl](/wiki/Myrna_Opsahl \"Myrna Opsahl\"), a mother of four depositing money for her church.\n\n[Patty Hearst](/wiki/Patty_Hearst \"Patty Hearst\"), who had acted as [getaway driver](/wiki/Crime_scene_getaway \"Crime scene getaway\") during the crime, later provided the information that led police to implicate the SLA in the robbery and murder. She identified Soliah as one of the robbers. According to Hearst, Soliah kicked a pregnant teller in the abdomen, leading to her suffering a [miscarriage](/wiki/Miscarriage \"Miscarriage\").\n\nPolice later searched Soliah's room at the SLA safehouse on Precita Avenue in San Francisco. They found several rounds of 9 mm ammunition on the floor and in a 9 mm [Browning Hi\\-Power](/wiki/Browning_Hi-Power \"Browning Hi-Power\") [semi\\-automatic pistol](/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol \"Semi-automatic pistol\") in Soliah's dresser drawer. Manufacturing marks appeared to match similar cartridges found in Opsahl's body during the autopsy. In 2002, new [forensics](/wiki/Forensics \"Forensics\") technology allowed police to link these shells definitively to those found at Crocker Bank; they charged former members of SLA, including Soliah, with the crime. Prosecutor Michael Latin said that Soliah was tied to the crime through fingerprints, a palm print, and handwriting evidence. The palm print was found on a garage door where the SLA kept a getaway car.\n\n### Los Angeles Police Department bombs\n\nOn August 21, 1975, a bomb that came close to detonating was discovered where a [Los Angeles Police Department](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department \"Los Angeles Police Department\") patrol car had been parked earlier in front of an [International House of Pancakes](/wiki/International_House_of_Pancakes \"International House of Pancakes\") restaurant. After the bomb was discovered, all Los Angeles police were ordered to search under their cars and another bomb was found in front of a police station about a mile away. Soliah was accused of planting the bombs in an attempt to avenge the SLA members who had died in 1974 in the shootout with LA police.\n\nThe [pipe bombs](/wiki/Pipe_bomb \"Pipe bomb\") were rigged to detonate as the patrol cars drove away. One police officer present that day described the first bomb as one of \"the most dangerous pipe bombs he had ever seen\" and said: \n\nSoliah and five other SLA members were indicted in 1976 for setting the police bombs. She vanished before the trial could start. When Soliah was brought to trial at the turn of the century, prosecutors did not believe the evidence against her was a \"slam dunk\" but did believe it was enough to convince a jury of her guilt. Two witnesses who testified in the 1976 grand jury indictment had died by the time Soliah (now known as Sara Jane Olson) was tried. At the grand jury, a plumber who had sold materials used in the bomb had picked Soliah out of a lineup as one of the buyers. A bomb expert had said the explosive could have been built in Soliah's apartment. Police could not identify any fingerprints on the devices other than those of the officers who had disarmed them. But Soliah's fingerprint, handwriting, and signature were identified on a letter sent to order a fuse that could only be used for bomb\\-making. Components matching those used in the police car bombs were found in a locked closet at the Precita Avenue house where Soliah lived with the other remaining members of the SLA.\n\n",
"### Crocker National Bank robbery and Myrna Opsahl murder\n\nOn April 21, 1975, SLA members robbed the [Crocker National Bank](/wiki/Crocker_National_Bank \"Crocker National Bank\") in [Carmichael, California](/wiki/Carmichael%2C_California \"Carmichael, California\"). In the process they killed [Myrna Opsahl](/wiki/Myrna_Opsahl \"Myrna Opsahl\"), a mother of four depositing money for her church.\n\n[Patty Hearst](/wiki/Patty_Hearst \"Patty Hearst\"), who had acted as [getaway driver](/wiki/Crime_scene_getaway \"Crime scene getaway\") during the crime, later provided the information that led police to implicate the SLA in the robbery and murder. She identified Soliah as one of the robbers. According to Hearst, Soliah kicked a pregnant teller in the abdomen, leading to her suffering a [miscarriage](/wiki/Miscarriage \"Miscarriage\").\n\nPolice later searched Soliah's room at the SLA safehouse on Precita Avenue in San Francisco. They found several rounds of 9 mm ammunition on the floor and in a 9 mm [Browning Hi\\-Power](/wiki/Browning_Hi-Power \"Browning Hi-Power\") [semi\\-automatic pistol](/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol \"Semi-automatic pistol\") in Soliah's dresser drawer. Manufacturing marks appeared to match similar cartridges found in Opsahl's body during the autopsy. In 2002, new [forensics](/wiki/Forensics \"Forensics\") technology allowed police to link these shells definitively to those found at Crocker Bank; they charged former members of SLA, including Soliah, with the crime. Prosecutor Michael Latin said that Soliah was tied to the crime through fingerprints, a palm print, and handwriting evidence. The palm print was found on a garage door where the SLA kept a getaway car.\n\n",
"### Los Angeles Police Department bombs\n\nOn August 21, 1975, a bomb that came close to detonating was discovered where a [Los Angeles Police Department](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department \"Los Angeles Police Department\") patrol car had been parked earlier in front of an [International House of Pancakes](/wiki/International_House_of_Pancakes \"International House of Pancakes\") restaurant. After the bomb was discovered, all Los Angeles police were ordered to search under their cars and another bomb was found in front of a police station about a mile away. Soliah was accused of planting the bombs in an attempt to avenge the SLA members who had died in 1974 in the shootout with LA police.\n\nThe [pipe bombs](/wiki/Pipe_bomb \"Pipe bomb\") were rigged to detonate as the patrol cars drove away. One police officer present that day described the first bomb as one of \"the most dangerous pipe bombs he had ever seen\" and said: \n\nSoliah and five other SLA members were indicted in 1976 for setting the police bombs. She vanished before the trial could start. When Soliah was brought to trial at the turn of the century, prosecutors did not believe the evidence against her was a \"slam dunk\" but did believe it was enough to convince a jury of her guilt. Two witnesses who testified in the 1976 grand jury indictment had died by the time Soliah (now known as Sara Jane Olson) was tried. At the grand jury, a plumber who had sold materials used in the bomb had picked Soliah out of a lineup as one of the buyers. A bomb expert had said the explosive could have been built in Soliah's apartment. Police could not identify any fingerprints on the devices other than those of the officers who had disarmed them. But Soliah's fingerprint, handwriting, and signature were identified on a letter sent to order a fuse that could only be used for bomb\\-making. Components matching those used in the police car bombs were found in a locked closet at the Precita Avenue house where Soliah lived with the other remaining members of the SLA.\n\n",
"Underground life, capture, and prosecution\n------------------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|The house where Soliah lived under an assumed name in St. Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/File:1795Hillcrest.jpg \"1795Hillcrest.jpg\")\nIn February 1976, a grand jury indicted Soliah in the bombing case. Soliah went underground and became a fugitive for 23 years.\n\nShe moved to Minnesota, having assumed the alias Sara Jane Olson. Olson is a common surname in the state because of the large [Scandinavian\\-American](/wiki/Scandinavian-Americans \"Scandinavian-Americans\") population. In 1980, she married physician Gerald Frederick \"Fred\" Peterson, with whom she had three daughters.\n\nOlson and Peterson also lived in [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\"), where Peterson worked for a British medical missionary group. After their return, they settled in [Saint Paul, Minnesota](/wiki/Saint_Paul%2C_Minnesota \"Saint Paul, Minnesota\"), where Olson picked up her acting career. She was active in Saint Paul on community issues. Her husband described the family as interested in [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism \"Progressivism\") social causes.\n\nOn March 3, 1999, and again on May 15, 1999, Soliah was profiled on the *[America's Most Wanted](/wiki/America%27s_Most_Wanted \"America's Most Wanted\")* television program. After a tip generated by the show, she was arrested on June 16, 1999\\. Soliah was charged in the police bomb case with conspiracy to commit murder, possession of explosives, explosion, and attempt to ignite an explosive with intent to murder.\n\nShortly after her arrest, Soliah legally changed her name to Sara Jane Olson. She also published a cookbook, *Serving Time: America's Most Wanted Recipes*.\n\nOn October 31, 2001, she accepted a [plea bargain](/wiki/Plea_bargain \"Plea bargain\") and pleaded guilty to two counts of possessing explosives with intent to murder. As part of a plea bargain, the other charges were dropped.\n\n### Plea controversy\n\nImmediately after entering the plea, Olson told reporters that she was innocent. She said that she had taken a plea bargain because, due to the political climate after the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\"), she believed that an accused bomber could not receive a fair jury trial:\n\n> It became clear to me that the incident would have a remarkable effect on the outcome of this trial ... the effect was probably going to be negative. That's really what governed this decision, not the truth or honesty, but what was probably in my best interests and the interests of my family.\n\nAngered by Olson's announcement that she had lied in court, Superior Court Judge Larry Fidler ordered another hearing on November 6\\. There he asked her several times if she was guilty of the charges. Olson replied, \"I want to make it clear, Your Honor, that I did not make that bomb. I did not possess that bomb. I did not plant that bomb. But under the concept of aiding and abetting, I plead guilty.\"\n\nOn November 13, Olson filed a motion requesting to withdraw her guilty plea, acknowledging that she understood the judge when he read the charges against her. Rather, she said: \n\n### Sentencing in explosives charges\n\nOn December 3, 2001, Judge Fidler offered to let Olson testify under oath about her role in the case. She refused. He said, \"I took those pleas twice ... were you lying to me then or are you lying to me now?\" and denied her request to withdraw her plea.\n\nObservers expected her to serve three to five years, but on January 18, 2002, she was sentenced to two consecutive 10\\-years\\-to\\-life terms. At Soliah's 2002 sentencing hearing on the bombing, police officer John Hall, who had been in the car parked over the bomb, talked about a little girl who stood feet away with her family:\n\nFidler said that under California law, the Board of Prison Terms could later reduce the sentence. Olson's lawyers asserted that due to discrepancies between 1970s laws and current California laws, Olson would most likely serve five years, which could be reduced to two years for good behavior. The Board of Prison Terms did later change the sentence.\n\nAt Olson's sentencing hearing, her teenage daughter Leila, her pastor, and her husband spoke in her defense. Her mother testified on the stand that Olson had never been part of the SLA. She criticized prosecutors and police, who she asserted had harassed the family.\n\n### Sentencing in Opsahl murder\n\nOn January 16, 2002, first\\-degree murder charges for the killing of [Myrna Opsahl](/wiki/Myrna_Opsahl \"Myrna Opsahl\") were filed against Olson and four other SLA members: [Emily Harris](/wiki/Emily_Harris \"Emily Harris\"), Bill Harris, Michael Bortin (who had married Olson's sister Josephine), and [James Kilgore](/wiki/James_Kilgore \"James Kilgore\"), who remained a fugitive. Judge Fidler arraigned Olson on the murder charges immediately following her sentencing hearing on January 18 for the explosives case. Olson pleaded not guilty to that charge at the time.\n\nOn November 7, 2002, along with the other three defendants, Olson pleaded guilty to a reduced charge of second\\-degree murder. On February 14, 2003, she was sentenced to the maximum term allowed under her [plea bargain](/wiki/Plea_bargain \"Plea bargain\"), six years, to be served concurrently with the 14\\-year sentence she was already serving.\n\n",
"### Plea controversy\n\nImmediately after entering the plea, Olson told reporters that she was innocent. She said that she had taken a plea bargain because, due to the political climate after the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\"), she believed that an accused bomber could not receive a fair jury trial:\n\n> It became clear to me that the incident would have a remarkable effect on the outcome of this trial ... the effect was probably going to be negative. That's really what governed this decision, not the truth or honesty, but what was probably in my best interests and the interests of my family.\n\nAngered by Olson's announcement that she had lied in court, Superior Court Judge Larry Fidler ordered another hearing on November 6\\. There he asked her several times if she was guilty of the charges. Olson replied, \"I want to make it clear, Your Honor, that I did not make that bomb. I did not possess that bomb. I did not plant that bomb. But under the concept of aiding and abetting, I plead guilty.\"\n\nOn November 13, Olson filed a motion requesting to withdraw her guilty plea, acknowledging that she understood the judge when he read the charges against her. Rather, she said: \n\n",
"### Sentencing in explosives charges\n\nOn December 3, 2001, Judge Fidler offered to let Olson testify under oath about her role in the case. She refused. He said, \"I took those pleas twice ... were you lying to me then or are you lying to me now?\" and denied her request to withdraw her plea.\n\nObservers expected her to serve three to five years, but on January 18, 2002, she was sentenced to two consecutive 10\\-years\\-to\\-life terms. At Soliah's 2002 sentencing hearing on the bombing, police officer John Hall, who had been in the car parked over the bomb, talked about a little girl who stood feet away with her family:\n\nFidler said that under California law, the Board of Prison Terms could later reduce the sentence. Olson's lawyers asserted that due to discrepancies between 1970s laws and current California laws, Olson would most likely serve five years, which could be reduced to two years for good behavior. The Board of Prison Terms did later change the sentence.\n\nAt Olson's sentencing hearing, her teenage daughter Leila, her pastor, and her husband spoke in her defense. Her mother testified on the stand that Olson had never been part of the SLA. She criticized prosecutors and police, who she asserted had harassed the family.\n\n",
"### Sentencing in Opsahl murder\n\nOn January 16, 2002, first\\-degree murder charges for the killing of [Myrna Opsahl](/wiki/Myrna_Opsahl \"Myrna Opsahl\") were filed against Olson and four other SLA members: [Emily Harris](/wiki/Emily_Harris \"Emily Harris\"), Bill Harris, Michael Bortin (who had married Olson's sister Josephine), and [James Kilgore](/wiki/James_Kilgore \"James Kilgore\"), who remained a fugitive. Judge Fidler arraigned Olson on the murder charges immediately following her sentencing hearing on January 18 for the explosives case. Olson pleaded not guilty to that charge at the time.\n\nOn November 7, 2002, along with the other three defendants, Olson pleaded guilty to a reduced charge of second\\-degree murder. On February 14, 2003, she was sentenced to the maximum term allowed under her [plea bargain](/wiki/Plea_bargain \"Plea bargain\"), six years, to be served concurrently with the 14\\-year sentence she was already serving.\n\n",
"Incarceration and release\n-------------------------\n\nThe state Board of Prison Terms had scrapped Olson's original sentence in October 2002 in exchange for a longer 14\\-year sentence, saying Olson's crimes had the potential for great violence and targeted multiple victims. She appealed, and in July 2004, a judge said there was \"no analysis\" of how the state Board of Prison Terms had decided 14 years was appropriate and threw the sentence out. Her sentence was converted to five years and four months.\nThe state appealed and an appeals court panel restored her full 14\\-year sentence as of April 12, 2007\\. It ruled that a lower court did not follow procedure when it allowed Olson to appeal.\n\nOlson served her time at the [Central California Women's Facility](/wiki/Central_California_Women%27s_Facility \"Central California Women's Facility\") in [Chowchilla](/wiki/Chowchilla%2C_California \"Chowchilla, California\"). Her custody status was \"Close A\", which is reserved for inmates requiring the most supervision. This status limited her privileges and required that she be counted seven times a day. It also prevented her from seeking relocation to a facility closer to her home. David Nickerson, Olson's attorney, said that her status reflected the Department of Corrections' view that she was a potential flight risk.\n\nOlson's husband and three daughters continued to support her during her imprisonment; they took turns visiting her frequently in Chowchilla.\n\nIn a 2007 interview with *[Marie Claire](/wiki/Marie_Claire \"Marie Claire\")* magazine (published by [Hearst Corporation](/wiki/Hearst_Corporation \"Hearst Corporation\")), Olson's 23\\-year\\-old daughter Emily Peterson dismissed her mother's radical past with the SLA. She said of her mother, \"She lived in Berkeley. It was kind of normal... I always tell people she wasn't a terrorist. She was an urban guerrilla.\" Olson never publicly expressed remorse or regret for her actions.\n\n### Release from prison and rearrest\n\nOlson was released on parole from the Central California Women's Facility in Chowchilla on March 17, 2008\\. For five days, she stayed at her mother's home in Palmdale and spent some time hiking with her husband.\n\nOn March 21, 2008, she was rearrested when it was decided that she had been mistakenly released a year early from prison due to a miscalculation by the parole board. Her attorney claimed that the action was politically motivated. Olson was taken back into custody by the California Department of Corrections and placed in the [California Institution for Women](/wiki/California_Institution_for_Women \"California Institution for Women\") in [Corona](/wiki/Corona%2C_California \"Corona, California\") for another year.\n\n### Release and parole\n\nAfter serving seven years, about half her sentence, Olson was released from prison on March 17, 2009, to serve her parole in Minnesota. Police unions in both Minnesota and California protested the arrangement, saying that they believed her parole should be served in California, where her crimes were committed.\n\nIn a letter to California Governor [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\"), Minnesota Governor [Tim Pawlenty](/wiki/Tim_Pawlenty \"Tim Pawlenty\") also protested Olson being allowed to return to Minnesota.\n\n",
"### Release from prison and rearrest\n\nOlson was released on parole from the Central California Women's Facility in Chowchilla on March 17, 2008\\. For five days, she stayed at her mother's home in Palmdale and spent some time hiking with her husband.\n\nOn March 21, 2008, she was rearrested when it was decided that she had been mistakenly released a year early from prison due to a miscalculation by the parole board. Her attorney claimed that the action was politically motivated. Olson was taken back into custody by the California Department of Corrections and placed in the [California Institution for Women](/wiki/California_Institution_for_Women \"California Institution for Women\") in [Corona](/wiki/Corona%2C_California \"Corona, California\") for another year.\n\n",
"### Release and parole\n\nAfter serving seven years, about half her sentence, Olson was released from prison on March 17, 2009, to serve her parole in Minnesota. Police unions in both Minnesota and California protested the arrangement, saying that they believed her parole should be served in California, where her crimes were committed.\n\nIn a letter to California Governor [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger \"Arnold Schwarzenegger\"), Minnesota Governor [Tim Pawlenty](/wiki/Tim_Pawlenty \"Tim Pawlenty\") also protested Olson being allowed to return to Minnesota.\n\n",
"Interstate 94 protest\n---------------------\n\nYears after her return to Minnesota, on November 4, 2020, Olson participated in a protest in Minneapolis called by the National Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression after the [U.S. presidential election](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election \"2020 United States presidential election\"). Olson and several others marched onto [Interstate 94](/wiki/Interstate_94 \"Interstate 94\"), where they were met with a response from the Minneapolis Police Department and Minnesota State Patrol. Several hundred protesters were arrested.\n\nOlson was originally charged with creating a public nuisance, but the charge was lowered to a petty misdemeanor. She rejected a plea deal offered to most of the demonstrators. On December 3, 2021, after a trial by a judge, she was convicted and fined $378\\. Olson appealed the conviction on the grounds that the state lacked evidence to find her guilty of using a controlled\\-access highway as a pedestrian. On November 21, 2022, the judge in the appeal case said that the circumstances of the events did not support Olson's innocence and denied the appeal.\n\n",
"Personal life\n-------------\n\nSoliah grew up in [Palmdale, California](/wiki/Palmdale%2C_California \"Palmdale, California\"), the daughter of [Norwegian\\-American](/wiki/Norwegian-American \"Norwegian-American\") parents Elsie Soliah (née Engstrøm) and Martin Soliah, an English teacher and coach at [Palmdale High School](/wiki/Palmdale_High_School \"Palmdale High School\"). \n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Chronology of the SLA](http://www.courttv.com/trials/soliah/chronology.html) from CourtTV News (only goes up to 2002\\)\n* [Profile of Sara Jane Olson](http://www.courttv.com/trials/soliah/olsonprofile_ctv.html)\n* [Full Court TV coverage of the Kathleen Soliah bombing case](http://www.courttv.com/trials/soliah/)\n[Category:1947 births](/wiki/Category:1947_births \"1947 births\")\n[Category:American bank robbers](/wiki/Category:American_bank_robbers \"American bank robbers\")\n[Category:American people convicted of murder](/wiki/Category:American_people_convicted_of_murder \"American people convicted of murder\")\n[Category:American people of Norwegian descent](/wiki/Category:American_people_of_Norwegian_descent \"American people of Norwegian descent\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:People from Clay County, Minnesota](/wiki/Category:People_from_Clay_County%2C_Minnesota \"People from Clay County, Minnesota\")\n[Category:People from Palmdale, California](/wiki/Category:People_from_Palmdale%2C_California \"People from Palmdale, California\")\n[Category:University of California, Santa Barbara alumni](/wiki/Category:University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara_alumni \"University of California, Santa Barbara alumni\")\n[Category:Prisoners and detainees of California](/wiki/Category:Prisoners_and_detainees_of_California \"Prisoners and detainees of California\")\n[Category:Symbionese Liberation Army](/wiki/Category:Symbionese_Liberation_Army \"Symbionese Liberation Army\")\n[Category:People from Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Category:People_from_Fargo%2C_North_Dakota \"People from Fargo, North Dakota\")\n[Category:Terrorism in the United States](/wiki/Category:Terrorism_in_the_United_States \"Terrorism in the United States\")\n\n"
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Jean-Paul Marat
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2024-10-16T22:13:21Z
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"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life, education, and early writing",
"Family",
"Education",
"Political, philosophical, and medical writing",
"Scientific writing",
"''Recherches Physiques sur le Feu''",
"''Découvertes sur la Lumière''",
"''Recherches Physiques sur L'Électricité''",
"Other pre-Revolutionary writing",
"In the early French Revolution",
"Estates General and Fall of the Bastille",
"''L'Ami du peuple''",
"Committee on Surveillance",
"National Convention",
"Assassination",
"Memory in the Revolution",
"Skin disease",
"Tub",
"Works",
"References",
"Cited sources",
"Further reading",
"External links"
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"\n\n* + \n\t**Jean\\-Paul Marat** (, , ; born **Mara**; 24 May 1743 – 13 July 1793\\) was a French [political theorist](/wiki/Political_theorist \"Political theorist\"), physician, and scientist.*[Isaac Asimov](/wiki/Isaac_Asimov \"Isaac Asimov\")'s Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology* – Second Revised Edition, 1982, p. 334\\. A journalist and politician during the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), he was a vigorous defender of the *[sans\\-culottes](/wiki/Sans-culottes \"Sans-culottes\")*, a radical voice, and published his views in pamphlets, placards and newspapers. His periodical *[L'Ami du peuple](/wiki/L%27Ami_du_peuple \"L'Ami du peuple\")* (*The Friend of the People*) made him an unofficial link with the radical [Jacobin](/wiki/Jacobin \"Jacobin\") group that came to power after June 1793\\.\n\nHis journalism was known for its fierce tone and uncompromising stance toward the new leaders and institutions of the revolution. Responsibility for the [September massacres](/wiki/September_massacres \"September massacres\") has been attributed to him, given his position of renown at the time, and a paper trail of decisions leading up to the massacres.[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\") Others posit that the collective mentality which made them possible resulted from circumstances and not from the will of any particular individual.[Lefebvre](/wiki/%23Lefebvre \"#Lefebvre\"), p. 236 Marat was assassinated by [Charlotte Corday](/wiki/Charlotte_Corday \"Charlotte Corday\"), a [Girondin](/wiki/Girondin \"Girondin\") sympathizer, while taking a medicinal bath for his debilitating skin condition. Corday was executed four days later for his assassination, on 17 July 1793\\.\n\nIn death, Marat became an icon to the [Montagnards](/wiki/The_Mountain \"The Mountain\") faction of the Jacobins as well as the greater sans\\-culotte population, and a revolutionary [martyr](/wiki/Martyr_%28politics%29 \"Martyr (politics)\"); according to contemporary accounts, some even mourned him with a kind of prayer: \"O heart of Jesus! O sacred heart of Marat.\"[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\"), p. 141 The most famous painter in Paris, [Jacques\\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David \"Jacques-Louis David\"), immortalized Marat in his iconic painting *[The Death of Marat](/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat \"The Death of Marat\")*. David and Marat were part of the [Paris Commune](/wiki/Paris_Commune_%281789%E2%80%931795%29 \"Paris Commune (1789–1795)\") leadership anchored in the [Cordeliers](/wiki/Cordeliers \"Cordeliers\") section, from where the Revolution is said to have started in 1789 because those who stormed the [Bastille](/wiki/Bastille \"Bastille\") lived there. Both David and Marat were on the Commune's [Committee of General Security](/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security \"Committee of General Security\") during the beginnings of what would become known as the [Reign of Terror](/wiki/Reign_of_Terror \"Reign of Terror\").\n\n",
"Early life, education, and early writing\n----------------------------------------\n\n### Family\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|[Commemorative plaque](/wiki/Commemorative_plaque \"Commemorative plaque\") on the house where Marat was born, in [Boudry](/wiki/Boudry \"Boudry\") in [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")](/wiki/Image:Picswiss_NE-21-25.jpg \"Picswiss NE-21-25.jpg\") Jean\\-Paul Marat was born in [Boudry](/wiki/Boudry \"Boudry\"), in the Prussian [Principality of Neuchâtel](/wiki/Principality_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Principality of Neuchâtel\") (now a [canton](/wiki/Swiss_cantons \"Swiss cantons\") of [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")), on 24 May 1743\\.[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), p. 5\\. He was the first of five children born to Jean Mara (born Juan Salvador Mara; 1704–1783\\), a [Sardinian](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\") from [Cagliari](/wiki/Cagliari \"Cagliari\"), and Louise Cabrol (1724–1782\\), from [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\"). His father studied in Spain and Sardinia before becoming a [Mercedarian](/wiki/Mercedarians \"Mercedarians\") friar in 1720, at age 16, but at some point left the order and converted to [Calvinism](/wiki/Calvinism \"Calvinism\"), and in 1740 immigrated to the Protestant [Republic of Geneva](/wiki/Republic_of_Geneva \"Republic of Geneva\"). His mother, who had [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot \"Huguenot\") background from both sides of her family, was the daughter of French *[perruquier](/wiki/Wig%23Manufacture \"Wig#Manufacture\")* Louis Cabrol, originally from [Castres](/wiki/Castres \"Castres\"), [Languedoc](/wiki/Languedoc \"Languedoc\"), and Genevan citizen after 1723, and his wife Pauline\\-Catherine Molinier. Jean Mara and Louise Cabrol married on 19 March 1741 at the parish church of Le Petit\\-Saconnex, a district of Geneva. One of Marat's brothers, David Mara (born in 1756\\), was a professor at the [Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum](/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo_Lyceum \"Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum\") in the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), where he had [Alexander Pushkin](/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin \"Alexander Pushkin\") as his student.\n\nMarat's family lived in moderate circumstances, as his father was well educated but unable to secure a stable profession. Marat credits his father for instilling in him a love of learning. He explains he felt \"exceptionally fortunate to have had the advantage of receiving a very careful education in my paternal home.\"[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), pp. 9–11 From his mother, he claims to have been taught a strong sense of morality and social conscience. Marat left home at the age of 16, desiring to seek an education in France. He was aware of the limited opportunities for those seen as outsiders as his highly educated father had been turned down for several college (secondary) teaching posts. In 1754 his family settled in [Neuchâtel](/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Neuchâtel\"), capital of the Principality, where Marat's father began working as a [tutor](/wiki/Tutor \"Tutor\").\n\n### Education\n\nMarat received his early education in the city of [Neuchâtel](/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Neuchâtel\") and there was a student of Jean\\-Élie Bertrand, who later founded the [Société typographique de Neuchâtel](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_typographique_de_Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Société typographique de Neuchâtel\"). At 17 years of age he applied for the expedition of [Jean\\-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Chappe_d%27Auteroche \"Jean-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche\") to [Tobolsk](/wiki/Tobolsk \"Tobolsk\") to measure the [transit of Venus](/wiki/Transit_of_Venus \"Transit of Venus\"), but was turned down. His first patronage was fulfilled with the wealthy Nairac family in [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux \"Bordeaux\"), where he stayed for two years. He then moved to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and studied medicine without gaining any formal qualifications. After moving to France, Jean\\-Paul Mara [francized](/wiki/Francization \"Francization\") his surname as \"Marat\".\nHe worked, informally, as a doctor after moving to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 1765 due to a fear of being \"drawn into dissipation\". While there he befriended the [Royal Academician](/wiki/Royal_Academician \"Royal Academician\") artist [Angelica Kauffman](/wiki/Angelica_Kauffman \"Angelica Kauffman\"). His social circle included Italian artists and architects who met in coffee houses around [Soho](/wiki/Soho \"Soho\"). Highly ambitious, but without patronage or qualifications, he set about inserting himself into the intellectual scene.\n\n### Political, philosophical, and medical writing\n\nAround 1770, Marat moved to [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"). His first political work, *Chains of Slavery* (1774\\), inspired by the extra\\-parliamentary activities of the disenfranchised MP and later Mayor of London [John Wilkes](/wiki/John_Wilkes \"John Wilkes\"), was most probably compiled in the central library there. By Marat's own account, while composing it he lived on black coffee for three months and slept two hours a night, and after finishing it he slept soundly for 13 days in a row.Les Chaines de l’Esclavage, 1793 (ed. Goetz et de Cock) p. 4167 (6\\). Numbers in brackets refer to the original version. He gave it the subtitle, \"A work in which the clandestine and villainous attempts of Princes to ruin Liberty are pointed out, and the dreadful scenes of Despotism disclosed.\" In the work, Marat criticized aspects of [England's constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Constitution of the United Kingdom\") that he believed to be corrupt or despotic. He condemned the King's power to influence Parliament through bribery and attacked limitations on voting rights. *Chains of Slavery's* political ideology takes clear inspiration from [Jean\\-Jacques Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau\") by attributing the nation's sovereignty to the common people rather than a monarch. He also suggests that the people express sovereignty through representatives who cannot enact legislation without the approval of the people they represent.[Gottschalk](/wiki/%23Gottschalk \"#Gottschalk\"), pp. 19–22 This work earned him honorary membership of the patriotic societies of [Berwick\\-upon\\-Tweed](/wiki/Berwick-upon-Tweed \"Berwick-upon-Tweed\"), [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Cumbria \"Carlisle, Cumbria\") and [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"). The [Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society](/wiki/Newcastle_Literary_and_Philosophical_Society \"Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society\") Library possesses a copy, and [Tyne and Wear Archives Service](/wiki/Tyne_and_Wear_Archives_Service \"Tyne and Wear Archives Service\") holds three presented to the various Newcastle guilds.\n\nMarat published \"A Philosophical Essay on Man,\" in 1773 and \"Chains of Slavery,\" in 1774\\.de Cock, J. \\& Goetz, C., *Œuvres de Jean\\-Paul Marat*, 10 volumes, Éditions Pôle Nord, Brussels, 1995\\. [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire \"Voltaire\")'s sharp critique of \"De l'Homme\" (an augmented translation, published 1775–76\\), partly in defence of his protégé [Helvétius](/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius \"Claude Adrien Helvétius\"), reinforced Marat's growing sense of a widening gulf between the *[philosophes](/wiki/Philosophes \"Philosophes\")*, grouped around Voltaire on one hand, and their opponents, loosely grouped around [Rousseau](/wiki/Rousseau \"Rousseau\") on the other.\n\nAfter a published essay on curing a friend of gleets ([gonorrhoea](/wiki/Gonorrhoea \"Gonorrhoea\")) he secured medical *referees* for an MD from the [University of St Andrews](/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews \"University of St Andrews\") in June 1775\\.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 33\n\nHe published *Enquiry into the Nature, Cause, and Cure of a Singular Disease of the Eyes* on his return to London. In 1776, Marat moved to Paris after stopping in Geneva to visit his family.\n\nIn Paris, his growing reputation as a highly effective doctor along with the patronage of the [Marquis de l'Aubespine](/wiki/Marquis_de_l%27Aubespine \"Marquis de l'Aubespine\") (the husband of one of his patients) secured his appointment as physician to the bodyguard of the [Comte d'Artois](/wiki/Charles_X_of_France \"Charles X of France\"), [Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France \"Louis XVI of France\")'s youngest brother who was to become king Charles X in 1824\\.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 35 He began this position in June 1777\\. The position paid 2,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre \"French livre\") a year plus allowances.\n\n",
"### Family\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|[Commemorative plaque](/wiki/Commemorative_plaque \"Commemorative plaque\") on the house where Marat was born, in [Boudry](/wiki/Boudry \"Boudry\") in [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")](/wiki/Image:Picswiss_NE-21-25.jpg \"Picswiss NE-21-25.jpg\") Jean\\-Paul Marat was born in [Boudry](/wiki/Boudry \"Boudry\"), in the Prussian [Principality of Neuchâtel](/wiki/Principality_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Principality of Neuchâtel\") (now a [canton](/wiki/Swiss_cantons \"Swiss cantons\") of [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\")), on 24 May 1743\\.[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), p. 5\\. He was the first of five children born to Jean Mara (born Juan Salvador Mara; 1704–1783\\), a [Sardinian](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\") from [Cagliari](/wiki/Cagliari \"Cagliari\"), and Louise Cabrol (1724–1782\\), from [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\"). His father studied in Spain and Sardinia before becoming a [Mercedarian](/wiki/Mercedarians \"Mercedarians\") friar in 1720, at age 16, but at some point left the order and converted to [Calvinism](/wiki/Calvinism \"Calvinism\"), and in 1740 immigrated to the Protestant [Republic of Geneva](/wiki/Republic_of_Geneva \"Republic of Geneva\"). His mother, who had [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot \"Huguenot\") background from both sides of her family, was the daughter of French *[perruquier](/wiki/Wig%23Manufacture \"Wig#Manufacture\")* Louis Cabrol, originally from [Castres](/wiki/Castres \"Castres\"), [Languedoc](/wiki/Languedoc \"Languedoc\"), and Genevan citizen after 1723, and his wife Pauline\\-Catherine Molinier. Jean Mara and Louise Cabrol married on 19 March 1741 at the parish church of Le Petit\\-Saconnex, a district of Geneva. One of Marat's brothers, David Mara (born in 1756\\), was a professor at the [Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum](/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo_Lyceum \"Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum\") in the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), where he had [Alexander Pushkin](/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin \"Alexander Pushkin\") as his student.\n\nMarat's family lived in moderate circumstances, as his father was well educated but unable to secure a stable profession. Marat credits his father for instilling in him a love of learning. He explains he felt \"exceptionally fortunate to have had the advantage of receiving a very careful education in my paternal home.\"[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), pp. 9–11 From his mother, he claims to have been taught a strong sense of morality and social conscience. Marat left home at the age of 16, desiring to seek an education in France. He was aware of the limited opportunities for those seen as outsiders as his highly educated father had been turned down for several college (secondary) teaching posts. In 1754 his family settled in [Neuchâtel](/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Neuchâtel\"), capital of the Principality, where Marat's father began working as a [tutor](/wiki/Tutor \"Tutor\").\n\n",
"### Education\n\nMarat received his early education in the city of [Neuchâtel](/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Neuchâtel\") and there was a student of Jean\\-Élie Bertrand, who later founded the [Société typographique de Neuchâtel](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_typographique_de_Neuch%C3%A2tel \"Société typographique de Neuchâtel\"). At 17 years of age he applied for the expedition of [Jean\\-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Chappe_d%27Auteroche \"Jean-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche\") to [Tobolsk](/wiki/Tobolsk \"Tobolsk\") to measure the [transit of Venus](/wiki/Transit_of_Venus \"Transit of Venus\"), but was turned down. His first patronage was fulfilled with the wealthy Nairac family in [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux \"Bordeaux\"), where he stayed for two years. He then moved to [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and studied medicine without gaining any formal qualifications. After moving to France, Jean\\-Paul Mara [francized](/wiki/Francization \"Francization\") his surname as \"Marat\".\nHe worked, informally, as a doctor after moving to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 1765 due to a fear of being \"drawn into dissipation\". While there he befriended the [Royal Academician](/wiki/Royal_Academician \"Royal Academician\") artist [Angelica Kauffman](/wiki/Angelica_Kauffman \"Angelica Kauffman\"). His social circle included Italian artists and architects who met in coffee houses around [Soho](/wiki/Soho \"Soho\"). Highly ambitious, but without patronage or qualifications, he set about inserting himself into the intellectual scene.\n\n",
"### Political, philosophical, and medical writing\n\nAround 1770, Marat moved to [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"). His first political work, *Chains of Slavery* (1774\\), inspired by the extra\\-parliamentary activities of the disenfranchised MP and later Mayor of London [John Wilkes](/wiki/John_Wilkes \"John Wilkes\"), was most probably compiled in the central library there. By Marat's own account, while composing it he lived on black coffee for three months and slept two hours a night, and after finishing it he slept soundly for 13 days in a row.Les Chaines de l’Esclavage, 1793 (ed. Goetz et de Cock) p. 4167 (6\\). Numbers in brackets refer to the original version. He gave it the subtitle, \"A work in which the clandestine and villainous attempts of Princes to ruin Liberty are pointed out, and the dreadful scenes of Despotism disclosed.\" In the work, Marat criticized aspects of [England's constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Constitution of the United Kingdom\") that he believed to be corrupt or despotic. He condemned the King's power to influence Parliament through bribery and attacked limitations on voting rights. *Chains of Slavery's* political ideology takes clear inspiration from [Jean\\-Jacques Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau\") by attributing the nation's sovereignty to the common people rather than a monarch. He also suggests that the people express sovereignty through representatives who cannot enact legislation without the approval of the people they represent.[Gottschalk](/wiki/%23Gottschalk \"#Gottschalk\"), pp. 19–22 This work earned him honorary membership of the patriotic societies of [Berwick\\-upon\\-Tweed](/wiki/Berwick-upon-Tweed \"Berwick-upon-Tweed\"), [Carlisle](/wiki/Carlisle%2C_Cumbria \"Carlisle, Cumbria\") and [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"). The [Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society](/wiki/Newcastle_Literary_and_Philosophical_Society \"Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society\") Library possesses a copy, and [Tyne and Wear Archives Service](/wiki/Tyne_and_Wear_Archives_Service \"Tyne and Wear Archives Service\") holds three presented to the various Newcastle guilds.\n\nMarat published \"A Philosophical Essay on Man,\" in 1773 and \"Chains of Slavery,\" in 1774\\.de Cock, J. \\& Goetz, C., *Œuvres de Jean\\-Paul Marat*, 10 volumes, Éditions Pôle Nord, Brussels, 1995\\. [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire \"Voltaire\")'s sharp critique of \"De l'Homme\" (an augmented translation, published 1775–76\\), partly in defence of his protégé [Helvétius](/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius \"Claude Adrien Helvétius\"), reinforced Marat's growing sense of a widening gulf between the *[philosophes](/wiki/Philosophes \"Philosophes\")*, grouped around Voltaire on one hand, and their opponents, loosely grouped around [Rousseau](/wiki/Rousseau \"Rousseau\") on the other.\n\nAfter a published essay on curing a friend of gleets ([gonorrhoea](/wiki/Gonorrhoea \"Gonorrhoea\")) he secured medical *referees* for an MD from the [University of St Andrews](/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews \"University of St Andrews\") in June 1775\\.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 33\n\nHe published *Enquiry into the Nature, Cause, and Cure of a Singular Disease of the Eyes* on his return to London. In 1776, Marat moved to Paris after stopping in Geneva to visit his family.\n\nIn Paris, his growing reputation as a highly effective doctor along with the patronage of the [Marquis de l'Aubespine](/wiki/Marquis_de_l%27Aubespine \"Marquis de l'Aubespine\") (the husband of one of his patients) secured his appointment as physician to the bodyguard of the [Comte d'Artois](/wiki/Charles_X_of_France \"Charles X of France\"), [Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France \"Louis XVI of France\")'s youngest brother who was to become king Charles X in 1824\\.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 35 He began this position in June 1777\\. The position paid 2,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre \"French livre\") a year plus allowances.\n\n",
"Scientific writing\n------------------\n\nMarat set up a laboratory in the [Marquise de l'Aubespine](/wiki/L%27Aubespine \"L'Aubespine\")'s house with funds obtained by serving as court doctor among the aristocracy. His method was to describe in detail the meticulous series of experiments he had undertaken on a problem, seeking to explore and then exclude all possible conclusions but the one he reached.\n\nHe published works on fire and heat, [electricity](/wiki/Electricity \"Electricity\"), and light. He published a summary of his scientific views and discoveries in *Découvertes de M. Marat sur le feu, l'électricité et la lumière* (English: *Mr Marat's Discoveries on Fire, Electricity and Light*) in 1779\\. He published three more detailed and extensive works that expanded on each of his areas of research.\n\n### *Recherches Physiques sur le Feu*\n\nThe first of Marat's large\\-scale publications detailing his experiments and drawing conclusions from them was *Recherches Physiques sur le Feu* (English: *Research into the Physics of Fire*), which was published in 1780 with the approval of the official censors.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 71\n\nThis publication describes 166 experiments conducted to demonstrate that fire was not, as was widely held, a material element but an \"[igneous](/wiki/Igneous_rock \"Igneous rock\") fluid.\" He asked the [Academy of Sciences](/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences \"French Academy of Sciences\") to appraise his work, and it appointed a commission to do so, which reported in April 1779\\. The report avoided endorsing Marat's conclusions but praised his \"new, precise and well\\-executed experiments, appropriately and ingeniously designed\". Marat then published his work, with the claim that the Academy approved of its contents. Since the Academy had endorsed his methods but said nothing about his conclusions, this claim drew the ire of [Antoine Lavoisier](/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier \"Antoine Lavoisier\"), who demanded that the Academy repudiate it. When the Academy did so, this marked the beginning of worsening relations between Marat and many of its leading members. A number of them, including Lavoisier himself, as well as [Condorcet](/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet \"Marquis de Condorcet\") and [Laplace](/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace \"Pierre-Simon Laplace\") took a strong dislike to Marat. However, [Lamarck](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck \"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck\") and [Lacépède](/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de \"Bernard Germain de Lacépède\") wrote positively about Marat's experiments and conclusions.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 77–79\n\n### *Découvertes sur la Lumière*\n\nIn Marat's time, [Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\")'s views on light and colour were regarded almost universally as definitive, yet Marat's explicit purpose in his second major work *Découvertes sur la Lumière* (*Discoveries on Light*) was to demonstrate that in certain key areas, Newton was wrong.\n\nThe focus of Marat's work was the study of how light bends around objects, and his main argument was that while Newton held that white light was broken down into colours by [refraction](/wiki/Refraction \"Refraction\"), the colours were actually caused by [diffraction](/wiki/Diffraction \"Diffraction\"). When a beam of sunlight shone through an aperture, passed through a prism and projected colour onto a wall, the splitting of the light into colours took place not in the prism, as Newton maintained, but at the edges of the aperture itself.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 89–95 Marat sought to demonstrate that there are only three [primary colours](/wiki/Primary_color \"Primary color\"), rather than seven as Newton had argued.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 105–106\n\nOnce again, Marat requested the Academy of Sciences review his work, and it set up a commission to do so. Over a period of seven months, from June 1779 to January 1780, Marat performed his experiments in the presence of the commissioners so that they could appraise his methods and conclusions. The drafting of their final report was assigned to [Jean\\-Baptiste Le Roy](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Le_Roy \"Jean-Baptiste Le Roy\"). The report was finally produced after many delays in May 1780, and consisted of just three short paragraphs. Significantly, the report concluded that *\"these experiments are so very numerous...\\[but]...they do not appear to us to prove what the author believes they establish\".* The Academy declined to endorse Marat's work.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 94–95 When it was published, *Découvertes sur la lumière* did not carry the royal approbation. According to the title page, it was printed in London, so that either, Marat could not get the official censor to approve it, or, he did not want to spend the time and effort to do so.\n\n### *Recherches Physiques sur L'Électricité*\n\nMarat's third major work, *Recherches Physiques sur l'Électricité* (English: *Research on the Physics of Electricity*), outlined 214 experiments. One of his major areas of interest was in [electrical attraction and repulsion](/wiki/Magnetism \"Magnetism\"). Repulsion, he held, was not a basic force of nature. He addressed a number of other areas of enquiry in his work, concluding with a section on [lightning rods](/wiki/Lightning_rods \"Lightning rods\") which argued that those with pointed ends were more effective than those with blunt ends, and denouncing the idea of \"[earthquake rods](/wiki/Earthquake_rods \"Earthquake rods\")\" advocated by [Pierre Bertholon de Saint\\-Lazare](/wiki/Pierre_Bertholon_de_Saint-Lazare \"Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare\"). This book was published with the censor's stamp of approval, but Marat did not seek the endorsement of the Academy of Sciences.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 132\n\nIn April 1783, he resigned his court appointment and devoted his energies full\\-time to scientific research. Apart from his major works, during this period Marat published shorter essays on the medical use of electricity (*Mémoire sur l'électricité médicale* (1783\\)) and on optics (*Notions élémentaires d'optique* (1784\\)). He published a well\\-received translation of Newton's *[Opticks](/wiki/Opticks \"Opticks\")* (1787\\), which was still in print until recently, and later a collection of essays on his experimental findings, including a study on the effect of light on soap bubbles in his *Mémoires académiques, ou nouvelles découvertes sur la lumière* (*Academic memoirs, or new discoveries on light*, 1788\\). [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") visited him on several occasions and [Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe \"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe\") described his rejection by the Academy as a glaring example of scientific despotism.\n\n",
"### *Recherches Physiques sur le Feu*\n\nThe first of Marat's large\\-scale publications detailing his experiments and drawing conclusions from them was *Recherches Physiques sur le Feu* (English: *Research into the Physics of Fire*), which was published in 1780 with the approval of the official censors.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 71\n\nThis publication describes 166 experiments conducted to demonstrate that fire was not, as was widely held, a material element but an \"[igneous](/wiki/Igneous_rock \"Igneous rock\") fluid.\" He asked the [Academy of Sciences](/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences \"French Academy of Sciences\") to appraise his work, and it appointed a commission to do so, which reported in April 1779\\. The report avoided endorsing Marat's conclusions but praised his \"new, precise and well\\-executed experiments, appropriately and ingeniously designed\". Marat then published his work, with the claim that the Academy approved of its contents. Since the Academy had endorsed his methods but said nothing about his conclusions, this claim drew the ire of [Antoine Lavoisier](/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier \"Antoine Lavoisier\"), who demanded that the Academy repudiate it. When the Academy did so, this marked the beginning of worsening relations between Marat and many of its leading members. A number of them, including Lavoisier himself, as well as [Condorcet](/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet \"Marquis de Condorcet\") and [Laplace](/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace \"Pierre-Simon Laplace\") took a strong dislike to Marat. However, [Lamarck](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck \"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck\") and [Lacépède](/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de \"Bernard Germain de Lacépède\") wrote positively about Marat's experiments and conclusions.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 77–79\n\n",
"### *Découvertes sur la Lumière*\n\nIn Marat's time, [Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\")'s views on light and colour were regarded almost universally as definitive, yet Marat's explicit purpose in his second major work *Découvertes sur la Lumière* (*Discoveries on Light*) was to demonstrate that in certain key areas, Newton was wrong.\n\nThe focus of Marat's work was the study of how light bends around objects, and his main argument was that while Newton held that white light was broken down into colours by [refraction](/wiki/Refraction \"Refraction\"), the colours were actually caused by [diffraction](/wiki/Diffraction \"Diffraction\"). When a beam of sunlight shone through an aperture, passed through a prism and projected colour onto a wall, the splitting of the light into colours took place not in the prism, as Newton maintained, but at the edges of the aperture itself.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 89–95 Marat sought to demonstrate that there are only three [primary colours](/wiki/Primary_color \"Primary color\"), rather than seven as Newton had argued.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 105–106\n\nOnce again, Marat requested the Academy of Sciences review his work, and it set up a commission to do so. Over a period of seven months, from June 1779 to January 1780, Marat performed his experiments in the presence of the commissioners so that they could appraise his methods and conclusions. The drafting of their final report was assigned to [Jean\\-Baptiste Le Roy](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Le_Roy \"Jean-Baptiste Le Roy\"). The report was finally produced after many delays in May 1780, and consisted of just three short paragraphs. Significantly, the report concluded that *\"these experiments are so very numerous...\\[but]...they do not appear to us to prove what the author believes they establish\".* The Academy declined to endorse Marat's work.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), pp. 94–95 When it was published, *Découvertes sur la lumière* did not carry the royal approbation. According to the title page, it was printed in London, so that either, Marat could not get the official censor to approve it, or, he did not want to spend the time and effort to do so.\n\n",
"### *Recherches Physiques sur L'Électricité*\n\nMarat's third major work, *Recherches Physiques sur l'Électricité* (English: *Research on the Physics of Electricity*), outlined 214 experiments. One of his major areas of interest was in [electrical attraction and repulsion](/wiki/Magnetism \"Magnetism\"). Repulsion, he held, was not a basic force of nature. He addressed a number of other areas of enquiry in his work, concluding with a section on [lightning rods](/wiki/Lightning_rods \"Lightning rods\") which argued that those with pointed ends were more effective than those with blunt ends, and denouncing the idea of \"[earthquake rods](/wiki/Earthquake_rods \"Earthquake rods\")\" advocated by [Pierre Bertholon de Saint\\-Lazare](/wiki/Pierre_Bertholon_de_Saint-Lazare \"Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare\"). This book was published with the censor's stamp of approval, but Marat did not seek the endorsement of the Academy of Sciences.[Conner (1999\\)](/wiki/%23Conner1999 \"#Conner1999\"), p. 132\n\nIn April 1783, he resigned his court appointment and devoted his energies full\\-time to scientific research. Apart from his major works, during this period Marat published shorter essays on the medical use of electricity (*Mémoire sur l'électricité médicale* (1783\\)) and on optics (*Notions élémentaires d'optique* (1784\\)). He published a well\\-received translation of Newton's *[Opticks](/wiki/Opticks \"Opticks\")* (1787\\), which was still in print until recently, and later a collection of essays on his experimental findings, including a study on the effect of light on soap bubbles in his *Mémoires académiques, ou nouvelles découvertes sur la lumière* (*Academic memoirs, or new discoveries on light*, 1788\\). [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") visited him on several occasions and [Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe \"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe\") described his rejection by the Academy as a glaring example of scientific despotism.\n\n",
"Other pre\\-Revolutionary writing\n--------------------------------\n\nIn 1780, Marat published his \"favourite work,\" a *Plan de législation criminelle.* It was a [polemic](/wiki/Polemic \"Polemic\") for penal reform which had been entered into a competition announced by the [Berne](/wiki/Bern \"Bern\") Economic Society in February 1777 and backed by [Frederick the Great](/wiki/Frederick_the_Great \"Frederick the Great\") and Voltaire. Marat was inspired by Rousseau and [Cesare Beccaria's](/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria \"Cesare Beccaria\") \"Il libro dei delitti e delle pene\".\n\nMarat's entry contained many radical ideas, including the argument that society should provide [fundamental natural needs](/wiki/Basic_needs \"Basic needs\"), such as food and shelter, if it expected all its citizens to follow its civil laws, that the king was no more than the \"first magistrate\" of his people, that there should be a common death penalty regardless of class, and that each town should have a dedicated \"*avocat* *des* pauvres\" and set up independent criminal tribunals with twelve\\-man juries to ensure a fair trial.\n\n",
"In the early French Revolution\n------------------------------\n\n### Estates General and Fall of the Bastille\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Marat by [Jean\\-François Garneray](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Garneray \"Jean-François Garneray\")](/wiki/File:Jean_Garneray_Marat.jpg \"Jean Garneray Marat.jpg\")\nIn 1788, the [Assembly of Notables](/wiki/Assembly_of_Notables \"Assembly of Notables\") advised [Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI \"Louis XVI\") to assemble the [Estates\\-General](/wiki/Estates-General_of_1789 \"Estates-General of 1789\") for the first time in 175 years. According to Marat, in the latter half of 1788 he had been deathly ill. Upon hearing of the King's decision to call together the [Estates General](/wiki/Estates_General_%28France%29 \"Estates General (France)\"), however, he explains that the \"news had a powerful effect on me; my illness suddenly broke and my spirits revived\".[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), p. 32 He strongly desired to contribute his ideas to the coming events and subsequently abandoned his career as a scientist and doctor, taking up his pen on behalf of the [Third Estate](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm \"Estates of the realm\").\n\nMarat anonymously published his first contribution to the revolution in February 1789, titled *Offrande à la Patrie* (*Offering to the Nation*), which touched on some of the same points as the [Abbé Sieyès](/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Siey%C3%A8s \"Abbé Sieyès\")' famous \"*Qu'est\\-ce que le Tiers État?*\" (\"[What is the Third Estate?](/wiki/What_is_the_Third_Estate%3F \"What is the Third Estate?\")\"). Marat claimed that this work caused a sensation throughout France, though he likely exaggerated its effect as the pamphlet mostly echoed ideas similar to many other pamphlets and cahiers circulating at the time.[Gottschalk](/wiki/%23Gottschalk \"#Gottschalk\"), pp. 38–39 This was followed by a \"Supplément de l'Offrande\" in March, where he was less optimistic, expressing displeasure with the King's *Lettres Royales* of 24 January. In August 1789, he published *La Constitution, ou Projet de déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen*, intended to influence the drafting of France's new constitution, then being debated in the [National Assembly.](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28France%29 \"National Assembly (France)\") In this work, he builds his theories upon ideas taken from [Montesquieu](/wiki/Montesquieu \"Montesquieu\") and Rousseau, claiming that the sovereignty of the nation rests with the people and emphasizing the need for a [separation of powers](/wiki/Separation_of_powers \"Separation of powers\"). He argues for a [constitutional monarchy](/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy \"Constitutional monarchy\"), believing that a [republic](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\") is ineffective in large nations.[Gottschalk](/wiki/%23Gottschalk \"#Gottschalk\"), pp. 45–47 Marat's work elicited no response from the National Assembly.\n\nOn 14 July, three days after Louis XVI dismissed [Jacques Necker](/wiki/Jacques_Necker \"Jacques Necker\") as his financial advisor, enraged Parisians attacked the [Hotel des Invalides](/wiki/Les_Invalides \"Les Invalides\") and the Bastille, marking the first insurrection of the French Revolution. Marat was not directly involved in the [Fall of the Bastille](/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille \"Storming of the Bastille\") but sought to glorify his role that day by claiming that he had intercepted a group of German soldiers on [Pont Neuf](/wiki/Pont_Neuf \"Pont Neuf\"). He claims that these soldiers were seeking to crush the revolution in its infancy, and that he had successfully convinced a crowd to force the soldiers to surrender their weapons.[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), pp. 39–40 Whether or not this event actually occurred is questionable as there are no other known accounts that confirm Marat's story.\n\n### *L'Ami du peuple*\n\nOn 12 September 1789, Marat began his own newspaper, entitled *Publiciste parisien*, before changing its name four days later to *[L'Ami du peuple](/wiki/L%27Ami_du_peuple \"L'Ami du peuple\")* (\"The People's friend\"). From this position, he often attacked the most influential and powerful groups in Paris as conspirators against the Revolution, including the Commune, the [Constituent Assembly](/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_%28France%29 \"National Constituent Assembly (France)\"), the ministers, and the [Châtelet](/wiki/Grand_Ch%C3%A2telet \"Grand Châtelet\"). In January 1790, he moved to the radical [Cordeliers](/wiki/Cordeliers \"Cordeliers\") section, then under the leadership of the lawyer [Danton](/wiki/Georges_Danton \"Georges Danton\"), was nearly arrested for his attacks against Jacques Necker, [Louis XVI's](/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France \"Louis XVI of France\") popular Finance Minister, and was forced to flee to London. In May, he returned to Paris to continue publication of *L'Ami du peuple* and briefly ran a second newspaper in June 1790 called *Le* *Junius* *français* named after the notorious English polemicist [Junius](/wiki/Junius_%28writer%29 \"Junius (writer)\"). Marat faced the problem of counterfeiters distributing falsified versions of *[L'Ami du peuple](/wiki/L%27Ami_du_peuple \"L'Ami du peuple\")*.[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), p. 70 This led him to call for police intervention, which resulted in the suppression of the fraudulent issues, leaving Marat the continuing sole author of *L'Ami du peuple*.\n\nDuring this period, Marat made regular attacks on the more conservative revolutionary leaders. In a pamphlet from 26 July 1790, entitled \"*C'en est fait de nous*\" (\"We're done for!\"), he warned against counter\\-revolutionaries, advising, \"five or six hundred heads cut off would have assured your repose, freedom and happiness.\"\n\nBetween 1789 and 1792, Marat was often forced into hiding, sometimes in the [Paris sewers](/wiki/Paris_Sewer_Museum \"Paris Sewer Museum\"), where he almost certainly aggravated his debilitating chronic skin disease (possibly [dermatitis herpetiformis](/wiki/Dermatitis_herpetiformis \"Dermatitis herpetiformis\")). In January 1792, he married the 26\\-year\\-old [Simonne Évrard](/wiki/Simonne_%C3%89vrard \"Simonne Évrard\")[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), p. 191 in a common\\-law ceremony on his return from exile in London, having previously expressed his love for her. She was the sister\\-in\\-law of his typographer, Jean\\-Antoine Corne, and had lent him money and sheltered him on several occasions.\n\nMarat only emerged publicly on the [10 August insurrection](/wiki/10_August_%28French_Revolution%29 \"10 August (French Revolution)\"), when the [Tuileries Palace](/wiki/Tuileries_Palace \"Tuileries Palace\") was invaded and the royal family forced to shelter within the [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_%28France%29 \"Legislative Assembly (France)\"). The spark for this uprising was the [Brunswick Manifesto](/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto \"Brunswick Manifesto\"), which called for the crushing of the Revolution and helped to inflame popular outrage in Paris.\n\n",
"### Estates General and Fall of the Bastille\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Marat by [Jean\\-François Garneray](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Garneray \"Jean-François Garneray\")](/wiki/File:Jean_Garneray_Marat.jpg \"Jean Garneray Marat.jpg\")\nIn 1788, the [Assembly of Notables](/wiki/Assembly_of_Notables \"Assembly of Notables\") advised [Louis XVI](/wiki/Louis_XVI \"Louis XVI\") to assemble the [Estates\\-General](/wiki/Estates-General_of_1789 \"Estates-General of 1789\") for the first time in 175 years. According to Marat, in the latter half of 1788 he had been deathly ill. Upon hearing of the King's decision to call together the [Estates General](/wiki/Estates_General_%28France%29 \"Estates General (France)\"), however, he explains that the \"news had a powerful effect on me; my illness suddenly broke and my spirits revived\".[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), p. 32 He strongly desired to contribute his ideas to the coming events and subsequently abandoned his career as a scientist and doctor, taking up his pen on behalf of the [Third Estate](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm \"Estates of the realm\").\n\nMarat anonymously published his first contribution to the revolution in February 1789, titled *Offrande à la Patrie* (*Offering to the Nation*), which touched on some of the same points as the [Abbé Sieyès](/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Siey%C3%A8s \"Abbé Sieyès\")' famous \"*Qu'est\\-ce que le Tiers État?*\" (\"[What is the Third Estate?](/wiki/What_is_the_Third_Estate%3F \"What is the Third Estate?\")\"). Marat claimed that this work caused a sensation throughout France, though he likely exaggerated its effect as the pamphlet mostly echoed ideas similar to many other pamphlets and cahiers circulating at the time.[Gottschalk](/wiki/%23Gottschalk \"#Gottschalk\"), pp. 38–39 This was followed by a \"Supplément de l'Offrande\" in March, where he was less optimistic, expressing displeasure with the King's *Lettres Royales* of 24 January. In August 1789, he published *La Constitution, ou Projet de déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen*, intended to influence the drafting of France's new constitution, then being debated in the [National Assembly.](/wiki/National_Assembly_%28France%29 \"National Assembly (France)\") In this work, he builds his theories upon ideas taken from [Montesquieu](/wiki/Montesquieu \"Montesquieu\") and Rousseau, claiming that the sovereignty of the nation rests with the people and emphasizing the need for a [separation of powers](/wiki/Separation_of_powers \"Separation of powers\"). He argues for a [constitutional monarchy](/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy \"Constitutional monarchy\"), believing that a [republic](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\") is ineffective in large nations.[Gottschalk](/wiki/%23Gottschalk \"#Gottschalk\"), pp. 45–47 Marat's work elicited no response from the National Assembly.\n\nOn 14 July, three days after Louis XVI dismissed [Jacques Necker](/wiki/Jacques_Necker \"Jacques Necker\") as his financial advisor, enraged Parisians attacked the [Hotel des Invalides](/wiki/Les_Invalides \"Les Invalides\") and the Bastille, marking the first insurrection of the French Revolution. Marat was not directly involved in the [Fall of the Bastille](/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille \"Storming of the Bastille\") but sought to glorify his role that day by claiming that he had intercepted a group of German soldiers on [Pont Neuf](/wiki/Pont_Neuf \"Pont Neuf\"). He claims that these soldiers were seeking to crush the revolution in its infancy, and that he had successfully convinced a crowd to force the soldiers to surrender their weapons.[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), pp. 39–40 Whether or not this event actually occurred is questionable as there are no other known accounts that confirm Marat's story.\n\n",
"### *L'Ami du peuple*\n\nOn 12 September 1789, Marat began his own newspaper, entitled *Publiciste parisien*, before changing its name four days later to *[L'Ami du peuple](/wiki/L%27Ami_du_peuple \"L'Ami du peuple\")* (\"The People's friend\"). From this position, he often attacked the most influential and powerful groups in Paris as conspirators against the Revolution, including the Commune, the [Constituent Assembly](/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_%28France%29 \"National Constituent Assembly (France)\"), the ministers, and the [Châtelet](/wiki/Grand_Ch%C3%A2telet \"Grand Châtelet\"). In January 1790, he moved to the radical [Cordeliers](/wiki/Cordeliers \"Cordeliers\") section, then under the leadership of the lawyer [Danton](/wiki/Georges_Danton \"Georges Danton\"), was nearly arrested for his attacks against Jacques Necker, [Louis XVI's](/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France \"Louis XVI of France\") popular Finance Minister, and was forced to flee to London. In May, he returned to Paris to continue publication of *L'Ami du peuple* and briefly ran a second newspaper in June 1790 called *Le* *Junius* *français* named after the notorious English polemicist [Junius](/wiki/Junius_%28writer%29 \"Junius (writer)\"). Marat faced the problem of counterfeiters distributing falsified versions of *[L'Ami du peuple](/wiki/L%27Ami_du_peuple \"L'Ami du peuple\")*.[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), p. 70 This led him to call for police intervention, which resulted in the suppression of the fraudulent issues, leaving Marat the continuing sole author of *L'Ami du peuple*.\n\nDuring this period, Marat made regular attacks on the more conservative revolutionary leaders. In a pamphlet from 26 July 1790, entitled \"*C'en est fait de nous*\" (\"We're done for!\"), he warned against counter\\-revolutionaries, advising, \"five or six hundred heads cut off would have assured your repose, freedom and happiness.\"\n\nBetween 1789 and 1792, Marat was often forced into hiding, sometimes in the [Paris sewers](/wiki/Paris_Sewer_Museum \"Paris Sewer Museum\"), where he almost certainly aggravated his debilitating chronic skin disease (possibly [dermatitis herpetiformis](/wiki/Dermatitis_herpetiformis \"Dermatitis herpetiformis\")). In January 1792, he married the 26\\-year\\-old [Simonne Évrard](/wiki/Simonne_%C3%89vrard \"Simonne Évrard\")[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), p. 191 in a common\\-law ceremony on his return from exile in London, having previously expressed his love for her. She was the sister\\-in\\-law of his typographer, Jean\\-Antoine Corne, and had lent him money and sheltered him on several occasions.\n\nMarat only emerged publicly on the [10 August insurrection](/wiki/10_August_%28French_Revolution%29 \"10 August (French Revolution)\"), when the [Tuileries Palace](/wiki/Tuileries_Palace \"Tuileries Palace\") was invaded and the royal family forced to shelter within the [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_%28France%29 \"Legislative Assembly (France)\"). The spark for this uprising was the [Brunswick Manifesto](/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto \"Brunswick Manifesto\"), which called for the crushing of the Revolution and helped to inflame popular outrage in Paris.\n\n",
"Committee on Surveillance\n-------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Anonymous portrait of Marat, 1793 ([Musée Carnavalet](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet \"Musée Carnavalet\"))](/wiki/Image:Anonymous_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Paul_Marat_%281743-1793%29%2C_publiciste_et_homme_politique._-_P724_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg \"Anonymous - Portrait de Jean-Paul Marat (1743-1793), publiciste et homme politique. - P724 - Musée Carnavalet.jpg\")\nAs the Paris Commune of Marat's allies achieved more influence, it formed a Committee on Surveillance which included Marat, [Jacque\\-Nicolas Billaud\\-Varennes](/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Billaud-Varenne \"Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne\"), [Jean\\-Marie Collot d'Herbois](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Collot_d%27Herbois \"Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois\"), [Georges Danton](/wiki/Georges_Danton \"Georges Danton\"), [Jean\\-Lambert Tallien](/wiki/Jean-Lambert_Tallien \"Jean-Lambert Tallien\"), Panis ([fr](/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jean_Panis \"Étienne-Jean Panis\")) and David. Marat was said by [Stanley Loomis](/wiki/Stanley_Loomis \"Stanley Loomis\") to have claimed the position of its head. [Ernest Belfort Bax](/wiki/Ernest_Belfort_Bax \"Ernest Belfort Bax\") disputed this claim, saying that on appearing once again in the upper daylight of Paris, Marat was almost immediately invited to assist the new governing body with his advice, and had a special tribune assigned to him. Marat was thus assiduous in his attendance at the Commune, although never formally a member. The Commune and the Sections of Paris, between them, had established a *Comité de Surveillance*, with power to add to its numbers. Into this committee Marat was, according to Bax, co\\-opted. They quickly decided to round up those they believed were \"suspect\"; the Committee voted to do so and four thousand were sent into the prisons by late August 1792\\.[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\"), p. 77 Actually the Committee, of which Marat was one of the most influential members, took the step of withdrawing from the prisons those of whose guilt, in its opinion, there was any reasonable doubt. Marat and the rest saw what was coming; the last straw to break the patience of Paris was the acquittal on Friday 31 August of Montmarin, the late Governor of [Fontainebleau](/wiki/Fontainebleau \"Fontainebleau\"). Montmarin was notoriously and openly a courtier, who wished to see the allies in Paris, and his royal master reinstated, and who was proved, beyond the shadow of a doubt, to have been actively engaged in plotting to this end; yet, on being brought to trial, he was acquitted, and, as if to lend emphasis to the acquittal, the judge himself, descending from the bench, gave him his arm as he walked out of court. An unsuccessful attempt was even made to deprive the Commune of its powers. Forty\\-eight hours later, the notorious September massacres began.[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), [Ch. 8](https://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1900/marat/ch08.htm) \n\nThose arrangements would include a collection of mercenaries grouped as \"Marsellais\" though they were \"foreign vagabonds, dregs of all nations, Genosee, Corsicans and Greeks led by a Pole named Lazowski\"[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\"), pp. 73–74 Added to these were convicted murderers and those imprisoned for other violent crimes, released in time to join the \"Marsellais\" at the center of the bloodlettings. At times those enacting violence were joined by mobs of locals, some of who had armed themselves in preparation for a defense of the city [National Guardsmen](/wiki/National_Guard_%28France%29 \"National Guard (France)\") and some *[fédérés](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9r%C3%A9 \"Fédéré\")*. In some cases makeshift \"courts\" were set\\-up, prisoners were pronounced \"free\" or \"guilty\" then all were led to a central courtyard where they were bludgeoned, hacked, speared, and decapitated. In other prisons, small bands of mercenaries entered cells which had held murderers days before, who turned their craft on the innocents brought in by the Committee, some as young as 10\\.[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\"), p. 83\n\nOn 3 September, the second day of the massacres, the Committee of Surveillance of the Commune published a circular that called on provincial Patriots to defend Paris and asked that, before leaving their homes, they eliminate counter\\-revolutionaries. Authored by Marat as head of the Committee, signed by him and circulated to the provinces, it hailed the rounding up and killing of political enemies going on in Paris as a model for the provinces. While [Georges Lefebvre](/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre \"Georges Lefebvre\") maintained collective mentality was sufficient explanation for the mass killing, Stanley Loomis says this \"is their excuse or justification\".\n\nThe [Girondins](/wiki/Girondins \"Girondins\") then made a number of copies of this circular, but there is no evidence that it had any effect. Marat himself did not participate in the violence of the massacres, but rather the Sections of Paris had begun to act of themselves. Marat and his Committee of Supervision at most took the control of the movement which had already begun spontaneously. Whether Marat played a part in the cause of the massacres is still continually debated. It can be said that there was a continuous goading on of the tribunals to definite and decided action. In No. 679 of *L'Ami du Peuple* we have the following advice: \n> Guard the King from view, put a price on the heads of the fugitive [Capets](/wiki/House_of_Capet \"House of Capet\"), arm all the citizens, form a camp near Paris, press forward the sale of the goods of the ‘emigrants,’ and recompense the unfortunates who have taken part in the conquest of the [Tuileries](/wiki/Tuileries_Palace \"Tuileries Palace\"), invite the troops of the line to name their officers, guard the provisions, do not miss a word of this last advice, press the judgment of the traitors imprisoned in the Abbaye; ... if the sword of justice do at last but strike conspirators and prevaricators, we shall no longer hear popular executions spoken of, cruel resource which the law of necessity can alone commend to a people reduced to despair, but which the voluntary sleep of the laws always justifies.[Belfort Bax](/wiki/%23Belfort_Bax \"#Belfort Bax\"), [Ch. 6](https://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1882/marat/chap06.htm)\n\nDanton at the same moment was urging from the tribune the necessity of the prompt appointment of a court to try traitors, as the only alternative to the popular justice of the streets. [Maximilien Robespierre](/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre \"Maximilien Robespierre\"), Danton and Marat all stressed the necessity of a tribunal that would judge these crimes. Robespierre intervened on 15 August, as a delegate of the Commune, and proclaimed: \"Since 10 August, the just vengeance of the people has not yet been satisfied.\" According to Bax, the September massacres were the result of the efforts of the Moderate party to screen men who were openly plotting the overthrow of the Revolution. The Moderatist and Girondist Assembly hesitated at making a few examples of even the most notorious of these plotters. The crisis in the war, long foreseen by Marat and others, was now becoming more acute every day. On 6 September, Mlle de Mareuil, daughter of a member of the Commune's general council, wrote to her brother: \n> I have to make the following remark: since the journée of 10 August, there have only been three people guillotined, and this has revolted the people. Finally people gathered from all sides... Oh my dear friend, we are all in a state of dreadful consternation.\n\nThere is an exculpatory article in No.12 of Marat's *Journal de la République*, occasioned by the virulent attacks of the Girondins in the Convention on the Commune, the Committee of Supervision, and above all on Marat himself, with reference to the massacres:\n> The disastrous events of the 2nd and 3rd of September, which perfidious and venal persons attribute to the Municipality, has been solely promoted by the denial of justice on the part of the Criminal tribunal which whitewashed the conspirator Montmarin, by the protection thus proclaimed to all others conspirators, and by the indignation of the people, fearing to find itself the slave of all the traitors who have for so long abused its misfortunes and its disasters. They call those brigands who massacred the traitors and scoundrels confined in the prisons. If that were so, Pétion would be criminal for having peaceably left brigands to perpetrate their crimes during two consecutive days in all the prisons of Paris. His culpable inaction would be the most serious crime, and he would merit the loss of his head for not having mobilised his whole armed force to oppose them. He will doubtless tell you, in order to exculpate himself, that the armed force would not have obeyed him, and that all Paris was involved, which is indeed a fact. Let us agree, then, that it is an imposture to make brigands responsible for an operation unhappily only too necessary. It is then because the conspirators have escaped the sword of justice that they have fallen under the axe of the people. Is it necessary to say more to refute the dishonest insinuation, which would make the Committee of Supervision of the Commune responsible for these popular executions? But its justification does not end there. We shall see what the principal members of this Committee have done to prevent any innocent person, any debtor, any one culpable of a trivial offence, being involved in the dangers which threatened great criminals. I was at the Committee of Supervision, when the announcement was made that the people had just seized from the hands of the Guard, and put to death, several refractory priests, accused of plotting, destined by the Committee for La Force, and that the people threatened to enter the prisons. At this news, Panis and myself exclaimed together, as if by inspiration, \"Save the small delinquents, the poor debtors, those accused of trivial assaults!\" The Committee immediately ordered the different jailers to separate these from the serious malefactors and the counter\\-revolutionary traitors, lest the people should be exposed to the risk of sacrificing some innocent persons. The separation was already made when the prisons were forced, but the precaution was unnecessary, owing to the care taken by the judges appointed by the people, who exercised the functions of tribunes during the expedition, to inquire into each case and to release all those whom the Committee of Supervision had separated. This is a discrimination the despot would certainly not have exercised had he triumphed on the 10th of August. Such are the facts which oppose themselves to the calumny that has distorted the narrative of the events of the 2nd and 3rd of September.\n\nThe September massacres were not the work of one party, much less of one man, but an ebullition of popular fury, acquiesced in as a necessity by all parties and by all the leading men of the Revolution. This perspective of affairs is summed up in the passages of Mr. Bowen\\-Graves quoted by Ernest Belfort Bax:\n> Marat's part in these last terrible events has been constantly and grossly misrepresented. He had long foreseen and foretold what would happen if foreign invasion found Paris in a state of chaos. The predicted crisis had now arrived. On the east the Germans are at the Thermopylae of France. A step more, the Revolution sinks beneath them. On the west the standard of the Vendean insurrection is already raised. Between the two lies Paris, in hardly dormant civil war. Royalty is overthrown, but royalism is rampant. The Swiss guards, the rank and file have fallen, sacrificed to their fidelity to a master who had deserted and forgotten them; but officers, courtiers, *chevaliers de poignard*, are lively as ever, intriguing, plotting, vapouring in street and café, openly rejoicing in the triumph which German armies will give them measuring, compasses in hand, the distance between Verdun and Paris. The newly\\-formed tribunal is inefficient, acquitting men, notorious for their part in the intrigues, which were the cause of all the evil. Lafayette, with his army, is believed to be marching on Paris to restore the monarchy. Republicans knew well enough what such restoration would mean. The horrors of Montauban, Arles, and Avignon are written in history, to show how well\\-founded were their fears. And in the midst of all this came the tidings that the one strong place between Paris and the enemy is besieged; that its resistance is a question hardly even of days. Then, while the tocsin was clanging, and the alarm cannon roaring, and the Girondin minister could find nothing better to suggest, with his unseasonable classicism, than carrying into the South the statue of liberty, Paris answered with one instinct to Danton's thundering defiance, and perpetrated that tremendous act of self\\-defence at which we shudder to this day. The reaction hid its head and cowered; and within the month the ragged volunteers of the Republic were hurling back from the passes of the Argonne the finest soldiery which Europe could produce.\n\nOn 2 September, news arrived in Paris that the army of the Duke of [Braunschweig](/wiki/Braunschweig \"Braunschweig\") had invaded France and the fortress of Verdun had quickly fallen, and that the Prussians were rapidly advancing towards the capital. This information ignited anger and fear among the population. Parisians knew that an illumination had been staged at the Abbay prison on the day of the capture of [Longwy](/wiki/Longwy \"Longwy\"), where behind bars the prisoners insulted passers\\-by and assured them that the Prussians would occupy Paris and destroy it. That the Parisians' hatred of the Royalists was founded can be deduced from an article published in a Girondist newspaper on 2 September stating that the Royalists decided to burn the city on all sides after the Prussian army entered Paris, starved the city population and punished the revolutionaries. And the Manifesto of the Duke of Braunschweig (25 July 1792\\), written in large part by Louis XVI's cousin [Louis Joseph de Bourbon](/wiki/Louis_Joseph%2C_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9 \"Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé\"), Prince of Condé, leader of a large contingent of immigrants in the Allied army, threatened the French people with instant punishment if the people resists the imperial and Prussian armies and the re\\-establishment of a monarchy. The days of September in Paris were seen by some as the act of self\\-defense of a people who knew how brutal the counter\\-revolutionaries were, a people who feared a coup in Paris while fighting on the front lines. After the capture of Verdun, the Prussian army was only a hundred miles from Paris. Many Europeans had no doubt about the victory of the Duke of Braunschweig. A fall of Paris was not expected later than 10 September.\n\nIn the *Créole patriote* for 2 September, the account began by evoking 10 August: 'The people, justly indignant at the crimes committed during the journée of 10 August, made for the prisons. They still feared plots and traitors... The news that Verdun had been taken... provoked their resentment and vengeance.’\n\nIt was enough for the Legislative Assembly, at the vigorous request of the Commune, to issue a statement to the French people on 4 September in which it promised \"that it would fight with all its powers against the king and the royal government\" so that the slaughter would end the same day and Parisians would go to the front. The [Battle of Valmy](/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy \"Battle of Valmy\") (20 September 1792\\) was the first victory over their enemy since the beginning of the war. [Johann Wolfgang van Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe \"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe\"), an admirer of the scientific work of Dr. Marat, said, \"At that place, on that day, a new era in world history began. It is the first victory of the people over the kings.\" No one was prosecuted for the killings.[Lefebvre](/wiki/%23Lefebvre \"#Lefebvre\"), pp. 241–244, 269\\.\n\n",
"National Convention\n-------------------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|\"Marat's Triumph\": a popular engraving of Marat borne away by a joyous crowd following his acquittal.](/wiki/File:Triomphe_de_Marat4.jpg \"Triomphe de Marat4.jpg\")\n\nMarat was elected to the National Convention in September 1792 as one of 26 Paris deputies, although he belonged to no party. When France was [declared a republic](/wiki/French_First_Republic \"French First Republic\") on 22 September, Marat renamed his *L'Ami du peuple* as *Le Journal de la République française* (\"Journal of the French Republic\").\nHis stance during the trial of the deposed king Louis XVI was unique. He declared it unfair to accuse Louis of anything before his acceptance of the [French Constitution of 1791](/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791 \"French Constitution of 1791\"), and although implacably, he said, believing that the monarch's death would be good for the people, defended [Guillaume\\-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes](/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes \"Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes\"), the King's counsel, as a \"*sage et respectable vieillard*\" (\"wise and respected old man\").\n\nOn 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was [guillotined](/wiki/Guillotine \"Guillotine\"), which caused political turmoil. From January to May, Marat fought bitterly against the [Girondins](/wiki/Girondins \"Girondins\"), whom he believed to be covert enemies of [republicanism](/wiki/Republicanism \"Republicanism\"). Marat's hatred and suspicion of the Girondins became increasingly heated which led him to call for the use of violent tactics against them. He cried that France needed a chief, \"a military Tribune\".[Mary Duclaux](/wiki/Mary_Duclaux \"Mary Duclaux\") (1918\\) [A short history of France, p. 244](https://books.google.com/books?id=HPN4DwAAQBAJ&dq=Revolutionary+Tribunal+Robespierre+offence+High+Treason&pg=PT141) The Girondins fought back and demanded that Marat be tried before the [Revolutionary Tribunal](/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal \"Revolutionary Tribunal\"). After trying to avoid arrest for several days, Marat was finally imprisoned. On 24 April, he was brought before the Tribunal on the charges that he had printed in his paper statements calling for widespread murder as well as the suspension of the Convention. Marat decisively defended his actions, stating that he had no evil intentions directed against the Convention. Marat was acquitted of all charges to the celebration of his supporters.\n\n",
"Assassination\n-------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Bloodstained copy of *L'Ami du peuple* held by Marat at his assassination, now in the [Bibliothèque nationale de France](/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France \"Bibliothèque nationale de France\")](/wiki/File:L%27Ami_du_peuple_1.jpg \"L'Ami du peuple 1.jpg\")\nThe fall of the Girondins on 2 June, helped by the actions of [François Hanriot](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot \"François Hanriot\"), the new leader of the [National Guard](/wiki/National_Guard_%28France%29 \"National Guard (France)\"), was one of Marat's last achievements. Forced to retire from the Convention due to his worsening skin disease, he continued to work from home, where he soaked in a medicinal bath. Now that the [Montagnards](/wiki/The_Mountain \"The Mountain\") no longer needed his support in the struggle against the Girondins, [Robespierre](/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre \"Maximilien Robespierre\") and other leading Montagnards began to separate themselves from him, while the [Convention](/wiki/National_Convention \"National Convention\") largely ignored his letters.\n\n[thumb\\|The assassination of Marat by [Charlotte Corday](/wiki/Charlotte_Corday \"Charlotte Corday\") on 13 July 1793](/wiki/File:MaratMurder.jpg \"MaratMurder.jpg\")\nMarat was in his bathtub on 13 July when a young woman from [Caen](/wiki/Caen \"Caen\"), [Charlotte Corday](/wiki/Charlotte_Corday \"Charlotte Corday\"), appeared at his flat, claiming to have vital information on the activities of the escaped [Girondins](/wiki/Girondins \"Girondins\") who had fled to [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\"). Despite his wife Simone's protests, Marat asked for her to enter and gave her an audience by his bath, over which a board had been laid to serve as a writing desk. Their interview lasted around fifteen minutes. He asked her what was happening in Caen and she explained, reciting a list of the offending deputies. After he had finished writing out the list, Corday claimed that he told her, \"Their heads will fall within a fortnight,\" a statement she later changed at her trial to, \"Soon I shall have them all guillotined in Paris.\" This was unlikely since Marat did not have the power to have anyone guillotined. At that moment, Corday rose from her chair, drawing out from her corset a kitchen knife, which she had bought earlier that day, and brought it down into Marat's chest, where it pierced just under his right clavicle, opening the [brachiocephalic artery](/wiki/Brachiocephalic_artery \"Brachiocephalic artery\"), close to the heart. The massive bleeding was fatal within seconds. Slumping backwards, Marat cried out his last words to Simone, \"Aidez\\-moi, ma chère amie!\" (\"Help me, my beloved!\") and died.\n\nCorday was a Girondin sympathizer who came from an impoverished royalist family; her brothers were [émigrés](/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9s \"Émigrés\") who had left to join the exiled royal princes. From her own account, and those of witnesses, it is clear that she had been inspired by Girondin speeches to a hatred of the Montagnards and their excesses, symbolised most powerfully in the character of Marat.[Andress](/wiki/%23Andress \"#Andress\"), p. 189\\. The *[Book of Days](/wiki/Chambers_Book_of_Days \"Chambers Book of Days\")* claims the motive was to \"avenge the fate of her friend, Barbaroux\". Marat's assassination contributed to the mounting suspicion which fed the Terror during which thousands of the Jacobins' adversaries – both royalists and Girondins – were executed on charges of treason. Charlotte Corday was guillotined on 17 July 1793 for the murder. During her four\\-day trial, she testified that she had carried out the assassination alone, saying \"I killed one man to save 100,000\\.\"Hulatt, Owen (2013\\) *Aesthetic and Artistic Autonomy*. Bloomsbury. p. 54\\. \n\n### Memory in the Revolution\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|*[The Death of Marat](/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat \"The Death of Marat\")* by [Jacques\\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David \"Jacques-Louis David\") (1793\\)](/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg \"Jacques-Louis David - La Mort de Marat.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|*The Death of Marat* by [Guillaume\\-Joseph Roques](/wiki/Guillaume-Joseph_Roques \"Guillaume-Joseph Roques\") (1793\\); a knife lies on the floor at lower left in the paintings by Roques and David](/wiki/File:Joseph_Roques_-_La_mort_de_Marat_-_1793.jpg \"Joseph Roques - La mort de Marat - 1793.jpg\")\nMarat's assassination led to his [apotheosis](/wiki/Apotheosis \"Apotheosis\"). The painter [Jacques\\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David \"Jacques-Louis David\"), a member of one of the two \"Great Committees\" (the Committee of General Security), was asked to organise a grand funeral. David was also asked to paint Marat's death, and took up the task of immortalising him in the painting *[The Death of Marat](/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat \"The Death of Marat\")*. The extreme decomposition of Marat's body made any realistic depiction impossible, and David's work beautified the skin that was discoloured and scabbed from his chronic skin disease in an attempt to create antique virtue. The resulting painting is thus not an accurate representation of Marat's death. As a result of this work, David was later criticised as glorifying the Jacobin's death.\n\nThe entire National Convention attended Marat's funeral, and he was buried under a [weeping willow](/wiki/Weeping_willow_%28tree%29 \"Weeping willow (tree)\") in the garden of the former *Club des Cordeliers* (former [*Couvent des Cordeliers*](/wiki/Cordeliers_Convent \"Cordeliers Convent\")). After Marat's death, he was viewed by many as a martyr for the revolution, and was immortalized in various ways to preserve the values he stood for. His heart was embalmed separately and placed in an urn in an altar erected to his memory at the *Cordeliers* to inspire speeches that were similar in style to Marat's journalism.[Andress](/wiki/%23Andress \"#Andress\"), p. 191\\. On his tomb, the inscription on a plaque read, \"Unité, Indivisibilité de la République, Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ou la mort.\" His remains were transferred to the [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on%2C_Paris \"Panthéon, Paris\") on 21 September 1794[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), p. 149 and his near messianic role in the Revolution was confirmed with the elegy: *Like Jesus, Marat loved ardently the people, and only them. Like Jesus, Marat hated kings, nobles, priests, rogues and, like Jesus, he never stopped fighting against these plagues of the people.* The eulogy was given by the [Marquis de Sade](/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade \"Marquis de Sade\"), delegate of the Section Piques and an ally of Marat's faction in the National Convention.Du Plessix Gray, Francine (2013\\) *At Home with the Marquis De Sade*. Random House. Gibson, Kenneth (2012\\) *Killer Doctors The Ultimate Betrayal of Trust*. Neil Wilson Publishing\n\n[thumb\\|Statue of Marat in front of the [Musée de la Révolution française](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise \"Musée de la Révolution française\")](/wiki/File:Statue_de_Marat_au_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vizille.jpg \"Statue de Marat au château de Vizille.jpg\")\nOn 19 November, the port city of Le Havre\\-de\\-Grâce changed its name to Le Havre\\-de\\-Marat and then Le Havre\\-Marat.Coles, David E. A. (2014\\) *The French Revolution*. Friesen Press. p. 134\\. When the Jacobins started their [dechristianisation](/wiki/Dechristianisation_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution \"Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution\") campaign to set up the *[Cult of Reason](/wiki/Cult_of_Reason \"Cult of Reason\")* of [Hébert](/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert \"Jacques Hébert\") and [Chaumette](/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette \"Pierre Gaspard Chaumette\") and later the *[Cult of the Supreme Being](/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being \"Cult of the Supreme Being\")* of the Committee of Public Safety, Marat was made a quasi\\-[saint](/wiki/Saint \"Saint\"), and his bust often replaced [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\") in the former churches of Paris.Miller, Stephen (2001\\) *Three Deaths and Enlightenment Thought: Hume, Johnson, Marat*. Bucknell University Press. p. 125\\. \n\nAfter the [Thermidorian Reaction](/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction \"Thermidorian Reaction\"), Marat's reputation decreased. On 13 January 1795, Le Havre\\-Marat became simply [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\"), the name it bears today. In February, his coffin was removed from the [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on \"Panthéon\") and his busts and sculptures were destroyed. The 4 February 1795 (16 Pluviôse) issue of [Le Moniteur Universel](/wiki/Le_Moniteur_Universel \"Le Moniteur Universel\") reported how, two days earlier, \"his busts had been knocked off their pedestals in several theatres and that some children had carried one of these busts about the streets, insulting it \\[before] dumping it in the rue [Montmartre](/wiki/Montmartre \"Montmartre\") sewer to shouts of 'Marat, voilà ton [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on \"Panthéon\") !' \\[Marat, here is your Panthéon]Buchez, Philippe\\-Joseph\\-Benjamin (1838\\) *Histoire Parlementaire de la Révolution française, ou Journal des Assemblées Nationales, depuis 1789 jusqu'en 1815*, Vol. 36, Paulin, Paris, p. 230\\. His final resting place is the cemetery of the church of [Saint\\-Étienne\\-du\\-Mont](/wiki/Saint-%C3%89tienne-du-Mont \"Saint-Étienne-du-Mont\").\n\nA bronze sculpture of Marat was removed from [Parc des Buttes Chaumont](/wiki/Parc_des_Buttes_Chaumont \"Parc des Buttes Chaumont\") and was melted down during the [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi \"Nazi\") occupation of Paris. Another was created in 2013 for the [Musée de la Révolution française](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise \"Musée de la Révolution française\").\n\nHe continued to be held in high regard in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). [Marat](/wiki/Marat_%28name%29 \"Marat (name)\") became a common name, and [Marat Fjord](/wiki/Marat_Fjord \"Marat Fjord\") in [Severnaya Zemlya](/wiki/Severnaya_Zemlya \"Severnaya Zemlya\") was named after him. Russian battleship [*Petropavlovsk*](/wiki/Russian_battleship_Petropavlovsk_%281911%29 \"Russian battleship Petropavlovsk (1911)\") () was renamed [*Marat*](/wiki/Soviet_battleship_Marat \"Soviet battleship Marat\") in 1921\\.McLaughlin, Stephen (2003\\). Russian \\& Soviet Battleships. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, p. 321\\. A street in the centre of [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol \"Sevastopol\") was named after Marat () on 3 January 1921, shortly after the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolshevik \"Bolshevik\") took over the city.\n\n### Skin disease\n\nDescribed during his time as a man \"short in stature, deformed in person, and hideous in face,\"[Adolphus, John](/wiki/John_Adolphus \"John Adolphus\"). *Biographical Anecdotes of the Founders of the French Republic.* London: R. Phillips, 1799\\. p. 232\\. Marat has long been noted for physical irregularities. The nature of Marat's debilitating skin disease, in particular, has been an object of ongoing medical interest. In the 19th century [Thomas Carlyle](/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle \"Thomas Carlyle\") alleged that the cause was [syphilis](/wiki/Syphilis \"Syphilis\"), though this is very unlikely as syphilitic rashes are generally neither [itchy](/wiki/Itch \"Itch\") nor as [long\\-lasting](/wiki/Chronic_condition \"Chronic condition\") as Marat's skin condition was. Josef E. Jelinek noted that his skin disease was intensely itchy, [blistering](/wiki/Blister \"Blister\"), began in the [perianal](/wiki/Perianal \"Perianal\") region, and was associated with weight loss leading to [emaciation](/wiki/Emaciation \"Emaciation\"). He was sick with it for the three years prior to his assassination, and spent most of this time in his bathtub. There were various minerals and medicines that were present in his bath while he soaked to help ease the pain caused by the disease. A bandana wrapped around his head was soaked in [vinegar](/wiki/Vinegar \"Vinegar\") to reduce the severity of his discomfort.[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\"), p. 42\\. Jelinek's diagnosis is [dermatitis herpetiformis](/wiki/Dermatitis_herpetiformis \"Dermatitis herpetiformis\").\n\n### Tub\n\nAfter Marat's death, his wife may have sold his bathtub to her journalist neighbour, as it was included in an inventory of his possessions. The royalist de Saint\\-Hilaire bought the tub, taking it to [Sarzeau](/wiki/Sarzeau \"Sarzeau\"), [Morbihan](/wiki/Morbihan \"Morbihan\") in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\"). His daughter, Capriole de Saint\\-Hilaire, inherited it when he died in 1805 and she passed it on to the [Sarzeau](/wiki/Sarzeau \"Sarzeau\") [curé](/wiki/Cur%C3%A9 \"Curé\") when she died in 1862\\. A journalist for *[Le Figaro](/wiki/Le_Figaro \"Le Figaro\")* tracked down the tub in 1885\\. The curé then discovered that selling the tub could earn money for the parish, yet the [Musée Carnavalet](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet \"Musée Carnavalet\") turned it down because of its lack of provenance as well as its high price. The curé approached [Madame Tussaud](/wiki/Madame_Tussaud \"Madame Tussaud\")'s waxworks, who agreed to purchase Marat's bathtub for 100,000 francs, but the curé's acceptance was lost in the mail. After rejecting other offers, including one from [Phineas Barnum](/wiki/Phineas_Barnum \"Phineas Barnum\"), the curé sold the tub for 5,000 francs to the [Musée Grévin](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Gr%C3%A9vin \"Musée Grévin\"), where it remains today.Ransom, Teresa (2003\\) *Madame Tussaud: A Life and a Time*. Sutton. pp. 252–253\\. The tub was in the shape of an old\\-fashioned high\\-buttoned shoe and had a copper lining.\n\n",
"### Memory in the Revolution\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|*[The Death of Marat](/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat \"The Death of Marat\")* by [Jacques\\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David \"Jacques-Louis David\") (1793\\)](/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David_-_La_Mort_de_Marat.jpg \"Jacques-Louis David - La Mort de Marat.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|*The Death of Marat* by [Guillaume\\-Joseph Roques](/wiki/Guillaume-Joseph_Roques \"Guillaume-Joseph Roques\") (1793\\); a knife lies on the floor at lower left in the paintings by Roques and David](/wiki/File:Joseph_Roques_-_La_mort_de_Marat_-_1793.jpg \"Joseph Roques - La mort de Marat - 1793.jpg\")\nMarat's assassination led to his [apotheosis](/wiki/Apotheosis \"Apotheosis\"). The painter [Jacques\\-Louis David](/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David \"Jacques-Louis David\"), a member of one of the two \"Great Committees\" (the Committee of General Security), was asked to organise a grand funeral. David was also asked to paint Marat's death, and took up the task of immortalising him in the painting *[The Death of Marat](/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat \"The Death of Marat\")*. The extreme decomposition of Marat's body made any realistic depiction impossible, and David's work beautified the skin that was discoloured and scabbed from his chronic skin disease in an attempt to create antique virtue. The resulting painting is thus not an accurate representation of Marat's death. As a result of this work, David was later criticised as glorifying the Jacobin's death.\n\nThe entire National Convention attended Marat's funeral, and he was buried under a [weeping willow](/wiki/Weeping_willow_%28tree%29 \"Weeping willow (tree)\") in the garden of the former *Club des Cordeliers* (former [*Couvent des Cordeliers*](/wiki/Cordeliers_Convent \"Cordeliers Convent\")). After Marat's death, he was viewed by many as a martyr for the revolution, and was immortalized in various ways to preserve the values he stood for. His heart was embalmed separately and placed in an urn in an altar erected to his memory at the *Cordeliers* to inspire speeches that were similar in style to Marat's journalism.[Andress](/wiki/%23Andress \"#Andress\"), p. 191\\. On his tomb, the inscription on a plaque read, \"Unité, Indivisibilité de la République, Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ou la mort.\" His remains were transferred to the [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on%2C_Paris \"Panthéon, Paris\") on 21 September 1794[Conner (2012\\)](/wiki/%23Conner2012 \"#Conner2012\"), p. 149 and his near messianic role in the Revolution was confirmed with the elegy: *Like Jesus, Marat loved ardently the people, and only them. Like Jesus, Marat hated kings, nobles, priests, rogues and, like Jesus, he never stopped fighting against these plagues of the people.* The eulogy was given by the [Marquis de Sade](/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade \"Marquis de Sade\"), delegate of the Section Piques and an ally of Marat's faction in the National Convention.Du Plessix Gray, Francine (2013\\) *At Home with the Marquis De Sade*. Random House. Gibson, Kenneth (2012\\) *Killer Doctors The Ultimate Betrayal of Trust*. Neil Wilson Publishing\n\n[thumb\\|Statue of Marat in front of the [Musée de la Révolution française](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise \"Musée de la Révolution française\")](/wiki/File:Statue_de_Marat_au_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vizille.jpg \"Statue de Marat au château de Vizille.jpg\")\nOn 19 November, the port city of Le Havre\\-de\\-Grâce changed its name to Le Havre\\-de\\-Marat and then Le Havre\\-Marat.Coles, David E. A. (2014\\) *The French Revolution*. Friesen Press. p. 134\\. When the Jacobins started their [dechristianisation](/wiki/Dechristianisation_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution \"Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution\") campaign to set up the *[Cult of Reason](/wiki/Cult_of_Reason \"Cult of Reason\")* of [Hébert](/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert \"Jacques Hébert\") and [Chaumette](/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette \"Pierre Gaspard Chaumette\") and later the *[Cult of the Supreme Being](/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being \"Cult of the Supreme Being\")* of the Committee of Public Safety, Marat was made a quasi\\-[saint](/wiki/Saint \"Saint\"), and his bust often replaced [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\") in the former churches of Paris.Miller, Stephen (2001\\) *Three Deaths and Enlightenment Thought: Hume, Johnson, Marat*. Bucknell University Press. p. 125\\. \n\nAfter the [Thermidorian Reaction](/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction \"Thermidorian Reaction\"), Marat's reputation decreased. On 13 January 1795, Le Havre\\-Marat became simply [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\"), the name it bears today. In February, his coffin was removed from the [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on \"Panthéon\") and his busts and sculptures were destroyed. The 4 February 1795 (16 Pluviôse) issue of [Le Moniteur Universel](/wiki/Le_Moniteur_Universel \"Le Moniteur Universel\") reported how, two days earlier, \"his busts had been knocked off their pedestals in several theatres and that some children had carried one of these busts about the streets, insulting it \\[before] dumping it in the rue [Montmartre](/wiki/Montmartre \"Montmartre\") sewer to shouts of 'Marat, voilà ton [Panthéon](/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on \"Panthéon\") !' \\[Marat, here is your Panthéon]Buchez, Philippe\\-Joseph\\-Benjamin (1838\\) *Histoire Parlementaire de la Révolution française, ou Journal des Assemblées Nationales, depuis 1789 jusqu'en 1815*, Vol. 36, Paulin, Paris, p. 230\\. His final resting place is the cemetery of the church of [Saint\\-Étienne\\-du\\-Mont](/wiki/Saint-%C3%89tienne-du-Mont \"Saint-Étienne-du-Mont\").\n\nA bronze sculpture of Marat was removed from [Parc des Buttes Chaumont](/wiki/Parc_des_Buttes_Chaumont \"Parc des Buttes Chaumont\") and was melted down during the [Nazi](/wiki/Nazi \"Nazi\") occupation of Paris. Another was created in 2013 for the [Musée de la Révolution française](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise \"Musée de la Révolution française\").\n\nHe continued to be held in high regard in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). [Marat](/wiki/Marat_%28name%29 \"Marat (name)\") became a common name, and [Marat Fjord](/wiki/Marat_Fjord \"Marat Fjord\") in [Severnaya Zemlya](/wiki/Severnaya_Zemlya \"Severnaya Zemlya\") was named after him. Russian battleship [*Petropavlovsk*](/wiki/Russian_battleship_Petropavlovsk_%281911%29 \"Russian battleship Petropavlovsk (1911)\") () was renamed [*Marat*](/wiki/Soviet_battleship_Marat \"Soviet battleship Marat\") in 1921\\.McLaughlin, Stephen (2003\\). Russian \\& Soviet Battleships. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, p. 321\\. A street in the centre of [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol \"Sevastopol\") was named after Marat () on 3 January 1921, shortly after the [Bolsheviks](/wiki/Bolshevik \"Bolshevik\") took over the city.\n\n",
"### Skin disease\n\nDescribed during his time as a man \"short in stature, deformed in person, and hideous in face,\"[Adolphus, John](/wiki/John_Adolphus \"John Adolphus\"). *Biographical Anecdotes of the Founders of the French Republic.* London: R. Phillips, 1799\\. p. 232\\. Marat has long been noted for physical irregularities. The nature of Marat's debilitating skin disease, in particular, has been an object of ongoing medical interest. In the 19th century [Thomas Carlyle](/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle \"Thomas Carlyle\") alleged that the cause was [syphilis](/wiki/Syphilis \"Syphilis\"), though this is very unlikely as syphilitic rashes are generally neither [itchy](/wiki/Itch \"Itch\") nor as [long\\-lasting](/wiki/Chronic_condition \"Chronic condition\") as Marat's skin condition was. Josef E. Jelinek noted that his skin disease was intensely itchy, [blistering](/wiki/Blister \"Blister\"), began in the [perianal](/wiki/Perianal \"Perianal\") region, and was associated with weight loss leading to [emaciation](/wiki/Emaciation \"Emaciation\"). He was sick with it for the three years prior to his assassination, and spent most of this time in his bathtub. There were various minerals and medicines that were present in his bath while he soaked to help ease the pain caused by the disease. A bandana wrapped around his head was soaked in [vinegar](/wiki/Vinegar \"Vinegar\") to reduce the severity of his discomfort.[Loomis](/wiki/%23Loomis \"#Loomis\"), p. 42\\. Jelinek's diagnosis is [dermatitis herpetiformis](/wiki/Dermatitis_herpetiformis \"Dermatitis herpetiformis\").\n\n",
"### Tub\n\nAfter Marat's death, his wife may have sold his bathtub to her journalist neighbour, as it was included in an inventory of his possessions. The royalist de Saint\\-Hilaire bought the tub, taking it to [Sarzeau](/wiki/Sarzeau \"Sarzeau\"), [Morbihan](/wiki/Morbihan \"Morbihan\") in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\"). His daughter, Capriole de Saint\\-Hilaire, inherited it when he died in 1805 and she passed it on to the [Sarzeau](/wiki/Sarzeau \"Sarzeau\") [curé](/wiki/Cur%C3%A9 \"Curé\") when she died in 1862\\. A journalist for *[Le Figaro](/wiki/Le_Figaro \"Le Figaro\")* tracked down the tub in 1885\\. The curé then discovered that selling the tub could earn money for the parish, yet the [Musée Carnavalet](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet \"Musée Carnavalet\") turned it down because of its lack of provenance as well as its high price. The curé approached [Madame Tussaud](/wiki/Madame_Tussaud \"Madame Tussaud\")'s waxworks, who agreed to purchase Marat's bathtub for 100,000 francs, but the curé's acceptance was lost in the mail. After rejecting other offers, including one from [Phineas Barnum](/wiki/Phineas_Barnum \"Phineas Barnum\"), the curé sold the tub for 5,000 francs to the [Musée Grévin](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Gr%C3%A9vin \"Musée Grévin\"), where it remains today.Ransom, Teresa (2003\\) *Madame Tussaud: A Life and a Time*. Sutton. pp. 252–253\\. The tub was in the shape of an old\\-fashioned high\\-buttoned shoe and had a copper lining.\n\n",
"Works\n-----\n\n* [*A Philosophical Essay on Man* (1773\\)](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecco;idno=004807815.0001.002) (in English)\n* [*The Chains of Slavery* (1774\\)](http://jpmarat.de/english/jpmie.html) (in English)\n* [An Essay on Gleets \\&c. (1775\\)](https://web.archive.org/web/20161120150030/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/ecco/004790241.0001.000/1:4?rgn=div1;view=fulltext) (in English)\n* [*Enquiry into the Nature, Cause, and Cure of a Singular Disease of the Eyes* (1776\\)](https://archive.org/details/reprintoftwotrac00mara) (in English)\n* [*De l'Homme* (1776\\)](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k83091g) (translation of his 1773 English work)\n* [*Découvertes de M. Marat sur le feu, l'électricité et la lumière* (1779\\)](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k86276v.r=jean+paul+marat.langFR)\n* [*Plan de Législation Criminelle* (1780\\)](http://jpmarat.de/francais/marat/plan.html)\n* [*Recherches physiques sur le feu* (1780\\)](http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/structure/1432889)\n* *Découvertes de M. Marat sur la lumière, constatées par une suite d'expériences nouvelles* (1780\\)\n* [*Recherches physiques sur l'électricité, \\&c* (1782\\)](https://archive.org/details/recherchesphysi00maragoog)\n* [*Mémoire sur l'électricité médicale* (1783\\)](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5741204f/f6.image)\n* [*Notions élémentaires d'optique* (1784\\)](http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/titleinfo/3443416)\n* *Lettres de l'observateur Bon Sens à M. de M sur la fatale catastrophe des infortunés Pilatre de Rozier et Ronzain, les aéronautes et l'aérostation* (1785\\)\n* *Observations de M. l'amateur Avec à M. l'abbé Sans . . . \\&c.,* (1785\\)\n* [Éloge de Montesquieu : présenté à l'Académie de Bordeaux, le 28 mars 1785 / par J.\\-P. Maratz ; publié avec une introduction, par Arthur de Brézetz,...](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65075788/f7.image)*Éloge de Montesquieu* (1785\\) (provincial Academy competition entry first published 1883 by M. de Bresetz)\n* [*Optique de Newton* (1787\\)](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k86285t/f4.item.zoom)\n* [*Mémoires académiques* (1788\\)](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k824424/f11.image.r=D%C3%A9couvertes+sur+la+Lumi%C3%A8re.langFR)\n* [*Offrande à la Patrie* (1789\\)](https://archive.org/details/patrie00mara) (pamphlet)\n* [Constitution, ou projet de déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen (1789\\)](https://books.google.com/books/about/La_Constitution_ou_projet_de_d%C3%A9claratio.html?id=gplgAAAAcAAJ|La) (pamphlet)\n* [*Les Charlatans modernes, ou lettres sur le charlatanisme académique*](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb10736779?page=1) (*L'Ami du Peuple*, 1791\\) (pamphlet)\n* [*Les chaînes de l'Esclavage* (1792\\)](http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/marat_jean_paul/chaines_esclavage/marat_chaines_esclavage.pdf) (translation of his 1774 English work)\n* *Les Aventures du jeune comte Potowski* (unpublished manuscript first published in 1847 by Paul Lacroix)\n* *Lettres polonaises* (unpublished manuscript first printed in English in 1905; recently translated into French but authenticity disputed)\n* *La Correspondance de Marat* (published in 1908 by Charles Vellay)\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Cited sources\n-------------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Conner, Clifford D. *Jean Paul Marat: Scientist and Revolutionary* (2nd ed. 2012\\) [online review from H\\-France 2013](http://www.h-france.net/vol13reviews/vol13no13miller.pdf); [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/Jean-Paul-Marat-Tribune-Revolution-Revolutionary/dp/0745331939/)\n* Fishman, W. J. \"Jean\\-Paul Marat\", *History Today* (1971\\) 21\\#5, pp. 329–337; his life before 1789\n* Palmer, R.R. *Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution* (1941\\) [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/Twelve-Who-Ruled-Revolution-Princeton/dp/0691121877/)\n* 1989–1995: Jean\\-Paul Marat, Œuvres Politiques (ten volumes 1789–1793 – Text: 6\\.600 p. – Guide: 2\\.200 p.)\n* 2001: *Marat en famille – La saga des Mara(t)* (2 volumes) – New approach of Marat's family.\n* 2006: *Plume de Marat – Plumes sur Marat* (2 volumes): Bibliography (3\\.000 references of books and articles of and on Marat)\n* The [**](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000567556) has been edited with notes by [Charles Vellay](/wiki/Charles_Vellay \"Charles Vellay\") (1908\\)\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* Marat's (1784\\) [*Notions élémentaires d'optique*](http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/39646) – digital facsimile from the [Linda Hall Library](/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library \"Linda Hall Library\")\n* [review](https://socialistresurgence.org/2020/12/07/jean-paul-marat-a-lasting-political-legacy/) of Conner's biography\n\n[Category:1743 births](/wiki/Category:1743_births \"1743 births\")\n[Category:1793 deaths](/wiki/Category:1793_deaths \"1793 deaths\")\n[Category:People from the Principality of Neuchâtel](/wiki/Category:People_from_the_Principality_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel \"People from the Principality of Neuchâtel\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French physicians](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_physicians \"18th-century French physicians\")\n[Category:Alumni of the University of St Andrews](/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_the_University_of_St_Andrews \"Alumni of the University of St Andrews\")\n[Category:Assassinated French journalists](/wiki/Category:Assassinated_French_journalists \"Assassinated French journalists\")\n[Category:Assassinated French politicians](/wiki/Category:Assassinated_French_politicians \"Assassinated French politicians\")\n[Category:Burials at the Panthéon, Paris](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_the_Panth%C3%A9on%2C_Paris \"Burials at the Panthéon, Paris\")\n[Category:Deaths by stabbing in France](/wiki/Category:Deaths_by_stabbing_in_France \"Deaths by stabbing in France\")\n[Category:French newspaper founders](/wiki/Category:French_newspaper_founders \"French newspaper founders\")\n[Category:French radicals](/wiki/Category:French_radicals \"French radicals\")\n[Category:Newspaper publishers (people) of the French Revolution](/wiki/Category:Newspaper_publishers_%28people%29_of_the_French_Revolution \"Newspaper publishers (people) of the French Revolution\")\n[Category:Newspaper editors of the French Revolution](/wiki/Category:Newspaper_editors_of_the_French_Revolution \"Newspaper editors of the French Revolution\")\n[Category:French people of Spanish descent](/wiki/Category:French_people_of_Spanish_descent \"French people of Spanish descent\")\n[Category:French people of Sardinian descent](/wiki/Category:French_people_of_Sardinian_descent \"French people of Sardinian descent\")\n[Category:Montagnards](/wiki/Category:Montagnards \"Montagnards\")\n[Category:People from Boudry](/wiki/Category:People_from_Boudry \"People from Boudry\")\n[Category:People murdered in Paris](/wiki/Category:People_murdered_in_Paris \"People murdered in Paris\")\n[Category:People of the Reign of Terror](/wiki/Category:People_of_the_Reign_of_Terror \"People of the Reign of Terror\")\n[Category:Regicides of Louis XVI](/wiki/Category:Regicides_of_Louis_XVI \"Regicides of Louis XVI\")\n[Category:English\\-language writers from France](/wiki/Category:English-language_writers_from_France \"English-language writers from France\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French journalists](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_journalists \"18th-century French journalists\")\n[Category:1793 murders in France](/wiki/Category:1793_murders_in_France \"1793 murders in France\")\n[Category:Politicians assassinated in the 18th century](/wiki/Category:Politicians_assassinated_in_the_18th_century \"Politicians assassinated in the 18th century\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Ammonoidea
|
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42207223
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"name": [
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|
8v9horun4trlnjm1j2vphe4ddnaug1w
|
2024-10-14T12:28:56Z
| 1,247,655,122 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Diagnostic characters",
"Septa and suture patterns",
"Siphuncle",
"Classification",
"Orders and suborders",
"Taxonomy of the ''Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology''",
"Life",
"Shell anatomy and diversity",
"Basic shell anatomy",
"Sexual dimorphism",
"Variations in shape",
"Heteromorphs",
"Aptychus",
"Soft-part anatomy",
"Size",
"Distribution",
"Evolutionary history",
"Cultural significance",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
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3,
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - * + \n\t\t\t\t**Ammonoids** are extinct spiral shelled [cephalopods](/wiki/Cephalopod \"Cephalopod\") comprising the subclass **Ammonoidea**. They are more closely related to living [coleoids](/wiki/Coleoid \"Coleoid\") (i.e., [octopuses](/wiki/Octopus \"Octopus\"), [squid](/wiki/Squid \"Squid\") and [cuttlefish](/wiki/Cuttlefish \"Cuttlefish\")) than they are to shelled [nautiloids](/wiki/Nautiloid \"Nautiloid\") (such as the living *[Nautilus](/wiki/Nautilus \"Nautilus\")*). The earliest ammonoids appeared during the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\"), with the last [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") vanishing during or soon after the [Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event](/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event \"Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event\"). They are often called **ammonites**, which is most frequently used for members of the order [Ammonitida](/wiki/Ammonitida \"Ammonitida\"), the only living group of ammonoids from the [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic \"Jurassic\") up until their extinction.\n\nAmmonites are excellent [index fossils](/wiki/Index_fossils \"Index fossils\"), and linking the rock layer in which a particular species or genus is found to specific [geologic time periods](/wiki/Geologic_time_scale \"Geologic time scale\") is often possible. Their [fossil](/wiki/Fossil \"Fossil\") shells usually take the form of [planispirals](/wiki/Planispiral \"Planispiral\"), although some helically spiraled and nonspiraled forms (known as [heteromorphs](/wiki/Heteromorph \"Heteromorph\")) have been found.\n\nThe name \"ammonite\", from which the scientific term is derived, was inspired by the spiral shape of their fossilized shells, which somewhat resemble tightly coiled [rams](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\")' horns. [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\") ( 79 AD near Pompeii) called fossils of these animals (\"[horns of Ammon](/wiki/Horns_of_Ammon \"Horns of Ammon\")\") because the Egyptian god Ammon ([Amun](/wiki/Amun \"Amun\")) was typically depicted wearing rams' horns.*[NH](/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29 \"Natural History (Pliny)\")* 37\\.40\\.167 Often, the name of an ammonite genus ends in \\-*ceras*, which is from () meaning \"horn\".\n\n",
"Diagnostic characters\n---------------------\n\nAmmonites (subclass Ammonoidea) can be distinguished by their septa, the dividing walls that separate the chambers in the phragmocone, by the nature of their sutures where the septa join the outer shell wall, and in general by their [siphuncles](/wiki/Siphuncle \"Siphuncle\").\n\n### Septa and suture patterns\n\nAmmonoid [septa](/wiki/Septum \"Septum\") characteristically have bulges and indentations and are to varying degrees convex when seen from the front, distinguishing them from nautiloid septa, which are typically simple concave, dish\\-shaped structures. The topology of the septa, especially around the rim, results in the various suture patterns found. The septal curvature in nautiloids and ammonoids also differ in that the septa curves towards the opening in nautiloids, and away from the opening in ammоnoids.[Phylum Mollusca Class Cephalopoda](https://www.geology.arkansas.gov/docs/pdf/geology/invertebrate_fossils/ammonoidea.pdf)[thumb\\|left\\|Regions of the suture line and variants in suture patterns](/wiki/File:Ammonites_suture_terminology_english.png \"Ammonites suture terminology english.png\")\n[thumb\\|Ammonite clean cut While](/wiki/File:Ammonite-fossil-25-45mm.jpg \"Ammonite-fossil-25-45mm.jpg\") nearly all nautiloids show gently curving sutures, the ammonoid suture line (the intersection of the septum with the outer shell) is variably folded, forming saddles (\"peaks\" that point towards the aperture) and lobes (\"valleys\" which point away from the aperture). The suture line has four main regions.\n[thumb\\|[*Placenticeras* sp.](/wiki/Placenticeras \"Placenticeras\") showing sutures.](/wiki/File:Placenticeras_sp._%28fossil_ammonite%29_%28Pierre_Shale%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_Meade_County%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA%29_1.jpg \"Placenticeras sp. (fossil ammonite) (Pierre Shale, Upper Cretaceous; Meade County, South Dakota, USA) 1.jpg\") \nThe external or ventral region refers to sutures along the lower (outer) edge of the shell, where the left and right suture lines meet. The external (or ventral) saddle, when present, lies directly on the lower midline of the shell. As a result, it is often called the median saddle. On suture diagrams the median saddle is supplied with an arrow which points towards the aperture. The median saddle is edged by fairly small external (or ventral) lobes. The earliest ammonoids lacked a median saddle and instead had a single midline ventral lobe, which in later forms is split into two or more components.\n\nThe lateral region involves the first saddle and lobe pair past the external region as the suture line extends up the side of the shell. The lateral saddle and lobe are usually larger than the ventral saddle and lobe. Additional lobes developing towards the inner edge of a whorl are labelled umbilical lobes, which increase in number through ammonoid evolution as well as an individual ammonoid's development. In many cases the distinction between the lateral and umbilical regions are unclear; new umbilical features can develop from subdivisions of other umbilical features, or from subdivisions of lateral features. Lobes and saddles which are so far towards the center of the whorl that they are covered up by succeeding whorls are labelled internal (or dorsal) lobes and saddles.\n\nThree major types of suture patterns are found in the Ammonoidea:\n* **Goniatitic** – numerous undivided lobes and saddles. This pattern is characteristic of the Paleozoic ammonoids (orders Agoniatitida, Clymeniida, Goniatitida, and Prolecanitida).\n* **Ceratitic** – lobes have subdivided tips, giving them a saw\\-toothed appearance. The saddles are rounded and undivided. This suture pattern is characteristic of Triassic ammonoids in the order [Ceratitida](/wiki/Ceratitida \"Ceratitida\"). It appears again in the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") \"pseudoceratites\".\n* **Ammonitic** – lobes and saddles are much subdivided (fluted); subdivisions are usually rounded instead of saw\\-toothed. Ammonoids of this type are the most important species from a biostratigraphical point of view. This suture type is characteristic of [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic \"Jurassic\") and Cretaceous ammonoids, but extends back all the way to the [Permian](/wiki/Permian \"Permian\").\n\nFile:Ammonite Goniatites plebeiformis Goniatitic suture.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Goniatites\\|Goniatites plebeiformis]]'' showing Goniatitic suture\nFile:Ammonite Protrachyceras pseudoarchelonus Ceratitic suture.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Protrachyceras\\|Protrachyceras pseudoarchelonus]]'' showing Ceratitic suture\nFile:Ammonite Lytoceras sutile Ammonitic suture.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Lytoceras sutile]]'' showing Ammonitic suture\n\n \n\n### Siphuncle\n\nThe [siphuncle](/wiki/Siphuncle \"Siphuncle\") in most ammonoids is a narrow tubular structure that runs along the shell's outer rim, known as the venter, connecting the chambers of the [phragmocone](/wiki/Phragmocone \"Phragmocone\") to the body or living chamber. This distinguishes them from living nautiloides (*Nautilus* and *[Allonautilus](/wiki/Allonautilus \"Allonautilus\")*) and typical [Nautilida](/wiki/Nautilida \"Nautilida\"), in which the siphuncle runs through the center of each chamber. However the very earliest nautiloids from the Late Cambrian and Ordovician typically had ventral siphuncles like ammonites, although often proportionally larger and more internally structured. The word \"siphuncle\" comes from the [Neo\\-Latin](/wiki/Neo-Latin \"Neo-Latin\") *siphunculus*, meaning \"little siphon\".\n\n",
"### Septa and suture patterns\n\nAmmonoid [septa](/wiki/Septum \"Septum\") characteristically have bulges and indentations and are to varying degrees convex when seen from the front, distinguishing them from nautiloid septa, which are typically simple concave, dish\\-shaped structures. The topology of the septa, especially around the rim, results in the various suture patterns found. The septal curvature in nautiloids and ammonoids also differ in that the septa curves towards the opening in nautiloids, and away from the opening in ammоnoids.[Phylum Mollusca Class Cephalopoda](https://www.geology.arkansas.gov/docs/pdf/geology/invertebrate_fossils/ammonoidea.pdf)[thumb\\|left\\|Regions of the suture line and variants in suture patterns](/wiki/File:Ammonites_suture_terminology_english.png \"Ammonites suture terminology english.png\")\n[thumb\\|Ammonite clean cut While](/wiki/File:Ammonite-fossil-25-45mm.jpg \"Ammonite-fossil-25-45mm.jpg\") nearly all nautiloids show gently curving sutures, the ammonoid suture line (the intersection of the septum with the outer shell) is variably folded, forming saddles (\"peaks\" that point towards the aperture) and lobes (\"valleys\" which point away from the aperture). The suture line has four main regions.\n[thumb\\|[*Placenticeras* sp.](/wiki/Placenticeras \"Placenticeras\") showing sutures.](/wiki/File:Placenticeras_sp._%28fossil_ammonite%29_%28Pierre_Shale%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_Meade_County%2C_South_Dakota%2C_USA%29_1.jpg \"Placenticeras sp. (fossil ammonite) (Pierre Shale, Upper Cretaceous; Meade County, South Dakota, USA) 1.jpg\") \nThe external or ventral region refers to sutures along the lower (outer) edge of the shell, where the left and right suture lines meet. The external (or ventral) saddle, when present, lies directly on the lower midline of the shell. As a result, it is often called the median saddle. On suture diagrams the median saddle is supplied with an arrow which points towards the aperture. The median saddle is edged by fairly small external (or ventral) lobes. The earliest ammonoids lacked a median saddle and instead had a single midline ventral lobe, which in later forms is split into two or more components.\n\nThe lateral region involves the first saddle and lobe pair past the external region as the suture line extends up the side of the shell. The lateral saddle and lobe are usually larger than the ventral saddle and lobe. Additional lobes developing towards the inner edge of a whorl are labelled umbilical lobes, which increase in number through ammonoid evolution as well as an individual ammonoid's development. In many cases the distinction between the lateral and umbilical regions are unclear; new umbilical features can develop from subdivisions of other umbilical features, or from subdivisions of lateral features. Lobes and saddles which are so far towards the center of the whorl that they are covered up by succeeding whorls are labelled internal (or dorsal) lobes and saddles.\n\nThree major types of suture patterns are found in the Ammonoidea:\n* **Goniatitic** – numerous undivided lobes and saddles. This pattern is characteristic of the Paleozoic ammonoids (orders Agoniatitida, Clymeniida, Goniatitida, and Prolecanitida).\n* **Ceratitic** – lobes have subdivided tips, giving them a saw\\-toothed appearance. The saddles are rounded and undivided. This suture pattern is characteristic of Triassic ammonoids in the order [Ceratitida](/wiki/Ceratitida \"Ceratitida\"). It appears again in the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") \"pseudoceratites\".\n* **Ammonitic** – lobes and saddles are much subdivided (fluted); subdivisions are usually rounded instead of saw\\-toothed. Ammonoids of this type are the most important species from a biostratigraphical point of view. This suture type is characteristic of [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic \"Jurassic\") and Cretaceous ammonoids, but extends back all the way to the [Permian](/wiki/Permian \"Permian\").\n\nFile:Ammonite Goniatites plebeiformis Goniatitic suture.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Goniatites\\|Goniatites plebeiformis]]'' showing Goniatitic suture\nFile:Ammonite Protrachyceras pseudoarchelonus Ceratitic suture.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Protrachyceras\\|Protrachyceras pseudoarchelonus]]'' showing Ceratitic suture\nFile:Ammonite Lytoceras sutile Ammonitic suture.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Lytoceras sutile]]'' showing Ammonitic suture\n\n \n\n",
"### Siphuncle\n\nThe [siphuncle](/wiki/Siphuncle \"Siphuncle\") in most ammonoids is a narrow tubular structure that runs along the shell's outer rim, known as the venter, connecting the chambers of the [phragmocone](/wiki/Phragmocone \"Phragmocone\") to the body or living chamber. This distinguishes them from living nautiloides (*Nautilus* and *[Allonautilus](/wiki/Allonautilus \"Allonautilus\")*) and typical [Nautilida](/wiki/Nautilida \"Nautilida\"), in which the siphuncle runs through the center of each chamber. However the very earliest nautiloids from the Late Cambrian and Ordovician typically had ventral siphuncles like ammonites, although often proportionally larger and more internally structured. The word \"siphuncle\" comes from the [Neo\\-Latin](/wiki/Neo-Latin \"Neo-Latin\") *siphunculus*, meaning \"little siphon\".\n\n",
"Classification\n--------------\n\n[thumb\\|An ammonite shell viewed in section, revealing the internal chambers and [septa](/wiki/Septum_%28cephalopod%29 \"Septum (cephalopod)\"). Large polished examples are prized for both their aesthetic and scientific value.](/wiki/Image:Ammoniteplit.jpg \"Ammoniteplit.jpg\")\n\nOriginating from within the [bactritoid](/wiki/Bactritida \"Bactritida\") nautiloids, the ammonoid cephalopods first appeared in the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\") (*circa* 409 million years ago (Mya)) and became [extinct](/wiki/Extinct \"Extinct\") shortly after [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") (66 Mya). The classification of ammonoids is based in part on the [ornamentation](/wiki/Biological_ornament \"Biological ornament\") and structure of the [septa](/wiki/Septum_%28cephalopod%29 \"Septum (cephalopod)\") comprising their shells' gas chambers.\n\n### Orders and suborders\n\n[thumb\\|An ammonitic ammonoid with the body chamber missing, showing the septal surface (especially at right) with its undulating lobes and saddles.](/wiki/Image:1212amma.jpg \"1212amma.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Iridescent](/wiki/Iridescence \"Iridescence\") ancient ammonite fossil on display at the [American Museum of Natural History](/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History \"American Museum of Natural History\"), New York City, around 2 feet in diameter](/wiki/Image:Iridescent_Ammonite_Fossil.jpg \"Iridescent Ammonite Fossil.jpg\")\n\nThe Ammonoidea can be divided into six orders, listed here starting with the most primitive and going to the more derived:\n* [Agoniatitida](/wiki/Agoniatitida \"Agoniatitida\"), Lower Devonian – Middle Devonian\n* [Clymeniida](/wiki/Clymeniida \"Clymeniida\"), Upper Devonian\n* [Goniatitida](/wiki/Goniatitida \"Goniatitida\"), Middle Devonian – Upper Permian\n* [Prolecanitida](/wiki/Prolecanitida \"Prolecanitida\"), Upper Devonian – Upper Triassic\n* [Ceratitida](/wiki/Ceratitida \"Ceratitida\"), Upper Permian – Upper Triassic\n* [Ammonitida](/wiki/Ammonitida \"Ammonitida\"), Lower Jurassic – Lower Paleocene\n\nIn some classifications, these are left as suborders, included in only three orders: [Goniatitida](/wiki/Goniatitida \"Goniatitida\"), [Ceratitida](/wiki/Ceratitida \"Ceratitida\") and [Ammonitida](/wiki/Ammonitida \"Ammonitida\").\n\n### Taxonomy of the *Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology*\n\nThe *[Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology](/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology \"Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology\")* (Part L, 1957\\) divides the Ammonoidea, regarded simply as an order, into eight suborders, the Anarcestina, Clymeniina, Goniatitina and Prolecanitina from the Paleozoic; the Ceratitina from the Triassic; and the Ammonitina, Lytoceratina and [Phylloceratina](/wiki/Phylloceratina \"Phylloceratina\") from the Jurassic and Cretaceous. In subsequent taxonomies, these are sometimes regarded as orders within the subclass Ammonoidea.\n\n",
"### Orders and suborders\n\n[thumb\\|An ammonitic ammonoid with the body chamber missing, showing the septal surface (especially at right) with its undulating lobes and saddles.](/wiki/Image:1212amma.jpg \"1212amma.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Iridescent](/wiki/Iridescence \"Iridescence\") ancient ammonite fossil on display at the [American Museum of Natural History](/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History \"American Museum of Natural History\"), New York City, around 2 feet in diameter](/wiki/Image:Iridescent_Ammonite_Fossil.jpg \"Iridescent Ammonite Fossil.jpg\")\n\nThe Ammonoidea can be divided into six orders, listed here starting with the most primitive and going to the more derived:\n* [Agoniatitida](/wiki/Agoniatitida \"Agoniatitida\"), Lower Devonian – Middle Devonian\n* [Clymeniida](/wiki/Clymeniida \"Clymeniida\"), Upper Devonian\n* [Goniatitida](/wiki/Goniatitida \"Goniatitida\"), Middle Devonian – Upper Permian\n* [Prolecanitida](/wiki/Prolecanitida \"Prolecanitida\"), Upper Devonian – Upper Triassic\n* [Ceratitida](/wiki/Ceratitida \"Ceratitida\"), Upper Permian – Upper Triassic\n* [Ammonitida](/wiki/Ammonitida \"Ammonitida\"), Lower Jurassic – Lower Paleocene\n\nIn some classifications, these are left as suborders, included in only three orders: [Goniatitida](/wiki/Goniatitida \"Goniatitida\"), [Ceratitida](/wiki/Ceratitida \"Ceratitida\") and [Ammonitida](/wiki/Ammonitida \"Ammonitida\").\n\n",
"### Taxonomy of the *Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology*\n\nThe *[Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology](/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology \"Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology\")* (Part L, 1957\\) divides the Ammonoidea, regarded simply as an order, into eight suborders, the Anarcestina, Clymeniina, Goniatitina and Prolecanitina from the Paleozoic; the Ceratitina from the Triassic; and the Ammonitina, Lytoceratina and [Phylloceratina](/wiki/Phylloceratina \"Phylloceratina\") from the Jurassic and Cretaceous. In subsequent taxonomies, these are sometimes regarded as orders within the subclass Ammonoidea.\n\n",
"Life\n----\n\n[thumb\\|*[Asteroceras](/wiki/Asteroceras \"Asteroceras\")*, a Jurassic ammonite from EnglandBecause](/wiki/Image:Ammonite_Asteroceras.jpg \"Ammonite Asteroceras.jpg\") ammonites and their close relatives are extinct, little is known about their way of life. Their soft body parts are very rarely preserved in any detail. Nonetheless, much has been worked out by examining ammonoid shells and by using models of these shells in water tanks.\n\nMany ammonoids probably lived in the open water of ancient seas, rather than at the sea bottom, because their fossils are often found in rocks laid down under conditions where no [bottom\\-dwelling](/wiki/Benthic_zone \"Benthic zone\") life is found. In general, they appear to have inhabited the upper 250 meters of the water column. Many of them (such as *[Oxynoticeras](/wiki/Oxynoticeras \"Oxynoticeras\")*) are thought to have been good swimmers, with flattened, discus\\-shaped, streamlined shells, although some ammonoids were less effective swimmers and were likely to have been slow\\-swimming bottom\\-dwellers. [Synchrotron](/wiki/Synchrotron \"Synchrotron\") analysis of an [aptychophoran](/wiki/Aptychus \"Aptychus\") ammonite revealed remains of [isopod](/wiki/Isopod \"Isopod\") and [mollusc](/wiki/Mollusc \"Mollusc\") larvae in its buccal cavity, indicating at least this kind of ammonite fed on [plankton](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\"). They may have avoided predation by squirting [ink](/wiki/Cephalopod_ink \"Cephalopod ink\"), much like modern cephalopods; ink is occasionally preserved in fossil specimens.\n\nThe soft body of the creature occupied the largest segments of the shell at the end of the coil. The smaller earlier segments were walled off and the animal could maintain its buoyancy by filling them with gas. Thus, the smaller sections of the coil would have floated above the larger sections.\n\nMany ammonite shells have been found with round holes once interpreted as a result of limpets attaching themselves to the shells. However, the triangular formation of the holes, their size and shape, and their presence on both sides of the shells, corresponding to the upper and lower jaws, is more likely evidence of the bite of a medium\\-sized [mosasaur](/wiki/Mosasaur \"Mosasaur\") preying upon ammonites.\n\nSome ammonites appear to have lived in [cold seeps](/wiki/Cold_seep \"Cold seep\") and even reproduced there.\n\n",
"Shell anatomy and diversity\n---------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Fossil shell of ammonite *[Placenticeras whitfieldi](/wiki/Placenticeras_whitfieldi \"Placenticeras whitfieldi\")* showing punctures caused by the bite of a [mosasaur](/wiki/Mosasaur \"Mosasaur\"), [Peabody Museum of Natural History](/wiki/Peabody_Museum_of_Natural_History \"Peabody Museum of Natural History\"), Yale](/wiki/File:Placenticeratidae_-_Placenticeras_whitfieldi.jpg \"Placenticeratidae - Placenticeras whitfieldi.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|*[Orthosphynctes](/wiki/Orthosphynctes \"Orthosphynctes\")*, a Jurassic ammonite from Portugal](/wiki/Image:Amonite-portugal.JPG \"Amonite-portugal.JPG\")\n\n### Basic shell anatomy\n\n[thumb\\|*[Jeletzkytes](/wiki/Jeletzkytes \"Jeletzkytes\")*, a Cretaceous ammonite from South Dakota, US](/wiki/Image:Ammonite_Jeletzkytes.jpg \"Ammonite Jeletzkytes.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|A variety of ammonite forms, from [Ernst Haeckel](/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel \"Ernst Haeckel\")'s 1904 *Kunstformen der Natur* (Art Forms of Nature)](/wiki/Image:Haeckel_Ammonitida.jpg \"Haeckel Ammonitida.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Polished fossil ammonite](/wiki/File:Polished_fossil_ammonite_005.jpg \"Polished fossil ammonite 005.jpg\")\nThe chambered part of the ammonite shell is called a [phragmocone](/wiki/Phragmocone \"Phragmocone\"). It contains a series of progressively larger chambers, called [camerae](/wiki/Camera_%28cephalopod%29 \"Camera (cephalopod)\") (sing. camera) that are divided by thin walls called [septa](/wiki/Septa_%28biology%29 \"Septa (biology)\") (sing. septum). Only the last and largest chamber, the [body chamber](/wiki/Body_chamber \"Body chamber\"), was occupied by the living animal at any given moment. As it grew, it added newer and larger chambers to the open end of the coil. Where the outer [whorl](/wiki/Whorl_%28mollusc%29 \"Whorl (mollusc)\") of an ammonite shell largely covers the preceding whorls, the specimen is said to be *[involute](/wiki/wikt:Involute \"Involute\")* (e.g., *[Anahoplites](/wiki/Anahoplites \"Anahoplites\")*). Where it does not cover those preceding, the specimen is said to be *[evolute](/wiki/wikt:Evolute \"Evolute\")* (e.g., *[Dactylioceras](/wiki/Dactylioceras \"Dactylioceras\")*).\n\nA thin living tube called a [siphuncle](/wiki/Siphuncle \"Siphuncle\") passed through the septa, extending from the ammonite's body into the empty shell chambers. Through a [hyperosmotic](/wiki/Hyperosmotic \"Hyperosmotic\") active transport process, the ammonite emptied water out of these shell chambers. This enabled it to control the [buoyancy](/wiki/Buoyancy \"Buoyancy\") of the shell and thereby rise or descend in the water column.\n\nA primary difference between ammonites and nautiloids is the siphuncle of ammonites (excepting [Clymeniina](/wiki/Clymeniina \"Clymeniina\")) runs along the ventral periphery of the septa and camerae (i.e., the inner surface of the outer axis of the shell), while the siphuncle of nautiloids runs more or less through the center of the septa and camerae.\n\n### Sexual dimorphism\n\n[thumb\\|*[Discoscaphites iris](/wiki/Discoscaphites \"Discoscaphites\")*, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi, US](/wiki/Image:DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg \"DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg\")\n\nOne feature found in shells of the modern *[Nautilus](/wiki/Nautilus \"Nautilus\")* is the variation in the shape and size of the shell according to the [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\") of the animal, the shell of the male being slightly smaller and wider than that of the female. This [sexual dimorphism](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism \"Sexual dimorphism\") is thought to be an explanation for the variation in size of certain ammonite shells of the same species, the larger shell (the *macroconch*) being female, and the smaller shell (the *microconch*) being male. This is thought to be because the female required a larger body size for egg production. A good example of this sexual variation is found in *[Bifericeras](/wiki/Bifericeras \"Bifericeras\")* from the early part of the [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic \"Jurassic\") period of [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\").\n\nOnly recently has sexual variation in the shells of ammonites been recognized. The macroconch and microconch of one species were often previously mistaken for two closely related but different species occurring in the same rocks. However, because the dimorphic sizes are so consistently found together, they are more likely an example of sexual dimorphism within the same species.\n\nWhorl width in the body chamber of many groups of ammonites, as expressed by the width:diameter ratio, is another sign of dimorphism. This character has been used to separate \"male\" (Largiventer conch \"L\") from \"female\" (Leviventer conch \"l\").\n\n### Variations in shape\n\nThe majority of ammonite species feature planispiral shells, tightly coiled in a flat plane. The most fundamental difference in spiral form is how strongly successive whorls expand and overlap their predecessors. This can be inferred by the size of the umbilicus, the sunken\\-in inner part of the coil, exposing older and smaller whorls. *Evolute* shells have very little overlap, a large umbilicus, and many exposed whorls. *Involute* shells have strong overlap, a small umbilicus, and only the largest and most recent whorls are exposed. Shell structure can be broken down further by the width of the shell, with implications for [hydrodynamic](/wiki/Hydrodynamic \"Hydrodynamic\") efficiency.\n\nMajor shell forms include:\n\n* **Oxycone** – Strongly involute and very narrow, with sharp ventral keels and a streamlined, lenticular ([lens](/wiki/Lens \"Lens\")\\-shaped) cross\\-section. These ammonoids are estimated to be [nektonic](/wiki/Nekton \"Nekton\") (well\\-adapted to rapid active swimming), as their shell form incurs very little drag and allows for efficient, stable coasting even in turbulent flow regimes.\n* **Serpenticone** – Strongly evolute and fairly narrow (discoidal) in width. Historically assumed to be primarily [planktonic](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\") (free\\-floating drifters), a nektonic lifestyle is also plausible for many species. Thanks to their flattened shape, these ammonoids accelerate effectively, though their large umbilicus introduces more drag in successive thrusts. Relative to oxycones, serpenticones take less effort to rotate around the transverse axis ([pitch](/wiki/Pitch_%28aeronautics%29 \"Pitch (aeronautics)\")). Serpenticone ammonites resemble coiled snakes and are abundant in the Jurassic rocks of Europe. Carved serpenticones fulfill the role of the \"snakestones\" in medieval folklore.\n* **Spherocone** – Moderately involute and quite broad, globular (nearly spherical) in overall shape. Their semi\\-spherical shape is the most efficient for moving in laminar water (with a low [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number \"Reynolds number\")) or [migrating vertically](/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration \"Diel vertical migration\") through the water column. Though less hydrodynamically stable than other forms, this may be advantageous in certain situations, as spherocones can easily rotate around both the transverse axis and the vertical axis ([yaw](/wiki/Yaw_%28rotation%29 \"Yaw (rotation)\")).\n* **Platycone** – Intermediate between serpenticones and oxycones: narrow and moderately involute.\n* **Discocone** – Intermediate between oxycones and spherocones: involute and moderately broad. The modern *Nautilus* is an example of a discocone cephalopod.\n* **Planorbicone** – Intermediate between serpenticones and spherocones: Moderately broad, evolute to involute. Wider and more involute ammonoids on the serpenticone\\-spherocone spectrum are termed *Cadicones*.\n\nAmmonites vary greatly in the ornamentation (surface relief) of their shells. Some may be smooth and relatively featureless, except for growth lines, resembling that of the modern *Nautilus*. In others, various patterns of spiral ridges, ribs, nodes, or spines are presented. This type of complex ornamentation of the shell is especially evident in the later ammonites of the Cretaceous.\n#### Heteromorphs\n\n[thumb\\|*[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")* ammonite from the Late [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") of Wyoming, US: The original [aragonite](/wiki/Aragonite \"Aragonite\") of the outer conch and inner septa has dissolved away, leaving this articulated internal mold.](/wiki/Image:BaculitidArticulated.jpg \"BaculitidArticulated.jpg\")[thumb\\|150px\\|Heteromorph ammonite *[Didymoceras stevensoni](/wiki/Didymoceras_stevensoni \"Didymoceras stevensoni\")*](/wiki/File:Didymoceras_stevensoni%2C_Late_Cretaceous%2C_Pierre_Shale_Formation%2C_Weston_County%2C_Wyoming%2C_USA_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01926.JPG \"Didymoceras stevensoni, Late Cretaceous, Pierre Shale Formation, Weston County, Wyoming, USA - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01926.JPG\")\nAmmonoids with a shell shape diverging from the typical planispiral form are known as [heteromorphs](/wiki/Heteromorph \"Heteromorph\"), instead forming a conch with detached whorls (open coiling) or non\\-planispiral coiling. These types of shells evolved four times in ammonoids, with the first forms appearing already in the Devonian period. In late Norian age in Triassic the first heteromorph ammonoid fossils belongs to the genus Rhabdoceras. The three other heteromorphic genera were Hannaoceras, Cochloceras and Choristoceras. All of them went extinct at the end of Triassic. In the Jurassic an uncoiled shell was found in the Spiroceratoidea, but by the end of Cretaceous the only heteromorph ammonites remaining belonged to the suborder Ancyloceratina. One example is *[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")*, which has a nearly straight shell convergent with the older [orthocone](/wiki/Orthocone \"Orthocone\") nautiloids. Still other species' shells are coiled helically (in two dimensions), similar in appearance to some [gastropods](/wiki/Gastropod \"Gastropod\") (e.g., *[Turrilites](/wiki/Turrilites \"Turrilites\")* and *[Bostrychoceras](/wiki/Bostrychoceras \"Bostrychoceras\")*). Some species' shells are even initially uncoiled, then partially coiled, and finally straight at maturity (as in *[Australiceras](/wiki/Australiceras \"Australiceras\")*).\n\nPerhaps the most extreme and bizarre\\-looking example of a heteromorph is *[Nipponites](/wiki/Nipponites \"Nipponites\")*, which appears to be a tangle of irregular whorls lacking any obvious symmetric coiling. Upon closer inspection, though, the shell proves to be a three\\-dimensional network of connected \"U\" shapes. ** occurs in rocks of the upper part of the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") in Japan and the United States.\n\n### Aptychus\n\n[thumb\\|A drawing of an aptychus which was mistakenly described as a [bivalve](/wiki/Bivalve \"Bivalve\") and given the name \"*[Trigonellites latus](/wiki/Trigonellites \"Trigonellites\")*\", from the [Kimmeridge Clay](/wiki/Kimmeridge_Clay \"Kimmeridge Clay\") Formation in England\\|left](/wiki/File:Trigonellites_latus.jpg \"Trigonellites latus.jpg\")\n\nSome ammonites have been found in association with a single horny plate or a pair of calcitic plates. In the past, these plates were assumed to serve in closing the opening of the shell in much the same way as an [operculum](/wiki/Operculum_%28gastropod%29 \"Operculum (gastropod)\"), but more recently they are postulated to have been a jaw apparatus.\n\nThe plates are collectively termed the [aptychus](/wiki/Aptychus \"Aptychus\") or aptychi in the case of a pair of plates, and anaptychus in the case of a single plate. The paired aptychi were symmetric to one another and equal in size and appearance.\n\nAnaptychi are relatively rare as fossils. They are found representing ammonites from the Devonian period through those of the Cretaceous period.\n\nCalcified aptychi only occur in ammonites from the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\") era. They are almost always found detached from the shell, and are only very rarely preserved in place. Still, sufficient numbers have been found closing the apertures of fossil ammonite shells as to leave no doubt as to their identity as part of the anatomy of an ammonite.\n\nLarge numbers of detached aptychi occur in certain beds of rock (such as those from the Mesozoic in the [Alps](/wiki/Alps \"Alps\")). These rocks are usually accumulated at great depths. The modern *Nautilus* lacks any calcitic plate for closing its shell, and only one extinct [nautiloid](/wiki/Nautiloid \"Nautiloid\") genus is known to have borne anything similar. *Nautilus* does, however, have a leathery head shield (the hood) which it uses to cover the opening when it retreats inside.\n\nThere are many forms of aptychus, varying in shape and the sculpture of the inner and outer surfaces, but because they are so rarely found in position within the shell of the ammonite it is often unclear to which species of ammonite one kind of aptychus belongs. A number of aptychi have been given their own genus and even species names independent of their unknown owners' genus and species, pending future discovery of verified occurrences within ammonite shells.\n\n",
"### Basic shell anatomy\n\n[thumb\\|*[Jeletzkytes](/wiki/Jeletzkytes \"Jeletzkytes\")*, a Cretaceous ammonite from South Dakota, US](/wiki/Image:Ammonite_Jeletzkytes.jpg \"Ammonite Jeletzkytes.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|A variety of ammonite forms, from [Ernst Haeckel](/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel \"Ernst Haeckel\")'s 1904 *Kunstformen der Natur* (Art Forms of Nature)](/wiki/Image:Haeckel_Ammonitida.jpg \"Haeckel Ammonitida.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Polished fossil ammonite](/wiki/File:Polished_fossil_ammonite_005.jpg \"Polished fossil ammonite 005.jpg\")\nThe chambered part of the ammonite shell is called a [phragmocone](/wiki/Phragmocone \"Phragmocone\"). It contains a series of progressively larger chambers, called [camerae](/wiki/Camera_%28cephalopod%29 \"Camera (cephalopod)\") (sing. camera) that are divided by thin walls called [septa](/wiki/Septa_%28biology%29 \"Septa (biology)\") (sing. septum). Only the last and largest chamber, the [body chamber](/wiki/Body_chamber \"Body chamber\"), was occupied by the living animal at any given moment. As it grew, it added newer and larger chambers to the open end of the coil. Where the outer [whorl](/wiki/Whorl_%28mollusc%29 \"Whorl (mollusc)\") of an ammonite shell largely covers the preceding whorls, the specimen is said to be *[involute](/wiki/wikt:Involute \"Involute\")* (e.g., *[Anahoplites](/wiki/Anahoplites \"Anahoplites\")*). Where it does not cover those preceding, the specimen is said to be *[evolute](/wiki/wikt:Evolute \"Evolute\")* (e.g., *[Dactylioceras](/wiki/Dactylioceras \"Dactylioceras\")*).\n\nA thin living tube called a [siphuncle](/wiki/Siphuncle \"Siphuncle\") passed through the septa, extending from the ammonite's body into the empty shell chambers. Through a [hyperosmotic](/wiki/Hyperosmotic \"Hyperosmotic\") active transport process, the ammonite emptied water out of these shell chambers. This enabled it to control the [buoyancy](/wiki/Buoyancy \"Buoyancy\") of the shell and thereby rise or descend in the water column.\n\nA primary difference between ammonites and nautiloids is the siphuncle of ammonites (excepting [Clymeniina](/wiki/Clymeniina \"Clymeniina\")) runs along the ventral periphery of the septa and camerae (i.e., the inner surface of the outer axis of the shell), while the siphuncle of nautiloids runs more or less through the center of the septa and camerae.\n\n",
"### Sexual dimorphism\n\n[thumb\\|*[Discoscaphites iris](/wiki/Discoscaphites \"Discoscaphites\")*, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi, US](/wiki/Image:DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg \"DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg\")\n\nOne feature found in shells of the modern *[Nautilus](/wiki/Nautilus \"Nautilus\")* is the variation in the shape and size of the shell according to the [sex](/wiki/Sex \"Sex\") of the animal, the shell of the male being slightly smaller and wider than that of the female. This [sexual dimorphism](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism \"Sexual dimorphism\") is thought to be an explanation for the variation in size of certain ammonite shells of the same species, the larger shell (the *macroconch*) being female, and the smaller shell (the *microconch*) being male. This is thought to be because the female required a larger body size for egg production. A good example of this sexual variation is found in *[Bifericeras](/wiki/Bifericeras \"Bifericeras\")* from the early part of the [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic \"Jurassic\") period of [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\").\n\nOnly recently has sexual variation in the shells of ammonites been recognized. The macroconch and microconch of one species were often previously mistaken for two closely related but different species occurring in the same rocks. However, because the dimorphic sizes are so consistently found together, they are more likely an example of sexual dimorphism within the same species.\n\nWhorl width in the body chamber of many groups of ammonites, as expressed by the width:diameter ratio, is another sign of dimorphism. This character has been used to separate \"male\" (Largiventer conch \"L\") from \"female\" (Leviventer conch \"l\").\n\n",
"### Variations in shape\n\nThe majority of ammonite species feature planispiral shells, tightly coiled in a flat plane. The most fundamental difference in spiral form is how strongly successive whorls expand and overlap their predecessors. This can be inferred by the size of the umbilicus, the sunken\\-in inner part of the coil, exposing older and smaller whorls. *Evolute* shells have very little overlap, a large umbilicus, and many exposed whorls. *Involute* shells have strong overlap, a small umbilicus, and only the largest and most recent whorls are exposed. Shell structure can be broken down further by the width of the shell, with implications for [hydrodynamic](/wiki/Hydrodynamic \"Hydrodynamic\") efficiency.\n\nMajor shell forms include:\n\n* **Oxycone** – Strongly involute and very narrow, with sharp ventral keels and a streamlined, lenticular ([lens](/wiki/Lens \"Lens\")\\-shaped) cross\\-section. These ammonoids are estimated to be [nektonic](/wiki/Nekton \"Nekton\") (well\\-adapted to rapid active swimming), as their shell form incurs very little drag and allows for efficient, stable coasting even in turbulent flow regimes.\n* **Serpenticone** – Strongly evolute and fairly narrow (discoidal) in width. Historically assumed to be primarily [planktonic](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\") (free\\-floating drifters), a nektonic lifestyle is also plausible for many species. Thanks to their flattened shape, these ammonoids accelerate effectively, though their large umbilicus introduces more drag in successive thrusts. Relative to oxycones, serpenticones take less effort to rotate around the transverse axis ([pitch](/wiki/Pitch_%28aeronautics%29 \"Pitch (aeronautics)\")). Serpenticone ammonites resemble coiled snakes and are abundant in the Jurassic rocks of Europe. Carved serpenticones fulfill the role of the \"snakestones\" in medieval folklore.\n* **Spherocone** – Moderately involute and quite broad, globular (nearly spherical) in overall shape. Their semi\\-spherical shape is the most efficient for moving in laminar water (with a low [Reynolds number](/wiki/Reynolds_number \"Reynolds number\")) or [migrating vertically](/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration \"Diel vertical migration\") through the water column. Though less hydrodynamically stable than other forms, this may be advantageous in certain situations, as spherocones can easily rotate around both the transverse axis and the vertical axis ([yaw](/wiki/Yaw_%28rotation%29 \"Yaw (rotation)\")).\n* **Platycone** – Intermediate between serpenticones and oxycones: narrow and moderately involute.\n* **Discocone** – Intermediate between oxycones and spherocones: involute and moderately broad. The modern *Nautilus* is an example of a discocone cephalopod.\n* **Planorbicone** – Intermediate between serpenticones and spherocones: Moderately broad, evolute to involute. Wider and more involute ammonoids on the serpenticone\\-spherocone spectrum are termed *Cadicones*.\n\nAmmonites vary greatly in the ornamentation (surface relief) of their shells. Some may be smooth and relatively featureless, except for growth lines, resembling that of the modern *Nautilus*. In others, various patterns of spiral ridges, ribs, nodes, or spines are presented. This type of complex ornamentation of the shell is especially evident in the later ammonites of the Cretaceous.\n#### Heteromorphs\n\n[thumb\\|*[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")* ammonite from the Late [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") of Wyoming, US: The original [aragonite](/wiki/Aragonite \"Aragonite\") of the outer conch and inner septa has dissolved away, leaving this articulated internal mold.](/wiki/Image:BaculitidArticulated.jpg \"BaculitidArticulated.jpg\")[thumb\\|150px\\|Heteromorph ammonite *[Didymoceras stevensoni](/wiki/Didymoceras_stevensoni \"Didymoceras stevensoni\")*](/wiki/File:Didymoceras_stevensoni%2C_Late_Cretaceous%2C_Pierre_Shale_Formation%2C_Weston_County%2C_Wyoming%2C_USA_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01926.JPG \"Didymoceras stevensoni, Late Cretaceous, Pierre Shale Formation, Weston County, Wyoming, USA - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01926.JPG\")\nAmmonoids with a shell shape diverging from the typical planispiral form are known as [heteromorphs](/wiki/Heteromorph \"Heteromorph\"), instead forming a conch with detached whorls (open coiling) or non\\-planispiral coiling. These types of shells evolved four times in ammonoids, with the first forms appearing already in the Devonian period. In late Norian age in Triassic the first heteromorph ammonoid fossils belongs to the genus Rhabdoceras. The three other heteromorphic genera were Hannaoceras, Cochloceras and Choristoceras. All of them went extinct at the end of Triassic. In the Jurassic an uncoiled shell was found in the Spiroceratoidea, but by the end of Cretaceous the only heteromorph ammonites remaining belonged to the suborder Ancyloceratina. One example is *[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")*, which has a nearly straight shell convergent with the older [orthocone](/wiki/Orthocone \"Orthocone\") nautiloids. Still other species' shells are coiled helically (in two dimensions), similar in appearance to some [gastropods](/wiki/Gastropod \"Gastropod\") (e.g., *[Turrilites](/wiki/Turrilites \"Turrilites\")* and *[Bostrychoceras](/wiki/Bostrychoceras \"Bostrychoceras\")*). Some species' shells are even initially uncoiled, then partially coiled, and finally straight at maturity (as in *[Australiceras](/wiki/Australiceras \"Australiceras\")*).\n\nPerhaps the most extreme and bizarre\\-looking example of a heteromorph is *[Nipponites](/wiki/Nipponites \"Nipponites\")*, which appears to be a tangle of irregular whorls lacking any obvious symmetric coiling. Upon closer inspection, though, the shell proves to be a three\\-dimensional network of connected \"U\" shapes. ** occurs in rocks of the upper part of the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") in Japan and the United States.\n\n",
"#### Heteromorphs\n\n[thumb\\|*[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")* ammonite from the Late [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") of Wyoming, US: The original [aragonite](/wiki/Aragonite \"Aragonite\") of the outer conch and inner septa has dissolved away, leaving this articulated internal mold.](/wiki/Image:BaculitidArticulated.jpg \"BaculitidArticulated.jpg\")[thumb\\|150px\\|Heteromorph ammonite *[Didymoceras stevensoni](/wiki/Didymoceras_stevensoni \"Didymoceras stevensoni\")*](/wiki/File:Didymoceras_stevensoni%2C_Late_Cretaceous%2C_Pierre_Shale_Formation%2C_Weston_County%2C_Wyoming%2C_USA_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01926.JPG \"Didymoceras stevensoni, Late Cretaceous, Pierre Shale Formation, Weston County, Wyoming, USA - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01926.JPG\")\nAmmonoids with a shell shape diverging from the typical planispiral form are known as [heteromorphs](/wiki/Heteromorph \"Heteromorph\"), instead forming a conch with detached whorls (open coiling) or non\\-planispiral coiling. These types of shells evolved four times in ammonoids, with the first forms appearing already in the Devonian period. In late Norian age in Triassic the first heteromorph ammonoid fossils belongs to the genus Rhabdoceras. The three other heteromorphic genera were Hannaoceras, Cochloceras and Choristoceras. All of them went extinct at the end of Triassic. In the Jurassic an uncoiled shell was found in the Spiroceratoidea, but by the end of Cretaceous the only heteromorph ammonites remaining belonged to the suborder Ancyloceratina. One example is *[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")*, which has a nearly straight shell convergent with the older [orthocone](/wiki/Orthocone \"Orthocone\") nautiloids. Still other species' shells are coiled helically (in two dimensions), similar in appearance to some [gastropods](/wiki/Gastropod \"Gastropod\") (e.g., *[Turrilites](/wiki/Turrilites \"Turrilites\")* and *[Bostrychoceras](/wiki/Bostrychoceras \"Bostrychoceras\")*). Some species' shells are even initially uncoiled, then partially coiled, and finally straight at maturity (as in *[Australiceras](/wiki/Australiceras \"Australiceras\")*).\n\nPerhaps the most extreme and bizarre\\-looking example of a heteromorph is *[Nipponites](/wiki/Nipponites \"Nipponites\")*, which appears to be a tangle of irregular whorls lacking any obvious symmetric coiling. Upon closer inspection, though, the shell proves to be a three\\-dimensional network of connected \"U\" shapes. ** occurs in rocks of the upper part of the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") in Japan and the United States.\n\n",
"### Aptychus\n\n[thumb\\|A drawing of an aptychus which was mistakenly described as a [bivalve](/wiki/Bivalve \"Bivalve\") and given the name \"*[Trigonellites latus](/wiki/Trigonellites \"Trigonellites\")*\", from the [Kimmeridge Clay](/wiki/Kimmeridge_Clay \"Kimmeridge Clay\") Formation in England\\|left](/wiki/File:Trigonellites_latus.jpg \"Trigonellites latus.jpg\")\n\nSome ammonites have been found in association with a single horny plate or a pair of calcitic plates. In the past, these plates were assumed to serve in closing the opening of the shell in much the same way as an [operculum](/wiki/Operculum_%28gastropod%29 \"Operculum (gastropod)\"), but more recently they are postulated to have been a jaw apparatus.\n\nThe plates are collectively termed the [aptychus](/wiki/Aptychus \"Aptychus\") or aptychi in the case of a pair of plates, and anaptychus in the case of a single plate. The paired aptychi were symmetric to one another and equal in size and appearance.\n\nAnaptychi are relatively rare as fossils. They are found representing ammonites from the Devonian period through those of the Cretaceous period.\n\nCalcified aptychi only occur in ammonites from the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\") era. They are almost always found detached from the shell, and are only very rarely preserved in place. Still, sufficient numbers have been found closing the apertures of fossil ammonite shells as to leave no doubt as to their identity as part of the anatomy of an ammonite.\n\nLarge numbers of detached aptychi occur in certain beds of rock (such as those from the Mesozoic in the [Alps](/wiki/Alps \"Alps\")). These rocks are usually accumulated at great depths. The modern *Nautilus* lacks any calcitic plate for closing its shell, and only one extinct [nautiloid](/wiki/Nautiloid \"Nautiloid\") genus is known to have borne anything similar. *Nautilus* does, however, have a leathery head shield (the hood) which it uses to cover the opening when it retreats inside.\n\nThere are many forms of aptychus, varying in shape and the sculpture of the inner and outer surfaces, but because they are so rarely found in position within the shell of the ammonite it is often unclear to which species of ammonite one kind of aptychus belongs. A number of aptychi have been given their own genus and even species names independent of their unknown owners' genus and species, pending future discovery of verified occurrences within ammonite shells.\n\n",
"Soft\\-part anatomy\n------------------\n\nAlthough ammonites do occur in exceptional [lagerstatten](/wiki/Lagerstatten \"Lagerstatten\") such as the [Solnhofen Limestone](/wiki/Solnhofen_Limestone \"Solnhofen Limestone\"), their soft\\-part record is surprisingly sparse. Beyond a tentative ink sac and possible digestive organs, no soft parts were known until 2021\\. When [neutron imaging](/wiki/Neutron_imaging \"Neutron imaging\")\nwas used on a fossil found in 1998, part of the musculature became visible and showed they were able to retract themselves into the shell for protection, and that the retractor muscles and hyponome that work together to enable jet propulsion in nautilus worked independently in ammonites. The reproductive organs show possible traces of spermatophores, which would support the hypothesis that the microconchs were males. They likely bore a radula and beak, a marginal siphuncle and ten arms. They operated by direct development with sexual reproduction, were carnivorous, and had a [crop](/wiki/Crop_%28anatomy%29 \"Crop (anatomy)\") for food storage. They are unlikely to have dwelt in fresh or brackish water. Many ammonites were likely [filter feeders](/wiki/Filter_feeder \"Filter feeder\"), so adaptations associated with this lifestyle like sieves probably occurred.\n\nA 2021 study found ammonite specimens with preserved hook\\-like suckers, providing a general shape to ammonite tentacles. A contemporary study found an ammonite isolated body, offering for the first time a glimpse into these animals' organs.\n\n",
"Size\n----\n\n[thumb\\| *[Parapuzosia seppenradensis](/wiki/Parapuzosia_seppenradensis \"Parapuzosia seppenradensis\")* cast in Germany](/wiki/File:Parapuzosia_seppenradensis_5.jpg \"Parapuzosia seppenradensis 5.jpg\")\n\nThe smallest ammonoid was *[Maximites](/wiki/Maximites \"Maximites\")* from the [Upper Carboniferous](/wiki/Upper_Carboniferous \"Upper Carboniferous\"). Adult specimens reached only in shell diameter. Few of the ammonites occurring in the lower and middle part of the Jurassic period reached a size exceeding in diameter. Much larger forms are found in the later rocks of the upper part of the Jurassic and the lower part of the Cretaceous, such as *[Titanites](/wiki/Titanites \"Titanites\")* from the Portland Stone of Jurassic of southern England, which is often in diameter, and *[Parapuzosia seppenradensis](/wiki/Parapuzosia_seppenradensis \"Parapuzosia seppenradensis\")* of the Cretaceous period of Germany, which is one of the largest\\-known ammonites, sometimes reaching in diameter. The largest\\-documented [North American](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") ammonite is *[Parapuzosia bradyi](/wiki/Parapuzosia_bradyi \"Parapuzosia bradyi\")* from the Cretaceous, with specimens measuring in diameter.\n\n",
"Distribution\n------------\n\n[thumb\\|An ammonoid from [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\")\\|leftStarting](/wiki/File:Ammonoidea_Iran.JPG \"Ammonoidea Iran.JPG\") from the mid\\-Devonian, ammonoids were extremely abundant, especially as ammonites during the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\") era. Many [genera](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") evolved and ran their course quickly, becoming extinct in a few million years. Due to their rapid [evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\") and widespread distribution, ammonoids are used by [geologists](/wiki/Geologist \"Geologist\") and [paleontologists](/wiki/Paleontologist \"Paleontologist\") for [biostratigraphy](/wiki/Biostratigraphy \"Biostratigraphy\"). They are excellent [index fossils](/wiki/Index_fossils \"Index fossils\"), and it is often possible to link the rock layer in which they are found to specific [geologic time periods](/wiki/Geologic_time_scale \"Geologic time scale\").\n\nDue to their [free\\-swimming](/wiki/Nekton \"Nekton\") and/or [free\\-floating](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\") habits, ammonites often happened to live directly above seafloor waters so poor in oxygen as to prevent the establishment of animal life on the seafloor. When upon death the ammonites fell to this seafloor and were gradually buried in accumulating sediment, bacterial decomposition of these corpses often tipped the delicate balance of local [redox](/wiki/Redox \"Redox\") conditions sufficiently to lower the local solubility of minerals dissolved in the seawater, notably [phosphates](/wiki/Phosphate \"Phosphate\") and [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\"). The resulting spontaneous concentric precipitation of minerals around a fossil, a [concretion](/wiki/Concretion \"Concretion\"), is responsible for the outstanding preservation of many ammonite fossils.\n\nWhen ammonites are found in [clays](/wiki/Clay \"Clay\"), their original [mother\\-of\\-pearl](/wiki/Mother-of-pearl \"Mother-of-pearl\") coating is often preserved. This type of preservation is found in ammonites such as *[Hoplites](/wiki/Hoplites_%28ammonite%29 \"Hoplites (ammonite)\")* from the Cretaceous [Gault clay](/wiki/Gault_clay \"Gault clay\") of Folkestone in Kent, England.\n\n[thumb\\|An iridescent ammonite from [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\")The](/wiki/Image:IridescentAmmonite.jpg \"IridescentAmmonite.jpg\") Cretaceous Pierre Shale formation of the United States and Canada is well known for the abundant ammonite fauna it yields, including *[Baculites](/wiki/Baculites \"Baculites\")*, *[Placenticeras](/wiki/Placenticeras \"Placenticeras\")*, *[Scaphites](/wiki/Scaphites \"Scaphites\")*, *[Hoploscaphites](/wiki/Hoploscaphites \"Hoploscaphites\")* and *[Jeletzkytes](/wiki/Jeletzkytes \"Jeletzkytes\")*, as well as many uncoiled forms. Many of these also have much or all of the original shell, as well as the complete body chamber, still intact. Many Pierre Shale ammonites, and indeed many ammonites throughout earth history, are found inside [concretions](/wiki/Concretion \"Concretion\").\n\nOther fossils, such as many found in [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") and [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"), Canada display [iridescence](/wiki/Iridescence \"Iridescence\"). These iridescent ammonites are often of gem quality ([ammolite](/wiki/Ammolite \"Ammolite\")) when polished. In no case would this iridescence have been visible during the animal's life; additional shell layers covered it.\n\nThe majority of ammonoid specimens, especially those of the [Paleozoic](/wiki/Paleozoic \"Paleozoic\") era, are preserved only as internal molds; the outer shell (composed of [aragonite](/wiki/Aragonite \"Aragonite\")) has been lost during the fossilization process. Only in these internal\\-mould specimens can the suture lines be observed; in life, the sutures would have been hidden by the outer shell.\n\nThe ammonoids as a group continued through several major [extinction events](/wiki/Extinction_event \"Extinction event\"), although often only a few species survived. Each time, however, this handful of species diversified into a multitude of forms. Ammonite fossils became less abundant during the latter part of the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\"), and although they seemingly survived the [Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event](/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event \"Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event\"), all known [Paleocene ammonite](/wiki/Paleocene_ammonites \"Paleocene ammonites\") lineages are restricted to the [Paleocene](/wiki/Paleocene \"Paleocene\") epoch (65–61 Ma).\n\n",
"Evolutionary history\n--------------------\n\nGoniatites, which were a dominant component of Early and Middle Permian faunas, became rare in the Late Permian, and no goniatite is thought to have crossed into the Triassic.\n\nCeratitida originated during the Middle Permian, likely from the [Daraelitidae](/wiki/Daraelitidae \"Daraelitidae\"), and radiated in the Late Permian. In the aftermath of the [Permian–Triassic extinction event](/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event \"Permian–Triassic extinction event\"), Ceratitids represent the dominant group of Triassic ammonites.\n\nAmmonites were devastated by the [end\\-Triassic extinction](/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event \"Triassic–Jurassic extinction event\"), with only a handful of genera belonging to the family [Psiloceratidae](/wiki/Psiloceratidae \"Psiloceratidae\") of the suborder [Phylloceratina](/wiki/Phylloceratina \"Phylloceratina\") surviving and becoming ancestral to all later Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites. Ammonites explosively diversified during the Early Jurassic, with the orders Psiloceratina, Ammonitina, Lytoceratina, Haploceratina, Perisphinctina and Ancyloceratina all appearing during the Jurassic.\n\nHeteromorph ammonites (ammonites with open or non\\-spiral coiling) of the order [Ancyloceratina](/wiki/Ancyloceratina \"Ancyloceratina\") became common during the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") period.[thumb\\|right\\|Ammonites in the permanent collection of [The Children's Museum of Indianapolis](/wiki/The_Children%27s_Museum_of_Indianapolis \"The Children's Museum of Indianapolis\")](/wiki/File:The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Ammonites.jpg \"The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis - Ammonites.jpg\")\n\nAt least 57 species of ammonites, which were widespread and belonged to six superfamilies, were extant during the last 500,000 years of the Cretaceous, indicating that ammonites remained highly diverse until the very end of their existence. All ammonites were wiped out during or shortly after the [K\\-Pg extinction event](/wiki/K-Pg_extinction_event \"K-Pg extinction event\"), caused by the [Chicxulub impact](/wiki/Chicxulub_impact \"Chicxulub impact\"). It has been suggested that [ocean acidification](/wiki/Ocean_acidification \"Ocean acidification\") generated by the impact played a key role in their extinction, as the larvae of ammonites were likely small and [planktonic](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\"), and would have been heavily affected. [Nautiloids](/wiki/Nautiloid \"Nautiloid\"), exemplified by modern [nautiluses](/wiki/Nautilus \"Nautilus\"), are conversely thought to have had a reproductive strategy in which eggs were laid in smaller batches many times during the lifespan, and on the sea floor well away from any direct effects of such a [bolide](/wiki/Bolide \"Bolide\") strike, and thus survived. Many ammonite species were filter feeders, so they might have been particularly susceptible to marine faunal turnovers and climatic change. Some reports suggest that a few ammonite species may have persisted into the very early Danian stage of the [Paleocene](/wiki/Paleocene \"Paleocene\"), before going extinct.\n\n",
"Cultural significance\n---------------------\n\nIn medieval Europe, fossilised ammonites were thought to be [petrified](/wiki/Petrified \"Petrified\") coiled [snakes](/wiki/Snakes \"Snakes\"), and were called \"snakestones\" or, more commonly in medieval England, \"serpentstones\". They were considered to be evidence for the actions of saints, such as [Hilda of Whitby](/wiki/Hilda_of_Whitby \"Hilda of Whitby\"), a myth referenced in Sir [Walter Scott](/wiki/Walter_Scott \"Walter Scott\")'s *[Marmion](/wiki/Marmion_%28poem%29 \"Marmion (poem)\")*, and [Saint Patrick](/wiki/Saint_Patrick \"Saint Patrick\"), and were held to have [healing](/wiki/Spiritual_healing \"Spiritual healing\") or [oracular](/wiki/Divination \"Divination\") powers. Traders would occasionally carve the head of a snake onto the empty, wide end of the ammonite fossil, and then sell them as petrified snakes. In other cases, the snake's head would be simply painted on.\n\nOthers believed ammonites, which they referred to as \"salagrana\" were composed of [fossilized worm dung](/wiki/Coprolite \"Coprolite\"), and could be used to ward off witches.\n\nAmmonites from the [Gandaki River](/wiki/Gandaki_River \"Gandaki River\") in [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\") are known as [Shaligrams](/wiki/Shaligram \"Shaligram\"), and are believed by [Hindus](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") to be a concrete manifestation of [Vishnu](/wiki/Vishnu \"Vishnu\").\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Belemnoidea](/wiki/Belemnoidea \"Belemnoidea\")\n* [Coleoidea](/wiki/Coleoidea \"Coleoidea\")\n* [Geologic time scale](/wiki/Geologic_time_scale \"Geologic time scale\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n* [Walker, Cyril](/wiki/Cyril_Walker_%28paleontologist%29 \"Cyril Walker (paleontologist)\") and [Ward, David](/wiki/David_Ward_%28paleontologist%29 \"David Ward (paleontologist)\"). *Fossils*. Dorling, Kindersley Limited, London, 2002\\.\n* [A Broad Brush History of the Cephalopoda](https://web.archive.org/web/20050307100033/http://is.dal.ca/~ceph/TCP/evolution.html) by Dr. Neale Monks, from The Cephalopod Page.\n* [Ammonite maturity, pathology and old age](https://web.archive.org/web/20050405181106/http://is.dal.ca/~ceph/TCP/ammonage.html) By Dr. Neale Monks, from The Cephalopod Page. Essay about the life span of Ammonites.\n* [Cretaceous Fossils Taxonomic Index for Order Ammonoitida](https://web.archive.org/web/20051201091554/http://www.cretaceousfossils.com/invertebrates/ammonites/ammonites_index.htm)\n* [Deeply Buried Sediments Tell Story of Sudden Mass Extinction](https://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100280&org=NSF)\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Descriptions and pictures of ammonite fossils](http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Ammonites.htm)\n* [goniat.org, a palaezoic ammonoid database](http://www.goniat.org/)\n* [paleozoic.org: gallery of ammonite photographs](https://web.archive.org/web/20060404024923/http://paleozoic.org/gallery.htm)\n* [photos of ammonites at Lyme Regis, UK](https://web.archive.org/web/20170306235239/http://y2u.co.uk/%26002_Images/Lyme%20Regis%20Fossils%20%2001.htm)\n* [TaxonConcept's data on cretaceous ammonites](http://taxonconcept.stratigraphy.net/source_main.php?doctaxid=618&doctaxname=Ammonoidea)\n* [The ammonites of Peacehaven \\- photos of giant cretaceous ammonites in Southern England](http://thinkingwithpictures.blogspot.com/2008/06/ammonites-of-peacehaven.html)\n* [tonmo.com: The octopus news magazine online](http://www.tonmo.com/science/fossils/fossilsjump.php), Cephalopod fossil articles.\n* William R. Wahl \\* [Mosasaur Bite Marks on an Ammonite. Preservation of an Aborted Attack?](https://web.archive.org/web/20130509085058/http://www.wyodino.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/BittenAmmonite.pdf)\n* [Mosasaur diet](http://palaeoart.blogspot.it/2011/10/mosasaur-diets-everhart-2004.html)\n\n[Category:Mollusc subclasses](/wiki/Category:Mollusc_subclasses \"Mollusc subclasses\")\n[Category:Devonian first appearances](/wiki/Category:Devonian_first_appearances \"Devonian first appearances\")\n[Category:Maastrichtian extinctions](/wiki/Category:Maastrichtian_extinctions \"Maastrichtian extinctions\")\n[Category:Cephalopods described in 1884](/wiki/Category:Cephalopods_described_in_1884 \"Cephalopods described in 1884\")\n[Category:Taxa named by Karl Alfred Ritter von Zittel](/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Karl_Alfred_Ritter_von_Zittel \"Taxa named by Karl Alfred Ritter von Zittel\")\n[Category:Neocephalopoda](/wiki/Category:Neocephalopoda \"Neocephalopoda\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Riblah
|
{
"id": [
32241067
],
"name": [
"Elendil 03"
]
}
|
es1wbg75q6hbd1hwbei3domlq83xpmz
|
2024-10-06T13:14:44Z
| 1,177,101,034 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Riblah in Canaan",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\nThe ancient town of **Riblah**, today a [tell](/wiki/Tell_%28archaeology%29 \"Tell (archaeology)\") covered by a cemetery not far from the town of [Ribleh](/wiki/Rablah \"Rablah\") on the [Syrian](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") side of the border with Lebanon, was in [biblical times](/wiki/Hebrew_Bible \"Hebrew Bible\") located on the northern frontier of the land of [Canaan](/wiki/Canaan \"Canaan\"). The site lies on the eastern bank of the [Orontes river](/wiki/Orontes_river \"Orontes river\"), in a wide and fertile plain, 35 miles north\\-east of [Baalbek](/wiki/Baalbek \"Baalbek\") and 10 or 12 miles south of the artificial [Lake Homs](/wiki/Lake_Homs \"Lake Homs\") created by the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\"). [Brenton](/wiki/Lancelot_Charles_Lee_Brenton \"Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton\") translated the place as *Rablaam* in his [translation](/wiki/Brenton%27s_English_Translation_of_the_Septuagint \"Brenton's English Translation of the Septuagint\") of the [Septuagint](/wiki/Septuagint \"Septuagint\").[Brenton's Translation of the Septuagint, 2 Kings 23:33](http://biblehub.com/sep/2_kings/23.htm)\n\nIt was at Riblah that [Necho II](/wiki/Necho_II \"Necho II\"), [pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh \"Pharaoh\") of [Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") (c. 610 – c. 595 BCE), established his camp after he had routed [Josiah](/wiki/Josiah \"Josiah\")'s [Judahite](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah \"Kingdom of Judah\") army at [Megiddo](/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_%28609_BC%29 \"Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)\") in 609 BCE. Soon after this, the son of Josiah, the newly anointed King [Jehoahaz](/wiki/Jehoahaz_of_Judah \"Jehoahaz of Judah\"), was made prisoner and held at Riblah to prevent him from ruling Judah; he was later taken to Egypt where he died (). A reference in :\n*The nations combined against him \\[Jehoahaz]; he was caught in their pit;*\n*They dragged him off with hooks to the land of Egypt*\nis interpreted as stating that Necho had invited Jehoahaz to a conference in Riblah and trapped him there.Barnes, A., [Barnes' Notes on the Bible](http://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/2_kings/23.htm) on 2 Kings 23, accessed 31 January 2018\n\nSome two decades later, [Nebuchadnezzar](/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II_of_Babylon \"Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon\") of [Babylon](/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire \"Neo-Babylonian Empire\") also set up his headquarters here during his campaign against [Judah](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah \"Kingdom of Judah\"), which culminated in the [destruction](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%28587_BC%29 \"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)\") of [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") in 587 or 586 BCE. King [Zedekiah](/wiki/Zedekiah \"Zedekiah\") was taken captive and brought to Riblah, described as a dependency of [Hamath](/wiki/Hamath \"Hamath\"), where he had to witness how his sons were killed, after which he was blinded and taken to Babylon. His officials were also put to death in Riblah ().\n\nThe town was situated on the main international trade route from Egypt to [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\"), via [Israel](/wiki/Land_of_Israel \"Land of Israel\") and the town of [Carchemish](/wiki/Carchemish \"Carchemish\") where the road crossed over the [Euphrates](/wiki/Euphrates \"Euphrates\") River. An important strategic asset, Riblah had plenty of water, food and fuel, which made also suitable as a military camp.\n\nIn Roman times, the town also bore the name **Daphne**., citing [Targum Jonathan](/wiki/Targum_Jonathan \"Targum Jonathan\") and , p. [28](https://books.google.com/books?id=-CUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=Dufni+Arabs+Riblah+Banias&pg=PA28) (reprinted A. Hart: Philadelphia 1850\\)\n\n",
"Riblah in Canaan\n----------------\n\nThere was also a town with the same name on the eastern boundary of the [land promised to Moses](/wiki/Promised_Land \"Promised Land\") in Canaan, known from , but whose location is still uncertain. The town is described in as \"on the eastern side of Ain\". Two springs still called *el\\-Ain el\\-Fauqah* and *el\\-Ain el\\-Tahta* (\"the upper\" and \"the lower fountain\") can still be found about 10 miles east of the Sea of Galilee, close to the town of Samar in [Irbid Governorate](/wiki/Irbid_Governorate \"Irbid Governorate\"), Jordan.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Hebrew Bible cities](/wiki/Category:Hebrew_Bible_cities \"Hebrew Bible cities\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Andvari
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"32.219.41.16"
]
}
|
g09qu6btluh0uhlp85myste26k5fv3b
|
2023-10-07T00:59:25Z
| 1,177,735,334 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"\n \n\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|This part of the [Drävle Runestone](/wiki/Dr%C3%A4vle_Runestone \"Drävle Runestone\") is held to depict Andvari.](/wiki/Image:U_1163%2C_Dr%C3%A4vle_%28Andvari%29.JPG \"U 1163, Drävle (Andvari).JPG\")\nIn [Norse mythology](/wiki/Norse_mythology \"Norse mythology\"), **Andvari** ([12th c.](/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise \"First Grammatical Treatise\") [Old Norse](/wiki/Old_Norse \"Old Norse\"): ; \"careful one\") is a [dwarf](/wiki/Norse_dwarves \"Norse dwarves\") who lives underneath a [waterfall](/wiki/Waterfall \"Waterfall\") and has the power to change himself into a [pike](/wiki/Esox \"Esox\") (gedda) at will. \n\nAndvari had a magical ring [Andvaranaut](/wiki/Andvaranaut \"Andvaranaut\"), which helped him become wealthy. Using a net provided by [Ran](/wiki/Ran_%28mythology%29 \"Ran (mythology)\"), [Loki](/wiki/Loki \"Loki\") catches him as a [pike](/wiki/Pike_%28fish%29 \"Pike (fish)\") and forces him to give up his [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") and Andvaranaut. Andvari cursed the stolen gold which would destroy anyone who possessed it. After the deaths of [Brynhild](/wiki/Brynhild \"Brynhild\") and [Sigurd](/wiki/Sigurd \"Sigurd\"), [Gunnar](/wiki/Gunther \"Gunther\") left Andvari's gold in a cave. Years later, Andvari discovered the cave and his lost gold, although his ring was lost forever.\n\nIn [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\")'s cycle of [music dramas](/wiki/Music_drama \"Music drama\"), *[Der Ring des Nibelungen](/wiki/Der_Ring_des_Nibelungen \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\")*, the character [Alberich](/wiki/Alberich \"Alberich\") is a combination of Andvari and the character of Alberich from the [Nibelungenlied](/wiki/Nibelungenlied \"Nibelungenlied\").\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Norse dwarves](/wiki/Category:Norse_dwarves \"Norse dwarves\")\n[Category:Nibelung tradition](/wiki/Category:Nibelung_tradition \"Nibelung tradition\")\n[Category:Völsung cycle](/wiki/Category:V%C3%B6lsung_cycle \"Völsung cycle\")\n[Category:Shapeshifting](/wiki/Category:Shapeshifting \"Shapeshifting\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Tegbesu
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"2601:C8:300:631:D015:5D91:90E8:F8E0"
]
}
|
kng4lv08r3n6h27bdxetrplsppe06cj
|
2023-06-19T21:45:04Z
| 1,140,064,781 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Rise to power",
"Administration",
"See also",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Tegbesu** (French: **Tegbessou**) or **Bossa Ahadee** was a [king](/wiki/King_of_Dahomey \"King of Dahomey\") of the [Kingdom of Dahomey](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dahomey \"Kingdom of Dahomey\"), in present\\-day [Benin](/wiki/Benin \"Benin\"), from 1740 until 1774\\. While not the oldest son of [King Agaja](/wiki/Agaja \"Agaja\") (1718\\-1740\\), he became king after Agaja's death following a succession struggle with a brother.\n\n",
"Rise to power\n-------------\n\nOral traditions hold that Tegbesu was the son of [Agaja](/wiki/Agaja \"Agaja\") and [Hwanjile](/wiki/Hwanjile \"Hwanjile\"), a woman reported to have brought [*Vodun*](/wiki/West_African_Vodun \"West African Vodun\") to the kingdom. King Agaja had significantly expanded the Kingdom of Dahomey during his reign, notably conquering [Allada](/wiki/Allada \"Allada\") in 1724 and [Whydah](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Whydah \"Kingdom of Whydah\") in 1727\\. This increased the size of the kingdom and increased both domestic dissent (with the royal aristocrats of both Allada and Whydah opposing Dahomey from fortified islands off the coast) and regional opposition (mainly with semi\\-regular warfare between Dahomey and the [Oyo Empire](/wiki/Oyo_Empire \"Oyo Empire\")). According to one oral tradition, as part of the tribute owed by Dahomey to Oyo, Agaja had to give to Oyo one of his sons. The story claims that only Hwanjile of all of Agaja's wives was willing to allow her son to go to Oyo. This act of sacrifice, according to the oral tradition made Tegbesu favored by Agaja. Agaja reportedly tells Tegbesu that he is the future king, but his brother Zinga is still the official heir.\n\nOne oral history contends that with the death of Agaja, Tegbesu's brothers quickly plot to kill him. His brothers surrounded his house to prevent him from reaching the Palace and claiming the throne, but he miraculously escapes and reaches the palace. Despite challenges, the Great Council appoints Tegbesu the new king. Historian Edna Bay notes that oral histories disagree about precisely *who* appointed Tegbesu as the new king.\n\n",
"Administration\n--------------\n\nTegbesu ruled over Dahomey at a point where it needed to increase its legitimacy over those who it had recently conquered. As a result, Tegbesu is often credited with a number of administrative changes in the kingdom in order to establish the legitimacy of the kingdom.\n\nSince he had spent significant time during his youth in Oyo, much of the kingdom was fashioned along administrative aspects of that empire. Tegbesu returned the capital from [Allada](/wiki/Allada \"Allada\") to [Abomey](/wiki/Abomey \"Abomey\"), while creating a puppet king to rule in Allada. He increased the number of wives of the king in order to establish wide family connections throughout the kingdom. The Palace complex was styled along those of Oyo and a number of administrative positions were created that had existed in Oyo. Most notably, Tegbesu had multiple traitors in [Ouidah](/wiki/Ouidah \"Ouidah\") put to death and replaced with individuals loyal to him. In addition, instead of having different administrative positions to deal with each different European power, he created the *Yevogan* in 1745, a central bureaucrat to deal with all European trade.\n\nIn addition, Tegbesu's rule is the one with the first significant *[kpojito](/wiki/Kpojito \"Kpojito\")* or *mother of the leopard* with Hwanjile in that role. The *kpojito* became a prominently important person in Dahomey royalty. Hwanjile, in particular, is said to have changed dramatically the religious practices of Dahomey by creating two new deities and more closely tying worship to that of the king.\n\nThe [slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery%23African_participation_in_the_slave_trade \"History of slavery#African participation in the slave trade\") increased significantly during Tegbesu's reign and begun to provide the largest part of the income for the king, reportedly earning him £250,000 per year (over £56 million adjusted for [inflation](/wiki/Inflation \"Inflation\") as of 2020 according to the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England \"Bank of England\") Inflation Calculator).[The Story of Africa\\| BBC Worldservice](https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter2.shtml) \nBBC Worldservice. Retrieved 12 May 2021\\.[Inflation Calculator \\| Bank of England](https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation/inflation-calculator) \nBank of England. Retrieved 12 May 2021\\.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Bossou Ashadeh](/wiki/Bossou_Ashadeh \"Bossou Ashadeh\")\n* [History of the Kingdom of Dahomey](/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Dahomey \"History of the Kingdom of Dahomey\")\n* [Hangbe](/wiki/Hangbe \"Hangbe\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n \n\n[Category:Kings of Dahomey](/wiki/Category:Kings_of_Dahomey \"Kings of Dahomey\")\n[Category:Year of birth unknown](/wiki/Category:Year_of_birth_unknown \"Year of birth unknown\")\n[Category:1774 deaths](/wiki/Category:1774_deaths \"1774 deaths\")\n[Category:18th\\-century monarchs in Africa](/wiki/Category:18th-century_monarchs_in_Africa \"18th-century monarchs in Africa\")\n[Category:18th century in the Kingdom of Dahomey](/wiki/Category:18th_century_in_the_Kingdom_of_Dahomey \"18th century in the Kingdom of Dahomey\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Kanaka
|
{
"id": [
7098284
],
"name": [
"Tassedethe"
]
}
|
13j2rl03zvyk2v0glhynhpw4y7a829w
|
2024-02-03T16:38:01Z
| 1,185,491,651 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"People",
"Places",
"Other uses",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Kanaka** may refer to:\n\n",
"People\n------\n\n* [Kanaka (given name)](/wiki/Kanaka_%28given_name%29 \"Kanaka (given name)\"), an Indian name (including a list of persons with the name)\n\t+ [Kanaka (actress)](/wiki/Kanaka_%28actress%29 \"Kanaka (actress)\"), Indian film actress\n* [Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)](/wiki/Kanaka_%28Pacific_Island_worker%29 \"Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)\"), workers from Pacific Islands employed in British colonies and in North American fur trade and goldfields\n* [Kānaka Maoli](/wiki/K%C4%81naka_Maoli \"Kānaka Maoli\"), the traditional name native of the Hawaiian people\n",
"Places\n------\n\n* [Kanaka Bar, British Columbia](/wiki/Kanaka_Bar%2C_British_Columbia \"Kanaka Bar, British Columbia\"), an unincorporated area in the Fraser Canyon of British Columbia\n* [Kanaka Creek, British Columbia](/wiki/Kanaka_Creek%2C_British_Columbia \"Kanaka Creek, British Columbia\"), a historical settlement and modern neighbourhood in the District of Maple Ridge, British Columbia, Canada\n* [Kanaka Creek Regional Park](/wiki/Kanaka_Creek_Regional_Park \"Kanaka Creek Regional Park\"), a regional park run by the Greater Vancouver Regional District, in Maple Ridge, British Columbia, Canada\n",
"Other uses\n----------\n\n* [Kanaka pigeon](/wiki/Kanaka_pigeon \"Kanaka pigeon\"), an extinct bird of New Caledonia and Tonga\n* *Kanaka*, the Sanskrit name for a species of *[Datura](/wiki/Datura \"Datura\")*\n* [*Kanaka* (film)](/wiki/Kanaka_%28film%29 \"Kanaka (film)\"), a 2018 Indian romantic action film\n* [Kanaka Bar First Nation](/wiki/Kanaka_Bar_First_Nation \"Kanaka Bar First Nation\"), the Nlaka'pamux First Nations government at the Kanaka Bar, British Columbia\n* [Kanaka Shree](/wiki/Kanaka_Shree \"Kanaka Shree\"), an award instituted by the government of Karnataka, India\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Kanak (disambiguation)](/wiki/Kanak_%28disambiguation%29 \"Kanak (disambiguation)\")\n* [Kanake](/wiki/Kanake \"Kanake\"), a racial epithet in the German language, derived from the Melanesian term\n\n"
]
}
|
Wheatland, North Dakota
|
{
"id": [
84417
],
"name": [
"Vsmith"
]
}
|
0rsfr5dxr1h26r4t7yn9c85lxexy5yv
|
2023-08-31T13:26:30Z
| 1,173,131,904 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Geography",
"Demographics",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Wheatland** is a [census\\-designated place](/wiki/Census-designated_place \"Census-designated place\") (CDP) in [Cass County](/wiki/Cass_County%2C_North_Dakota \"Cass County, North Dakota\"), [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota \"North Dakota\"), United States. The population was 68 at the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\").\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nA post office called Wheatland has been in operation since 1878\\. The community was named for the wheat field near the original town site.\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the CDP has a total area of , all land.\n\n",
"Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 60 people, 22 households, and 17 families residing in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 15\\.0 people per square mile (5\\.8/km). There were 28 housing units at an average density of 7\\.0/sq mi (2\\.7/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 100\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").\n\nOut of the 22 households, 45\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 13\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18\\.2% were non\\-families. 18\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.73 and the average family size was 3\\.11\\.\n\nIn the CDP, the population was spread out, with 33\\.3% under the age of 18, 8\\.3% from 18 to 24, 21\\.7% from 25 to 44, 28\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 8\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 122\\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\\.0 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the CDP was $37,083, and the median income for a family was $55,625\\. Males had a median income of $35,000 versus $14,000 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $16,084\\. None of the population and none of the families were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\").\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Wheatland Centennial, 1879\\-1979](http://digitalhorizonsonline.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/ndsl-books/id/29566) from the [Digital Horizons website](http://digitalhorizonsonline.org/)\n\n[Category:Census\\-designated places in Cass County, North Dakota](/wiki/Category:Census-designated_places_in_Cass_County%2C_North_Dakota \"Census-designated places in Cass County, North Dakota\")\n[Category:Census\\-designated places in North Dakota](/wiki/Category:Census-designated_places_in_North_Dakota \"Census-designated places in North Dakota\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Liberty, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
|
{
"id": [
3138265
],
"name": [
"WOSlinker"
]
}
|
9tggqzjehhhji3sxodjdowqnpg6kzqj
|
2024-08-30T07:48:04Z
| 1,220,119,920 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"Government and politics",
"Education",
"Demographics",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Liberty** is a [borough](/wiki/Borough_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Borough (Pennsylvania)\") in [Allegheny County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Allegheny_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Allegheny County, Pennsylvania\"), United States. The population was 2,355 at the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\").\n\nLiberty does not have its own [post office](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service \"United States Postal Service\"). The [zip code](/wiki/Zip_code \"Zip code\") is 15133, and mail is addressed to the city of [McKeesport](/wiki/McKeesport%2C_Pennsylvania \"McKeesport, Pennsylvania\"). Liberty is part of the [South Allegheny School District](/wiki/South_Allegheny_School_District \"South Allegheny School District\"), along with [Glassport](/wiki/Glassport%2C_Pennsylvania \"Glassport, Pennsylvania\"), [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lincoln, Pennsylvania\"), and [Port Vue](/wiki/Port_Vue%2C_Pennsylvania \"Port Vue, Pennsylvania\"), and is home to the district's high school and early childhood center. Liberty was at one time part of Port Vue but gained its \"liberty\" from Port Vue in 1912, thus the origin of the name of the town.\n\nLocals tend to refer to the town as \"Liberty Borough\" or \"Liberty Boro,\" rather than just as \"Liberty.\"\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nLiberty is located at (40\\.326302, −79\\.856101\\). It is bounded by [Port Vue](/wiki/Port_Vue%2C_Pennsylvania \"Port Vue, Pennsylvania\") and [McKeesport](/wiki/McKeesport%2C_Pennsylvania \"McKeesport, Pennsylvania\") to the north, [Versailles](/wiki/Versailles%2C_Pennsylvania \"Versailles, Pennsylvania\") and the [Youghiogheny River](/wiki/Youghiogheny_River \"Youghiogheny River\") to the east, [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lincoln, Pennsylvania\") to the south, and [Glassport](/wiki/Glassport%2C_Pennsylvania \"Glassport, Pennsylvania\") to the west.\n\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the borough has a total area of , of which is land and , or 4\\.00%, is water.\n\n",
"Government and politics\n-----------------------\n\n| \\+ Presidential election results |\n| --- |\n| Year | [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") | [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") | [Third parties](/wiki/Third_party_%28U.S._politics%29 \"Third party (U.S. politics)\") |\n| **[2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election_in_Pennsylvania \"2020 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania\")** | *61%* *849* | *37%* *514* | *1%* *23* |\n| **[2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election_in_Pennsylvania \"2016 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania\")** | *62%* *776* | *36%* *450* | *2%* *29* |\n| **[2012](/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election_in_Pennsylvania \"2012 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania\")** | *52%* *603* | *47%* *547* | *1%* *13* |\n| **[2008](/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election_in_Pennsylvania \"2008 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania\")** | *53%* *678* | *46%* *590* | *1%* *19* |\n\n",
"Education\n---------\n\nLiberty Borough is served by the South Allegheny School District.\n\n",
"Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census \"2000 United States census\"), there were 2,670 people, 1,125 households, and 768 families residing in the borough. The population density was . There were 1,162 housing units at an average density of . The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") of the borough was 97\\.98% White, 1\\.46% African American, 0\\.11% Native American, 0\\.11% Asian, 0\\.04% Pacific Islander, and 0\\.30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0\\.37% of the population.\n\nThere were 1,125 households, out of which 27\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53\\.2% were married couples living together, 12\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\\.7% were non\\-families. 28\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.35 and the average family size was 2\\.89\\.\n\nIn the borough the population was spread out, with 20\\.1% under the age of 18, 6\\.7% from 18 to 24, 26\\.6% from 25 to 44, 25\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 21\\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 88\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84\\.3 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the borough was $35,264, and the median income for a family was $42,857\\. Males had a median income of $35,685 versus $22,304 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the borough was $19,491\\. About 5\\.6% of families and 7\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 11\\.8% of those under age 18 and 5\\.3% of those age 65 or over.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Populated places established in 1912](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1912 \"Populated places established in 1912\")\n[Category:Boroughs in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Boroughs_in_Allegheny_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Boroughs in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:1912 establishments in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:1912_establishments_in_Pennsylvania \"1912 establishments in Pennsylvania\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Washington, Utah
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"134.215.245.102"
]
}
|
kcumy5lrld4kmffbk5qzpevp5gcr8wp
|
2024-06-12T11:48:53Z
| 1,184,271,439 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Geography",
"Demographics",
"Government",
"Education",
"High schools",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
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"content": [
"\n\n**Washington** is a city in south central [Washington County](/wiki/Washington_County%2C_Utah \"Washington County, Utah\"), [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\"), United States and is a part of the [St. George Metropolitan Area](/wiki/St._George%2C_Utah \"St. George, Utah\"). The area is also known as [Utah's Dixie](/wiki/Utah%27s_Dixie \"Utah's Dixie\") because the [Mormon](/wiki/Mormon \"Mormon\") pioneers who settled the St. George area came to the area to raise cotton, which was milled at the cotton mill in Washington. The population was 27,993 as of [2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"). Washington is a fast\\-growing [suburb](/wiki/Suburb \"Suburb\") of [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_Utah \"St. George, Utah\"), and is the second largest city in Washington County.\n\nThe city was named after [U.S. President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"). The city administration has tried to encourage the use of the name \"Washington City\" in recent years. The U.S. Post Office lists \"Washington, UT 84780\\.\"\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-Day Saints](/wiki/Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-Day_Saints \"Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints\") sent a group of 28 families to the area to attempt to grow [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\"). The \"cotton mission\" was led by former Mississippi cotton plantation owner [Robert Dockery Covington](/wiki/Robert_Dockery_Covington \"Robert Dockery Covington\"), who along with some of the early settlers from the southeastern United States, were former slavemasters. The area was nicknamed [Utah's Dixie](/wiki/Dixie_%28Utah%29 \"Dixie (Utah)\"); [Dixie](/wiki/Dixie \"Dixie\") was a nickname for the southeastern states.\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the city has a total area of 32\\.5 square miles (85\\.2 km2), of which 32\\.5 square miles (85\\.1 km2) is land and 0\\.07 square mile (0\\.1 km2) (0\\.10%) is water.\n\n",
"Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 8,186 people, 2,614 households, and 2,117 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 3,199 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94\\.31% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.37% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.71% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.29% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.10% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 2\\.15% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.08% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 4\\.69% of the population.\n\nThere were 2,614 households, out of which 36\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 71\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19\\.0% were non\\-families. 16\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3\\.00 and the average family size was 3\\.37\\.\n\nIn the city, the population was spread out, with 30\\.1% under the age of 18, 10\\.9% from 18 to 24, 22\\.6% from 25 to 44, 17\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 18\\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 104\\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107\\.2 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $35,341, and the median income for a family was $39,003\\. Males had a median income of $28,750 versus $20,434 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $14,032\\. About 7\\.5% of families and 7\\.9% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 10\\.3% of those under age 18 and 1\\.1% of those age 65 or over.\n\n",
"Government\n----------\n\nThe City of Washington has five city council members: Councilwoman Kim Casperson, Councilman Craig Coats, Councilman Bret Henderson, Councilman Kurt Ivie, and Benjamin L Martinsen. Mayor Kress Staheli was elected in 2021 and has been mayor since January 2022\\. Washington uses a city manager to run the day\\-to\\-day activities. As of 2021, the city manager is Jeremy Redd, who was appointed in 2020\\.\n\n",
"Education\n---------\n\n### High schools\n\n* [Pine View High School](/wiki/Pine_View_High_School_%28Utah%29 \"Pine View High School (Utah)\"). A majority of Washington residents attend schools within the Pine View cone site. Residents in old town Washington, the Buena Vista and Green Springs neighborhoods, and the northern section of Washington Fields have attended Pine View \\- which is just across the city boundary in neighboring St. George \\- since it opening in 1983\\.\n* [Crimson Cliffs High School](/wiki/Crimson_Cliffs_High_School_%28Utah%29 \"Crimson Cliffs High School (Utah)\"). Its coverage zone extends into [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_Utah \"St. George, Utah\")\n* [St George Academy](/wiki/St_George_Academy_%28Utah%29 \"St George Academy (Utah)\") in [Washington City](/wiki/Washington_City%2C_Utah \"Washington City, Utah\") College Prep Charter High School that serves St George and surrounding communities.\n",
"### High schools\n\n* [Pine View High School](/wiki/Pine_View_High_School_%28Utah%29 \"Pine View High School (Utah)\"). A majority of Washington residents attend schools within the Pine View cone site. Residents in old town Washington, the Buena Vista and Green Springs neighborhoods, and the northern section of Washington Fields have attended Pine View \\- which is just across the city boundary in neighboring St. George \\- since it opening in 1983\\.\n* [Crimson Cliffs High School](/wiki/Crimson_Cliffs_High_School_%28Utah%29 \"Crimson Cliffs High School (Utah)\"). Its coverage zone extends into [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_Utah \"St. George, Utah\")\n* [St George Academy](/wiki/St_George_Academy_%28Utah%29 \"St George Academy (Utah)\") in [Washington City](/wiki/Washington_City%2C_Utah \"Washington City, Utah\") College Prep Charter High School that serves St George and surrounding communities.\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of cities and towns in Utah](/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Utah \"List of cities and towns in Utah\")\n* [Elephant Arch](/wiki/Elephant_Arch \"Elephant Arch\")\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Cities in the Mojave Desert](/wiki/Category:Cities_in_the_Mojave_Desert \"Cities in the Mojave Desert\")\n[Category:Cities in Utah](/wiki/Category:Cities_in_Utah \"Cities in Utah\")\n[Category:Populated places established in 1857](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1857 \"Populated places established in 1857\")\n[Category:Cities in Washington County, Utah](/wiki/Category:Cities_in_Washington_County%2C_Utah \"Cities in Washington County, Utah\")\n[Category:1857 establishments in Utah Territory](/wiki/Category:1857_establishments_in_Utah_Territory \"1857 establishments in Utah Territory\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Inner Mongolia
|
{
"id": [
23551833
],
"name": [
"Yue"
]
}
|
r3uliz028govcyj77w6l7gxv662hhst
|
2024-10-18T07:07:56Z
| 1,251,805,182 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Early history",
"Mongol and Ming periods",
"Qing period",
"Republic of China and the Second World War periods",
"People's Republic of China",
"Geography",
"Climate",
"Climate crisis",
"Administrative divisions",
"Urban areas",
"Economy",
"Economic and Technological Development Zones",
"Transport",
"Railway",
"Government and politics",
"Demographics",
"Language and culture",
"Religion",
"Tourism",
"Education",
"Colleges and universities",
"Language policy and protest",
"Image gallery",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
4,
2,
3,
2,
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2
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - * \n\t\t\t**Inner Mongolia**, officially the **Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region**, is an [autonomous region](/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_China \"Autonomous regions of China\") of the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/China \"China\"). Its border includes two\\-thirds of the length of China's [border](/wiki/China%E2%80%93Mongolia_border \"China–Mongolia border\") with the country of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"). Inner Mongolia also accounts for a small section of China's [border](/wiki/China%E2%80%93Russia_border \"China–Russia border\") with [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") ([Zabaykalsky Krai](/wiki/Zabaykalsky_Krai \"Zabaykalsky Krai\")). Its capital is [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\"); other major cities include [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\"), [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\"), [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\"), and [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\").\n\nThe autonomous region was established in 1947, incorporating the areas of the former [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\") provinces of [Suiyuan](/wiki/Suiyuan \"Suiyuan\"), [Chahar](/wiki/Chahar_Province \"Chahar Province\"), [Rehe](/wiki/Rehe_Province \"Rehe Province\"), [Liaobei](/wiki/Liaobei \"Liaobei\"), and [Xing'an](/wiki/Xing%27an_Province \"Xing'an Province\"), along with the northern parts of [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\") and [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\").\n\nIts area makes it the [third largest Chinese administrative subdivision](/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_area \"List of Chinese administrative divisions by area\"), constituting approximately and 12% of China's total land area. Due to its long span from east to west, Inner Mongolia is geographically divided into eastern and western divisions. The eastern division is often included in [Northeastern China](/wiki/Northeastern_China \"Northeastern China\") (Dongbei), with major cities including [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\"), [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\"), [Hailar](/wiki/Hailar_District \"Hailar District\"), and [Ulanhot](/wiki/Ulanhot \"Ulanhot\"). The western division is included in [North China](/wiki/North_China \"North China\"), with major cities including Baotou and Hohhot. It recorded a population of 24,706,321 in the [2010 census](/wiki/Sixth_National_Population_Census_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China\"), accounting for 1\\.84% of [Mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\")'s total population. Inner Mongolia is the country's [23rd](/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_population \"List of Chinese administrative divisions by population\") most populous [province\\-level division](/wiki/Provinces_of_China \"Provinces of China\"). [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") make up the majority of the population in the region; [Mongols](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\") constitute a significant minority with over 4 million people, making it the largest Mongol population in the world (larger than that of the country [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\")). Inner Mongolia is one of the more economically developed provinces in China with annual GDP per capita at US$14,343 (2022\\), ranked 8th in the nation. The official languages are [Mandarin](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\") and [Mongolian](/wiki/Mongolian_language \"Mongolian language\"), the latter of which is written in the [traditional Mongolian script](/wiki/Mongolian_script \"Mongolian script\"), as opposed to the [Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet](/wiki/Mongolian_Cyrillic_alphabet \"Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet\"), which is used in the country of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\") (formerly often described as [Outer Mongolia](/wiki/Outer_Mongolia \"Outer Mongolia\")).\n\n",
"Etymology\n---------\n\nIn Chinese, the region is known as \"Inner Mongolia\", where the terms of \"Inner and \"Outer\" are derived from [Manchu](/wiki/Manchu_language \"Manchu language\") *dorgi* and *tulergi* (cf. [Mongolian](/wiki/Mongolian_language \"Mongolian language\") *dotugadu* and *gadagadu*). Inner Mongolia is distinct from [Outer Mongolia](/wiki/Outer_Mongolia \"Outer Mongolia\"), which was a term used by the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\") and previous governments to refer to what is now the independent [state](/wiki/Sovereign_state \"Sovereign state\") of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\") and the [Republic of Tuva](/wiki/Tuva \"Tuva\") in [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"). The term Inner (Nei) referred to the Nei Fan (Inner Tributary), i.e., those descendants of Genghis Khan who were granted the title khan (king) in the Ming and Qing dynasties and lived in part of southern Mongolia.\n\nDue to the perceived [Sinocentric](/wiki/Sinocentrism \"Sinocentrism\") nature of the name \"Inner Mongolia\", some Mongols outside of China, particularly those in the state of Mongolia, prefer the name \"Southern Mongolia\". However, this name has not been adopted officially by any government bodies.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nMuch of what is known about the history of the [Mongolian Plateau](/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau \"Mongolian Plateau\") is taken from Chinese chronicles and historians. Before the rise of the Mongols in the 13th century, what is now central and western Inner Mongolia, especially the [Hetao](/wiki/Hetao \"Hetao\") region, alternated in control between [Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") farming communities in the south, and [Xiongnu](/wiki/Xiongnu \"Xiongnu\"), [Xianbei](/wiki/Xianbei \"Xianbei\"), [Khitan](/wiki/Khitan_people \"Khitan people\"), [Jurchen](/wiki/Jurchen_people \"Jurchen people\"), [Tujue](/wiki/Tujue \"Tujue\"), and nomadic [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\") of the north. The historical narrative of what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia mostly consists of alternations between different [Tungusic](/wiki/Tungusic_peoples \"Tungusic peoples\") and [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\") tribes, rather than the struggle between nomads and Chinese farmers.\n\n### Early history\n\n[Slab Grave cultural](/wiki/Slab_Grave_Culture \"Slab Grave Culture\") monuments are found in Northern, Central and Eastern [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), Inner Mongolia, North\\-Western China, Southern, Central\\-Eastern and Southern [Baikal](/wiki/Baikal_Lake \"Baikal Lake\") territory. Mongolian scholars prove that this culture related to the [Proto\\-Mongols](/wiki/Proto-Mongols \"Proto-Mongols\").*History of Mongolia*, Volume I, 2003\\.\n\nDuring the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty \"Zhou dynasty\"), Central and Western Inner Mongolia (the [Hetao](/wiki/Hetao \"Hetao\") region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the [Loufan](/wiki/Loufan_%28people%29 \"Loufan (people)\"), Linhu and [Dí](/wiki/Beidi \"Beidi\"), while Eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the [Donghu](/wiki/Donghu_people \"Donghu people\"). During the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period \"Warring States period\"), [King Wuling](/wiki/King_Wuling_of_Zhao \"King Wuling of Zhao\") (340–295 BC) of the [state of Zhao](/wiki/State_of_Zhao \"State of Zhao\") based in what is now [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") and [Shanxi Provinces](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the [Dí](/wiki/Beidi \"Beidi\") [state of Zhongshan](/wiki/State_of_Zhongshan \"State of Zhongshan\") in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the Linhu and [Loufan](/wiki/Loufan_%28people%29 \"Loufan (people)\") and created the [Yunzhong Commandery](/wiki/Yunzhong_Commandery \"Yunzhong Commandery\") near modern [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\"). King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After [Qin Shi Huang](/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang \"Qin Shi Huang\") created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC, he sent the general [Meng Tian](/wiki/Meng_Tian \"Meng Tian\") to [drive the Xiongnu from the region](/wiki/Qin%27s_campaign_against_the_Xiongnu \"Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu\") and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region: [Jiuyuan](/wiki/Jiuyuan_Commandery \"Jiuyuan Commandery\") and Yunzhong and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin dynasty collapsed in 206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian.\n\nDuring the [Western Han dynasty](/wiki/Western_Han_dynasty \"Western Han dynasty\"), [Emperor Wu](/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han \"Emperor Wu of Han\") sent the general [Wei Qing](/wiki/Wei_Qing \"Wei Qing\") to [reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu](/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War \"Han–Xiongnu War\") in 127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong\\-Nu. In that same year, he established the commanderies of [Shuofang](/wiki/Shuofang_Commandery \"Shuofang Commandery\") and [Wuyuan](/wiki/Wuyuan_Commandery \"Wuyuan Commandery\") in Hetao. At the same time, what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the [Xianbei](/wiki/Xianbei \"Xianbei\"), who would, later on, eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence.\n\nDuring the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\") (25–220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han dynasty began to be settled in Hetao and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on, during the [Western Jin dynasty](/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty \"Western Jin dynasty\"), it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao, [Liu Yuan](/wiki/Liu_Yuan_%28Han_Zhao%29 \"Liu Yuan (Han Zhao)\"), who established the [Han Zhao](/wiki/Han_Zhao \"Han Zhao\") kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the [Sixteen Kingdoms](/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms \"Sixteen Kingdoms\") period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non\\-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes.\n\nThe [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty \"Sui dynasty\") (581–618\\) and [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") (618–907\\) re\\-established a unified Chinese empire and like their predecessors, they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the [Liao dynasty](/wiki/Liao_dynasty \"Liao dynasty\") founded by the [Khitans](/wiki/Khitan_people \"Khitan people\"), a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the [Western Xia](/wiki/Western_Xia \"Western Xia\") of the [Tanguts](/wiki/Tangut_people \"Tangut people\"), who took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including Western Hetao). The Khitans were later replaced by the [Jurchens](/wiki/Jurchens \"Jurchens\"), precursors to the modern [Manchus](/wiki/Manchu_people \"Manchu people\"), who established the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%281115%E2%80%931234%29 \"Jin dynasty (1115–1234)\") over Manchuria and Northern China.\n\n### Mongol and Ming periods\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Persian miniature](/wiki/Persian_miniature \"Persian miniature\") depicting [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") entering [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\")](/wiki/File:Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg \"Siège de Beijing (1213-1214).jpeg\")\n[thumb\\|The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent](/wiki/File:Northern_Yuan.png \"Northern Yuan.png\")\n\nAfter [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") unified the [Mongol](/wiki/Mongol \"Mongol\") tribes in 1206 and founded the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\"), the [Tangut](/wiki/Tanguts \"Tanguts\") [Western Xia](/wiki/Western_Xia \"Western Xia\") empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the [Jurchen](/wiki/Jurchens \"Jurchens\") [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%281115%E2%80%931234%29 \"Jin dynasty (1115–1234)\") fell in 1234\\. In 1271, [Kublai Khan](/wiki/Kublai_Khan \"Kublai Khan\"), the grandson of Genghis Khan established the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\"). Kublai Khan's summer capital [Shangdu](/wiki/Shangdu \"Shangdu\") (aka Xanadu) was located near present\\-day [Dolonnor](/wiki/Duolun_County \"Duolun County\"). During that time [Ongud](/wiki/Ongud \"Ongud\") and [Khunggirad](/wiki/Khunggirad \"Khunggirad\") peoples dominated the area of what is now Inner Mongolia. After the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Han\\-led [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") in 1368, the Ming captured parts of Inner Mongolia including Shangdu and [Yingchang](/wiki/Yingchang \"Yingchang\"). The Ming rebuilt the [Great Wall of China](/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China \"Great Wall of China\") at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei\\-Inner Mongolia border). The Ming established the Three Guards composed of the Mongols there. Soon after the [Tumu incident](/wiki/Tumu_incident \"Tumu incident\") in 1449, when the Oirat ruler [Esen taishi](/wiki/Esen_taishi \"Esen taishi\") captured the Chinese emperor, Mongols flooded south from Outer Mongolia to Inner Mongolia. Thus from then on until 1635, Inner Mongolia was the political and cultural center of the Mongols during the [Northern Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty \"Northern Yuan dynasty\").CPAtwood\\-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 246\\.\n\n### Qing period\n\nThe eastern Mongol tribes near and in Manchuria, particularly the [Khorchin](/wiki/Khorchin \"Khorchin\") and Southern [Khalkha](/wiki/Khalkha \"Khalkha\") in today's Inner Mongolia intermarried, formed alliances with, and fought against the [Jurchen](/wiki/Jurchen_people \"Jurchen people\") tribes until [Nurhaci](/wiki/Nurhaci \"Nurhaci\"), the founder of the new Jin dynasty, consolidated his control over all groups in the area in 1593\\.Atwood, Christopher. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 449\\. The [Manchus](/wiki/Manchus \"Manchus\") gained far\\-reaching control of the Inner Mongolian tribes in 1635, when [Ligden Khan](/wiki/Ligden_Khan \"Ligden Khan\")'s son surrendered the [Chakhar](/wiki/Chahar_Mongols \"Chahar Mongols\") Mongol tribes to the [Manchus](/wiki/Manchus \"Manchus\"). The Manchus subsequently invaded Ming China in 1644, bringing it under the control of their newly established [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"). Under the Qing dynasty (1644–1912\\), the [Mongolian Plateau](/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau \"Mongolian Plateau\") was [administered](/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule \"Mongolia under Qing rule\") in a different way for each region:\n[thumb\\|Mongolia plateau during early 17th century](/wiki/File:Map-Qing_Dynasty_1616-en.jpg \"Map-Qing Dynasty 1616-en.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Inner Mongolia and [Outer Mongolia](/wiki/Outer_Mongolia \"Outer Mongolia\") within the Qing dynasty, c. 1820](/wiki/File:Qing_Dynasty_1820.png \"Qing Dynasty 1820.png\")\n* \"Outer Mongolia\": This region corresponds to the modern state of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), plus the Russian\\-administered region of [Tannu Uriankhai](/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai \"Tannu Uriankhai\"), and modern\\-day aimag of [Bayan\\-Ölgii](/wiki/Bayan-%C3%96lgii \"Bayan-Ölgii\") which historically was a part of northern [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\") under China's Qing Dynasty. It included the four leagues (*aimag*) of the [Khalkha Mongols](/wiki/Khalkha_Mongols \"Khalkha Mongols\") north of the [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi_desert \"Gobi desert\"), as well as the [Tannu Uriankhai](/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai \"Tannu Uriankhai\") which largely corresponds to modern\\-day [Tuva Republic](/wiki/Tuva_Republic \"Tuva Republic\") of Russia, and [Khovd](/wiki/Khovd_Province \"Khovd Province\") regions in northwestern Mongolia, which were overseen by the [General of Uliastai](/wiki/Uliastai_General \"Uliastai General\") from the city of [Uliastai](/wiki/Uliastai \"Uliastai\").\n* \"Inner Mongolia\": This region corresponded to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\") and [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\") provinces. The [banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\") and tribes in this region came under six [leagues](/wiki/Leagues_of_China \"Leagues of China\") (*chuulghan*): [Jirim](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\"), [Juuuda](/wiki/Juuuda \"Juuuda\"), [Josutu](/wiki/Josutu \"Josutu\"), [Xilingol](/wiki/Xilingol \"Xilingol\"), [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\"), and [Yekejuu](/wiki/Yekejuu \"Yekejuu\").\n* \"Taoxi Mongolia\": The [Alashan Öölüd](/wiki/Alashan_%C3%96%C3%B6l%C3%BCd \"Alashan Öölüd\") and [Ejine Torghuud](/wiki/Ejine_Torghuud \"Ejine Torghuud\") banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This territory is equivalent to modern\\-day [Alxa League](/wiki/Alxa_League \"Alxa League\"), the westernmost part of what is now Inner Mongolia.\n* The Chahar [Banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\") were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou \"Zhangjiakou\")). Their extent corresponded to southern Ulanqab and [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou \"Zhangjiakou\") in [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of [Zhili](/wiki/Zhili_Province \"Zhili Province\") and [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") provinces also belonged to this region.\n* The [Guihua Tümed](/wiki/Guihua_T%C3%BCmed \"Guihua Tümed\") banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\")). This corresponds to the vicinities of the modern city of [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\"). At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of modern [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") province also belonged to this region.\n* The [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") region in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia was part of the jurisdiction of the General of [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\"), one of the three generals of [Manchuria](/wiki/Manchuria \"Manchuria\").\n\nThe Inner Mongolian [Chahar](/wiki/Chahar_Mongols \"Chahar Mongols\") leader [Ligdan Khan](/wiki/Ligdan_Khan \"Ligdan Khan\"), a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634\\. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son [Ejei Khan](/wiki/Ejei_Khan \"Ejei Khan\") surrendered to the Qing. Ejei Khan was given the title of Prince (), and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in [Shenyang](/wiki/Shenyang \"Shenyang\") and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the [Revolt of the Three Feudatories](/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories \"Revolt of the Three Feudatories\"), with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor, unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.\n\nDespite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. As a result, the Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.\n\nOrdinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.[Bulag 2012](https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&dq=Cross+league+borders+mongols&pg=PA41) , p. 41\\. Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission.\n\nDuring the eighteenth century, growing numbers of [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791, there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the [Front Gorlos Banner](/wiki/Qian_Gorlos_Mongol_Autonomous_County \"Qian Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County\") that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalise the status of the peasants who had already settled there.\n\nDuring the nineteenth century, the Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicised and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers.\n\nA group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called \"Mongol followers\" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of [Li Shouxin](/wiki/Li_Shouxin \"Li Shouxin\"). They distinguished themselves apart from \"true Mongols\" 真蒙古.\n\n### Republic of China and the Second World War periods\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Mongols stand in front of a yurt, 1912](/wiki/File:1912_Inner_Mongolia.jpg \"1912 Inner Mongolia.jpg\")\nOuter Mongolia gained independence from the Qing dynasty in 1911, when the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu of the Khalkha was declared the [Bogd Khan](/wiki/Bogd_Khan \"Bogd Khan\") of Mongolia. Although almost all banners of Inner Mongolia recognised the Bogd Khan as the supreme ruler of Mongols, the internal strife within the region prevented a full reunification. The Mongol rebellions in Inner Mongolia were counterbalanced by princes who hoped to see a restored Qing dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia, as they considered the theocratic rule of the Bogd Khan would be against their modernising objectives for Mongolia.Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 454\\. Eventually, the newly formed [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\") promised a new nation of five races ([Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\"), [Manchu](/wiki/Manchu \"Manchu\"), [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\"), [Tibetan](/wiki/Tibetan_people \"Tibetan people\") and [Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghur_people \"Uyghur people\")).Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 91, and suppressed the Mongol rebellions in the area.Belov, E. A. Anti\\-Chinese rebellion led by Babujav in Inner Mongolia, 1915–1916\\. – Annaly (Moscow), no. 2, 1996\\.Belov, E. A. Rossiya i Mongoliya (1911–1919\\). Moscow: Vost. Lit. Publ.\n\nThe Republic of China reorganised Inner Mongolia into provinces:\n* [Rehe](/wiki/Rehe_%28province%29 \"Rehe (province)\") province was created to include the Juuuda and Josutu leagues, plus the [Chengde](/wiki/Chengde \"Chengde\") area in what is now northern [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\").\n* [Chahar](/wiki/Chahar_%28province%29 \"Chahar (province)\") province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners.\n* [Suiyuan](/wiki/Suiyuan \"Suiyuan\") province was created to include Ulanqab league, Yekejuu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory).\n* Hulunbuir stayed within [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\") in Manchuria, which had become a province.\n* Most of Jirim league came under the new province of [Fengtian](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\") in southern Manchuria.\n* Taoxi Mongolia, i.e., Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\") province. Later on [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\") province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia.\nSome [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China \"Republic of China\") maps still show this structure.\n\nThe history of Inner Mongolia during the Second World War is complicated, with Japanese invasion and different kinds of resistance movements. In 1931, Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state [Manchukuo](/wiki/Manchukuo \"Manchukuo\"), taking some Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e., Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in 1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were occupied by Manchukuo until the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in 1945\\.\n\nIn 1937, the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") openly and fully invaded the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\"). On 8 December 1937, Mongolian Prince [Demchugdongrub](/wiki/Demchugdongrub \"Demchugdongrub\") (also known as \"De Wang\") declared independence for the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e., the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as [Mengjiang](/wiki/Mengjiang \"Mengjiang\"), and signed agreements with Manchukuo and Japan. Its capital was established at [Zhangbei](/wiki/Zhangbei_Town \"Zhangbei Town\") (now in [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") province), with the Japanese puppet government's control extending as far west as the [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") region. The Japanese advance was defeated by Hui Muslim General [Ma Hongbin](/wiki/Ma_Hongbin \"Ma Hongbin\") at the [Battle of West Suiyuan](/wiki/Battle_of_West_Suiyuan \"Battle of West Suiyuan\") and [Battle of Wuyuan](/wiki/Battle_of_Wuyuan \"Battle of Wuyuan\"). Since 1945, Inner Mongolia has remained part of China.\n\nThe Mongol [Ulanhu](/wiki/Ulanhu \"Ulanhu\") fought against the Japanese.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans](/wiki/File:Delegates_of_Inner_Mongolia_People%27s_Congress_shouting_slogans.jpg \"Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans.jpg\")\nEthnic Mongolian guerrilla units were created by the Kuomintang Nationalists to fight against the Japanese during the war in the late 30s and early 40s. These Mongol militias were created by the Ejine and Alashaa based commissioner's offices created by the Kuomintang. Prince Demchugdongrub's Mongols were targeted by Kuomintang Mongols to defect to the Republic of China. The Nationalists recruited 1,700 ethnic minority fighters in Inner Mongolia and created war zones in the Tumet Banner, Ulanchab League, and Ordos Yekejuu League.\n\nThe [Inner Mongolian People's Republic](/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic \"Inner Mongolian People's Republic\") was founded shortly after the Second World War. It existed from 9 September 1945 until 6 November 1945\\.\n\n### People's Republic of China\n\nThe Communist movement gradually gained momentum as part of the Third Communist International in Inner Mongolia during the Japanese period. By the end of WWII, the Inner Mongolian faction of the ComIntern had a functional militia and actively opposed the attempts at independence by De Wang's Chinggisid princes on the grounds of fighting feudalism. Following the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the [Chinese Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China \"Communist Party of China\") gained control of Manchuria as well as the Inner Mongolian Communists with decisive Soviet support and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947\\. The Comintern army was absorbed into the People's Liberation Army. Initially, the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\") province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, nearly all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present\\-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape. The leader of Inner Mongolia during that time, as both regional CPC secretary and head of regional government, was [Ulanhu](/wiki/Ulanhu \"Ulanhu\").\n\nDuring the [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution \"Cultural Revolution\"), the administration of Ulanhu was purged, and a wave of repressions was initiated against the Mongol population of the autonomous region.David Sneath, \"The Impact of the Cultural Revolution in China on the Mongolians of Inner Mongolia\", in *Modern Asian Studies*, Vol. 28, No. 2 (May 1994\\), pp. 409–430\\. Among the victims in Inner Mongolia, 75 per cent were Mongols, even though they only constituted 10 per cent of the population. In 1969, much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\") and [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\"), Jirim going to [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\"), Juu Uda to [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\"), and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\") and [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\"). This decision was reversed in 1979\\.\n\nInner Mongolia was underdeveloped until the early 2000s, when huge [mineral deposits](/wiki/Mining_industry_of_China \"Mining industry of China\") including [coal](/wiki/Coal_in_China \"Coal in China\") (such as Dongsheng Coalfield) and [rare earth metals](/wiki/Rare_earth_industry_in_China \"Rare earth industry in China\") were discovered. GDP growth has continually been over 10%, even 15% and connections with the [Wolf Economy](/wiki/Wolf_Economy \"Wolf Economy\") to the north has helped development. However, growth has come at a cost with huge amounts of pollution and degradation to the grasslands. Attempts to attract [ethnic Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") to migrate from other regions, as well as urbanise those rural nomads and peasants has led to huge amounts of corruption and waste in public spending, such as [Ordos City](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\"). Acute uneven [wealth distribution](/wiki/Wealth_distribution \"Wealth distribution\") has further exacerbated ethnic tensions, many indigenous Mongolians feeling they are increasingly marginalised in their own homeland, leading to [riots in 2011](/wiki/2011_Inner_Mongolia_unrest \"2011 Inner Mongolia unrest\") and 2013\\.\n\nOn 31 August 2020, [large protests](/wiki/2020_Inner_Mongolia_protests \"2020 Inner Mongolia protests\") broke out in ethnic Mongol communities due to unannounced plans by the Chinese government to phase out Mongolian\\-medium teaching.\n\n",
"### Early history\n\n[Slab Grave cultural](/wiki/Slab_Grave_Culture \"Slab Grave Culture\") monuments are found in Northern, Central and Eastern [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), Inner Mongolia, North\\-Western China, Southern, Central\\-Eastern and Southern [Baikal](/wiki/Baikal_Lake \"Baikal Lake\") territory. Mongolian scholars prove that this culture related to the [Proto\\-Mongols](/wiki/Proto-Mongols \"Proto-Mongols\").*History of Mongolia*, Volume I, 2003\\.\n\nDuring the [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty \"Zhou dynasty\"), Central and Western Inner Mongolia (the [Hetao](/wiki/Hetao \"Hetao\") region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the [Loufan](/wiki/Loufan_%28people%29 \"Loufan (people)\"), Linhu and [Dí](/wiki/Beidi \"Beidi\"), while Eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the [Donghu](/wiki/Donghu_people \"Donghu people\"). During the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period \"Warring States period\"), [King Wuling](/wiki/King_Wuling_of_Zhao \"King Wuling of Zhao\") (340–295 BC) of the [state of Zhao](/wiki/State_of_Zhao \"State of Zhao\") based in what is now [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") and [Shanxi Provinces](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the [Dí](/wiki/Beidi \"Beidi\") [state of Zhongshan](/wiki/State_of_Zhongshan \"State of Zhongshan\") in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the Linhu and [Loufan](/wiki/Loufan_%28people%29 \"Loufan (people)\") and created the [Yunzhong Commandery](/wiki/Yunzhong_Commandery \"Yunzhong Commandery\") near modern [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\"). King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After [Qin Shi Huang](/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang \"Qin Shi Huang\") created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC, he sent the general [Meng Tian](/wiki/Meng_Tian \"Meng Tian\") to [drive the Xiongnu from the region](/wiki/Qin%27s_campaign_against_the_Xiongnu \"Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu\") and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region: [Jiuyuan](/wiki/Jiuyuan_Commandery \"Jiuyuan Commandery\") and Yunzhong and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin dynasty collapsed in 206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian.\n\nDuring the [Western Han dynasty](/wiki/Western_Han_dynasty \"Western Han dynasty\"), [Emperor Wu](/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han \"Emperor Wu of Han\") sent the general [Wei Qing](/wiki/Wei_Qing \"Wei Qing\") to [reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu](/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War \"Han–Xiongnu War\") in 127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong\\-Nu. In that same year, he established the commanderies of [Shuofang](/wiki/Shuofang_Commandery \"Shuofang Commandery\") and [Wuyuan](/wiki/Wuyuan_Commandery \"Wuyuan Commandery\") in Hetao. At the same time, what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the [Xianbei](/wiki/Xianbei \"Xianbei\"), who would, later on, eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence.\n\nDuring the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\") (25–220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han dynasty began to be settled in Hetao and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on, during the [Western Jin dynasty](/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty \"Western Jin dynasty\"), it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao, [Liu Yuan](/wiki/Liu_Yuan_%28Han_Zhao%29 \"Liu Yuan (Han Zhao)\"), who established the [Han Zhao](/wiki/Han_Zhao \"Han Zhao\") kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the [Sixteen Kingdoms](/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms \"Sixteen Kingdoms\") period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non\\-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes.\n\nThe [Sui dynasty](/wiki/Sui_dynasty \"Sui dynasty\") (581–618\\) and [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") (618–907\\) re\\-established a unified Chinese empire and like their predecessors, they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the [Liao dynasty](/wiki/Liao_dynasty \"Liao dynasty\") founded by the [Khitans](/wiki/Khitan_people \"Khitan people\"), a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the [Western Xia](/wiki/Western_Xia \"Western Xia\") of the [Tanguts](/wiki/Tangut_people \"Tangut people\"), who took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including Western Hetao). The Khitans were later replaced by the [Jurchens](/wiki/Jurchens \"Jurchens\"), precursors to the modern [Manchus](/wiki/Manchu_people \"Manchu people\"), who established the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%281115%E2%80%931234%29 \"Jin dynasty (1115–1234)\") over Manchuria and Northern China.\n\n",
"### Mongol and Ming periods\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Persian miniature](/wiki/Persian_miniature \"Persian miniature\") depicting [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") entering [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\")](/wiki/File:Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg \"Siège de Beijing (1213-1214).jpeg\")\n[thumb\\|The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent](/wiki/File:Northern_Yuan.png \"Northern Yuan.png\")\n\nAfter [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") unified the [Mongol](/wiki/Mongol \"Mongol\") tribes in 1206 and founded the [Mongol Empire](/wiki/Mongol_Empire \"Mongol Empire\"), the [Tangut](/wiki/Tanguts \"Tanguts\") [Western Xia](/wiki/Western_Xia \"Western Xia\") empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the [Jurchen](/wiki/Jurchens \"Jurchens\") [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%281115%E2%80%931234%29 \"Jin dynasty (1115–1234)\") fell in 1234\\. In 1271, [Kublai Khan](/wiki/Kublai_Khan \"Kublai Khan\"), the grandson of Genghis Khan established the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\"). Kublai Khan's summer capital [Shangdu](/wiki/Shangdu \"Shangdu\") (aka Xanadu) was located near present\\-day [Dolonnor](/wiki/Duolun_County \"Duolun County\"). During that time [Ongud](/wiki/Ongud \"Ongud\") and [Khunggirad](/wiki/Khunggirad \"Khunggirad\") peoples dominated the area of what is now Inner Mongolia. After the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Han\\-led [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") in 1368, the Ming captured parts of Inner Mongolia including Shangdu and [Yingchang](/wiki/Yingchang \"Yingchang\"). The Ming rebuilt the [Great Wall of China](/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China \"Great Wall of China\") at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei\\-Inner Mongolia border). The Ming established the Three Guards composed of the Mongols there. Soon after the [Tumu incident](/wiki/Tumu_incident \"Tumu incident\") in 1449, when the Oirat ruler [Esen taishi](/wiki/Esen_taishi \"Esen taishi\") captured the Chinese emperor, Mongols flooded south from Outer Mongolia to Inner Mongolia. Thus from then on until 1635, Inner Mongolia was the political and cultural center of the Mongols during the [Northern Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty \"Northern Yuan dynasty\").CPAtwood\\-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 246\\.\n\n",
"### Qing period\n\nThe eastern Mongol tribes near and in Manchuria, particularly the [Khorchin](/wiki/Khorchin \"Khorchin\") and Southern [Khalkha](/wiki/Khalkha \"Khalkha\") in today's Inner Mongolia intermarried, formed alliances with, and fought against the [Jurchen](/wiki/Jurchen_people \"Jurchen people\") tribes until [Nurhaci](/wiki/Nurhaci \"Nurhaci\"), the founder of the new Jin dynasty, consolidated his control over all groups in the area in 1593\\.Atwood, Christopher. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 449\\. The [Manchus](/wiki/Manchus \"Manchus\") gained far\\-reaching control of the Inner Mongolian tribes in 1635, when [Ligden Khan](/wiki/Ligden_Khan \"Ligden Khan\")'s son surrendered the [Chakhar](/wiki/Chahar_Mongols \"Chahar Mongols\") Mongol tribes to the [Manchus](/wiki/Manchus \"Manchus\"). The Manchus subsequently invaded Ming China in 1644, bringing it under the control of their newly established [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"). Under the Qing dynasty (1644–1912\\), the [Mongolian Plateau](/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau \"Mongolian Plateau\") was [administered](/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule \"Mongolia under Qing rule\") in a different way for each region:\n[thumb\\|Mongolia plateau during early 17th century](/wiki/File:Map-Qing_Dynasty_1616-en.jpg \"Map-Qing Dynasty 1616-en.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Inner Mongolia and [Outer Mongolia](/wiki/Outer_Mongolia \"Outer Mongolia\") within the Qing dynasty, c. 1820](/wiki/File:Qing_Dynasty_1820.png \"Qing Dynasty 1820.png\")\n* \"Outer Mongolia\": This region corresponds to the modern state of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\"), plus the Russian\\-administered region of [Tannu Uriankhai](/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai \"Tannu Uriankhai\"), and modern\\-day aimag of [Bayan\\-Ölgii](/wiki/Bayan-%C3%96lgii \"Bayan-Ölgii\") which historically was a part of northern [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\") under China's Qing Dynasty. It included the four leagues (*aimag*) of the [Khalkha Mongols](/wiki/Khalkha_Mongols \"Khalkha Mongols\") north of the [Gobi](/wiki/Gobi_desert \"Gobi desert\"), as well as the [Tannu Uriankhai](/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai \"Tannu Uriankhai\") which largely corresponds to modern\\-day [Tuva Republic](/wiki/Tuva_Republic \"Tuva Republic\") of Russia, and [Khovd](/wiki/Khovd_Province \"Khovd Province\") regions in northwestern Mongolia, which were overseen by the [General of Uliastai](/wiki/Uliastai_General \"Uliastai General\") from the city of [Uliastai](/wiki/Uliastai \"Uliastai\").\n* \"Inner Mongolia\": This region corresponded to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\") and [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\") provinces. The [banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\") and tribes in this region came under six [leagues](/wiki/Leagues_of_China \"Leagues of China\") (*chuulghan*): [Jirim](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\"), [Juuuda](/wiki/Juuuda \"Juuuda\"), [Josutu](/wiki/Josutu \"Josutu\"), [Xilingol](/wiki/Xilingol \"Xilingol\"), [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\"), and [Yekejuu](/wiki/Yekejuu \"Yekejuu\").\n* \"Taoxi Mongolia\": The [Alashan Öölüd](/wiki/Alashan_%C3%96%C3%B6l%C3%BCd \"Alashan Öölüd\") and [Ejine Torghuud](/wiki/Ejine_Torghuud \"Ejine Torghuud\") banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This territory is equivalent to modern\\-day [Alxa League](/wiki/Alxa_League \"Alxa League\"), the westernmost part of what is now Inner Mongolia.\n* The Chahar [Banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\") were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou \"Zhangjiakou\")). Their extent corresponded to southern Ulanqab and [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around [Zhangjiakou](/wiki/Zhangjiakou \"Zhangjiakou\") in [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of [Zhili](/wiki/Zhili_Province \"Zhili Province\") and [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") provinces also belonged to this region.\n* The [Guihua Tümed](/wiki/Guihua_T%C3%BCmed \"Guihua Tümed\") banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\")). This corresponds to the vicinities of the modern city of [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\"). At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of modern [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") province also belonged to this region.\n* The [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") region in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia was part of the jurisdiction of the General of [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\"), one of the three generals of [Manchuria](/wiki/Manchuria \"Manchuria\").\n\nThe Inner Mongolian [Chahar](/wiki/Chahar_Mongols \"Chahar Mongols\") leader [Ligdan Khan](/wiki/Ligdan_Khan \"Ligdan Khan\"), a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634\\. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son [Ejei Khan](/wiki/Ejei_Khan \"Ejei Khan\") surrendered to the Qing. Ejei Khan was given the title of Prince (), and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in [Shenyang](/wiki/Shenyang \"Shenyang\") and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the [Revolt of the Three Feudatories](/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories \"Revolt of the Three Feudatories\"), with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor, unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.\n\nDespite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. As a result, the Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.\n\nOrdinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.[Bulag 2012](https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&dq=Cross+league+borders+mongols&pg=PA41) , p. 41\\. Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission.\n\nDuring the eighteenth century, growing numbers of [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791, there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the [Front Gorlos Banner](/wiki/Qian_Gorlos_Mongol_Autonomous_County \"Qian Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County\") that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalise the status of the peasants who had already settled there.\n\nDuring the nineteenth century, the Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicised and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers.\n\nA group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called \"Mongol followers\" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of [Li Shouxin](/wiki/Li_Shouxin \"Li Shouxin\"). They distinguished themselves apart from \"true Mongols\" 真蒙古.\n\n",
"### Republic of China and the Second World War periods\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Mongols stand in front of a yurt, 1912](/wiki/File:1912_Inner_Mongolia.jpg \"1912 Inner Mongolia.jpg\")\nOuter Mongolia gained independence from the Qing dynasty in 1911, when the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu of the Khalkha was declared the [Bogd Khan](/wiki/Bogd_Khan \"Bogd Khan\") of Mongolia. Although almost all banners of Inner Mongolia recognised the Bogd Khan as the supreme ruler of Mongols, the internal strife within the region prevented a full reunification. The Mongol rebellions in Inner Mongolia were counterbalanced by princes who hoped to see a restored Qing dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia, as they considered the theocratic rule of the Bogd Khan would be against their modernising objectives for Mongolia.Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 454\\. Eventually, the newly formed [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\") promised a new nation of five races ([Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\"), [Manchu](/wiki/Manchu \"Manchu\"), [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\"), [Tibetan](/wiki/Tibetan_people \"Tibetan people\") and [Uyghur](/wiki/Uyghur_people \"Uyghur people\")).Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 91, and suppressed the Mongol rebellions in the area.Belov, E. A. Anti\\-Chinese rebellion led by Babujav in Inner Mongolia, 1915–1916\\. – Annaly (Moscow), no. 2, 1996\\.Belov, E. A. Rossiya i Mongoliya (1911–1919\\). Moscow: Vost. Lit. Publ.\n\nThe Republic of China reorganised Inner Mongolia into provinces:\n* [Rehe](/wiki/Rehe_%28province%29 \"Rehe (province)\") province was created to include the Juuuda and Josutu leagues, plus the [Chengde](/wiki/Chengde \"Chengde\") area in what is now northern [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\").\n* [Chahar](/wiki/Chahar_%28province%29 \"Chahar (province)\") province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners.\n* [Suiyuan](/wiki/Suiyuan \"Suiyuan\") province was created to include Ulanqab league, Yekejuu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory).\n* Hulunbuir stayed within [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\") in Manchuria, which had become a province.\n* Most of Jirim league came under the new province of [Fengtian](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\") in southern Manchuria.\n* Taoxi Mongolia, i.e., Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\") province. Later on [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\") province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia.\nSome [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China \"Republic of China\") maps still show this structure.\n\nThe history of Inner Mongolia during the Second World War is complicated, with Japanese invasion and different kinds of resistance movements. In 1931, Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state [Manchukuo](/wiki/Manchukuo \"Manchukuo\"), taking some Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e., Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in 1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were occupied by Manchukuo until the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in 1945\\.\n\nIn 1937, the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") openly and fully invaded the [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\"). On 8 December 1937, Mongolian Prince [Demchugdongrub](/wiki/Demchugdongrub \"Demchugdongrub\") (also known as \"De Wang\") declared independence for the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e., the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as [Mengjiang](/wiki/Mengjiang \"Mengjiang\"), and signed agreements with Manchukuo and Japan. Its capital was established at [Zhangbei](/wiki/Zhangbei_Town \"Zhangbei Town\") (now in [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") province), with the Japanese puppet government's control extending as far west as the [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") region. The Japanese advance was defeated by Hui Muslim General [Ma Hongbin](/wiki/Ma_Hongbin \"Ma Hongbin\") at the [Battle of West Suiyuan](/wiki/Battle_of_West_Suiyuan \"Battle of West Suiyuan\") and [Battle of Wuyuan](/wiki/Battle_of_Wuyuan \"Battle of Wuyuan\"). Since 1945, Inner Mongolia has remained part of China.\n\nThe Mongol [Ulanhu](/wiki/Ulanhu \"Ulanhu\") fought against the Japanese.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans](/wiki/File:Delegates_of_Inner_Mongolia_People%27s_Congress_shouting_slogans.jpg \"Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans.jpg\")\nEthnic Mongolian guerrilla units were created by the Kuomintang Nationalists to fight against the Japanese during the war in the late 30s and early 40s. These Mongol militias were created by the Ejine and Alashaa based commissioner's offices created by the Kuomintang. Prince Demchugdongrub's Mongols were targeted by Kuomintang Mongols to defect to the Republic of China. The Nationalists recruited 1,700 ethnic minority fighters in Inner Mongolia and created war zones in the Tumet Banner, Ulanchab League, and Ordos Yekejuu League.\n\nThe [Inner Mongolian People's Republic](/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic \"Inner Mongolian People's Republic\") was founded shortly after the Second World War. It existed from 9 September 1945 until 6 November 1945\\.\n\n",
"### People's Republic of China\n\nThe Communist movement gradually gained momentum as part of the Third Communist International in Inner Mongolia during the Japanese period. By the end of WWII, the Inner Mongolian faction of the ComIntern had a functional militia and actively opposed the attempts at independence by De Wang's Chinggisid princes on the grounds of fighting feudalism. Following the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the [Chinese Communists](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China \"Communist Party of China\") gained control of Manchuria as well as the Inner Mongolian Communists with decisive Soviet support and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947\\. The Comintern army was absorbed into the People's Liberation Army. Initially, the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\") province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\") province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, nearly all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present\\-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape. The leader of Inner Mongolia during that time, as both regional CPC secretary and head of regional government, was [Ulanhu](/wiki/Ulanhu \"Ulanhu\").\n\nDuring the [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution \"Cultural Revolution\"), the administration of Ulanhu was purged, and a wave of repressions was initiated against the Mongol population of the autonomous region.David Sneath, \"The Impact of the Cultural Revolution in China on the Mongolians of Inner Mongolia\", in *Modern Asian Studies*, Vol. 28, No. 2 (May 1994\\), pp. 409–430\\. Among the victims in Inner Mongolia, 75 per cent were Mongols, even though they only constituted 10 per cent of the population. In 1969, much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between [Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\") and [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\"), Jirim going to [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\"), Juu Uda to [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\"), and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\") and [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\"). This decision was reversed in 1979\\.\n\nInner Mongolia was underdeveloped until the early 2000s, when huge [mineral deposits](/wiki/Mining_industry_of_China \"Mining industry of China\") including [coal](/wiki/Coal_in_China \"Coal in China\") (such as Dongsheng Coalfield) and [rare earth metals](/wiki/Rare_earth_industry_in_China \"Rare earth industry in China\") were discovered. GDP growth has continually been over 10%, even 15% and connections with the [Wolf Economy](/wiki/Wolf_Economy \"Wolf Economy\") to the north has helped development. However, growth has come at a cost with huge amounts of pollution and degradation to the grasslands. Attempts to attract [ethnic Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") to migrate from other regions, as well as urbanise those rural nomads and peasants has led to huge amounts of corruption and waste in public spending, such as [Ordos City](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\"). Acute uneven [wealth distribution](/wiki/Wealth_distribution \"Wealth distribution\") has further exacerbated ethnic tensions, many indigenous Mongolians feeling they are increasingly marginalised in their own homeland, leading to [riots in 2011](/wiki/2011_Inner_Mongolia_unrest \"2011 Inner Mongolia unrest\") and 2013\\.\n\nOn 31 August 2020, [large protests](/wiki/2020_Inner_Mongolia_protests \"2020 Inner Mongolia protests\") broke out in ethnic Mongol communities due to unannounced plans by the Chinese government to phase out Mongolian\\-medium teaching.\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|Inner Mongolian steppes\\|303x303px](/wiki/File:Grasslands-menggu.jpg \"Grasslands-menggu.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Topography of Inner Mongolia in China\\|302x302px](/wiki/File:Inner_Mongolia_Map.png \"Inner Mongolia Map.png\")\nInner Mongolia is a provincial\\-level subdivision of [North China](/wiki/North_China \"North China\"), but its great stretch means that parts of it belong to [Northeast China](/wiki/Northeast_China \"Northeast China\") and [Northwest China](/wiki/Northwest_China \"Northwest China\") as well. It borders eight provincial\\-level divisions in all three of the aforementioned regions ([Heilongjiang](/wiki/Heilongjiang \"Heilongjiang\"), [Jilin](/wiki/Jilin \"Jilin\"), [Liaoning](/wiki/Liaoning \"Liaoning\"), [Hebei](/wiki/Hebei \"Hebei\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\"), [Ningxia](/wiki/Ningxia \"Ningxia\"), and [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")), tying with Shaanxi for the greatest number of bordering provincial\\-level divisions. Most of its international border is with Mongolia, which, in Chinese, is sometimes called \"[Outer Mongolia](/wiki/Outer_Mongolia \"Outer Mongolia\")\", while a small portion is with Russia's [Zabaykalsky Krai](/wiki/Zabaykalsky_Krai \"Zabaykalsky Krai\").\n\nInner Mongolia largely consists of the northern side of the [North China Craton](/wiki/North_China_Craton \"North China Craton\"), a tilted and sedimented [Precambrian](/wiki/Precambrian \"Precambrian\") block. In the extreme southwest is the edge of the Tibetan Plateau where the autonomous region's highest peak, [Main Peak](/wiki/Main_Peak%2C_Helan_Mountains \"Main Peak, Helan Mountains\") in the [Helan Mountains](/wiki/Helan_Mountains \"Helan Mountains\") reaches , and is still being pushed up today in short bursts.Wei Zhang, Mingyue He, Yonghua Li, Zhijiu Cui, Zhilin Wang and Yang Yu; [\"Quaternary glacier development and the relationship between the climate change and tectonic uplift in the Helan Mountains\"](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11434-012-5283-z?LI=true) ; in *Chinese Science Bulletin*; December 2012, Volume 57, Issue 34, pp. 4491–4504\\. Most of Inner Mongolia is a plateau averaging around in altitude and covered by extensive [loess](/wiki/Loess \"Loess\") and [sand](/wiki/Sand \"Sand\") deposits. The northern part consists of the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\") era [Khingan Mountains](/wiki/Khingan_Mountains \"Khingan Mountains\"), and is owing to the cooler climate more forested, chiefly with [Manchurian elm](/wiki/Ulmus_laciniata \"Ulmus laciniata\"), [ash](/wiki/Ash_%28Fraxinus%29 \"Ash (Fraxinus)\"), [birch](/wiki/Birch \"Birch\"), [Mongolian oak](/wiki/Quercus_mongolica \"Quercus mongolica\") and a number of [pine](/wiki/Pinus \"Pinus\") and [spruce](/wiki/Picea \"Picea\") species. Where [discontinuous permafrost](/wiki/Discontinuous_permafrost \"Discontinuous permafrost\") is present north of [Hailar District](/wiki/Hailar_District \"Hailar District\"), forests are almost exclusively coniferous. In the south, the natural vegetation is grassland in the east and very sparse in the arid west, and grazing is the dominant economic activity.\n\nOwing to the ancient, weathered rocks lying under its deep sedimentary cover, Inner Mongolia is a major mining district, possessing large reserves of [coal](/wiki/Coal \"Coal\"), [iron ore](/wiki/Iron_ore \"Iron ore\") and [rare\\-earth](/wiki/Rare-earth \"Rare-earth\") minerals, which have made it a major industrial region today.\n\n### Climate\n\n[alt\\=Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1\\-km resolution for Inner Mongolia (China) for 1991–2020\\|thumb\\|370x370px](/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_CHN_Nei_Mongol_1991%E2%80%932020.svg \"Koppen-Geiger Map v2 CHN Nei Mongol 1991–2020.svg\")\nDue to its elongated shape, Inner Mongolia has a four\\-season [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") climate with regional variations. The winters in Inner Mongolia are very long, cold, and dry with frequent blizzards, though snowfall is so light that Inner Mongolia has no modern glaciers even on the highest Helan peaks. The spring is short, mild and arid, with large, dangerous [sandstorms](/wiki/Sandstorms \"Sandstorms\"), whilst the summer is very warm to hot and relatively humid except in the west where it remains dry. Autumn is brief and sees a steady cooling, with temperatures below reached in October in the north and November in the south.[thumb\\|Winter in Ulanbutan Grassland, [Hexigten Banner](/wiki/Hexigten_Banner \"Hexigten Banner\")\\|355x355pxOfficially](/wiki/File:%E5%9D%9D%E4%B8%8A%E9%9B%AA%E5%8E%9F%E5%A4%95%E9%98%B3%EF%BC%88%E8%B7%AF%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%89_-_panoramio.jpg \"坝上雪原夕阳（路人） - panoramio.jpg\"), most of Inner Mongolia is classified as either a [cold arid](/wiki/Cold_arid \"Cold arid\") or [steppe](/wiki/Steppe_climate \"Steppe climate\") regime ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *BWk, BSk*, respectively). The small portion besides these are classified as [humid continental](/wiki/Humid_continental \"Humid continental\") (Köppen *Dwa/Dwb*) in the northeast, or [subarctic](/wiki/Subarctic_climate \"Subarctic climate\") (Köppen *Dwc*) in the far north near [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\").Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. (2007\\). [\"Updated world map of the Köppen\\-Geiger climate classification\"](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Asia_K%C3%B6ppen_Map.png) . *Hydrology and Earth System Sciences* 11: 1633–1644\\.\n\n#### Climate crisis\n\nThe region has increasing [desertification](/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China \"Environmental issues in China\") and frequency of sandstorms, which damages agriculture and forces down household income.\n\n| \\+**Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for some locations in Inner Mongolia of China** |\n\n| City | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) |\n| [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") | 29\\.6/17\\.1 | 85\\.3/62\\.8 | −4\\.1/–16\\.8 | 24\\.7/1\\.8 |\n| [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") | 30\\.7/17\\.9 | 87\\.3/64\\.2 | −3\\.3/–15\\.1 | 26\\.1/4\\.8 |\n| [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") | 28\\.5/16\\.4 | 83\\.3/61\\.5 | −5/–16\\.9 | 23/1\\.6 |\n| [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") | 26\\.7/15\\.8 | 80\\.1/60\\.4 | −4\\.8/–14\\.7 | 23\\.4/5\\.5 |\n| [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") | 25\\.4/13\\.6 | 77\\.7/56\\.5 | −6\\.1/–18\\.5 | 21/–1\\.3 |\n\n",
"### Climate\n\n[alt\\=Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1\\-km resolution for Inner Mongolia (China) for 1991–2020\\|thumb\\|370x370px](/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_CHN_Nei_Mongol_1991%E2%80%932020.svg \"Koppen-Geiger Map v2 CHN Nei Mongol 1991–2020.svg\")\nDue to its elongated shape, Inner Mongolia has a four\\-season [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") climate with regional variations. The winters in Inner Mongolia are very long, cold, and dry with frequent blizzards, though snowfall is so light that Inner Mongolia has no modern glaciers even on the highest Helan peaks. The spring is short, mild and arid, with large, dangerous [sandstorms](/wiki/Sandstorms \"Sandstorms\"), whilst the summer is very warm to hot and relatively humid except in the west where it remains dry. Autumn is brief and sees a steady cooling, with temperatures below reached in October in the north and November in the south.[thumb\\|Winter in Ulanbutan Grassland, [Hexigten Banner](/wiki/Hexigten_Banner \"Hexigten Banner\")\\|355x355pxOfficially](/wiki/File:%E5%9D%9D%E4%B8%8A%E9%9B%AA%E5%8E%9F%E5%A4%95%E9%98%B3%EF%BC%88%E8%B7%AF%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%89_-_panoramio.jpg \"坝上雪原夕阳（路人） - panoramio.jpg\"), most of Inner Mongolia is classified as either a [cold arid](/wiki/Cold_arid \"Cold arid\") or [steppe](/wiki/Steppe_climate \"Steppe climate\") regime ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *BWk, BSk*, respectively). The small portion besides these are classified as [humid continental](/wiki/Humid_continental \"Humid continental\") (Köppen *Dwa/Dwb*) in the northeast, or [subarctic](/wiki/Subarctic_climate \"Subarctic climate\") (Köppen *Dwc*) in the far north near [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\").Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. (2007\\). [\"Updated world map of the Köppen\\-Geiger climate classification\"](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Asia_K%C3%B6ppen_Map.png) . *Hydrology and Earth System Sciences* 11: 1633–1644\\.\n\n#### Climate crisis\n\nThe region has increasing [desertification](/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China \"Environmental issues in China\") and frequency of sandstorms, which damages agriculture and forces down household income.\n\n| \\+**Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for some locations in Inner Mongolia of China** |\n\n| City | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) |\n| [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") | 29\\.6/17\\.1 | 85\\.3/62\\.8 | −4\\.1/–16\\.8 | 24\\.7/1\\.8 |\n| [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") | 30\\.7/17\\.9 | 87\\.3/64\\.2 | −3\\.3/–15\\.1 | 26\\.1/4\\.8 |\n| [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") | 28\\.5/16\\.4 | 83\\.3/61\\.5 | −5/–16\\.9 | 23/1\\.6 |\n| [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") | 26\\.7/15\\.8 | 80\\.1/60\\.4 | −4\\.8/–14\\.7 | 23\\.4/5\\.5 |\n| [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") | 25\\.4/13\\.6 | 77\\.7/56\\.5 | −6\\.1/–18\\.5 | 21/–1\\.3 |\n\n",
"#### Climate crisis\n\nThe region has increasing [desertification](/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China \"Environmental issues in China\") and frequency of sandstorms, which damages agriculture and forces down household income.\n\n| \\+**Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for some locations in Inner Mongolia of China** |\n\n| City | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) |\n| [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") | 29\\.6/17\\.1 | 85\\.3/62\\.8 | −4\\.1/–16\\.8 | 24\\.7/1\\.8 |\n| [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") | 30\\.7/17\\.9 | 87\\.3/64\\.2 | −3\\.3/–15\\.1 | 26\\.1/4\\.8 |\n| [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") | 28\\.5/16\\.4 | 83\\.3/61\\.5 | −5/–16\\.9 | 23/1\\.6 |\n| [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") | 26\\.7/15\\.8 | 80\\.1/60\\.4 | −4\\.8/–14\\.7 | 23\\.4/5\\.5 |\n| [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") | 25\\.4/13\\.6 | 77\\.7/56\\.5 | −6\\.1/–18\\.5 | 21/–1\\.3 |\n\n",
"Administrative divisions\n------------------------\n\nInner Mongolia is divided into twelve [prefecture\\-level divisions](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China%23Prefectural_level \"Administrative divisions of China#Prefectural level\"). Until the late 1990s, most of Inner Mongolia's prefectural regions were known as *[leagues](/wiki/Leagues_of_China \"Leagues of China\")* (), a usage retained from Mongol divisions of the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"). Similarly, county\\-level divisions are often known as *banners* (). Since the 1990s, numerous leagues have been converted into [prefecture\\-level cities](/wiki/Prefecture-level_city \"Prefecture-level city\"), although banners remain. The restructuring led to the conversion of primate cities in most leagues to convert to districts administratively (i.e.: [Hailar](/wiki/Hailar_District \"Hailar District\"), [Jining](/wiki/Jining_District \"Jining District\") and [Dongsheng](/wiki/Dongsheng \"Dongsheng\")). Some newly founded prefecture\\-level cities have chosen to retain the original name of league (i.e.: Hulunbuir, Bayannur and Ulanqab), some have adopted the Chinese name of their [primate city](/wiki/Primate_city \"Primate city\") ([Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\"), [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\")), and one league (Yekejuu) simply renamed itself [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\"). Despite these recent administrative changes, there is no indication that the Alxa, Hinggan, and Xilingol Leagues will convert to prefecture\\-level cities in the near future.\n\n| Administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | | | | | | | | |\n| [Division code](/wiki/Administrative_division_codes_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Administrative division codes of the People's Republic of China\")\n\n Division\n\n Area in km2\n\n Population 2020\n\n Seat\n\n Divisions\n\n| [Districts](/wiki/District_%28China%29 \"District (China)\")\n\n [Counties](/wiki/Counties_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Counties of the People's Republic of China\") [Banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\")\n\n [Aut. banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\")\n\n [CL cities](/wiki/County-level_city \"County-level city\")\n\n| 150000 | Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region | 1,183,000\\.00 | 24,049,155 | [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") city | 23 | 66 | 3 | 11 |\n| 150100 | [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") city | 17,186\\.10 | 3,446,100 | [Xincheng District](/wiki/Xincheng_District%2C_Hohhot \"Xincheng District, Hohhot\") | 4 | 5 | \n\n| 150200 | [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") city | 27,768\\.00 | 2,709,378 | [Jiuyuan District](/wiki/Jiuyuan_District \"Jiuyuan District\") | 6 | 3 | \n\n| 150300 | [Wuhai](/wiki/Wuhai \"Wuhai\") city | 1,754\\.00 | 556,621 | [Haibowan District](/wiki/Haibowan_District \"Haibowan District\") | 3 | \n\n| 150400 | [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\") city | 90,021\\.00 | 4,035,967 | [Songshan District](/wiki/Songshan_District%2C_Chifeng \"Songshan District, Chifeng\") | 3 | 9 | \n\n| 150500 | [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") city | 59,535\\.00 | 2,873,168 | [Horqin District](/wiki/Horqin_District \"Horqin District\") | 1 | 6 | 1 |\n| 150600 | [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") city | 86,881\\.61 | 2,153,638 | [Kangbashi District](/wiki/Kangbashi_District \"Kangbashi District\") | 2 | 7 | \n\n| 150700 | [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") city | 254,003\\.79 | 2,242,875 | [Hailar District](/wiki/Hailar_District \"Hailar District\") | 2 | 4 | 3 | 5 |\n| 150800 | [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") city | 65,755\\.47 | 1,538,715 | [Linhe District](/wiki/Linhe_District \"Linhe District\") | 1 | 6 | \n\n| 150900 | [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") city | 54,447\\.72 | 1,706,328 | [Jining District](/wiki/Jining_District \"Jining District\") | 1 | 9 | 1 |\n| 152200 | [Hinggan League](/wiki/Hinggan_League \"Hinggan League\") | 59,806\\.00 | 1,416,929 | [Ulanhot](/wiki/Ulanhot \"Ulanhot\") city | 4 | 2 |\n| 152500 | [Xilingol League](/wiki/Xilingol_League \"Xilingol League\") | 202,580\\.00 | 1,107,075 | [Xilinhot](/wiki/Xilinhot \"Xilinhot\") city | 10 | 2 |\n| 152900 | [Alxa League](/wiki/Alxa_League \"Alxa League\") | 267,574\\.00 | 262,361 | [Alxa Left Banner](/wiki/Alxa_Left_Banner \"Alxa Left Banner\") | 3 | \n\n| Administrative divisions in Mongolian, Chinese, and varieties of romanisations | | | | | |\n\n| English | Mongolian | SASM/GNC Mongolian Pinyin | Mongolian Transcription | Chinese | Pinyin |\n| **Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region** | [100px\\|ᠦᠪᠦᠷ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠡᠨ ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ ᠣᠷᠤᠨ](/wiki/File:OvormonggolAR.svg \"OvormonggolAR.svg\") | | **Öbür mongγol\\-un öbertegen zasaqu orun** | | **Nèi Měnggǔ Zìzhìqū** |\n| [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") city | | Hohhot | | | |\n| [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") city | | Bugt Hot | | | |\n| [Wuhai](/wiki/Wuhai \"Wuhai\") city | | Uhai Hot | | | |\n| [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\") city | | Ulanhad Hot | | | |\n| [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") city | | Tungliyo Hot | | | |\n| [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") city | | Ordos Hot | | | |\n| [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") city | | Hulun'buir Hot | | | |\n| [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") city | | Bayannur Hot | | | |\n| [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") city | | Ulanqab Hot | | | |\n| [Hinggan League](/wiki/Hinggan_League \"Hinggan League\") | | Hinggan Aimag | | | |\n| [Xilingol League](/wiki/Xilingol_League \"Xilingol League\") | | Xiliin'gol Aimag | | | |\n| [Alxa League](/wiki/Alxa_League \"Alxa League\") | | Alxa Aimag | | | |\n\nThese prefecture\\-level divisions are in turn subdivided into 102 [county\\-level divisions](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China%23County_level \"Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#County level\"), including 22 [districts](/wiki/District_of_China \"District of China\"), 11 [county\\-level cities](/wiki/County-level_cities \"County-level cities\"), 17 [counties](/wiki/County_%28People%27s_Republic_of_China%29 \"County (People's Republic of China)\"), 49 [banners](/wiki/Banners_of_Inner_Mongolia \"Banners of Inner Mongolia\"), and 3 [autonomous banners](/wiki/Autonomous_banner \"Autonomous banner\"). Those are in turn divided into 1425 [township\\-level divisions](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China%23Township_level \"Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#Township level\"), including 532 [towns](/wiki/Town_of_China \"Town of China\"), 407 [townships](/wiki/Townships_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Townships of the People's Republic of China\"), 277 [sums](/wiki/Sum_%28Inner_Mongolia%29 \"Sum (Inner Mongolia)\"), eighteen [ethnic townships](/wiki/Ethnic_township \"Ethnic township\"), one [ethnic sum](/wiki/Ethnic_sum \"Ethnic sum\"), and 190 [subdistricts](/wiki/Subdistricts_of_China \"Subdistricts of China\"). At the end of 2017, the total population of Inner\\-Mongolia is 25\\.29 million.\n\n### Urban areas\n\n| Population by urban areas of prefecture \\& county cities | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| \\# | Cities | 2020 Urban area | 2010 Urban area | 2020 City proper |\n| 1 | **[Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\")** | 2,237,249 | 1,497,110 | 3,446,100 |\n| 2 | [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") | 1,949,876 | 1,900,373 | 2,709,378 |\n| 3 | [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\") | 1,093,068 | 902,285 | 4,035,967 |\n| 4 | [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") | 671,048 | 510,242 | 2,153,638 |\n| 5 | [Wuhai](/wiki/Wuhai \"Wuhai\") | 530,877 | 502,704 | 556,621 |\n| 6 | [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") | 480,059 | 540,338 | 2,873,168 |\n| 7 | [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") | 413,117 | 354,507 | 1,538,715 |\n| 8 | [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") | 394,269 | 319,723 | 1,706,328 |\n| 9 | [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") | 354,442 | 327,384 | 2,242,875 |\n| 10 | [Xilinhot](/wiki/Xilinhot \"Xilinhot\") | 327,112 | 214,382 | |\n| 11 | [Ulanhot](/wiki/Ulanhot \"Ulanhot\") | 318,009 | 276,406 | |\n| 12 | [Yakeshi](/wiki/Yakeshi \"Yakeshi\") | 239,742 | 338,275 | |\n| 13 | [Zalantun](/wiki/Zalantun \"Zalantun\") | 174,049 | 167,493 | |\n| 14 | [Manzhouli](/wiki/Manzhouli \"Manzhouli\") | 150,508 | 148,460 | |\n| 15 | [Holingol](/wiki/Holingol \"Holingol\") | 130,239 | 101,496 | |\n| 16 | [Fengzhen](/wiki/Fengzhen \"Fengzhen\") | 122,193 | 123,811 | |\n| 17 | [Erenhot](/wiki/Erenhot \"Erenhot\") | 74,252 | 71,455 | |\n| 18 | [Genhe](/wiki/Genhe \"Genhe\") | 71,164 | 89,194 | |\n| 19 | [Jalainur](/wiki/Jalainur_District \"Jalainur District\") | 84,424 | |\n| 20 | [Ergun](/wiki/Ergun_City \"Ergun City\") | 54,164 | 55,076 | |\n| 21 | [Arxan](/wiki/Arxan \"Arxan\") | 29,045 | 55,770 | |\n\n",
"### Urban areas\n\n| Population by urban areas of prefecture \\& county cities | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| \\# | Cities | 2020 Urban area | 2010 Urban area | 2020 City proper |\n| 1 | **[Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\")** | 2,237,249 | 1,497,110 | 3,446,100 |\n| 2 | [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") | 1,949,876 | 1,900,373 | 2,709,378 |\n| 3 | [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\") | 1,093,068 | 902,285 | 4,035,967 |\n| 4 | [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\") | 671,048 | 510,242 | 2,153,638 |\n| 5 | [Wuhai](/wiki/Wuhai \"Wuhai\") | 530,877 | 502,704 | 556,621 |\n| 6 | [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") | 480,059 | 540,338 | 2,873,168 |\n| 7 | [Bayannur](/wiki/Bayannur \"Bayannur\") | 413,117 | 354,507 | 1,538,715 |\n| 8 | [Ulanqab](/wiki/Ulanqab \"Ulanqab\") | 394,269 | 319,723 | 1,706,328 |\n| 9 | [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") | 354,442 | 327,384 | 2,242,875 |\n| 10 | [Xilinhot](/wiki/Xilinhot \"Xilinhot\") | 327,112 | 214,382 | |\n| 11 | [Ulanhot](/wiki/Ulanhot \"Ulanhot\") | 318,009 | 276,406 | |\n| 12 | [Yakeshi](/wiki/Yakeshi \"Yakeshi\") | 239,742 | 338,275 | |\n| 13 | [Zalantun](/wiki/Zalantun \"Zalantun\") | 174,049 | 167,493 | |\n| 14 | [Manzhouli](/wiki/Manzhouli \"Manzhouli\") | 150,508 | 148,460 | |\n| 15 | [Holingol](/wiki/Holingol \"Holingol\") | 130,239 | 101,496 | |\n| 16 | [Fengzhen](/wiki/Fengzhen \"Fengzhen\") | 122,193 | 123,811 | |\n| 17 | [Erenhot](/wiki/Erenhot \"Erenhot\") | 74,252 | 71,455 | |\n| 18 | [Genhe](/wiki/Genhe \"Genhe\") | 71,164 | 89,194 | |\n| 19 | [Jalainur](/wiki/Jalainur_District \"Jalainur District\") | 84,424 | |\n| 20 | [Ergun](/wiki/Ergun_City \"Ergun City\") | 54,164 | 55,076 | |\n| 21 | [Arxan](/wiki/Arxan \"Arxan\") | 29,045 | 55,770 | |\n\n",
"Economy\n-------\n\nFarming of crops such as [wheat](/wiki/Wheat \"Wheat\") takes precedence along the river valleys. In the more arid grasslands, herding of [goats](/wiki/Goat \"Goat\"), [sheep](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\") and so on is a traditional method of subsistence. [Forestry](/wiki/Forestry \"Forestry\") and [hunting](/wiki/Hunting \"Hunting\") are somewhat important in the [Greater Khingan](/wiki/Greater_Khingan \"Greater Khingan\") ranges in the east. [Reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer \"Reindeer\") herding is carried out by [Evenks](/wiki/Evenks \"Evenks\") in the Evenk Autonomous Banner. More recently, growing [grapes](/wiki/Grape \"Grape\") and [winemaking](/wiki/Winemaking \"Winemaking\") have become an economic factor in the [Wuhai](/wiki/Wuhai \"Wuhai\") area.\n[right\\|thumb\\|Theater in [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\")](/wiki/File:InnerMongolianTheater.jpg \"InnerMongolianTheater.jpg\")\n[Mining\\-related industries](/wiki/Mining_industry_of_China \"Mining industry of China\") are a major part of Inner Mongolia's economy. Inner Mongolia has an abundance of resources especially coal, [cashmere](/wiki/Cashmere_wool \"Cashmere wool\"), natural gas, [rare\\-earth elements](/wiki/Rare-earth_element \"Rare-earth element\"), and has more deposits of naturally occurring [niobium](/wiki/Niobium \"Niobium\"), [zirconium](/wiki/Zirconium \"Zirconium\") and [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") than any other [province](/wiki/Province \"Province\")\\-level region in China. The region is also a source of [crude oil](/wiki/Petroleum \"Petroleum\"), with sites such as the [Xifeng oil field](/wiki/Xifeng_oil_field \"Xifeng oil field\") producing tens of thousands of barrels per day. However, in the past, the exploitation and utilisation of resources were rather inefficient, which resulted in poor returns from rich resources. Inner Mongolia is also an important coal production base, with more than a quarter of the world's coal reserves located in the province. It plans to double annual coal output by 2010 (from the 2005 volume of 260 million tons) to 500 million tons of coal a year.\n[right\\|thumb\\|Inner Mongolia Gymnasium](/wiki/File:InnerMengolianGym.jpg \"InnerMengolianGym.jpg\")\nIndustry in Inner Mongolia has grown up mainly around coal, [power generation](/wiki/Power_generation \"Power generation\"), forestry\\-related industries, and related industries.\nInner Mongolia now encourages six competitive industries: energy, chemicals, metallurgy, equipment manufacturing, processing of farm (including [dairy](/wiki/Dairy \"Dairy\")) produce, and high technology. Well\\-known Inner Mongolian enterprises include companies such as [ERDOS](/wiki/ERDOS \"ERDOS\"), [Yili](/wiki/Yili_Group \"Yili Group\"), and [Mengniu](/wiki/Mengniu \"Mengniu\"). As with much of China, economic growth has led to a boom in construction, including new commercial development and large apartment complexes.\n\nThe GDP of Inner Mongolia in 2022 was CN¥2\\.3 trillion (US$344 billion in nominal), with an average annual increase of 10% from the period 2010–2015\\. Its per capita GDP was ( in nominal), ranking 8th among all the 31 provincial divisions of China. The primary, secondary and tertiary industries contributed ¥265 billion ($39\\.45 billion), ¥1\\.12 trillion ($167\\.1 billion) and ¥926 billion ($137\\.7 billion) to the GDP respectively.\n\nIn addition to its large reserves of natural resources, Inner Mongolia also has the largest usable wind power capacity in China thanks to strong winds which develop in the province's grasslands. Some private companies have set up [wind parks](/wiki/Wind_power_in_China \"Wind power in China\") in parts of Inner Mongolia such as [Bailingmiao](/wiki/Bailingmiao \"Bailingmiao\"), Hutengliang and Zhouzi.\n\nEast of Jilantai, Inner Mongolia, there is a ballistic missile training area used by the [People's Liberation Army Rocket Force](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force \"People's Liberation Army Rocket Force\") (PLARF) to train missile crews for mobile missile launchers, their support vehicles, and silo\\-based ballistic missiles.\n\n### Economic and Technological Development Zones\n\n* [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") National [Rare\\-Earth](/wiki/Rare-earth \"Rare-earth\") Hi\\-Tech Industrial Development Zone[Baotou National Rare\\-Earth Hi\\-Tech Industrial Development Zone](http://www.rev.cn/en/abo.htm) .\n* [Erenhot](/wiki/Erenhot \"Erenhot\") Border Economic Cooperation Area\n* Hohhot Export Processing Zone\nHohhot Export Processing Zone was established 21 June 2002 by the State Council, which is located in the west of the Hohhot, with a planning area of . Industries encouraged in the export processing zone include Electronics Assembly \\& Manufacturing, Telecommunications Equipment, Garment and Textiles Production, Trading and Distribution, Biotechnology/Pharmaceuticals, Food/Beverage Processing, Instruments \\& Industrial Equipment Production, Medical Equipment and Supplies, Shipping/Warehousing/Logistics, Heavy Industry.[RightSite.asia \\| Hohhot Export Processing Zone](https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074013/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/Hohhot-export-processing-zone/).\n* [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") Economic and Technological Development Zone\n* [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") [Export Processing Zone](/wiki/Export_Processing_Zone \"Export Processing Zone\")\n* [Manzhouli](/wiki/Manzhouli \"Manzhouli\") Border Economic Cooperation Area\n",
"### Economic and Technological Development Zones\n\n* [Baotou](/wiki/Baotou \"Baotou\") National [Rare\\-Earth](/wiki/Rare-earth \"Rare-earth\") Hi\\-Tech Industrial Development Zone[Baotou National Rare\\-Earth Hi\\-Tech Industrial Development Zone](http://www.rev.cn/en/abo.htm) .\n* [Erenhot](/wiki/Erenhot \"Erenhot\") Border Economic Cooperation Area\n* Hohhot Export Processing Zone\nHohhot Export Processing Zone was established 21 June 2002 by the State Council, which is located in the west of the Hohhot, with a planning area of . Industries encouraged in the export processing zone include Electronics Assembly \\& Manufacturing, Telecommunications Equipment, Garment and Textiles Production, Trading and Distribution, Biotechnology/Pharmaceuticals, Food/Beverage Processing, Instruments \\& Industrial Equipment Production, Medical Equipment and Supplies, Shipping/Warehousing/Logistics, Heavy Industry.[RightSite.asia \\| Hohhot Export Processing Zone](https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074013/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/Hohhot-export-processing-zone/).\n* [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") Economic and Technological Development Zone\n* [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\") [Export Processing Zone](/wiki/Export_Processing_Zone \"Export Processing Zone\")\n* [Manzhouli](/wiki/Manzhouli \"Manzhouli\") Border Economic Cooperation Area\n",
"Transport\n---------\n\n### Railway\n\nLines wholly or partly in Inner Mongolia include:\n* [Beijing–Baotou railway](/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Baotou_railway \"Beijing–Baotou railway\") (Jingbao railway)\n* [Baotou–Lanzhou railway](/wiki/Baotou%E2%80%93Lanzhou_railway \"Baotou–Lanzhou railway\")\n* [Beijing–Tongliao railway](/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Tongliao_railway \"Beijing–Tongliao railway\")\n* [Harbin–Manzhouli railway](/wiki/Harbin%E2%80%93Manzhouli_railway \"Harbin–Manzhouli railway\")\n* [Jiayuguan–Ceke railway](/wiki/Jiayuguan%E2%80%93Ceke_railway \"Jiayuguan–Ceke railway\")\n* [Jining–Tongliao railway](/wiki/Jining%E2%80%93Tongliao_railway \"Jining–Tongliao railway\")\n* [Linhe–Ceke railway](/wiki/Linhe%E2%80%93Ceke_railway \"Linhe–Ceke railway\")\n* [Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest railway](/wiki/Nenjiang%E2%80%93Greater_Khingan_Forest_railway \"Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest railway\")\n* [Tongliao–Ranghulu railway](/wiki/Tongliao%E2%80%93Ranghulu_railway \"Tongliao–Ranghulu railway\")\n\nRailway stations in Inner Mongolia include:\n* [List of stations on Jingbao railway](/wiki/List_of_stations_on_Jingbao_railway \"List of stations on Jingbao railway\")\n\n",
"### Railway\n\nLines wholly or partly in Inner Mongolia include:\n* [Beijing–Baotou railway](/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Baotou_railway \"Beijing–Baotou railway\") (Jingbao railway)\n* [Baotou–Lanzhou railway](/wiki/Baotou%E2%80%93Lanzhou_railway \"Baotou–Lanzhou railway\")\n* [Beijing–Tongliao railway](/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Tongliao_railway \"Beijing–Tongliao railway\")\n* [Harbin–Manzhouli railway](/wiki/Harbin%E2%80%93Manzhouli_railway \"Harbin–Manzhouli railway\")\n* [Jiayuguan–Ceke railway](/wiki/Jiayuguan%E2%80%93Ceke_railway \"Jiayuguan–Ceke railway\")\n* [Jining–Tongliao railway](/wiki/Jining%E2%80%93Tongliao_railway \"Jining–Tongliao railway\")\n* [Linhe–Ceke railway](/wiki/Linhe%E2%80%93Ceke_railway \"Linhe–Ceke railway\")\n* [Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest railway](/wiki/Nenjiang%E2%80%93Greater_Khingan_Forest_railway \"Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest railway\")\n* [Tongliao–Ranghulu railway](/wiki/Tongliao%E2%80%93Ranghulu_railway \"Tongliao–Ranghulu railway\")\n\nRailway stations in Inner Mongolia include:\n* [List of stations on Jingbao railway](/wiki/List_of_stations_on_Jingbao_railway \"List of stations on Jingbao railway\")\n\n",
"Government and politics\n-----------------------\n\nUnder the [Constitution of the People's Republic of China](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Constitution of the People's Republic of China\"), articles 112–122, [autonomous regions](/wiki/Autonomous_region \"Autonomous region\") have limited autonomy in both the political and economic arena. Autonomous regions have more discretion in administering economic policy in the region in accordance with national guidelines. Structurally, the Chairman—who legally must be an ethnic minority and is usually ethnic Mongolian—is always kept in check by the [Communist Party Regional Committee](/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_Autonomous_Regional_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party \"Inner Mongolia Autonomous Regional Committee of the Chinese Communist Party\") Secretary, who is usually from a different part of China (to reduce corruption) and Han Chinese. , the current party secretary is [Sun Shaocheng](/wiki/Sun_Shaocheng \"Sun Shaocheng\"). The Inner Mongolian government and its subsidiaries follow roughly the same structure as that of a Chinese province. With regards to economic policy, as a part of increased [federalism](/wiki/Chinese_federalism \"Chinese federalism\") characteristics in China, Inner Mongolia has become more independent in implementing its own economic roadmap.\n\nThe position of Chairman of Inner Mongolia alternates between [Khorchin Mongols](/wiki/Khorchin_Mongols \"Khorchin Mongols\") in the east and the Tumed Mongols in the west. Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, this convention has not been broken. The family of [Ulanhu](/wiki/Ulanhu \"Ulanhu\") has retained influence in regional politics ever since the founding the People's Republic. His son [Buhe](/wiki/Buhe_%28politician%29 \"Buhe (politician)\") and granddaughter [Bu Xiaolin](/wiki/Bu_Xiaolin \"Bu Xiaolin\") both served as Chairman of the region.\n\n",
"Demographics\n------------\n\n[thumb\\|200px\\|[Muslim](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\")\\-themed Street in [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\")](/wiki/File:Hohhot_Muslim_Quarter.jpg \"Hohhot Muslim Quarter.jpg\")\n\n[thumb\\|[County\\-level](/wiki/County-level_divisions_of_China \"County-level divisions of China\") ethnicity map of Inner Mongolia as of 2020](/wiki/File:Inner_Mongolia_County-Level_Ethnicity_Map_%282020_data%29.svg \"Inner Mongolia County-Level Ethnicity Map (2020 data).svg\")\nWhen the autonomous region was established in 1947, Han Chinese comprised 83\\.6% of the population, while the Mongols comprised 14\\.8% of the population.[Myron Weiner](/wiki/Myron_Weiner \"Myron Weiner\"), Sharon Stanton Russell(2001\\). Demography and national security. page 276, table 9\\.4\\. By 2020, the percentage of Han Chinese had dropped to 78\\.7%. While the Hetao region along the Yellow River has always alternated between farmers from the south and nomads from the north, the most recent wave of Han Chinese migration began in the early 18th century with encouragement from the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"), and continued into the 20th century. Han Chinese live mostly in the Hetao region as well as various population centres in central and eastern Inner Mongolia. Over 70% of Mongols are concentrated in less than 18% of Inner Mongolia's territory ([Hinggan League](/wiki/Hinggan_League \"Hinggan League\"), and the prefectures of [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") and [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\")).\n\nMongols are the second largest ethnic group, comprising 17\\.7% of the population as of the 2020 census. They include many diverse Mongolian\\-speaking groups; groups such as the [Buryats](/wiki/Buryats \"Buryats\") and the [Oirats](/wiki/Oirats \"Oirats\") are also officially considered to be Mongols in China. In addition to the Manchus, other [Tungusic](/wiki/Tungusic_peoples \"Tungusic peoples\") ethnic groups, the [Oroqen](/wiki/Oroqen_people \"Oroqen people\"), and the [Evenks](/wiki/Evenks \"Evenks\") also populate parts of northeastern Inner Mongolia. There is also a significant number of [Hui](/wiki/Hui_people \"Hui people\") and [Koreans](/wiki/Koreans_in_China \"Koreans in China\").\n\nMany of the traditionally nomadic Mongols have settled in permanent homes as their pastoral economy was collectivised during the Mao era, and some have taken jobs in cities as migrant labourers; however, some Mongols continue in their nomadic tradition. In practice, highly educated Mongols tend to migrate to big urban centers after which they become essentially indistinct with ethnic Han Chinese populations.\n\nInter\\-marriage between Mongol and non\\-Mongol populations is very common, particularly in areas where Mongols are in regular contact with other groups. There was little cultural stigma within Mongol families for marrying outside the ethnic group, and in urban centers in particular, Mongol men and women married non\\-Mongols at relatively similar rates. The rates of intermarriage stands in very sharp contrast to ethnic Tibetans and Uyghurs in their respective autonomous regions. By the 1980s, for instance, in [the former Jirim League](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\"), nearly 40% of marriages with at least one Mongol spouse was a mixed Mongol\\-Han Chinese marriage. However, anecdotal reports have also demonstrated an increase in Mongol\\-female, Han Chinese\\-male pairings in which the woman is of a rural background, ostensibly shutting rural Mongol males from the marriage market as the sex ratio in China becomes more skewed with a much higher proportion of men.\n\n| \\+ Ethnic groups in Inner Mongolia, 2010 census |\n| --- |\n| [Ethnicity](/wiki/Ethnicities_of_China \"Ethnicities of China\") | Population | Percentage |\n| [Han](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") | 19,650,687 | 79\\.54% |\n| [Mongol](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\") | 4,226,093 | 17\\.11% |\n| [Manchu](/wiki/Manchu_people \"Manchu people\") | 452,765 | 1\\.83% |\n| [Daur](/wiki/Daur_people \"Daur people\") | 121,483 | 0\\.49% |\n| [Evenks](/wiki/Evenks \"Evenks\") | 26,139 | 0\\.11% |\n| [Oroqen people](/wiki/Oroqen_people \"Oroqen people\") | 8,464 | 0\\.07% |\n|\n\n| \\+ | Year | Population |[Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\")\n\n[Mongol](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\")\n\n[Manchu](/wiki/Manchu_people \"Manchu people\")\n\n| --- | --- | --- |\n\n 1953(without [Rehe](/wiki/Rehe_Province \"Rehe Province\")) |\n 6,100,104 |\n 5,119,928 |\n 83\\.9% |\n 888,235 |\n 14\\.6% |\n 18,354 |\n 0\\.3% |\n 1964 |\n 12,348,638 |\n 10,743,456 |\n 87\\.0% |\n 1,384,535 |\n 11\\.2% |\n 50,960 |\n 0\\.4% |\n 1982 |\n 19,274,281 |\n 16,277,616 |\n 84\\.4% |\n 2,489,378 |\n 12\\.9% |\n 237,149 |\n 1\\.2% |\n 1990. |\n 21,456,500 |\n 17,290,000 |\n 80\\.6% |\n 3,379,700 |\n 15\\.8% |\n |\n |\n 2000 |\n 23,323,347 |\n 18,465,586 |\n 79\\.2% |\n 3,995,349 |\n 17\\.1% |\n 499,911 |\n 2\\.3% |\n 2010 |\n 24,706,321 |\n 19,650,687 |\n 79\\.5% |\n 4,226,093 |\n 17\\.1% |\n 452,765 |\n 1\\.83% |\n 2020 |\n 24,049,155 |\n 18,935,537 |\n 78\\.7% |\n 4,247,815 |\n 17\\.7% |\n |\n |\n\n| \\+ Territories with Mongol majorities and near\\-majorities |\n| --- |\n| Name of banner | Mongol population | Percentage |\n| [Horqin Right Middle Banner](/wiki/Horqin_Right_Middle_Banner \"Horqin Right Middle Banner\"), [Hinggan](/wiki/Hinggan_League \"Hinggan League\") (2020\\) | 221,258 | 86\\.6% |\n| [New Barag Right Banner](/wiki/New_Barag_Right_Banner \"New Barag Right Banner\"), [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") (2009\\) | 28,369 | 82\\.2% |\n| [Horqin Left Back Banner](/wiki/Horqin_Left_Back_Banner \"Horqin Left Back Banner\"), [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") | 284,000 | 75% |\n| [New Barag Left Banner](/wiki/New_Barag_Left_Banner \"New Barag Left Banner\"), [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") (2009\\) | 31,531 | 74\\.9% |\n| [Horqin Left Middle Banner](/wiki/Horqin_Left_Middle_Banner \"Horqin Left Middle Banner\"), [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") | 395,000 | 73\\.5% |\n| [East Ujimqin Banner](/wiki/East_Ujimqin_Banner \"East Ujimqin Banner\"), [Xilingol](/wiki/Xilingol \"Xilingol\") (2009\\) | 43,394 | 72\\.5% |\n| [West Ujimqin Banner](/wiki/West_Ujimqin_Banner \"West Ujimqin Banner\"), [Xilingol](/wiki/Xilingol \"Xilingol\") | 57,000 | 65% |\n| [Sonid Left Banner](/wiki/Sonid_Left_Banner \"Sonid Left Banner\"), [Xilingol](/wiki/Xilingol \"Xilingol\") (2006\\) | 20,987 | 62\\.6% |\n| [Bordered Yellow Banner](/wiki/Bordered_Yellow_Banner%2C_Inner_Mongolia \"Bordered Yellow Banner, Inner Mongolia\"), [Xilingol](/wiki/Xilingol \"Xilingol\") | 19,000 | 62% |\n| [Hure Banner](/wiki/Hure_Banner \"Hure Banner\"), [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") | 93,000 | 56% |\n| [Jarud Banner](/wiki/Jarud_Banner \"Jarud Banner\"), [Tongliao](/wiki/Tongliao \"Tongliao\") | 144,000 | 48% |\n| [Horqin Right Front Banner](/wiki/Horqin_Right_Front_Banner \"Horqin Right Front Banner\"), [Hinggan](/wiki/Hinggan_League \"Hinggan League\") | 162,000 | 45% |\n| [Old Barag Banner](/wiki/Old_Barag_Banner \"Old Barag Banner\"), [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") (2006\\) | 25,903 | 43\\.6% |\n| [Jalaid Banner](/wiki/Jalaid_Banner \"Jalaid Banner\"), [Hinggan](/wiki/Hinggan_League \"Hinggan League\") | 158,000 | 39% |\n| [Ar Khorchin Banner](/wiki/Ar_Khorchin_Banner \"Ar Khorchin Banner\"), [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\") (2002\\) | 108,000 | 36\\.6% |\n\n*Population numbers exclude members of the [People's Liberation Army](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army \"People's Liberation Army\") in active service based in Inner Mongolia.*\n\n",
"Language and culture\n--------------------\n\n[thumb\\|A [KFC](/wiki/KFC \"KFC\") in Hohhot, the capital, with a bilingual street sign in [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\") and [Mongolian](/wiki/Mongolian_Language \"Mongolian Language\")](/wiki/File:KFC_in_Hohhot.jpg \"KFC in Hohhot.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Inner Mongolian carpet c. 1870](/wiki/File:Inner_Mongolian_rug_c._1870.jpg \"Inner Mongolian rug c. 1870.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Jade dragon of the [Hongshan culture](/wiki/Hongshan_culture \"Hongshan culture\") (4700 BC – 2900 BC) found in [Ongniud Banner](/wiki/Ongniud_Banner \"Ongniud Banner\"), [Chifeng](/wiki/Chifeng \"Chifeng\")](/wiki/File:C-shaped_jade_dragon.jpg \"C-shaped jade dragon.jpg\")\n\nThe use of Mongolian by Inner Mongolia's 4\\.1 million ethnic Mongols has sharply declined since the 1980s. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5\\.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate). However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012\\. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanised Chinese\\-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter\\-ethnic Mongol\\-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols.\n\nBy law, all street signs, commercial outlets, and government documents must be bilingual, written in both Mongolian and Chinese. There are three Mongolian TV channels in the Inner Mongolia Satellite TV network. In public transportation, all announcements are to be bilingual.\n\n[Mongols](/wiki/Mongols \"Mongols\") in Inner Mongolia speak [Mongolian dialects](/wiki/Mongolian_language \"Mongolian language\") such as [Chakhar](/wiki/Chakhar_Mongolian \"Chakhar Mongolian\"), Xilingol, [Baarin](/wiki/Baarin_Mongolian \"Baarin Mongolian\"), [Khorchin](/wiki/Khorchin_Mongolian \"Khorchin Mongolian\") and Kharchin Mongolian and, depending on definition and analysis, further dialectse.g. Sečenbaγatur, Qasgerel, Tuyaγ\\-a, B. ǰirannige, U Ying ǰe. 2005\\. *Mongγul kelen\\-ü nutuγ\\-un ayalγun\\-u sinǰilel\\-ün uduridqal*. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ. or closely related independent Central [Mongolic languages](/wiki/Mongolic_languages \"Mongolic languages\")e.g. [Janhunen, Juha](/wiki/Juha_Janhunen \"Juha Janhunen\"). 2006\\. Mongolic languages. In: Brown, K. (ed.): *The encyclopedia of language \\& linguistics*. Amsterdam: Elsevier: 231–234\\. such as [Ordos](/wiki/Ordos_Mongolian \"Ordos Mongolian\"), [Khamnigan](/wiki/Khamnigan_Mongol \"Khamnigan Mongol\"), Barghu [Buryat](/wiki/Buryat_language \"Buryat language\") and the arguably [Oirat](/wiki/Oirat_language \"Oirat language\") dialect [Alasha](/wiki/Alasha_dialect \"Alasha dialect\"). The standard pronunciation of Mongolian in China is based on the Chakhar dialect of the [Plain Blue Banner](/wiki/Plain_Blue_Banner%2C_Inner_Mongolia \"Plain Blue Banner, Inner Mongolia\"), located in central Inner Mongolia, while the grammar is based on all [Inner Mongolian dialects](/wiki/Mongolian_language_in_Inner_Mongolia \"Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia\").Sečenbaγatur et al. 2005: 85\\. This is different from the Mongolian state, where the standard pronunciation is based on the closely related [Khalkha](/wiki/Khalkha_Mongolian \"Khalkha Mongolian\") dialect. There are a number of independent languages spoken in [Hulunbuir](/wiki/Hulunbuir \"Hulunbuir\") such as the somewhat more distant Mongolic language [Dagur](/wiki/Daur_language \"Daur language\") and the [Tungusic language](/wiki/Tungusic_languages \"Tungusic languages\") [Evenki](/wiki/Evenki_language \"Evenki language\"). Officially, even the Evenki dialect [Oroqin](/wiki/Oroqen_language \"Oroqen language\") is considered a language.Janhunen, Juha. 1997\\. The languages of Manchuria in today's China. In: Northern Minority languages: Problems of survival. *Senri ethnological studies*, 44: 123–146\\. See pages 130–133\\.\n\nThe [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") of Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects, depending on the region. Those in the eastern parts tend to speak [Northeastern Mandarin](/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin \"Northeastern Mandarin\"), which belongs to the [Mandarin](/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese \"Mandarin Chinese\") group of dialects; those in the central parts, such as the [Yellow River](/wiki/Yellow_River \"Yellow River\") valley, speak varieties of [Jin](/wiki/Jin_Chinese \"Jin Chinese\"), another subdivision of Chinese, due to its proximity to other Jin\\-speaking areas in China such as the [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\") province. Cities such as Hohhot and Baotou both have their unique brand of Jin Chinese such as the [Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect](/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect \"Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect\") which are sometimes incomprehensible with dialects spoken in northeastern regions such as [Hailar](/wiki/Hailar_District \"Hailar District\").\n\nThe vast grasslands have long symbolised Inner Mongolia. Mongolian art often depicts the grassland in an uplifting fashion and emphasises Mongolian nomadic traditions. The [Mongols](/wiki/Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\") of Inner Mongolia still practice their traditional arts. Inner Mongolian cuisine has Mongol roots and consists of [dairy](/wiki/Dairy \"Dairy\")\\-related products and *hand\\-held lamb* (). In recent years, franchises based on [hot pot](/wiki/Hot_pot \"Hot pot\") have appeared in Inner Mongolia, the best known of which is [Little Sheep](/wiki/Little_Sheep_Group \"Little Sheep Group\"). Notable Inner Mongolian commercial brand names include [Mengniu](/wiki/Mengniu \"Mengniu\") and [Yili](/wiki/Yili_Group \"Yili Group\"), both of which began as dairy product and [ice cream](/wiki/Ice_cream \"Ice cream\") producers.\n\nAmong the Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia, [Shanxi opera](/wiki/Shanxi_opera \"Shanxi opera\") is a popular traditional form of entertainment. See also: [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi \"Shanxi\"). A popular career in Inner Mongolia is circus acrobatics. The internationally known Inner Mongolia Acrobatic Troupe travels and performs with the renowned [Ringling Bros. and Barnum \\& Bailey Circus](/wiki/Ringling_Bros._and_Barnum_%26_Bailey_Circus \"Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus\").\n\n",
"Religion\n--------\n\n[thumb\\|Temple of the [White Sulde](/wiki/S%C3%BClde_Tngri \"Sülde Tngri\") of [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\") in the town of [Uxin](/wiki/Uxin_Banner \"Uxin Banner\") in Inner Mongolia, in the [Mu Us Desert](/wiki/Ordos_Desert \"Ordos Desert\"). The worship of Genghis is shared by Chinese and [Mongolian folk religion](/wiki/Mongolian_folk_religion \"Mongolian folk religion\").](/wiki/File:Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg \"Yard leading to the Temple of the White Sulde of Genghis Khan, in Uxin, Inner Mongolia, China.jpg\")\n\nAccording to a survey held in 2004 by the [Minzu University of China](/wiki/Minzu_University_of_China \"Minzu University of China\"), about 80% of the population of the region practice the worship of Heaven (that is named *[Tian](/wiki/Tian \"Tian\")* in the Chinese tradition and *[Tenger](/wiki/Tengri \"Tengri\")* in the Mongolian tradition) and of *[ovoo/aobao](/wiki/Ovoo \"Ovoo\")*.Fenggang Yang, Graeme Lang. *Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China*. BRILL, 2012\\. . pp. 184–185, reporting the results of surveys held in 2004 by the [Minzu University of China](/wiki/Minzu_University_of_China \"Minzu University of China\"). Quote from page 185: «\\[...] *the registered adherents of the five official religions comprise only 3\\.7% of those \\[populations] in Inner Mongolia. When we compare this final statistic with Minzu University research team's finding that **80% of the inhabitants of Inner Mongolia** worship* Tian *(loosely translated \"Heaven\") and* aobao *(traditional stone structures that serve as altars for sacrifice), it is evident that the official calculations of registered religious believers are markedly low, and the policy decisions based on these numbers lack the necessary grounding in reality.* \\[...] *Foreign religions can be transformed into indigenous ethnic religions, and the traditional folk religions of China's ethnic minorities can integrate and neutralize non\\-native religions. Thus, China's ethnic religions should not be regarded as social burdens or challenges, but rather as valuable cultural assets.*»\n\nOfficial statistics report that 10\\.9% of the population (3 million people) are members of Tibetan Buddhist groups. Note that the article, in an evident mistranslation from Chinese, reports 30 million Tibetan Buddhists in Inner Mongolia instead of 3 million. Note that the article, in an evident mistranslation from Chinese, reports 30 million Tibetan Buddhists in Inner Mongolia instead of 3 million. According to the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey of 2007 and the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009, [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") is the religious identity of 3\\.2% of the population of the region and [Chinese ancestral religion](/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_religion \"Chinese ancestral religion\") that of 2\\.36%,Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) 2007, China General Social Survey (CGSS) 2009\\. Results reported by: [Xiuhua Wang (2015, p. 15\\)](https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1) while a demographic analysis of the year 2010 reported that Muslims make up 0\\.91%.Min Junqing. *The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China*. JISMOR, 8\\. [2010 Islam by province, page 29](https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf) . Data from: Yang Zongde, *Study on Current Muslim Population in China*, Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010\\.\n\nThe [cult](/wiki/Cult_%28religious_practice%29 \"Cult (religious practice)\") of [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\"), present in the form of various Genghis Khan temples, is a tradition of [Mongolian shamanism](/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism \"Mongolian shamanism\"), in which he is considered a [cultural hero](/wiki/Cultural_hero \"Cultural hero\") and divine ancestor, an embodiment of the *[Tenger](/wiki/Tengri \"Tengri\")* (Heaven, God of Heaven).John Man. *Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection*. Bantam Press, London, 2004\\. . pp. 402–404\\. His worship in special temples, greatly developed in Inner Mongolia since the 1980s, is also shared by the [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\"), claiming his spirit as the founding principle of the [Yuan dynasty](/wiki/Yuan_dynasty \"Yuan dynasty\").John Man. *Genghis Khan*. Bantam, 2005\\. . p. 23\\.\n\n[Tibetan Buddhism](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism \"Tibetan Buddhism\") ([Mongolian Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia \"Buddhism in Mongolia\"), locally also known as \"Yellow Buddhism\") is the dominant form of Buddhism in Inner Mongolia, also practised by many [Han Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\"). Another form of Buddhism, practised by the Chinese, are the schools of [Chinese Buddhism](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism \"Chinese Buddhism\").\n\n",
"Tourism\n-------\n\nIn the capital city [Hohhot](/wiki/Hohhot \"Hohhot\"):\n* [Da Zhao Temple](/wiki/Dazhao_Temple_%28Hohhot%29 \"Dazhao Temple (Hohhot)\") is a [Buddhist](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism \"Tibetan Buddhism\") temple built in 1580\\. Dazhao Temple is known for three sites: a [statue](/wiki/Statue \"Statue\") of [Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha \"Gautama Buddha\") made from [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), elaborate carvings of [dragons](/wiki/Dragon \"Dragon\"), and [murals](/wiki/Mural \"Mural\").\n* Five\\-pagoda Temple is located in the capital of Inner Mongolia Hohhot. It is also called Jingangzuo Dagoba, used to be one building of the Cideng Temple (Temple of Merciful Light) built in 1727\\.\n* [Residence of Gurun Princess Kejing](/wiki/Residence_of_Gurun_Princess_Kejing \"Residence of Gurun Princess Kejing\") is a mansion typical of [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") architectural style that was built in 1705 by the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\") for his daughter.\n* Wanbu\\-Huayanjing Pagoda () in Hohhot. It was built during the reign of Emperor Shengzong (983–1031\\) of the Khitan Liao dynasty (907–1125\\) and is still well preserved.\n* Xiaozhao Temple, also known as Chongfu temple, is a [Buddhist](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism \"Tibetan Buddhism\") temple built in 1697 and favoured by the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\") of the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\").\n* [Xilitu Zhao / Siregtu juu Temple](/wiki/Xilitu_Zhao \"Xilitu Zhao\") is the largest Buddhist temple in the Höhhot area, and once the center of power of [Tibetan Buddhism](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism \"Tibetan Buddhism\") in the region.\n* [Zhaojun Tomb](/wiki/Zhaojun_Tomb \"Zhaojun Tomb\") is the tomb of [Wang Zhaojun](/wiki/Wang_Zhaojun \"Wang Zhaojun\"), a [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") palace lady\\-in\\-waiting who became the consort of the [Xiongnu](/wiki/Xiongnu \"Xiongnu\") ruler Huhanye Shanyu in 33BC.\n\nElsewhere in Inner Mongolia:\n* Baotou's urban grassland, [Saihantala](https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat15/sub103/entry-6516.html), with elevations ranging from 1,034 to 1,058 meters, features yurts, god hills, wrestling, and horse racing activities.\n* The [Mausoleum of Genghis Khan](/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Genghis_Khan \"Mausoleum of Genghis Khan\"), the [cenotaph](/wiki/Cenotaph \"Cenotaph\") of [Genghis Khan](/wiki/Genghis_Khan \"Genghis Khan\"), is located in [Ordos City](/wiki/Ordos_City \"Ordos City\").\n* [Bashang Grasslands](/wiki/Bashang_Grasslands \"Bashang Grasslands\"), on the border close to [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), is a popular retreat for urban residents wanting to get a taste of grasslands life.\n* The Arshihaty Stone Forest in [Hexigten Global Geopark](/wiki/Hexigten_Global_Geopark \"Hexigten Global Geopark\") has magnificent granite rock formations formed from natural erosion.\n* [Xiangshawan](/wiki/Xiangshawan \"Xiangshawan\"), or \"singing sands gorge\", is located in the [Gobi Desert](/wiki/Gobi_Desert \"Gobi Desert\") and contains numerous tourist attractions including sand sledding and camel rides.\n* Remains of Zhongjing (Central Capital) built in 1003 by Emperor Shengzong of the [Khitan](/wiki/Khitan_people \"Khitan people\") [Liao dynasty](/wiki/Liao_dynasty \"Liao dynasty\") (907–1125\\) in Ningcheng County.\n* Remains of Shangjing (Upper Capital) built in 918 by Yelu Abaoji the 1st emperor of the Khitan Liao dynasty (907–1125\\). Also called Huangdu it was one of the five capitals of the Liao dynasty.\n* Zuling Mausoleum of Abaoji Khan. It was built in 926 for Abaoji the 1st Emperor of the Liao dynasty. Located north\\-west of Shifangzi village.\n* Tablets of Juyan. Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) inscriptions on wood and bamboo. In 1930 Folke Bergman of the Sino\\-Swedish expedition first discovered 10,000 tablets at [Ejin Khoshuu](/wiki/Ejin_Banner \"Ejin Banner\") in the Gobi Desert.\n* Ruins of Shangdu (Xanadu) the Summer Capital of the Mongol Yuan dynasty built in 1256 by Kublai Khan.\n* White pagoda of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279–1368\\) in [Kailu County](/wiki/Kailu_County \"Kailu County\"), Tongliao. It is still well preserved.\n* Ruins of Chagan Khoto () capital of the last Mongol [Great Khan](/wiki/Great_Khan \"Great Khan\") [Ligden](/wiki/Ligdan_Khan \"Ligdan Khan\") (1588–1634\\). Located in [Ar Horqin Banner](/wiki/Ar_Horqin_Banner \"Ar Horqin Banner\").\n\n[thumb\\|Sign of the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center](/wiki/File:Jiuquan_Satellite_Launch_Center_with_sign.jpg \"Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center with sign.jpg\")\nOne of China's space vehicle launch facilities, [Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center](/wiki/Jiuquan_Satellite_Launch_Center \"Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center\"), is located in the [Alxa League](/wiki/Alxa_League \"Alxa League\")'s [Ejin Banner](/wiki/Ejin_Banner \"Ejin Banner\"), in the west of Inner Mongolia. It was founded in 1958, making it the PRC's first launch facility. As of 2021, Jiuquan has documented more launches than any other launch facilities in China, and is still the only launch site for crewed space missions ([Shenzhou program](/wiki/Shenzhou_program \"Shenzhou program\")). While geologically located inside Inner Mongolia, the launch center is named after Jiuquan, which is the nearest urban center in the nearby province of Gansu. As military facilities, the core areas at Jiuquan Center are highly restricted and can only be visited by tourist buses operated by the center, while the visitor center is open to the public and can be accessed from the south gate.\n\nInner Mongolia is also home to the two (and only two) space vehicles landing sites in China, the [Siziwang Banner](/wiki/Siziwang_Banner \"Siziwang Banner\") Landing Site in Ulanqab and the Dongfeng Landing Site in Alxa.\n\n",
"Education\n---------\n\n### Colleges and universities\n\n### Language policy and protest\n\nInner Mongolia under the People's Republic of China has historically allowed the Mongolian language as a [medium of instruction](/wiki/Medium_of_instruction \"Medium of instruction\"). A 1979 article from the *[People's Daily](/wiki/People%27s_Daily \"People's Daily\")* praises the re\\-establishment of Mongolian\\-language education after \"interference and vandalism by the Gang of Four\" during the Cultural Revolution.\n\nIt was reported by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* on 31 August 2020 that in the summer 2020, the Chinese government announced a new education policy, which called for Chinese to gradually replace Mongolian as the language of instruction in three subjects, including language and literature, politics, and history, in elementary and middle schools around the Inner Mongolia region. Thousands of ethnic Mongolians in northern China gathered to protest the policy.\n\n",
"### Colleges and universities\n\n",
"### Language policy and protest\n\nInner Mongolia under the People's Republic of China has historically allowed the Mongolian language as a [medium of instruction](/wiki/Medium_of_instruction \"Medium of instruction\"). A 1979 article from the *[People's Daily](/wiki/People%27s_Daily \"People's Daily\")* praises the re\\-establishment of Mongolian\\-language education after \"interference and vandalism by the Gang of Four\" during the Cultural Revolution.\n\nIt was reported by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* on 31 August 2020 that in the summer 2020, the Chinese government announced a new education policy, which called for Chinese to gradually replace Mongolian as the language of instruction in three subjects, including language and literature, politics, and history, in elementary and middle schools around the Inner Mongolia region. Thousands of ethnic Mongolians in northern China gathered to protest the policy.\n\n",
"Image gallery\n-------------\n\nFile:乌兰布统3\\.jpg\\|Ulaanbutan grassland\nFile:Inner Mongolia grassland (2005\\).jpg\\|Inner Mongolian grassland\nFile:AlshaaUul.jpg\\|\\[\\[Helan Mountains]] scenery\nFile:Cooking, mural from Tomb in Aohan, Liao Dynasty.jpg\\|\\[\\[Khitan people]] cooking. Fresco from the Liao dynasty (907–1125\\) tomb in \\[\\[Aohan Banner]]\nFile:Fresco Songjingtu, Liao Dynasty Tomb at Baoshan.jpg\\|Fresco from the \\[\\[Liao dynasty]] (907–1125\\) tomb at Baoshan, \\[\\[Ar Horqin Banner]]\nFile:Statue at the Wang Zhaojun Tomb.jpg\\|Honorary tomb of Wang Zhaojun (born c. 50BC) in Hohhot\nFile:Khara\\-khoto.jpg\\|Remains of the city \\[\\[Khara\\-Khoto]] built in 1032\\. Located in \\[\\[Ejin Banner]], \\[\\[Alxa League]]\nFile:美岱召古城全景沙盘.jpg\\|Maidari Juu temple fortress () built by \\[\\[Altan Khan]] in 1575 near \\[\\[Baotou]]\nFile:美岱召new stone arch.png\\|Newly built arch in front of the Maidari Juu temple fortress (1575\\)\nFile:Da Zhao Temple in Hohhot3\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Dazhao Temple (Hohhot)\\|Dazhao temple]] (also called Ikh Zuu) built by \\[\\[Altan Khan]] in 1579\nFile:Five Pagoda Temple, Huhhot, Inner Mongolia.JPG\\|Five Pagoda temple (1727\\) in Hohhot\nFile:InnerMongoliaBuddhistTemple.jpg\\|\\[\\[Badekar Monastery]] (1749\\) near Baotou, Inner Mongolia. Called Badgar Zuu in Mongolian\nFile:Badain Jaran Temple Reflection.JPG\\|Badain Jaran temple (1868\\) in \\[\\[Alxa Right Banner]], western Inner Mongolia\nFile:AlshaaBaruunHiid.jpg\\|Alxa Western Monastery (Alshaa Baruun Hiid) built in 1756\nFile:Genghis khan mausoleum.jpg\\|\\[\\[Genghis Khan Mausoleum]] (1954\\) in \\[\\[Ejin Horo Banner]]\nFile:GhinggisKhanMausoleumGate.jpg\\|Genghis Khan Mausoleum (1954\\)\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Leagues of Inner Mongolia](/wiki/Leagues_of_China \"Leagues of China\")\n* [List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia](/wiki/List_of_administrative_divisions_of_Inner_Mongolia \"List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia\")\n* [Major national historical and cultural sites in Inner Mongolia](/wiki/Major_national_historical_and_cultural_sites_%28Inner_Mongolia%29 \"Major national historical and cultural sites (Inner Mongolia)\")\n* [Winter storms of 2009–10 in East Asia](/wiki/Winter_storms_of_2009%E2%80%9310_in_East_Asia \"Winter storms of 2009–10 in East Asia\")\n\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Wang, Liping. \"From Masterly Brokers to Compliant Protégées: The Frontier Governance System and the Rise of Ethnic Confrontation in China–Inner Mongolia, 1900–1930\\.\" *American Journal of Sociology* 120\\.6 (2015\\): 1641–1689\\.\n* Williams, Dee Mack. *Beyond great walls: environment, identity, and development on the Chinese grasslands of Inner Mongolia* (Stanford University Press, 2002\\). [Online](http://faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Williams4.pdf)\n* Borjigin, Monkbat. \"[A case study of Language education in the Inner Mongolia](http://mitizane.ll.chiba-u.jp/metadb/up/AA11256001/21857148_16_17.pdf) \" ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://mitizane.ll.chiba-u.jp/metadb/up/AA11256001/21857148_16_17.pdf); Japanese title: ). *Journal of Chiba University Eurasian Society* () 16, 261–266, 2014\\-09\\-25\\. Chiba University Eurasian Society (). [See profile at](https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://mitizane.ll.chiba-u.jp/meta-bin/mt-pdetail.cgi?cd=00117993) Chiba University Repository. [See profile at](https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/120005476923) [CiNii](/wiki/CiNii \"CiNii\"). – In English with a Japanese abstract.\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Inner Mongolia Government website](http://www.nmg.gov.cn/)\n* [Inner Mongolia Government website](http://mgl.nmg.gov.cn/U_index.html)\n* [Welcome to Inner Mongolia\\-Mongolia Tours with Samar Magic Tours](http://www.samarmagictours.com/)\n[Category:Autonomous regions of China](/wiki/Category:Autonomous_regions_of_China \"Autonomous regions of China\")\n[Category:Mongols in China](/wiki/Category:Mongols_in_China \"Mongols in China\")\n[Category:1947 establishments in China](/wiki/Category:1947_establishments_in_China \"1947 establishments in China\")\n[Category:States and territories established in 1947](/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_1947 \"States and territories established in 1947\")\n[Category:Inner Asia](/wiki/Category:Inner_Asia \"Inner Asia\")\n[Category:Historical regions](/wiki/Category:Historical_regions \"Historical regions\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Aventura (band)
|
{
"id": [
32732349
],
"name": [
"Tmv"
]
}
|
bnshafsfwwzwza98w2gfy6wa8ck8mig
|
2024-10-14T02:11:12Z
| 1,251,044,498 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Formation, starting as Los Tinellers, and ''Trampa de Amor'' (1993–1996)",
"Re-invented as Aventura, creating Urban Bachata, and ''Generation Next'' (1996–2000)",
"''We Broke the Rules'', Anthony becoming Romeo, and the expansion of Bachata (2001–2003)",
"''Love & Hate'', ''God's Project'', and Mainstream breakthrough in the U.S. (2003–2006)",
"''K.O.B. Live'' and selling out Madison Square Garden (2006–2008)",
"''The Last'', performing at the White House, and The Last Tour (2008–2011)",
"Hiatus, Compilation albums, and First reunions (2011–2018)",
"Inmortal Tour (2019–2021)",
"Possible forthcoming album, Final reunion, and Cerrando Ciclos (2022-present)",
"Artistry",
"Musical style",
"Influences",
"Legacy",
"Members",
"Principal members",
"Backing members",
"Discography",
"Studio",
"Live",
"Greatest Hits or Compilation",
"DVDs",
"Concert tours",
"Awards and nominations",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
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2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - \n\n**Aventura** (formerly known as **Los Tinellers**) is an American [bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28music%29 \"Bachata (music)\") group formed in [The Bronx, New York](/wiki/The_Bronx%2C_New_York \"The Bronx, New York\"). With the lineup always consisting of the members [Romeo Santos](/wiki/Romeo_Santos \"Romeo Santos\"), [Henry Santos](/wiki/Henry_Santos \"Henry Santos\"), [Lenny Santos](/wiki/Lenny_Santos \"Lenny Santos\") (Len Melody), and [Max Santos](/wiki/Max_Santos \"Max Santos\") (Max Agende), they are regarded as one of the most influential Latin groups of all time. All of the members are of [Dominican](/wiki/People_of_the_Dominican_Republic \"People of the Dominican Republic\") descent, although Romeo is also half [Puerto Rican](/wiki/Puerto_Ricans \"Puerto Ricans\") on his mother's side. They were the first major bachata act to have originated in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") instead of the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\"). The group was integral to the evolution of [bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28music%29 \"Bachata (music)\") music and are the pioneers of the modern bachata sound.\n\nAventura released five studio albums in a decade, creating many top 10 hits like \"[Cuándo Volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_Volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo Volverás\")\", \"[Un Beso](/wiki/Un_Beso \"Un Beso\")\", \"[Mi Corazoncito](/wiki/Mi_Corazoncito \"Mi Corazoncito\")\", \"[Los Infieles](/wiki/Los_Infieles \"Los Infieles\")\", \"[El Perdedor](/wiki/El_Perdedor_%28Aventura_song%29 \"El Perdedor (Aventura song)\")\", \"[Por un Segundo](/wiki/Por_un_Segundo \"Por un Segundo\")\", \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\", among others. They have sold out many arenas including the world famous [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\"). Aventura has been nominated for awards such as [American Music Awards](/wiki/American_Music_Awards \"American Music Awards\"), the [Latin Grammy Awards](/wiki/Latin_Grammy_Award_records \"Latin Grammy Award records\"), [*Billboard* Latin Music Awards](/wiki/Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"Billboard Latin Music Awards\"), and [Premio Lo Nuestro](/wiki/Premio_Lo_Nuestro \"Premio Lo Nuestro\"). Aventura is one of the most internationally recognized Latin groups of the last two decades and frequently refer to themselves as \"K.O.B.\", or \"[Kings of Bachata](/wiki/Honorific_nicknames_in_popular_music \"Honorific nicknames in popular music\")\".\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n### Formation, starting as Los Tinellers, and *Trampa de Amor* (1993–1996\\)\n\nIn 1993, Lenny Santos and his brother Max Santos formed a little band with a cousin of theirs and called themselves Banda Sueño. They would play mostly as a hobby. It didn't last long, as the cousin was much older than Max and Lenny. They decided to look for a new singer around their age who could help them take their music career more seriously. Lenny was later introduced to Anthony via one of the group's musicians named Roney Fernandez, who attended the same school as Anthony. They clicked instantly, and the two started working on songs together. Anthony was a singer and composer who would sing with his cousin Henry at their local church choir. Anthony later introduced Lenny to his cousin Henry, who also joined the group. These four would form Los Tinellers, which is the word 'teenagers' but spelled in Spanish letters so non\\-English speaking Hispanics could pronounce it. The group would perform for their neighbors, at local stores and in the streets for free in the [Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx \"The Bronx\").\n\nOn July 9, 1995, the group was discovered by Elvin Polanco. Polanco was the coordinator of the 1995 Bronx Dominican Parade. Lenny and Anthony asked him if they could perform on stage at the parade. Polanco gave them the opportunity and was impressed by the group. Seeing the potential in the group, he became their manager and helped them record their first studio album despite having little funds. They released their first album in 1996 titled *[Trampa De Amor](/wiki/Trampa_de_Amor \"Trampa de Amor\")* under Elca Productions. The album included songs that later on would be remade for later Aventura albums. One of them was \"[Cuándo Volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_Volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo Volverás\")\", which would later become their debut single. Unfortunately, only Anthony and Lenny were on the cover because of Henry and Max being late due to train traffic. The album did not do well commercially, selling a total of five copies.\n\n### Re\\-invented as Aventura, creating Urban Bachata, and *Generation Next* (1996–2000\\)\n\nIn 1996, with the help of new manager Julio César García, the group created a new image. He re\\-invented the group to resemble popular American boy bands. He renamed the group Aventura, which is Spanish for adventure. Later on, Elvin Polanco ran into some health problems which ended things between him and the group. In 1998, they signed a record deal with Premium Latin Music, Inc. With the help of the executive of the label, Franklin Romero, the group had the support they needed to finally expand and breakthrough in the music industry. Romero was also involved in the re\\-invention of the group becoming more boy band like.\n\nOn November 9, 1999, they released their debut album *[Generation Next](/wiki/Generation_Next_%28album%29 \"Generation Next (album)\")* along with a modernized and better known version of \"[Cuándo Volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_Volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo Volverás\")\" as its main single in hopes of breaking bachata music into the mainstream from its traditional base. They slowly began to gather fans in [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") and in the east coast of the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), especially in the cities of [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") and [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lancaster, Pennsylvania\"). The group was the first to experiment with fusing bachata with other genres like [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\"), [Pop](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), [Hip Hop, Rap](/wiki/Hip_hop_music \"Hip hop music\"), [Reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") and [Rock](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\"). They were one of the first bachata acts to sing a bachata song in [Spanglish](/wiki/Spanglish \"Spanglish\") (English and Spanish). The group innovated bachata with fresh lyrics that incorporated songs with different themes. They adding their own tone to bachata guitar by adding guitar effects such as wah, phaser, distortion, tremolo, and harmonizer. They also innovated the bachata bass with the use of bass techniques such as slapping, bass slides, and a lot of rock bass riffs into bachata.. This would eventually lead to the creation of what is now known as Urban Bachata. While the album did have some success, it didn't exceed expectations as the group was heavily criticized about the new style and the fact that they had added English in to the genre.\n\n### *We Broke the Rules*, Anthony becoming Romeo, and the expansion of Bachata (2001–2003\\)\n\nWhile at the beginning they didn't get the mainstream attention they were looking for with their debut album, the style they had introduced did help make the genre mainstream. In 2001 four songs were leaked to the public which were for their second studio album. The songs were \"Todavía Me Amas\", \"Amor De Madre\", \"Enséñame A Olvidar\", and \"[Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\")\" which featured Dominican\\-American singer [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\"). Thanks to the success of \"[Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\")\", the group got the big break they were waiting for and would eventually turn them into the icons that they are today. The song achieved huge success in many countries. It peaked at number 32 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart in the U.S. It also topped many European charts by peaking at number 1 in seven countries, which made it peak at number 1 on the [Eurochart Hot 100](/wiki/European_Hot_100_Singles \"European Hot 100 Singles\"). This would expand bachata internationally as it reached countries where the genre was never heard before at the time. This would also be the start for Judy as a female vocalist for the group as she would eventually work for them in other songs.\n\nAround this time, Anthony decided to go under the name Romeo Santos. He created an alter ego to be a more romantic character on stage to help him with his shyness. He came up with the name Romeo because of the song \"Todavía Me Amas\" in which he mentions Romeo and Juliet. This was also due to the fact there is another bachata artist by the name [Antony Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"), who was the man that inspired him to become a bachata singer. Romeo would refer to himself as Anthony Santos from Aventura to be specific. Even though both singers had their names spelled different, it was still pronounced the same way. This led the group and the record label to make the decision to have Anthony go under the name he is known today, Romeo Santos.\n\nOn July 2, 2002, they would release their second album under the Aventura name title *[We Broke the Rules](/wiki/We_Broke_the_Rules \"We Broke the Rules\")*. It peaked at number 5 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 in the French and Italian albums charts. The album would feature [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\") and Puerto Rican\\-American singer [Toby Love](/wiki/Toby_Love \"Toby Love\"), who worked for them as a back up vocalist until he left in 2005 to pursue a solo career. His voice was used for the songs \"I Believe\" and \"Gone\", a cover of an [NSYNC](/wiki/NSYNC \"NSYNC\") song. In the same year, they would release their first live album titled *En Vivo*. It was based on their 2002 show at the [United Palace](/wiki/United_Palace \"United Palace\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). It was re\\-released in Europe on August 30, 2004, and renamed *[Unplugged](/wiki/Unplugged_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Unplugged (Aventura album)\")*. On January 11, 2011, it was released to the world under the title *Live! 2002*. In 2003, they released their first concert film, *Aventura In Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace*.\n\n### *Love \\& Hate*, *God's Project*, and Mainstream breakthrough in the U.S. (2003–2006\\)\n\nIn 2003, the group released the main single for their third studio album titled \"[Hermanita](/wiki/Hermanita \"Hermanita\")\". The song addressed issue like domestic violence, especially the mistreatment of women in the household. The song peaked at number 33 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 3 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. On November 18, 2003, they released their third studio album, *[Love \\& Hate](/wiki/Love_%26_Hate_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Love & Hate (Aventura album)\")*. It peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart and at number 3 in the Swiss Albums chart. It is their first album to get a Gold and Platinum certification in the United States by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA). In 2004, they released a special edition that was exclusively to Italy. It featured edited versions of the songs [Cuándo volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo volverás\") and [Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\"). They released a 2005 edition as well that was released exclusively for Romania. In 2005, they released their second concert film, *The Love \\& Hate Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace*. It is based on a concert for *[Love \\& Hate](/wiki/Love_%26_Hate_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Love & Hate (Aventura album)\")* that took place at the [United Palace](/wiki/United_Palace \"United Palace\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").\n\nIn February 2005, they released their first single for their fourth studio album \"[La Boda](/wiki/La_Boda_%28Aventura_song%29 \"La Boda (Aventura song)\")\". It peaked at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. On April 26, 2005, they released their fourth studio album, *[God's Project](/wiki/God%27s_Project \"God's Project\")*. This is their first album distributed by [Sony Music Latin](/wiki/Sony_Music_Latin \"Sony Music Latin\"). On the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts, it peaked at number 133 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), at number 5 on both [Heatseekers Albums](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\") and [Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Top_Latin_Albums \"Top Latin Albums\") charts, and at number 1 on the [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart making it the group's first number one album on that chart. It is considered the group's mainstream breakthrough album as they started to get more mainstream publicity in the United States. It was the best\\-selling tropical album of 2006 in the United States and was certified 4× Platinum in the U.S. by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA). The album featured collaborations with [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\"), [Anthony 'El Mayimbe' Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"), [Nina Sky](/wiki/Nina_Sky \"Nina Sky\"), [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"), and [Tego Calderón](/wiki/Tego_Calder%C3%B3n \"Tego Calderón\") who was featured in a hidden track. This album also featured the songs \"[Ella y Yo](/wiki/Ella_y_Yo \"Ella y Yo\")\", \"[Un Beso](/wiki/Un_Beso \"Un Beso\")\", and \"[Angelito](/wiki/Angelito_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Angelito (Aventura song)\")\" which were released as singles later on.\n\nOn May 9, 2005, \"[Ella y Yo](/wiki/Ella_y_Yo \"Ella y Yo\")\" was released as the album's second single. It featured Puerto Rican Reggaeton artist, [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"). It peaked at 97 on the [Billboard 100](/wiki/Billboard_100 \"Billboard 100\"), at number 2 on the [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") and at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [Airplay](/wiki/Airplay \"Airplay\") *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts. The music video was released in the same year. It took place in a bar. The video is about [Romeo Santos](/wiki/Romeo_Santos \"Romeo Santos\") and [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\") having a conversation about love. On August 8, 2005, \"[Un Beso](/wiki/Un_Beso \"Un Beso\")\" was released as the third a single. It became the main single for the fourth studio album. The group paid tribute to Spanish musician, [Manzanita](/wiki/Manzanita_%28singer%29 \"Manzanita (singer)\") in this song. It peaked at number 6 on the [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") and at number 2 on the [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts. Later that year, \"[Angelito](/wiki/Angelito_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Angelito (Aventura song)\")\" was released as the last single and peaked at 17 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. This would also be the last song to feature Judy Santos as she would embark in her own music career. On March 10, 2006, Aventura would perform a sold\\-out show at [The Theater at Madison Square Garden](/wiki/The_Theater_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"The Theater at Madison Square Garden\") making it their first live performance at MSG.\n\n### *K.O.B. Live* and selling out Madison Square Garden (2006–2008\\)\n\nOn October 19, 2006, they released the single \"[Los Infieles](/wiki/Los_Infieles \"Los Infieles\")\" and while it is a studio song, it was released as the first single for their second live album. It peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, at number 5 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Latin Rhythm Airplay](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. Later on, a remix was made which featured Mexican singer [Frankie J](/wiki/Frankie_J \"Frankie J\"). On December 19, 2006, they released their second live album, *[K.O.B. Live](/wiki/K.O.B._Live \"K.O.B. Live\")*. It is a double\\-disc live album of Aventura's greatest hits from their first four studio albums. These live performances were recorded in the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") ([New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\")), [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") and [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") along with audio skits of the band talking about the importance of performing in these places. It also featured a bonus DVD. The album peaked at 124 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), at number 2 on the [Billboard Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart, and at number 1 on both the [Heatseekers Albums](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\") and [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). Despite being a live album, it included 5 studio songs: \"[Los Infieles](/wiki/Los_Infieles \"Los Infieles\")\", \"[Mi Corazoncito](/wiki/Mi_Corazoncito \"Mi Corazoncito\")\", \"[El Perdedor](/wiki/El_Perdedor_%28Aventura_song%29 \"El Perdedor (Aventura song)\")\", \"Controversia\", and \"José\", a song dedicated to fallen soldiers.\n\nOn February 12, 2007, \"[Mi Corazoncito](/wiki/Mi_Corazoncito \"Mi Corazoncito\")\" is released as the second single for the live album. It peaked at number 7 on the [Bubbling Under Hot 100](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100 \"Bubbling Under Hot 100\"), at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). The music video was released on April 3, 2007\\. It featured the [Miss Universe 2003](/wiki/Miss_Universe_2003 \"Miss Universe 2003\") pageant winner [Amelia Vega](/wiki/Amelia_Vega \"Amelia Vega\"). In the same year, Aventura were inducted into the [Bronx Walk of Fame](/wiki/Bronx_Walk_of_Fame \"Bronx Walk of Fame\"). On September 1, 2007, Aventura performed at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\") as part of their K.O.B. Live Tour. This time they would perform at the 20,000 seat venue in front of a sold\\-out crowd. The concert featured artists like [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"), [Anthony Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"), [Wisin \\& Yandel](/wiki/Wisin_%26_Yandel \"Wisin & Yandel\"), [Miri Ben\\-Ari](/wiki/Miri_Ben-Ari \"Miri Ben-Ari\"), [Toby Love](/wiki/Toby_Love \"Toby Love\"), and [Héctor Acosta](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Acosta_%28singer%29 \"Héctor Acosta (singer)\"). On November 13, 2007, they would release their third live album and third concert film, *[Kings of Bachata: Sold Out at Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Kings_of_Bachata:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")*. It based on the sold out MSG show from September 1\\. The album peaked at 97 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), at number 3 on the [Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart. It was certified 8× Platinum in the U.S. by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA).\n\nOn October 29, 2007, \"[El Perdedor](/wiki/El_Perdedor_%28Aventura_song%29 \"El Perdedor (Aventura song)\")\" was released as the third single for *[K.O.B. Live](/wiki/K.O.B._Live \"K.O.B. Live\")*. It peaked at number 5 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). The music video was released in 2008 and it featured highlights from the group's 2007 show at MSG. Later on, a remix was made which featured Puerto Rican singer and rapper [Ken\\-Y](/wiki/R.K.M_%26_Ken-Y \"R.K.M & Ken-Y\"). In the same year, they released they released their fourth live album, *Live From The World*, which was sold exclusively to the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\"). It is based on some of their best songs performed around the world. It featured a live bachata cover of the [José José](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Jos%C3%A9 \"José José\")'s song \"Lagrimas\". The live performance took place in 2008 during a celebration of [José José](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Jos%C3%A9 \"José José\")'s career presented by the [Latin Grammys](/wiki/Latin_Grammy_Awards \"Latin Grammy Awards\"). In December 2008, the band would sell out 5 night at the [José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_Agrelot_Coliseum \"José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum\") in [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\") from the 4th to the 7th, and the 10th of that month.\n\n### *The Last*, performing at the White House, and The Last Tour (2008–2011\\)\n\nOn November 10, 2008, they released the first single for their fifth studio album, \"[Por un Segundo](/wiki/Por_un_Segundo \"Por un Segundo\")\". It became the group's first number 1 hit on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). The song was awarded \"[Tropical Song of the Year](/wiki/Premios_Lo_Nuestro_2010%23Tropical \"Premios Lo Nuestro 2010#Tropical\")\" at the *[Premios Lo Nuestro 2010](/wiki/Premios_Lo_Nuestro_2010 \"Premios Lo Nuestro 2010\")* awards. The music video was released in 2009 and features the winner of [Cycle 8](/wiki/America%27s_Next_Top_Model_%28season_8%29 \"America's Next Top Model (season 8)\") of *[America's Next Top Model](/wiki/America%27s_Next_Top_Model \"America's Next Top Model\")*, [Jaslene Gonzalez](/wiki/Jaslene_Gonzalez \"Jaslene Gonzalez\"). On April 27, 2009, they released the second single, \"[All Up 2 You](/wiki/All_Up_2_You \"All Up 2 You\")\". It featured Senegalese\\-American [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") singer Akon, and the Puerto Rican Reggaeton duo [Wisin \\& Yandel](/wiki/Wisin_%26_Yandel \"Wisin & Yandel\"). The song peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Latin Rhythm Airplay](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") charts. On April 23, 2009, the song was performed live as the opening act at the [2009 Latin Billboard Music Awards](/wiki/2009_Latin_Billboard_Music_Awards \"2009 Latin Billboard Music Awards\"). The music video for the song was released on June 5, 2009\\.\n\nOn June 9, 2009, Aventura released their fifth and final studio album, *[The Last](/wiki/The_Last_%28album%29 \"The Last (album)\")*. It featured collaborations with [Arturo Sandoval](/wiki/Arturo_Sandoval \"Arturo Sandoval\"), [Ludacris](/wiki/Ludacris \"Ludacris\"), [Wyclef Jean](/wiki/Wyclef_Jean \"Wyclef Jean\"), [Akon](/wiki/Akon \"Akon\") and [Wisin \\& Yandel](/wiki/Wisin_%26_Yandel \"Wisin & Yandel\"). It peaked at number 4 on the Chilean Albums chart and at number 2 on the Recordland Venezuelan Albums chart. It is their best charting album on the U.S. [Billboard charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\") as it peaked at number 5 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), and at number 1 on both the [Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart, lasting 23 weeks on that spot and [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart, lasting 50 weeks on that spot. It also included the songs \"[Su Veneno](/wiki/Su_Veneno \"Su Veneno\")\", \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\", and \"[El Malo](/wiki/El_Malo_%28song%29 \"El Malo (song)\")\" which were later released as singles. On June 30, 2009, \"[Su Veneno](/wiki/Su_Veneno \"Su Veneno\")\" was released as the album's third single. It peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. A [Bolero](/wiki/Bolero \"Bolero\") version was also released as a separate single. The music video for the [Bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28music%29 \"Bachata (music)\") version was released on July 20, 2009\\. The music video for the Bolero version was released the next day.\n\nOn October 13, 2009, \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\" was released as the album's fourth single. It peaked at number at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Bubbling Under Hot 100](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100 \"Bubbling Under Hot 100\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, which became the group's second number one hit on that chart. It also peaked at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart, lasting 15 weeks on that spot. The music video was released on November 4, 2009\\. On the same day, Aventura was invited to perform their hit single \"[Su Veneno](/wiki/Su_Veneno \"Su Veneno\")\" at the White House for the [44th President of the United States](/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States \"List of Presidents of the United States\"), [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"). They are the first bachata act to ever perform at the White House. On October 15, 2009, it air on television as part of the \"[Fiesta Latina](/wiki/In_Performance_at_the_White_House%232009 \"In Performance at the White House#2009\")\" episode of the TV series, *[In Performance at the White House](/wiki/In_Performance_at_the_White_House \"In Performance at the White House\")*.\n\nIn early 2010, they sold out Madison Square Garden once again, but for a legendary four nights in a row at part of [The Last Tour](/wiki/The_Last_Tour \"The Last Tour\"). They surpassed American artists such as Lady Gaga and Madonna in ticket sales, being one of the first Latin groups to do so. At one of the concerts they paid homage to [Juan Luis Guerra](/wiki/Juan_Luis_Guerra \"Juan Luis Guerra\"), and even sang some songs with the iconic Dominican singer. These concerts took place on the 20th and 21st of January and on the 1st and 2nd of February 2010\\. On February 13, 2010, the group would perform at the [Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_S%C3%A1nchez_Olympic_Stadium \"Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium\") in [Santo Domingo](/wiki/Santo_Domingo \"Santo Domingo\"), [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") in front of a crowd of about 50,000 to 60,000 people. On March 11, 2010, \"[El Malo](/wiki/El_Malo_%28song%29 \"El Malo (song)\")\" was released as the final single. It didn't chart at first until It was re\\-released in mid\\-2010\\. It peaked at number 5 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. The music video was released on June 29, 2010\\. Later on, a remix was made featuring Dominican rapper [Sensato](/wiki/Sensato_del_Patio \"Sensato del Patio\"). On April 29, 2010, Aventura were nominated for 12 awards at the [2010 Billboard Latin Music Awards](/wiki/2010_Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"2010 Billboard Latin Music Awards\"). They won 9 of them, thus making them the top winners of that night. From the 3rd to the 5th December 2010, the group performed for three nights at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum in [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"). The very last concert of the tour took place on March 7, 2011, in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\"). This would also be their last concert as a group before they split up to have their own separate projects.\n\n### Hiatus, Compilation albums, and First reunions (2011–2018\\)\n\nIn 2011, the group announced that they would be taking a hiatus to work on individual musical projects. Henry embarked on a respective solo career, looking to be accepted without the group. He signed with Siente Music, a record label which was associated with both [Venemusic](/wiki/Venemusic \"Venemusic\") \\& [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"). He released his first two solo albums under the record label, *[Introducing Henry Santos](/wiki/Introducing_Henry_Santos \"Introducing Henry Santos\")* in 2011 and *[My Way](/wiki/My_Way_%28Henry_Santos_album%29 \"My Way (Henry Santos album)\")* in 2013\\. Romeo took the opportunity to sign with Sony Music Latin, and embarked on his solo career as well. He released his first solo album *[Formula, Vol. 1](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._1 \"Formula, Vol. 1\")* in 2011, which would eventually be the start of the Formula series. The following year, he then released his first live solo album, *[The King Stays King: Sold Out at Madison Square Garden](/wiki/The_King_Stays_King:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")*. Then in 2014, he released *[Formula, Vol. 2](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._2 \"Formula, Vol. 2\")*, which was awarded album of the decade at the [2020 Billboard Latin Music Awards](/wiki/2020_Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"2020 Billboard Latin Music Awards\"). Although Max wanted to focus more on his rap career, he joined his brother Lenny and formed their new bachata group called \"D'Element.\" under Lenny's record label Element Music Group. They then joined [Steve Styles](/wiki/Xtreme_%28group%29 \"Xtreme (group)\") from the bachata group [Xtreme](/wiki/Xtreme_%28group%29 \"Xtreme (group)\") and renamed the group to [Vena](/wiki/Grupo_Vena \"Grupo Vena\"). The trio released 8 singles and an EP live album titled [It's VENA (Live)](/wiki/It%27s_VENA_%28Live%29 \"It's VENA (Live)\"), which was released in 2015\\. The trio would split in 2015 as Styles left the gorup. At the same time, Max Santos worked alongside many [dembow](/wiki/Dembow \"Dembow\") artists and also focused on his solo career as a rapper.\n\nDuring the hiatus, they release a few compilation albums, 2 of them being greatest hits albums. One of them is titled *[14 \\+ 14](/wiki/14_%2B_14 \"14 + 14\")*. It was released on May 23, 2011, as an audio and music video album. It contains every song that has a music video from 2000 to 2010 along with the music videos as well with the exception of \"[All Up 2 You](/wiki/All_Up_2_You \"All Up 2 You\")\". The album features [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\") and [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\") The audio version peaked at number 132 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") and at number 1 on both the [Top Latin](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") and [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") [Billboard charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). On July 12, 2014, the group would reunite for 1 night only to close out the second night of Romeo's sold\\-out [Yankee Stadium](/wiki/Yankee_Stadium \"Yankee Stadium\") concert.\nOn November 4, 2014, *[Sólo Para Mujeres](/wiki/S%C3%B3lo_Para_Mujeres_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Sólo Para Mujeres (Aventura album)\")* was released. It is part of a series of compilation albums released by multiple artist with the same title that were released by [Sony Music Latin](/wiki/Sony_Music_Latin \"Sony Music Latin\"). It features some of the group's most romantic songs. It peaked at number 15 on the [*Billboard* Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart.\n\nOn December 1, 2015, it was announced on the band's website and social media that they would have a reunion tour for the whole month of February at the [United Palace](/wiki/United_Palace \"United Palace\") theater in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). Their first concert since their split started with a sold\\-out crowd on February 4, 2016\\. On the same day, they released *[Todavía Me Amas: Lo Mejor De Aventura](/wiki/Todav%C3%ADa_Me_Amas:Lo_Mejor_De_Aventura \"Lo Mejor De Aventura\")*. This greatest hits album was named after the 2002 single, \"Todavía Me Amas\". It features [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\"), [Héctor Acosta](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Acosta_%28singer%29 \"Héctor Acosta (singer)\"), and [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"). It peaked at number 4 on the [*Billboard* Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart. It has also peaked at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") weekly chart and it has been positioned at number on numerous time lasting for a combine total of 195 weeks on that position. It peaked at number one on the year\\-end chart in the same category in which it became the number 1 tropical album for five years straight from 2019 to 2023\\. It was certified 3× Platinum in the U.S. by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA). During the same month, the group would perform every Thursday to Sunday during the month of February with the final concert ending on February 28, 2016\\. They would've continued on with the tour, but Romeo had to finish the second leg of his [Formula Vol. 2 tour](/wiki/Vol._2_Tour \"Vol. 2 Tour\"). \n\nRomeo would finish the tour and then would release his third studio solo album [Golden](/wiki/Golden_%28Romeo_Santos_album%29 \"Golden (Romeo Santos album)\") in 2017\\. Meanwhile, Henry would continue as an independent artist as Siente Music closed down in 2015\\. Henry released his third album *[The Third](/wiki/The_Third_%28Henry_Santos_album%29 \"The Third (Henry Santos album)\")* in 2016\\. The following year, he released his first live solo album, *[The Live Album: Sólo Éxitos](/wiki/The_Live_Album:S%C3%B3lo_%C3%89xitos \"Sólo Éxitos\")*. The year after, he released his fourth studio album *[Shut Up \\& Listen](/wiki/Shut_Up_%26_Listen \"Shut Up & Listen\")*. As for Lenny, he would form a new duo called [DNA Latin Group](/wiki/Vena_%28group%29%23DNA_Latin_Group_%282017-2019%29 \"Vena (group)#DNA Latin Group (2017-2019)\") with a singer by the name of J Love and released 2 singles together. Then Max joined in forming a trio and would release a single with them. The trio didn't last long as they ended things in early 2019\\.\n\n### Inmortal Tour (2019–2021\\)\n\nOn April 1, 2019, the group posted an image on their Instagram account teasing a new Aventura single called \"[Inmortal](/wiki/Inmortal_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Inmortal (Aventura song)\")\" slated to be released at 9PM, captioning it \"\\#UTOPIA\". At 9PM, Romeo uploaded a video saying that their new song would not be released at 9PM after all, and that it was intended to be an April Fool's joke which led the fans to become upset and lash out on social media. The following day, however, the group apologized and announced that the April Fool's joke was not the song, but was the release date. They then previewed the new single \"Inmortal\" and its music video, stating that it was being released on April 5, as a part of Romeo's fourth studio and first collaboration album, *[Utopia](/wiki/Utopia_%28Romeo_Santos_album%29 \"Utopia (Romeo Santos album)\")*. Eventually, the song was released on that date and it is their first single since 2010\\. It debuted at 95 on the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\"), and at number 5 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 on both the [Latin](/wiki/Latin_Airplay \"Latin Airplay\") and [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [Billboard charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). On April 25, 2019, they performed the single live at the [2019 Billboard Latin Music Awards](/wiki/2019_Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"2019 Billboard Latin Music Awards\"), alongside [Raulin Rodriguez](/wiki/Raul%C3%ADn_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Raulín Rodríguez\") who performed \"[La Demanda](/wiki/La_Demanda \"La Demanda\")\" with Romeo prior to the other members apprearing on stage. That same night, Aventura won an award for Tropical Duo/Group of the Year.\n\nOn September 21, 2019, the group reunited for Romeo's Utopia concert at [MetLife Stadium](/wiki/MetLife_Stadium \"MetLife Stadium\") in New Jersey. They performed hits such as \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\", \"Todavía Me Amas\", and \"[Inmortal](/wiki/Inmortal_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Inmortal (Aventura song)\")\". The group performed \"[Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\")\" alongside [Cardi B](/wiki/Cardi_B \"Cardi B\") who would also performed her hit song \"[I Like It](/wiki/I_Like_It_%28Cardi_B%2C_Bad_Bunny_and_J_Balvin_song%29 \"I Like It (Cardi B, Bad Bunny and J Balvin song)\")\" at the concert. On December 8, 2019, an announcement was made regarding the band's upcoming US tour, [La Gira Inmortal](/wiki/Inmortal_Tour \"Inmortal Tour\"). It was their first tour since splitting in 2011, and began in Los Angeles on February 5, 2020\\. In March 2020, the group had announced that concerts were postpone due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"). This included 5 shows at the [Radio City Music Hall](/wiki/Radio_City_Music_Hall \"Radio City Music Hall\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") that was supposed to take place from March 16 to the 19, and March 22, 2020\\. It was eventually postponed for the dates July 9 to the 12\\. However, it was eventually canceled just like all the other scheduled or postponed shows.\n\nIn June 2021, Aventura announced the return of the [Inmortal Tour](/wiki/Inmortal_Tour \"Inmortal Tour\"). But instead of doing the shows in the venues that were originally planned before their cancelation, they decided to play at stadiums and big arenas in certain cities. Before the tour started, the group released the single [Volví](/wiki/Volv%C3%AD \"Volví\") on August 3, 2021, featuring [Bad Bunny](/wiki/Bad_Bunny \"Bad Bunny\"). On August 14, the tour started in [Miami, Florida](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") at [Hard Rock Stadium](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Stadium \"Hard Rock Stadium\"). They became the first Latin act to ever sell out the stadium. The tour ended on October 9, 2021, in East Rutherford, New Jersey, at [MetLife Stadium](/wiki/MetLife_Stadium \"MetLife Stadium\"). This was the same venue Romeo Santos sold out 2 years prior. They had a show for [Arlington, Texas](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Texas \"Arlington, Texas\"), at [Globe Life Field](/wiki/Globe_Life_Field \"Globe Life Field\") scheduled on August 22, 2021\\. However it was postpone to October 14, 2021\\. This would have been the last concert but for some unknown reason the concert never happened. It was never mentioned. There was no news nor any announcements were made about why it was canceled. On November 4, 2021, Aventura announced their very last concert to be set for December 18, 2021, At the [Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_S%C3%A1nchez_Olympic_Stadium \"Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium\") in [Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic](/wiki/Santo_Domingo \"Santo Domingo\"). They sold out tickets 3 days after the day they went on sale. A second concert was set for December 19, 2021, which would eventually be their final concert together. Both shows were successful.\n\n### Possible forthcoming album, Final reunion, and Cerrando Ciclos (2022\\-present)\n\nIn 2022 and 2023, Romeo released his fifth studio album [Formula, Vol. 3](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._3 \"Formula, Vol. 3\"), and went on a [tour](/wiki/F%C3%B3rmula%2C_Vol._3:La_Gira \"La Gira\") which included numerous sold\\-out stadium shows. Meanwhile, Henry would release numerous singles. As for Lenny and Max, they would have these special events tour where they would play Aventura hits in clubs and small venues. Also, Max got to release rap singles and a few albums eventually. The albums were, *Fama Y Dolor*, *Rise of the Phoenix*, and *Max Beats Vol. 1*.\n\nOn May 10, 2022, Max \"Agende\" Santos was interviewed by Mega Atlanta Radio. He mentioned a forthcoming album was in the works, but that he had no concrete announcement to make. Romeo's fifth studio solo album, [Formula, Vol. 3](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._3 \"Formula, Vol. 3\"), included a skit in which a preview of a song was played. Fans claimed that the snippet didn't sound like a Romeo Santos song, but an Aventura song instead, which insinuated that the group would eventually reunite soon.\n\nOn February 25, 2024, Romeo posted a social media story about something that he was going to post the next day. The next day, every member of the group posted a video that indicated that they were back. The following day, they announced dates for their tour, [Cerrando Ciclos](/wiki/Cerrando_Ciclos \"Cerrando Ciclos\"), which is considered the group's final tour. On April 2, 2024, they released their first single since 2021 and first bachata song since 2019, \"[Brindo Con Agua](/wiki/Brindo_Con_Agua \"Brindo Con Agua\")\". It was released under Henry's record label Hustlehard Entertainment LLC. It is also the fifth song and first single from the group in which Henry is the lead vocalist. This is the second Aventura song to be featured in one of the members solo projects instead of an album by the group as it is the eighth and lead single for Henry's upcoming sixth studio album, *2\\.0*. The album was released on May 31, 2024\\. Aventura have teased a possible group album, but nothing has been confirm, yet.\n\n",
"### Formation, starting as Los Tinellers, and *Trampa de Amor* (1993–1996\\)\n\nIn 1993, Lenny Santos and his brother Max Santos formed a little band with a cousin of theirs and called themselves Banda Sueño. They would play mostly as a hobby. It didn't last long, as the cousin was much older than Max and Lenny. They decided to look for a new singer around their age who could help them take their music career more seriously. Lenny was later introduced to Anthony via one of the group's musicians named Roney Fernandez, who attended the same school as Anthony. They clicked instantly, and the two started working on songs together. Anthony was a singer and composer who would sing with his cousin Henry at their local church choir. Anthony later introduced Lenny to his cousin Henry, who also joined the group. These four would form Los Tinellers, which is the word 'teenagers' but spelled in Spanish letters so non\\-English speaking Hispanics could pronounce it. The group would perform for their neighbors, at local stores and in the streets for free in the [Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx \"The Bronx\").\n\nOn July 9, 1995, the group was discovered by Elvin Polanco. Polanco was the coordinator of the 1995 Bronx Dominican Parade. Lenny and Anthony asked him if they could perform on stage at the parade. Polanco gave them the opportunity and was impressed by the group. Seeing the potential in the group, he became their manager and helped them record their first studio album despite having little funds. They released their first album in 1996 titled *[Trampa De Amor](/wiki/Trampa_de_Amor \"Trampa de Amor\")* under Elca Productions. The album included songs that later on would be remade for later Aventura albums. One of them was \"[Cuándo Volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_Volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo Volverás\")\", which would later become their debut single. Unfortunately, only Anthony and Lenny were on the cover because of Henry and Max being late due to train traffic. The album did not do well commercially, selling a total of five copies.\n\n",
"### Re\\-invented as Aventura, creating Urban Bachata, and *Generation Next* (1996–2000\\)\n\nIn 1996, with the help of new manager Julio César García, the group created a new image. He re\\-invented the group to resemble popular American boy bands. He renamed the group Aventura, which is Spanish for adventure. Later on, Elvin Polanco ran into some health problems which ended things between him and the group. In 1998, they signed a record deal with Premium Latin Music, Inc. With the help of the executive of the label, Franklin Romero, the group had the support they needed to finally expand and breakthrough in the music industry. Romero was also involved in the re\\-invention of the group becoming more boy band like.\n\nOn November 9, 1999, they released their debut album *[Generation Next](/wiki/Generation_Next_%28album%29 \"Generation Next (album)\")* along with a modernized and better known version of \"[Cuándo Volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_Volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo Volverás\")\" as its main single in hopes of breaking bachata music into the mainstream from its traditional base. They slowly began to gather fans in [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") and in the east coast of the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), especially in the cities of [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") and [Lancaster](/wiki/Lancaster%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lancaster, Pennsylvania\"). The group was the first to experiment with fusing bachata with other genres like [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\"), [Pop](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), [Hip Hop, Rap](/wiki/Hip_hop_music \"Hip hop music\"), [Reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") and [Rock](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\"). They were one of the first bachata acts to sing a bachata song in [Spanglish](/wiki/Spanglish \"Spanglish\") (English and Spanish). The group innovated bachata with fresh lyrics that incorporated songs with different themes. They adding their own tone to bachata guitar by adding guitar effects such as wah, phaser, distortion, tremolo, and harmonizer. They also innovated the bachata bass with the use of bass techniques such as slapping, bass slides, and a lot of rock bass riffs into bachata.. This would eventually lead to the creation of what is now known as Urban Bachata. While the album did have some success, it didn't exceed expectations as the group was heavily criticized about the new style and the fact that they had added English in to the genre.\n\n",
"### *We Broke the Rules*, Anthony becoming Romeo, and the expansion of Bachata (2001–2003\\)\n\nWhile at the beginning they didn't get the mainstream attention they were looking for with their debut album, the style they had introduced did help make the genre mainstream. In 2001 four songs were leaked to the public which were for their second studio album. The songs were \"Todavía Me Amas\", \"Amor De Madre\", \"Enséñame A Olvidar\", and \"[Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\")\" which featured Dominican\\-American singer [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\"). Thanks to the success of \"[Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\")\", the group got the big break they were waiting for and would eventually turn them into the icons that they are today. The song achieved huge success in many countries. It peaked at number 32 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart in the U.S. It also topped many European charts by peaking at number 1 in seven countries, which made it peak at number 1 on the [Eurochart Hot 100](/wiki/European_Hot_100_Singles \"European Hot 100 Singles\"). This would expand bachata internationally as it reached countries where the genre was never heard before at the time. This would also be the start for Judy as a female vocalist for the group as she would eventually work for them in other songs.\n\nAround this time, Anthony decided to go under the name Romeo Santos. He created an alter ego to be a more romantic character on stage to help him with his shyness. He came up with the name Romeo because of the song \"Todavía Me Amas\" in which he mentions Romeo and Juliet. This was also due to the fact there is another bachata artist by the name [Antony Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"), who was the man that inspired him to become a bachata singer. Romeo would refer to himself as Anthony Santos from Aventura to be specific. Even though both singers had their names spelled different, it was still pronounced the same way. This led the group and the record label to make the decision to have Anthony go under the name he is known today, Romeo Santos.\n\nOn July 2, 2002, they would release their second album under the Aventura name title *[We Broke the Rules](/wiki/We_Broke_the_Rules \"We Broke the Rules\")*. It peaked at number 5 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 in the French and Italian albums charts. The album would feature [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\") and Puerto Rican\\-American singer [Toby Love](/wiki/Toby_Love \"Toby Love\"), who worked for them as a back up vocalist until he left in 2005 to pursue a solo career. His voice was used for the songs \"I Believe\" and \"Gone\", a cover of an [NSYNC](/wiki/NSYNC \"NSYNC\") song. In the same year, they would release their first live album titled *En Vivo*. It was based on their 2002 show at the [United Palace](/wiki/United_Palace \"United Palace\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). It was re\\-released in Europe on August 30, 2004, and renamed *[Unplugged](/wiki/Unplugged_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Unplugged (Aventura album)\")*. On January 11, 2011, it was released to the world under the title *Live! 2002*. In 2003, they released their first concert film, *Aventura In Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace*.\n\n",
"### *Love \\& Hate*, *God's Project*, and Mainstream breakthrough in the U.S. (2003–2006\\)\n\nIn 2003, the group released the main single for their third studio album titled \"[Hermanita](/wiki/Hermanita \"Hermanita\")\". The song addressed issue like domestic violence, especially the mistreatment of women in the household. The song peaked at number 33 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 3 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. On November 18, 2003, they released their third studio album, *[Love \\& Hate](/wiki/Love_%26_Hate_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Love & Hate (Aventura album)\")*. It peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart and at number 3 in the Swiss Albums chart. It is their first album to get a Gold and Platinum certification in the United States by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA). In 2004, they released a special edition that was exclusively to Italy. It featured edited versions of the songs [Cuándo volverás](/wiki/Cu%C3%A1ndo_volver%C3%A1s \"Cuándo volverás\") and [Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\"). They released a 2005 edition as well that was released exclusively for Romania. In 2005, they released their second concert film, *The Love \\& Hate Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace*. It is based on a concert for *[Love \\& Hate](/wiki/Love_%26_Hate_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Love & Hate (Aventura album)\")* that took place at the [United Palace](/wiki/United_Palace \"United Palace\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").\n\nIn February 2005, they released their first single for their fourth studio album \"[La Boda](/wiki/La_Boda_%28Aventura_song%29 \"La Boda (Aventura song)\")\". It peaked at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. On April 26, 2005, they released their fourth studio album, *[God's Project](/wiki/God%27s_Project \"God's Project\")*. This is their first album distributed by [Sony Music Latin](/wiki/Sony_Music_Latin \"Sony Music Latin\"). On the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts, it peaked at number 133 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), at number 5 on both [Heatseekers Albums](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\") and [Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Top_Latin_Albums \"Top Latin Albums\") charts, and at number 1 on the [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart making it the group's first number one album on that chart. It is considered the group's mainstream breakthrough album as they started to get more mainstream publicity in the United States. It was the best\\-selling tropical album of 2006 in the United States and was certified 4× Platinum in the U.S. by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA). The album featured collaborations with [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\"), [Anthony 'El Mayimbe' Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"), [Nina Sky](/wiki/Nina_Sky \"Nina Sky\"), [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"), and [Tego Calderón](/wiki/Tego_Calder%C3%B3n \"Tego Calderón\") who was featured in a hidden track. This album also featured the songs \"[Ella y Yo](/wiki/Ella_y_Yo \"Ella y Yo\")\", \"[Un Beso](/wiki/Un_Beso \"Un Beso\")\", and \"[Angelito](/wiki/Angelito_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Angelito (Aventura song)\")\" which were released as singles later on.\n\nOn May 9, 2005, \"[Ella y Yo](/wiki/Ella_y_Yo \"Ella y Yo\")\" was released as the album's second single. It featured Puerto Rican Reggaeton artist, [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"). It peaked at 97 on the [Billboard 100](/wiki/Billboard_100 \"Billboard 100\"), at number 2 on the [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") and at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [Airplay](/wiki/Airplay \"Airplay\") *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts. The music video was released in the same year. It took place in a bar. The video is about [Romeo Santos](/wiki/Romeo_Santos \"Romeo Santos\") and [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\") having a conversation about love. On August 8, 2005, \"[Un Beso](/wiki/Un_Beso \"Un Beso\")\" was released as the third a single. It became the main single for the fourth studio album. The group paid tribute to Spanish musician, [Manzanita](/wiki/Manzanita_%28singer%29 \"Manzanita (singer)\") in this song. It peaked at number 6 on the [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") and at number 2 on the [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts. Later that year, \"[Angelito](/wiki/Angelito_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Angelito (Aventura song)\")\" was released as the last single and peaked at 17 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. This would also be the last song to feature Judy Santos as she would embark in her own music career. On March 10, 2006, Aventura would perform a sold\\-out show at [The Theater at Madison Square Garden](/wiki/The_Theater_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"The Theater at Madison Square Garden\") making it their first live performance at MSG.\n\n",
"### *K.O.B. Live* and selling out Madison Square Garden (2006–2008\\)\n\nOn October 19, 2006, they released the single \"[Los Infieles](/wiki/Los_Infieles \"Los Infieles\")\" and while it is a studio song, it was released as the first single for their second live album. It peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, at number 5 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Latin Rhythm Airplay](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. Later on, a remix was made which featured Mexican singer [Frankie J](/wiki/Frankie_J \"Frankie J\"). On December 19, 2006, they released their second live album, *[K.O.B. Live](/wiki/K.O.B._Live \"K.O.B. Live\")*. It is a double\\-disc live album of Aventura's greatest hits from their first four studio albums. These live performances were recorded in the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") ([New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\")), [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") and [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") along with audio skits of the band talking about the importance of performing in these places. It also featured a bonus DVD. The album peaked at 124 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), at number 2 on the [Billboard Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart, and at number 1 on both the [Heatseekers Albums](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\") and [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). Despite being a live album, it included 5 studio songs: \"[Los Infieles](/wiki/Los_Infieles \"Los Infieles\")\", \"[Mi Corazoncito](/wiki/Mi_Corazoncito \"Mi Corazoncito\")\", \"[El Perdedor](/wiki/El_Perdedor_%28Aventura_song%29 \"El Perdedor (Aventura song)\")\", \"Controversia\", and \"José\", a song dedicated to fallen soldiers.\n\nOn February 12, 2007, \"[Mi Corazoncito](/wiki/Mi_Corazoncito \"Mi Corazoncito\")\" is released as the second single for the live album. It peaked at number 7 on the [Bubbling Under Hot 100](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100 \"Bubbling Under Hot 100\"), at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). The music video was released on April 3, 2007\\. It featured the [Miss Universe 2003](/wiki/Miss_Universe_2003 \"Miss Universe 2003\") pageant winner [Amelia Vega](/wiki/Amelia_Vega \"Amelia Vega\"). In the same year, Aventura were inducted into the [Bronx Walk of Fame](/wiki/Bronx_Walk_of_Fame \"Bronx Walk of Fame\"). On September 1, 2007, Aventura performed at [Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden \"Madison Square Garden\") as part of their K.O.B. Live Tour. This time they would perform at the 20,000 seat venue in front of a sold\\-out crowd. The concert featured artists like [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"), [Anthony Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"), [Wisin \\& Yandel](/wiki/Wisin_%26_Yandel \"Wisin & Yandel\"), [Miri Ben\\-Ari](/wiki/Miri_Ben-Ari \"Miri Ben-Ari\"), [Toby Love](/wiki/Toby_Love \"Toby Love\"), and [Héctor Acosta](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Acosta_%28singer%29 \"Héctor Acosta (singer)\"). On November 13, 2007, they would release their third live album and third concert film, *[Kings of Bachata: Sold Out at Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Kings_of_Bachata:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")*. It based on the sold out MSG show from September 1\\. The album peaked at 97 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), at number 3 on the [Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart. It was certified 8× Platinum in the U.S. by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA).\n\nOn October 29, 2007, \"[El Perdedor](/wiki/El_Perdedor_%28Aventura_song%29 \"El Perdedor (Aventura song)\")\" was released as the third single for *[K.O.B. Live](/wiki/K.O.B._Live \"K.O.B. Live\")*. It peaked at number 5 on the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\") [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). The music video was released in 2008 and it featured highlights from the group's 2007 show at MSG. Later on, a remix was made which featured Puerto Rican singer and rapper [Ken\\-Y](/wiki/R.K.M_%26_Ken-Y \"R.K.M & Ken-Y\"). In the same year, they released they released their fourth live album, *Live From The World*, which was sold exclusively to the [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\"). It is based on some of their best songs performed around the world. It featured a live bachata cover of the [José José](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Jos%C3%A9 \"José José\")'s song \"Lagrimas\". The live performance took place in 2008 during a celebration of [José José](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Jos%C3%A9 \"José José\")'s career presented by the [Latin Grammys](/wiki/Latin_Grammy_Awards \"Latin Grammy Awards\"). In December 2008, the band would sell out 5 night at the [José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_Agrelot_Coliseum \"José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum\") in [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\") from the 4th to the 7th, and the 10th of that month.\n\n",
"### *The Last*, performing at the White House, and The Last Tour (2008–2011\\)\n\nOn November 10, 2008, they released the first single for their fifth studio album, \"[Por un Segundo](/wiki/Por_un_Segundo \"Por un Segundo\")\". It became the group's first number 1 hit on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 on both the [Latin Rhythm](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") and [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [*Billboard* charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). The song was awarded \"[Tropical Song of the Year](/wiki/Premios_Lo_Nuestro_2010%23Tropical \"Premios Lo Nuestro 2010#Tropical\")\" at the *[Premios Lo Nuestro 2010](/wiki/Premios_Lo_Nuestro_2010 \"Premios Lo Nuestro 2010\")* awards. The music video was released in 2009 and features the winner of [Cycle 8](/wiki/America%27s_Next_Top_Model_%28season_8%29 \"America's Next Top Model (season 8)\") of *[America's Next Top Model](/wiki/America%27s_Next_Top_Model \"America's Next Top Model\")*, [Jaslene Gonzalez](/wiki/Jaslene_Gonzalez \"Jaslene Gonzalez\"). On April 27, 2009, they released the second single, \"[All Up 2 You](/wiki/All_Up_2_You \"All Up 2 You\")\". It featured Senegalese\\-American [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") singer Akon, and the Puerto Rican Reggaeton duo [Wisin \\& Yandel](/wiki/Wisin_%26_Yandel \"Wisin & Yandel\"). The song peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Latin Rhythm Airplay](/wiki/Latin_Rhythm_Airplay \"Latin Rhythm Airplay\") charts. On April 23, 2009, the song was performed live as the opening act at the [2009 Latin Billboard Music Awards](/wiki/2009_Latin_Billboard_Music_Awards \"2009 Latin Billboard Music Awards\"). The music video for the song was released on June 5, 2009\\.\n\nOn June 9, 2009, Aventura released their fifth and final studio album, *[The Last](/wiki/The_Last_%28album%29 \"The Last (album)\")*. It featured collaborations with [Arturo Sandoval](/wiki/Arturo_Sandoval \"Arturo Sandoval\"), [Ludacris](/wiki/Ludacris \"Ludacris\"), [Wyclef Jean](/wiki/Wyclef_Jean \"Wyclef Jean\"), [Akon](/wiki/Akon \"Akon\") and [Wisin \\& Yandel](/wiki/Wisin_%26_Yandel \"Wisin & Yandel\"). It peaked at number 4 on the Chilean Albums chart and at number 2 on the Recordland Venezuelan Albums chart. It is their best charting album on the U.S. [Billboard charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\") as it peaked at number 5 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\"), and at number 1 on both the [Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart, lasting 23 weeks on that spot and [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart, lasting 50 weeks on that spot. It also included the songs \"[Su Veneno](/wiki/Su_Veneno \"Su Veneno\")\", \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\", and \"[El Malo](/wiki/El_Malo_%28song%29 \"El Malo (song)\")\" which were later released as singles. On June 30, 2009, \"[Su Veneno](/wiki/Su_Veneno \"Su Veneno\")\" was released as the album's third single. It peaked at number 4 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. A [Bolero](/wiki/Bolero \"Bolero\") version was also released as a separate single. The music video for the [Bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28music%29 \"Bachata (music)\") version was released on July 20, 2009\\. The music video for the Bolero version was released the next day.\n\nOn October 13, 2009, \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\" was released as the album's fourth single. It peaked at number at number 2 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Bubbling Under Hot 100](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100 \"Bubbling Under Hot 100\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Tracks](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart, which became the group's second number one hit on that chart. It also peaked at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Songs](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart, lasting 15 weeks on that spot. The music video was released on November 4, 2009\\. On the same day, Aventura was invited to perform their hit single \"[Su Veneno](/wiki/Su_Veneno \"Su Veneno\")\" at the White House for the [44th President of the United States](/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States \"List of Presidents of the United States\"), [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"). They are the first bachata act to ever perform at the White House. On October 15, 2009, it air on television as part of the \"[Fiesta Latina](/wiki/In_Performance_at_the_White_House%232009 \"In Performance at the White House#2009\")\" episode of the TV series, *[In Performance at the White House](/wiki/In_Performance_at_the_White_House \"In Performance at the White House\")*.\n\nIn early 2010, they sold out Madison Square Garden once again, but for a legendary four nights in a row at part of [The Last Tour](/wiki/The_Last_Tour \"The Last Tour\"). They surpassed American artists such as Lady Gaga and Madonna in ticket sales, being one of the first Latin groups to do so. At one of the concerts they paid homage to [Juan Luis Guerra](/wiki/Juan_Luis_Guerra \"Juan Luis Guerra\"), and even sang some songs with the iconic Dominican singer. These concerts took place on the 20th and 21st of January and on the 1st and 2nd of February 2010\\. On February 13, 2010, the group would perform at the [Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_S%C3%A1nchez_Olympic_Stadium \"Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium\") in [Santo Domingo](/wiki/Santo_Domingo \"Santo Domingo\"), [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\") in front of a crowd of about 50,000 to 60,000 people. On March 11, 2010, \"[El Malo](/wiki/El_Malo_%28song%29 \"El Malo (song)\")\" was released as the final single. It didn't chart at first until It was re\\-released in mid\\-2010\\. It peaked at number 5 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") chart. The music video was released on June 29, 2010\\. Later on, a remix was made featuring Dominican rapper [Sensato](/wiki/Sensato_del_Patio \"Sensato del Patio\"). On April 29, 2010, Aventura were nominated for 12 awards at the [2010 Billboard Latin Music Awards](/wiki/2010_Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"2010 Billboard Latin Music Awards\"). They won 9 of them, thus making them the top winners of that night. From the 3rd to the 5th December 2010, the group performed for three nights at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum in [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"). The very last concert of the tour took place on March 7, 2011, in [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\"). This would also be their last concert as a group before they split up to have their own separate projects.\n\n",
"### Hiatus, Compilation albums, and First reunions (2011–2018\\)\n\nIn 2011, the group announced that they would be taking a hiatus to work on individual musical projects. Henry embarked on a respective solo career, looking to be accepted without the group. He signed with Siente Music, a record label which was associated with both [Venemusic](/wiki/Venemusic \"Venemusic\") \\& [Universal Music Group](/wiki/Universal_Music_Group \"Universal Music Group\"). He released his first two solo albums under the record label, *[Introducing Henry Santos](/wiki/Introducing_Henry_Santos \"Introducing Henry Santos\")* in 2011 and *[My Way](/wiki/My_Way_%28Henry_Santos_album%29 \"My Way (Henry Santos album)\")* in 2013\\. Romeo took the opportunity to sign with Sony Music Latin, and embarked on his solo career as well. He released his first solo album *[Formula, Vol. 1](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._1 \"Formula, Vol. 1\")* in 2011, which would eventually be the start of the Formula series. The following year, he then released his first live solo album, *[The King Stays King: Sold Out at Madison Square Garden](/wiki/The_King_Stays_King:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")*. Then in 2014, he released *[Formula, Vol. 2](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._2 \"Formula, Vol. 2\")*, which was awarded album of the decade at the [2020 Billboard Latin Music Awards](/wiki/2020_Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"2020 Billboard Latin Music Awards\"). Although Max wanted to focus more on his rap career, he joined his brother Lenny and formed their new bachata group called \"D'Element.\" under Lenny's record label Element Music Group. They then joined [Steve Styles](/wiki/Xtreme_%28group%29 \"Xtreme (group)\") from the bachata group [Xtreme](/wiki/Xtreme_%28group%29 \"Xtreme (group)\") and renamed the group to [Vena](/wiki/Grupo_Vena \"Grupo Vena\"). The trio released 8 singles and an EP live album titled [It's VENA (Live)](/wiki/It%27s_VENA_%28Live%29 \"It's VENA (Live)\"), which was released in 2015\\. The trio would split in 2015 as Styles left the gorup. At the same time, Max Santos worked alongside many [dembow](/wiki/Dembow \"Dembow\") artists and also focused on his solo career as a rapper.\n\nDuring the hiatus, they release a few compilation albums, 2 of them being greatest hits albums. One of them is titled *[14 \\+ 14](/wiki/14_%2B_14 \"14 + 14\")*. It was released on May 23, 2011, as an audio and music video album. It contains every song that has a music video from 2000 to 2010 along with the music videos as well with the exception of \"[All Up 2 You](/wiki/All_Up_2_You \"All Up 2 You\")\". The album features [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\") and [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\") The audio version peaked at number 132 on the [Billboard 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") and at number 1 on both the [Top Latin](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") and [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") [Billboard charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). On July 12, 2014, the group would reunite for 1 night only to close out the second night of Romeo's sold\\-out [Yankee Stadium](/wiki/Yankee_Stadium \"Yankee Stadium\") concert.\nOn November 4, 2014, *[Sólo Para Mujeres](/wiki/S%C3%B3lo_Para_Mujeres_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Sólo Para Mujeres (Aventura album)\")* was released. It is part of a series of compilation albums released by multiple artist with the same title that were released by [Sony Music Latin](/wiki/Sony_Music_Latin \"Sony Music Latin\"). It features some of the group's most romantic songs. It peaked at number 15 on the [*Billboard* Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart and at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") chart.\n\nOn December 1, 2015, it was announced on the band's website and social media that they would have a reunion tour for the whole month of February at the [United Palace](/wiki/United_Palace \"United Palace\") theater in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). Their first concert since their split started with a sold\\-out crowd on February 4, 2016\\. On the same day, they released *[Todavía Me Amas: Lo Mejor De Aventura](/wiki/Todav%C3%ADa_Me_Amas:Lo_Mejor_De_Aventura \"Lo Mejor De Aventura\")*. This greatest hits album was named after the 2002 single, \"Todavía Me Amas\". It features [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\"), [Héctor Acosta](/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Acosta_%28singer%29 \"Héctor Acosta (singer)\"), and [Don Omar](/wiki/Don_Omar \"Don Omar\"). It peaked at number 4 on the [*Billboard* Top Latin Albums](/wiki/Billboard_Top_Latin_Albums \"Billboard Top Latin Albums\") chart. It has also peaked at number 1 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Tropical Albums](/wiki/Tropical_Albums \"Tropical Albums\") weekly chart and it has been positioned at number on numerous time lasting for a combine total of 195 weeks on that position. It peaked at number one on the year\\-end chart in the same category in which it became the number 1 tropical album for five years straight from 2019 to 2023\\. It was certified 3× Platinum in the U.S. by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\") (RIAA). During the same month, the group would perform every Thursday to Sunday during the month of February with the final concert ending on February 28, 2016\\. They would've continued on with the tour, but Romeo had to finish the second leg of his [Formula Vol. 2 tour](/wiki/Vol._2_Tour \"Vol. 2 Tour\"). \n\nRomeo would finish the tour and then would release his third studio solo album [Golden](/wiki/Golden_%28Romeo_Santos_album%29 \"Golden (Romeo Santos album)\") in 2017\\. Meanwhile, Henry would continue as an independent artist as Siente Music closed down in 2015\\. Henry released his third album *[The Third](/wiki/The_Third_%28Henry_Santos_album%29 \"The Third (Henry Santos album)\")* in 2016\\. The following year, he released his first live solo album, *[The Live Album: Sólo Éxitos](/wiki/The_Live_Album:S%C3%B3lo_%C3%89xitos \"Sólo Éxitos\")*. The year after, he released his fourth studio album *[Shut Up \\& Listen](/wiki/Shut_Up_%26_Listen \"Shut Up & Listen\")*. As for Lenny, he would form a new duo called [DNA Latin Group](/wiki/Vena_%28group%29%23DNA_Latin_Group_%282017-2019%29 \"Vena (group)#DNA Latin Group (2017-2019)\") with a singer by the name of J Love and released 2 singles together. Then Max joined in forming a trio and would release a single with them. The trio didn't last long as they ended things in early 2019\\.\n\n",
"### Inmortal Tour (2019–2021\\)\n\nOn April 1, 2019, the group posted an image on their Instagram account teasing a new Aventura single called \"[Inmortal](/wiki/Inmortal_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Inmortal (Aventura song)\")\" slated to be released at 9PM, captioning it \"\\#UTOPIA\". At 9PM, Romeo uploaded a video saying that their new song would not be released at 9PM after all, and that it was intended to be an April Fool's joke which led the fans to become upset and lash out on social media. The following day, however, the group apologized and announced that the April Fool's joke was not the song, but was the release date. They then previewed the new single \"Inmortal\" and its music video, stating that it was being released on April 5, as a part of Romeo's fourth studio and first collaboration album, *[Utopia](/wiki/Utopia_%28Romeo_Santos_album%29 \"Utopia (Romeo Santos album)\")*. Eventually, the song was released on that date and it is their first single since 2010\\. It debuted at 95 on the [*Billboard* Hot 100](/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100 \"Billboard Hot 100\"), and at number 5 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [Hot Latin Songs](/wiki/Hot_Latin_Songs \"Hot Latin Songs\") chart. It also peaked at number 1 on both the [Latin](/wiki/Latin_Airplay \"Latin Airplay\") and [Tropical Airplay](/wiki/Tropical_Airplay \"Tropical Airplay\") [Billboard charts](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\"). On April 25, 2019, they performed the single live at the [2019 Billboard Latin Music Awards](/wiki/2019_Billboard_Latin_Music_Awards \"2019 Billboard Latin Music Awards\"), alongside [Raulin Rodriguez](/wiki/Raul%C3%ADn_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Raulín Rodríguez\") who performed \"[La Demanda](/wiki/La_Demanda \"La Demanda\")\" with Romeo prior to the other members apprearing on stage. That same night, Aventura won an award for Tropical Duo/Group of the Year.\n\nOn September 21, 2019, the group reunited for Romeo's Utopia concert at [MetLife Stadium](/wiki/MetLife_Stadium \"MetLife Stadium\") in New Jersey. They performed hits such as \"[Dile al Amor](/wiki/Dile_al_Amor \"Dile al Amor\")\", \"Todavía Me Amas\", and \"[Inmortal](/wiki/Inmortal_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Inmortal (Aventura song)\")\". The group performed \"[Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\")\" alongside [Cardi B](/wiki/Cardi_B \"Cardi B\") who would also performed her hit song \"[I Like It](/wiki/I_Like_It_%28Cardi_B%2C_Bad_Bunny_and_J_Balvin_song%29 \"I Like It (Cardi B, Bad Bunny and J Balvin song)\")\" at the concert. On December 8, 2019, an announcement was made regarding the band's upcoming US tour, [La Gira Inmortal](/wiki/Inmortal_Tour \"Inmortal Tour\"). It was their first tour since splitting in 2011, and began in Los Angeles on February 5, 2020\\. In March 2020, the group had announced that concerts were postpone due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"). This included 5 shows at the [Radio City Music Hall](/wiki/Radio_City_Music_Hall \"Radio City Music Hall\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") that was supposed to take place from March 16 to the 19, and March 22, 2020\\. It was eventually postponed for the dates July 9 to the 12\\. However, it was eventually canceled just like all the other scheduled or postponed shows.\n\nIn June 2021, Aventura announced the return of the [Inmortal Tour](/wiki/Inmortal_Tour \"Inmortal Tour\"). But instead of doing the shows in the venues that were originally planned before their cancelation, they decided to play at stadiums and big arenas in certain cities. Before the tour started, the group released the single [Volví](/wiki/Volv%C3%AD \"Volví\") on August 3, 2021, featuring [Bad Bunny](/wiki/Bad_Bunny \"Bad Bunny\"). On August 14, the tour started in [Miami, Florida](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\") at [Hard Rock Stadium](/wiki/Hard_Rock_Stadium \"Hard Rock Stadium\"). They became the first Latin act to ever sell out the stadium. The tour ended on October 9, 2021, in East Rutherford, New Jersey, at [MetLife Stadium](/wiki/MetLife_Stadium \"MetLife Stadium\"). This was the same venue Romeo Santos sold out 2 years prior. They had a show for [Arlington, Texas](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Texas \"Arlington, Texas\"), at [Globe Life Field](/wiki/Globe_Life_Field \"Globe Life Field\") scheduled on August 22, 2021\\. However it was postpone to October 14, 2021\\. This would have been the last concert but for some unknown reason the concert never happened. It was never mentioned. There was no news nor any announcements were made about why it was canceled. On November 4, 2021, Aventura announced their very last concert to be set for December 18, 2021, At the [Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_S%C3%A1nchez_Olympic_Stadium \"Félix Sánchez Olympic Stadium\") in [Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic](/wiki/Santo_Domingo \"Santo Domingo\"). They sold out tickets 3 days after the day they went on sale. A second concert was set for December 19, 2021, which would eventually be their final concert together. Both shows were successful.\n\n",
"### Possible forthcoming album, Final reunion, and Cerrando Ciclos (2022\\-present)\n\nIn 2022 and 2023, Romeo released his fifth studio album [Formula, Vol. 3](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._3 \"Formula, Vol. 3\"), and went on a [tour](/wiki/F%C3%B3rmula%2C_Vol._3:La_Gira \"La Gira\") which included numerous sold\\-out stadium shows. Meanwhile, Henry would release numerous singles. As for Lenny and Max, they would have these special events tour where they would play Aventura hits in clubs and small venues. Also, Max got to release rap singles and a few albums eventually. The albums were, *Fama Y Dolor*, *Rise of the Phoenix*, and *Max Beats Vol. 1*.\n\nOn May 10, 2022, Max \"Agende\" Santos was interviewed by Mega Atlanta Radio. He mentioned a forthcoming album was in the works, but that he had no concrete announcement to make. Romeo's fifth studio solo album, [Formula, Vol. 3](/wiki/Formula%2C_Vol._3 \"Formula, Vol. 3\"), included a skit in which a preview of a song was played. Fans claimed that the snippet didn't sound like a Romeo Santos song, but an Aventura song instead, which insinuated that the group would eventually reunite soon.\n\nOn February 25, 2024, Romeo posted a social media story about something that he was going to post the next day. The next day, every member of the group posted a video that indicated that they were back. The following day, they announced dates for their tour, [Cerrando Ciclos](/wiki/Cerrando_Ciclos \"Cerrando Ciclos\"), which is considered the group's final tour. On April 2, 2024, they released their first single since 2021 and first bachata song since 2019, \"[Brindo Con Agua](/wiki/Brindo_Con_Agua \"Brindo Con Agua\")\". It was released under Henry's record label Hustlehard Entertainment LLC. It is also the fifth song and first single from the group in which Henry is the lead vocalist. This is the second Aventura song to be featured in one of the members solo projects instead of an album by the group as it is the eighth and lead single for Henry's upcoming sixth studio album, *2\\.0*. The album was released on May 31, 2024\\. Aventura have teased a possible group album, but nothing has been confirm, yet.\n\n",
"Artistry\n--------\n\n### Musical style\n\nWhile the group uses many genres in their music, they are mostly a Bachata band. Unlike traditional bachata artists, Aventura uses American genres like [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\"), [Pop](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), [Hip Hop, Rap](/wiki/Hip_hop_music \"Hip hop music\"), [Reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") and [Rock](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\") mixed with their [Bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28music%29 \"Bachata (music)\") songs. Anthony innovated bachata with fresh lyrics that incorporated songs with different themes, instead of just singing about heartbreak. Lenny innovated bachata guitar with his use of electric guitars. He also innovated the tone of bachata guitar by adding guitar effects such as wah, phaser, distortion, tremolo, and harmonizer. Max innovated the bachata bass with his use of bass techniques such as slapping and bass slides. Max incorporated a lot of rock bass riffs into bachata. They are the creators of the urban style of Bachata. As Los Tinellers, they started off as a traditional bachata group. In the late 1990s, they would re\\-invent themselves as Aventura and started to add a more Americanized style to the genre.\n\n### Influences\n\nThey have been influenced by many Latin and American artists. In Bachata, their influences include artists like [Juan Luis Guerra](/wiki/Juan_Luis_Guerra \"Juan Luis Guerra\"), [Pau Hernandez](/wiki/Pau_Hernandez \"Pau Hernandez\"), [Raulín Rodríguez](/wiki/Raul%C3%ADn_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Raulín Rodríguez\"), [Luis Vargas](/wiki/Luis_Vargas_%28musician%29 \"Luis Vargas (musician)\"), and [Anthony Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"). Romeo even considers Anthony a father figure in the music business.\n\n",
"### Musical style\n\nWhile the group uses many genres in their music, they are mostly a Bachata band. Unlike traditional bachata artists, Aventura uses American genres like [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\"), [Pop](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\"), [Hip Hop, Rap](/wiki/Hip_hop_music \"Hip hop music\"), [Reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\") and [Rock](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\") mixed with their [Bachata](/wiki/Bachata_%28music%29 \"Bachata (music)\") songs. Anthony innovated bachata with fresh lyrics that incorporated songs with different themes, instead of just singing about heartbreak. Lenny innovated bachata guitar with his use of electric guitars. He also innovated the tone of bachata guitar by adding guitar effects such as wah, phaser, distortion, tremolo, and harmonizer. Max innovated the bachata bass with his use of bass techniques such as slapping and bass slides. Max incorporated a lot of rock bass riffs into bachata. They are the creators of the urban style of Bachata. As Los Tinellers, they started off as a traditional bachata group. In the late 1990s, they would re\\-invent themselves as Aventura and started to add a more Americanized style to the genre.\n\n",
"### Influences\n\nThey have been influenced by many Latin and American artists. In Bachata, their influences include artists like [Juan Luis Guerra](/wiki/Juan_Luis_Guerra \"Juan Luis Guerra\"), [Pau Hernandez](/wiki/Pau_Hernandez \"Pau Hernandez\"), [Raulín Rodríguez](/wiki/Raul%C3%ADn_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Raulín Rodríguez\"), [Luis Vargas](/wiki/Luis_Vargas_%28musician%29 \"Luis Vargas (musician)\"), and [Anthony Santos](/wiki/Antony_Santos \"Antony Santos\"). Romeo even considers Anthony a father figure in the music business.\n\n",
"Legacy\n------\n\nThe group have been widely dubbed the [Kings of Modern Bachata](/wiki/Honorific_nicknames_in_popular_music \"Honorific nicknames in popular music\"), K.O.B. for short. They are credited with making Bachata a musical genre recognized worldwide and for broadening its overall appeal. With their 2002 single [Obsesión](/wiki/Obsesi%C3%B3n_%28Aventura_song%29 \"Obsesión (Aventura song)\"), the song had a wide cultural impact, launching their careers to heights they themselves never imagined. They have sold millions of albums, have broken numerous records, and have sold out multiple arenas and stadiums year over year during their heights as a band. \n\nThe group's musical style led to them being pioneers in creating the Urban Bachata sound, having inspired artists like [Prince Royce](/wiki/Prince_Royce \"Prince Royce\"), [Leslie Grace](/wiki/Leslie_Grace \"Leslie Grace\"), among others. They have paved the way for groups such as [Xtreme](/wiki/Xtreme_%28group%29 \"Xtreme (group)\"), Bachata Heightz, 24 Horas, Optimo, among others.\n\n",
"Members\n-------\n\n### Principal members\n\n* [Anthony \"Romeo\" Santos](/wiki/Romeo_Santos \"Romeo Santos\") – lead vocals, backing vocals, songwriter, composer, producer (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n* [Henry Santos](/wiki/Henry_Santos \"Henry Santos\") – lead vocals, backing vocals, songwriter, composer, producer (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n* [Lenny Santos](/wiki/Lenny_Santos \"Lenny Santos\") – lead guitar, rhythm guitar, electric guitar, arranger, producer, band director (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n* [Max Santos](/wiki/Max_Santos \"Max Santos\") – bass guitar, rapper (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n\n### Backing members\n\nThey weren't official members of group, but they held supporting roles. \n* [Toby Love](/wiki/Toby_Love \"Toby Love\") – backing vocals, congas (2002, 2006, 2007\\)\n* [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\") – female vocals (2002, 2003, 2005\\)\n\n",
"### Principal members\n\n* [Anthony \"Romeo\" Santos](/wiki/Romeo_Santos \"Romeo Santos\") – lead vocals, backing vocals, songwriter, composer, producer (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n* [Henry Santos](/wiki/Henry_Santos \"Henry Santos\") – lead vocals, backing vocals, songwriter, composer, producer (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n* [Lenny Santos](/wiki/Lenny_Santos \"Lenny Santos\") – lead guitar, rhythm guitar, electric guitar, arranger, producer, band director (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n* [Max Santos](/wiki/Max_Santos \"Max Santos\") – bass guitar, rapper (1994\\-2011, 2016, 2019–2021, 2024\\)\n",
"### Backing members\n\nThey weren't official members of group, but they held supporting roles. \n* [Toby Love](/wiki/Toby_Love \"Toby Love\") – backing vocals, congas (2002, 2006, 2007\\)\n* [Judy Santos](/wiki/Judy_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Judy Santos (singer)\") – female vocals (2002, 2003, 2005\\)\n\n",
"Discography\n-----------\n\n### Studio\n\n**As Los Tinellers**\n* *[Trampa de Amor](/wiki/Trampa_de_Amor \"Trampa de Amor\")* (1996\\)\n\n**As Aventura**\n* *[Generation Next](/wiki/Generation_Next_%28album%29 \"Generation Next (album)\")* (1999\\)\n* *[We Broke the Rules](/wiki/We_Broke_the_Rules \"We Broke the Rules\")* (2002\\)\n* *[Love \\& Hate](/wiki/Love_%26_Hate_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Love & Hate (Aventura album)\")* (2003\\)\n* *[God's Project](/wiki/God%27s_Project \"God's Project\")* (2005\\)\n* *[The Last](/wiki/The_Last_%28album%29 \"The Last (album)\")* (2009\\)\n\n### Live\n\n* *[Unplugged](/wiki/Unplugged_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Unplugged (Aventura album)\")* (2004\\)\n* *[K.O.B. Live](/wiki/K.O.B._Live \"K.O.B. Live\")* (2006\\)\n* *[Kings Of Bachata: Sold Out At Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Kings_of_Bachata:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")* (2007\\)\n* *Live From The World* (2008\\) \n\n### Greatest Hits or Compilation\n\n* *[14 \\+ 14](/wiki/14_%2B_14 \"14 + 14\")* (2011\\)\n* *[Sólo Para Mujeres](/wiki/S%C3%B3lo_Para_Mujeres_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Sólo Para Mujeres (Aventura album)\")* (2014\\)\n* *[Todavía Me Amas: Lo Mejor De Aventura](/wiki/Todav%C3%ADa_Me_Amas:Lo_Mejor_De_Aventura \"Lo Mejor De Aventura\")* (2016\\)\n\n### DVDs\n\n* *Aventura In Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace* (2003\\)\n* *[We Broke the Rules](/wiki/We_Broke_the_Rules%23DVD \"We Broke the Rules#DVD\")* (DVD) (2004\\)\n* *The Love \\& Hate Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace* (2005\\)\n* *[Kings Of Bachata: Sold Out At Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Kings_of_Bachata:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")* (2007\\)\n* *[14 \\+ 14](/wiki/14_%2B_14 \"14 + 14\")* (2011\\)\n",
"### Studio\n\n**As Los Tinellers**\n* *[Trampa de Amor](/wiki/Trampa_de_Amor \"Trampa de Amor\")* (1996\\)\n\n**As Aventura**\n* *[Generation Next](/wiki/Generation_Next_%28album%29 \"Generation Next (album)\")* (1999\\)\n* *[We Broke the Rules](/wiki/We_Broke_the_Rules \"We Broke the Rules\")* (2002\\)\n* *[Love \\& Hate](/wiki/Love_%26_Hate_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Love & Hate (Aventura album)\")* (2003\\)\n* *[God's Project](/wiki/God%27s_Project \"God's Project\")* (2005\\)\n* *[The Last](/wiki/The_Last_%28album%29 \"The Last (album)\")* (2009\\)\n\n",
"### Live\n\n* *[Unplugged](/wiki/Unplugged_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Unplugged (Aventura album)\")* (2004\\)\n* *[K.O.B. Live](/wiki/K.O.B._Live \"K.O.B. Live\")* (2006\\)\n* *[Kings Of Bachata: Sold Out At Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Kings_of_Bachata:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")* (2007\\)\n* *Live From The World* (2008\\) \n",
"### Greatest Hits or Compilation\n\n* *[14 \\+ 14](/wiki/14_%2B_14 \"14 + 14\")* (2011\\)\n* *[Sólo Para Mujeres](/wiki/S%C3%B3lo_Para_Mujeres_%28Aventura_album%29 \"Sólo Para Mujeres (Aventura album)\")* (2014\\)\n* *[Todavía Me Amas: Lo Mejor De Aventura](/wiki/Todav%C3%ADa_Me_Amas:Lo_Mejor_De_Aventura \"Lo Mejor De Aventura\")* (2016\\)\n",
"### DVDs\n\n* *Aventura In Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace* (2003\\)\n* *[We Broke the Rules](/wiki/We_Broke_the_Rules%23DVD \"We Broke the Rules#DVD\")* (DVD) (2004\\)\n* *The Love \\& Hate Concert: Sold Out At The United Palace* (2005\\)\n* *[Kings Of Bachata: Sold Out At Madison Square Garden](/wiki/Kings_of_Bachata:Sold_Out_at_Madison_Square_Garden \"Sold Out at Madison Square Garden\")* (2007\\)\n* *[14 \\+ 14](/wiki/14_%2B_14 \"14 + 14\")* (2011\\)\n",
"Concert tours\n-------------\n\n* Love \\& Hate Tour (2004\\)\n* God's Project Tour (2005\\-2006\\)\n* K.O.B Live! (2007\\-08\\)\n* Corazoncito World Tour (2008\\)\n* [The Last Tour](/wiki/The_Last_Tour \"The Last Tour\") (2009\\-2011\\)\n* [Aventura Reunion In NYC](/wiki/Aventura_Reunion_In_NYC \"Aventura Reunion In NYC\") (2016\\)\n* [Inmortal Tour](/wiki/Inmortal_Tour \"Inmortal Tour\") (2020\\-2021\\)\n* [Cerrando Ciclos](/wiki/Cerrando_Ciclos \"Cerrando Ciclos\") (2024\\)\n",
"Awards and nominations\n----------------------\n\nAventura have won over 60 awards throughout their career. However, they have never won a Grammy or a Latin Grammy Award. They had one Latin Grammy Award nomination in 2007 for best Contemporary Tropical Album (for their K.O.B. Live album).\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of Hispanic and Latino Americans](/wiki/List_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"List of Hispanic and Latino Americans\")\n* [List of people from the Dominican Republic](/wiki/List_of_people_from_the_Dominican_Republic \"List of people from the Dominican Republic\")\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official website](http://www.aventuramusica.com)\n* iASO Records [\"Bachata: The New York Style\"](http://www.iasorecords.com/music/bachata-the-new-york-school) \\- describes how Aventura contributed to the music of bachata\n\n[Category:American bachata musicians](/wiki/Category:American_bachata_musicians \"American bachata musicians\")\n[Category:MTV Video Music Award winners](/wiki/Category:MTV_Video_Music_Award_winners \"MTV Video Music Award winners\")\n[Category:Musical groups from the Bronx](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_from_the_Bronx \"Musical groups from the Bronx\")\n[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2011](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_disestablished_in_2011 \"Musical groups disestablished in 2011\")\n[Category:Sony BMG Norte artists](/wiki/Category:Sony_BMG_Norte_artists \"Sony BMG Norte artists\")\n[Category:Sony Music Latin artists](/wiki/Category:Sony_Music_Latin_artists \"Sony Music Latin artists\")\n[Category:Musical groups established in 1993](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_established_in_1993 \"Musical groups established in 1993\")\n[Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2019](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_reestablished_in_2019 \"Musical groups reestablished in 2019\")\n[Category:Bachata music groups](/wiki/Category:Bachata_music_groups \"Bachata music groups\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Jean-Philippe Rameau
|
{
"id": [
1808194
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"name": [
"TAnthony"
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}
|
71gx98sx2kpcuj6lujdgst9tir69x3h
|
2024-08-21T02:54:33Z
| 1,237,178,323 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Early years, 1683–1732",
"Later years, 1733–1764",
"Rameau's personality",
"Music",
"General character of Rameau's music",
"Rameau's musical works",
"Motets",
"Cantatas",
"Instrumental music",
"Opera",
"Rameau and his librettists",
"Reputation and influence",
"Theoretical works",
"''Treatise on Harmony'', 1722",
"List of works",
"Instrumental works",
"Motets",
"Canons",
"Songs",
"Cantatas",
"Operas and stage works",
"''Tragédies en musique''",
"''Opéra-ballets''",
"''Pastorales héroïques''",
"''Comédies lyriques''",
"''Comédie-ballet''",
"''Actes de ballet''",
"Lost works",
"Incidental music for ''opéras comiques''",
"Writings"
],
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2,
3,
3,
4,
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"content": [
"\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|upright\\|Jean\\-Philippe Rameau, by [Jacques Aved](/wiki/Jacques_Aved \"Jacques Aved\"), 1728](/wiki/File:Attribu%C3%A9_%C3%A0_Joseph_Aved%2C_Portrait_de_Jean-Philippe_Rameau_%28vers_1728%29_-_001.jpg \"Attribué à Joseph Aved, Portrait de Jean-Philippe Rameau (vers 1728) - 001.jpg\")\n\n**Jean\\-Philippe Rameau** (; – ) was a French [composer](/wiki/Composer \"Composer\") and [music theorist](/wiki/Music_theory \"Music theory\"). Regarded as one of the most important French composers and music theorists of the 18th century,: \"A theorist of European stature, he was also France's leading 18th\\-century composer.\" he replaced [Jean\\-Baptiste Lully](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully \"Jean-Baptiste Lully\") as the dominant composer of [French opera](/wiki/French_opera \"French opera\") and is also considered the leading French composer of his time for the [harpsichord](/wiki/Harpsichord \"Harpsichord\"), alongside [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\").: \"It is customary to couple him with Couperin as one couples Haydn with Mozart or Ravel with Debussy.\"\n\nLittle is known about Rameau's early years. It was not until the 1720s that he won fame as a major theorist of music with his *[Treatise on Harmony](/wiki/Treatise_on_Harmony \"Treatise on Harmony\")* (1722\\) and also in the following years as a composer of masterpieces for the harpsichord, which circulated throughout [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"). He was almost 50 before he embarked on the operatic career on which his reputation chiefly rests today. His debut, *[Hippolyte et Aricie](/wiki/Hippolyte_et_Aricie \"Hippolyte et Aricie\")* (1733\\), caused a great stir and was fiercely attacked by the supporters of Lully's style of music for its revolutionary use of harmony.\n\nNevertheless, Rameau's pre\\-eminence in the field of French opera was soon acknowledged, and he was later attacked as an \"establishment\" composer by those who favoured Italian opera during the controversy known as the [Querelle des Bouffons](/wiki/Querelle_des_Bouffons \"Querelle des Bouffons\") in the 1750s. Rameau's music had gone out of fashion by the end of the 18th century, and it was not until the 20th that serious efforts were made to revive it. Today, he enjoys renewed appreciation with performances and recordings of his music ever more frequent.\n\n",
"Life\n----\n\nThe details of Rameau's life are generally obscure, especially concerning his first forty years, before he moved to Paris for good. He was a secretive man, and even his wife knew nothing of his early life, which explains the scarcity of biographical information available.\n\n### Early years, 1683–1732\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Cathedral of Saint\\-Bénigne, Dijon](/wiki/Dijon_Cathedral \"Dijon Cathedral\")](/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_St_B%C3%A9nigne_-_Dijon.jpg \"Cathédrale St Bénigne - Dijon.jpg\")\n\nRameau's early years are particularly obscure. He was born on 25 September 1683 in [Dijon](/wiki/Dijon \"Dijon\"), and baptised the same day.Date of birth given by [Chabanon](/wiki/Michel_Paul_Guy_de_Chabanon \"Michel Paul Guy de Chabanon\") in his *Éloge de M. Rameau* (1764\\) His father, Jean, worked as an organist in several churches around Dijon, and his mother, Claudine Demartinécourt, was the daughter of a [notary](/wiki/Civil_law_notary \"Civil law notary\"). The couple had eleven children, five girls and six boys, of whom Jean\\-Philippe was the seventh.\n\nRameau was taught music before he could read or write. He was educated at the [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") college at Godrans in Dijon, but he was not a good pupil and disrupted classes with his singing, later claiming that his passion for opera had begun at the age of twelve. Initially intended for the law, Rameau decided he wanted to be a musician, and his father sent him to Italy, where he stayed for a short while in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"). On his return, he worked as a violinist in travelling companies, and then as an organist in provincial cathedrals, before moving to Paris for the first time. There, in 1706, he published his earliest\\-known compositions: the [harpsichord](/wiki/Harpsichord \"Harpsichord\") works that make up his first book of *[Pièces de Clavecin](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_Clavecin \"Pièces de Clavecin\")*, which show the influence of his friend [Louis Marchand](/wiki/Louis_Marchand \"Louis Marchand\").[Norbert Dufourcq](/wiki/Norbert_Dufourcq \"Norbert Dufourcq\"), *Le clavecin*, p. 87\n\nIn 1709, he moved back to Dijon to take over his father's job as organist in the main church. The contract was for six years, but Rameau left before then and took up similar posts in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\") and [Clermont\\-Ferrand](/wiki/Clermont-Ferrand \"Clermont-Ferrand\"). During that period, he composed [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") for church performance as well as secular [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\").\n\nIn 1722, he returned to Paris for good, and there he published his most important work of music theory, *Traité de l'harmonie* (*Treatise on Harmony*). That soon won him a great reputation, and it was followed in 1726 by his *Nouveau système de musique théorique*. In 1724 and 1729 (or 1730\\), he also published two more collections of harpsichord pieces.\n\nRameau took his first tentative steps into composing stage music when the writer [Alexis Piron](/wiki/Alexis_Piron \"Alexis Piron\") asked him to provide songs for his popular comic plays written for the Paris Fairs. Four collaborations followed, beginning with *L'endriague* in 1723, but none of the music has survived.\n\nOn 25 February 1726, Rameau married the 19\\-year\\-old Marie\\-Louise Mangot, who came from a musical family from Lyon, and was a good singer and instrumentalist. The couple had four children, two boys and two girls, and the marriage is said to have been a happy one.\n\nIn spite of his fame as a music theorist, Rameau had trouble finding a post as an organist in Paris.\n\n### Later years, 1733–1764\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Bust of Rameau by [Caffieri](/wiki/Caffieri \"Caffieri\"), 1760](/wiki/File:Jean-Philippe_Rameau_by_Jean-Jacques_Caffieri_-_20080203-03.jpg \"Jean-Philippe Rameau by Jean-Jacques Caffieri - 20080203-03.jpg\")\n\nIt was not until he was approaching 50 that Rameau decided to embark on the operatic career on which his fame as a composer mainly rests. He had already approached writer [Antoine Houdar de la Motte](/wiki/Antoine_Houdar_de_la_Motte \"Antoine Houdar de la Motte\") for a [libretto](/wiki/Libretto \"Libretto\") in 1727, but nothing came of it; he was finally inspired to try his hand at the prestigious genre of *[tragédie en musique](/wiki/Trag%C3%A9die_en_musique \"Tragédie en musique\")* after seeing [Montéclair](/wiki/Michel_Pignolet_de_Mont%C3%A9clair \"Michel Pignolet de Montéclair\")'s *Jephté* in 1732\\. Rameau's *[Hippolyte et Aricie](/wiki/Hippolyte_et_Aricie \"Hippolyte et Aricie\")* premiered at the Académie Royale de Musique on 1 October 1733\\. It was immediately recognised as the most significant opera to appear in France since the death of [Lully](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully \"Jean-Baptiste Lully\"), though its reception drew controversy. Some, such as the composer [André Campra](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Campra \"André Campra\"), were stunned by its originality and wealth of invention; others found its harmonic innovations discordant and saw the work as an attack on the French musical tradition. The two camps, the so\\-called Lullyistes and the Rameauneurs, fought a pamphlet war over the issue for the rest of the decade.\n\nJust before that, Rameau had made the acquaintance of the powerful financier [Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière](/wiki/Alexandre_Le_Riche_de_La_Poupelini%C3%A8re \"Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière\"), who became his patron until 1753\\. La Poupelinière's mistress (and later, wife), [Thérèse des Hayes](/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_des_Hayes \"Thérèse des Hayes\"), was Rameau's pupil and a great admirer of his music. In 1731, Rameau became the conductor of La Poupelinière's private orchestra, which was of an extremely high quality. He held the post for 22 years, and was succeeded by [Johann Stamitz](/wiki/Johann_Stamitz \"Johann Stamitz\") and then [François\\-Joseph Gossec](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Gossec \"François-Joseph Gossec\"). La Poupelinière's salon enabled Rameau to meet some of the leading cultural figures of the day, including [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire \"Voltaire\"), who soon began collaborating with the composer. Their first project, the *tragédie en musique [Samson](/wiki/Samson_%28opera%29 \"Samson (opera)\")*, was abandoned because an opera on a religious theme by Voltaire—a notorious critic of the Church—was likely to be banned by the authorities. Meanwhile, Rameau had introduced his new musical style into the lighter genre of the *[opéra\\-ballet](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra-ballet \"Opéra-ballet\")* with the highly successful *[Les Indes galantes](/wiki/Les_Indes_galantes \"Les Indes galantes\")*. It was followed by two *tragédies en musique*, *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737\\) and *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739\\), and another *opéra\\-ballet*, *[Les fêtes d'Hébé](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_d%27H%C3%A9b%C3%A9 \"Les fêtes d'Hébé\")* (also 1739\\). All those operas of the 1730s are among Rameau's most highly regarded works. However, the composer followed them with six years of silence, during which the only work he produced was a new version of *Dardanus* (1744\\). The reason for the interval in the composer's creative life is unknown, although it is possible he had a falling\\-out with the authorities at the Académie royale de la musique.\n\nThe year 1745 was a turning point in Rameau's career. He received several commissions from the court for works to celebrate the French victory at the [Battle of Fontenoy](/wiki/Battle_of_Fontenoy \"Battle of Fontenoy\") and the marriage of the [Dauphin](/wiki/Louis%2C_Dauphin_of_France_%281729%E2%80%931765%29 \"Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)\") to [Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain](/wiki/Infanta_Maria_Teresa_Rafaela_of_Spain \"Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain\"). Rameau produced his most important comic opera, *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")*, as well as two collaborations with Voltaire: the *opéra\\-ballet [Le temple de la gloire](/wiki/Le_temple_de_la_gloire \"Le temple de la gloire\")* and the *comédie\\-ballet [La princesse de Navarre](/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre \"La princesse de Navarre\")*. They gained Rameau official recognition; he was granted the title \"Compositeur du Cabinet du Roi\" and given a substantial pension. 1745 also saw the beginning of the bitter enmity between Rameau and [Jean\\-Jacques Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau\"). Though best known today as a thinker, Rousseau had ambitions to be a composer. He had written an opera, *Les muses galantes* (inspired by Rameau's *Indes galantes*), but Rameau was unimpressed by this musical tribute. At the end of 1745, Voltaire and Rameau, who were busy on other works, commissioned Rousseau to turn *La Princesse de Navarre* into a new opera, with linking [recitative](/wiki/Recitative \"Recitative\"), called *[Les fêtes de Ramire](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Ramire \"Les fêtes de Ramire\")*. Rousseau then claimed the two had stolen the credit for the words and music he had contributed, though musicologists have been able to identify almost nothing of the piece as Rousseau's work. Nevertheless, the embittered Rousseau nursed a grudge against Rameau for the rest of his life.\n\nRousseau was a major participant in the second great quarrel that erupted over Rameau's work, the so\\-called *[Querelle des Bouffons](/wiki/Querelle_des_Bouffons \"Querelle des Bouffons\")* of 1752–54, which pitted French *tragédie en musique* against Italian *[opera buffa](/wiki/Opera_buffa \"Opera buffa\")*. This time, Rameau was accused of being out of date and his music too complicated in comparison with the simplicity and \"naturalness\" of a work like Pergolesi's *[La serva padrona](/wiki/La_serva_padrona \"La serva padrona\")*. In the mid\\-1750s, Rameau criticised Rousseau's contributions to the musical articles in the *[Encyclopédie](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die \"Encyclopédie\")*, which led to a quarrel with the leading *[philosophes](/wiki/Philosophes \"Philosophes\")* [d'Alembert](/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert \"Jean le Rond d'Alembert\") and [Diderot](/wiki/Denis_Diderot \"Denis Diderot\"). As a result, Jean\\-François Rameau became a character in Diderot's then\\-unpublished dialogue, *Le neveu de Rameau* (*[Rameau's Nephew](/wiki/Rameau%27s_Nephew \"Rameau's Nephew\")*).\n\nIn 1753, La Poupelinière took a scheming musician, [Jeanne\\-Thérèse Goermans](/wiki/Jeanne-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Goermans \"Jeanne-Thérèse Goermans\"), as his mistress. The daughter of harpsichord maker [Jacques Goermans](/wiki/Jacques_Goermans \"Jacques Goermans\"), she went by the name of [Madame de Saint\\-Aubin](/wiki/Madame_de_Saint-Aubin \"Madame de Saint-Aubin\"), and her opportunistic husband pushed her into the arms of the rich financier. She had La Poupelinière engage the services of the [Bohemian](/wiki/Bohemia \"Bohemia\") composer [Johann Stamitz](/wiki/Johann_Stamitz \"Johann Stamitz\"), who succeeded Rameau after a breach developed between Rameau and his patron. By then, however, Rameau no longer needed La Poupelinière's financial support and protection.\n\nRameau pursued his activities as a theorist and composer until his death. He lived with his wife and two of his children in his large suite of rooms in Rue des Bons\\-Enfants, which he would leave every day, lost in thought, to take a solitary walk in the nearby gardens of the Palais\\-Royal or the Tuileries. Sometimes he would meet the young writer [Chabanon](/wiki/Michel_Paul_Guy_de_Chabanon \"Michel Paul Guy de Chabanon\"), who noted some of Rameau's disillusioned confidential remarks: \"Day by day, I'm acquiring more good taste, but I no longer have any genius\" and \"The imagination is worn out in my old head; it's not wise at this age wanting to practise arts that are nothing but imagination.\"Quoted in \n\nRameau composed prolifically in the late 1740s and early 1750s. After that, his rate of productivity dropped off, probably due to old age and ill health, although he was still able to write another comic opera, *[Les Paladins](/wiki/Les_Paladins \"Les Paladins\")*, in 1760\\. That as due to be followed by a final *tragédie en musique, [Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* but, for unknown reasons, the opera was never produced and did not get a proper staging unil the late 20th century. Rameau died on 12 September 1764 after suffering from a fever, thirteen days before his 81st birthday. At his bedside, he objected to a song being sung. His last words were, \"What the devil do you mean to sing to me, priest? You are out of tune.\" He was buried in the church of [St. Eustache](/wiki/%C3%89glise_Saint-Eustache%2C_Paris \"Église Saint-Eustache, Paris\"), Paris on the same day of his death. Although a bronze bust and red marble tombstone were erected in his memory there by the Société de la Compositeurs de Musique in 1883, the exact site of his burial remains unknown to this day.\n\n[thumb\\|Jean\\-Philippe Rameau in the timeline of French Baroque Composers.](/wiki/File:Jean-Philippe_Rameau_timeline.jpg \"Jean-Philippe Rameau timeline.jpg\")\n\n### Rameau's personality\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Portrait of Rameau by [Louis Carrogis Carmontelle](/wiki/Louis_Carrogis_Carmontelle \"Louis Carrogis Carmontelle\"), 1760](/wiki/File:Rameau_Carmontelle.JPG \"Rameau Carmontelle.JPG\")\n\nWhile the details of his biography are vague and fragmentary, the details of Rameau's personal and family life are almost completely obscure. Rameau's music, so graceful and attractive, completely contradicts the man's public image and what we know of his character as described (or perhaps unfairly caricatured) by Diderot in his satirical novel *[Le Neveu de Rameau](/wiki/Rameau%27s_Nephew \"Rameau's Nephew\")*. Throughout his life, music was his consuming passion. It occupied his entire thinking; [Philippe Beaussant](/wiki/Philippe_Beaussant \"Philippe Beaussant\") calls him a monomaniac. [Alexis Piron](/wiki/Alexis_Piron \"Alexis Piron\") explained that \"His heart and soul were in his harpsichord; once he had shut its lid, there was no one home.\" Physically, Rameau was tall and exceptionally thin, as can be seen by the sketches we have of him, including a famous portrait by [Carmontelle](/wiki/Louis_Carrogis_Carmontelle \"Louis Carrogis Carmontelle\"). He had a \"loud voice\". His speech was difficult to understand, just like his handwriting, which was never fluent. As a man, he was secretive, solitary, irritable, proud of his own achievements (more as a theorist than as a composer), brusque with those who contradicted him, and quick to anger. It is difficult to imagine him among the leading wits, including Voltaire (to whom he bears more than a passing physical resemblance), who frequented La Poupelinière's salon; his music was his passport, and it made up for his lack of social graces.\n\nHis enemies exaggerated his faults, e.g. his supposed miserliness. In fact, it seems that his thriftiness was the result of long years spent in obscurity, when his income was uncertain and scanty, rather than being part of his character, because he could also be generous. He helped his nephew Jean\\-François when he came to Paris and also helped establish the career of [Claude\\-Bénigne Balbastre](/wiki/Claude-B%C3%A9nigne_Balbastre \"Claude-Bénigne Balbastre\") in the capital. Furthermore, he gave his daughter Marie\\-Louise a considerable dowry when she became a [Visitandine](/wiki/Order_of_the_Visitation_of_Holy_Mary \"Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary\") nun in 1750, and he paid a pension to one of his sisters when she became ill. Financial security came late to him, following the success of his stage works and the grant of a royal pension. A few months before his death, he was ennobled and made a knight of the Ordre de Saint\\-Michel. But he did not change his way of life, keeping his worn\\-out clothes, his single pair of shoes, and his old furniture. After his death, it was discovered that he possessed only one dilapidated single\\-keyboard harpsichordCompare the inventories of François Couperin (one large harpsichord, three spinets and a portable organ) and Louis Marchand (three harpsichords and three spinets) after their deaths. in his rooms in Rue des Bons\\-Enfants, yet he also had a bag containing 1691 gold [louis](/wiki/Louis_%28coin%29 \"Louis (coin)\").\n\n",
"### Early years, 1683–1732\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Cathedral of Saint\\-Bénigne, Dijon](/wiki/Dijon_Cathedral \"Dijon Cathedral\")](/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_St_B%C3%A9nigne_-_Dijon.jpg \"Cathédrale St Bénigne - Dijon.jpg\")\n\nRameau's early years are particularly obscure. He was born on 25 September 1683 in [Dijon](/wiki/Dijon \"Dijon\"), and baptised the same day.Date of birth given by [Chabanon](/wiki/Michel_Paul_Guy_de_Chabanon \"Michel Paul Guy de Chabanon\") in his *Éloge de M. Rameau* (1764\\) His father, Jean, worked as an organist in several churches around Dijon, and his mother, Claudine Demartinécourt, was the daughter of a [notary](/wiki/Civil_law_notary \"Civil law notary\"). The couple had eleven children, five girls and six boys, of whom Jean\\-Philippe was the seventh.\n\nRameau was taught music before he could read or write. He was educated at the [Jesuit](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") college at Godrans in Dijon, but he was not a good pupil and disrupted classes with his singing, later claiming that his passion for opera had begun at the age of twelve. Initially intended for the law, Rameau decided he wanted to be a musician, and his father sent him to Italy, where he stayed for a short while in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"). On his return, he worked as a violinist in travelling companies, and then as an organist in provincial cathedrals, before moving to Paris for the first time. There, in 1706, he published his earliest\\-known compositions: the [harpsichord](/wiki/Harpsichord \"Harpsichord\") works that make up his first book of *[Pièces de Clavecin](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_Clavecin \"Pièces de Clavecin\")*, which show the influence of his friend [Louis Marchand](/wiki/Louis_Marchand \"Louis Marchand\").[Norbert Dufourcq](/wiki/Norbert_Dufourcq \"Norbert Dufourcq\"), *Le clavecin*, p. 87\n\nIn 1709, he moved back to Dijon to take over his father's job as organist in the main church. The contract was for six years, but Rameau left before then and took up similar posts in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\") and [Clermont\\-Ferrand](/wiki/Clermont-Ferrand \"Clermont-Ferrand\"). During that period, he composed [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") for church performance as well as secular [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\").\n\nIn 1722, he returned to Paris for good, and there he published his most important work of music theory, *Traité de l'harmonie* (*Treatise on Harmony*). That soon won him a great reputation, and it was followed in 1726 by his *Nouveau système de musique théorique*. In 1724 and 1729 (or 1730\\), he also published two more collections of harpsichord pieces.\n\nRameau took his first tentative steps into composing stage music when the writer [Alexis Piron](/wiki/Alexis_Piron \"Alexis Piron\") asked him to provide songs for his popular comic plays written for the Paris Fairs. Four collaborations followed, beginning with *L'endriague* in 1723, but none of the music has survived.\n\nOn 25 February 1726, Rameau married the 19\\-year\\-old Marie\\-Louise Mangot, who came from a musical family from Lyon, and was a good singer and instrumentalist. The couple had four children, two boys and two girls, and the marriage is said to have been a happy one.\n\nIn spite of his fame as a music theorist, Rameau had trouble finding a post as an organist in Paris.\n\n",
"### Later years, 1733–1764\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Bust of Rameau by [Caffieri](/wiki/Caffieri \"Caffieri\"), 1760](/wiki/File:Jean-Philippe_Rameau_by_Jean-Jacques_Caffieri_-_20080203-03.jpg \"Jean-Philippe Rameau by Jean-Jacques Caffieri - 20080203-03.jpg\")\n\nIt was not until he was approaching 50 that Rameau decided to embark on the operatic career on which his fame as a composer mainly rests. He had already approached writer [Antoine Houdar de la Motte](/wiki/Antoine_Houdar_de_la_Motte \"Antoine Houdar de la Motte\") for a [libretto](/wiki/Libretto \"Libretto\") in 1727, but nothing came of it; he was finally inspired to try his hand at the prestigious genre of *[tragédie en musique](/wiki/Trag%C3%A9die_en_musique \"Tragédie en musique\")* after seeing [Montéclair](/wiki/Michel_Pignolet_de_Mont%C3%A9clair \"Michel Pignolet de Montéclair\")'s *Jephté* in 1732\\. Rameau's *[Hippolyte et Aricie](/wiki/Hippolyte_et_Aricie \"Hippolyte et Aricie\")* premiered at the Académie Royale de Musique on 1 October 1733\\. It was immediately recognised as the most significant opera to appear in France since the death of [Lully](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully \"Jean-Baptiste Lully\"), though its reception drew controversy. Some, such as the composer [André Campra](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Campra \"André Campra\"), were stunned by its originality and wealth of invention; others found its harmonic innovations discordant and saw the work as an attack on the French musical tradition. The two camps, the so\\-called Lullyistes and the Rameauneurs, fought a pamphlet war over the issue for the rest of the decade.\n\nJust before that, Rameau had made the acquaintance of the powerful financier [Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière](/wiki/Alexandre_Le_Riche_de_La_Poupelini%C3%A8re \"Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière\"), who became his patron until 1753\\. La Poupelinière's mistress (and later, wife), [Thérèse des Hayes](/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_des_Hayes \"Thérèse des Hayes\"), was Rameau's pupil and a great admirer of his music. In 1731, Rameau became the conductor of La Poupelinière's private orchestra, which was of an extremely high quality. He held the post for 22 years, and was succeeded by [Johann Stamitz](/wiki/Johann_Stamitz \"Johann Stamitz\") and then [François\\-Joseph Gossec](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Gossec \"François-Joseph Gossec\"). La Poupelinière's salon enabled Rameau to meet some of the leading cultural figures of the day, including [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire \"Voltaire\"), who soon began collaborating with the composer. Their first project, the *tragédie en musique [Samson](/wiki/Samson_%28opera%29 \"Samson (opera)\")*, was abandoned because an opera on a religious theme by Voltaire—a notorious critic of the Church—was likely to be banned by the authorities. Meanwhile, Rameau had introduced his new musical style into the lighter genre of the *[opéra\\-ballet](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra-ballet \"Opéra-ballet\")* with the highly successful *[Les Indes galantes](/wiki/Les_Indes_galantes \"Les Indes galantes\")*. It was followed by two *tragédies en musique*, *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737\\) and *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739\\), and another *opéra\\-ballet*, *[Les fêtes d'Hébé](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_d%27H%C3%A9b%C3%A9 \"Les fêtes d'Hébé\")* (also 1739\\). All those operas of the 1730s are among Rameau's most highly regarded works. However, the composer followed them with six years of silence, during which the only work he produced was a new version of *Dardanus* (1744\\). The reason for the interval in the composer's creative life is unknown, although it is possible he had a falling\\-out with the authorities at the Académie royale de la musique.\n\nThe year 1745 was a turning point in Rameau's career. He received several commissions from the court for works to celebrate the French victory at the [Battle of Fontenoy](/wiki/Battle_of_Fontenoy \"Battle of Fontenoy\") and the marriage of the [Dauphin](/wiki/Louis%2C_Dauphin_of_France_%281729%E2%80%931765%29 \"Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)\") to [Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain](/wiki/Infanta_Maria_Teresa_Rafaela_of_Spain \"Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain\"). Rameau produced his most important comic opera, *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")*, as well as two collaborations with Voltaire: the *opéra\\-ballet [Le temple de la gloire](/wiki/Le_temple_de_la_gloire \"Le temple de la gloire\")* and the *comédie\\-ballet [La princesse de Navarre](/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre \"La princesse de Navarre\")*. They gained Rameau official recognition; he was granted the title \"Compositeur du Cabinet du Roi\" and given a substantial pension. 1745 also saw the beginning of the bitter enmity between Rameau and [Jean\\-Jacques Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau\"). Though best known today as a thinker, Rousseau had ambitions to be a composer. He had written an opera, *Les muses galantes* (inspired by Rameau's *Indes galantes*), but Rameau was unimpressed by this musical tribute. At the end of 1745, Voltaire and Rameau, who were busy on other works, commissioned Rousseau to turn *La Princesse de Navarre* into a new opera, with linking [recitative](/wiki/Recitative \"Recitative\"), called *[Les fêtes de Ramire](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Ramire \"Les fêtes de Ramire\")*. Rousseau then claimed the two had stolen the credit for the words and music he had contributed, though musicologists have been able to identify almost nothing of the piece as Rousseau's work. Nevertheless, the embittered Rousseau nursed a grudge against Rameau for the rest of his life.\n\nRousseau was a major participant in the second great quarrel that erupted over Rameau's work, the so\\-called *[Querelle des Bouffons](/wiki/Querelle_des_Bouffons \"Querelle des Bouffons\")* of 1752–54, which pitted French *tragédie en musique* against Italian *[opera buffa](/wiki/Opera_buffa \"Opera buffa\")*. This time, Rameau was accused of being out of date and his music too complicated in comparison with the simplicity and \"naturalness\" of a work like Pergolesi's *[La serva padrona](/wiki/La_serva_padrona \"La serva padrona\")*. In the mid\\-1750s, Rameau criticised Rousseau's contributions to the musical articles in the *[Encyclopédie](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die \"Encyclopédie\")*, which led to a quarrel with the leading *[philosophes](/wiki/Philosophes \"Philosophes\")* [d'Alembert](/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert \"Jean le Rond d'Alembert\") and [Diderot](/wiki/Denis_Diderot \"Denis Diderot\"). As a result, Jean\\-François Rameau became a character in Diderot's then\\-unpublished dialogue, *Le neveu de Rameau* (*[Rameau's Nephew](/wiki/Rameau%27s_Nephew \"Rameau's Nephew\")*).\n\nIn 1753, La Poupelinière took a scheming musician, [Jeanne\\-Thérèse Goermans](/wiki/Jeanne-Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Goermans \"Jeanne-Thérèse Goermans\"), as his mistress. The daughter of harpsichord maker [Jacques Goermans](/wiki/Jacques_Goermans \"Jacques Goermans\"), she went by the name of [Madame de Saint\\-Aubin](/wiki/Madame_de_Saint-Aubin \"Madame de Saint-Aubin\"), and her opportunistic husband pushed her into the arms of the rich financier. She had La Poupelinière engage the services of the [Bohemian](/wiki/Bohemia \"Bohemia\") composer [Johann Stamitz](/wiki/Johann_Stamitz \"Johann Stamitz\"), who succeeded Rameau after a breach developed between Rameau and his patron. By then, however, Rameau no longer needed La Poupelinière's financial support and protection.\n\nRameau pursued his activities as a theorist and composer until his death. He lived with his wife and two of his children in his large suite of rooms in Rue des Bons\\-Enfants, which he would leave every day, lost in thought, to take a solitary walk in the nearby gardens of the Palais\\-Royal or the Tuileries. Sometimes he would meet the young writer [Chabanon](/wiki/Michel_Paul_Guy_de_Chabanon \"Michel Paul Guy de Chabanon\"), who noted some of Rameau's disillusioned confidential remarks: \"Day by day, I'm acquiring more good taste, but I no longer have any genius\" and \"The imagination is worn out in my old head; it's not wise at this age wanting to practise arts that are nothing but imagination.\"Quoted in \n\nRameau composed prolifically in the late 1740s and early 1750s. After that, his rate of productivity dropped off, probably due to old age and ill health, although he was still able to write another comic opera, *[Les Paladins](/wiki/Les_Paladins \"Les Paladins\")*, in 1760\\. That as due to be followed by a final *tragédie en musique, [Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* but, for unknown reasons, the opera was never produced and did not get a proper staging unil the late 20th century. Rameau died on 12 September 1764 after suffering from a fever, thirteen days before his 81st birthday. At his bedside, he objected to a song being sung. His last words were, \"What the devil do you mean to sing to me, priest? You are out of tune.\" He was buried in the church of [St. Eustache](/wiki/%C3%89glise_Saint-Eustache%2C_Paris \"Église Saint-Eustache, Paris\"), Paris on the same day of his death. Although a bronze bust and red marble tombstone were erected in his memory there by the Société de la Compositeurs de Musique in 1883, the exact site of his burial remains unknown to this day.\n\n[thumb\\|Jean\\-Philippe Rameau in the timeline of French Baroque Composers.](/wiki/File:Jean-Philippe_Rameau_timeline.jpg \"Jean-Philippe Rameau timeline.jpg\")\n\n",
"### Rameau's personality\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Portrait of Rameau by [Louis Carrogis Carmontelle](/wiki/Louis_Carrogis_Carmontelle \"Louis Carrogis Carmontelle\"), 1760](/wiki/File:Rameau_Carmontelle.JPG \"Rameau Carmontelle.JPG\")\n\nWhile the details of his biography are vague and fragmentary, the details of Rameau's personal and family life are almost completely obscure. Rameau's music, so graceful and attractive, completely contradicts the man's public image and what we know of his character as described (or perhaps unfairly caricatured) by Diderot in his satirical novel *[Le Neveu de Rameau](/wiki/Rameau%27s_Nephew \"Rameau's Nephew\")*. Throughout his life, music was his consuming passion. It occupied his entire thinking; [Philippe Beaussant](/wiki/Philippe_Beaussant \"Philippe Beaussant\") calls him a monomaniac. [Alexis Piron](/wiki/Alexis_Piron \"Alexis Piron\") explained that \"His heart and soul were in his harpsichord; once he had shut its lid, there was no one home.\" Physically, Rameau was tall and exceptionally thin, as can be seen by the sketches we have of him, including a famous portrait by [Carmontelle](/wiki/Louis_Carrogis_Carmontelle \"Louis Carrogis Carmontelle\"). He had a \"loud voice\". His speech was difficult to understand, just like his handwriting, which was never fluent. As a man, he was secretive, solitary, irritable, proud of his own achievements (more as a theorist than as a composer), brusque with those who contradicted him, and quick to anger. It is difficult to imagine him among the leading wits, including Voltaire (to whom he bears more than a passing physical resemblance), who frequented La Poupelinière's salon; his music was his passport, and it made up for his lack of social graces.\n\nHis enemies exaggerated his faults, e.g. his supposed miserliness. In fact, it seems that his thriftiness was the result of long years spent in obscurity, when his income was uncertain and scanty, rather than being part of his character, because he could also be generous. He helped his nephew Jean\\-François when he came to Paris and also helped establish the career of [Claude\\-Bénigne Balbastre](/wiki/Claude-B%C3%A9nigne_Balbastre \"Claude-Bénigne Balbastre\") in the capital. Furthermore, he gave his daughter Marie\\-Louise a considerable dowry when she became a [Visitandine](/wiki/Order_of_the_Visitation_of_Holy_Mary \"Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary\") nun in 1750, and he paid a pension to one of his sisters when she became ill. Financial security came late to him, following the success of his stage works and the grant of a royal pension. A few months before his death, he was ennobled and made a knight of the Ordre de Saint\\-Michel. But he did not change his way of life, keeping his worn\\-out clothes, his single pair of shoes, and his old furniture. After his death, it was discovered that he possessed only one dilapidated single\\-keyboard harpsichordCompare the inventories of François Couperin (one large harpsichord, three spinets and a portable organ) and Louis Marchand (three harpsichords and three spinets) after their deaths. in his rooms in Rue des Bons\\-Enfants, yet he also had a bag containing 1691 gold [louis](/wiki/Louis_%28coin%29 \"Louis (coin)\").\n\n",
"Music\n-----\n\n### General character of Rameau's music\n\nRameau's music is characterised by the exceptional technical knowledge of a composer who wanted above all to be renowned as a theorist of the art. Nevertheless, it is not solely addressed to the intelligence, and Rameau himself claimed, \"I try to conceal art with art.\" The paradox of this music was that it was new, using techniques never known before, but it took place within the framework of old\\-fashioned forms. Rameau appeared revolutionary to the Lullyistes, disturbed by complex harmony of his music; and reactionary to the , who only paid attention to its content and who either would not or could not listen to the sound it made. The incomprehension Rameau received from his contemporaries stopped him from repeating such daring experiments as the second Trio des Parques in *Hippolyte et Aricie*, which he was forced to remove after a handful of performances because the singers had been either unable or unwilling to execute it correctly.\n\n### Rameau's musical works\n\nRameau's musical works may be divided into four distinct groups,Apart from the pieces written for the Paris fairs, which haven't survived which differ greatly in importance: a few [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\"); a few [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") for large chorus; some pieces for solo harpsichord or harpsichord accompanied by other instruments; and, finally, his works for the stage, to which he dedicated the last thirty years of his career almost exclusively. Like most of his contemporaries, Rameau often reused melodies that had been particularly successful, but never without meticulously adapting them; they are not simple transcriptions. Besides, no borrowings have been found from other composers, although his earliest works show the influence of other music. Rameau's reworkings of his own material are numerous; e.g., in *Les Fêtes d'Hébé*, we find *L'Entretien des Muses*, the Musette, and the Tambourin, taken from the 1724 book of harpsichord pieces, as well as an aria from the cantata *Le Berger Fidèle*.\n\n#### Motets\n\nFor at least 26 years, Rameau was a professional organist in the service of religious institutions, and yet the body of sacred music he composed is exceptionally small and his organ works nonexistent. Judging by the evidence, it was not his favourite field, but rather, simply a way of making reasonable money. Rameau's few religious compositions are nevertheless remarkable and compare favourably to the works of specialists in the area. Only four [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") have been attributed to Rameau with any certainty: *Deus noster refugium*, *In convertendo*, *Quam dilecta*, and *Laboravi*.\n\n#### Cantatas\n\nThe [cantata](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\") was a highly successful genre in the early 18th century. The French cantata, which should not be confused with the Italian or the German cantata, was \"invented\" in 1706 by the poet [Jean\\-Baptiste Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rousseau \"Jean-Baptiste Rousseau\") and soon taken up by many famous composers of the day, such as [Montéclair](/wiki/Mont%C3%A9clair \"Montéclair\"), [Campra](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Campra \"André Campra\"), and [Clérambault](/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9rambault \"Louis-Nicolas Clérambault\"). Cantatas were Rameau's first contact with dramatic music. The modest forces the cantata required meant it was a genre within the reach of a composer who was still unknown. Musicologists can only guess at the dates of Rameau's six surviving cantatas, and the names of the librettists are unknown.\n\n#### Instrumental music\n\nAlong with [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\"), Rameau was a master of the 18th\\-century French school of harpsichord music, and both made a break with the style of the first generation of harpsichordists whose compositions adhered to the relatively standardised suite form, which had reached its apogee in the first decade of the 18th century and successive collections of pieces by [Louis Marchand](/wiki/Louis_Marchand \"Louis Marchand\"), [Gaspard Le Roux](/wiki/Gaspard_Le_Roux \"Gaspard Le Roux\"), [Louis\\-Nicolas Clérambault](/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9rambault \"Louis-Nicolas Clérambault\"), [Jean\\-François Dandrieu](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Dandrieu \"Jean-François Dandrieu\"), [Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Jacquet_de_la_Guerre \"Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre\"), [Charles Dieupart](/wiki/Charles_Dieupart \"Charles Dieupart\") and [Nicolas Siret](/wiki/Nicolas_Siret \"Nicolas Siret\"). Rameau and Couperin had different styles, and it seems they did not know one another: Couperin was one of the official court musicians; Rameau, fifteen years his junior, achieved fame only after Couperin's death.\n\nRameau published his first book of harpsichord pieces in 1706\\. (Cf. Couperin, who waited until 1713 before publishing his first \"Ordres\".) Rameau's music includes pieces in the pure tradition of the French suite: imitative (\"Le rappel des oiseaux\", \"La poule\") and characterful (\"Les tendres plaintes\", \"L'entretien des Muses\"). But there are also works of pure virtuosity that resemble [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti \"Domenico Scarlatti\") (\"Les tourbillons\", \"Les trois mains\") as well as pieces that reveal the experiments of a theorist and musical innovator (\"L'enharmonique\", \"Les Cyclopes\"), which had a marked influence on [Louis\\-Claude Daquin](/wiki/Louis-Claude_Daquin \"Louis-Claude Daquin\"), [Joseph\\-Nicolas\\-Pancrace Royer](/wiki/Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace_Royer \"Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer\") and [Jacques Duphly](/wiki/Jacques_Duphly \"Jacques Duphly\"). Rameau's suites are grouped in the traditional way, by key. The first set of dances (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Les Trois Mains, Fanfairenette, La Triomphante, Gavotte et 6 doubles) is centred on A major and A minor, while the remaining pieces (Les tricoteuses, L'Indifferente, Première Menuet, Deuxième Menuet, La Poule, Les Triolets, Les Sauvages, L'Enharmonique, L'Egiptienne \\[sic]) are centred around G major and G minor.\n\nRameau's second and third collections appeared in 1724 and 1727\\. After these he composed only one piece for the harpsichord, the eight\\-minute \"La Dauphine\" of 1747, while the very short \"Les petits marteaux\" (c. 1750\\) has also been attributed to him.\n\nDuring his semiretirement (1740 to 1744\\) he wrote the *[Pièces de clavecin en concerts](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_clavecin_en_concerts \"Pièces de clavecin en concerts\")* (1741\\), which some musicologists consider the pinnacle of French Baroque chamber music. Adopting a formula successfully employed by [Mondonville](/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Cassan%C3%A9a_de_Mondonville \"Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondonville\") a few years earlier, Rameau fashioned these pieces differently from trio sonatas in that the harpsichord is not simply there as [basso continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo \"Basso continuo\") to accompany melody instruments (violin, flute, viol) but as equal partner in \"concert\" with them. Rameau claimed that this music would be equally satisfying played on the harpsichord alone, but the claim is not wholly convincing because he took the trouble to transcribe five of them himself, those the lack of other instruments would show the least.\n\n#### Opera\n\nAfter 1733 Rameau dedicated himself mostly to opera. On a strictly musical level, 18th\\-century French Baroque opera is richer and more varied than contemporary Italian opera, especially in the place given to choruses and dances but also in the musical continuity that arises from the respective relationships between the [arias](/wiki/Aria \"Aria\") and the [recitatives](/wiki/Recitative \"Recitative\"). Another essential difference: whereas Italian opera gave a starring role to female sopranos and [castrati](/wiki/Castrati \"Castrati\"), French opera had no use for the latter. The Italian opera of Rameau's day ([opera seria](/wiki/Opera_seria \"Opera seria\"), [opera buffa](/wiki/Opera_buffa \"Opera buffa\")) was essentially divided into musical sections ([da capo](/wiki/Da_capo \"Da capo\") arias, duets, trios, etc.) and sections that were spoken or almost spoken (*recitativo secco*). It was during the latter that the action progressed while the audience waited for the next aria; on the other hand, the text of the arias was almost entirely buried beneath music whose chief aim was to show off the virtuosity of the singer. Nothing of the kind is to be found in French opera of the day; since Lully, the text had to remain comprehensible—limiting certain techniques such as the [vocalise](/wiki/Vocalise \"Vocalise\"), which was reserved for special words such as ** (\"glory\") or ** (\"victory\"). A subtle equilibrium existed between the more and the less musical parts: melodic recitative on the one hand and arias that were often closer to [arioso](/wiki/Arioso \"Arioso\") on the other, alongside virtuoso \"ariettes\" in the Italian style. This form of continuous music prefigures [Wagnerian](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") drama even more than does the \"reform\" opera of [Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_von_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald von Gluck\").\n\nFive essential components may be discerned in Rameau's operatic scores:\n* Pieces of \"pure\" music (overtures, [ritornelli](/wiki/Ritornello \"Ritornello\"), music which closes scenes). Unlike the highly stereotyped Lullian overture, Rameau's overtures show an extraordinary variety. Even in his earliest works, where he uses the [standard French model](/wiki/French_overture \"French overture\"), Rameau—the born symphonist and master of orchestration—composes novel and unique pieces. A few pieces are particularly striking, such as the overture to *Zaïs*, depicting the chaos before the creation of the universe, that of *Pigmalion*, suggesting the sculptor's chipping away at the statue with his mallet, or many more conventional depictions of storms and earthquakes, as well perhaps as the imposing final [chaconnes](/wiki/Chaconne \"Chaconne\") of *Les Indes galantes* or *Dardanus*.\n* Dance music: the danced interludes, which were obligatory even in *tragédie en musique*, allowed Rameau to give free rein to his inimitable sense of rhythm, melody, and choreography, acknowledged by all his contemporaries, including the dancers themselves.According to the ballet master Gardel: \"He divined what the dancers themselves did not know. We look upon him rightly as our first master.\" Quoted by . This \"learned\" composer, forever preoccupied by his next theoretical work, also was one who strung together [gavottes](/wiki/Gavotte \"Gavotte\"), [minuets](/wiki/Minuet \"Minuet\"), [loures](/wiki/Loure \"Loure\"), [rigaudons](/wiki/Rigaudon \"Rigaudon\"), [passepieds](/wiki/Passepied \"Passepied\"), [tambourins](/wiki/Tambourin \"Tambourin\"), and [musettes](/wiki/Bal-musette \"Bal-musette\") by the dozen. According to his biographer, [Cuthbert Girdlestone](/wiki/Cuthbert_Girdlestone \"Cuthbert Girdlestone\"), \"The immense superiority of all that pertains to Rameau in choreography still needs emphasizing\", and the German scholar [Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen](/wiki/Hermann_Wolfgang_von_Waltershausen \"Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen\") affirmed:\n\n> Rameau was the greatest ballet composer of all times. The genius of his creation rests on one hand on his perfect artistic permeation by folk\\-dance types, on the other hand on the constant preservation of living contact with the practical requirements of the ballet stage, which prevented an estrangement between the expression of the body from the spirit of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\").\n* Choruses: [Padre Martini](/wiki/Padre_Martini \"Padre Martini\"), the erudite musicologist who corresponded with Rameau, affirmed that \"the French are excellent at choruses\", obviously thinking of Rameau himself. A great master of harmony, Rameau knew how to compose sumptuous choruses—whether [monodic](/wiki/Monody \"Monody\"), [polyphonic](/wiki/Polyphony \"Polyphony\"), or interspersed with passages for solo singers or the orchestra—and whatever feelings needed to be expressed.\n* Arias: less frequent than in Italian opera, Rameau nevertheless offers many striking examples. Particularly admired arias include Télaïre's \"Tristes apprêts\" from *Castor et Pollux*; \"Ô jour affreux\" and \"Lieux funestes\" from *Dardanus*; Huascar's invocations in *Les Indes galantes*; and the final ariette in *Pigmalion*. In *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")* we encounter a showstopping ars poetica aria for the character of La Folie (the madness), \"Formons les plus brillants concerts / Aux langeurs d'Apollon\".\n* Recitative: much closer to arioso than to *recitativo secco*. The composer took scrupulous care to observe French [prosody](/wiki/Prosody_%28linguistics%29 \"Prosody (linguistics)\") and used his harmonic knowledge to give expression to his protagonists' feelings.\nDuring the first part of his operatic career (1733–1739\\), Rameau wrote his great masterpieces destined for the Académie royale de musique: three *tragédies en musique* and two *opéra\\-ballets* that still form the core of his repertoire. After the interval of 1740 to 1744, he became the official court musician, and for the most part, composed pieces intended to entertain, with plenty of dance music emphasising sensuality and an idealised [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral \"Pastoral\") atmosphere. In his last years, Rameau returned to a renewed version of his early style in *Les Paladins* and *Les Boréades*.\n\nHis *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* was first performed in 1749\\. According to one of Rameau's admirers, Cuthbert Girdlestone, this opera has a distinctive place in his works: \"The profane passions of hatred and jealousy are rendered more intensely \\[than in his other works] and with a strong sense of reality.\"\n\n##### Rameau and his librettists\n\nUnlike Lully, who collaborated with [Philippe Quinault](/wiki/Philippe_Quinault \"Philippe Quinault\") on almost all his operas, Rameau rarely worked with the same librettist twice. He was highly demanding and bad\\-tempered, unable to maintain longstanding partnerships with his librettists, with the exception of [Louis de Cahusac](/wiki/Louis_de_Cahusac \"Louis de Cahusac\"), who collaborated with him on several operas, including *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* (1747\\), *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\), *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\), *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756\\), *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* (1754\\), and *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (the first of Rameau's operas by that name, 1754\\). He is also credited with writing the libretto of Rameau's final work, *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* (c. 1763\\).\n\nMany Rameau specialists have regretted that the collaboration with [Houdar de la Motte](/wiki/Houdar_de_la_Motte \"Houdar de la Motte\") never took place, and that the *Samson* project with Voltaire came to nothing because the librettists Rameau did work with were second\\-rate. He made his acquaintance of most of them at [La Poupelinière](/wiki/La_Poupelini%C3%A8re \"La Poupelinière\")'s salon, at the , or at the house of the comte de Livry, all meeting places for leading cultural figures of the day.\n\nNot one of his librettists managed to produce a libretto on the same artistic level as Rameau's music: the plots were often overly complex or unconvincing. But this was standard for the genre, and is probably part of its charm. The versification, too, was mediocre, and Rameau often had to have the libretto modified and rewrite the music after the premiere because of the ensuing criticism. This is why we have two versions of *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737 and 1754\\) and three of *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739, 1744, and 1760\\).\n\n### Reputation and influence\n\nBy the end of his life, Rameau's music had come under attack in France from theorists who favoured Italian models. However, foreign composers working in the Italian tradition were increasingly looking towards Rameau as a way of reforming their own leading operatic genre, *[opera seria](/wiki/Opera_seria \"Opera seria\")*. [Tommaso Traetta](/wiki/Tommaso_Traetta \"Tommaso Traetta\") produced two operas setting translations of Rameau libretti that show the French composer's influence, *Ippolito ed Aricia* (1759\\) and *I Tintaridi* (based on *Castor et Pollux*, 1760\\). Traetta had been advised by Count [Francesco Algarotti](/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti \"Francesco Algarotti\"), a leading proponent of reform according to French models; Algarotti was a major influence on the most important \"reformist\" composer, [Christoph Willibald Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald Gluck\"). Gluck's three Italian reform operas of the 1760s—*[Orfeo ed Euridice](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice \"Orfeo ed Euridice\")*, *[Alceste](/wiki/Alceste_%28Gluck%29 \"Alceste (Gluck)\")*, and *[Paride ed Elena](/wiki/Paride_ed_Elena \"Paride ed Elena\")*—reveal a knowledge of Rameau's works. For instance, both *Orfeo* and the 1737 version of *Castor et Pollux* open with the funeral of one of the leading characters who later comes back to life. Many of the operatic reforms advocated in the preface to Gluck's *Alceste* were already present in Rameau's works. Rameau had used accompanied recitatives, and the overtures in his later operas reflected the action to come, so when Gluck arrived in Paris in 1774 to produce a series of six French operas, he could be seen as continuing in the tradition of Rameau. Nevertheless, while Gluck's popularity survived the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), Rameau's did not. By the end of the 18th century, his operas had vanished from the repertoire.\n\nFor most of the 19th century, Rameau's music remained unplayed, known only by reputation. [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz \"Hector Berlioz\") investigated *Castor et Pollux* and particularly admired the aria \"Tristes apprêts\", but \"whereas the modern listener readily perceives the common ground with Berlioz' music, he himself was more conscious of the gap which separated them.\"[Hugh Macdonald](/wiki/Hugh_Macdonald_%28musicologist%29 \"Hugh Macdonald (musicologist)\") *The Master Musicians: Berlioz* (1982\\) p. 184 French humiliation in the [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") brought about a change in Rameau's fortunes. As Rameau biographer Jean Malignon wrote, \"...the German victory over France in 1870–71 was the grand occasion for digging up great heroes from the French past. Rameau, like so many others, was flung into the enemy's face to bolster our courage and our faith in the national destiny of France.\"Quoted by Graham Sadler in \"Vincent d'Indy and the Rameau *Oeuvres complètes*: a case of forgery?\", *[Early Music](/wiki/Early_Music_%28journal%29 \"Early Music (journal)\")*, August 1993, p. 418 In 1894, composer [Vincent d'Indy](/wiki/Vincent_d%27Indy \"Vincent d'Indy\") founded the [Schola Cantorum](/wiki/Schola_Cantorum \"Schola Cantorum\") to promote French national music; the society put on several revivals of works by Rameau. Among the audience was [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\"), who especially cherished *Castor et Pollux*, revived in 1903: \"[Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald Gluck\")'s genius was deeply rooted in Rameau's works... a detailed comparison allows us to affirm that Gluck could replace Rameau on the French stage only by assimilating the latter's beautiful works and making them his own.\" [Camille Saint\\-Saëns](/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns \"Camille Saint-Saëns\") (by editing and publishing the *Pièces* in 1895\\) and [Paul Dukas](/wiki/Paul_Dukas \"Paul Dukas\") were two other important French musicians who gave practical championship to Rameau's music in their day, but interest in Rameau petered out again, and it was not until the late 20th century that a serious effort was made to revive his works. Over half of Rameau's operas have now been recorded, in particular by conductors such as [John Eliot Gardiner](/wiki/John_Eliot_Gardiner \"John Eliot Gardiner\"), [William Christie](/wiki/William_Christie_%28musician%29 \"William Christie (musician)\"), and [Marc Minkowski](/wiki/Marc_Minkowski \"Marc Minkowski\").\n\nOne of his pieces is commonly heard in the [Victoria Centre](/wiki/Victoria_Centre \"Victoria Centre\") in Nottingham by the [Rowland Emett](/wiki/Rowland_Emett \"Rowland Emett\") timepiece, the [Aqua Horological Tintinnabulator](/wiki/Aqua_Horological_Tintinnabulator \"Aqua Horological Tintinnabulator\"). Emett quoted that Rameau made music for his school and the shopping centre without him knowing it.\n\n",
"### General character of Rameau's music\n\nRameau's music is characterised by the exceptional technical knowledge of a composer who wanted above all to be renowned as a theorist of the art. Nevertheless, it is not solely addressed to the intelligence, and Rameau himself claimed, \"I try to conceal art with art.\" The paradox of this music was that it was new, using techniques never known before, but it took place within the framework of old\\-fashioned forms. Rameau appeared revolutionary to the Lullyistes, disturbed by complex harmony of his music; and reactionary to the , who only paid attention to its content and who either would not or could not listen to the sound it made. The incomprehension Rameau received from his contemporaries stopped him from repeating such daring experiments as the second Trio des Parques in *Hippolyte et Aricie*, which he was forced to remove after a handful of performances because the singers had been either unable or unwilling to execute it correctly.\n\n",
"### Rameau's musical works\n\nRameau's musical works may be divided into four distinct groups,Apart from the pieces written for the Paris fairs, which haven't survived which differ greatly in importance: a few [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\"); a few [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") for large chorus; some pieces for solo harpsichord or harpsichord accompanied by other instruments; and, finally, his works for the stage, to which he dedicated the last thirty years of his career almost exclusively. Like most of his contemporaries, Rameau often reused melodies that had been particularly successful, but never without meticulously adapting them; they are not simple transcriptions. Besides, no borrowings have been found from other composers, although his earliest works show the influence of other music. Rameau's reworkings of his own material are numerous; e.g., in *Les Fêtes d'Hébé*, we find *L'Entretien des Muses*, the Musette, and the Tambourin, taken from the 1724 book of harpsichord pieces, as well as an aria from the cantata *Le Berger Fidèle*.\n\n#### Motets\n\nFor at least 26 years, Rameau was a professional organist in the service of religious institutions, and yet the body of sacred music he composed is exceptionally small and his organ works nonexistent. Judging by the evidence, it was not his favourite field, but rather, simply a way of making reasonable money. Rameau's few religious compositions are nevertheless remarkable and compare favourably to the works of specialists in the area. Only four [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") have been attributed to Rameau with any certainty: *Deus noster refugium*, *In convertendo*, *Quam dilecta*, and *Laboravi*.\n\n#### Cantatas\n\nThe [cantata](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\") was a highly successful genre in the early 18th century. The French cantata, which should not be confused with the Italian or the German cantata, was \"invented\" in 1706 by the poet [Jean\\-Baptiste Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rousseau \"Jean-Baptiste Rousseau\") and soon taken up by many famous composers of the day, such as [Montéclair](/wiki/Mont%C3%A9clair \"Montéclair\"), [Campra](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Campra \"André Campra\"), and [Clérambault](/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9rambault \"Louis-Nicolas Clérambault\"). Cantatas were Rameau's first contact with dramatic music. The modest forces the cantata required meant it was a genre within the reach of a composer who was still unknown. Musicologists can only guess at the dates of Rameau's six surviving cantatas, and the names of the librettists are unknown.\n\n#### Instrumental music\n\nAlong with [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\"), Rameau was a master of the 18th\\-century French school of harpsichord music, and both made a break with the style of the first generation of harpsichordists whose compositions adhered to the relatively standardised suite form, which had reached its apogee in the first decade of the 18th century and successive collections of pieces by [Louis Marchand](/wiki/Louis_Marchand \"Louis Marchand\"), [Gaspard Le Roux](/wiki/Gaspard_Le_Roux \"Gaspard Le Roux\"), [Louis\\-Nicolas Clérambault](/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9rambault \"Louis-Nicolas Clérambault\"), [Jean\\-François Dandrieu](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Dandrieu \"Jean-François Dandrieu\"), [Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Jacquet_de_la_Guerre \"Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre\"), [Charles Dieupart](/wiki/Charles_Dieupart \"Charles Dieupart\") and [Nicolas Siret](/wiki/Nicolas_Siret \"Nicolas Siret\"). Rameau and Couperin had different styles, and it seems they did not know one another: Couperin was one of the official court musicians; Rameau, fifteen years his junior, achieved fame only after Couperin's death.\n\nRameau published his first book of harpsichord pieces in 1706\\. (Cf. Couperin, who waited until 1713 before publishing his first \"Ordres\".) Rameau's music includes pieces in the pure tradition of the French suite: imitative (\"Le rappel des oiseaux\", \"La poule\") and characterful (\"Les tendres plaintes\", \"L'entretien des Muses\"). But there are also works of pure virtuosity that resemble [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti \"Domenico Scarlatti\") (\"Les tourbillons\", \"Les trois mains\") as well as pieces that reveal the experiments of a theorist and musical innovator (\"L'enharmonique\", \"Les Cyclopes\"), which had a marked influence on [Louis\\-Claude Daquin](/wiki/Louis-Claude_Daquin \"Louis-Claude Daquin\"), [Joseph\\-Nicolas\\-Pancrace Royer](/wiki/Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace_Royer \"Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer\") and [Jacques Duphly](/wiki/Jacques_Duphly \"Jacques Duphly\"). Rameau's suites are grouped in the traditional way, by key. The first set of dances (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Les Trois Mains, Fanfairenette, La Triomphante, Gavotte et 6 doubles) is centred on A major and A minor, while the remaining pieces (Les tricoteuses, L'Indifferente, Première Menuet, Deuxième Menuet, La Poule, Les Triolets, Les Sauvages, L'Enharmonique, L'Egiptienne \\[sic]) are centred around G major and G minor.\n\nRameau's second and third collections appeared in 1724 and 1727\\. After these he composed only one piece for the harpsichord, the eight\\-minute \"La Dauphine\" of 1747, while the very short \"Les petits marteaux\" (c. 1750\\) has also been attributed to him.\n\nDuring his semiretirement (1740 to 1744\\) he wrote the *[Pièces de clavecin en concerts](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_clavecin_en_concerts \"Pièces de clavecin en concerts\")* (1741\\), which some musicologists consider the pinnacle of French Baroque chamber music. Adopting a formula successfully employed by [Mondonville](/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Cassan%C3%A9a_de_Mondonville \"Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondonville\") a few years earlier, Rameau fashioned these pieces differently from trio sonatas in that the harpsichord is not simply there as [basso continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo \"Basso continuo\") to accompany melody instruments (violin, flute, viol) but as equal partner in \"concert\" with them. Rameau claimed that this music would be equally satisfying played on the harpsichord alone, but the claim is not wholly convincing because he took the trouble to transcribe five of them himself, those the lack of other instruments would show the least.\n\n#### Opera\n\nAfter 1733 Rameau dedicated himself mostly to opera. On a strictly musical level, 18th\\-century French Baroque opera is richer and more varied than contemporary Italian opera, especially in the place given to choruses and dances but also in the musical continuity that arises from the respective relationships between the [arias](/wiki/Aria \"Aria\") and the [recitatives](/wiki/Recitative \"Recitative\"). Another essential difference: whereas Italian opera gave a starring role to female sopranos and [castrati](/wiki/Castrati \"Castrati\"), French opera had no use for the latter. The Italian opera of Rameau's day ([opera seria](/wiki/Opera_seria \"Opera seria\"), [opera buffa](/wiki/Opera_buffa \"Opera buffa\")) was essentially divided into musical sections ([da capo](/wiki/Da_capo \"Da capo\") arias, duets, trios, etc.) and sections that were spoken or almost spoken (*recitativo secco*). It was during the latter that the action progressed while the audience waited for the next aria; on the other hand, the text of the arias was almost entirely buried beneath music whose chief aim was to show off the virtuosity of the singer. Nothing of the kind is to be found in French opera of the day; since Lully, the text had to remain comprehensible—limiting certain techniques such as the [vocalise](/wiki/Vocalise \"Vocalise\"), which was reserved for special words such as ** (\"glory\") or ** (\"victory\"). A subtle equilibrium existed between the more and the less musical parts: melodic recitative on the one hand and arias that were often closer to [arioso](/wiki/Arioso \"Arioso\") on the other, alongside virtuoso \"ariettes\" in the Italian style. This form of continuous music prefigures [Wagnerian](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") drama even more than does the \"reform\" opera of [Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_von_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald von Gluck\").\n\nFive essential components may be discerned in Rameau's operatic scores:\n* Pieces of \"pure\" music (overtures, [ritornelli](/wiki/Ritornello \"Ritornello\"), music which closes scenes). Unlike the highly stereotyped Lullian overture, Rameau's overtures show an extraordinary variety. Even in his earliest works, where he uses the [standard French model](/wiki/French_overture \"French overture\"), Rameau—the born symphonist and master of orchestration—composes novel and unique pieces. A few pieces are particularly striking, such as the overture to *Zaïs*, depicting the chaos before the creation of the universe, that of *Pigmalion*, suggesting the sculptor's chipping away at the statue with his mallet, or many more conventional depictions of storms and earthquakes, as well perhaps as the imposing final [chaconnes](/wiki/Chaconne \"Chaconne\") of *Les Indes galantes* or *Dardanus*.\n* Dance music: the danced interludes, which were obligatory even in *tragédie en musique*, allowed Rameau to give free rein to his inimitable sense of rhythm, melody, and choreography, acknowledged by all his contemporaries, including the dancers themselves.According to the ballet master Gardel: \"He divined what the dancers themselves did not know. We look upon him rightly as our first master.\" Quoted by . This \"learned\" composer, forever preoccupied by his next theoretical work, also was one who strung together [gavottes](/wiki/Gavotte \"Gavotte\"), [minuets](/wiki/Minuet \"Minuet\"), [loures](/wiki/Loure \"Loure\"), [rigaudons](/wiki/Rigaudon \"Rigaudon\"), [passepieds](/wiki/Passepied \"Passepied\"), [tambourins](/wiki/Tambourin \"Tambourin\"), and [musettes](/wiki/Bal-musette \"Bal-musette\") by the dozen. According to his biographer, [Cuthbert Girdlestone](/wiki/Cuthbert_Girdlestone \"Cuthbert Girdlestone\"), \"The immense superiority of all that pertains to Rameau in choreography still needs emphasizing\", and the German scholar [Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen](/wiki/Hermann_Wolfgang_von_Waltershausen \"Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen\") affirmed:\n\n> Rameau was the greatest ballet composer of all times. The genius of his creation rests on one hand on his perfect artistic permeation by folk\\-dance types, on the other hand on the constant preservation of living contact with the practical requirements of the ballet stage, which prevented an estrangement between the expression of the body from the spirit of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\").\n* Choruses: [Padre Martini](/wiki/Padre_Martini \"Padre Martini\"), the erudite musicologist who corresponded with Rameau, affirmed that \"the French are excellent at choruses\", obviously thinking of Rameau himself. A great master of harmony, Rameau knew how to compose sumptuous choruses—whether [monodic](/wiki/Monody \"Monody\"), [polyphonic](/wiki/Polyphony \"Polyphony\"), or interspersed with passages for solo singers or the orchestra—and whatever feelings needed to be expressed.\n* Arias: less frequent than in Italian opera, Rameau nevertheless offers many striking examples. Particularly admired arias include Télaïre's \"Tristes apprêts\" from *Castor et Pollux*; \"Ô jour affreux\" and \"Lieux funestes\" from *Dardanus*; Huascar's invocations in *Les Indes galantes*; and the final ariette in *Pigmalion*. In *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")* we encounter a showstopping ars poetica aria for the character of La Folie (the madness), \"Formons les plus brillants concerts / Aux langeurs d'Apollon\".\n* Recitative: much closer to arioso than to *recitativo secco*. The composer took scrupulous care to observe French [prosody](/wiki/Prosody_%28linguistics%29 \"Prosody (linguistics)\") and used his harmonic knowledge to give expression to his protagonists' feelings.\nDuring the first part of his operatic career (1733–1739\\), Rameau wrote his great masterpieces destined for the Académie royale de musique: three *tragédies en musique* and two *opéra\\-ballets* that still form the core of his repertoire. After the interval of 1740 to 1744, he became the official court musician, and for the most part, composed pieces intended to entertain, with plenty of dance music emphasising sensuality and an idealised [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral \"Pastoral\") atmosphere. In his last years, Rameau returned to a renewed version of his early style in *Les Paladins* and *Les Boréades*.\n\nHis *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* was first performed in 1749\\. According to one of Rameau's admirers, Cuthbert Girdlestone, this opera has a distinctive place in his works: \"The profane passions of hatred and jealousy are rendered more intensely \\[than in his other works] and with a strong sense of reality.\"\n\n##### Rameau and his librettists\n\nUnlike Lully, who collaborated with [Philippe Quinault](/wiki/Philippe_Quinault \"Philippe Quinault\") on almost all his operas, Rameau rarely worked with the same librettist twice. He was highly demanding and bad\\-tempered, unable to maintain longstanding partnerships with his librettists, with the exception of [Louis de Cahusac](/wiki/Louis_de_Cahusac \"Louis de Cahusac\"), who collaborated with him on several operas, including *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* (1747\\), *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\), *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\), *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756\\), *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* (1754\\), and *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (the first of Rameau's operas by that name, 1754\\). He is also credited with writing the libretto of Rameau's final work, *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* (c. 1763\\).\n\nMany Rameau specialists have regretted that the collaboration with [Houdar de la Motte](/wiki/Houdar_de_la_Motte \"Houdar de la Motte\") never took place, and that the *Samson* project with Voltaire came to nothing because the librettists Rameau did work with were second\\-rate. He made his acquaintance of most of them at [La Poupelinière](/wiki/La_Poupelini%C3%A8re \"La Poupelinière\")'s salon, at the , or at the house of the comte de Livry, all meeting places for leading cultural figures of the day.\n\nNot one of his librettists managed to produce a libretto on the same artistic level as Rameau's music: the plots were often overly complex or unconvincing. But this was standard for the genre, and is probably part of its charm. The versification, too, was mediocre, and Rameau often had to have the libretto modified and rewrite the music after the premiere because of the ensuing criticism. This is why we have two versions of *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737 and 1754\\) and three of *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739, 1744, and 1760\\).\n\n",
"#### Motets\n\nFor at least 26 years, Rameau was a professional organist in the service of religious institutions, and yet the body of sacred music he composed is exceptionally small and his organ works nonexistent. Judging by the evidence, it was not his favourite field, but rather, simply a way of making reasonable money. Rameau's few religious compositions are nevertheless remarkable and compare favourably to the works of specialists in the area. Only four [motets](/wiki/Motet \"Motet\") have been attributed to Rameau with any certainty: *Deus noster refugium*, *In convertendo*, *Quam dilecta*, and *Laboravi*.\n\n",
"#### Cantatas\n\nThe [cantata](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\") was a highly successful genre in the early 18th century. The French cantata, which should not be confused with the Italian or the German cantata, was \"invented\" in 1706 by the poet [Jean\\-Baptiste Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rousseau \"Jean-Baptiste Rousseau\") and soon taken up by many famous composers of the day, such as [Montéclair](/wiki/Mont%C3%A9clair \"Montéclair\"), [Campra](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Campra \"André Campra\"), and [Clérambault](/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9rambault \"Louis-Nicolas Clérambault\"). Cantatas were Rameau's first contact with dramatic music. The modest forces the cantata required meant it was a genre within the reach of a composer who was still unknown. Musicologists can only guess at the dates of Rameau's six surviving cantatas, and the names of the librettists are unknown.\n\n",
"#### Instrumental music\n\nAlong with [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\"), Rameau was a master of the 18th\\-century French school of harpsichord music, and both made a break with the style of the first generation of harpsichordists whose compositions adhered to the relatively standardised suite form, which had reached its apogee in the first decade of the 18th century and successive collections of pieces by [Louis Marchand](/wiki/Louis_Marchand \"Louis Marchand\"), [Gaspard Le Roux](/wiki/Gaspard_Le_Roux \"Gaspard Le Roux\"), [Louis\\-Nicolas Clérambault](/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9rambault \"Louis-Nicolas Clérambault\"), [Jean\\-François Dandrieu](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Dandrieu \"Jean-François Dandrieu\"), [Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre](/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Jacquet_de_la_Guerre \"Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre\"), [Charles Dieupart](/wiki/Charles_Dieupart \"Charles Dieupart\") and [Nicolas Siret](/wiki/Nicolas_Siret \"Nicolas Siret\"). Rameau and Couperin had different styles, and it seems they did not know one another: Couperin was one of the official court musicians; Rameau, fifteen years his junior, achieved fame only after Couperin's death.\n\nRameau published his first book of harpsichord pieces in 1706\\. (Cf. Couperin, who waited until 1713 before publishing his first \"Ordres\".) Rameau's music includes pieces in the pure tradition of the French suite: imitative (\"Le rappel des oiseaux\", \"La poule\") and characterful (\"Les tendres plaintes\", \"L'entretien des Muses\"). But there are also works of pure virtuosity that resemble [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti \"Domenico Scarlatti\") (\"Les tourbillons\", \"Les trois mains\") as well as pieces that reveal the experiments of a theorist and musical innovator (\"L'enharmonique\", \"Les Cyclopes\"), which had a marked influence on [Louis\\-Claude Daquin](/wiki/Louis-Claude_Daquin \"Louis-Claude Daquin\"), [Joseph\\-Nicolas\\-Pancrace Royer](/wiki/Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace_Royer \"Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer\") and [Jacques Duphly](/wiki/Jacques_Duphly \"Jacques Duphly\"). Rameau's suites are grouped in the traditional way, by key. The first set of dances (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Les Trois Mains, Fanfairenette, La Triomphante, Gavotte et 6 doubles) is centred on A major and A minor, while the remaining pieces (Les tricoteuses, L'Indifferente, Première Menuet, Deuxième Menuet, La Poule, Les Triolets, Les Sauvages, L'Enharmonique, L'Egiptienne \\[sic]) are centred around G major and G minor.\n\nRameau's second and third collections appeared in 1724 and 1727\\. After these he composed only one piece for the harpsichord, the eight\\-minute \"La Dauphine\" of 1747, while the very short \"Les petits marteaux\" (c. 1750\\) has also been attributed to him.\n\nDuring his semiretirement (1740 to 1744\\) he wrote the *[Pièces de clavecin en concerts](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_clavecin_en_concerts \"Pièces de clavecin en concerts\")* (1741\\), which some musicologists consider the pinnacle of French Baroque chamber music. Adopting a formula successfully employed by [Mondonville](/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Cassan%C3%A9a_de_Mondonville \"Jean-Joseph Cassanéa de Mondonville\") a few years earlier, Rameau fashioned these pieces differently from trio sonatas in that the harpsichord is not simply there as [basso continuo](/wiki/Basso_continuo \"Basso continuo\") to accompany melody instruments (violin, flute, viol) but as equal partner in \"concert\" with them. Rameau claimed that this music would be equally satisfying played on the harpsichord alone, but the claim is not wholly convincing because he took the trouble to transcribe five of them himself, those the lack of other instruments would show the least.\n\n",
"#### Opera\n\nAfter 1733 Rameau dedicated himself mostly to opera. On a strictly musical level, 18th\\-century French Baroque opera is richer and more varied than contemporary Italian opera, especially in the place given to choruses and dances but also in the musical continuity that arises from the respective relationships between the [arias](/wiki/Aria \"Aria\") and the [recitatives](/wiki/Recitative \"Recitative\"). Another essential difference: whereas Italian opera gave a starring role to female sopranos and [castrati](/wiki/Castrati \"Castrati\"), French opera had no use for the latter. The Italian opera of Rameau's day ([opera seria](/wiki/Opera_seria \"Opera seria\"), [opera buffa](/wiki/Opera_buffa \"Opera buffa\")) was essentially divided into musical sections ([da capo](/wiki/Da_capo \"Da capo\") arias, duets, trios, etc.) and sections that were spoken or almost spoken (*recitativo secco*). It was during the latter that the action progressed while the audience waited for the next aria; on the other hand, the text of the arias was almost entirely buried beneath music whose chief aim was to show off the virtuosity of the singer. Nothing of the kind is to be found in French opera of the day; since Lully, the text had to remain comprehensible—limiting certain techniques such as the [vocalise](/wiki/Vocalise \"Vocalise\"), which was reserved for special words such as ** (\"glory\") or ** (\"victory\"). A subtle equilibrium existed between the more and the less musical parts: melodic recitative on the one hand and arias that were often closer to [arioso](/wiki/Arioso \"Arioso\") on the other, alongside virtuoso \"ariettes\" in the Italian style. This form of continuous music prefigures [Wagnerian](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") drama even more than does the \"reform\" opera of [Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_von_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald von Gluck\").\n\nFive essential components may be discerned in Rameau's operatic scores:\n* Pieces of \"pure\" music (overtures, [ritornelli](/wiki/Ritornello \"Ritornello\"), music which closes scenes). Unlike the highly stereotyped Lullian overture, Rameau's overtures show an extraordinary variety. Even in his earliest works, where he uses the [standard French model](/wiki/French_overture \"French overture\"), Rameau—the born symphonist and master of orchestration—composes novel and unique pieces. A few pieces are particularly striking, such as the overture to *Zaïs*, depicting the chaos before the creation of the universe, that of *Pigmalion*, suggesting the sculptor's chipping away at the statue with his mallet, or many more conventional depictions of storms and earthquakes, as well perhaps as the imposing final [chaconnes](/wiki/Chaconne \"Chaconne\") of *Les Indes galantes* or *Dardanus*.\n* Dance music: the danced interludes, which were obligatory even in *tragédie en musique*, allowed Rameau to give free rein to his inimitable sense of rhythm, melody, and choreography, acknowledged by all his contemporaries, including the dancers themselves.According to the ballet master Gardel: \"He divined what the dancers themselves did not know. We look upon him rightly as our first master.\" Quoted by . This \"learned\" composer, forever preoccupied by his next theoretical work, also was one who strung together [gavottes](/wiki/Gavotte \"Gavotte\"), [minuets](/wiki/Minuet \"Minuet\"), [loures](/wiki/Loure \"Loure\"), [rigaudons](/wiki/Rigaudon \"Rigaudon\"), [passepieds](/wiki/Passepied \"Passepied\"), [tambourins](/wiki/Tambourin \"Tambourin\"), and [musettes](/wiki/Bal-musette \"Bal-musette\") by the dozen. According to his biographer, [Cuthbert Girdlestone](/wiki/Cuthbert_Girdlestone \"Cuthbert Girdlestone\"), \"The immense superiority of all that pertains to Rameau in choreography still needs emphasizing\", and the German scholar [Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen](/wiki/Hermann_Wolfgang_von_Waltershausen \"Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen\") affirmed:\n\n> Rameau was the greatest ballet composer of all times. The genius of his creation rests on one hand on his perfect artistic permeation by folk\\-dance types, on the other hand on the constant preservation of living contact with the practical requirements of the ballet stage, which prevented an estrangement between the expression of the body from the spirit of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\").\n* Choruses: [Padre Martini](/wiki/Padre_Martini \"Padre Martini\"), the erudite musicologist who corresponded with Rameau, affirmed that \"the French are excellent at choruses\", obviously thinking of Rameau himself. A great master of harmony, Rameau knew how to compose sumptuous choruses—whether [monodic](/wiki/Monody \"Monody\"), [polyphonic](/wiki/Polyphony \"Polyphony\"), or interspersed with passages for solo singers or the orchestra—and whatever feelings needed to be expressed.\n* Arias: less frequent than in Italian opera, Rameau nevertheless offers many striking examples. Particularly admired arias include Télaïre's \"Tristes apprêts\" from *Castor et Pollux*; \"Ô jour affreux\" and \"Lieux funestes\" from *Dardanus*; Huascar's invocations in *Les Indes galantes*; and the final ariette in *Pigmalion*. In *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")* we encounter a showstopping ars poetica aria for the character of La Folie (the madness), \"Formons les plus brillants concerts / Aux langeurs d'Apollon\".\n* Recitative: much closer to arioso than to *recitativo secco*. The composer took scrupulous care to observe French [prosody](/wiki/Prosody_%28linguistics%29 \"Prosody (linguistics)\") and used his harmonic knowledge to give expression to his protagonists' feelings.\nDuring the first part of his operatic career (1733–1739\\), Rameau wrote his great masterpieces destined for the Académie royale de musique: three *tragédies en musique* and two *opéra\\-ballets* that still form the core of his repertoire. After the interval of 1740 to 1744, he became the official court musician, and for the most part, composed pieces intended to entertain, with plenty of dance music emphasising sensuality and an idealised [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral \"Pastoral\") atmosphere. In his last years, Rameau returned to a renewed version of his early style in *Les Paladins* and *Les Boréades*.\n\nHis *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* was first performed in 1749\\. According to one of Rameau's admirers, Cuthbert Girdlestone, this opera has a distinctive place in his works: \"The profane passions of hatred and jealousy are rendered more intensely \\[than in his other works] and with a strong sense of reality.\"\n\n##### Rameau and his librettists\n\nUnlike Lully, who collaborated with [Philippe Quinault](/wiki/Philippe_Quinault \"Philippe Quinault\") on almost all his operas, Rameau rarely worked with the same librettist twice. He was highly demanding and bad\\-tempered, unable to maintain longstanding partnerships with his librettists, with the exception of [Louis de Cahusac](/wiki/Louis_de_Cahusac \"Louis de Cahusac\"), who collaborated with him on several operas, including *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* (1747\\), *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\), *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\), *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756\\), *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* (1754\\), and *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (the first of Rameau's operas by that name, 1754\\). He is also credited with writing the libretto of Rameau's final work, *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* (c. 1763\\).\n\nMany Rameau specialists have regretted that the collaboration with [Houdar de la Motte](/wiki/Houdar_de_la_Motte \"Houdar de la Motte\") never took place, and that the *Samson* project with Voltaire came to nothing because the librettists Rameau did work with were second\\-rate. He made his acquaintance of most of them at [La Poupelinière](/wiki/La_Poupelini%C3%A8re \"La Poupelinière\")'s salon, at the , or at the house of the comte de Livry, all meeting places for leading cultural figures of the day.\n\nNot one of his librettists managed to produce a libretto on the same artistic level as Rameau's music: the plots were often overly complex or unconvincing. But this was standard for the genre, and is probably part of its charm. The versification, too, was mediocre, and Rameau often had to have the libretto modified and rewrite the music after the premiere because of the ensuing criticism. This is why we have two versions of *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737 and 1754\\) and three of *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739, 1744, and 1760\\).\n\n",
"##### Rameau and his librettists\n\nUnlike Lully, who collaborated with [Philippe Quinault](/wiki/Philippe_Quinault \"Philippe Quinault\") on almost all his operas, Rameau rarely worked with the same librettist twice. He was highly demanding and bad\\-tempered, unable to maintain longstanding partnerships with his librettists, with the exception of [Louis de Cahusac](/wiki/Louis_de_Cahusac \"Louis de Cahusac\"), who collaborated with him on several operas, including *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* (1747\\), *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\), *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\), *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756\\), *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* (1754\\), and *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (the first of Rameau's operas by that name, 1754\\). He is also credited with writing the libretto of Rameau's final work, *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* (c. 1763\\).\n\nMany Rameau specialists have regretted that the collaboration with [Houdar de la Motte](/wiki/Houdar_de_la_Motte \"Houdar de la Motte\") never took place, and that the *Samson* project with Voltaire came to nothing because the librettists Rameau did work with were second\\-rate. He made his acquaintance of most of them at [La Poupelinière](/wiki/La_Poupelini%C3%A8re \"La Poupelinière\")'s salon, at the , or at the house of the comte de Livry, all meeting places for leading cultural figures of the day.\n\nNot one of his librettists managed to produce a libretto on the same artistic level as Rameau's music: the plots were often overly complex or unconvincing. But this was standard for the genre, and is probably part of its charm. The versification, too, was mediocre, and Rameau often had to have the libretto modified and rewrite the music after the premiere because of the ensuing criticism. This is why we have two versions of *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737 and 1754\\) and three of *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739, 1744, and 1760\\).\n\n",
"### Reputation and influence\n\nBy the end of his life, Rameau's music had come under attack in France from theorists who favoured Italian models. However, foreign composers working in the Italian tradition were increasingly looking towards Rameau as a way of reforming their own leading operatic genre, *[opera seria](/wiki/Opera_seria \"Opera seria\")*. [Tommaso Traetta](/wiki/Tommaso_Traetta \"Tommaso Traetta\") produced two operas setting translations of Rameau libretti that show the French composer's influence, *Ippolito ed Aricia* (1759\\) and *I Tintaridi* (based on *Castor et Pollux*, 1760\\). Traetta had been advised by Count [Francesco Algarotti](/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti \"Francesco Algarotti\"), a leading proponent of reform according to French models; Algarotti was a major influence on the most important \"reformist\" composer, [Christoph Willibald Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald Gluck\"). Gluck's three Italian reform operas of the 1760s—*[Orfeo ed Euridice](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice \"Orfeo ed Euridice\")*, *[Alceste](/wiki/Alceste_%28Gluck%29 \"Alceste (Gluck)\")*, and *[Paride ed Elena](/wiki/Paride_ed_Elena \"Paride ed Elena\")*—reveal a knowledge of Rameau's works. For instance, both *Orfeo* and the 1737 version of *Castor et Pollux* open with the funeral of one of the leading characters who later comes back to life. Many of the operatic reforms advocated in the preface to Gluck's *Alceste* were already present in Rameau's works. Rameau had used accompanied recitatives, and the overtures in his later operas reflected the action to come, so when Gluck arrived in Paris in 1774 to produce a series of six French operas, he could be seen as continuing in the tradition of Rameau. Nevertheless, while Gluck's popularity survived the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), Rameau's did not. By the end of the 18th century, his operas had vanished from the repertoire.\n\nFor most of the 19th century, Rameau's music remained unplayed, known only by reputation. [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz \"Hector Berlioz\") investigated *Castor et Pollux* and particularly admired the aria \"Tristes apprêts\", but \"whereas the modern listener readily perceives the common ground with Berlioz' music, he himself was more conscious of the gap which separated them.\"[Hugh Macdonald](/wiki/Hugh_Macdonald_%28musicologist%29 \"Hugh Macdonald (musicologist)\") *The Master Musicians: Berlioz* (1982\\) p. 184 French humiliation in the [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") brought about a change in Rameau's fortunes. As Rameau biographer Jean Malignon wrote, \"...the German victory over France in 1870–71 was the grand occasion for digging up great heroes from the French past. Rameau, like so many others, was flung into the enemy's face to bolster our courage and our faith in the national destiny of France.\"Quoted by Graham Sadler in \"Vincent d'Indy and the Rameau *Oeuvres complètes*: a case of forgery?\", *[Early Music](/wiki/Early_Music_%28journal%29 \"Early Music (journal)\")*, August 1993, p. 418 In 1894, composer [Vincent d'Indy](/wiki/Vincent_d%27Indy \"Vincent d'Indy\") founded the [Schola Cantorum](/wiki/Schola_Cantorum \"Schola Cantorum\") to promote French national music; the society put on several revivals of works by Rameau. Among the audience was [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\"), who especially cherished *Castor et Pollux*, revived in 1903: \"[Gluck](/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck \"Christoph Willibald Gluck\")'s genius was deeply rooted in Rameau's works... a detailed comparison allows us to affirm that Gluck could replace Rameau on the French stage only by assimilating the latter's beautiful works and making them his own.\" [Camille Saint\\-Saëns](/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns \"Camille Saint-Saëns\") (by editing and publishing the *Pièces* in 1895\\) and [Paul Dukas](/wiki/Paul_Dukas \"Paul Dukas\") were two other important French musicians who gave practical championship to Rameau's music in their day, but interest in Rameau petered out again, and it was not until the late 20th century that a serious effort was made to revive his works. Over half of Rameau's operas have now been recorded, in particular by conductors such as [John Eliot Gardiner](/wiki/John_Eliot_Gardiner \"John Eliot Gardiner\"), [William Christie](/wiki/William_Christie_%28musician%29 \"William Christie (musician)\"), and [Marc Minkowski](/wiki/Marc_Minkowski \"Marc Minkowski\").\n\nOne of his pieces is commonly heard in the [Victoria Centre](/wiki/Victoria_Centre \"Victoria Centre\") in Nottingham by the [Rowland Emett](/wiki/Rowland_Emett \"Rowland Emett\") timepiece, the [Aqua Horological Tintinnabulator](/wiki/Aqua_Horological_Tintinnabulator \"Aqua Horological Tintinnabulator\"). Emett quoted that Rameau made music for his school and the shopping centre without him knowing it.\n\n",
"Theoretical works\n-----------------\n\n[thumb\\|Title page of the *Treatise on Harmony*](/wiki/File:Rameau_Traite_de_l%E2%80%99harmonie.jpg \"Rameau Traite de l’harmonie.jpg\")\n\n### *Treatise on Harmony*, 1722\n\nRameau's 1722 *[Treatise on Harmony](/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_l%27harmonie_r%C3%A9duite_%C3%A0_ses_principes_naturels \"Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels\")* initiated a revolution in music theory. Rameau posited the discovery of the \"fundamental law\" or what he referred to as the \"fundamental bass\" of all Western music. Heavily influenced by new Cartesian modes of thought and analysis, Rameau's methodology incorporated mathematics, commentary, analysis and a didacticism that was specifically intended to illuminate, scientifically, the structure and principles of music. With careful deductive reasoning, he attempted to derive universal harmonic principles from natural causes. Previous treatises on harmony had been purely practical; Rameau embraced the new philosophical rationalism, quickly rising to prominence in France as the \"[Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") of Music\". His fame subsequently spread throughout all Europe, and his *Treatise* became the definitive authority on music theory, forming the foundation for instruction in western music that persists to this day.\n\n",
"### *Treatise on Harmony*, 1722\n\nRameau's 1722 *[Treatise on Harmony](/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_l%27harmonie_r%C3%A9duite_%C3%A0_ses_principes_naturels \"Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels\")* initiated a revolution in music theory. Rameau posited the discovery of the \"fundamental law\" or what he referred to as the \"fundamental bass\" of all Western music. Heavily influenced by new Cartesian modes of thought and analysis, Rameau's methodology incorporated mathematics, commentary, analysis and a didacticism that was specifically intended to illuminate, scientifically, the structure and principles of music. With careful deductive reasoning, he attempted to derive universal harmonic principles from natural causes. Previous treatises on harmony had been purely practical; Rameau embraced the new philosophical rationalism, quickly rising to prominence in France as the \"[Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") of Music\". His fame subsequently spread throughout all Europe, and his *Treatise* became the definitive authority on music theory, forming the foundation for instruction in western music that persists to this day.\n\n",
"List of works\n-------------\n\nRCT numbering refers to *Rameau Catalogue Thématique* established by Sylvie Bouissou and Denis Herlin.Bouissou,S. and Herlin, D., *Jean\\-Philippe Rameau : Catalogue thématique des œuvres musicales (T. 1, Musique instrumentale. Musique vocale religieuse et profane)*, CNRS Édition et Éditions de la BnF, Paris 2007\n\n### Instrumental works\n\n* *[Pièces de Clavecin](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_Clavecin \"Pièces de Clavecin\")*. Trois livres. *Pieces for harpsichord*, 3 books, published 1706, 1724, 1726/27(?)\n\t+ RCT 1 – *Premier livre de Clavecin* (1706\\)\n\t+ RCT 2 – *Pièces de clavecin* (1724\\) – Suite in E minor\n\t+ RCT 3 – *Pièces de clavecin* (1724\\) – Suite in D major\n\t+ RCT 4 – *Pièces de clavecin* (1724\\) – Menuet in C major\n\t+ RCT 5 – *Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin* (1726/27\\) – Suite in A minor\n\t+ RCT 6 – *Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin* (1726/27\\) – Suite in G\n* *[Pieces de clavecin en concerts](/wiki/Pieces_de_clavecin_en_concerts \"Pieces de clavecin en concerts\")* Five albums of character pieces for harpsichord, violin and viol. (1741\\)\n\t+ RCT 7 – Concert I in C minor\n\t+ RCT 8 – Concert II in G major\n\t+ RCT 9 – Concert III in A major\n\t+ RCT 10 – Concert IV in B\\-flat major\n\t+ RCT 11 – Concert V in D minor\n* RCT 12 – *La Dauphine* for harpsichord. (1747\\)\n* RCT 12bis – *Les petits marteaux* for harpsichord.\n* Several orchestral dance suites extracted from his operas.\n\n### Motets\n\n* RCT 13 – *Deus noster refugium* (c. 1713–1715\\)\n* RCT 14 – *[In convertendo](/wiki/In_convertendo_Dominus_%28Rameau%29 \"In convertendo Dominus (Rameau)\")* (probably before 1720, rev. 1751\\)\n* RCT 15 – *Quam dilecta* (c. 1713–1715\\)\n* RCT 16 – *Laboravi* (published in the *Traité de l'harmonie*, 1722\\)\n\n### Canons\n\n* RCT 17 – *Ah! loin de rire, pleurons* (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) (pub. 1722\\)\n* RCT 18 – *Avec du vin, endormons\\-nous* (2 sopranos, Tenor) (1719\\)\n* RCT 18bis – *L'épouse entre deux draps* (3 sopranos) (formerly attributed to [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\"))\n* RCT 18ter – *Je suis un fou Madame* (3 *voix égales*) (1720\\)\n* RCT 19 – *Mes chers amis, quittez vos rouges bords* (3 sopranos, 3 basses) (pub. 1780\\)\n* RCT 20 – *Réveillez\\-vous, dormeur sans fin* (5 *voix égales*) (pub. 1722\\)\n* RCT 20bis – *Si tu ne prends garde à toi* (2 sopranos, bass) (1720\\)\n\n### Songs\n\n* RCT 21\\.1 – *L'amante préoccupée* or *A l'objet que j'adore* (soprano, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (1763\\)\n* RCT 21\\.2 – *Lucas, pour se gausser de nous* (soprano, bass, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (pub. 1707\\)\n* RCT 21\\.3 – *Non, non, le dieu qui sait aimer* (soprano, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (1763\\)\n* RCT 21\\.4 – *Un Bourbon ouvre sa carrière* or *Un héros ouvre sa carrière* (alto, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (1751, air belonging to [Acante et Céphise](/wiki/Acante_et_C%C3%A9phise \"Acante et Céphise\") but censored before its first performance and never reintroduced in the work).\n\n### Cantatas\n\n* RCT 23 – *Aquilon et Orithie* (between 1715 and 1720\\)All dates from \n* RCT 28 – *Thétis* (same period)\n* RCT 26 – *L'impatience* (same period)\n* RCT 22 – *Les amants trahis* (around 1720\\)\n* RCT 27 – *Orphée* (same period)\n* RCT 24 – *Le berger fidèle* (1728\\)\n* RCT 25 – *Cantate pour le jour de la Saint Louis* (1740\\)\n\n### Operas and stage works\n\n#### *Tragédies en musique*\n\n* RCT 43 – *[Hippolyte et Aricie](/wiki/Hippolyte_et_Aricie \"Hippolyte et Aricie\")* (1733; revised 1742 and 1757\\)\n* RCT 32 – *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737; revised 1754\\)\n* RCT 35 – *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739; revised 1744 and 1760\\)[*Dardanus*, condensed score (1744\\)](https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc37/), [University of North Texas Libraries](/wiki/University_of_North_Texas_Libraries \"University of North Texas Libraries\")\n* RCT 62 – *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756, with new music for Acts II, III \\& V)\n* RCT 31 – *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* or *Abaris* (unperformed; in rehearsal 1763\\)\n\n#### *Opéra\\-ballets*\n\n* RCT 44 – *[Les Indes galantes](/wiki/Les_Indes_galantes \"Les Indes galantes\")* (1735; revised 1736\\)\n* RCT 41 – *[Les fêtes d'Hébé](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_d%27H%C3%A9b%C3%A9 \"Les fêtes d'Hébé\")* or *les Talens Lyriques* (1739\\)\n* RCT 39 – *[Les fêtes de Polymnie](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Polymnie \"Les fêtes de Polymnie\")* (1745\\)\n* RCT 59 – *[Le temple de la gloire](/wiki/Le_temple_de_la_gloire \"Le temple de la gloire\")* (1745; revised 1746\\)\n* RCT 38 – *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* or *Les Dieux d'Egypte* (1747\\)\n* RCT 58 – *[Les surprises de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_surprises_de_l%27Amour \"Les surprises de l'Amour\")* (1748; revised 1757\\)\n\n#### *Pastorales héroïques*\n\n* RCT 60 – *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\)\n* RCT 49 – *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\)\n* RCT 29 – *[Acante et Céphise](/wiki/Acante_et_C%C3%A9phise \"Acante et Céphise\")* or *La sympathie* (1751\\)\n* RCT 34 – *[Daphnis et Eglé](/wiki/Daphnis_et_Egl%C3%A9 \"Daphnis et Eglé\")* (1753\\)\n\n#### *Comédies lyriques*\n\n* RCT 53 – *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")* or *Junon jalouse* (1745\\)[\"Score\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080228133044/http://www.library.unt.edu/music/assets/vrbr/Rameau.pdf), *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")*\n* RCT 51 – *[Les Paladins](/wiki/Les_Paladins \"Les Paladins\")* or *Le Vénitien* (1760\\)\n\n#### *Comédie\\-ballet*\n\n* RCT 54 – *[La princesse de Navarre](/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre \"La princesse de Navarre\")* (1744\\)\n\n#### *Actes de ballet*\n\n* RCT 33 – *Les courses de Tempé* (1734\\)\n* RCT 40 – *[Les fêtes de Ramire](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Ramire \"Les fêtes de Ramire\")* (1745\\)\n* RCT 52 – *[Pigmalion](/wiki/Pigmalion_%28opera%29 \"Pigmalion (opera)\")* (1748\\)\n* RCT 42 – *[La guirlande](/wiki/La_guirlande \"La guirlande\")* or *Les fleurs enchantées* (1751\\)\n* RCT 57 – *[Les sibarites](/wiki/Les_sibarites \"Les sibarites\")* or *Sibaris* (1753\\)\n* RCT 48 – *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* or *La Fête Pamilie* (1754\\)\n* RCT 30 – *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (1754\\)\n* RCT 58 – *Anacréon* (completely different work from the above, 1757, 3rd *Entrée* of *[Les surprises de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_surprises_de_l%27Amour \"Les surprises de l'Amour\")*)\n* RCT 61 – *[Zéphire](/wiki/Z%C3%A9phire \"Zéphire\")* (date unknown)\n* RCT 50 – *[Nélée et Myrthis](/wiki/N%C3%A9l%C3%A9e_et_Myrthis \"Nélée et Myrthis\")* (date unknown)\n* RCT 45 – *[Io](/wiki/Io_%28opera%29 \"Io (opera)\")* (unfinished, date unknown)\n\n#### Lost works\n\n* RCT 56 – *[Samson](/wiki/Samson_%28opera%29 \"Samson (opera)\")* (*tragédie en musique*) (first version written 1733–1734; second version 1736; neither were ever staged )\n* RCT 46 – *[Linus](/wiki/Linus_%28opera%29 \"Linus (opera)\")* (*tragédie en musique*) (1751, score stolen after a rehearsal)\n* RCT 47 – *[Lisis et Délie](/wiki/Lisis_et_D%C3%A9lie \"Lisis et Délie\")* (*pastorale*) (scheduled on November 6, 1753\\)\n\n#### Incidental music for *opéras comiques*\n\nMusic mostly lost.\n\n* RCT 36 – *L'endriague* (in 3 acts, 1723\\)\n* RCT 37 – *L'enrôlement d'Arlequin* (in 1 act, 1726\\)\n* RCT 55 – *La robe de dissension* or *Le faux prodige* (in 2 acts, 1726\\)\n* RCT 55bis – *La rose* or *Les jardins de l'Hymen* (in a prologue and 1 act, 1744\\)\n\n### Writings\n\n* *[Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels](/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_l%27harmonie_r%C3%A9duite_%C3%A0_ses_principes_naturels \"Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels\")* (Paris, 1722\\)\n* *[Nouveau système de musique théorique](/wiki/New_System_of_Musical_Theory \"New System of Musical Theory\")* (Paris, 1726\\)\n* *Dissertation sur les différents méthodes d'accompagnement pour le clavecin, ou pour l'orgue* (Paris, 1732\\)\n* *Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique théorique et pratique* (Paris, 1737\\)\n* *Mémoire où l'on expose les fondemens du Système de musique théorique et pratique de M. Rameau* (1749\\)\n* *Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie* (Paris, 1750\\)\n* *Nouvelles réflexions de M. Rameau sur sa 'Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie **(Paris, 1752\\)\n *Observations sur notre instinct pour la musique* (Paris, 1754\\)\n *Erreurs sur la musique dans l'Encyclopédie* (Paris, 1755\\)\n *Suite des erreurs sur la musique dans l'Encyclopédie* (Paris, 1756\\)\n *Reponse de M. Rameau à MM. les editeurs de l'Encyclopédie sur leur dernier Avertissement* (Paris, 1757\\)\n *Nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore* (1758–59\\)\n *Code de musique pratique, ou Méthodes pour apprendre la musique...avec des nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore* (Paris, 1760\\)\n *Lettre à M. Alembert sur ses opinions en musique* (Paris, 1760\\)\n *Origine des sciences, suivie d'un controverse sur le même sujet* (Paris, 1762\\)\n***\n\nReferences\n----------\n\nNotes****Sources**\n \n \n \n **Further reading\n---------------\n\n Gibbons, William. *Building the Operatic Museum: Eighteenth\\-Century Opera in Fin\\-de\\-siècle Paris* (University of Rochester Press, 2013\\)\n Trowbridge, Simon, *Rameau* (2nd edition, Englance Press, 2017\\)\nExternal links\n--------------\n\n \n (en) [Gavotte with Doubles](https://web.archive.org/web/20070520044256/http://bach.nau.edu/Rameau/GavotteDoubles.html) Hypermedia by Jeff Hall \\& Tim Smith at the [BinAural Collaborative Hypertext](http://bach.nau.edu/) – Shockwave Player required – (\"Gavotte with Doubles\" link NG)\n (en) [jp.rameau.free.fr](http://jp.rameau.free.fr/jpr-map.htm) Rameau – Le Site\n (fr) [musicologie.org](http://www.musicologie.org/Biographies/rameau_jp.html) Biography, List of Works, bibliography, discography, theoretical writings, in French\n (en) [Jean\\-Philippe Rameau / Discography](https://web.archive.org/web/20070219142256/http://www.discographie-rameau.com/)\n[Magnatune](https://web.archive.org/web/20060325022320/http://magnatune.com/artists/albums/pinnock-rameau/) Les Cyclopes by Rameau in on\\-line mp3 format (played by [Trevor Pinnock](/wiki/Trevor_Pinnock \"Trevor Pinnock\"))\n [Jean\\-Philippe Rameau, \"L'Orchestre de Louis XV\" – Suites d'Orchestre, Le Concert des Nations](http://www.classicalacarte.net/Fiches/9882.htm), dir. Jordi Savall, Alia Vox, AVSA 9882\nSheet music'\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + \n* [Rameau](http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=RameauJP) free sheet music from the [Mutopia Project](/wiki/Mutopia_Project \"Mutopia Project\")\n\n[Category:1683 births](/wiki/Category:1683_births \"1683 births\")\n[Category:1764 deaths](/wiki/Category:1764_deaths \"1764 deaths\")\n[Category:18th\\-century classical composers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_classical_composers \"18th-century classical composers\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French composers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_composers \"18th-century French composers\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French male musicians](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_male_musicians \"18th-century French male musicians\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French writers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_writers \"18th-century French writers\")\n[Category:Composers awarded knighthoods](/wiki/Category:Composers_awarded_knighthoods \"Composers awarded knighthoods\")\n[Category:Composers for harpsichord](/wiki/Category:Composers_for_harpsichord \"Composers for harpsichord\")\n[Category:French Baroque composers](/wiki/Category:French_Baroque_composers \"French Baroque composers\")\n[Category:French ballet composers](/wiki/Category:French_ballet_composers \"French ballet composers\")\n[Category:French opera composers](/wiki/Category:French_opera_composers \"French opera composers\")\n[Category:French male non\\-fiction writers](/wiki/Category:French_male_non-fiction_writers \"French male non-fiction writers\")\n[Category:French music theorists](/wiki/Category:French_music_theorists \"French music theorists\")\n[Category:French male opera composers](/wiki/Category:French_male_opera_composers \"French male opera composers\")\n[Category:Musicians from Dijon](/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_Dijon \"Musicians from Dijon\")\n[Category:Burials at Saint\\-Eustache, Paris](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Saint-Eustache%2C_Paris \"Burials at Saint-Eustache, Paris\")\n[Category:17th\\-century male musicians](/wiki/Category:17th-century_male_musicians \"17th-century male musicians\")\n\n",
"### Instrumental works\n\n* *[Pièces de Clavecin](/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ces_de_Clavecin \"Pièces de Clavecin\")*. Trois livres. *Pieces for harpsichord*, 3 books, published 1706, 1724, 1726/27(?)\n\t+ RCT 1 – *Premier livre de Clavecin* (1706\\)\n\t+ RCT 2 – *Pièces de clavecin* (1724\\) – Suite in E minor\n\t+ RCT 3 – *Pièces de clavecin* (1724\\) – Suite in D major\n\t+ RCT 4 – *Pièces de clavecin* (1724\\) – Menuet in C major\n\t+ RCT 5 – *Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin* (1726/27\\) – Suite in A minor\n\t+ RCT 6 – *Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin* (1726/27\\) – Suite in G\n* *[Pieces de clavecin en concerts](/wiki/Pieces_de_clavecin_en_concerts \"Pieces de clavecin en concerts\")* Five albums of character pieces for harpsichord, violin and viol. (1741\\)\n\t+ RCT 7 – Concert I in C minor\n\t+ RCT 8 – Concert II in G major\n\t+ RCT 9 – Concert III in A major\n\t+ RCT 10 – Concert IV in B\\-flat major\n\t+ RCT 11 – Concert V in D minor\n* RCT 12 – *La Dauphine* for harpsichord. (1747\\)\n* RCT 12bis – *Les petits marteaux* for harpsichord.\n* Several orchestral dance suites extracted from his operas.\n\n",
"### Motets\n\n* RCT 13 – *Deus noster refugium* (c. 1713–1715\\)\n* RCT 14 – *[In convertendo](/wiki/In_convertendo_Dominus_%28Rameau%29 \"In convertendo Dominus (Rameau)\")* (probably before 1720, rev. 1751\\)\n* RCT 15 – *Quam dilecta* (c. 1713–1715\\)\n* RCT 16 – *Laboravi* (published in the *Traité de l'harmonie*, 1722\\)\n\n",
"### Canons\n\n* RCT 17 – *Ah! loin de rire, pleurons* (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) (pub. 1722\\)\n* RCT 18 – *Avec du vin, endormons\\-nous* (2 sopranos, Tenor) (1719\\)\n* RCT 18bis – *L'épouse entre deux draps* (3 sopranos) (formerly attributed to [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\"))\n* RCT 18ter – *Je suis un fou Madame* (3 *voix égales*) (1720\\)\n* RCT 19 – *Mes chers amis, quittez vos rouges bords* (3 sopranos, 3 basses) (pub. 1780\\)\n* RCT 20 – *Réveillez\\-vous, dormeur sans fin* (5 *voix égales*) (pub. 1722\\)\n* RCT 20bis – *Si tu ne prends garde à toi* (2 sopranos, bass) (1720\\)\n\n",
"### Songs\n\n* RCT 21\\.1 – *L'amante préoccupée* or *A l'objet que j'adore* (soprano, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (1763\\)\n* RCT 21\\.2 – *Lucas, pour se gausser de nous* (soprano, bass, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (pub. 1707\\)\n* RCT 21\\.3 – *Non, non, le dieu qui sait aimer* (soprano, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (1763\\)\n* RCT 21\\.4 – *Un Bourbon ouvre sa carrière* or *Un héros ouvre sa carrière* (alto, [continuo](/wiki/Figured_bass \"Figured bass\")) (1751, air belonging to [Acante et Céphise](/wiki/Acante_et_C%C3%A9phise \"Acante et Céphise\") but censored before its first performance and never reintroduced in the work).\n\n",
"### Cantatas\n\n* RCT 23 – *Aquilon et Orithie* (between 1715 and 1720\\)All dates from \n* RCT 28 – *Thétis* (same period)\n* RCT 26 – *L'impatience* (same period)\n* RCT 22 – *Les amants trahis* (around 1720\\)\n* RCT 27 – *Orphée* (same period)\n* RCT 24 – *Le berger fidèle* (1728\\)\n* RCT 25 – *Cantate pour le jour de la Saint Louis* (1740\\)\n\n",
"### Operas and stage works\n\n#### *Tragédies en musique*\n\n* RCT 43 – *[Hippolyte et Aricie](/wiki/Hippolyte_et_Aricie \"Hippolyte et Aricie\")* (1733; revised 1742 and 1757\\)\n* RCT 32 – *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737; revised 1754\\)\n* RCT 35 – *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739; revised 1744 and 1760\\)[*Dardanus*, condensed score (1744\\)](https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc37/), [University of North Texas Libraries](/wiki/University_of_North_Texas_Libraries \"University of North Texas Libraries\")\n* RCT 62 – *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756, with new music for Acts II, III \\& V)\n* RCT 31 – *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* or *Abaris* (unperformed; in rehearsal 1763\\)\n\n#### *Opéra\\-ballets*\n\n* RCT 44 – *[Les Indes galantes](/wiki/Les_Indes_galantes \"Les Indes galantes\")* (1735; revised 1736\\)\n* RCT 41 – *[Les fêtes d'Hébé](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_d%27H%C3%A9b%C3%A9 \"Les fêtes d'Hébé\")* or *les Talens Lyriques* (1739\\)\n* RCT 39 – *[Les fêtes de Polymnie](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Polymnie \"Les fêtes de Polymnie\")* (1745\\)\n* RCT 59 – *[Le temple de la gloire](/wiki/Le_temple_de_la_gloire \"Le temple de la gloire\")* (1745; revised 1746\\)\n* RCT 38 – *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* or *Les Dieux d'Egypte* (1747\\)\n* RCT 58 – *[Les surprises de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_surprises_de_l%27Amour \"Les surprises de l'Amour\")* (1748; revised 1757\\)\n\n#### *Pastorales héroïques*\n\n* RCT 60 – *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\)\n* RCT 49 – *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\)\n* RCT 29 – *[Acante et Céphise](/wiki/Acante_et_C%C3%A9phise \"Acante et Céphise\")* or *La sympathie* (1751\\)\n* RCT 34 – *[Daphnis et Eglé](/wiki/Daphnis_et_Egl%C3%A9 \"Daphnis et Eglé\")* (1753\\)\n\n#### *Comédies lyriques*\n\n* RCT 53 – *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")* or *Junon jalouse* (1745\\)[\"Score\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080228133044/http://www.library.unt.edu/music/assets/vrbr/Rameau.pdf), *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")*\n* RCT 51 – *[Les Paladins](/wiki/Les_Paladins \"Les Paladins\")* or *Le Vénitien* (1760\\)\n\n#### *Comédie\\-ballet*\n\n* RCT 54 – *[La princesse de Navarre](/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre \"La princesse de Navarre\")* (1744\\)\n\n#### *Actes de ballet*\n\n* RCT 33 – *Les courses de Tempé* (1734\\)\n* RCT 40 – *[Les fêtes de Ramire](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Ramire \"Les fêtes de Ramire\")* (1745\\)\n* RCT 52 – *[Pigmalion](/wiki/Pigmalion_%28opera%29 \"Pigmalion (opera)\")* (1748\\)\n* RCT 42 – *[La guirlande](/wiki/La_guirlande \"La guirlande\")* or *Les fleurs enchantées* (1751\\)\n* RCT 57 – *[Les sibarites](/wiki/Les_sibarites \"Les sibarites\")* or *Sibaris* (1753\\)\n* RCT 48 – *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* or *La Fête Pamilie* (1754\\)\n* RCT 30 – *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (1754\\)\n* RCT 58 – *Anacréon* (completely different work from the above, 1757, 3rd *Entrée* of *[Les surprises de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_surprises_de_l%27Amour \"Les surprises de l'Amour\")*)\n* RCT 61 – *[Zéphire](/wiki/Z%C3%A9phire \"Zéphire\")* (date unknown)\n* RCT 50 – *[Nélée et Myrthis](/wiki/N%C3%A9l%C3%A9e_et_Myrthis \"Nélée et Myrthis\")* (date unknown)\n* RCT 45 – *[Io](/wiki/Io_%28opera%29 \"Io (opera)\")* (unfinished, date unknown)\n\n#### Lost works\n\n* RCT 56 – *[Samson](/wiki/Samson_%28opera%29 \"Samson (opera)\")* (*tragédie en musique*) (first version written 1733–1734; second version 1736; neither were ever staged )\n* RCT 46 – *[Linus](/wiki/Linus_%28opera%29 \"Linus (opera)\")* (*tragédie en musique*) (1751, score stolen after a rehearsal)\n* RCT 47 – *[Lisis et Délie](/wiki/Lisis_et_D%C3%A9lie \"Lisis et Délie\")* (*pastorale*) (scheduled on November 6, 1753\\)\n\n#### Incidental music for *opéras comiques*\n\nMusic mostly lost.\n\n* RCT 36 – *L'endriague* (in 3 acts, 1723\\)\n* RCT 37 – *L'enrôlement d'Arlequin* (in 1 act, 1726\\)\n* RCT 55 – *La robe de dissension* or *Le faux prodige* (in 2 acts, 1726\\)\n* RCT 55bis – *La rose* or *Les jardins de l'Hymen* (in a prologue and 1 act, 1744\\)\n\n",
"#### *Tragédies en musique*\n\n* RCT 43 – *[Hippolyte et Aricie](/wiki/Hippolyte_et_Aricie \"Hippolyte et Aricie\")* (1733; revised 1742 and 1757\\)\n* RCT 32 – *[Castor et Pollux](/wiki/Castor_et_Pollux \"Castor et Pollux\")* (1737; revised 1754\\)\n* RCT 35 – *[Dardanus](/wiki/Dardanus_%28Rameau%29 \"Dardanus (Rameau)\")* (1739; revised 1744 and 1760\\)[*Dardanus*, condensed score (1744\\)](https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc37/), [University of North Texas Libraries](/wiki/University_of_North_Texas_Libraries \"University of North Texas Libraries\")\n* RCT 62 – *[Zoroastre](/wiki/Zoroastre \"Zoroastre\")* (1749; revised 1756, with new music for Acts II, III \\& V)\n* RCT 31 – *[Les Boréades](/wiki/Les_Bor%C3%A9ades \"Les Boréades\")* or *Abaris* (unperformed; in rehearsal 1763\\)\n\n",
"#### *Opéra\\-ballets*\n\n* RCT 44 – *[Les Indes galantes](/wiki/Les_Indes_galantes \"Les Indes galantes\")* (1735; revised 1736\\)\n* RCT 41 – *[Les fêtes d'Hébé](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_d%27H%C3%A9b%C3%A9 \"Les fêtes d'Hébé\")* or *les Talens Lyriques* (1739\\)\n* RCT 39 – *[Les fêtes de Polymnie](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Polymnie \"Les fêtes de Polymnie\")* (1745\\)\n* RCT 59 – *[Le temple de la gloire](/wiki/Le_temple_de_la_gloire \"Le temple de la gloire\")* (1745; revised 1746\\)\n* RCT 38 – *[Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_l%27Hymen_et_de_l%27Amour \"Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour\")* or *Les Dieux d'Egypte* (1747\\)\n* RCT 58 – *[Les surprises de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_surprises_de_l%27Amour \"Les surprises de l'Amour\")* (1748; revised 1757\\)\n\n",
"#### *Pastorales héroïques*\n\n* RCT 60 – *[Zaïs](/wiki/Za%C3%AFs \"Zaïs\")* (1748\\)\n* RCT 49 – *[Naïs](/wiki/Na%C3%AFs \"Naïs\")* (1749\\)\n* RCT 29 – *[Acante et Céphise](/wiki/Acante_et_C%C3%A9phise \"Acante et Céphise\")* or *La sympathie* (1751\\)\n* RCT 34 – *[Daphnis et Eglé](/wiki/Daphnis_et_Egl%C3%A9 \"Daphnis et Eglé\")* (1753\\)\n\n",
"#### *Comédies lyriques*\n\n* RCT 53 – *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")* or *Junon jalouse* (1745\\)[\"Score\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080228133044/http://www.library.unt.edu/music/assets/vrbr/Rameau.pdf), *[Platée](/wiki/Plat%C3%A9e \"Platée\")*\n* RCT 51 – *[Les Paladins](/wiki/Les_Paladins \"Les Paladins\")* or *Le Vénitien* (1760\\)\n\n",
"#### *Comédie\\-ballet*\n\n* RCT 54 – *[La princesse de Navarre](/wiki/La_princesse_de_Navarre \"La princesse de Navarre\")* (1744\\)\n\n",
"#### *Actes de ballet*\n\n* RCT 33 – *Les courses de Tempé* (1734\\)\n* RCT 40 – *[Les fêtes de Ramire](/wiki/Les_f%C3%AAtes_de_Ramire \"Les fêtes de Ramire\")* (1745\\)\n* RCT 52 – *[Pigmalion](/wiki/Pigmalion_%28opera%29 \"Pigmalion (opera)\")* (1748\\)\n* RCT 42 – *[La guirlande](/wiki/La_guirlande \"La guirlande\")* or *Les fleurs enchantées* (1751\\)\n* RCT 57 – *[Les sibarites](/wiki/Les_sibarites \"Les sibarites\")* or *Sibaris* (1753\\)\n* RCT 48 – *[La naissance d'Osiris](/wiki/La_naissance_d%27Osiris \"La naissance d'Osiris\")* or *La Fête Pamilie* (1754\\)\n* RCT 30 – *[Anacréon](/wiki/Anacr%C3%A9on_%281754%29 \"Anacréon (1754)\")* (1754\\)\n* RCT 58 – *Anacréon* (completely different work from the above, 1757, 3rd *Entrée* of *[Les surprises de l'Amour](/wiki/Les_surprises_de_l%27Amour \"Les surprises de l'Amour\")*)\n* RCT 61 – *[Zéphire](/wiki/Z%C3%A9phire \"Zéphire\")* (date unknown)\n* RCT 50 – *[Nélée et Myrthis](/wiki/N%C3%A9l%C3%A9e_et_Myrthis \"Nélée et Myrthis\")* (date unknown)\n* RCT 45 – *[Io](/wiki/Io_%28opera%29 \"Io (opera)\")* (unfinished, date unknown)\n\n",
"#### Lost works\n\n* RCT 56 – *[Samson](/wiki/Samson_%28opera%29 \"Samson (opera)\")* (*tragédie en musique*) (first version written 1733–1734; second version 1736; neither were ever staged )\n* RCT 46 – *[Linus](/wiki/Linus_%28opera%29 \"Linus (opera)\")* (*tragédie en musique*) (1751, score stolen after a rehearsal)\n* RCT 47 – *[Lisis et Délie](/wiki/Lisis_et_D%C3%A9lie \"Lisis et Délie\")* (*pastorale*) (scheduled on November 6, 1753\\)\n\n",
"#### Incidental music for *opéras comiques*\n\nMusic mostly lost.\n\n* RCT 36 – *L'endriague* (in 3 acts, 1723\\)\n* RCT 37 – *L'enrôlement d'Arlequin* (in 1 act, 1726\\)\n* RCT 55 – *La robe de dissension* or *Le faux prodige* (in 2 acts, 1726\\)\n* RCT 55bis – *La rose* or *Les jardins de l'Hymen* (in a prologue and 1 act, 1744\\)\n\n",
"### Writings\n\n* *[Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels](/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_l%27harmonie_r%C3%A9duite_%C3%A0_ses_principes_naturels \"Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels\")* (Paris, 1722\\)\n* *[Nouveau système de musique théorique](/wiki/New_System_of_Musical_Theory \"New System of Musical Theory\")* (Paris, 1726\\)\n* *Dissertation sur les différents méthodes d'accompagnement pour le clavecin, ou pour l'orgue* (Paris, 1732\\)\n* *Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique théorique et pratique* (Paris, 1737\\)\n* *Mémoire où l'on expose les fondemens du Système de musique théorique et pratique de M. Rameau* (1749\\)\n* *Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie* (Paris, 1750\\)\n* *Nouvelles réflexions de M. Rameau sur sa 'Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie **(Paris, 1752\\)\n *Observations sur notre instinct pour la musique* (Paris, 1754\\)\n *Erreurs sur la musique dans l'Encyclopédie* (Paris, 1755\\)\n *Suite des erreurs sur la musique dans l'Encyclopédie* (Paris, 1756\\)\n *Reponse de M. Rameau à MM. les editeurs de l'Encyclopédie sur leur dernier Avertissement* (Paris, 1757\\)\n *Nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore* (1758–59\\)\n *Code de musique pratique, ou Méthodes pour apprendre la musique...avec des nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore* (Paris, 1760\\)\n *Lettre à M. Alembert sur ses opinions en musique* (Paris, 1760\\)\n *Origine des sciences, suivie d'un controverse sur le même sujet* (Paris, 1762\\)\n***\n\nReferences\n----------\n\nNotes****Sources**\n \n \n \n **Further reading\n---------------\n\n Gibbons, William. *Building the Operatic Museum: Eighteenth\\-Century Opera in Fin\\-de\\-siècle Paris* (University of Rochester Press, 2013\\)\n Trowbridge, Simon, *Rameau* (2nd edition, Englance Press, 2017\\)\nExternal links\n--------------\n\n \n (en) [Gavotte with Doubles](https://web.archive.org/web/20070520044256/http://bach.nau.edu/Rameau/GavotteDoubles.html) Hypermedia by Jeff Hall \\& Tim Smith at the [BinAural Collaborative Hypertext](http://bach.nau.edu/) – Shockwave Player required – (\"Gavotte with Doubles\" link NG)\n (en) [jp.rameau.free.fr](http://jp.rameau.free.fr/jpr-map.htm) Rameau – Le Site\n (fr) [musicologie.org](http://www.musicologie.org/Biographies/rameau_jp.html) Biography, List of Works, bibliography, discography, theoretical writings, in French\n (en) [Jean\\-Philippe Rameau / Discography](https://web.archive.org/web/20070219142256/http://www.discographie-rameau.com/)\n[Magnatune](https://web.archive.org/web/20060325022320/http://magnatune.com/artists/albums/pinnock-rameau/) Les Cyclopes by Rameau in on\\-line mp3 format (played by [Trevor Pinnock](/wiki/Trevor_Pinnock \"Trevor Pinnock\"))\n [Jean\\-Philippe Rameau, \"L'Orchestre de Louis XV\" – Suites d'Orchestre, Le Concert des Nations](http://www.classicalacarte.net/Fiches/9882.htm), dir. Jordi Savall, Alia Vox, AVSA 9882\nSheet music'\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + \n* [Rameau](http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=RameauJP) free sheet music from the [Mutopia Project](/wiki/Mutopia_Project \"Mutopia Project\")\n\n[Category:1683 births](/wiki/Category:1683_births \"1683 births\")\n[Category:1764 deaths](/wiki/Category:1764_deaths \"1764 deaths\")\n[Category:18th\\-century classical composers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_classical_composers \"18th-century classical composers\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French composers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_composers \"18th-century French composers\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French male musicians](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_male_musicians \"18th-century French male musicians\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French writers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_writers \"18th-century French writers\")\n[Category:Composers awarded knighthoods](/wiki/Category:Composers_awarded_knighthoods \"Composers awarded knighthoods\")\n[Category:Composers for harpsichord](/wiki/Category:Composers_for_harpsichord \"Composers for harpsichord\")\n[Category:French Baroque composers](/wiki/Category:French_Baroque_composers \"French Baroque composers\")\n[Category:French ballet composers](/wiki/Category:French_ballet_composers \"French ballet composers\")\n[Category:French opera composers](/wiki/Category:French_opera_composers \"French opera composers\")\n[Category:French male non\\-fiction writers](/wiki/Category:French_male_non-fiction_writers \"French male non-fiction writers\")\n[Category:French music theorists](/wiki/Category:French_music_theorists \"French music theorists\")\n[Category:French male opera composers](/wiki/Category:French_male_opera_composers \"French male opera composers\")\n[Category:Musicians from Dijon](/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_Dijon \"Musicians from Dijon\")\n[Category:Burials at Saint\\-Eustache, Paris](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Saint-Eustache%2C_Paris \"Burials at Saint-Eustache, Paris\")\n[Category:17th\\-century male musicians](/wiki/Category:17th-century_male_musicians \"17th-century male musicians\")\n\n"
]
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Joyce Grenfell
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2024-05-15T11:57:04Z
| 1,219,948,136 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Life and career",
"Early years",
"Early career",
"Post-war work",
"Last years and legacy",
"Stage performances",
"Film performances",
"Publications",
"Notes, references and sources",
"Notes",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
],
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"content": [
"\n\n**Joyce Irene Grenfell** [OBE](/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Order of the British Empire\") (*née* **Phipps**; 10 February 1910 – 30 November 1979\\) was an English [diseuse](/wiki/Diseuse \"Diseuse\"), singer, actress and writer. She was known for the songs and monologues she wrote and performed, at first in [revues](/wiki/Revue \"Revue\") and later in her solo shows. She never appeared as a stage actress, but had roles, mostly comic, in many films, including Miss Gossage in *[The Happiest Days of Your Life](/wiki/The_Happiest_Days_of_Your_Life_%28film%29 \"The Happiest Days of Your Life (film)\")* (1950\\) and Police Sergeant Ruby Gates in the [St Trinian's](/wiki/St_Trinian%27s \"St Trinian's\") series (from 1954\\). She was a well\\-known broadcaster on radio and television. As a writer, she was the first radio critic for *[The Observer](/wiki/The_Observer \"The Observer\")*, contributed to *[Punch](/wiki/Punch_%28magazine%29 \"Punch (magazine)\")* and published two volumes of memoirs.\n\nBorn to an affluent Anglo\\-American family, Grenfell had abandoned early hopes of becoming an actress when she was invited to perform a comic monologue in a [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") revue in 1939\\. Its success led to a career as an entertainer, giving her creations in theatres in five continents between 1940 and 1969\\.\n\n",
"Life and career\n---------------\n\n### Early years\n\nBorn in [Montpelier Square](/wiki/Montpelier_Square \"Montpelier Square\"), [Knightsbridge](/wiki/Knightsbridge \"Knightsbridge\"), London, Grenfell was the daughter of an American socialite, Nora Langhorne (1889–1955\\), one of five daughters of [Chiswell Langhorne](/wiki/Chiswell_Langhorne \"Chiswell Langhorne\"), an American railway millionaire, and of the architect Paul Phipps (1880–1953\\), the grandson of [Charles Paul Phipps](/wiki/Charles_Paul_Phipps \"Charles Paul Phipps\") and a second cousin of the [diseuse](/wiki/Diseuse \"Diseuse\") [Ruth Draper](/wiki/Ruth_Draper \"Ruth Draper\"), in whose professional footsteps she followed. The Phipps family were wealthy clothiers, whose success allowed them to join the gentry of their native Wiltshire.*A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland*, vol. IV, 1838, pp. 509–510, \"Phipps of Leighton House\" pedigree [Nancy Astor](/wiki/Nancy_Astor \"Nancy Astor\") was one of her maternal aunts; Grenfell often visited her at the Astors’ home of [Cliveden](/wiki/Cliveden \"Cliveden\")*National Trust Magazine,* Spring 2010, p. 11 and lived in a cottage on the estate, a mile from the main house, in the early years of her marriage.Hampton (2002\\), p. 59\n\nJoyce Phipps had an upper middle\\-class London childhood. Among her friends was [Virginia Graham](/wiki/Virginia_Graham_%28English_writer%29 \"Virginia Graham (English writer)\"), with whom she kept up a lifelong correspondence,*Joyce \\& Ginnie: the letters of Joyce Grenfell and Virginia Graham*, edited by Janie Hampton, 1997 and who wrote Grenfell's biography in the *[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography](/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography \"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\")*.Graham, Virginia [Grenfell (née Phipps), Joyce Irene (1910–1979\\)](https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/31172), *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press 2004\\. Retrieved 22 September 2021 Grenfell attended the [Francis Holland School](/wiki/Francis_Holland_School \"Francis Holland School\") in central London, and the [Claremont Fan Court School](/wiki/Claremont_Fan_Court_School \"Claremont Fan Court School\"), in [Esher, Surrey](/wiki/Esher%2C_Surrey \"Esher, Surrey\"). She then went to a [finishing school](/wiki/Finishing_school \"Finishing school\") in Paris at the age of 17\\.Hampton (2002\\), p. 37 After this she enrolled at the [Royal Academy of Dramatic Art](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Dramatic_Art \"Royal Academy of Dramatic Art\") in London, but found the hard work of learning the craft of acting less glamorous than she had imagined and left after a single term.Hampton (2002\\), p. 39 She supposed at the time that this \"was the finish of my dreams of becoming an actress\". In May 1928 she was presented as a [débutante](/wiki/Debutante%23United_Kingdom \"Debutante#United Kingdom\") at [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace \"Buckingham Palace\").Hampton (2002\\), p. 40\n\nIn 1927 she had met Reginald Pascoe Grenfell (1903–1993\\), a mining executive and later a lieutenant colonel in the [King's Royal Rifle Corps](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps \"King's Royal Rifle Corps\"). They were married two years later at [St Margaret's, Westminster](/wiki/St_Margaret%27s%2C_Westminster \"St Margaret's, Westminster\"), and remained together until her death nearly 50 years later. They were a devoted couple: Reggie Grenfell looked after his wife's financial and business affairs, and his encouragement gave her strong support. After she became a celebrity she unobtrusively made sure that he was never seen as a mere adjunct to her.Lyttelton and Hart\\-Davis, p. 80 They were unable to have children of their own.[Obituary: Reginald Grenfell](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-reginald-grenfell-1452966.html), *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")*, 3 April 1993\n\n### Early career\n\nIn the late 1930s Grenfell contributed verses to *[Punch](/wiki/Punch_%28magazine%29 \"Punch (magazine)\")* and helped to entertain her aunt's guests at Cliveden. After one lunch, [J. L. Garvin](/wiki/James_Louis_Garvin \"James Louis Garvin\"), the editor of *[The Observer](/wiki/The_Observer \"The Observer\")*, engaged her as the paper's first radio critic.Hampton (2003\\), p. 95 At an informal supper given by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") producer [Stephen Potter](/wiki/Stephen_Potter \"Stephen Potter\") in January 1939, she agreed to his request to entertain her fellow guests with a monologue of her own devising. This was \"Useful and Acceptable Gifts\", in which she played a gauche lecturer at a meeting of the [Women's Institute](/wiki/Women%27s_Institute \"Women's Institute\").Hampton (2002\\), p. xi The impresario [Herbert Farjeon](/wiki/Herbert_Farjeon \"Herbert Farjeon\") was among the guests and he invited her to perform the piece in his forthcoming [revue](/wiki/Revue \"Revue\") at the [Little Theatre](/wiki/Little_Theatre_in_the_Adelphi \"Little Theatre in the Adelphi\"), London. She was an immediate success, winning glowing notices. *[The Stage](/wiki/The_Stage \"The Stage\")* judged her \"outstanding ... this clever diseuse successfully catches the naif manner of an amateur speaker lecturing on 'useful and acceptable gifts', and gives us a neat and satirical impersonation of an American mother listening to her small daughter reciting Shelley's 'Ode to a Skylark'\".\"The Little\", *The Stage*, 27 April 1939, p. 10 *[The Tatler](/wiki/Tatler \"Tatler\")* found her two monologues \"quite the best items in the programme\".\"Bubble and Squeak\", \"The Tatler\", 10 May 1939, p. 270 *[The Sketch](/wiki/The_Sketch \"The Sketch\")* devoted a full page to photographs of her in her different characters.Amateur Imitator in The Little Revue – Miss Joyce Grenfell\", *The Sketch*, 31 May 1939, p. 445 *[The Bystander](/wiki/Bystander_%28magazine%29 \"Bystander (magazine)\")* thought that Grenfell challenged the celebrated Ruth Draper \"on her own pitch ... carry\\[ing] off the acting honours of this gay and intelligent entertainment.\"\"The Theatre\", *The Bystander*, 10 May 1939, p. 213\n\nDuring the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") Grenfell wrote for and appeared in three more [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") revues: *Diversion* and *Diversion No. 2* at [Wyndham's Theatre](/wiki/Wyndham%27s_Theatre \"Wyndham's Theatre\") in 1940 and 1941, and *Light and Shade* at the [Ambassadors](/wiki/Ambassadors_Theatre_%28London%29 \"Ambassadors Theatre (London)\") in 1942\\.Herbert, pp. 863–864 In early 1942 she met the composer [Richard Addinsell](/wiki/Richard_Addinsell \"Richard Addinsell\"). Together they wrote many successful songs including \"I'm Going to See You Today\" and \"Turn Back the Clock\", which, in the words of the biographer Janie Hampton, \"aptly caught the public mood\".\n\nIn 1941 Grenfell appeared in her first film role, as the American mother in [Carol Reed](/wiki/Carol_Reed \"Carol Reed\")'s short documentary *[A Letter from Home](/wiki/A_Letter_from_Home_%28film%29 \"A Letter from Home (film)\")*. She made three more films during the war.[\"Joyce Grenfell\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180408022336/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f476194), British Film Institute. Retrieved 22 September 2021 For BBC radio, together with Potter, she wrote and starred in an occasional radio series called *How to …*, which ran intermittently from 1943 until 1962 offering humorous advice on how (and how not) to do things. In 1943 she made her only attempt at acting in a stage play: she resigned from the cast of a West End production of the American comedy *[Junior Miss](/wiki/Junior_Miss \"Junior Miss\")* after the first three days of rehearsal,Grenfell (1976\\), p. 235 finding that onstage she could only perform looking straight at an audience, and could not \"act sideways\",Hampton (2003\\), p. 96 although she found some film acting roles \"fun to do\".Grenfell (1976\\), p. 245\n\nIn the later years of the war Grenfell toured in the UK for [ENSA](/wiki/ENSA \"ENSA\"), sometimes with Addinsell accompanying her at the piano.Hampton (2002\\), pp. 182–183 In late 1943 the head of ENSA, [Basil Dean](/wiki/Basil_Dean \"Basil Dean\"), invited the two to tour troop camps and hospitals in North Africa, the Middle East and elsewhere. Addinsell's health was too fragile to permit him to accept, and Grenfell recruited Viola Tunnard, later better known as a close colleague of [Benjamin Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\").Hampton (2002\\), pp. 191–192; and \"Viola Tunnard\", *The Times*, 24 July 1974, p. 18 In 1944 and 1945 they performed in Algeria, Malta, Sicily, Italy, Iran, Iraq, India and Egypt.\n\n### Post\\-war work\n\nBack in London Grenfell wrote the song \"Du Maurier\" (music by Addinsell) and the monologue \"Travelling Broadens the Mind\", both of which she performed in [Noël Coward](/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward \"Noël Coward\")'s first post\\-war revue, *[Sigh No More](/wiki/Sigh_No_More_%28musical%29 \"Sigh No More (musical)\")* (1945\\).Mander and Mitchenson, pp. 378 and 380 Coward had been a family friend since Grenfell was a girl.Grenfell (1976\\), p. 81 At first he had viewed her transition from amateur to professional with some doubt.Hampton (2002\\), p. 124 Within a few years he had come to recognise her professionalism, her skill as a performer (\"good in all she does on the stage\") and the quality of her monologues, even if \"she shouldn't write lyrics.\"Coward, p. 35 In addition to her own two numbers, she sang Coward's comic catalogue of domestic disasters \"That is the End of the News\", \"disguised as a schoolgirl with pigtails, all my make\\-up off, a shiny face and a terrible grin.\"Castle, p. 189\n\nAfter the 1947 revue *Tuppence Coloured*, Grenfell developed new sketches including the first of her six Nursery School monologues, with the harassed teacher's recurring cry to one of her unseen charges, \"George – don't do that....\"Hampton, pp. 65 and 182 In the 1951 revue *Penny Plain* she performed her \"Joyful Noise\" (music by [Donald Swann](/wiki/Donald_Swann \"Donald Swann\")), a parody of an amateur choir (\"And some of us cannot sing much, And some can't sing at all, But how we love our outings to the Royal Albert Hall\").Grenfell (1984\\), p. 74 After this, Grenfell and Tunnard made another tour entertaining British troops in North Africa.Hampton (2002\\), p. 342\n\n*Joyce Grenfell Requests the Pleasure* (1954\\) was her first more or less solo West End show (there were three dancers providing interludes between Grenfell's numbers).\"Cambridge Premiere\", *The Stage*, 29 April 1954, p. 10 *The Stage* commented that any doubts that Grenfell could sustain a solo evening were quickly dispelled:\n\nAfter two provincial tours and a year in London she took the show to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\"), where it had a sell\\-out eight\\-week run. For this show there was a [pit band](/wiki/Pit_orchestra \"Pit orchestra\") of eight players directed by [William Blezard](/wiki/William_Blezard \"William Blezard\"). In later shows Grenfell simplified the format further, dispensing with dancers and band, and being accompanied only by Blezard at the piano.Hampton (2003\\), p. 97\n[thumb\\|Grenfell by [Allan Warren](/wiki/Allan_Warren \"Allan Warren\"), 1972\\|alt\\=slim white woman of mature years seated by a table that is covered with flowers](/wiki/File:Joyce_Grenfell_2_Allan_Warren.jpg \"Joyce Grenfell 2 Allan Warren.jpg\")\nDuring the 1950s and 1960s Grenfell appeared in several film roles including \"Lovely Ducks\", the shooting gallery attendant in *[Stage Fright](/wiki/Stage_Fright_%281950_film%29 \"Stage Fright (1950 film)\")* (1950\\),Callahan, Dan (2020\\). *[The Camera Lies: Acting for Hitchcock](https://books.google.com/books?id=HyX3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160)*. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 160\\. . Miss Gossage in *[The Happiest Days of Your Life](/wiki/The_Happiest_Days_of_Your_Life_%28film%29 \"The Happiest Days of Your Life (film)\")* (1950\\), Police Sergeant Ruby Gates in the [St Trinian's](/wiki/St_Trinian%27s \"St Trinian's\") series, Mrs Barham in *[The Americanization of Emily](/wiki/The_Americanization_of_Emily \"The Americanization of Emily\")* and Hortense Astor in *[The Yellow Rolls\\-Royce](/wiki/The_Yellow_Rolls-Royce \"The Yellow Rolls-Royce\")*. Away from the theatre, Grenfell served as a member of the influential [Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting](/wiki/Pilkington_Committee_on_Broadcasting \"Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting\") from 1960 to 1962, and was president of the Society of Women Broadcasters and Writers.\"Miss Joyce Grenfell\", *The Times*, 1 December 1979, p. 14\n\nThe rest of Grenfell's stage career was in a series of solo shows in London and on tour. Between 1957 and 1970 she gave her show *Joyce Grenfell* in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland and the United States, as well as around Britain and in the West End. Her last live performance was at [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle \"Windsor Castle\") for the Queen's Waterloo Dinner in 1973\\.Hampton (2003\\), p. 98\n\n### Last years and legacy\n\nSoon after the Windsor Castle show Grenfell was taken ill with an eye condition, which was subsequently diagnosed as cancer. As a convinced [Christian Scientist](/wiki/Christian_Scientist \"Christian Scientist\") (like her aunt Nancy), she was averse to doctors and hospitals. Her husband did not share her beliefs and prevailed on her to undergo treatment. The eye had to be removed and replaced with an artificial one. After this Grenfell did not return to the stage, but gave talks for charitable organisations and appeared frequently on the BBC television programme *[Face the Music](/wiki/Face_the_Music_%28British_game_show%29 \"Face the Music (British game show)\")*.\n\nIn October 1979 she became seriously ill and died a month later, on 30 November 1979, just before her golden wedding anniversary. She was cremated at [Golders Green Crematorium](/wiki/Golders_Green_Crematorium \"Golders Green Crematorium\") on 4 December and her ashes scattered there. On 7 February 1980 a memorial service was held at [Westminster Abbey](/wiki/Westminster_Abbey \"Westminster Abbey\").Hampton (2002\\), pp. 333–334\n\nGrenfell was created an [Officer of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Order of the British Empire\") (OBE) in 1946 for her war work.Hampton (2002\\), p. 171 It was confirmed after her death that she was to have been made a Dame Commander (DBE) in the 1980 New Year Honours List.Hampton (2002\\), p. 335 In 1998, the [Royal Mail](/wiki/Royal_Mail \"Royal Mail\") memorialised Grenfell with her image on a [postage stamp](/wiki/List_of_people_on_stamps_of_the_United_Kingdom \"List of people on stamps of the United Kingdom\") as part of a series of stamps celebrating five comedians, drawn by [Gerald Scarfe](/wiki/Gerald_Scarfe \"Gerald Scarfe\").\n\nGrenfell's widower, Reggie Grenfell, died in [Chelsea](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea \"Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\"), London, in 1993, aged 89\\.Hampton (2002\\), p. 336\n\nIn 2002 her friend [Janie Hampton](/wiki/Janie_Hampton \"Janie Hampton\") published a biography, *Joyce Grenfell*.Hampton (2002\\), title page [Maureen Lipman](/wiki/Maureen_Lipman \"Maureen Lipman\") toured with the one\\-woman show *Re: Joyce!*, which she co\\-wrote with [James Roose\\-Evans](/wiki/James_Roose-Evans \"James Roose-Evans\").Larkin, p. 179 In it she recreates some of Grenfell's best\\-known sketches. Lipman also presented the radio programme *[Choice Grenfell](/wiki/Choice_Grenfell \"Choice Grenfell\")*, compiled from Grenfell's writings. Roose\\-Evans also edited *Darling Ma*, a 1997 collection of Grenfell's letters to her mother.WorldCat \n\n",
"### Early years\n\nBorn in [Montpelier Square](/wiki/Montpelier_Square \"Montpelier Square\"), [Knightsbridge](/wiki/Knightsbridge \"Knightsbridge\"), London, Grenfell was the daughter of an American socialite, Nora Langhorne (1889–1955\\), one of five daughters of [Chiswell Langhorne](/wiki/Chiswell_Langhorne \"Chiswell Langhorne\"), an American railway millionaire, and of the architect Paul Phipps (1880–1953\\), the grandson of [Charles Paul Phipps](/wiki/Charles_Paul_Phipps \"Charles Paul Phipps\") and a second cousin of the [diseuse](/wiki/Diseuse \"Diseuse\") [Ruth Draper](/wiki/Ruth_Draper \"Ruth Draper\"), in whose professional footsteps she followed. The Phipps family were wealthy clothiers, whose success allowed them to join the gentry of their native Wiltshire.*A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland*, vol. IV, 1838, pp. 509–510, \"Phipps of Leighton House\" pedigree [Nancy Astor](/wiki/Nancy_Astor \"Nancy Astor\") was one of her maternal aunts; Grenfell often visited her at the Astors’ home of [Cliveden](/wiki/Cliveden \"Cliveden\")*National Trust Magazine,* Spring 2010, p. 11 and lived in a cottage on the estate, a mile from the main house, in the early years of her marriage.Hampton (2002\\), p. 59\n\nJoyce Phipps had an upper middle\\-class London childhood. Among her friends was [Virginia Graham](/wiki/Virginia_Graham_%28English_writer%29 \"Virginia Graham (English writer)\"), with whom she kept up a lifelong correspondence,*Joyce \\& Ginnie: the letters of Joyce Grenfell and Virginia Graham*, edited by Janie Hampton, 1997 and who wrote Grenfell's biography in the *[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography](/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography \"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\")*.Graham, Virginia [Grenfell (née Phipps), Joyce Irene (1910–1979\\)](https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/31172), *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press 2004\\. Retrieved 22 September 2021 Grenfell attended the [Francis Holland School](/wiki/Francis_Holland_School \"Francis Holland School\") in central London, and the [Claremont Fan Court School](/wiki/Claremont_Fan_Court_School \"Claremont Fan Court School\"), in [Esher, Surrey](/wiki/Esher%2C_Surrey \"Esher, Surrey\"). She then went to a [finishing school](/wiki/Finishing_school \"Finishing school\") in Paris at the age of 17\\.Hampton (2002\\), p. 37 After this she enrolled at the [Royal Academy of Dramatic Art](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Dramatic_Art \"Royal Academy of Dramatic Art\") in London, but found the hard work of learning the craft of acting less glamorous than she had imagined and left after a single term.Hampton (2002\\), p. 39 She supposed at the time that this \"was the finish of my dreams of becoming an actress\". In May 1928 she was presented as a [débutante](/wiki/Debutante%23United_Kingdom \"Debutante#United Kingdom\") at [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace \"Buckingham Palace\").Hampton (2002\\), p. 40\n\nIn 1927 she had met Reginald Pascoe Grenfell (1903–1993\\), a mining executive and later a lieutenant colonel in the [King's Royal Rifle Corps](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps \"King's Royal Rifle Corps\"). They were married two years later at [St Margaret's, Westminster](/wiki/St_Margaret%27s%2C_Westminster \"St Margaret's, Westminster\"), and remained together until her death nearly 50 years later. They were a devoted couple: Reggie Grenfell looked after his wife's financial and business affairs, and his encouragement gave her strong support. After she became a celebrity she unobtrusively made sure that he was never seen as a mere adjunct to her.Lyttelton and Hart\\-Davis, p. 80 They were unable to have children of their own.[Obituary: Reginald Grenfell](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-reginald-grenfell-1452966.html), *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")*, 3 April 1993\n\n",
"### Early career\n\nIn the late 1930s Grenfell contributed verses to *[Punch](/wiki/Punch_%28magazine%29 \"Punch (magazine)\")* and helped to entertain her aunt's guests at Cliveden. After one lunch, [J. L. Garvin](/wiki/James_Louis_Garvin \"James Louis Garvin\"), the editor of *[The Observer](/wiki/The_Observer \"The Observer\")*, engaged her as the paper's first radio critic.Hampton (2003\\), p. 95 At an informal supper given by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") producer [Stephen Potter](/wiki/Stephen_Potter \"Stephen Potter\") in January 1939, she agreed to his request to entertain her fellow guests with a monologue of her own devising. This was \"Useful and Acceptable Gifts\", in which she played a gauche lecturer at a meeting of the [Women's Institute](/wiki/Women%27s_Institute \"Women's Institute\").Hampton (2002\\), p. xi The impresario [Herbert Farjeon](/wiki/Herbert_Farjeon \"Herbert Farjeon\") was among the guests and he invited her to perform the piece in his forthcoming [revue](/wiki/Revue \"Revue\") at the [Little Theatre](/wiki/Little_Theatre_in_the_Adelphi \"Little Theatre in the Adelphi\"), London. She was an immediate success, winning glowing notices. *[The Stage](/wiki/The_Stage \"The Stage\")* judged her \"outstanding ... this clever diseuse successfully catches the naif manner of an amateur speaker lecturing on 'useful and acceptable gifts', and gives us a neat and satirical impersonation of an American mother listening to her small daughter reciting Shelley's 'Ode to a Skylark'\".\"The Little\", *The Stage*, 27 April 1939, p. 10 *[The Tatler](/wiki/Tatler \"Tatler\")* found her two monologues \"quite the best items in the programme\".\"Bubble and Squeak\", \"The Tatler\", 10 May 1939, p. 270 *[The Sketch](/wiki/The_Sketch \"The Sketch\")* devoted a full page to photographs of her in her different characters.Amateur Imitator in The Little Revue – Miss Joyce Grenfell\", *The Sketch*, 31 May 1939, p. 445 *[The Bystander](/wiki/Bystander_%28magazine%29 \"Bystander (magazine)\")* thought that Grenfell challenged the celebrated Ruth Draper \"on her own pitch ... carry\\[ing] off the acting honours of this gay and intelligent entertainment.\"\"The Theatre\", *The Bystander*, 10 May 1939, p. 213\n\nDuring the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") Grenfell wrote for and appeared in three more [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") revues: *Diversion* and *Diversion No. 2* at [Wyndham's Theatre](/wiki/Wyndham%27s_Theatre \"Wyndham's Theatre\") in 1940 and 1941, and *Light and Shade* at the [Ambassadors](/wiki/Ambassadors_Theatre_%28London%29 \"Ambassadors Theatre (London)\") in 1942\\.Herbert, pp. 863–864 In early 1942 she met the composer [Richard Addinsell](/wiki/Richard_Addinsell \"Richard Addinsell\"). Together they wrote many successful songs including \"I'm Going to See You Today\" and \"Turn Back the Clock\", which, in the words of the biographer Janie Hampton, \"aptly caught the public mood\".\n\nIn 1941 Grenfell appeared in her first film role, as the American mother in [Carol Reed](/wiki/Carol_Reed \"Carol Reed\")'s short documentary *[A Letter from Home](/wiki/A_Letter_from_Home_%28film%29 \"A Letter from Home (film)\")*. She made three more films during the war.[\"Joyce Grenfell\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180408022336/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f476194), British Film Institute. Retrieved 22 September 2021 For BBC radio, together with Potter, she wrote and starred in an occasional radio series called *How to …*, which ran intermittently from 1943 until 1962 offering humorous advice on how (and how not) to do things. In 1943 she made her only attempt at acting in a stage play: she resigned from the cast of a West End production of the American comedy *[Junior Miss](/wiki/Junior_Miss \"Junior Miss\")* after the first three days of rehearsal,Grenfell (1976\\), p. 235 finding that onstage she could only perform looking straight at an audience, and could not \"act sideways\",Hampton (2003\\), p. 96 although she found some film acting roles \"fun to do\".Grenfell (1976\\), p. 245\n\nIn the later years of the war Grenfell toured in the UK for [ENSA](/wiki/ENSA \"ENSA\"), sometimes with Addinsell accompanying her at the piano.Hampton (2002\\), pp. 182–183 In late 1943 the head of ENSA, [Basil Dean](/wiki/Basil_Dean \"Basil Dean\"), invited the two to tour troop camps and hospitals in North Africa, the Middle East and elsewhere. Addinsell's health was too fragile to permit him to accept, and Grenfell recruited Viola Tunnard, later better known as a close colleague of [Benjamin Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\").Hampton (2002\\), pp. 191–192; and \"Viola Tunnard\", *The Times*, 24 July 1974, p. 18 In 1944 and 1945 they performed in Algeria, Malta, Sicily, Italy, Iran, Iraq, India and Egypt.\n\n",
"### Post\\-war work\n\nBack in London Grenfell wrote the song \"Du Maurier\" (music by Addinsell) and the monologue \"Travelling Broadens the Mind\", both of which she performed in [Noël Coward](/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward \"Noël Coward\")'s first post\\-war revue, *[Sigh No More](/wiki/Sigh_No_More_%28musical%29 \"Sigh No More (musical)\")* (1945\\).Mander and Mitchenson, pp. 378 and 380 Coward had been a family friend since Grenfell was a girl.Grenfell (1976\\), p. 81 At first he had viewed her transition from amateur to professional with some doubt.Hampton (2002\\), p. 124 Within a few years he had come to recognise her professionalism, her skill as a performer (\"good in all she does on the stage\") and the quality of her monologues, even if \"she shouldn't write lyrics.\"Coward, p. 35 In addition to her own two numbers, she sang Coward's comic catalogue of domestic disasters \"That is the End of the News\", \"disguised as a schoolgirl with pigtails, all my make\\-up off, a shiny face and a terrible grin.\"Castle, p. 189\n\nAfter the 1947 revue *Tuppence Coloured*, Grenfell developed new sketches including the first of her six Nursery School monologues, with the harassed teacher's recurring cry to one of her unseen charges, \"George – don't do that....\"Hampton, pp. 65 and 182 In the 1951 revue *Penny Plain* she performed her \"Joyful Noise\" (music by [Donald Swann](/wiki/Donald_Swann \"Donald Swann\")), a parody of an amateur choir (\"And some of us cannot sing much, And some can't sing at all, But how we love our outings to the Royal Albert Hall\").Grenfell (1984\\), p. 74 After this, Grenfell and Tunnard made another tour entertaining British troops in North Africa.Hampton (2002\\), p. 342\n\n*Joyce Grenfell Requests the Pleasure* (1954\\) was her first more or less solo West End show (there were three dancers providing interludes between Grenfell's numbers).\"Cambridge Premiere\", *The Stage*, 29 April 1954, p. 10 *The Stage* commented that any doubts that Grenfell could sustain a solo evening were quickly dispelled:\n\nAfter two provincial tours and a year in London she took the show to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\"), where it had a sell\\-out eight\\-week run. For this show there was a [pit band](/wiki/Pit_orchestra \"Pit orchestra\") of eight players directed by [William Blezard](/wiki/William_Blezard \"William Blezard\"). In later shows Grenfell simplified the format further, dispensing with dancers and band, and being accompanied only by Blezard at the piano.Hampton (2003\\), p. 97\n[thumb\\|Grenfell by [Allan Warren](/wiki/Allan_Warren \"Allan Warren\"), 1972\\|alt\\=slim white woman of mature years seated by a table that is covered with flowers](/wiki/File:Joyce_Grenfell_2_Allan_Warren.jpg \"Joyce Grenfell 2 Allan Warren.jpg\")\nDuring the 1950s and 1960s Grenfell appeared in several film roles including \"Lovely Ducks\", the shooting gallery attendant in *[Stage Fright](/wiki/Stage_Fright_%281950_film%29 \"Stage Fright (1950 film)\")* (1950\\),Callahan, Dan (2020\\). *[The Camera Lies: Acting for Hitchcock](https://books.google.com/books?id=HyX3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160)*. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 160\\. . Miss Gossage in *[The Happiest Days of Your Life](/wiki/The_Happiest_Days_of_Your_Life_%28film%29 \"The Happiest Days of Your Life (film)\")* (1950\\), Police Sergeant Ruby Gates in the [St Trinian's](/wiki/St_Trinian%27s \"St Trinian's\") series, Mrs Barham in *[The Americanization of Emily](/wiki/The_Americanization_of_Emily \"The Americanization of Emily\")* and Hortense Astor in *[The Yellow Rolls\\-Royce](/wiki/The_Yellow_Rolls-Royce \"The Yellow Rolls-Royce\")*. Away from the theatre, Grenfell served as a member of the influential [Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting](/wiki/Pilkington_Committee_on_Broadcasting \"Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting\") from 1960 to 1962, and was president of the Society of Women Broadcasters and Writers.\"Miss Joyce Grenfell\", *The Times*, 1 December 1979, p. 14\n\nThe rest of Grenfell's stage career was in a series of solo shows in London and on tour. Between 1957 and 1970 she gave her show *Joyce Grenfell* in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland and the United States, as well as around Britain and in the West End. Her last live performance was at [Windsor Castle](/wiki/Windsor_Castle \"Windsor Castle\") for the Queen's Waterloo Dinner in 1973\\.Hampton (2003\\), p. 98\n\n",
"### Last years and legacy\n\nSoon after the Windsor Castle show Grenfell was taken ill with an eye condition, which was subsequently diagnosed as cancer. As a convinced [Christian Scientist](/wiki/Christian_Scientist \"Christian Scientist\") (like her aunt Nancy), she was averse to doctors and hospitals. Her husband did not share her beliefs and prevailed on her to undergo treatment. The eye had to be removed and replaced with an artificial one. After this Grenfell did not return to the stage, but gave talks for charitable organisations and appeared frequently on the BBC television programme *[Face the Music](/wiki/Face_the_Music_%28British_game_show%29 \"Face the Music (British game show)\")*.\n\nIn October 1979 she became seriously ill and died a month later, on 30 November 1979, just before her golden wedding anniversary. She was cremated at [Golders Green Crematorium](/wiki/Golders_Green_Crematorium \"Golders Green Crematorium\") on 4 December and her ashes scattered there. On 7 February 1980 a memorial service was held at [Westminster Abbey](/wiki/Westminster_Abbey \"Westminster Abbey\").Hampton (2002\\), pp. 333–334\n\nGrenfell was created an [Officer of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Order of the British Empire\") (OBE) in 1946 for her war work.Hampton (2002\\), p. 171 It was confirmed after her death that she was to have been made a Dame Commander (DBE) in the 1980 New Year Honours List.Hampton (2002\\), p. 335 In 1998, the [Royal Mail](/wiki/Royal_Mail \"Royal Mail\") memorialised Grenfell with her image on a [postage stamp](/wiki/List_of_people_on_stamps_of_the_United_Kingdom \"List of people on stamps of the United Kingdom\") as part of a series of stamps celebrating five comedians, drawn by [Gerald Scarfe](/wiki/Gerald_Scarfe \"Gerald Scarfe\").\n\nGrenfell's widower, Reggie Grenfell, died in [Chelsea](/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea \"Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\"), London, in 1993, aged 89\\.Hampton (2002\\), p. 336\n\nIn 2002 her friend [Janie Hampton](/wiki/Janie_Hampton \"Janie Hampton\") published a biography, *Joyce Grenfell*.Hampton (2002\\), title page [Maureen Lipman](/wiki/Maureen_Lipman \"Maureen Lipman\") toured with the one\\-woman show *Re: Joyce!*, which she co\\-wrote with [James Roose\\-Evans](/wiki/James_Roose-Evans \"James Roose-Evans\").Larkin, p. 179 In it she recreates some of Grenfell's best\\-known sketches. Lipman also presented the radio programme *[Choice Grenfell](/wiki/Choice_Grenfell \"Choice Grenfell\")*, compiled from Grenfell's writings. Roose\\-Evans also edited *Darling Ma*, a 1997 collection of Grenfell's letters to her mother.WorldCat \n\n",
"Stage performances\n------------------\n\n* *The Little Revue* – Little Theatre, London (1939–40\\)\n* *Diversion* – Wyndham's Theatre, London (1940\\-1\\)\n* *Light and Shade* – Ambassador's Theatre, London (1942\\)\n* ENSA tours of UK (1942\\)\n* ENSA tour of North Africa with Viola Tunnard (1944\\)\n* ENSA tour of the Middle East and India with Viola Tunnard (1944\\-5\\)\n* *Sigh No More* – Piccadilly Theatre, London (1945\\-6\\)\n* *Tuppence Coloured* – UK tour, followed by Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith and Globe Theatre, London (1947\\-8\\)\n* *Penny Plain* – St Martin's Theatre, London and UK tour (1951–2\\)\n* Six\\-week tour for British troops in Libya and Egypt with Viola Tunnard (1952\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell Requests the Pleasure* – UK tour, then Fortune Theatre and St Martin's Theatre, London, then another UK tour (1954\\-5\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell Requests the Pleasure* – Bijou Theatre, New York City (1955\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell at Home* – tour of Canada, Washington DC and Lyceum Theatre, New York City, with George Bauer (1956\\)\n* Tour of Northern Rhodesia with Viola Tunnard (1956\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell at Home* – tour of Dublin and the UK, then Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith (1957\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell Bids You Good Evening* – tour of Canada and North America, with George Bauer (1958\\)\n* *Meet Joyce Grenfell* – Philip Street Theatre, Sydney, with William Blezard (1959\\)\n* *Meet Joyce Grenfell* – tour of UK with William Blezard (1960\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell* – Haymarket Theatre, London, followed by UK tour with William Blezard (1962\\)\n* *Joyce Grenfell* – tour of Australia with William Blezard (1963\\)\n* Tours of Canada, Switzerland and Hong Kong with William Blezard (1964\\)\n* Tours of UK, Australia and New Zealand with William Blezard (1966\\)\n* Tours of UK, Hong Kong, USA and Canada with William Blezard (1967\\)\n* Tour of UK with William Blezard (1968\\)\n* Tour of Australia and New Zealand with William Blezard (1969\\)\n* Tours of UK and USA with William Blezard (1970\\)\n* Tour of UK with William Blezard (1972\\)\n* Waterloo Dinner, Windsor Castle (1973\\)\n\n",
"Film performances\n-----------------\n\n| Year | Title | Role | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1941 | *[A Letter from Home](/wiki/A_Letter_from_Home_%28film%29 \"A Letter from Home (film)\")* | American Mother | Short |\n|1943 *[The Demi\\-Paradise](/wiki/The_Demi-Paradise \"The Demi-Paradise\")* | Sybil Paulson | |\n| *[The Lamp Still Burns](/wiki/The_Lamp_Still_Burns \"The Lamp Still Burns\")* | Dr. Barrett | |\n|1947 *[While the Sun Shines](/wiki/While_the_Sun_Shines \"While the Sun Shines\")* | Daphne | |\n| *[Designing Women](/wiki/Designing_Women_%281947_film%29 \"Designing Women (1947 film)\")* | Miss Arty | Short |\n|1949 *[Alice in Wonderland](/wiki/Alice_in_Wonderland_%281949_film%29 \"Alice in Wonderland (1949 film)\")* | Ugly Duchess / Dormouse | |\n| *[Poet's Pub](/wiki/Poet%27s_Pub \"Poet's Pub\")* | Miss Horsefell\\-Hughes | |\n| *Tuppence Coloured* | | TV movie |\n| *[A Run for Your Money](/wiki/A_Run_for_Your_Money \"A Run for Your Money\")* | Mrs. Pargiet | |\n|1950 *[Stage Fright](/wiki/Stage_Fright_%281950_film%29 \"Stage Fright (1950 film)\")* | 'Lovely Ducks' | |\n| *[The Happiest Days of Your Life](/wiki/The_Happiest_Days_of_Your_Life_%28film%29 \"The Happiest Days of Your Life (film)\")* | Miss Gossage | |\n|1951 *[The Galloping Major](/wiki/The_Galloping_Major_%28film%29 \"The Galloping Major (film)\")* | Maggie the Waitress | |\n| *[Laughter in Paradise](/wiki/Laughter_in_Paradise \"Laughter in Paradise\")* | Elizabeth Robson | |\n| *[The Magic Box](/wiki/The_Magic_Box \"The Magic Box\")* | Mrs. Claire | |\n|1952 *Penny Plain* | | TV movie |\n| *[The Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers_%281952_film%29 \"The Pickwick Papers (1952 film)\")* | Mrs. Leo Hunter | |\n|1953 *[Genevieve](/wiki/Genevieve_%28film%29 \"Genevieve (film)\")* | Hotel Proprietress | |\n| *[The Million Pound Note](/wiki/The_Million_Pound_Note \"The Million Pound Note\")* | Duchess of Cromarty | |\n|1954 *[Forbidden Cargo](/wiki/Forbidden_Cargo_%281954_film%29 \"Forbidden Cargo (1954 film)\")* | Lady Flavia Queensway | |\n| *[The Belles of St. Trinian's](/wiki/The_Belles_of_St._Trinian%27s \"The Belles of St. Trinian's\")* | P.W. Sgt. Ruby Gates | |\n|1957 *[The Good Companions](/wiki/The_Good_Companions_%281957_film%29 \"The Good Companions (1957 film)\")* | Lady Parlitt | |\n| *[Blue Murder at St Trinian's](/wiki/Blue_Murder_at_St_Trinian%27s \"Blue Murder at St Trinian's\")* | Sergeant Ruby Gates | |\n| 1958 | *[Happy Is the Bride](/wiki/Happy_Is_the_Bride \"Happy Is the Bride\")* | Aunt Florence | |\n| 1960 | *[The Pure Hell of St Trinian's](/wiki/The_Pure_Hell_of_St_Trinian%27s \"The Pure Hell of St Trinian's\")* | Sergeant Ruby Gates | |\n| 1963 | *[The Old Dark House](/wiki/The_Old_Dark_House_%281963_film%29 \"The Old Dark House (1963 film)\")* | Agatha Femm | |\n|1964 *[The Americanization of Emily](/wiki/The_Americanization_of_Emily \"The Americanization of Emily\")* | Mrs. Barham | |\n| *[The Yellow Rolls\\-Royce](/wiki/The_Yellow_Rolls-Royce \"The Yellow Rolls-Royce\")* | Hortense Astor | |\n\n",
"Publications\n------------\n\n",
"Notes, references and sources\n-----------------------------\n\n### Notes\n\n### References\n\n### Sources\n\n",
"### Notes\n\n",
"### References\n\n",
"### Sources\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Joyce Grenfell archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection](http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/grenfell.html), [University of Bristol](/wiki/University_of_Bristol \"University of Bristol\")\n* BBC Radio 4 *Great Lives* on Joyce Grenfell – listen online: [BBC Radio 4 – Great Lives, Series 15, Joyce Grenfell](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00bc41s)\n\n[Category:1910 births](/wiki/Category:1910_births \"1910 births\")\n[Category:1979 deaths](/wiki/Category:1979_deaths \"1979 deaths\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English actresses](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_actresses \"20th-century English actresses\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English comedians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_comedians \"20th-century English comedians\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English singers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_singers \"20th-century English singers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English women singers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_women_singers \"20th-century English women singers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English memoirists](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_memoirists \"20th-century English memoirists\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English women writers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_women_writers \"20th-century English women writers\")\n[Category:Actresses from London](/wiki/Category:Actresses_from_London \"Actresses from London\")\n[Category:British debutantes](/wiki/Category:British_debutantes \"British debutantes\")\n[Category:Deaths from cancer in England](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_cancer_in_England \"Deaths from cancer in England\")\n[Category:English Christian Scientists](/wiki/Category:English_Christian_Scientists \"English Christian Scientists\")\n[Category:English comedy musicians](/wiki/Category:English_comedy_musicians \"English comedy musicians\")\n[Category:English film actresses](/wiki/Category:English_film_actresses \"English film actresses\")\n[Category:English people of American descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_American_descent \"English people of American descent\")\n[Category:English women songwriters](/wiki/Category:English_women_songwriters \"English women songwriters\")\n[Category:English stage actresses](/wiki/Category:English_stage_actresses \"English stage actresses\")\n[Category:English television actresses](/wiki/Category:English_television_actresses \"English television actresses\")\n[Category:English women comedians](/wiki/Category:English_women_comedians \"English women comedians\")\n[Category:Entertainments National Service Association personnel](/wiki/Category:Entertainments_National_Service_Association_personnel \"Entertainments National Service Association personnel\")\n[Category:Golders Green Crematorium](/wiki/Category:Golders_Green_Crematorium \"Golders Green Crematorium\")\n[Category:Monologists](/wiki/Category:Monologists \"Monologists\")\n[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Category:Officers_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Officers of the Order of the British Empire\")\n[Category:People educated at Claremont Fan Court School](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Claremont_Fan_Court_School \"People educated at Claremont Fan Court School\")\n[Category:People educated at Francis Holland School](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Francis_Holland_School \"People educated at Francis Holland School\")\n[Category:People from Knightsbridge](/wiki/Category:People_from_Knightsbridge \"People from Knightsbridge\")\n[Joyce](/wiki/Category:Grenfell_family \"Grenfell family\")\n[Category:Comedians from the City of Westminster](/wiki/Category:Comedians_from_the_City_of_Westminster \"Comedians from the City of Westminster\")\n[Category:Comedians from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea](/wiki/Category:Comedians_from_the_Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea \"Comedians from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\")\n[Category:Singers from the City of Westminster](/wiki/Category:Singers_from_the_City_of_Westminster \"Singers from the City of Westminster\")\n[Category:Singers from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea](/wiki/Category:Singers_from_the_Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea \"Singers from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\")\n[Category:Actors from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea](/wiki/Category:Actors_from_the_Royal_Borough_of_Kensington_and_Chelsea \"Actors from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\")\n[Category:Actors from the City of Westminster](/wiki/Category:Actors_from_the_City_of_Westminster \"Actors from the City of Westminster\")\n\n"
]
}
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Mink
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{
"id": [
23646674
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"name": [
"Cewbot"
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}
|
bp3r09s88zycz9kv377e07w2k4r6v0y
|
2024-07-19T16:45:34Z
| 1,225,993,880 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Species",
"Description",
"Diet",
"Habitats",
"Territory",
"Human uses",
"Farming",
"Ireland",
"Denmark",
"Health concerns",
"Stereotypy",
"References",
"External links"
],
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1,
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2,
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - \n\n[thumb\\|European mink](/wiki/File:Europ%C3%A4ischer_Nerz.jpg \"Europäischer Nerz.jpg\")\n**Mink** are dark\\-colored, [semiaquatic](/wiki/Semiaquatic \"Semiaquatic\"), [carnivorous](/wiki/Carnivorous \"Carnivorous\") [mammals](/wiki/Mammal \"Mammal\") of the [genera](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") *[Neogale](/wiki/Neogale \"Neogale\")* and *[Mustela](/wiki/Mustela \"Mustela\")* and part of the family [Mustelidae](/wiki/Mustelidae \"Mustelidae\"), which also includes [weasels](/wiki/Weasel \"Weasel\"), [otters](/wiki/Otter \"Otter\"), and [ferrets](/wiki/Ferret \"Ferret\"). There are two extant species referred to as \"mink\": the [American mink](/wiki/American_mink \"American mink\") and the [European mink](/wiki/European_mink \"European mink\"). The extinct [sea mink](/wiki/Sea_mink \"Sea mink\") was related to the American mink but was much larger.\n\nThe [American mink's fur](/wiki/Mink_fur \"Mink fur\") has been highly prized for use in clothing. Their treatment on fur farms has been a focus of [animal rights](/wiki/Animal_rights \"Animal rights\") and [animal welfare](/wiki/Animal_welfare \"Animal welfare\") [activism](/wiki/Activism \"Activism\"). American mink have established populations in Europe (including Great Britain and Denmark) and South America. Some people believe this happened after the animals were released from mink farms by animal rights activists, or otherwise escaped from captivity. In the UK, under the [Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981](/wiki/Wildlife_and_Countryside_Act_1981 \"Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981\"), it is illegal to release mink into the wild. In some countries, any live mink caught in traps must be humanely killed.\n\nAmerican mink are believed by some to have contributed to the decline of the less hardy European mink through competition (though not through hybridization—native European mink are in fact more closely related to [polecats](/wiki/Black-footed_ferret \"Black-footed ferret\") than to North American mink). Trapping is used to control or eliminate introduced American mink populations.Haworth, Jenny (3 February 2009\\) \"National cull may exterminate UK mink\". Edinburgh. *The Scotsman*.\n\n[Mink oil](/wiki/Mink_oil \"Mink oil\") is used in some medical products and cosmetics, as well as to treat, preserve, and waterproof leather.\n\n",
"Species\n-------\n\nThe American mink (*Neogale vison*) is larger and more adaptable than the European mink (*Mustela lutreola*) but, due to variations in size, an individual mink usually cannot be determined as European or American with certainty without looking at the skeleton. However, all European mink have a large white patch on their upper lip, whereas only some American mink have this marking. Therefore, any mink without the patch is certainly of the American species. Taxonomically, both American and European mink were placed in the same [genus](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") *[Mustela](/wiki/Mustela \"Mustela\")* but the American mink was reclassified as belonging to its own genus, *[Neovison](/wiki/Neovison \"Neovison\")*, though it has recently been reclassified alongside several other weasels into the genus *[Neogale](/wiki/Neogale \"Neogale\")*.\n\nThe [sea mink](/wiki/Sea_mink \"Sea mink\") (*Neogale macrodon*), native to the [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\") area, is considered to be a close relative of the American mink. Its extinction in the late 19th century, was chiefly result of hunting for the fur trade.\n\n",
"Description\n-----------\n\nA wild male mink weighs about and is about in length. Farm\\-bred males can reach . The female weighs about and reaches a length of about . The sizes above do not include the tail, which can be from .\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Mink [fur stole](/wiki/Fur_coat \"Fur coat\")](/wiki/File:Birgit_Ridderstedt_1984.jpg \"Birgit Ridderstedt 1984.jpg\")\n\nA mink's rich glossy coat in its wild state is brown and looks silky. Farm\\-bred mink can vary from white to almost black, which is reflected in the British wild mink. Their pelage is deep, rich brown, with or without white spots on the underparts, and consists of a slick, dense underfur overlaid with dark, glossy, almost stiff guard hairs.\n\nMink show the curious phenomenon of delayed implantation. Although the true gestation period is 39 days, the embryo may stop developing for a variable period, so that as long as 76 days may elapse before the litter arrives. Between 45 and 52 days is normal. There is only one litter per year. They typically have between six and 10 kits per litter. Litters as large as 16 have been recorded at fur farms.\n\nThe maximum lifespan of a mink is usually around ten years, but rarely exceeds three years in the wild.\n\n",
"Diet\n----\n\n[thumb\\|Mink eating a [crayfish](/wiki/Crayfish \"Crayfish\")](/wiki/File:Mink_with_crayfish_at_Wascana_Lake_in_Regina_Saskatchewan.jpg \"Mink with crayfish at Wascana Lake in Regina Saskatchewan.jpg\")\n\nMink prey on fish and other aquatic life, small mammals, birds, and eggs; adults may eat young mink.Burns, John (2008\\). \"[Mink](http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/furbear/mink.php),\" Alaska Department of Fish \\& Game. Mink raised on farms primarily eat expired cheese, eggs, fish, meat and poultry slaughterhouse byproducts, dog food, and turkey livers, as well as prepared commercial foods. A farm with 3,000 mink may use as much as two tons of food per day.\n\n",
"Habitats\n--------\n\nMink like to live near water and are seldom found far from riverbanks, lakes, and marshes. Even when roaming, they tend to follow streams and ditches. Sometimes they leave the water altogether for a few hundred meters, especially when looking for rabbits, one of their favourite foods. In some places, particularly in Scotland and in Iceland, they live along the seashore. Sometimes they live in towns if suitable water is available. Mink may be present at all hours, even when people are nearby.\n\n",
"Territory\n---------\n\nMink are [territorial](/wiki/Territoriality \"Territoriality\") animals. A male mink will not tolerate another male within his territory but appears to be less aggressive towards females. Generally, the territories of both male and female animals are separate, but a female's territory may sometimes overlap with that of a male.\n[thumb\\|Mink at water's edge, [Kenai National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Kenai_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Kenai National Wildlife Refuge\"), Alaska](/wiki/File:Mink_in_the_snow.png \"Mink in the snow.png\")\nThe territories, which tend to be long and narrow, stretch along river banks, or around the edges of lakes or marshes. Territory sizes vary, but they can be several miles long. Female territories are smaller than those of males.\n\nEach territory has one or two central areas (core areas) where the mink spends most of its time. The core area is usually associated with a good food supply, such as a pool rich in fish, or a good rabbit warren. The mink may stay in its core area, which can be quite small, for several days at a time, but it also makes excursions to the ends of its territory. These excursions seem to be associated with the defense of the territory against intruders. The mink likely checks for any signs of a stranger mink and leaves droppings (scat) redolent of its personal scent to reinforce its territorial rights.\n\n",
"Human uses\n----------\n\n### Farming\n\nThe [American mink's fur](/wiki/Mink_fur \"Mink fur\") has been highly prized for use in [clothing](/wiki/Clothing \"Clothing\"), with [hunting](/wiki/Hunting \"Hunting\") giving way to [farming](/wiki/Fur_farming \"Fur farming\"). Their treatment on fur farms has been a focus of [animal rights](/wiki/Animal_rights \"Animal rights\") and [animal welfare](/wiki/Animal_welfare \"Animal welfare\") [activism](/wiki/Activism \"Activism\"). American mink have established populations in Europe (including Great Britain) and South America, after being released from mink farms by animal rights activists, or otherwise escaping from captivity. In the UK, under the [Wildlife \\& Countryside Act 1981](/wiki/Wildlife_%26_Countryside_Act_1981 \"Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981\"), it is illegal to release mink into the wild. In some countries, any live mink caught in traps must be humanely killed.\n\nIn February 2022, the US House of Representatives passed a ban on commercial mink farming following the global SARS\\-CoV\\-2 outbreak on mink farms, however it did not pass in the Senate so did not become law. The ban was attempted to be enacted in an effort to protect public health in light of the COVID\\-19 pandemic. Mink farms pose the risk of producing SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variants that could be transmitted to humans. The cramped living conditions along with the high volume of immunosuppressed mink inhabiting the farms creates a highly hospitable environment for the SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virus. There have been approximately 6\\.1 million mink infected with the SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virus, with three variants traced back to farms in the U.S, France, and Denmark.\n\n#### Ireland\n\nThere are three mink farms in Ireland, in Donegal, Kerry, and Laois. Mink farming was introduced into the country by two veterinarians. Three thousand mink were released by campaigners into the wild from a farm in the 1960s. It is estimated that there are 33,500 wild mink in Ireland.[Calls for Irish minks to be culled amid Covid\\-19 concerns](https://m.independent.ie/business/farming/news/calls-for-irish-minks-to-be-culled-amid-covid-19-concerns-39730573.html) Irish Independent, 2020\\-11\\-10\\.\n\nThe [Irish Department of Agriculture](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture%2C_Food_and_the_Marine \"Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine\") stated in November 2020 saying that the [Department of Health](/wiki/Department_of_Health_%28Ireland%29 \"Department of Health (Ireland)\") had advised, following the detection of coronavirus among animals on a Danish mink farm, that the roughly 120,000 farmed Irish mink should be culled. Mink farming was already due to be discontinued under the 2020 Programme for Government but the coronavirus risk had expedited the closure of the industry.[Ireland’s mink population to be culled amid Covid\\-19 fears](https://m.independent.ie/business/farming/news/farming-news/irelands-mink-population-to-be-culled-amid-covid-19-fears-39766087.html) Irish Independent, 2020\\-11\\-19\\.\n\n#### Denmark\n\n### Health concerns\n\nMink are among the [animals that can be infected with SARS\\-CoV\\-2](/wiki/List_of_animals_that_can_get_SARS-CoV-2 \"List of animals that can get SARS-CoV-2\") and that are also known to spread infections among themselves and to humans. Transmission of the [SARS\\-CoV\\-2](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 \"SARS-CoV-2\") virus from mink to humans was first documented in the Netherlands by way of genetic tracing, which prompted the government to bring forward to the end of 2020 a ban on mink farming scheduled to come into effect in 2024\\. The [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture \"United States Department of Agriculture\") confirmed that cases of minks infected with [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\") had been documented in Utah in August 2020\\.\n\nIn November 2020, Denmark, then the world's largest producer of mink fur, [slaughtered its entire mink population](/wiki/2020_Danish_mink_cull \"2020 Danish mink cull\") of 15 to 17 million animals to stop the spread of [Cluster 5](/wiki/Cluster_5 \"Cluster 5\"), a mutated strain of the virus, which has been linked to the animals and resulted in the infection of 12 humans with the mutated variant. The decision was later deemed to have been illegal, although the law was later changed in support of the action. Infections within mink were also deemed ancestral to a [highly mutated SARS\\-CoV\\-2 strain](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_in_white-tailed_deer%23Ontario_WTD_clade \"SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer#Ontario WTD clade\") found in Canadian [white\\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer \"White-tailed deer\") which subsequently spilled back into humans.\n\nSimilar to their role of a viral incubator in the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), in October 2022, mink at a farm in Spain became the first observed case of [mammal\\-to\\-mammal](/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1%23Mammal-to-mammal_transmission_%282022%E2%80%932023%29 \"Influenza A virus subtype H5N1#Mammal-to-mammal transmission (2022–2023)\") transmission of [Influenza A virus subtype H5N1](/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1 \"Influenza A virus subtype H5N1\"), an avian flu which had only previously [jumped to mammals](/wiki/List_of_mammals_that_can_get_H5N1 \"List of mammals that can get H5N1\") upon close contact or consumption or infected birds. The infected mink in Spain exhibited multiple new mutations when compared to viral sequences obtained from infected birds, one of which helps H5N1 to better replicate within mammals.\n\n### Stereotypy\n\nOn farms, minks are placed in [battery cages](/wiki/Battery_cages \"Battery cages\"), a type of soft, metal wire cage that restricts their ability to move. This often results in a condition referred to as [stereotypies](/wiki/Stereotypy_%28non-human%29 \"Stereotypy (non-human)\"), an abnormal behavior. These abnormal, repetitive behaviours are a result of keeping them imprisoned, and is similar to the deterioration of mental health in humans. Stereotypies have also been noted to increase during human presence.\n\nTo attempt to eliminate stereotypies in captive mink, the Canadian National Farm Animal Care Council has implemented regulations on incorporating [environmental enrichments](/wiki/Environmental_enrichment \"Environmental enrichment\") into mink cages. Enrichments are pen\\-related alterations or the addition of novel objects to improve the mink's physical and psychological health. Enrichments may help reduce the onset of stereotypies, but rarely decrease or eliminate them entirely. Leaving minks alone plays a large role in the prevention of stereotypies, and the animals' well\\-being.\n\n",
"### Farming\n\nThe [American mink's fur](/wiki/Mink_fur \"Mink fur\") has been highly prized for use in [clothing](/wiki/Clothing \"Clothing\"), with [hunting](/wiki/Hunting \"Hunting\") giving way to [farming](/wiki/Fur_farming \"Fur farming\"). Their treatment on fur farms has been a focus of [animal rights](/wiki/Animal_rights \"Animal rights\") and [animal welfare](/wiki/Animal_welfare \"Animal welfare\") [activism](/wiki/Activism \"Activism\"). American mink have established populations in Europe (including Great Britain) and South America, after being released from mink farms by animal rights activists, or otherwise escaping from captivity. In the UK, under the [Wildlife \\& Countryside Act 1981](/wiki/Wildlife_%26_Countryside_Act_1981 \"Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981\"), it is illegal to release mink into the wild. In some countries, any live mink caught in traps must be humanely killed.\n\nIn February 2022, the US House of Representatives passed a ban on commercial mink farming following the global SARS\\-CoV\\-2 outbreak on mink farms, however it did not pass in the Senate so did not become law. The ban was attempted to be enacted in an effort to protect public health in light of the COVID\\-19 pandemic. Mink farms pose the risk of producing SARS\\-CoV\\-2 variants that could be transmitted to humans. The cramped living conditions along with the high volume of immunosuppressed mink inhabiting the farms creates a highly hospitable environment for the SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virus. There have been approximately 6\\.1 million mink infected with the SARS\\-CoV\\-2 virus, with three variants traced back to farms in the U.S, France, and Denmark.\n\n#### Ireland\n\nThere are three mink farms in Ireland, in Donegal, Kerry, and Laois. Mink farming was introduced into the country by two veterinarians. Three thousand mink were released by campaigners into the wild from a farm in the 1960s. It is estimated that there are 33,500 wild mink in Ireland.[Calls for Irish minks to be culled amid Covid\\-19 concerns](https://m.independent.ie/business/farming/news/calls-for-irish-minks-to-be-culled-amid-covid-19-concerns-39730573.html) Irish Independent, 2020\\-11\\-10\\.\n\nThe [Irish Department of Agriculture](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture%2C_Food_and_the_Marine \"Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine\") stated in November 2020 saying that the [Department of Health](/wiki/Department_of_Health_%28Ireland%29 \"Department of Health (Ireland)\") had advised, following the detection of coronavirus among animals on a Danish mink farm, that the roughly 120,000 farmed Irish mink should be culled. Mink farming was already due to be discontinued under the 2020 Programme for Government but the coronavirus risk had expedited the closure of the industry.[Ireland’s mink population to be culled amid Covid\\-19 fears](https://m.independent.ie/business/farming/news/farming-news/irelands-mink-population-to-be-culled-amid-covid-19-fears-39766087.html) Irish Independent, 2020\\-11\\-19\\.\n\n#### Denmark\n\n",
"#### Ireland\n\nThere are three mink farms in Ireland, in Donegal, Kerry, and Laois. Mink farming was introduced into the country by two veterinarians. Three thousand mink were released by campaigners into the wild from a farm in the 1960s. It is estimated that there are 33,500 wild mink in Ireland.[Calls for Irish minks to be culled amid Covid\\-19 concerns](https://m.independent.ie/business/farming/news/calls-for-irish-minks-to-be-culled-amid-covid-19-concerns-39730573.html) Irish Independent, 2020\\-11\\-10\\.\n\nThe [Irish Department of Agriculture](/wiki/Department_of_Agriculture%2C_Food_and_the_Marine \"Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine\") stated in November 2020 saying that the [Department of Health](/wiki/Department_of_Health_%28Ireland%29 \"Department of Health (Ireland)\") had advised, following the detection of coronavirus among animals on a Danish mink farm, that the roughly 120,000 farmed Irish mink should be culled. Mink farming was already due to be discontinued under the 2020 Programme for Government but the coronavirus risk had expedited the closure of the industry.[Ireland’s mink population to be culled amid Covid\\-19 fears](https://m.independent.ie/business/farming/news/farming-news/irelands-mink-population-to-be-culled-amid-covid-19-fears-39766087.html) Irish Independent, 2020\\-11\\-19\\.\n\n",
"#### Denmark\n\n",
"### Health concerns\n\nMink are among the [animals that can be infected with SARS\\-CoV\\-2](/wiki/List_of_animals_that_can_get_SARS-CoV-2 \"List of animals that can get SARS-CoV-2\") and that are also known to spread infections among themselves and to humans. Transmission of the [SARS\\-CoV\\-2](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 \"SARS-CoV-2\") virus from mink to humans was first documented in the Netherlands by way of genetic tracing, which prompted the government to bring forward to the end of 2020 a ban on mink farming scheduled to come into effect in 2024\\. The [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture \"United States Department of Agriculture\") confirmed that cases of minks infected with [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\") had been documented in Utah in August 2020\\.\n\nIn November 2020, Denmark, then the world's largest producer of mink fur, [slaughtered its entire mink population](/wiki/2020_Danish_mink_cull \"2020 Danish mink cull\") of 15 to 17 million animals to stop the spread of [Cluster 5](/wiki/Cluster_5 \"Cluster 5\"), a mutated strain of the virus, which has been linked to the animals and resulted in the infection of 12 humans with the mutated variant. The decision was later deemed to have been illegal, although the law was later changed in support of the action. Infections within mink were also deemed ancestral to a [highly mutated SARS\\-CoV\\-2 strain](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_in_white-tailed_deer%23Ontario_WTD_clade \"SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer#Ontario WTD clade\") found in Canadian [white\\-tailed deer](/wiki/White-tailed_deer \"White-tailed deer\") which subsequently spilled back into humans.\n\nSimilar to their role of a viral incubator in the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), in October 2022, mink at a farm in Spain became the first observed case of [mammal\\-to\\-mammal](/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1%23Mammal-to-mammal_transmission_%282022%E2%80%932023%29 \"Influenza A virus subtype H5N1#Mammal-to-mammal transmission (2022–2023)\") transmission of [Influenza A virus subtype H5N1](/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1 \"Influenza A virus subtype H5N1\"), an avian flu which had only previously [jumped to mammals](/wiki/List_of_mammals_that_can_get_H5N1 \"List of mammals that can get H5N1\") upon close contact or consumption or infected birds. The infected mink in Spain exhibited multiple new mutations when compared to viral sequences obtained from infected birds, one of which helps H5N1 to better replicate within mammals.\n\n",
"### Stereotypy\n\nOn farms, minks are placed in [battery cages](/wiki/Battery_cages \"Battery cages\"), a type of soft, metal wire cage that restricts their ability to move. This often results in a condition referred to as [stereotypies](/wiki/Stereotypy_%28non-human%29 \"Stereotypy (non-human)\"), an abnormal behavior. These abnormal, repetitive behaviours are a result of keeping them imprisoned, and is similar to the deterioration of mental health in humans. Stereotypies have also been noted to increase during human presence.\n\nTo attempt to eliminate stereotypies in captive mink, the Canadian National Farm Animal Care Council has implemented regulations on incorporating [environmental enrichments](/wiki/Environmental_enrichment \"Environmental enrichment\") into mink cages. Enrichments are pen\\-related alterations or the addition of novel objects to improve the mink's physical and psychological health. Enrichments may help reduce the onset of stereotypies, but rarely decrease or eliminate them entirely. Leaving minks alone plays a large role in the prevention of stereotypies, and the animals' well\\-being.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Mammal common names](/wiki/Category:Mammal_common_names \"Mammal common names\")\n[Category:Semiaquatic mammals](/wiki/Category:Semiaquatic_mammals \"Semiaquatic mammals\")\n[Category:Mustelinae](/wiki/Category:Mustelinae \"Mustelinae\")\n\n"
]
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Curtis Mayfield
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2024-10-17T16:47:26Z
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"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Career",
"The Impressions",
"Solo career",
"Social activism",
"Personal life",
"Accident",
"Final years and death",
"Musical legacy",
"Influence",
"Accolades",
"''Rolling Stone'' rankings",
"Awards and nominations",
"Hall of Fame",
"Grammy Awards",
"Grammy Hall of Fame",
"Discography",
"Filmography",
"References",
"External links"
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"\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * \n\n**Curtis Lee Mayfield** (June 3, 1942 – December 26, 1999\\) was an American singer\\-songwriter, guitarist, and record producer, and one of the most influential musicians behind [soul](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\") and politically conscious [African\\-American music](/wiki/African-American_music \"African-American music\").[Curtis Mayfield](http://www.rockhall.com/hof/inductee.asp?id=150) , Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum. \"…significant for the forthright way in which he addressed issues of black identity and self\\-awareness. …left his imprint on the Seventies by couching social commentary and keenly observed black\\-culture archetypes in funky, danceable rhythms. …sounded urgent pleas for peace and brotherhood overextended, [cinematic soul](/wiki/Cinematic_soul \"Cinematic soul\")\\-funk tracks that laid out a fresh musical agenda for the new decade.\" Accessed November 28, 2006\\.[\"Soul icon Curtis Mayfield dies\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/579113.stm), BBC News, December 27, 1999: \"Credited with introducing social comment to soul music\". Accessed November 28, 2006\\. Dubbed the \"[Gentle Genius](/wiki/Honorific_nicknames_in_popular_music \"Honorific nicknames in popular music\")\", he first achieved success and recognition with the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame \"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\")\\-inducted group [the Impressions](/wiki/The_Impressions \"The Impressions\") during the [civil rights movement](/wiki/Civil_rights_movement \"Civil rights movement\") of the late 1950s and the 1960s, and later worked as a solo artist.\n\nMayfield started his musical career in a [gospel](/wiki/Gospel_music \"Gospel music\") choir. Moving to the [North Side](/wiki/North_Side%2C_Chicago \"North Side, Chicago\") of Chicago, he met [Jerry Butler](/wiki/Jerry_Butler \"Jerry Butler\") in 1956 at the age of 14, and joined the vocal group [The Impressions](/wiki/The_Impressions \"The Impressions\"). As a songwriter, Mayfield became noted as one of the first musicians to bring more prevalent themes of social awareness into soul music. In 1965, he wrote \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" for The Impressions, which was ranked at no. 24 on [*Rolling Stone*](/wiki/Rolling_Stone_%28magazine%29 \"Rolling Stone (magazine)\")'s list of the [500 Greatest Songs of All Time](/wiki/500_Greatest_Songs_of_All_Time \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\"). The song received numerous other awards; it was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's \"500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll\", and was inducted into the [Grammy Hall of Fame](/wiki/Grammy_Hall_of_Fame \"Grammy Hall of Fame\") in 1998\\.\n\nAfter leaving The Impressions in 1970 in the pursuit of a solo career, Mayfield released several albums, including the [soundtrack](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\") for the [blaxploitation](/wiki/Blaxploitation \"Blaxploitation\") film *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%281972_film%29 \"Super Fly (1972 film)\")* in 1972\\. The soundtrack was noted for its socially conscious themes, mostly addressing problems surrounding inner city minorities such as crime, poverty and [drug abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse \"Substance abuse\"). The album was ranked at no. 72 on *Rolling Stone*s list of the [500 Greatest Albums of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Albums_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\").\n\nMayfield was paralyzed from the neck down after lighting equipment fell on him during a live performance at Wingate Field in [Flatbush, Brooklyn](/wiki/Flatbush%2C_Brooklyn \"Flatbush, Brooklyn\"), New York, on August 13, 1990\\. Despite this, he continued his career as a recording artist, releasing his final album *[New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28album%29 \"New World Order (album)\")* in 1996\\. Mayfield won a [Grammy Legend Award](/wiki/Grammy_Legend_Award \"Grammy Legend Award\") in 1994 and a [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\") in 1995\\. He is a double inductee into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, as a member of The Impressions in 1991, and again in 1999 as a solo artist. He was also a two\\-time Grammy Hall of Fame inductee. He died from complications of [type 2 diabetes](/wiki/Type_2_diabetes \"Type 2 diabetes\") at the age of 57 on December 26, 1999\\.\n\n",
"Early life\n----------\n\nCurtis Lee Mayfield was born on Wednesday, June 3, 1942, in [Cook County Hospital](/wiki/John_H._Stroger_Jr._Hospital_of_Cook_County \"John H. Stroger Jr. Hospital of Cook County\") in Chicago, Illinois,The Guardian \\- March 11, 1995 the son of Marion Washington and Kenneth Mayfield, one of five children. Mayfield's father left the family when Curtis was five; his mother (and maternal grandmother) moved the family into several Chicago public housing projects before settling in [Cabrini–Green](/wiki/Cabrini%E2%80%93Green \"Cabrini–Green\") during his teen years. Mayfield attended [Wells Community Academy High School](/wiki/Wells_Community_Academy_High_School \"Wells Community Academy High School\") before dropping out his second year. His mother taught him piano and, along with his grandmother, encouraged him to enjoy gospel music. At the age of seven he sang publicly at his aunt's church with the Northern Jubilee Gospel Singers.\n\nMayfield received his first guitar when he was ten, later recalling that he loved his guitar so much he used to sleep with it. He was a self\\-taught musician, and he grew up admiring blues singer [Muddy Waters](/wiki/Muddy_Waters \"Muddy Waters\") and Spanish guitarist [Andres Segovia](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Segovia \"Andrés Segovia\").\n\nWhen he was 14 years old he formed the Alphatones when the Northern Jubilee Gospel Singers decided to try their luck in downtown Chicago and Mayfield stayed behind. Fellow group member Sam Gooden was quoted \"It would have been nice to have him there with us, but of course, your parents have the first say.\"\n\nLater in 1956, he joined his high school friend Jerry Butler's group The Roosters with brothers Arthur and Richard Brooks. He wrote and composed songs for this group who would become The Impressions two years later. He was also notably a childhood friend of fellow musician [Terry Callier](/wiki/Terry_Callier \"Terry Callier\")[https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-news/jazz\\-folk\\-singer\\-terry\\-callier\\-dead\\-at\\-67\\-179534/](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/jazz-folk-singer-terry-callier-dead-at-67-179534/)\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\n### The Impressions\n\n[thumb\\|The Impressions in 1964, from left to right: Sam Gooden, Curtis Mayfield, and Fred Cash\\|alt\\=The three singers wearing suits](/wiki/File:The_Impressions%2C_1964.png \"The Impressions, 1964.png\")\nMayfield's career began in 1956 when he joined the Roosters with Arthur and Richard Brooks and [Jerry Butler](/wiki/Jerry_Butler_%28singer%29 \"Jerry Butler (singer)\"). Two years later the Roosters, now including [Sam Gooden](/wiki/Sam_Gooden \"Sam Gooden\"), became the Impressions. The band had two hit singles with Butler, \"[For Your Precious Love](/wiki/For_Your_Precious_Love \"For Your Precious Love\")\" and \"Come Back My Love\", then Butler left. Mayfield temporarily went with him, co\\-writing and performing on Butler's next hit, \"He Will Break Your Heart\", before returning to the Impressions with the group signing for ABC Records and working with the label's Chicago\\-based producer/A\\&R manager, [Johnny Pate](/wiki/Johnny_Pate \"Johnny Pate\").\n\nButler was replaced by [Fred Cash](/wiki/Fred_Cash \"Fred Cash\"), a returning original Roosters member, and Mayfield became lead singer, frequently composing for the band, starting with \"[Gypsy Woman](/wiki/Gypsy_Woman_%28The_Impressions_song%29 \"Gypsy Woman (The Impressions song)\")\", a Top 20 Pop hit. Their hit \"Amen\" (Top 10\\), an updated version of an old [gospel](/wiki/Gospel_music \"Gospel music\") tune, was included in the soundtrack of the 1963 [United Artists](/wiki/United_Artists \"United Artists\") film *[Lilies of the Field](/wiki/Lilies_of_the_Field_%281963_film%29 \"Lilies of the Field (1963 film)\")*, which starred [Sidney Poitier](/wiki/Sidney_Poitier \"Sidney Poitier\"). The Impressions reached the height of their popularity in the mid\\-to\\-late\\-'60s with a string of Mayfield compositions that included \"[Keep On Pushing](/wiki/Keep_On_Pushing_%28song%29 \"Keep On Pushing (song)\"),\" \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\", \"[It's All Right](/wiki/It%27s_All_Right_%28The_Impressions_song%29 \"It's All Right (The Impressions song)\")\" (Top 10\\), the up\\-tempo \"Talking about My Baby\"(Top 20\\) and \"Woman's Got Soul\".\n\nHe formed his own label, Curtom Records in Chicago in 1968 and the Impressions joined him to continue their run of hits including \"Fool For You,\" \"This is My Country\", \"Choice Of Colors\" and \"Check Out Your Mind\". Mayfield had written much of the soundtrack of the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement \"Civil Rights Movement\") in the early 1960s, but by the end of the decade, he was a pioneering voice in the [black pride](/wiki/Black_pride \"Black pride\") movement along with [James Brown](/wiki/James_Brown \"James Brown\") and [Sly Stone](/wiki/Sly_Stone \"Sly Stone\"). Mayfield's \"[We're a Winner](/wiki/We%27re_a_Winner_%28song%29 \"We're a Winner (song)\")\" was their last major hit for ABC. Reaching number 14 on *Billboard*s pop chart and number one on the R\\&B chart, it became an anthem of the [black power](/wiki/Black_power \"Black power\") and black pride movements when it was released in late 1967,[Curtis Mayfield biography](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0562631/bio), Internet Movie Database (IMDB). \"…1968 hit 'We're A Winner,' became a civil rights anthem\". Accessed November 28, 2006\\. much as his earlier \"Keep on Pushing\" (whose title is quoted in the lyrics of \"We're a Winner\" and also in \"[Move On Up](/wiki/Move_On_Up \"Move On Up\")\") had been an anthem for [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. \"Martin Luther King Jr.\") and the Civil Rights Movement.Phillipsn, Richard (January 24, 2000\\), [Curtis Mayfield dies: A modest man of great musical talent and sensitivity](http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/jan2000/curt-j24.shtml), World Socialist Web Site (International Committee of the Fourth International). Retrieved November 28, 2006\\.\n\nMayfield was a prolific songwriter in Chicago even outside his work for the Impressions, writing and producing scores of hits for many other artists. He also owned the Mayfield and Windy C labels which were distributed by [Cameo\\-Parkway](/wiki/Cameo-Parkway \"Cameo-Parkway\"), and was a partner in the [Curtom](/wiki/Curtom \"Curtom\") (first independent, then distributed by Buddah then Warner Bros and finally RSO) and Thomas labels (first independent, then distributed by Atlantic, then independent again and finally Buddah).\n\nAmong Mayfield's greatest songwriting successes were three hits that he wrote for Jerry Butler on Vee Jay (\"He Will Break Your Heart\", \"Find Another Girl\" and \"I'm A\\-Tellin' You\"). His harmony vocals are very prominent. He also had great success writing and arranging [Jan Bradley](/wiki/Jan_Bradley \"Jan Bradley\")'s \"Mama Didn't Lie\". Starting in 1963, he was heavily involved in writing and arranging for OKeh Records (with Carl Davis producing), which included hits by [Major Lance](/wiki/Major_Lance \"Major Lance\") such as \"[Um, Um, Um, Um, Um, Um](/wiki/Um%2C_Um%2C_Um%2C_Um%2C_Um%2C_Um \"Um, Um, Um, Um, Um, Um\")\" and \"[The Monkey Time](/wiki/The_Monkey_Time \"The Monkey Time\")\", as well as Walter Jackson, Billy Butler and the Artistics. This arrangement ran through 1965\\.\n\n### Solo career\n\nIn 1970, Mayfield left the Impressions and began a solo career. Curtom released many of Mayfield's 1970s records, as well as records by the Impressions, [Leroy Hutson](/wiki/Leroy_Hutson \"Leroy Hutson\"), [the Five Stairsteps](/wiki/The_Five_Stairsteps \"The Five Stairsteps\"), [the Staples Singers](/wiki/The_Staple_Singers \"The Staple Singers\"), [Mavis Staples](/wiki/Mavis_Staples \"Mavis Staples\"), [Linda Clifford](/wiki/Linda_Clifford \"Linda Clifford\"), [Natural Four](/wiki/Natural_Four \"Natural Four\"), [The Notations](/wiki/The_Notations \"The Notations\") and [Baby Huey and the Babysitters](/wiki/Baby_Huey_and_the_Babysitters \"Baby Huey and the Babysitters\"). [Gene Chandler](/wiki/Gene_Chandler \"Gene Chandler\") and Major Lance, who had worked with Mayfield during the 1960s, also signed for short stays at Curtom. Many of the label's recordings were produced by Mayfield.\n\nMayfield's first solo album, *[Curtis](/wiki/Curtis_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Curtis (Curtis Mayfield album)\")*, was released in 1970, and hit the top 20, as well as being a critical success. It pre\\-dated [Marvin Gaye](/wiki/Marvin_Gaye \"Marvin Gaye\")'s album, *[What's Going On](/wiki/What%27s_Going_On_%28Marvin_Gaye_album%29 \"What's Going On (Marvin Gaye album)\")*, to which it has been compared in addressing social change. The commercial and critical peak of his solo career came with *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*, the soundtrack to the [blaxploitation](/wiki/Blaxploitation \"Blaxploitation\") *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%281972_film%29 \"Super Fly (1972 film)\")* film, which topped the [*Billboard* Top LPs](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") chart and sold more than 12 million copies. Unlike the soundtracks to other blaxploitation films (most notably [Isaac Hayes](/wiki/Isaac_Hayes \"Isaac Hayes\")' score for *[Shaft](/wiki/Shaft_%281971_film%29 \"Shaft (1971 film)\")*), which glorified the ghetto excesses of the characters, Mayfield's [lyrics](/wiki/Lyrics \"Lyrics\") consisted of hard\\-hitting commentary on the state of affairs in black, urban [ghettos](/wiki/Ghetto \"Ghetto\") at the time, as well as direct criticisms of several characters in the film. Bob Donat wrote in *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* magazine in 1972 that while the film's message \"was diluted by schizoid cross\\-purposes\" because it \"glamorizes [machismo](/wiki/Machismo \"Machismo\")\\-[cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\") consciousness... the anti\\-drug message on \\[Mayfield's soundtrack] is far stronger and more definite than in the film.\" Because of the tendency of these blaxploitation films to glorify the criminal life of dealers and pimps to target a mostly black lower class audience, Mayfield's album set this movie apart. With songs like \"Freddie's Dead\", a song that focuses on the demise of Freddie, a junkie that was forced into \"pushin' dope for the man\" because of a debt that he owed to his dealer, and \"Pusherman\", a song that reveals how many people in the ghetto fell victim to drug abuse, and therefore became dependent upon their dealers, Mayfield illuminated a darker side of life in the ghetto that these blaxploitation films often failed to criticize. However, although Mayfield's soundtrack criticized the glorification of dealers and pimps, he in no way denied that this glorification was occurring. When asked about the subject matter of these films he was quoted stating \"I don't see why people are complaining about the subject of these films\", and \"The way you clean up the films is by cleaning up the streets.\"\n\nAlong with *What's Going On* and [Stevie Wonder](/wiki/Stevie_Wonder \"Stevie Wonder\")'s *[Innervisions](/wiki/Innervisions \"Innervisions\")*, this album ushered in a new [socially conscious](/wiki/Social_consciousness \"Social consciousness\"), [funky](/wiki/Funk_music \"Funk music\") style of popular [soul music](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\"). The single releases \"[Freddie's Dead](/wiki/Freddie%27s_Dead \"Freddie's Dead\")\" and \"[Super Fly](/wiki/Superfly_%28song%29 \"Superfly (song)\")\" each sold more than one million copies, and were awarded [gold discs](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification \"Music recording sales certification\") by the [R.I.A.A.](/wiki/R.I.A.A. \"R.I.A.A.\")\n\n*Super Fly* brought success that resulted in Mayfield being tapped for additional soundtracks, some of which he wrote and produced while having others perform the vocals. [Gladys Knight \\& the Pips](/wiki/Gladys_Knight_%26_the_Pips \"Gladys Knight & the Pips\") recorded Mayfield's soundtrack for *[Claudine](/wiki/Claudine_%28movie%29 \"Claudine (movie)\")* in 1974, while [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\") recorded the soundtrack for *[Sparkle](/wiki/Sparkle_%281976_film%29 \"Sparkle (1976 film)\")* in 1976\\. Mayfield also worked with [The Staples Singers](/wiki/The_Staple_Singers \"The Staple Singers\") on the soundtrack for the 1975 film *[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%281975_film%29 \"Let's Do It Again (1975 film)\")*, and teamed up with [Mavis Staples](/wiki/Mavis_Staples \"Mavis Staples\") exclusively on the 1977 film soundtrack *[A Piece of the Action](/wiki/A_Piece_of_the_Action_%28film%29 \"A Piece of the Action (film)\")* (both movies were part of a trilogy of films that featured the acting and comedic exploits of [Bill Cosby](/wiki/Bill_Cosby \"Bill Cosby\") and [Sidney Poitier](/wiki/Sidney_Poitier \"Sidney Poitier\") and were directed by [Poitier](/wiki/Poitier \"Poitier\")).\n\nIn 1973 Mayfield released the anti\\-war album *[Back to the World](/wiki/Back_to_the_World_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Back to the World (Curtis Mayfield album)\")*, a concept album that dealt with the social aftermath of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") and criticized the United States' involvement in wars across the planet. One of Mayfield's most successful funk\\-disco meldings was the 1977 hit \"Do Do Wap is Strong in Here\" from his [soundtrack](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28album%29 \"Short Eyes (album)\") to the [Robert M. Young](/wiki/Robert_M._Young_%28film_director%29 \"Robert M. Young (film director)\") [film](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28film%29 \"Short Eyes (film)\") of [Miguel Piñero](/wiki/Miguel_Pi%C3%B1ero \"Miguel Piñero\")'s play *[Short Eyes](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28play%29 \"Short Eyes (play)\")*. In his 2003 biography of Curtis Mayfield, *People Never Give Up*, author Peter Burns noted that Mayfield has 140 songs in the [Curtom](/wiki/Curtom \"Curtom\") vaults. Burns indicated that the songs were maybe already completed or in the stages of completion, so that they could then be released commercially. These recordings include \"The Great Escape\", \"In The News\", \"Turn up the Radio\", \"What's The Situation?\" and one recording labelled \"Curtis at Montreux Jazz Festival 87\".Two other albums featuring Curtis Mayfield present in the Curtom vaults and as yet unissued are a 1982/83 live recording titled \"25th Silver Anniversary\" (which features performances by Mayfield, the Impressions, and [Jerry Butler](/wiki/Jerry_Butler_%28singer%29 \"Jerry Butler (singer)\")) and a live performance, recorded in September 1966 by the Impressions titled *Live at the Club Chicago*.\n\nIn 1982, Mayfield decided to move to Atlanta with his family, closing down his recording operation in Chicago. The label had gradually reduced in size in its final two years or so with releases on the main RSO imprint and Curtom credited as the production company. Mayfield continued to record occasionally, keeping the Curtom name alive for a few more years, and to tour worldwide. Mayfield's song \"(Don't Worry) If There's a Hell Below, We're All Going to Go\" has been included as an entrance song on every episode of the drama series [*The Deuce*](/wiki/The_Deuce_%28TV_series%29 \"The Deuce (TV series)\"). *The Deuce* tells of the germination of the sex\\-trade industry in the heart of New York's [Times Square](/wiki/Times_Square \"Times Square\") in the 1970s. Mayfield's career began to slow down during the 1980s.\n\nIn later years, Mayfield's music was included in the movies *[I'm Gonna Git You Sucka](/wiki/I%27m_Gonna_Git_You_Sucka \"I'm Gonna Git You Sucka\")*, *[Hollywood Shuffle](/wiki/Hollywood_Shuffle \"Hollywood Shuffle\")*, *[Friday](/wiki/Friday_%281995_film%29 \"Friday (1995 film)\")* (though not on the soundtrack album), *[Bend It Like Beckham](/wiki/Bend_It_Like_Beckham \"Bend It Like Beckham\")*, *[The Hangover Part II](/wiki/The_Hangover_Part_II \"The Hangover Part II\")* and *[Short Eyes](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28film%29 \"Short Eyes (film)\")*, where he had a cameo role as a prisoner.\n\n",
"### The Impressions\n\n[thumb\\|The Impressions in 1964, from left to right: Sam Gooden, Curtis Mayfield, and Fred Cash\\|alt\\=The three singers wearing suits](/wiki/File:The_Impressions%2C_1964.png \"The Impressions, 1964.png\")\nMayfield's career began in 1956 when he joined the Roosters with Arthur and Richard Brooks and [Jerry Butler](/wiki/Jerry_Butler_%28singer%29 \"Jerry Butler (singer)\"). Two years later the Roosters, now including [Sam Gooden](/wiki/Sam_Gooden \"Sam Gooden\"), became the Impressions. The band had two hit singles with Butler, \"[For Your Precious Love](/wiki/For_Your_Precious_Love \"For Your Precious Love\")\" and \"Come Back My Love\", then Butler left. Mayfield temporarily went with him, co\\-writing and performing on Butler's next hit, \"He Will Break Your Heart\", before returning to the Impressions with the group signing for ABC Records and working with the label's Chicago\\-based producer/A\\&R manager, [Johnny Pate](/wiki/Johnny_Pate \"Johnny Pate\").\n\nButler was replaced by [Fred Cash](/wiki/Fred_Cash \"Fred Cash\"), a returning original Roosters member, and Mayfield became lead singer, frequently composing for the band, starting with \"[Gypsy Woman](/wiki/Gypsy_Woman_%28The_Impressions_song%29 \"Gypsy Woman (The Impressions song)\")\", a Top 20 Pop hit. Their hit \"Amen\" (Top 10\\), an updated version of an old [gospel](/wiki/Gospel_music \"Gospel music\") tune, was included in the soundtrack of the 1963 [United Artists](/wiki/United_Artists \"United Artists\") film *[Lilies of the Field](/wiki/Lilies_of_the_Field_%281963_film%29 \"Lilies of the Field (1963 film)\")*, which starred [Sidney Poitier](/wiki/Sidney_Poitier \"Sidney Poitier\"). The Impressions reached the height of their popularity in the mid\\-to\\-late\\-'60s with a string of Mayfield compositions that included \"[Keep On Pushing](/wiki/Keep_On_Pushing_%28song%29 \"Keep On Pushing (song)\"),\" \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\", \"[It's All Right](/wiki/It%27s_All_Right_%28The_Impressions_song%29 \"It's All Right (The Impressions song)\")\" (Top 10\\), the up\\-tempo \"Talking about My Baby\"(Top 20\\) and \"Woman's Got Soul\".\n\nHe formed his own label, Curtom Records in Chicago in 1968 and the Impressions joined him to continue their run of hits including \"Fool For You,\" \"This is My Country\", \"Choice Of Colors\" and \"Check Out Your Mind\". Mayfield had written much of the soundtrack of the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement \"Civil Rights Movement\") in the early 1960s, but by the end of the decade, he was a pioneering voice in the [black pride](/wiki/Black_pride \"Black pride\") movement along with [James Brown](/wiki/James_Brown \"James Brown\") and [Sly Stone](/wiki/Sly_Stone \"Sly Stone\"). Mayfield's \"[We're a Winner](/wiki/We%27re_a_Winner_%28song%29 \"We're a Winner (song)\")\" was their last major hit for ABC. Reaching number 14 on *Billboard*s pop chart and number one on the R\\&B chart, it became an anthem of the [black power](/wiki/Black_power \"Black power\") and black pride movements when it was released in late 1967,[Curtis Mayfield biography](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0562631/bio), Internet Movie Database (IMDB). \"…1968 hit 'We're A Winner,' became a civil rights anthem\". Accessed November 28, 2006\\. much as his earlier \"Keep on Pushing\" (whose title is quoted in the lyrics of \"We're a Winner\" and also in \"[Move On Up](/wiki/Move_On_Up \"Move On Up\")\") had been an anthem for [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. \"Martin Luther King Jr.\") and the Civil Rights Movement.Phillipsn, Richard (January 24, 2000\\), [Curtis Mayfield dies: A modest man of great musical talent and sensitivity](http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/jan2000/curt-j24.shtml), World Socialist Web Site (International Committee of the Fourth International). Retrieved November 28, 2006\\.\n\nMayfield was a prolific songwriter in Chicago even outside his work for the Impressions, writing and producing scores of hits for many other artists. He also owned the Mayfield and Windy C labels which were distributed by [Cameo\\-Parkway](/wiki/Cameo-Parkway \"Cameo-Parkway\"), and was a partner in the [Curtom](/wiki/Curtom \"Curtom\") (first independent, then distributed by Buddah then Warner Bros and finally RSO) and Thomas labels (first independent, then distributed by Atlantic, then independent again and finally Buddah).\n\nAmong Mayfield's greatest songwriting successes were three hits that he wrote for Jerry Butler on Vee Jay (\"He Will Break Your Heart\", \"Find Another Girl\" and \"I'm A\\-Tellin' You\"). His harmony vocals are very prominent. He also had great success writing and arranging [Jan Bradley](/wiki/Jan_Bradley \"Jan Bradley\")'s \"Mama Didn't Lie\". Starting in 1963, he was heavily involved in writing and arranging for OKeh Records (with Carl Davis producing), which included hits by [Major Lance](/wiki/Major_Lance \"Major Lance\") such as \"[Um, Um, Um, Um, Um, Um](/wiki/Um%2C_Um%2C_Um%2C_Um%2C_Um%2C_Um \"Um, Um, Um, Um, Um, Um\")\" and \"[The Monkey Time](/wiki/The_Monkey_Time \"The Monkey Time\")\", as well as Walter Jackson, Billy Butler and the Artistics. This arrangement ran through 1965\\.\n\n",
"### Solo career\n\nIn 1970, Mayfield left the Impressions and began a solo career. Curtom released many of Mayfield's 1970s records, as well as records by the Impressions, [Leroy Hutson](/wiki/Leroy_Hutson \"Leroy Hutson\"), [the Five Stairsteps](/wiki/The_Five_Stairsteps \"The Five Stairsteps\"), [the Staples Singers](/wiki/The_Staple_Singers \"The Staple Singers\"), [Mavis Staples](/wiki/Mavis_Staples \"Mavis Staples\"), [Linda Clifford](/wiki/Linda_Clifford \"Linda Clifford\"), [Natural Four](/wiki/Natural_Four \"Natural Four\"), [The Notations](/wiki/The_Notations \"The Notations\") and [Baby Huey and the Babysitters](/wiki/Baby_Huey_and_the_Babysitters \"Baby Huey and the Babysitters\"). [Gene Chandler](/wiki/Gene_Chandler \"Gene Chandler\") and Major Lance, who had worked with Mayfield during the 1960s, also signed for short stays at Curtom. Many of the label's recordings were produced by Mayfield.\n\nMayfield's first solo album, *[Curtis](/wiki/Curtis_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Curtis (Curtis Mayfield album)\")*, was released in 1970, and hit the top 20, as well as being a critical success. It pre\\-dated [Marvin Gaye](/wiki/Marvin_Gaye \"Marvin Gaye\")'s album, *[What's Going On](/wiki/What%27s_Going_On_%28Marvin_Gaye_album%29 \"What's Going On (Marvin Gaye album)\")*, to which it has been compared in addressing social change. The commercial and critical peak of his solo career came with *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*, the soundtrack to the [blaxploitation](/wiki/Blaxploitation \"Blaxploitation\") *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%281972_film%29 \"Super Fly (1972 film)\")* film, which topped the [*Billboard* Top LPs](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") chart and sold more than 12 million copies. Unlike the soundtracks to other blaxploitation films (most notably [Isaac Hayes](/wiki/Isaac_Hayes \"Isaac Hayes\")' score for *[Shaft](/wiki/Shaft_%281971_film%29 \"Shaft (1971 film)\")*), which glorified the ghetto excesses of the characters, Mayfield's [lyrics](/wiki/Lyrics \"Lyrics\") consisted of hard\\-hitting commentary on the state of affairs in black, urban [ghettos](/wiki/Ghetto \"Ghetto\") at the time, as well as direct criticisms of several characters in the film. Bob Donat wrote in *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* magazine in 1972 that while the film's message \"was diluted by schizoid cross\\-purposes\" because it \"glamorizes [machismo](/wiki/Machismo \"Machismo\")\\-[cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\") consciousness... the anti\\-drug message on \\[Mayfield's soundtrack] is far stronger and more definite than in the film.\" Because of the tendency of these blaxploitation films to glorify the criminal life of dealers and pimps to target a mostly black lower class audience, Mayfield's album set this movie apart. With songs like \"Freddie's Dead\", a song that focuses on the demise of Freddie, a junkie that was forced into \"pushin' dope for the man\" because of a debt that he owed to his dealer, and \"Pusherman\", a song that reveals how many people in the ghetto fell victim to drug abuse, and therefore became dependent upon their dealers, Mayfield illuminated a darker side of life in the ghetto that these blaxploitation films often failed to criticize. However, although Mayfield's soundtrack criticized the glorification of dealers and pimps, he in no way denied that this glorification was occurring. When asked about the subject matter of these films he was quoted stating \"I don't see why people are complaining about the subject of these films\", and \"The way you clean up the films is by cleaning up the streets.\"\n\nAlong with *What's Going On* and [Stevie Wonder](/wiki/Stevie_Wonder \"Stevie Wonder\")'s *[Innervisions](/wiki/Innervisions \"Innervisions\")*, this album ushered in a new [socially conscious](/wiki/Social_consciousness \"Social consciousness\"), [funky](/wiki/Funk_music \"Funk music\") style of popular [soul music](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\"). The single releases \"[Freddie's Dead](/wiki/Freddie%27s_Dead \"Freddie's Dead\")\" and \"[Super Fly](/wiki/Superfly_%28song%29 \"Superfly (song)\")\" each sold more than one million copies, and were awarded [gold discs](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification \"Music recording sales certification\") by the [R.I.A.A.](/wiki/R.I.A.A. \"R.I.A.A.\")\n\n*Super Fly* brought success that resulted in Mayfield being tapped for additional soundtracks, some of which he wrote and produced while having others perform the vocals. [Gladys Knight \\& the Pips](/wiki/Gladys_Knight_%26_the_Pips \"Gladys Knight & the Pips\") recorded Mayfield's soundtrack for *[Claudine](/wiki/Claudine_%28movie%29 \"Claudine (movie)\")* in 1974, while [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\") recorded the soundtrack for *[Sparkle](/wiki/Sparkle_%281976_film%29 \"Sparkle (1976 film)\")* in 1976\\. Mayfield also worked with [The Staples Singers](/wiki/The_Staple_Singers \"The Staple Singers\") on the soundtrack for the 1975 film *[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%281975_film%29 \"Let's Do It Again (1975 film)\")*, and teamed up with [Mavis Staples](/wiki/Mavis_Staples \"Mavis Staples\") exclusively on the 1977 film soundtrack *[A Piece of the Action](/wiki/A_Piece_of_the_Action_%28film%29 \"A Piece of the Action (film)\")* (both movies were part of a trilogy of films that featured the acting and comedic exploits of [Bill Cosby](/wiki/Bill_Cosby \"Bill Cosby\") and [Sidney Poitier](/wiki/Sidney_Poitier \"Sidney Poitier\") and were directed by [Poitier](/wiki/Poitier \"Poitier\")).\n\nIn 1973 Mayfield released the anti\\-war album *[Back to the World](/wiki/Back_to_the_World_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Back to the World (Curtis Mayfield album)\")*, a concept album that dealt with the social aftermath of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") and criticized the United States' involvement in wars across the planet. One of Mayfield's most successful funk\\-disco meldings was the 1977 hit \"Do Do Wap is Strong in Here\" from his [soundtrack](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28album%29 \"Short Eyes (album)\") to the [Robert M. Young](/wiki/Robert_M._Young_%28film_director%29 \"Robert M. Young (film director)\") [film](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28film%29 \"Short Eyes (film)\") of [Miguel Piñero](/wiki/Miguel_Pi%C3%B1ero \"Miguel Piñero\")'s play *[Short Eyes](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28play%29 \"Short Eyes (play)\")*. In his 2003 biography of Curtis Mayfield, *People Never Give Up*, author Peter Burns noted that Mayfield has 140 songs in the [Curtom](/wiki/Curtom \"Curtom\") vaults. Burns indicated that the songs were maybe already completed or in the stages of completion, so that they could then be released commercially. These recordings include \"The Great Escape\", \"In The News\", \"Turn up the Radio\", \"What's The Situation?\" and one recording labelled \"Curtis at Montreux Jazz Festival 87\".Two other albums featuring Curtis Mayfield present in the Curtom vaults and as yet unissued are a 1982/83 live recording titled \"25th Silver Anniversary\" (which features performances by Mayfield, the Impressions, and [Jerry Butler](/wiki/Jerry_Butler_%28singer%29 \"Jerry Butler (singer)\")) and a live performance, recorded in September 1966 by the Impressions titled *Live at the Club Chicago*.\n\nIn 1982, Mayfield decided to move to Atlanta with his family, closing down his recording operation in Chicago. The label had gradually reduced in size in its final two years or so with releases on the main RSO imprint and Curtom credited as the production company. Mayfield continued to record occasionally, keeping the Curtom name alive for a few more years, and to tour worldwide. Mayfield's song \"(Don't Worry) If There's a Hell Below, We're All Going to Go\" has been included as an entrance song on every episode of the drama series [*The Deuce*](/wiki/The_Deuce_%28TV_series%29 \"The Deuce (TV series)\"). *The Deuce* tells of the germination of the sex\\-trade industry in the heart of New York's [Times Square](/wiki/Times_Square \"Times Square\") in the 1970s. Mayfield's career began to slow down during the 1980s.\n\nIn later years, Mayfield's music was included in the movies *[I'm Gonna Git You Sucka](/wiki/I%27m_Gonna_Git_You_Sucka \"I'm Gonna Git You Sucka\")*, *[Hollywood Shuffle](/wiki/Hollywood_Shuffle \"Hollywood Shuffle\")*, *[Friday](/wiki/Friday_%281995_film%29 \"Friday (1995 film)\")* (though not on the soundtrack album), *[Bend It Like Beckham](/wiki/Bend_It_Like_Beckham \"Bend It Like Beckham\")*, *[The Hangover Part II](/wiki/The_Hangover_Part_II \"The Hangover Part II\")* and *[Short Eyes](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28film%29 \"Short Eyes (film)\")*, where he had a cameo role as a prisoner.\n\n",
"Social activism\n---------------\n\nMayfield sang openly about civil rights and black pride, and was known for introducing social consciousness into [African\\-American music](/wiki/African-American_music \"African-American music\"). Having been raised in the Cabrini\\-Green projects of Chicago, he witnessed many of the tragedies of the urban ghetto first hand, and was quoted saying \"With everything I saw on the streets as a young black kid, it wasn't hard during the later fifties and sixties for me to write my heartfelt way of how I visualized things, how I thought things ought to be.\"\n\nFollowing the passing of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964 \"Civil Rights Act of 1964\"), his group the Impressions produced music that became the soundtrack to a summer of revolution. It is even said that \"Keep On Pushing\" became the number one sing along during the Freedom Rides. Black students sang their songs as they marched to jail or protested outside their universities, while King often used \"Keep On Pushing\", \"People Get Ready\" and \"We're A Winner\" because of their ability to motivate and inspire marchers. Mayfield had quickly become a civil rights hero with his ability to inspire hope and courage.\n\nMayfield was unique in his ability to fuse relevant social commentary with melodies and lyrics that instilled a hopefulness for a better future in his listeners. He wrote and recorded the soundtrack to the 1972 [blaxploitation](/wiki/Blaxploitation \"Blaxploitation\") film *Super Fly* with the help of producer Johnny Pate. The soundtrack for *Super Fly* is regarded as an all\\-time great body of work that captured the essence of life in the ghetto while criticizing the tendency of young people to glorify the \"glamorous\" lifestyles of drug dealers and pimps, and illuminating the dark realities of drugs, addiction, and exploitation.\n\nMayfield, along with several other soul and funk musicians, spread messages of hope in the face of oppression, pride in being a member of the black race and gave courage to a generation of people who were demanding their human rights. He has been compared to Martin Luther King Jr. for making a lasting impact in the civil rights struggle with his inspirational music. By the end of the decade Mayfield was a pioneering voice in the black pride movement, along with James Brown and Sly Stone. Paving the way for a future generation of rebel thinkers, Mayfield paid the price, artistically and commercially, for his politically charged music. Mayfield's \"Keep On Pushing\" was actually banned from several radio stations, including [WLS](/wiki/WLS-FM \"WLS-FM\") in his hometown of Chicago. Regardless of the persistent radio bans and loss of revenue, he continued his quest for equality right until his death.\n\nMayfield was also a descriptive social commentator. As the influx of drugs ravaged through black America in the late 1960s and 1970s his bittersweet descriptions of the ghetto would serve as warnings to the impressionable. \"Freddie's Dead\" is a graphic tale of street life, while \"Pusherman\" revealed the role of drug dealers in the urban ghettos.\n\n",
"Personal life\n-------------\n\nMayfield was married twice. He had 10 children from different relationships. At the time of his death he was married to Altheida Mayfield. Together they had six children.\n\n### Accident\n\nOn August 13, 1990, Mayfield became paralyzed from the neck down after stage lighting equipment fell on him while he was being introduced at an outdoor concert at Wingate Field in [Flatbush](/wiki/Flatbush%2C_Brooklyn \"Flatbush, Brooklyn\"), Brooklyn, New York. Afterwards, he sang the second verse of a remake of \"[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%28song%29 \"Let's Do It Again (song)\")\" being produced by [Gary Katz](/wiki/Gary_Katz \"Gary Katz\") by the [Repercussions](/wiki/Repercussions_%28band%29 \"Repercussions (band)\") for *[All Men Are Brothers: A Tribute to Curtis Mayfield](/wiki/A_Tribute_to_Curtis_Mayfield \"A Tribute to Curtis Mayfield\")*, while lying on his back in the recording studio. Although he was unable to play the guitar, he continued to compose and sing, which he found he could do by lying down and letting gravity pull down on his chest and lungs. The 1996 album *[New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28album%29 \"New World Order (album)\")* was recorded in this way, with vocals sometimes recorded in lines at a time.\n\n### Final years and death\n\nMayfield received the [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\") in 1994\\. In February 1998, he had to have his right leg [amputated](/wiki/Amputated \"Amputated\") due to diabetes. He was inducted into the Rock \\& Roll Hall of Fame on March 15, 1999\\. Health reasons prevented him from attending the ceremony, which included fellow inductees [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney \"Paul McCartney\"), [Billy Joel](/wiki/Billy_Joel \"Billy Joel\"), [Bruce Springsteen](/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen \"Bruce Springsteen\"), [Dusty Springfield](/wiki/Dusty_Springfield \"Dusty Springfield\"), [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin \"George Martin\"), and 1970s Curtom signees and labelmates [the Staple Singers](/wiki/The_Staple_Singers \"The Staple Singers\").\n\nMayfield's last appearance on record was with the group [Bran Van 3000](/wiki/Bran_Van_3000 \"Bran Van 3000\") on the song \"[Astounded](/wiki/Astounded_%28Bran_Van_3000_song%29 \"Astounded (Bran Van 3000 song)\")\" for their album *[Discosis](/wiki/Discosis \"Discosis\")*, recorded just before his death and released in 2001\\. However, his health had steadily declined following his paralysis, so his vocals were not new but were instead lifted from archive recordings, including \"Move On Up\".\n\nMayfield died from complications of [type 2 diabetes](/wiki/Type_2_diabetes \"Type 2 diabetes\") at 7:20 EST (12:20 GMT) on December 26, 1999, at the North Fulton Regional Hospital in [Roswell, Georgia](/wiki/Roswell%2C_Georgia \"Roswell, Georgia\"). He was survived by his wife, Altheida Mayfield; his mother, Mariam Jackson; 10 children; two sisters, Carolyn Falls and Judy Mayfield; a brother, Kenneth Mayfield; and seven grandchildren.\n\n",
"### Accident\n\nOn August 13, 1990, Mayfield became paralyzed from the neck down after stage lighting equipment fell on him while he was being introduced at an outdoor concert at Wingate Field in [Flatbush](/wiki/Flatbush%2C_Brooklyn \"Flatbush, Brooklyn\"), Brooklyn, New York. Afterwards, he sang the second verse of a remake of \"[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%28song%29 \"Let's Do It Again (song)\")\" being produced by [Gary Katz](/wiki/Gary_Katz \"Gary Katz\") by the [Repercussions](/wiki/Repercussions_%28band%29 \"Repercussions (band)\") for *[All Men Are Brothers: A Tribute to Curtis Mayfield](/wiki/A_Tribute_to_Curtis_Mayfield \"A Tribute to Curtis Mayfield\")*, while lying on his back in the recording studio. Although he was unable to play the guitar, he continued to compose and sing, which he found he could do by lying down and letting gravity pull down on his chest and lungs. The 1996 album *[New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28album%29 \"New World Order (album)\")* was recorded in this way, with vocals sometimes recorded in lines at a time.\n\n",
"### Final years and death\n\nMayfield received the [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\") in 1994\\. In February 1998, he had to have his right leg [amputated](/wiki/Amputated \"Amputated\") due to diabetes. He was inducted into the Rock \\& Roll Hall of Fame on March 15, 1999\\. Health reasons prevented him from attending the ceremony, which included fellow inductees [Paul McCartney](/wiki/Paul_McCartney \"Paul McCartney\"), [Billy Joel](/wiki/Billy_Joel \"Billy Joel\"), [Bruce Springsteen](/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen \"Bruce Springsteen\"), [Dusty Springfield](/wiki/Dusty_Springfield \"Dusty Springfield\"), [George Martin](/wiki/George_Martin \"George Martin\"), and 1970s Curtom signees and labelmates [the Staple Singers](/wiki/The_Staple_Singers \"The Staple Singers\").\n\nMayfield's last appearance on record was with the group [Bran Van 3000](/wiki/Bran_Van_3000 \"Bran Van 3000\") on the song \"[Astounded](/wiki/Astounded_%28Bran_Van_3000_song%29 \"Astounded (Bran Van 3000 song)\")\" for their album *[Discosis](/wiki/Discosis \"Discosis\")*, recorded just before his death and released in 2001\\. However, his health had steadily declined following his paralysis, so his vocals were not new but were instead lifted from archive recordings, including \"Move On Up\".\n\nMayfield died from complications of [type 2 diabetes](/wiki/Type_2_diabetes \"Type 2 diabetes\") at 7:20 EST (12:20 GMT) on December 26, 1999, at the North Fulton Regional Hospital in [Roswell, Georgia](/wiki/Roswell%2C_Georgia \"Roswell, Georgia\"). He was survived by his wife, Altheida Mayfield; his mother, Mariam Jackson; 10 children; two sisters, Carolyn Falls and Judy Mayfield; a brother, Kenneth Mayfield; and seven grandchildren.\n\n",
"Musical legacy\n--------------\n\n### Influence\n\nMayfield was among the first of a new wave of mainstream black [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") performing artists and composers injecting [social commentary](/wiki/Social_commentary \"Social commentary\") into their work. This \"message music\" proved immensely popular during the 1960s and 1970s.\n\nMayfield taught himself how to play guitar, tuning it to the black keys of the piano, giving the guitar an open F\\-sharp tuning that he used throughout his career.Carpenter, Bill. *Uncloudy Days: The Gospel Music Encyclopedia*, p. 273\\. CMP Media, 2005\\. . Accessed November 20, 2008\\. He primarily sang in [falsetto](/wiki/Falsetto \"Falsetto\") [register](/wiki/Vocal_register \"Vocal register\"). His guitar playing, singing, and socially aware song\\-writing influenced a range of artists, including [Jimi Hendrix](/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix \"Jimi Hendrix\"), [Bob Marley](/wiki/Bob_Marley \"Bob Marley\"), [Tracy Chapman](/wiki/Tracy_Chapman \"Tracy Chapman\"), [Sly Stone](/wiki/Sly_Stone \"Sly Stone\"), [Marvin Gaye](/wiki/Marvin_Gaye \"Marvin Gaye\"), [Stevie Wonder](/wiki/Stevie_Wonder \"Stevie Wonder\") and [Sinéad O'Connor](/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_O%27Connor \"Sinéad O'Connor\").\n\nIn 2017, it was reported that [Lionel Richie](/wiki/Lionel_Richie \"Lionel Richie\") had secured the rights to produce a biographical film about Mayfield. Richie said, \"I'm so grateful to be working closely with \\[Mayfield's widow] Altheida Mayfield, \\[son] Cheaa Mayfield and the Curtis Mayfield Estate and couldn't be happier to be moving forward on this amazing project about a one\\-of\\-a\\-kind music genius.\"\n\n### Accolades\n\n* The Impressions' 1965 hit song \"People Get Ready,\" composed by Mayfield, has been chosen as one of the Top 10 Best Songs Of All Time by a panel of 20 top industry songwriters and producers, including Paul McCartney, Brian Wilson, Hal David, and others, as reported to Britain's *Mojo* music magazine.\n* In 2019, *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")* was selected by the [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\") for preservation in the [National Recording Registry](/wiki/National_Recording_Registry \"National Recording Registry\") for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\n#### *Rolling Stone* rankings\n\n* The Impressions hits, \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" and \"For Your Precious Love\" are both ranked on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *500 Greatest Songs of All Time*, as No. 24 and No. 327 respectively.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 34 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked no. 38 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *200 Greatest Singers of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 40 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *100 Greatest Singers of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 48 on *Rolling Stone'''s list of the* 250 Greatest Guitarists of All Time*.\n Mayfield's album*\n* [Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\") *is ranked No. 72 on* Rolling Stone′s list of the *500 Greatest Albums of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 78 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *[100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_100_Greatest_Songwriters_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time\")*.\n* In 2004, *Rolling Stone* ranked Mayfield No. 98 on their [list of the *100 Greatest Artists of All Time*](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_100_Greatest_Artists_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time\").\n* The Impressions' album/CD The Anthology 1961–1977 is ranked at No. 179 on *Rolling Stone* magazine's [500 Greatest Albums of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Albums_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\").\n* Mayfield's eponymous album *[Curtis](/wiki/Curtis_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Curtis (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* is ranked No. 275 on *Rolling Stone′s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time*.\n",
"### Influence\n\nMayfield was among the first of a new wave of mainstream black [R\\&B](/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues \"Rhythm and blues\") performing artists and composers injecting [social commentary](/wiki/Social_commentary \"Social commentary\") into their work. This \"message music\" proved immensely popular during the 1960s and 1970s.\n\nMayfield taught himself how to play guitar, tuning it to the black keys of the piano, giving the guitar an open F\\-sharp tuning that he used throughout his career.Carpenter, Bill. *Uncloudy Days: The Gospel Music Encyclopedia*, p. 273\\. CMP Media, 2005\\. . Accessed November 20, 2008\\. He primarily sang in [falsetto](/wiki/Falsetto \"Falsetto\") [register](/wiki/Vocal_register \"Vocal register\"). His guitar playing, singing, and socially aware song\\-writing influenced a range of artists, including [Jimi Hendrix](/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix \"Jimi Hendrix\"), [Bob Marley](/wiki/Bob_Marley \"Bob Marley\"), [Tracy Chapman](/wiki/Tracy_Chapman \"Tracy Chapman\"), [Sly Stone](/wiki/Sly_Stone \"Sly Stone\"), [Marvin Gaye](/wiki/Marvin_Gaye \"Marvin Gaye\"), [Stevie Wonder](/wiki/Stevie_Wonder \"Stevie Wonder\") and [Sinéad O'Connor](/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_O%27Connor \"Sinéad O'Connor\").\n\nIn 2017, it was reported that [Lionel Richie](/wiki/Lionel_Richie \"Lionel Richie\") had secured the rights to produce a biographical film about Mayfield. Richie said, \"I'm so grateful to be working closely with \\[Mayfield's widow] Altheida Mayfield, \\[son] Cheaa Mayfield and the Curtis Mayfield Estate and couldn't be happier to be moving forward on this amazing project about a one\\-of\\-a\\-kind music genius.\"\n\n",
"### Accolades\n\n* The Impressions' 1965 hit song \"People Get Ready,\" composed by Mayfield, has been chosen as one of the Top 10 Best Songs Of All Time by a panel of 20 top industry songwriters and producers, including Paul McCartney, Brian Wilson, Hal David, and others, as reported to Britain's *Mojo* music magazine.\n* In 2019, *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")* was selected by the [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\") for preservation in the [National Recording Registry](/wiki/National_Recording_Registry \"National Recording Registry\") for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\n#### *Rolling Stone* rankings\n\n* The Impressions hits, \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" and \"For Your Precious Love\" are both ranked on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *500 Greatest Songs of All Time*, as No. 24 and No. 327 respectively.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 34 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked no. 38 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *200 Greatest Singers of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 40 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *100 Greatest Singers of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 48 on *Rolling Stone'''s list of the* 250 Greatest Guitarists of All Time*.\n Mayfield's album*\n* [Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\") *is ranked No. 72 on* Rolling Stone′s list of the *500 Greatest Albums of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 78 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *[100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_100_Greatest_Songwriters_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time\")*.\n* In 2004, *Rolling Stone* ranked Mayfield No. 98 on their [list of the *100 Greatest Artists of All Time*](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_100_Greatest_Artists_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time\").\n* The Impressions' album/CD The Anthology 1961–1977 is ranked at No. 179 on *Rolling Stone* magazine's [500 Greatest Albums of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Albums_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\").\n* Mayfield's eponymous album *[Curtis](/wiki/Curtis_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Curtis (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* is ranked No. 275 on *Rolling Stone′s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time*.\n",
"#### *Rolling Stone* rankings\n\n* The Impressions hits, \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" and \"For Your Precious Love\" are both ranked on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *500 Greatest Songs of All Time*, as No. 24 and No. 327 respectively.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 34 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked no. 38 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *200 Greatest Singers of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 40 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *100 Greatest Singers of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 48 on *Rolling Stone'''s list of the* 250 Greatest Guitarists of All Time*.\n Mayfield's album*\n* [Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\") *is ranked No. 72 on* Rolling Stone′s list of the *500 Greatest Albums of All Time*.\n* Mayfield is ranked No. 78 on *Rolling Stone*′s list of the *[100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_100_Greatest_Songwriters_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time\")*.\n* In 2004, *Rolling Stone* ranked Mayfield No. 98 on their [list of the *100 Greatest Artists of All Time*](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_100_Greatest_Artists_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time\").\n* The Impressions' album/CD The Anthology 1961–1977 is ranked at No. 179 on *Rolling Stone* magazine's [500 Greatest Albums of All Time](/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Albums_of_All_Time \"Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\").\n* Mayfield's eponymous album *[Curtis](/wiki/Curtis_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Curtis (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* is ranked No. 275 on *Rolling Stone′s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time*.\n",
"Awards and nominations\n----------------------\n\nIn 1972, the French Academy of Jazz awarded Mayfield's debut solo album *Curtis* the Prix [Otis Redding](/wiki/Otis_Redding \"Otis Redding\") for best R\\&B record.\n\n### Hall of Fame\n\n* 1991: Along with his group the Impressions, he was inducted into the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame \"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\").\n* 1999: Mayfield was inducted into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist making him one of the few artists to become double inductees.\n* 1999: Mayfield was inducted into the [Songwriters Hall of Fame](/wiki/Songwriters_Hall_of_Fame \"Songwriters Hall of Fame\") just prior to his death.\n* 2003: As a member of the Impressions, he was posthumously inducted into the [Vocal Group Hall of Fame](/wiki/Vocal_Group_Hall_of_Fame \"Vocal Group Hall of Fame\").\n\n### Grammy Awards\n\nMayfield was nominated for eight [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\") during his career. He is a winner of the prestigious [Grammy Legend Award](/wiki/Grammy_Legend_Award \"Grammy Legend Award\") and [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\"). \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1964\n\\| \"[Keep On Pushing](/wiki/Keep_On_Pushing_%28song%29 \"Keep On Pushing (song)\")\" \n\\| [Best R\\&B Performance](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| \"[Freddie's Dead](/wiki/Freddie%27s_Dead \"Freddie's Dead\")\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Vocal Performance, Male](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_R%26B_Vocal_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| \"Freddie's Dead\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Song](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Song \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Song\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| \"Junkie Chase\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Instrumental Performance](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Instrumental_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Instrumental Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*\n\\| [Best Score Written for Motion Picture or Television Special](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Score_Soundtrack_for_Visual_Media \"Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1994\n\\| Himself\n\\| [Legend Award](/wiki/Grammy_Legend_Award \"Grammy Legend Award\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1995\n\\| Himself\n\\| [Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1996\n\\| *[New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28album%29 \"New World Order (album)\")*\n\\| [Best R\\&B Vocal Performance, Male](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_R%26B_Vocal_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1997\n\\| \"New World Order\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Song](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Song \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Song\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1997\n\\| \"Back to Living Again\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Vocal Performance, Male](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_R%26B_Vocal_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance\")\n\\| \n\n#### Grammy Hall of Fame\n\n\\|\\-\n\\| 1998\n\\| \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" \n\\| Hall of Fame (Single)\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1998\n\\| *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*\n\\| Hall of Fame (Album)\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 2019\n\\| \"[Move On Up](/wiki/Move_On_Up \"Move On Up\")\"\n\\| Hall of Fame (Single)\n\\| \n\n",
"### Hall of Fame\n\n* 1991: Along with his group the Impressions, he was inducted into the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame \"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\").\n* 1999: Mayfield was inducted into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist making him one of the few artists to become double inductees.\n* 1999: Mayfield was inducted into the [Songwriters Hall of Fame](/wiki/Songwriters_Hall_of_Fame \"Songwriters Hall of Fame\") just prior to his death.\n* 2003: As a member of the Impressions, he was posthumously inducted into the [Vocal Group Hall of Fame](/wiki/Vocal_Group_Hall_of_Fame \"Vocal Group Hall of Fame\").\n",
"### Grammy Awards\n\nMayfield was nominated for eight [Grammy Awards](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\") during his career. He is a winner of the prestigious [Grammy Legend Award](/wiki/Grammy_Legend_Award \"Grammy Legend Award\") and [Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\"). \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1964\n\\| \"[Keep On Pushing](/wiki/Keep_On_Pushing_%28song%29 \"Keep On Pushing (song)\")\" \n\\| [Best R\\&B Performance](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| \"[Freddie's Dead](/wiki/Freddie%27s_Dead \"Freddie's Dead\")\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Vocal Performance, Male](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_R%26B_Vocal_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| \"Freddie's Dead\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Song](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Song \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Song\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| \"Junkie Chase\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Instrumental Performance](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Instrumental_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Instrumental Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1972\n\\| *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*\n\\| [Best Score Written for Motion Picture or Television Special](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Score_Soundtrack_for_Visual_Media \"Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1994\n\\| Himself\n\\| [Legend Award](/wiki/Grammy_Legend_Award \"Grammy Legend Award\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1995\n\\| Himself\n\\| [Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1996\n\\| *[New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28album%29 \"New World Order (album)\")*\n\\| [Best R\\&B Vocal Performance, Male](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_R%26B_Vocal_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1997\n\\| \"New World Order\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Song](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Song \"Grammy Award for Best R&B Song\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1997\n\\| \"Back to Living Again\"\n\\| [Best R\\&B Vocal Performance, Male](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Male_R%26B_Vocal_Performance \"Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance\")\n\\| \n\n#### Grammy Hall of Fame\n\n\\|\\-\n\\| 1998\n\\| \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" \n\\| Hall of Fame (Single)\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1998\n\\| *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*\n\\| Hall of Fame (Album)\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 2019\n\\| \"[Move On Up](/wiki/Move_On_Up \"Move On Up\")\"\n\\| Hall of Fame (Single)\n\\| \n\n",
"#### Grammy Hall of Fame\n\n\\|\\-\n\\| 1998\n\\| \"[People Get Ready](/wiki/People_Get_Ready \"People Get Ready\")\" \n\\| Hall of Fame (Single)\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 1998\n\\| *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")*\n\\| Hall of Fame (Album)\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| 2019\n\\| \"[Move On Up](/wiki/Move_On_Up \"Move On Up\")\"\n\\| Hall of Fame (Single)\n\\| \n\n",
"Discography\n-----------\n\n* *[Curtis](/wiki/Curtis_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Curtis (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1970\\)\n* *[Roots](/wiki/Roots_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Roots (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1971\\)\n* *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%28soundtrack%29 \"Super Fly (soundtrack)\")* (1972\\)\n* *[Back to the World](/wiki/Back_to_the_World_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Back to the World (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1973\\)\n* *[Claudine](/wiki/Claudine_%28soundtrack%29 \"Claudine (soundtrack)\")* (with [Gladys Knight \\& the Pips](/wiki/Gladys_Knight_%26_the_Pips \"Gladys Knight & the Pips\")) (1974\\)\n* *[Sweet Exorcist](/wiki/Sweet_Exorcist_%28album%29 \"Sweet Exorcist (album)\")* (1974\\)\n* *[Got to Find a Way](/wiki/Got_to_Find_a_Way \"Got to Find a Way\")* (1974\\)\n* *[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%28soundtrack%29 \"Let's Do It Again (soundtrack)\")* (1975\\)\n* *[There's No Place Like America Today](/wiki/There%27s_No_Place_Like_America_Today \"There's No Place Like America Today\")* (1975\\)\n* *[Give, Get, Take and Have](/wiki/Give%2C_Get%2C_Take_and_Have \"Give, Get, Take and Have\")* (1976\\)\n* *[Sparkle](/wiki/Sparkle_%28soundtrack%29 \"Sparkle (soundtrack)\")* (with [Aretha Franklin](/wiki/Aretha_Franklin \"Aretha Franklin\")) (1976\\)\n\n* *[Never Say You Can't Survive](/wiki/Never_Say_You_Can%27t_Survive \"Never Say You Can't Survive\")* (1977\\)\n* *[Short Eyes](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28album%29 \"Short Eyes (album)\")* (1977\\)\n* *[Do It All Night](/wiki/Do_It_All_Night_%28album%29 \"Do It All Night (album)\")* (1978\\)\n* *[Heartbeat](/wiki/Heartbeat_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Heartbeat (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1979\\)\n* *[Something to Believe In](/wiki/Something_to_Believe_In_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Something to Believe In (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1980\\)\n* *[The Right Combination](/wiki/The_Right_Combination_%28Linda_Clifford_and_Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"The Right Combination (Linda Clifford and Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (with [Linda Clifford](/wiki/Linda_Clifford \"Linda Clifford\")) (1980\\)\n* *[Love Is the Place](/wiki/Love_Is_the_Place \"Love Is the Place\")* (1982\\)\n* *[Honesty](/wiki/Honesty_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Honesty (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1983\\)\n* *[We Come in Peace with a Message of Love](/wiki/We_Come_in_Peace_with_a_Message_of_Love \"We Come in Peace with a Message of Love\")* (1985\\)\n* *[Take It to the Streets](/wiki/Take_It_to_the_Streets_%28Curtis_Mayfield_album%29 \"Take It to the Streets (Curtis Mayfield album)\")* (1990\\)\n* *[New World Order](/wiki/New_World_Order_%28album%29 \"New World Order (album)\")* (1996\\)\n\n",
"Filmography\n-----------\n\n* *[Super Fly](/wiki/Super_Fly_%281972_film%29 \"Super Fly (1972 film)\")* (1972\\) as himself\n* *[Save the Children](/wiki/Save_the_Children_%28film%29 \"Save the Children (film)\")* (1973\\) as himself\n* *[Short Eyes](/wiki/Short_Eyes_%28film%29 \"Short Eyes (film)\")* (1977\\) as Pappy\n* *[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band](/wiki/Sgt._Pepper%27s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band_%28film%29 \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (film)\")* (1978\\) as Guest\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official Curtis Mayfield Website](http://www.CurtisMayfield.com)\n* [\"Curtis Mayfield and the Impressions perform 'We're a Winner' \"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080206000853/http://openvault.wgbh.org/saybrother/MLA001079/index.html%3A) for the WGBH series, [Say Brother](https://web.archive.org/web/20100306075844/http://openvault.wgbh.org/series/Say%20Brother/)\n* [Obituary from Socialist Action](https://web.archive.org/web/20120715094221/http://www.socialistaction.org/news/200001/curtis.html)\n* [BBC Obituary](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/579113.stm)\n* [RBMA Radio On Demand – Across 135th Street – Volume 10 – Curtis Mayfield Tribute – Chairman Mao (RBMA, Egotrip)](https://web.archive.org/web/20080424045050/http://rbmaradio.com/ARCHIVE.153.0.php?extID=0&showID=521)\n* [Curtis Mayfield and the Impact of His Music on the Civil Rights Movement](http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Curti) A Conversation with Mr. Howard Dodson and Dr. Portia K. Maultsby at the Jimmy Carter Presidential Library and Museum\n* [Curtis Mayfield and the *Super Fly* legacy – Wax Poetics](http://www.waxpoetics.com/features/articles/gangster-boogie) \n\n[Category:1942 births](/wiki/Category:1942_births \"1942 births\")\n[Category:1999 deaths](/wiki/Category:1999_deaths \"1999 deaths\")\n[Category:20th\\-century African\\-American male singers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_African-American_male_singers \"20th-century African-American male singers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American male singers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_singers \"20th-century American male singers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American guitarists](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_guitarists \"20th-century American guitarists\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American singers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_singers \"20th-century American singers\")\n[Category:African\\-American guitarists](/wiki/Category:African-American_guitarists \"African-American guitarists\")\n[Category:African\\-American male singer\\-songwriters](/wiki/Category:African-American_male_singer-songwriters \"African-American male singer-songwriters\")\n[Category:American male singer\\-songwriters](/wiki/Category:American_male_singer-songwriters \"American male singer-songwriters\")\n[Category:American amputees](/wiki/Category:American_amputees \"American amputees\")\n[Category:American funk guitarists](/wiki/Category:American_funk_guitarists \"American funk guitarists\")\n[Category:American funk singers](/wiki/Category:American_funk_singers \"American funk singers\")\n[Category:American male guitarists](/wiki/Category:American_male_guitarists \"American male guitarists\")\n[Category:American rhythm and blues guitarists](/wiki/Category:American_rhythm_and_blues_guitarists \"American rhythm and blues guitarists\")\n[Category:American rhythm and blues singer\\-songwriters](/wiki/Category:American_rhythm_and_blues_singer-songwriters \"American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters\")\n[Category:American rhythm and blues singers](/wiki/Category:American_rhythm_and_blues_singers \"American rhythm and blues singers\")\n[Category:American soul guitarists](/wiki/Category:American_soul_guitarists \"American soul guitarists\")\n[Category:American soul musicians](/wiki/Category:American_soul_musicians \"American soul musicians\")\n[Category:American soul singers](/wiki/Category:American_soul_singers \"American soul singers\")\n[Category:Charly Records artists](/wiki/Category:Charly_Records_artists \"Charly Records artists\")\n[Category:American countertenors](/wiki/Category:American_countertenors \"American countertenors\")\n[Category:Deaths from diabetes in the United States](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_diabetes_in_the_United_States \"Deaths from diabetes in the United States\")\n[Category:Grammy Legend Award winners](/wiki/Category:Grammy_Legend_Award_winners \"Grammy Legend Award winners\")\n[Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners](/wiki/Category:Grammy_Lifetime_Achievement_Award_winners \"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners\")\n[Category:Guitarists from Chicago](/wiki/Category:Guitarists_from_Chicago \"Guitarists from Chicago\")\n[Category:The Impressions members](/wiki/Category:The_Impressions_members \"The Impressions members\")\n[Category:People with tetraplegia](/wiki/Category:People_with_tetraplegia \"People with tetraplegia\")\n[Category:Progressive soul musicians](/wiki/Category:Progressive_soul_musicians \"Progressive soul musicians\")\n[Category:Psychedelic soul musicians](/wiki/Category:Psychedelic_soul_musicians \"Psychedelic soul musicians\")\n[Category:Record producers from Illinois](/wiki/Category:Record_producers_from_Illinois \"Record producers from Illinois\")\n[Category:RSO Records artists](/wiki/Category:RSO_Records_artists \"RSO Records artists\")\n[Category:Singer\\-songwriters from Illinois](/wiki/Category:Singer-songwriters_from_Illinois \"Singer-songwriters from Illinois\")\n[Category:Singers from Chicago](/wiki/Category:Singers_from_Chicago \"Singers from Chicago\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Guarded suspension
|
{
"id": [
45789152
],
"name": [
"Jlwoodwa"
]
}
|
90ocx2c01rfhdm6mtc33ex9oeevhmhv
|
2023-07-15T22:38:23Z
| 1,165,553,076 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Usage",
"Implementation",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\nIn [concurrent programming](/wiki/Concurrent_computing \"Concurrent computing\"), **guarded suspension** is a [software design pattern](/wiki/Design_pattern_%28computer_science%29 \"Design pattern (computer science)\") for managing operations that require both a [lock](/wiki/Lock_%28computer_science%29 \"Lock (computer science)\") to be acquired and a [precondition](/wiki/Precondition \"Precondition\") to be satisfied before the operation can be executed. The guarded suspension pattern is typically applied to method calls in object\\-oriented programs, and involves suspending the method call, and the calling thread, until the precondition (acting as a [guard](/wiki/Guard_%28computer_science%29 \"Guard (computer science)\")) is satisfied.\n\n",
"Usage\n-----\n\nBecause it is [blocking](/wiki/Blocking_%28computing%29 \"Blocking (computing)\"), the guarded suspension pattern is generally only used when the developer knows that a method call will be suspended for a finite and reasonable period of time. If a method call is suspended for too long, then the overall program will slow down or stop, waiting for the precondition to be satisfied. If the developer knows that the method call suspension will be indefinite or for an unacceptably long period, then the [balking pattern](/wiki/Balking_pattern \"Balking pattern\") may be preferred.\n\n",
"Implementation\n--------------\n\nIn Java, the Object class provides the `wait()` and `notify()` methods to assist with guarded suspension. In the implementation below, originally found in , if there is no precondition satisfied for the method call to be successful, then the method will wait until it finally enters a valid state.\n\npublic class Example {\n\n```\n synchronized void guardedMethod() {\n while (!preCondition()) {\n try {\n // Continue to wait\n wait();\n // …\n } catch (InterruptedException e) {\n // …\n }\n }\n // Actual task implementation\n }\n synchronized void alterObjectStateMethod() {\n // Change the object state\n // …\n // Inform waiting threads\n notify();\n }\n\n```\n}\n\nAn example of an actual implementation would be a queue object with a `get` method that has a guard to detect when there are no items in the queue. Once the `put` method notifies the other methods (for example, a `get` method), then the `get` method can exit its guarded state and proceed with a call. Once the queue is empty, then the `get` method will enter a guarded state once again.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Balking pattern](/wiki/Balking_pattern \"Balking pattern\") is an alternative pattern for dealing with a precondition\n* [Guarded Command Language](/wiki/Guarded_Command_Language \"Guarded Command Language\") includes a similar language construct\n* [Readers–writer lock](/wiki/Readers%E2%80%93writer_lock \"Readers–writer lock\")\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n* .\n\n[Category:Software design patterns](/wiki/Category:Software_design_patterns \"Software design patterns\")\n\n \n\n"
]
}
|
Virgil Thomson
|
{
"id": [
35936988
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"name": [
"JJMC89 bot III"
]
}
|
2biab9r9pd8ygt61dpan01li96rouqf
|
2024-09-24T19:16:22Z
| 1,247,396,257 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Early years",
"Later years",
"Awards and honors",
"Death",
"Works",
"Operas",
"Ballet",
"Film scores",
"Incidental music",
"Orchestra",
"Vocal",
"Choral",
"Keyboard",
"Piano portraits",
"Chamber ensemble",
"Bibliography",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Virgil Thomson** (November 25, 1896 – September 30, 1989\\) was an American composer and [critic](/wiki/Critic \"Critic\"). He was instrumental in the development of the \"American Sound\" in classical music. He has been described as a [modernist](/wiki/Modernism_%28music%29 \"Modernism (music)\"),Dickinson, Peter. 1986\\. \"Stein Satie Cummings Thomson Berners Cage: Toward a Context for the Music of Virgil Thomson\". *[The Musical Quarterly](/wiki/The_Musical_Quarterly \"The Musical Quarterly\")* 72, no. 3:394–409\\.Lerner, Neil William. 1997\\. \"The Classical Documentary Score in American Films of Persuasion: Contexts and Case Studies, 1936–1945\". PhD diss. Duke University.Kime, Mary W. 1989\\. \"Modernism and Americana: A Study of *The Mother of Us All*\". *Ars Musica Denver* 2, no. 1 (Fall): pp. 24–29\\.[Watson, Steven](/wiki/Steven_Watson_%28author%29 \"Steven Watson (author)\"). 1998\\. *Prepare for Saints: Gertrude Stein, Virgil Thomson, and the Mainstreaming of American Modernism*. New York: Random House, 1998; (cloth); reissued in paperback, University of California Berkeley Press, 2000; a [neoromantic](/wiki/Neoromanticism_%28music%29 \"Neoromanticism (music)\"),Thomson, Virgil. 2002\\. *Virgil Thomson: A Reader: Selected Writings, 1924–1984*, edited by [Richard Kostelanetz](/wiki/Richard_Kostelanetz \"Richard Kostelanetz\"). New York: Routledge; . p. 268 a [neoclassicist](/wiki/Neoclassicism_%28music%29 \"Neoclassicism (music)\"),[Glanville\\-Hicks, Peggy](/wiki/Glanville-Hicks%2C_Peggy \"Glanville-Hicks, Peggy\"). 1949b. \"Virgil Thomson\". *[The Musical Quarterly](/wiki/The_Musical_Quarterly \"The Musical Quarterly\")* 35, no. 2 (April): 209–225, citation on p. 210 and a composer of \"an Olympian blend of humanity and detachment\"[Glanville\\-Hicks, Peggy](/wiki/Glanville-Hicks%2C_Peggy \"Glanville-Hicks, Peggy\"). 1949a. \"Virgil Thomson: *Four Saints in Three Acts*\". *[Notes](/wiki/Notes_%28journal%29 \"Notes (journal)\")*, second series, 6, no. 2 (March): pp. 328–330\\. whose \"expressive voice was always carefully muted\" until his late opera *[Lord Byron](/wiki/Lord_Byron_%28opera%29 \"Lord Byron (opera)\")* which, in contrast to all his previous work, exhibited an emotional content that rises to \"moments of real passion\".Griffiths, Paul. 2001\\. \"Thomson, Virgil\", in *[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians](/wiki/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians \"The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians\")*, second edition, edited by [Stanley Sadie](/wiki/Stanley_Sadie \"Stanley Sadie\") and [John Tyrrell](/wiki/John_Tyrrell_%28musicologist%29 \"John Tyrrell (musicologist)\"). London: Macmillan Publishers; New York: Grove's Dictionaries.\n\n",
"Biography\n---------\n\n### Early years\n\nThomson was born in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"). As a child he befriended Alice Smith, great\\-granddaughter of [Joseph Smith](/wiki/Joseph_Smith \"Joseph Smith\"), founder of the [Latter\\-day Saint movement](/wiki/Latter-day_Saint_movement \"Latter-day Saint movement\"). During his youth he often played the organ in Grace Church, (now [Grace and Holy Trinity Cathedral](/wiki/Grace_and_Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_%28Kansas_City%2C_Missouri%29 \"Grace and Holy Trinity Cathedral (Kansas City, Missouri)\")), as his piano teacher was the church's organist. After World War I, he entered [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") thanks to a loan from Dr. [Fred M. Smith](/wiki/Frederick_M._Smith \"Frederick M. Smith\"), the president of the [Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints](/wiki/Reorganized_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter_Day_Saints \"Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints\"), and father of Alice Smith. His tours of Europe with the [Harvard Glee Club](/wiki/Harvard_Glee_Club \"Harvard Glee Club\") helped nurture his desire to return there.\n\nAt Harvard, Thomson focused his studies on the piano work of [Erik Satie](/wiki/Erik_Satie \"Erik Satie\"). He studied in Paris on fellowship for a year, and after graduating lived in Paris from 1925 until 1940\\. While studying in Paris he was influenced by several French composers who were members of \"[Les Six](/wiki/Les_Six \"Les Six\")\" including: [Darius Milhaud](/wiki/Darius_Milhaud \"Darius Milhaud\"), [Francis Poulenc](/wiki/Francis_Poulenc \"Francis Poulenc\"), [Arthur Honegger](/wiki/Arthur_Honegger \"Arthur Honegger\"), [Georges Auric](/wiki/Georges_Auric \"Georges Auric\"), and [Germaine Tailleferre](/wiki/Germaine_Tailleferre \"Germaine Tailleferre\").[\"Virgil Thomson\"](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Virgil-Thomson), *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica \"Encyclopædia Britannica\")* He eventually studied with [Nadia Boulanger](/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger \"Nadia Boulanger\") and became a fixture of \"Paris in the twenties\".\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=.8\\|[Maurice Grosser](/wiki/Maurice_Grosser \"Maurice Grosser\") in 1935](/wiki/File:Maurice_Grosser%2C_1935.jpg \"Maurice Grosser, 1935.jpg\")\n\nIn Paris in 1925, he cemented a relationship with painter [Maurice Grosser](/wiki/Maurice_Grosser \"Maurice Grosser\"), who was to become his life partner and frequent collaborator. Later he and Grosser lived at the [Hotel Chelsea](/wiki/Hotel_Chelsea \"Hotel Chelsea\"), where he presided over a largely gay salon that attracted many of the leading figures in music and art and theater, including [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"), [Tennessee Williams](/wiki/Tennessee_Williams \"Tennessee Williams\"), and many others. He also encouraged many younger composers and literary figures such as [Theodor Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_Adorno \"Theodor Adorno\"), [Ned Rorem](/wiki/Ned_Rorem \"Ned Rorem\"), [Lou Harrison](/wiki/Lou_Harrison \"Lou Harrison\"), [John Cage](/wiki/John_Cage \"John Cage\"), [Frank O'Hara](/wiki/Frank_O%27Hara \"Frank O'Hara\"), and [Paul Bowles](/wiki/Paul_Bowles \"Paul Bowles\"). Grosser died in 1986, three years before Thomson.Patricia Juliana Smith (2002\\), [\"Virgil Thomson\"](http://www.glbtqarchive.com/arts/thomson_v_A.pdf), glbtqarchive.com\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=.7\\|[Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\") in 1934, photograph by [Carl Van Vechten](/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten \"Carl Van Vechten\")](/wiki/File:Gertrude_stein.jpg \"Gertrude stein.jpg\")\n\nHis most important friend from this period was [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\"), who was an artistic collaborator and mentor to him. After meeting Stein in Paris in 1926, Thomson invited her to prepare a libretto for an opera which he hoped to compose. Their collaboration resulted in the premier of the groundbreaking composition *[Four Saints in Three Acts](/wiki/Four_Saints_in_Three_Acts \"Four Saints in Three Acts\")* in 1934\\. At the time, the opera was noted for its form, musical content and the portrayal of European saints by an all\\-black cast. Years later in 1947, he collaborated once again with Stein on his provocative opera *[The Mother of Us All](/wiki/The_Mother_of_Us_All \"The Mother of Us All\")* which portrays the life of the social reformer [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony \"Susan B. Anthony\"). Thomson incorporated musical elements from Baptist hymns, Gregorian chants and popular songs into both scores while demonstrating a restrained use of dissonance.\n\nThomson's contributions to music were not limited to the operatic stage, however. In 1936, he established a collaboration with the film director [Pare Lorentz](/wiki/Pare_Lorentz \"Pare Lorentz\") and composed music for the documentary film *[The Plow That Broke the Plains](/wiki/The_Plow_That_Broke_the_Plains \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\")* for the United States government's [Resettlement Administration](/wiki/Resettlement_Administration \"Resettlement Administration\") (RA). Thomson incorporated folk melodies and religious musical themes into the film score and subsequently composed an orchestral suite of the same name which was recorded by [Leopold Stokowski](/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski \"Leopold Stokowski\") and the [Hollywood Bowl](/wiki/Hollywood_Bowl \"Hollywood Bowl\") Symphony Orchestra in 1946 for RCA Victor (\\# 11\\-9522,11\\-9523\\).[*The Plow That Broke the Plains – Suite* score by Virgil Thomson as recorded by Leopold Stokowski and the Hollywood Bowl Symphony Orchestra in 1946 on archive.org](https://archive.org/details/VIRGILTHOMSONThePlowThatBrokeThePlains) In 1938 he also formed a collaboration with Lorentz and the operatic singer [Thomas Hardie Chalmers](/wiki/Thomas_Hardie_Chalmers \"Thomas Hardie Chalmers\") on the documentary film *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281938_film%29 \"The River (1938 film)\")* for the United States government's [Farm Security Administration](/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration \"Farm Security Administration\").[*The River* by Farm Security Administration, Paul Lorentz \\& Virgil Thomson on Archive.org](https://archive.org/details/TheRiverReformatted) Thomson composed an orchestra suite based on the score; when it was published, the musical journal *[Notes](/wiki/Notes_%28journal%29 \"Notes (journal)\")* commented: \"Delightful as background music, the piece is an awful bore when you try to give it your full attention\".Evett, Robert. [\"Virgil Thomson: Suite from *The River*\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/89344), *[Notes](/wiki/Notes_%28journal%29 \"Notes (journal)\")*, vol. 16, no. 1 (December, 1958\\), pp. 162–163 \n\nSubsequently, in 1948 he collaborated with the director [Robert J. Flaherty](/wiki/Robert_J._Flaherty \"Robert J. Flaherty\") on the [docufiction](/wiki/Docufiction \"Docufiction\") film *[Louisiana Story](/wiki/Louisiana_Story \"Louisiana Story\")*, for which he received the [Pulitzer Prize for Music](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Music \"Pulitzer Prize for Music\") in 1949\\. At the time, the award was the only Pulitzer Prize in music granted for a musical composition written exclusively for film.[*The Pulitzer Prizes – Music for the Film* Louisiana Story *by Virgil Thomson – 1949 Pulitzer prize Winner*, Virgil Thomson on pulitzer.org](https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/virgil-thomson) Thomson's suite based on the score was premiered by [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\") and the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra \"Philadelphia Orchestra\") in 1949 to widespread critical acclaim.\n\nFollowing the publication of his book, *The State of Music*, Thomson established himself in New York City as a rival of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\"). Thomson's criticisms of Copland were phrased in terms that brought accusations of antisemitism, but Copland remained on good terms with him, and Thomson admitted his envy of Copland's greater success as a composer.[Ivry, Benjamin](/wiki/Benjamin_Ivry \"Benjamin Ivry\"). [\"Was Our Greatest Composer\\-Critic an Unrepentant Anti\\-Semite?\"](https://forward.com/culture/218271/was-our-greatest-composer-critic-an-unrepentant-an/), *Forward*, April 10, 2015 Thomson was also a music critic for the *[New York Herald\\-Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Herald-Tribune \"New York Herald-Tribune\")* from 1940 to 1954\\.See Virgil Thomson biography [here](http://www.virgilthomson.org/bio.html) A fellow critic, Robert Miles, accused him of being \"vindictive and of settling scores in print\".Miles, Robert. [\"Virgil Thomson All Told\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27548453), *The Sewanee Review*, vol. 106, no. 1 (Winter, 1998\\), pp. xx–xxii In a 1997 article in *[American Music](/wiki/American_Music_%28journal%29 \"American Music (journal)\")*, Suzanne Robinson writes that Thomson, motivated by \"a mixture of spite, national pride, and professional jealousy\" was consistently \"severe and spiteful\" to [Benjamin Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\").Robinson, Suzanne. [\"An English Composer Sees America: Benjamin Britten and the North American Press, 1939–42\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3052328), *[American Music](/wiki/American_Music_%28journal%29 \"American Music (journal)\")*, vol. 15, no. 3 (Autumn 1997\\), pp. 321–351 Miles records that Thomson agitated for more performances in New York of new music, including his own.\n\nThomson's definition of music was \"that which musicians do\",[Rorem, Ned](/wiki/Ned_Rorem \"Ned Rorem\") *A Ned Rorem Reader* (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2001\\) p. 223 and his views on music are radical in their insistence on reducing the rarefied aesthetics of music to market activity. He even went so far as to claim that the style a piece was written in could be most effectively understood as a consequence of its income source.\n\n### Later years\n\nIn 1969, Thomson composed *Metropolitan Museum Fanfare: Portrait Of An American Artist* to accompany the [Museum's Centennial](/wiki/The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_Centennial \"The Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial\") exhibition \"New York Painting And Sculpture: 1940–1970\".[Finding aid for the George Trescher records related to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial, 1949, 1960–1971 (bulk 1967–1970\\)](http://libmma.org/digital_files/archives/Trescher_Centennial_records_b18234550.pdf). [The Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art \"The Metropolitan Museum of Art\"); retrieved August 6, 2014\\.[Tommasini, Anthony](/wiki/Tommasini%2C_Anthony \"Tommasini, Anthony\"), *Virgil Thomson's Musical Portraits* (New York: Pendragon Press, 1986\\), p. 19\\. .\n\nThomson became a sort of mentor and father figure to a new generation of American tonal composers such as [Ned Rorem](/wiki/Ned_Rorem \"Ned Rorem\"), [Paul Bowles](/wiki/Paul_Bowles \"Paul Bowles\") and [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"), a circle united as much by their shared homosexuality as by their similar compositional sensibilities.Hubbs, Nadine. *The Queer Composition of America's Sound; Gay Modernists, American Music, and National Identity* (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2004\\). Women composers were not part of that circle, and one writer has suggested that, as a critic, he selectively omitted mention of their works, or adopted a more passive tone when praising them.Karen L. Carter\\-Schwendler. [\"Virgil Thomson's *Herald Tribune* Writings: Fulfilling the 'Cultural Obligation' Selectively\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061003174207/http://www.iawm.org/articles_html/carter_thomson.html), in *[IAWM](/wiki/International_Alliance_for_Women_in_Music \"International Alliance for Women in Music\") Journal*, June 1995, pp. 12–15\\.\n\n### Awards and honors\n\nThomson was a recipient of [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\")'s [Sanford Medal](/wiki/Sanford_Medal \"Sanford Medal\").[Leading clarinetist to receive Sanford Medal](http://www.tourdates.co.uk/news/6384-Leading-clarinetist-to-receive-Sanford-Medal) , tourdates.co.uk; accessed October 31, 2015\\. In 1949, he was awarded the [Pulitzer Prize for Music](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Music \"Pulitzer Prize for Music\") for the score to the film *[Louisiana Story](/wiki/Louisiana_Story \"Louisiana Story\")* and in 1977, he was awarded The [Edward MacDowell Medal](/wiki/Edward_MacDowell_Medal \"Edward MacDowell Medal\") by [The MacDowell Colony](/wiki/The_MacDowell_Colony \"The MacDowell Colony\") for outstanding contributions to American culture. In addition, the [Kennedy Center Honors](/wiki/Kennedy_Center_Honors \"Kennedy Center Honors\") award was bestowed upon Thomson in 1983\\. In 1988, he was awarded the [National Medal of Arts](/wiki/National_Medal_of_Arts \"National Medal of Arts\") by President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\").[Lifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts](http://www.nea.gov/honors/medals/medalists_year.html#88) , nea.gov; accessed October 31, 2015\\.[*Virgil Thomson: Music Chronicles 1940–1954* Virgil Thomson. Library of America and Penguin Random House, New York 2014](https://books.google.com/books?id=bPUTBQAAQBAJ&q=National+Medal+of+Arts&pg=PT870) See Chronology 1988\\. Virgil Thomson and National Medal of Arts and Ronald Reagan He was a National Patron of [Delta Omicron](/wiki/Delta_Omicron \"Delta Omicron\"), an international professional music fraternity.[Delta Omicron](http://delta-omicron.org/index00.html) , delta\\-omicron.org; accessed October 31, 2015\\.\n\n### Death\n\nThomson died on September 30, 1989, in his suite at the [Hotel Chelsea](/wiki/Hotel_Chelsea \"Hotel Chelsea\") in Manhattan, aged 92\\. He had lived at the Chelsea for close to 50 years.\n\n",
"### Early years\n\nThomson was born in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"). As a child he befriended Alice Smith, great\\-granddaughter of [Joseph Smith](/wiki/Joseph_Smith \"Joseph Smith\"), founder of the [Latter\\-day Saint movement](/wiki/Latter-day_Saint_movement \"Latter-day Saint movement\"). During his youth he often played the organ in Grace Church, (now [Grace and Holy Trinity Cathedral](/wiki/Grace_and_Holy_Trinity_Cathedral_%28Kansas_City%2C_Missouri%29 \"Grace and Holy Trinity Cathedral (Kansas City, Missouri)\")), as his piano teacher was the church's organist. After World War I, he entered [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") thanks to a loan from Dr. [Fred M. Smith](/wiki/Frederick_M._Smith \"Frederick M. Smith\"), the president of the [Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints](/wiki/Reorganized_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter_Day_Saints \"Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints\"), and father of Alice Smith. His tours of Europe with the [Harvard Glee Club](/wiki/Harvard_Glee_Club \"Harvard Glee Club\") helped nurture his desire to return there.\n\nAt Harvard, Thomson focused his studies on the piano work of [Erik Satie](/wiki/Erik_Satie \"Erik Satie\"). He studied in Paris on fellowship for a year, and after graduating lived in Paris from 1925 until 1940\\. While studying in Paris he was influenced by several French composers who were members of \"[Les Six](/wiki/Les_Six \"Les Six\")\" including: [Darius Milhaud](/wiki/Darius_Milhaud \"Darius Milhaud\"), [Francis Poulenc](/wiki/Francis_Poulenc \"Francis Poulenc\"), [Arthur Honegger](/wiki/Arthur_Honegger \"Arthur Honegger\"), [Georges Auric](/wiki/Georges_Auric \"Georges Auric\"), and [Germaine Tailleferre](/wiki/Germaine_Tailleferre \"Germaine Tailleferre\").[\"Virgil Thomson\"](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Virgil-Thomson), *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica \"Encyclopædia Britannica\")* He eventually studied with [Nadia Boulanger](/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger \"Nadia Boulanger\") and became a fixture of \"Paris in the twenties\".\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=.8\\|[Maurice Grosser](/wiki/Maurice_Grosser \"Maurice Grosser\") in 1935](/wiki/File:Maurice_Grosser%2C_1935.jpg \"Maurice Grosser, 1935.jpg\")\n\nIn Paris in 1925, he cemented a relationship with painter [Maurice Grosser](/wiki/Maurice_Grosser \"Maurice Grosser\"), who was to become his life partner and frequent collaborator. Later he and Grosser lived at the [Hotel Chelsea](/wiki/Hotel_Chelsea \"Hotel Chelsea\"), where he presided over a largely gay salon that attracted many of the leading figures in music and art and theater, including [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"), [Tennessee Williams](/wiki/Tennessee_Williams \"Tennessee Williams\"), and many others. He also encouraged many younger composers and literary figures such as [Theodor Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_Adorno \"Theodor Adorno\"), [Ned Rorem](/wiki/Ned_Rorem \"Ned Rorem\"), [Lou Harrison](/wiki/Lou_Harrison \"Lou Harrison\"), [John Cage](/wiki/John_Cage \"John Cage\"), [Frank O'Hara](/wiki/Frank_O%27Hara \"Frank O'Hara\"), and [Paul Bowles](/wiki/Paul_Bowles \"Paul Bowles\"). Grosser died in 1986, three years before Thomson.Patricia Juliana Smith (2002\\), [\"Virgil Thomson\"](http://www.glbtqarchive.com/arts/thomson_v_A.pdf), glbtqarchive.com\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=.7\\|[Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\") in 1934, photograph by [Carl Van Vechten](/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten \"Carl Van Vechten\")](/wiki/File:Gertrude_stein.jpg \"Gertrude stein.jpg\")\n\nHis most important friend from this period was [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\"), who was an artistic collaborator and mentor to him. After meeting Stein in Paris in 1926, Thomson invited her to prepare a libretto for an opera which he hoped to compose. Their collaboration resulted in the premier of the groundbreaking composition *[Four Saints in Three Acts](/wiki/Four_Saints_in_Three_Acts \"Four Saints in Three Acts\")* in 1934\\. At the time, the opera was noted for its form, musical content and the portrayal of European saints by an all\\-black cast. Years later in 1947, he collaborated once again with Stein on his provocative opera *[The Mother of Us All](/wiki/The_Mother_of_Us_All \"The Mother of Us All\")* which portrays the life of the social reformer [Susan B. Anthony](/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony \"Susan B. Anthony\"). Thomson incorporated musical elements from Baptist hymns, Gregorian chants and popular songs into both scores while demonstrating a restrained use of dissonance.\n\nThomson's contributions to music were not limited to the operatic stage, however. In 1936, he established a collaboration with the film director [Pare Lorentz](/wiki/Pare_Lorentz \"Pare Lorentz\") and composed music for the documentary film *[The Plow That Broke the Plains](/wiki/The_Plow_That_Broke_the_Plains \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\")* for the United States government's [Resettlement Administration](/wiki/Resettlement_Administration \"Resettlement Administration\") (RA). Thomson incorporated folk melodies and religious musical themes into the film score and subsequently composed an orchestral suite of the same name which was recorded by [Leopold Stokowski](/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski \"Leopold Stokowski\") and the [Hollywood Bowl](/wiki/Hollywood_Bowl \"Hollywood Bowl\") Symphony Orchestra in 1946 for RCA Victor (\\# 11\\-9522,11\\-9523\\).[*The Plow That Broke the Plains – Suite* score by Virgil Thomson as recorded by Leopold Stokowski and the Hollywood Bowl Symphony Orchestra in 1946 on archive.org](https://archive.org/details/VIRGILTHOMSONThePlowThatBrokeThePlains) In 1938 he also formed a collaboration with Lorentz and the operatic singer [Thomas Hardie Chalmers](/wiki/Thomas_Hardie_Chalmers \"Thomas Hardie Chalmers\") on the documentary film *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281938_film%29 \"The River (1938 film)\")* for the United States government's [Farm Security Administration](/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration \"Farm Security Administration\").[*The River* by Farm Security Administration, Paul Lorentz \\& Virgil Thomson on Archive.org](https://archive.org/details/TheRiverReformatted) Thomson composed an orchestra suite based on the score; when it was published, the musical journal *[Notes](/wiki/Notes_%28journal%29 \"Notes (journal)\")* commented: \"Delightful as background music, the piece is an awful bore when you try to give it your full attention\".Evett, Robert. [\"Virgil Thomson: Suite from *The River*\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/89344), *[Notes](/wiki/Notes_%28journal%29 \"Notes (journal)\")*, vol. 16, no. 1 (December, 1958\\), pp. 162–163 \n\nSubsequently, in 1948 he collaborated with the director [Robert J. Flaherty](/wiki/Robert_J._Flaherty \"Robert J. Flaherty\") on the [docufiction](/wiki/Docufiction \"Docufiction\") film *[Louisiana Story](/wiki/Louisiana_Story \"Louisiana Story\")*, for which he received the [Pulitzer Prize for Music](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Music \"Pulitzer Prize for Music\") in 1949\\. At the time, the award was the only Pulitzer Prize in music granted for a musical composition written exclusively for film.[*The Pulitzer Prizes – Music for the Film* Louisiana Story *by Virgil Thomson – 1949 Pulitzer prize Winner*, Virgil Thomson on pulitzer.org](https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/virgil-thomson) Thomson's suite based on the score was premiered by [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\") and the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra \"Philadelphia Orchestra\") in 1949 to widespread critical acclaim.\n\nFollowing the publication of his book, *The State of Music*, Thomson established himself in New York City as a rival of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\"). Thomson's criticisms of Copland were phrased in terms that brought accusations of antisemitism, but Copland remained on good terms with him, and Thomson admitted his envy of Copland's greater success as a composer.[Ivry, Benjamin](/wiki/Benjamin_Ivry \"Benjamin Ivry\"). [\"Was Our Greatest Composer\\-Critic an Unrepentant Anti\\-Semite?\"](https://forward.com/culture/218271/was-our-greatest-composer-critic-an-unrepentant-an/), *Forward*, April 10, 2015 Thomson was also a music critic for the *[New York Herald\\-Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Herald-Tribune \"New York Herald-Tribune\")* from 1940 to 1954\\.See Virgil Thomson biography [here](http://www.virgilthomson.org/bio.html) A fellow critic, Robert Miles, accused him of being \"vindictive and of settling scores in print\".Miles, Robert. [\"Virgil Thomson All Told\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27548453), *The Sewanee Review*, vol. 106, no. 1 (Winter, 1998\\), pp. xx–xxii In a 1997 article in *[American Music](/wiki/American_Music_%28journal%29 \"American Music (journal)\")*, Suzanne Robinson writes that Thomson, motivated by \"a mixture of spite, national pride, and professional jealousy\" was consistently \"severe and spiteful\" to [Benjamin Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\").Robinson, Suzanne. [\"An English Composer Sees America: Benjamin Britten and the North American Press, 1939–42\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3052328), *[American Music](/wiki/American_Music_%28journal%29 \"American Music (journal)\")*, vol. 15, no. 3 (Autumn 1997\\), pp. 321–351 Miles records that Thomson agitated for more performances in New York of new music, including his own.\n\nThomson's definition of music was \"that which musicians do\",[Rorem, Ned](/wiki/Ned_Rorem \"Ned Rorem\") *A Ned Rorem Reader* (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2001\\) p. 223 and his views on music are radical in their insistence on reducing the rarefied aesthetics of music to market activity. He even went so far as to claim that the style a piece was written in could be most effectively understood as a consequence of its income source.\n\n",
"### Later years\n\nIn 1969, Thomson composed *Metropolitan Museum Fanfare: Portrait Of An American Artist* to accompany the [Museum's Centennial](/wiki/The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_Centennial \"The Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial\") exhibition \"New York Painting And Sculpture: 1940–1970\".[Finding aid for the George Trescher records related to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Centennial, 1949, 1960–1971 (bulk 1967–1970\\)](http://libmma.org/digital_files/archives/Trescher_Centennial_records_b18234550.pdf). [The Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art \"The Metropolitan Museum of Art\"); retrieved August 6, 2014\\.[Tommasini, Anthony](/wiki/Tommasini%2C_Anthony \"Tommasini, Anthony\"), *Virgil Thomson's Musical Portraits* (New York: Pendragon Press, 1986\\), p. 19\\. .\n\nThomson became a sort of mentor and father figure to a new generation of American tonal composers such as [Ned Rorem](/wiki/Ned_Rorem \"Ned Rorem\"), [Paul Bowles](/wiki/Paul_Bowles \"Paul Bowles\") and [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"), a circle united as much by their shared homosexuality as by their similar compositional sensibilities.Hubbs, Nadine. *The Queer Composition of America's Sound; Gay Modernists, American Music, and National Identity* (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2004\\). Women composers were not part of that circle, and one writer has suggested that, as a critic, he selectively omitted mention of their works, or adopted a more passive tone when praising them.Karen L. Carter\\-Schwendler. [\"Virgil Thomson's *Herald Tribune* Writings: Fulfilling the 'Cultural Obligation' Selectively\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061003174207/http://www.iawm.org/articles_html/carter_thomson.html), in *[IAWM](/wiki/International_Alliance_for_Women_in_Music \"International Alliance for Women in Music\") Journal*, June 1995, pp. 12–15\\.\n\n",
"### Awards and honors\n\nThomson was a recipient of [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\")'s [Sanford Medal](/wiki/Sanford_Medal \"Sanford Medal\").[Leading clarinetist to receive Sanford Medal](http://www.tourdates.co.uk/news/6384-Leading-clarinetist-to-receive-Sanford-Medal) , tourdates.co.uk; accessed October 31, 2015\\. In 1949, he was awarded the [Pulitzer Prize for Music](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Music \"Pulitzer Prize for Music\") for the score to the film *[Louisiana Story](/wiki/Louisiana_Story \"Louisiana Story\")* and in 1977, he was awarded The [Edward MacDowell Medal](/wiki/Edward_MacDowell_Medal \"Edward MacDowell Medal\") by [The MacDowell Colony](/wiki/The_MacDowell_Colony \"The MacDowell Colony\") for outstanding contributions to American culture. In addition, the [Kennedy Center Honors](/wiki/Kennedy_Center_Honors \"Kennedy Center Honors\") award was bestowed upon Thomson in 1983\\. In 1988, he was awarded the [National Medal of Arts](/wiki/National_Medal_of_Arts \"National Medal of Arts\") by President [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\").[Lifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts](http://www.nea.gov/honors/medals/medalists_year.html#88) , nea.gov; accessed October 31, 2015\\.[*Virgil Thomson: Music Chronicles 1940–1954* Virgil Thomson. Library of America and Penguin Random House, New York 2014](https://books.google.com/books?id=bPUTBQAAQBAJ&q=National+Medal+of+Arts&pg=PT870) See Chronology 1988\\. Virgil Thomson and National Medal of Arts and Ronald Reagan He was a National Patron of [Delta Omicron](/wiki/Delta_Omicron \"Delta Omicron\"), an international professional music fraternity.[Delta Omicron](http://delta-omicron.org/index00.html) , delta\\-omicron.org; accessed October 31, 2015\\.\n\n",
"### Death\n\nThomson died on September 30, 1989, in his suite at the [Hotel Chelsea](/wiki/Hotel_Chelsea \"Hotel Chelsea\") in Manhattan, aged 92\\. He had lived at the Chelsea for close to 50 years.\n\n",
"Works\n-----\n\nThomson's compositions are:\n\n### Operas\n\n* *[Four Saints in Three Acts](/wiki/Four_Saints_in_Three_Acts \"Four Saints in Three Acts\")*, libretto by [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\") (1928\\)\n* *[The Mother of Us All](/wiki/The_Mother_of_Us_All \"The Mother of Us All\")*, libretto by Gertrude Stein, 1947\n* *[Lord Byron](/wiki/Lord_Byron_%28opera%29 \"Lord Byron (opera)\")*, libretto by [Jack Larson](/wiki/Jack_Larson \"Jack Larson\") (1966–1968\\)\n\n### Ballet\n\n* *Filling Station* choreography by [Lew Christensen](/wiki/Lew_Christensen \"Lew Christensen\") (1937\\)\n* *Bayou* choreography by [George Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine \"George Balanchine\") (1952\\); music from *Acadian Songs and Dances* from the film *Louisiana Story*\n* *The Harvest According* choreography by [Agnes de Mille](/wiki/Agnes_de_Mille \"Agnes de Mille\") (1952\\); music from *Symphony on a Hymn Tune,* *Concerto for Cello,* and Suite from *The Mother of Us All*\n* *Hurray!* (originally entitled *Fourth of July, 1900*) choreography by [Erick Hawkins](/wiki/Erick_Hawkins \"Erick Hawkins\") (1975\\) music: *Symphony No. 2*\n* *Parson Weems and the Cherry Tree* choreography by [Erick Hawkins](/wiki/Erick_Hawkins \"Erick Hawkins\") (1975\\)\n\n### Film scores\n\n* *[The Plow That Broke the Plains](/wiki/The_Plow_That_Broke_the_Plains \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\")*, film by Pare Lorentz (1936\\) Produced by the Works Progress Administration—Farm Security Administration\n* *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281938_film%29 \"The River (1938 film)\")*, film by Pare Lorentz (1937\\) Produced by the Works Progress Administration—Farm Security Administration\n* *The Spanish Earth*, film by Joris Ivens and Ernest Hemingway (1937\\) A montage of recorded Spanish folk music made in collaboration with Marc Blitzstein\n* *Tuesday in November*, a U.S. Office of War Information film by John Berry (1945\\)\n* *[Louisiana Story](/wiki/Louisiana_Story \"Louisiana Story\")*, film by Robert Flaherty (1948\\)\n* *The Goddess [La Deesse](/wiki/The_Goddess_%281958_film%29 \"The Goddess (1958 film)\")*, film written by Paddy Chayevsky, directed by John Cromwell (1957\\)\n* *Power Among Men*, produced by the United Nations film unit (1958\\)\n* *Journey to America*, a film for the U.S. Pavillion at the New York World's Fair, produced and directed by John Houseman (1964\\)\n* *The Baby Maker*, film by James Bridges (1970\\)\n* *Suddenly an Eagle*, ABC News film (1975\\)\n\n### Incidental music\n\n* *Le Droit de Varech* (manuscript, 1930\\) accordion solo\n* *A Bride for the Unicorn* (manuscript, 1934\\) male chorus, 3 perc.\n* *Macbeth* (manuscript, 1936\\) chamber orch. (Shakespeare; for Orson Welles, WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *Injunction Granted* (manuscript, 1936\\) 4\\-person chamber group with 16 percussionists\n* *Horse Eats Hat (Un Chapeau de paille d'Italie)* (manuscript, 1936\\) chamber orch. (for WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *Hamlet* (manuscript, 1936\\) 9 players (Shakespeare; for John Houseman, WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *Antony and Cleopatra* (manuscript, 1937\\) oboe, 2 trpts, 2 perc (Shakespeare play)\n* *Androcles and the Lion* (manuscript, 1938\\) not orchestrated (George Bernard Shaw play at WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *The Trojan Women* (manuscript, 1940\\) 6 players (play by Euripides; for John Houseman, CBS Workshop)\n* *The Life of a Careful Man* (manuscript, 1941\\) chamber orch \\& women's voices (soundtrack for CBS Workshop)\n* *Oedipus Tyrannos* (manuscript, 1941\\) flute, 2 horns, perc, male chorus (play by Sophocles at Fordham Univ.)\n* *King Lear* (manucsript, 1952\\) 10 payers (Shakespeare, for TV\\-Radio Workshop of the Ford Foundation)\n* *The Grass Harp* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1952\\) flute, harp, celeste, vln, vla, cello (Truman Capote play)\n* *Ondine* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1954\\) 8 players\n* *King John* (manuscript, 1956\\) 2 horns, 2 trpts, 2 perc (Shakespeare; for John Houseman at the American Shakespeare Festival Theatre in CT)\n* *Measure for Measure* (manuscript, 1956\\) 7 players \\& boy soprano (Shakespeare; for Houseman and ASFT in CT)\n* *Othello* (manuscript, 1957\\) 8 players (Shakespeare; for Houseman and ASFT in CT)\n* *The Merchant of Venice* (manuscript, 1957\\) 8 players and tenor solo (for AFST in CT)\n* *Much Ado About Nothing* (manuscript, 1957\\) 9 players and tenor solo (Shakespeare; for Houseman and ASFT in CT)\n* *Bertha* (manuscript, 1959\\) trumpet solo (for Living Theatre/Cherry Lane Theatre)\n\n### Orchestra\n\n* *Two Sentimental Tangos* (manuscript, 1923\\); orchestrated from the original piano version\n* ***[Symphony on a Hymn Tune](/wiki/Symphony_on_a_Hymn_Tune \"Symphony on a Hymn Tune\")*** (Southern, 1928\\)\n* Suite from *The Plow That Broke the Plains* (G. Schirmer, 1936\\)\n* Suite from *The River* (Southern, 1937\\)\n* Suite from *Filling Station* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1937\\)\n* *The John Mosher Waltzes* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1937\\); orchestrated from the piano portrait of John Mosher (excerpted from ballet *Filling Station*)\n* **Symphony No. 2 in C major** (Leeds/Belwin Mills, 1931, rev. 1941\\)\n* Eight Portraits for orchestra (1942\\-1944\\) (grouping by G. Schirmer)\n1. *Bugles and Birds* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Pablo Picasso\n2. *Canons for Dorothy Thompson* Portrait for Orchestra (G. Schirmer, 1942\\)\n3. *Fugue* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Alexander Smallens\n4. *The Mayor LaGuardia Waltzes* Portrait for Orchestra (G. Schirmer, 1942\\)\n5. *Cantabile for Strings* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from the piano portrait of Nicholas de Chatelain\n6. *Pastorale* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Aaron Copland (later used in the film *Tuesday in November*)\n7. *Percussion Piece* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Jessie K. Lasell\n8. *Tango Lullaby* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Flavie Alvarez de Toledo\n* *Meditation* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) orchestrated from piano portrait of Jere Abbott\n* *Fugue and Chorale on Yankee Doodle* (G. Schirmer, 1945\\) from the film *Tuesday in November*\n* *Three Pictures for Orchestra* (1947–1952\\)\n1. *The Seine at Night* (G. Schirmer, 1947\\)\n2. *Wheat Field at Noon* (G. Schirmer, 1948\\)\n3. *Sea Piece with Birds* (G. Schirmer, 1952\\)\n* **Suite from *Louisiana Story*** (G. Schirmer, 1948\\) **Pulitzer Prize 1949**\n* *Acadian Songs and Dances from Louisiana Story* (G. Schirmer, 1948\\)\n* *At the Beach: Concert Waltz for Trumpet and Band* (Carl Fischer, 1949\\)\n* *Solemn Music* for band (G. Schirmer, 1949\\) later also for orchestra (written after the death of Gertrude Stein)\n* Suite from *The Mother of Us All* (G. Schirmer, 1949\\)\n* [Concerto for Cello and Orchestra](/wiki/Cello_Concerto_%28Thomson%29 \"Cello Concerto (Thomson)\") (Ricordi/Belwin Mills, 1950\\)\n* Concerto for Flute, Strings, harp and Percussion: *A Portrait of Roger Baker* (1954\\) \\[also arranged for flute and piano]\n* *Eleven Chorale Preludes op. 122,* by Johannes Brahms, orchestrated by Virgil Thomson (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1956\\)\n* *The Lively Arts Fugue* (manuscript, 1957\\)\n* *Fugues and Cantilenas* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1959\\) from the United Nations film *Power Among Men*\n* *Solemn Music and a Joyful Fugue* (G. Schirmer, 1962\\) \\[*Solemn Music* originally for band] (*Joyful Fugue* later also arranged for band)\n* *[Pilgrims and Pioneers](/wiki/Pilgrims_and_Pioneers \"Pilgrims and Pioneers\")* (G. Schirmer, 1964\\) from the film *Journey to America*\n* *Autumn: Concertino for Harp, Strings and Percussion* (G. Schirmer, 1964\\)\n* *Fantasy in Homage to an Earlier England* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1966\\)\n* *Edges: A Portrait of Robert Indiana* (G. Schirmer, 1969\\) for band, orchestrated from piano original\n* *Study Piece: Portrait of a Lady* (G. Schirmer, 1969\\) for band, orchestrated from piano portrait of Louise Crane\n* **Symphony No. 3** (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1972\\) orchestration of String Quartet No. 2\n* *Thoughts for Strings* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\)\n* *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra* (1981–1982\\) 11 piano portraits orchestrated by Thomson, Scott Wheeler and Rodney Lister\n1. *A Love Scene* (orch. Thomson) (*Dead Pan: Mrs. Betty Freeman*)\n2. *Intensely Two: Karen Brown Waltuck* (orch. Thomson)\n3. *Loyal, Steady Persistent: Noah Creshevsky* (orch. Thomson)\n4. *Something of a Beauty: Anne\\-Marie Soullière* (orch. Thomson)\n5. *David Dubal in Flight* (orch. Thomson)\n6. *Scott Wheeler: Free\\-Wheeling* (orch. Wheeler)\n7. *Dennis Russel Davies: In a Hammock* (orch. Wheeler)\n8. *Richard Flender: Solid, Not Stolid* (orch. Wheeler)\n9. *Bill Katz: Wide Awake* (orch. Lister)\n10. *Sam Byers: With Joy* (orch. Lister)\n11. *Christopher Cox: Singing a Song* (orch. Lister)\n* *Four Saints: An Olio for Chamber Orchestra* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *A Pair of Portraits:* *A Double Take* and *Major Chords* (manuscript, 1984\\) orchestrated from piano portraits of John Houseman and Anthony Tommasini\n\n### Vocal\n\n* Vernal Equinox (manuscript, 1920\\) voice, piano; text by Amy Lowell\n* The Sunflower (manuscript, 1920\\) voice, piano; text by William Blake\n* *Susie Asado* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1926\\) voice, piano; text by Gertrude Stein\n* *Five Phrases from \"The Song of Solomon\"* (American Music Edition/Presser, 1926\\) for soprano and percussion; biblical text\n1. *Thou That Dwellest in the Gardens*\n2. *Return, O Shulamite*\n3. *O, My Dove*\n4. *I am My Beloved's*\n5. *By Night*\n* *The Tiger* (G. Schirmer, 1926\\) voice, piano; text by William Blake\n* *Presciosilla* (G. Schirmer, 1927\\) voice, piano; text by Gertrude Stein\n* *La Valse Grégorienne* (Southern, 1927, rev. 1971\\) medium voice, piano; text by Georges Hugnet (English translation as *Gregorian Waltz* by Donald Sutherland)\n1. *Les Ecrevisses* (Crayfish)\n2. *Grenadine* (Pomegranate)\n3. *La Rosée* (Dew)\n4. *Le Wagon Immobile* (The Motionless Box\\-Car)\n* *Le Berceau de Gertrude Stein, ou Le Mystere de la Rue de Fleurus* (Southern, 1928\\) voice, piano; eight poems by Georges Hugnet (English translation as *The Cradle of Gertrude Stein or Mysteries in the rue de Fleurus* by Donald Sutherland) \\[Music by Thomson entitled *Lady Godiva's Waltzes*]\n* *Trois Poemes de la Duchesse de Rohan* (individually published, 1928\\) voice, piano\n1. *A son Altesse le Princesse Antoinette Murat* (*To Her Highness Princess Antoinette Murat*) (manuscript)\n2. *Jour de chaleur aux bains de mer* (*Hot Day at the Seashore*) (Boosey \\& Hawkes; English translation by Sherry Mangan\n3. *La Seine* (printed in Parnassus: Poetry in Review 5, 1977\\)\n* *Commentaire sur Saint Jérome* (Southern, 1928\\) voice, piano (text by Marquis de Sade; English translation as *Commentary on Saint Jerome* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Les Soirées Bagnolaises* (manuscript, 1928\\) voice, piano (text by Georges Hugnet)\n* *Portrait of F. B.* (Frances Blood) (G. Schirmer, 1929\\) voice, piano (text by Gertrude Stein)\n* *Le Singe et le léopard* (Southern, 1930\\) voice, piano (text by Jean de La Fontaine; English translation as *The Monkey and the Leopard* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Oraison Funèbre de Henriette\\-Marie de France, Reine de la Grande\\-Bretagne* (manuscript, 1930, rev. 1934\\) voice, piano (text by Jacques Bossuet; translated as *Funeral Oration of Henriette\\-Marie of France, Queen of Great Britain* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Air de Phèdre* (Southern, 1930\\) voice, piano (text by Jean Racine; translated as *Phaedra's Farewell* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Deux Soeurs qui ne sont pas soeurs* (Southern, 1930\\) voice, piano (text by Gertrude Stein; English translation as *Two Sisters Not Sisters*) (piano accompaniment is a portrait of Stein's dog, Basket I)\n* *Stabat Mater* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1931, rev. 1981\\); arranged for voice and string orchestra from the original for voice and string quartet (or piano)\n* *Chamber Music* (manuscript, 1931\\) voice, piano (text by Alfred Kreymbord)\n* *La Belle en dormant* (G. Schirmer, 1931\\) voice, piano (text by Georges Hugnet; English translation as *Beauty Sleeping* by Elaine de Sirçay)\n1. *Pour chercher sur la carte des mers* (*Scanning Booklets from Ocean Resorts*)\n2. *La Première de toutes* (*My True Love Sang me No Song*)\n3. *Mon Amour es bon à dire* (*Yes My Love is Good to Tell Of*)\n4. *Partis les vaisseaux* (*All Gone Are the Ships*)\n* *Pigeons on the Grass Alas* (G. Schirmer, 1934\\) baritone, piano (from the opera *Four Saints in Three Acts,* text by Gertrude Stein)\n* *Go to Sleep, Alexander Smallens, Jr.* (manuscript, 1935\\) voice unaccompanied\n* *Go to Sleep, Pare McTaggett Lorentz* (manuscript, 1937\\) voice unaccompanied\n* *Dirge* (G. Schirmer, 1939\\) voice, piano (text by John Webster)\n* *The Bugle Song* (manuscript, 1941\\) mz\\-sop or baritone and piano (text by Alfred Lord Tennyson; published for unison children's chorus; additional manuscript for 2\\-part children's chorus)\n* *Five Songs from William Blake* (Southern, 1951\\) baritone and orchestra; orchestrated from the original for baritone and piano (text by William Blake; commissioned by the Louisville Philharmonic)\n1. *The Divine Image*\n2. *Tiger! Tiger!*\n3. *The Land of Dreams*\n4. *The Little Black Boy*\n5. *And Did Those Feet*\n* *Consider, Lord* (Southern, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by John Dunne)\n* *Remember Adam's Fall* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1955\\) voice, piano (anonymous text)\n* *At the Spring* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1955\\) Voice, piano (text by Jasper Fisher)\n* *The Bell Doth Toll* (Southern, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by Thomas Heywood)\n* *Look How the Floor of Heaven* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by William Shakespeare)\n* *If Thou A Reason Dost Desire to Know* (Southern, 1958\\) voice, piano (text by Sir Francis Kynaston)\n* *John Peel* (Southern, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by John Woodcock Graves)\n* Shakespeare Songs (Southern, 1957\\) voice, piano (text by William Shakespeare; 4 songs are from incidental music Thomson wrote for Shakespeare stage plays)\n1. *Was This Fair Face the Cause?* (from *All's Well That Ends Well*)\n2. *Take, O Take Those Lips Away* (from *Measure for Measure*)\n3. *Tell Me Where is Fancy Bred* (from *Merchant of Venice*)\n4. *Pardon, Goddess of the Night* (from *Much Ado About Nothing*)\n5. *Sigh No More, Ladies* (from *Much Ado About Nothing*)\n* *Tres Estmpas de Ninez* (Southern, 1957\\) voice, piano (text by Reyna Rivas; English translation as *Three Sketches from Childhood* by Sherry Mangan)\n1. *Todas las horas* (*All Through the Long Day*)\n2. *Son amigos de todos* (*They Are Everyone's Friends*)\n3. *Nadie lo oye como ellos* (*No One Can Hear Him The Way They Can*)\n* *Mostly About Love* (G. Schirmer, 1959; published separately) voice, piano (text by Kenneth Koch; orig. title: *Songs for Alice Esty*)\n1. *Love Song*\n2. *Down at the Docks*\n3. *Let's Take a Walk*\n4. *A Prayer to St. Catherine*\n* *Collected Poems* (Southern, 1959\\) soprano, baritone and orch. (or piano)\n* *Mass for Solo Voice* (G. Schirmer, 1962\\); Voice (or unison choir) and orchestra (or piano)\n* Praises and Prayers (G. Schirmer, 1963; published separately) voice and piano\n1. from *The Canticle of the Sun* (text by St. Francis of Assisi)\n2. *My Master Hath a Garden* (anonymous; also versions for SATB or SSA chorus)\n3. *Sung by the Shepherd's* (*Hymn to the Nativity* by Richard Crashaw)\n4. *Before Sleeping* (anonymous)\n5. *Jerusalem, My Happy Home* (from The Meditation of St. Augustine)\n* *Two by Marianne Moore* (G. Schirmer, 1963; published separately)\n1. *English Usage*\n2. *My Crow Pluto*\n* *The Feast of Love* according to the poem [Pervigilium Veneris](/wiki/Pervigilium_Veneris \"Pervigilium Veneris\") for baritone and chamber orchestra (or piano) (G. Schirmer, 1964\\)\n* *From Byron's \"Don Juan\"* (Southern, 1967\\) for tenor and orchestra\n* from *Sneden's Landing Variations* (Lingus Press, 1972\\) voice, piano (text by Frank O'Hara)\n* The Courtship of Yongly Bongly Bo (G. Schirmer, 1974\\) voice, piano (text by Edward Lear; orig. part of Lear Cantata)\n* Go to Sleep, Gabriel Liebowitz (manuscript, 1979\\) voice unaccompanied\n* What Is It? (Presser, 1979\\) voice, piano (or guitar) (text by Thomas Campion)\n* The Cat (G. Schirmer, 1980\\) soprano and baritone \\& piano (text by Jack Larson)\n\n### Choral\n\n* *De Profundis* (Weinitraub, 1920/revised 1951\\) for mixed chorus\n* *O My Deir Hert* (Heritage, 1921/rev. 1978\\) for mixed chorus; text by Martin Luther\n* *Sanctus* (manuscript, 1921\\) for men's chorus\n* *Tribulationes Civitatum* (Weintraub, 1922\\) for mixed (or men's) chorus\n* *Three Antiphonal Psalms* (G. Schirmer, 1924\\) for SA or TB chorus (Psalms 123, 133 \\& 136\\)\n* *Agnus Dei* (Presser, 1924\\) for 3 equal voices\n* *Missa Brevis* (manuscript, 1924\\) for men's chorus\n* *Fête Polonaise* (manuscript 1924\\) arranged from Chabrier for men's chorus \\& piano\n* *Benedictus* (manuscript, 1926\\)\n* *Sanctus* (manuscript, 1926\\)\n* *Capital Capitals* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1927\\) for TTBB (or 4 male voices) \\& piano (text by Gertrude Stein)\n* *Saints' Procession* (G. Schirmer, 1928\\) for mixed chorus, mz\\-s, bass solos \\& piano (text by Gertrude Stein from *Four Saints in Three Acts*)\n* *Seven Choruses from the \"Medea\" of Euripides* (G. Schirmer, 1934; text translated by Countee Cullen) for women's chorus \\& percussion (also arranged for mixed chorus by Daniel Pinkham)\n1. *O gentle heart*\n2. *Love, like a leaf*\n3. *O, happy were our fathers*\n4. *Weep for the little lambs*\n5. *Go down, O Sun*\n6. *Behold, O Earth*\n7. *Immortal Zeus controls the fate of Man*\n* *Mass for Two\\-Part Chorus and Percussion* (MCA/Belwins Mills, 1934\\)\n* *My Shepherd Will Supply My Need* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1937; text is Isaac Watt's paraphrase of Psalm 23\\) (also versions for men's or women's chorus, or for voice and piano or organ)\n* *Scenes from the Holy Infancy According to Saint Matthew* (G. Schirmer, 1937\\) for mixed chorus and men's solos\n* *The Bugle Song* (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1941; text by Alfred Lord Tennyson) for unison children's chorus (or solo voice) and piano\n* *Surrey Apple\\-Howler's Song* (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1941\\) children's chorus\n* *Welcome to the New Year* (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1941; text by Elanor Farjeon) for children's (or mixed) chorus\n* *Hymns from the Old South* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1949\\) for mixed chorus (published separately)\n1. *Death, 'Tis a Melancholy Day* (Isaac Watts)\n2. *Green Fields* (John Newton)\n3. *The Morning Star* (Anonymous)\n* *Kyrie Eleison* (Gray/Belwins Mills, 1953\\) \\[later part of the *Missa pro defunctis*]\n* *Never Another* (Columbia, 1955; text by Mark Van Doren)\n* *Song for the Stable* (Columbia, 1955; text by Amanda Benjamin Hall) for mixed chorus\n* *Four Songs to Poems of Thomas Campion* (Southern, 1955\\) mixed chorus (or solo voice), viola, clarinet and harp (or just piano)\n* *Tiger! Tiger!* (Southern, 1955; text by William Blake) SATB (or TTBB) chorus and piano (orig. for solo voice from Campion cycle)\n* *Crossing Brooklyn Ferry* to poems by [Walt Whitman](/wiki/Walt_Whitman \"Walt Whitman\") (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1961\\); mixed chorus and orchestra\n* *Missa pro defunctis* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1960\\) for mixed chorus and orchestra\n* *Dance in Praise* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1962; text by John Symonds); mixed chorus and orchestra\n* *The Holly and the Ivy* (G. Schirmer, 1963\\) SATB chorus (or solo voice) \\& piano\n* *My Master Hath a Garden* (G. Schirmer, 1963\\) for SATB (or SSAA) chorus \\& piano\n* *Five Auvergnat Folk Songs* (Presser, 1964\\) mixed chorus versions of 5 Joseph Canteloube songs (with original piano or orch accomp)\n1. *La Pastoura als camps (La Bergère aux champs)*\n2. *Bailèro (Chant de bergers de Haute\\-Auvergne)*\n3. *Pastourelle*\n4. *La Fiolairé (La Fileuse)* (Anonymous)\n5. *Passo pel prat (Viens par le pré)*\n* *When I Survey the Bright Celestial Sphere* (Peters, 1964; text by William Habbingdon)\n* *The Nativity As Sung By the Shepherds* (G. Schirmer, 1967; Richard Crashaw) for mixed chorus, soloists \\& orch.\n* *How Will Ye Have Your Partridge Today?* (manuscript, 1967; text by Nicholas Brown) Round for 3 voices\n* *A Hymn for Pratt Institute* (manuscript, 1968; text by Rolf Fjelde) for mixed chorus\n* *Cantata on Poems of Edward Lear* (G. Schirmer, 1974\\) for chorus, soloists \\& orch. (or piano)\n1. *The Owl and the Pussycat* for soprano and baritone\n2. *The Jumblies* (Anonymous) for soprano and chorus\n3. *The Pelican Chorus* for soprano, baritone and chorus\n4. *Half an Alphabet* for chorus\n5. *The Akond of Swat* for baritone and chorus\n* *The Peace Place* (Heritage, 1979; text by Jack Larson) for mixed chorus and piano \\[revised as *Fanfare for Peace*]\n* *A Prayer to Venus* (G. Schirmer, 1981; text by John Fletcher) for mixed chorus and piano\n* *Cantantes Eamus* (G. Schirmer, 1982; text by Virgil) for men's chorus and piano\n* *Fanfare for Peace* (Southern, 1983; text by Jack Larson) for chorus, brass \\& perc (or piano) \\[revision of *Peace Place*]\n* *Southern Hymns* (Southern, 1984\\) for mixed chorus and piano\n1. *\"How Bright is the Day!\"* (Rev. S.B. Sawyer)\n2. *Mississippi \"When Gabriel's Awful Trumpet Shall Sound\"* (from *Kentucky Harmony*)\n3. *Death of General Washington* (Stephen Jenks)\n4. *Convention \"How Firm a Foundation\"* for chorus from Caldwell's *Union Harmony*)\n\n### Keyboard\n\n* Prelude (McAfee Music, 1921\\) piano (also version for organ by Calvin Hampton)\n* Pastorale on a Christmas Plainsong (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1922\\) organ\n\t1. Divinium Mysterium\n\t2. God Rest Ye Merry\n\t3. Picardy\n* Fanfare (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1922\\) organ\n* Prelude (G. Schirmer, 1922\\) organ\n* Passacaglia (G. Schirmer, 1922, rev. 1974\\) organ\n* Two Sentimental Tangos (manuscript, 1923\\) piano (originally Three Sentimental Tangos; also orchestrated)\n* Five Chorale\\-Preludes (G. Schirmer, 1924\\) organ\n\t1. O, Sacred Head Now Wounded!\n\t2. The New\\-Born Babe (1st version)\n\t3. The New\\-Born Babe (2nd version)\n\t4. The New\\-Born Babe (3rd version)\n\t5. Praise God, Ye Christians Ev'rywhere\n* *Synthetic Waltzes* (Presser, 1925\\) 2 pianos (or 1 piano, 4 hands)\n* *Five Two\\-Part Inventions* (Presser, 1926\\) piano (4 of these arranged for guitar by David Leisner)\n* *Ten Easy Pieces and a Coda* (Southern, 1926\\) piano\n* *Variations on Sunday School Tunes* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1927\\) organ (orig. published separately; now collected as *Variations on Four Sunday School Themes*)\n\t1. *Come, Ye Disconsolate*\n\t2. *There's Not a Friend Like the Lowly Jesus*\n\t3. *Will There Be Any Stars in My Crown?*\n\t4. *Shall We Gather At the River?*\n* *Piano Sonata No. 1* (MCA/Belwin Mills, 1929\\) \\[later scored for orchestra as *Symphony No. 2*]\n* *Piano Sonata No. 2* (MCA/Belwin Mills, 1929\\) \\[later score for harp and orchestra as *Autumn: Concertino for Harp, Strings and Percussion*)\n* *Piano Sonata No. 3 \"on white keys\"* (Southern, 1930\\) (for Gertrude Stein)\n* Symphony No. 2 (Leeds/Belwin Mills, 1932\\) reduced from orchestra for piano, 4 hands\n* *Suite from \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\"* (G. Schirmer, 1936\\) reduced for orchestra for piano\n* *Filling Station* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1937\\) piano version of ballet score\n* *Church Organ Wedding Music* (Randall M. Eagen and Associates, 1940, rev. 1978\\)\n* *Piano Sonata No. 4: Guggenheim jeune* (Portrait of Peggy Guggenheim) (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Ten Etudes for Piano* (Carl Fischer, 1944\\)\n* *Nine Etudes for Piano* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\-1951\\)\n* *Walking Song* (manuscript, 1951\\) for piano (from the movie *Tuesday in November*); also version for 2 pianos by Gold and Fizdale\n* *For a Happy Occasion* (Peters, 1951\\) (Originally entitled *Happy Birthday, Mrs. Zimbalist*)\n* *A Study in Stacked\\-Up Thirds* (Southern, 1958\\) \\[later a portrait of Eugene Ormandy]\n* *Pange Lingua* (G. Schirmer, 1962\\) for organ\n* *Pastor Weems and the Cherry Tree* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1975\\) piano version of the ballet\n* *Theme for Improvisation* (manuscript, 1981\\) for organ\n\n### Piano portraits\n\n(Thomson began writing portraits of friends and acquaintances who passed through his life beginning 1929 through 1985\\. Written in the subject's presence in one sitting, they're mostly for piano, usually under 3 minutes each. He orchestrated many and used several as part of larger works.)\n* *Travelling in Spain: Alice Woodfin Branlière* (Boosey \\& Hakwes, 1929\\)\n* *Alternations: A Portrait of Maurice Grosser* (G. Schirmer, 1929\\)\n* *Catalan Waltz: A Portrait of Ramón Senabre* (G. Schirmer, 1929\\)\n* *Clair Leonard's profile* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1930\\)\n* *Madame Dubost chez elle* (Southern, 1930\\)\n* *Pastoral: A Portrait of Jean Ozenne* (G. Schirmer, 1930\\)\n* *Russell Hitchcock, Reading* (Southern, 1930\\)\n* *Sea Coast: A Portrait of Constance Askew* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *A Portrait of R. Kirk Askew* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Souvenir: A Portrait of Paul Bowles* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Ettie Stettheimer* (Southern, 1935\\)\n* *An Old Song: A Portrait of Carrie Stettheimer* (G. Schimer, 1935\\)\n* *Tennis: A Portrait of Henry McBride* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *The Hunt: A Portrait of A. Everett Austin, Jr.* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Hymn: A Portrait of Josiah Marvel* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *The John Mosher Waltzes* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1935\\) (used in ballet *Filling Station*)\n* *Prelude and Fugue: A Portrait of Miss Agnes Rindge* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Helen Austin at Home and Abroad* (Southern, 1935\\)\n* *Meditation: A Portrait of Jere Abbott* (G.Schirmer, 1935\\) (later orchestrated)\n* *Connecticut Waltz: A Portrait of Harold Lewis Cook* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1935\\)\n* *A Day Dream: Portrait of Herbert Whiting* (Carl Fischer, 1935\\)\n* *Portrait of Claude Biais* (manuscript, 1938\\)\n* *A French Boy of Ten: Louis Lange* (Southern, 1938\\)\n* *Maurice Bavoux: Young and Alone* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1938\\)\n* *The Bard: A Portrait of Sherry Mangan* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *In a Bird Cage: A Portrait of Lise Deharme* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *With Trumpet and Horn: A Portrait of Louise Ardant* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Poltergeist: A Portrait of Hans Arp* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Fanfare for France: A Portrait of Max Kahn* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (later for brass and perc; also cello and piano)\n* *Barcarolle: A Portrait of Georges Hugnet* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (later as *Barcarolle for Woodwinds*)\n* *Swiss Waltz: A Portrait of Sophie Tauber\\-Arp* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Eccentric Dance: Portrait of Madame Kristians Tonny* (Carl Fischer, 1940\\)\n* *Tango Lullaby: A Portrait of Mll. \\[Flavie] Alvarez de Toledo* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Invention: Theodate Johnson Busy and Resting* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Bugles and Birds: A Portrait of Pablo Picasso* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Piano Sonata No. 4: Portrait of Peggy Guggenheim* (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Lullaby Which is Also a Spinning Song: A Portrait of Howard Putzel* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Five\\-Finger Exercise: A Portrait of Leon Kochnitzky* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *The Dream World of Peter Rose\\-Pulham* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Dora Maar or the Presence of Pablo Picasso* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Pastoral: A Portrait of [Tristan Tzara](/wiki/Tristan_Tzara \"Tristan Tzara\")* (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Aria: A Portrait of Germaine Hugnet* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Toccata: A Portrait of Mary Widney* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Awake or Asleep: Pierre Mabille* (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Cantabile: A Portrait of Nicolas de Chatelain* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Duet: A Portrait of Clarita Comtesse de Forceville* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Stretching: A Portrait of Jamie Campbell* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Canons with Cadenza: A Portrait of André Ostier* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Fugue: A Portrait of Alexander Smallens* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *With Fife and Drums: A Portrait of Mina Curtiss* (G. Schirmer, 1941\\)\n* *Insistences: A Portrait of Louise Crane* (G. Schirmer, 1941\\)\n* *Percussion Piece: A Portrait of Jessie K. Lasell* (manuscript, 1941\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Parades: A Portrait of Florine Stettheimer* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1941\\) later for brass and percussion as *Metropolitan Museum Fanfare*)\n* *James Patrick Cannon, Professional Revolutionary* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1942\\)\n* *Scottish Memories: Peter Monro Jack* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1942\\)\n* *Prisoner of the Mind: Schuyler Watts* (Southern, 1942\\)\n* *Wedding Music: A Portrait of Jean \\[Mrs. Schuyler] Watts* (G. Schirmer, 1942\\)\n* *Aaron Copland, Persistently Pastoral* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1942\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra* as *Pastorale*)\n* *Five\\-Finger Exercise: Portrait of Briggs Buchanan* (Carl Fischer, 1943\\)\n* *Solitude: A Portrait of Lou Harrison* (G. Schirmer, 1945\\)\n* *Chromatic Double Harmonies: Portrait of Sylvia Marlowe* (G. Schirmer, 1951\\) \\[part of *Nine Etudes*)\n* *Homage to Marya Freund and to the Harp* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1956\\)\n* *Edges: A Portrait of Robert Indiana* (G. Schirmer, 1966\\) (later for band)\n* *For [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\")'s Birthday, 18 November 1969: A Study in Stacked\\-Up Thirds* (Southern, 1969\\)\n* *Man of Iron: A Portrait of Willy Eisenhart* (G. Schirmer, 1972\\) (later the last movement in the brass quintet *Family Portrait*)\n* *Bill Katz: Wide Awake* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\)\n* *Norma Flender: Thoughts about Flying* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\)\n* *Richard Flender: Solid Not Stolid* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*, 1982\\)\n* *Scott Wheeler: Free\\-Wheeling* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Gerald Busby: Giving Full Attention* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Noah Creshevsky: Loyal, Steady, Persistent* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Sam Byers: With Joy* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Morris Golde: Showing Delight* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Christopher Cox: Singing a Song* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Barbara Epstein: Untiring* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Dead Pan: Mrs. Betty Freeman* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *John Wright, Drawing* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Franco Assetto, Drawing* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Round and Round: Dominique Mabokov* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Karen Brown Waltuck: Intensely Two* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Anne\\-Marie Soullière: Something of a Beauty* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Buffie Johnson: Drawing V.T. in Charcoal* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Craig Rutenberg: Swinging* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Paul Sanfacon: On the Ice* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Molly Davies: Terminations* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Dennis Russel Davies: In a Hammock* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Rodney Lister: Music for a Merry\\-Go\\-Round* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Doña Flor: Receiving* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Dr. Marcel Rochce: Making a Decision* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *David Dubal in Flight* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Peter McWilliams: Firmly Spontaneous* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Vassilis Voglis: On the March* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Power Boothe: With Pencil* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Mark Beard: Never Alone* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Louis Rispoli: In a Boat* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Malitte Matta: In the Executive Style* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Glynn Boyd Harte: Reaching* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Senza Expressione: Bennett Lerner* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Phillip Ramey: Thinking Hard* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Charles, Fussell: In Meditation* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Brendan Lemon: A Study Piece for Piano* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *John Houseman: No Changes* (manuscript, 1984\\) (also part of *A Pair of Portraits for Orchestra* with the title *A Double Take*)\n* *Lines: for and about Ron Henggeler* (manuscript, 1984()\n* *Boris Baranovic: Whirling* (manuscript, 1984\\)\n* *Tony Tommasini: A Study in Chords* (manuscript, 1984\\) (also part of *A Pair of Portraits for Orchestra* with the title *Major Chords*)\n* *Christopher Beach: Alone* (manuscript, 1985\\)\n* *Danyal Lawson: Playing* (manuscript 1985\\)\n\n### Chamber ensemble\n\n* *Sonata da Chiesa* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1926, rev. 1973\\), for clarinet, trumpet, horn, trombone, viola\n* *Portraits for Violin Alone* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1928; additional portrait added in 1940\\)\n\t1. *Señorita Juanita de Medina Accompanied by Her Mother*\n\t2. *Madame Marthe\\-Marthine*\n\t3. *Georges Hugnet, Poet and Man of Letters*\n\t4. *Miss Gertrude Stein as a Young Girl*\n\t5. *Cliquet\\-Pleyel in F*\n\t6. *Mrs. C.W.L. (Chester Whitin Lasell)*\n\t7. *Sauguet, From Life*\n\t8. *Ruth Smallens* (1940\\)\n* *Five Portraits for Four Clarinets* (G. Schirmer, 1929\\) for SSAB clarinets\n\t1. *Portrait of Ladies: A Conversation*\n\t2. *Portrait of a Young Man in Good Health: Maurice Grosser with a Cold*\n\t3. *Christian Bérard, Prisoner*\n\t4. *Christian Bérard as a Soldier*\n\t5. *Christian Bérard in Person*\n* *Le Bains\\-Bar* (manuscript, 1929\\) for Violin and Piano (also for piano quintet) \\[later arranged as *At the Beach* for trumpet and band (or piano)]\n* *Sonata for Violin and Piano* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1930\\)\n* *Portraits for Violin and Piano* (G. Schirmer, 1930; additional portrait added 1940\\) (ultimately published with a 1983 addition as *Five Ladies*)\n\t1. *Alice Tolkas*\n\t2. *Mary Reynolds*\n\t3. *Anne Miracle*\n\t4. *Yvonne de Casa Fuerte* (1940\\)\n* *String Quartet No. 1* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1931, rev. 1957\\)\n* *Serenade for Flute and Violin* (Southern, 1931\\)\n* *String Quartet No. 2* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1932, rev. 1957\\) (later scored for orchestra as *Symphony No. 3*)\n* *Four Portraits*, for cello and piano arranged in 1942 by Luigi Silva:\n\t1. *Bugles and Birds* *([Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso \"Pablo Picasso\"))* (1940\\)\n\t2. *Tango Lullaby* *(Flavie Alvarez de Toledo)* (1940\\)\n\t3. *In a Bird Cage* *([Lise Deharme](/wiki/Lise_Deharme \"Lise Deharme\"))* (1940\\)\n\t4. *Fanfare for France* *([Max Kahn](/wiki/Max_Kahn \"Max Kahn\"))* (1940\\)\n* *Sonata for Flute Alone* (Presser, 1943\\)\n* *Barcarolles for Woodwinds* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) for flute, oboe, English Horn, Clarinet, Bass Clarinet, Bassoon (orchestrated from piano portrait of George Hugnet)\n* *Fanfare for France* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1944\\) orchestrated for brass and percussion from piano portrait of Max Kahn \\[one of ten fanfares commissioned by Cincinnati Symphony]\n* *Sonorous and Exquisite Corpses* (Peters, 1944\\-1947\\) written collaboratively by John Cage, Henry Cowell, Lou Harrison and Virgil Thomson; orchestrated 1982 by Robert Hughes for flute/piccolo, clarinet, horn, bassoon, \\& piano and published as *Party Pieces.* ([Exquisite corpse](/wiki/Exquisite_corpse \"Exquisite corpse\") is a method by which the composers add to a composition in sequence: each would write a bar of music plus 2 notes, fold the paper at the bar, and pass it to the next composer, who would use the 2 notes as a base for continuing the composition.)\n1. *Vivace* (Cage\\-Harrison)\n2. *Adagio* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n3. *Grazioso* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n4. *Allegretto* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n5. *Slowly, yet flowing* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n6. *Flowing\\-broad* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n7. *Allegro* (Cage\\-Harrison)\n8. *Majestic\\-broad* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n9. *Vivo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n10. *Flowing\\-rubato* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n11. *Waltz tempo* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n12. *Flowing* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n13. *Allegro* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n14. *A slow, walking tempo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n15. *Maestoso, ma teneramente* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n16. *Allegro preciso* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n17. *March tempo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n18. *Pastoral\\-softly\\-legato* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n19. *A slow 2\\-walking tempo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n20. *Allegro* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n* *At the Beach* (Carl Fischer, 1949\\) Concert Waltz for trumpet and band (or piano)\n* *Four Songs to Poems of Thomas Campion* (Southern, 1951\\) mezzo\\-soprano, clarinet, viola and harp (or mezzo and piano)\n* *Lamentations, Etude for Accordion* (Santee Music, 1959\\)\n* *Variations for Koto* (manuscript, 1961\\)\n* *Ode to the Wonders of Nature* (G. Schirmer, 1965\\) for brass and percussion\n* *Etude for Cello and Piano, a Portrait of Frederic James* (manuscript, 1966\\)\n* *Metropolitan Museum Fanfare: Portrait of An American Artist* (G. Schirmer, 1969\\) orchestrated for brass and percussion from piano portrait of Florine Stettheimer\n* *Family Portrait* (G. Schirmer, 1974\\) for brass quintet\n1. *A Fanfare: Robin Smith*\n2. *At Fourteen: Anne Barnard*\n3. *Digging: A Portrait of Howard Rea*\n4. *A Scherzo: Priscilla Rea*\n5. *Man of Iron: Willy Eisenhart* (from piano original)\n* *A Short Fanfare* (manuscript, 1981\\) for 3 trumpets and 2 side drums\n* *Bell Piece* (G. Schirmer, 1983\\) for [carillon](/wiki/Carillon \"Carillon\") (2 or 4 players)\n* *Cynthia Kemper A Fanfare* (G. Schirmer, 1983\\) for violin \\& piano (later published as part of *Five Ladies*)\n* *Lili Hastings* (manuscript, 1983\\) violin and piano\n* *A Portrait of Two* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\) for oboe, bassoon \\& piano\n* *Jay Rosen* (manuscript, 1984\\) for tuba and piano\n* *Stockton Fanfare* (Gentry Publications, 1985\\) for 3 trumpets and 2 side drums\n\n",
"### Operas\n\n* *[Four Saints in Three Acts](/wiki/Four_Saints_in_Three_Acts \"Four Saints in Three Acts\")*, libretto by [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\") (1928\\)\n* *[The Mother of Us All](/wiki/The_Mother_of_Us_All \"The Mother of Us All\")*, libretto by Gertrude Stein, 1947\n* *[Lord Byron](/wiki/Lord_Byron_%28opera%29 \"Lord Byron (opera)\")*, libretto by [Jack Larson](/wiki/Jack_Larson \"Jack Larson\") (1966–1968\\)\n\n",
"### Ballet\n\n* *Filling Station* choreography by [Lew Christensen](/wiki/Lew_Christensen \"Lew Christensen\") (1937\\)\n* *Bayou* choreography by [George Balanchine](/wiki/George_Balanchine \"George Balanchine\") (1952\\); music from *Acadian Songs and Dances* from the film *Louisiana Story*\n* *The Harvest According* choreography by [Agnes de Mille](/wiki/Agnes_de_Mille \"Agnes de Mille\") (1952\\); music from *Symphony on a Hymn Tune,* *Concerto for Cello,* and Suite from *The Mother of Us All*\n* *Hurray!* (originally entitled *Fourth of July, 1900*) choreography by [Erick Hawkins](/wiki/Erick_Hawkins \"Erick Hawkins\") (1975\\) music: *Symphony No. 2*\n* *Parson Weems and the Cherry Tree* choreography by [Erick Hawkins](/wiki/Erick_Hawkins \"Erick Hawkins\") (1975\\)\n\n",
"### Film scores\n\n* *[The Plow That Broke the Plains](/wiki/The_Plow_That_Broke_the_Plains \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\")*, film by Pare Lorentz (1936\\) Produced by the Works Progress Administration—Farm Security Administration\n* *[The River](/wiki/The_River_%281938_film%29 \"The River (1938 film)\")*, film by Pare Lorentz (1937\\) Produced by the Works Progress Administration—Farm Security Administration\n* *The Spanish Earth*, film by Joris Ivens and Ernest Hemingway (1937\\) A montage of recorded Spanish folk music made in collaboration with Marc Blitzstein\n* *Tuesday in November*, a U.S. Office of War Information film by John Berry (1945\\)\n* *[Louisiana Story](/wiki/Louisiana_Story \"Louisiana Story\")*, film by Robert Flaherty (1948\\)\n* *The Goddess [La Deesse](/wiki/The_Goddess_%281958_film%29 \"The Goddess (1958 film)\")*, film written by Paddy Chayevsky, directed by John Cromwell (1957\\)\n* *Power Among Men*, produced by the United Nations film unit (1958\\)\n* *Journey to America*, a film for the U.S. Pavillion at the New York World's Fair, produced and directed by John Houseman (1964\\)\n* *The Baby Maker*, film by James Bridges (1970\\)\n* *Suddenly an Eagle*, ABC News film (1975\\)\n\n",
"### Incidental music\n\n* *Le Droit de Varech* (manuscript, 1930\\) accordion solo\n* *A Bride for the Unicorn* (manuscript, 1934\\) male chorus, 3 perc.\n* *Macbeth* (manuscript, 1936\\) chamber orch. (Shakespeare; for Orson Welles, WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *Injunction Granted* (manuscript, 1936\\) 4\\-person chamber group with 16 percussionists\n* *Horse Eats Hat (Un Chapeau de paille d'Italie)* (manuscript, 1936\\) chamber orch. (for WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *Hamlet* (manuscript, 1936\\) 9 players (Shakespeare; for John Houseman, WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *Antony and Cleopatra* (manuscript, 1937\\) oboe, 2 trpts, 2 perc (Shakespeare play)\n* *Androcles and the Lion* (manuscript, 1938\\) not orchestrated (George Bernard Shaw play at WPA Federal Theatre Project)\n* *The Trojan Women* (manuscript, 1940\\) 6 players (play by Euripides; for John Houseman, CBS Workshop)\n* *The Life of a Careful Man* (manuscript, 1941\\) chamber orch \\& women's voices (soundtrack for CBS Workshop)\n* *Oedipus Tyrannos* (manuscript, 1941\\) flute, 2 horns, perc, male chorus (play by Sophocles at Fordham Univ.)\n* *King Lear* (manucsript, 1952\\) 10 payers (Shakespeare, for TV\\-Radio Workshop of the Ford Foundation)\n* *The Grass Harp* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1952\\) flute, harp, celeste, vln, vla, cello (Truman Capote play)\n* *Ondine* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1954\\) 8 players\n* *King John* (manuscript, 1956\\) 2 horns, 2 trpts, 2 perc (Shakespeare; for John Houseman at the American Shakespeare Festival Theatre in CT)\n* *Measure for Measure* (manuscript, 1956\\) 7 players \\& boy soprano (Shakespeare; for Houseman and ASFT in CT)\n* *Othello* (manuscript, 1957\\) 8 players (Shakespeare; for Houseman and ASFT in CT)\n* *The Merchant of Venice* (manuscript, 1957\\) 8 players and tenor solo (for AFST in CT)\n* *Much Ado About Nothing* (manuscript, 1957\\) 9 players and tenor solo (Shakespeare; for Houseman and ASFT in CT)\n* *Bertha* (manuscript, 1959\\) trumpet solo (for Living Theatre/Cherry Lane Theatre)\n\n",
"### Orchestra\n\n* *Two Sentimental Tangos* (manuscript, 1923\\); orchestrated from the original piano version\n* ***[Symphony on a Hymn Tune](/wiki/Symphony_on_a_Hymn_Tune \"Symphony on a Hymn Tune\")*** (Southern, 1928\\)\n* Suite from *The Plow That Broke the Plains* (G. Schirmer, 1936\\)\n* Suite from *The River* (Southern, 1937\\)\n* Suite from *Filling Station* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1937\\)\n* *The John Mosher Waltzes* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1937\\); orchestrated from the piano portrait of John Mosher (excerpted from ballet *Filling Station*)\n* **Symphony No. 2 in C major** (Leeds/Belwin Mills, 1931, rev. 1941\\)\n* Eight Portraits for orchestra (1942\\-1944\\) (grouping by G. Schirmer)\n1. *Bugles and Birds* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Pablo Picasso\n2. *Canons for Dorothy Thompson* Portrait for Orchestra (G. Schirmer, 1942\\)\n3. *Fugue* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Alexander Smallens\n4. *The Mayor LaGuardia Waltzes* Portrait for Orchestra (G. Schirmer, 1942\\)\n5. *Cantabile for Strings* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from the piano portrait of Nicholas de Chatelain\n6. *Pastorale* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Aaron Copland (later used in the film *Tuesday in November*)\n7. *Percussion Piece* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Jessie K. Lasell\n8. *Tango Lullaby* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) from piano portrait of Flavie Alvarez de Toledo\n* *Meditation* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) orchestrated from piano portrait of Jere Abbott\n* *Fugue and Chorale on Yankee Doodle* (G. Schirmer, 1945\\) from the film *Tuesday in November*\n* *Three Pictures for Orchestra* (1947–1952\\)\n1. *The Seine at Night* (G. Schirmer, 1947\\)\n2. *Wheat Field at Noon* (G. Schirmer, 1948\\)\n3. *Sea Piece with Birds* (G. Schirmer, 1952\\)\n* **Suite from *Louisiana Story*** (G. Schirmer, 1948\\) **Pulitzer Prize 1949**\n* *Acadian Songs and Dances from Louisiana Story* (G. Schirmer, 1948\\)\n* *At the Beach: Concert Waltz for Trumpet and Band* (Carl Fischer, 1949\\)\n* *Solemn Music* for band (G. Schirmer, 1949\\) later also for orchestra (written after the death of Gertrude Stein)\n* Suite from *The Mother of Us All* (G. Schirmer, 1949\\)\n* [Concerto for Cello and Orchestra](/wiki/Cello_Concerto_%28Thomson%29 \"Cello Concerto (Thomson)\") (Ricordi/Belwin Mills, 1950\\)\n* Concerto for Flute, Strings, harp and Percussion: *A Portrait of Roger Baker* (1954\\) \\[also arranged for flute and piano]\n* *Eleven Chorale Preludes op. 122,* by Johannes Brahms, orchestrated by Virgil Thomson (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1956\\)\n* *The Lively Arts Fugue* (manuscript, 1957\\)\n* *Fugues and Cantilenas* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1959\\) from the United Nations film *Power Among Men*\n* *Solemn Music and a Joyful Fugue* (G. Schirmer, 1962\\) \\[*Solemn Music* originally for band] (*Joyful Fugue* later also arranged for band)\n* *[Pilgrims and Pioneers](/wiki/Pilgrims_and_Pioneers \"Pilgrims and Pioneers\")* (G. Schirmer, 1964\\) from the film *Journey to America*\n* *Autumn: Concertino for Harp, Strings and Percussion* (G. Schirmer, 1964\\)\n* *Fantasy in Homage to an Earlier England* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1966\\)\n* *Edges: A Portrait of Robert Indiana* (G. Schirmer, 1969\\) for band, orchestrated from piano original\n* *Study Piece: Portrait of a Lady* (G. Schirmer, 1969\\) for band, orchestrated from piano portrait of Louise Crane\n* **Symphony No. 3** (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1972\\) orchestration of String Quartet No. 2\n* *Thoughts for Strings* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\)\n* *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra* (1981–1982\\) 11 piano portraits orchestrated by Thomson, Scott Wheeler and Rodney Lister\n1. *A Love Scene* (orch. Thomson) (*Dead Pan: Mrs. Betty Freeman*)\n2. *Intensely Two: Karen Brown Waltuck* (orch. Thomson)\n3. *Loyal, Steady Persistent: Noah Creshevsky* (orch. Thomson)\n4. *Something of a Beauty: Anne\\-Marie Soullière* (orch. Thomson)\n5. *David Dubal in Flight* (orch. Thomson)\n6. *Scott Wheeler: Free\\-Wheeling* (orch. Wheeler)\n7. *Dennis Russel Davies: In a Hammock* (orch. Wheeler)\n8. *Richard Flender: Solid, Not Stolid* (orch. Wheeler)\n9. *Bill Katz: Wide Awake* (orch. Lister)\n10. *Sam Byers: With Joy* (orch. Lister)\n11. *Christopher Cox: Singing a Song* (orch. Lister)\n* *Four Saints: An Olio for Chamber Orchestra* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *A Pair of Portraits:* *A Double Take* and *Major Chords* (manuscript, 1984\\) orchestrated from piano portraits of John Houseman and Anthony Tommasini\n\n",
"### Vocal\n\n* Vernal Equinox (manuscript, 1920\\) voice, piano; text by Amy Lowell\n* The Sunflower (manuscript, 1920\\) voice, piano; text by William Blake\n* *Susie Asado* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1926\\) voice, piano; text by Gertrude Stein\n* *Five Phrases from \"The Song of Solomon\"* (American Music Edition/Presser, 1926\\) for soprano and percussion; biblical text\n1. *Thou That Dwellest in the Gardens*\n2. *Return, O Shulamite*\n3. *O, My Dove*\n4. *I am My Beloved's*\n5. *By Night*\n* *The Tiger* (G. Schirmer, 1926\\) voice, piano; text by William Blake\n* *Presciosilla* (G. Schirmer, 1927\\) voice, piano; text by Gertrude Stein\n* *La Valse Grégorienne* (Southern, 1927, rev. 1971\\) medium voice, piano; text by Georges Hugnet (English translation as *Gregorian Waltz* by Donald Sutherland)\n1. *Les Ecrevisses* (Crayfish)\n2. *Grenadine* (Pomegranate)\n3. *La Rosée* (Dew)\n4. *Le Wagon Immobile* (The Motionless Box\\-Car)\n* *Le Berceau de Gertrude Stein, ou Le Mystere de la Rue de Fleurus* (Southern, 1928\\) voice, piano; eight poems by Georges Hugnet (English translation as *The Cradle of Gertrude Stein or Mysteries in the rue de Fleurus* by Donald Sutherland) \\[Music by Thomson entitled *Lady Godiva's Waltzes*]\n* *Trois Poemes de la Duchesse de Rohan* (individually published, 1928\\) voice, piano\n1. *A son Altesse le Princesse Antoinette Murat* (*To Her Highness Princess Antoinette Murat*) (manuscript)\n2. *Jour de chaleur aux bains de mer* (*Hot Day at the Seashore*) (Boosey \\& Hawkes; English translation by Sherry Mangan\n3. *La Seine* (printed in Parnassus: Poetry in Review 5, 1977\\)\n* *Commentaire sur Saint Jérome* (Southern, 1928\\) voice, piano (text by Marquis de Sade; English translation as *Commentary on Saint Jerome* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Les Soirées Bagnolaises* (manuscript, 1928\\) voice, piano (text by Georges Hugnet)\n* *Portrait of F. B.* (Frances Blood) (G. Schirmer, 1929\\) voice, piano (text by Gertrude Stein)\n* *Le Singe et le léopard* (Southern, 1930\\) voice, piano (text by Jean de La Fontaine; English translation as *The Monkey and the Leopard* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Oraison Funèbre de Henriette\\-Marie de France, Reine de la Grande\\-Bretagne* (manuscript, 1930, rev. 1934\\) voice, piano (text by Jacques Bossuet; translated as *Funeral Oration of Henriette\\-Marie of France, Queen of Great Britain* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Air de Phèdre* (Southern, 1930\\) voice, piano (text by Jean Racine; translated as *Phaedra's Farewell* by Donald Sutherland)\n* *Deux Soeurs qui ne sont pas soeurs* (Southern, 1930\\) voice, piano (text by Gertrude Stein; English translation as *Two Sisters Not Sisters*) (piano accompaniment is a portrait of Stein's dog, Basket I)\n* *Stabat Mater* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1931, rev. 1981\\); arranged for voice and string orchestra from the original for voice and string quartet (or piano)\n* *Chamber Music* (manuscript, 1931\\) voice, piano (text by Alfred Kreymbord)\n* *La Belle en dormant* (G. Schirmer, 1931\\) voice, piano (text by Georges Hugnet; English translation as *Beauty Sleeping* by Elaine de Sirçay)\n1. *Pour chercher sur la carte des mers* (*Scanning Booklets from Ocean Resorts*)\n2. *La Première de toutes* (*My True Love Sang me No Song*)\n3. *Mon Amour es bon à dire* (*Yes My Love is Good to Tell Of*)\n4. *Partis les vaisseaux* (*All Gone Are the Ships*)\n* *Pigeons on the Grass Alas* (G. Schirmer, 1934\\) baritone, piano (from the opera *Four Saints in Three Acts,* text by Gertrude Stein)\n* *Go to Sleep, Alexander Smallens, Jr.* (manuscript, 1935\\) voice unaccompanied\n* *Go to Sleep, Pare McTaggett Lorentz* (manuscript, 1937\\) voice unaccompanied\n* *Dirge* (G. Schirmer, 1939\\) voice, piano (text by John Webster)\n* *The Bugle Song* (manuscript, 1941\\) mz\\-sop or baritone and piano (text by Alfred Lord Tennyson; published for unison children's chorus; additional manuscript for 2\\-part children's chorus)\n* *Five Songs from William Blake* (Southern, 1951\\) baritone and orchestra; orchestrated from the original for baritone and piano (text by William Blake; commissioned by the Louisville Philharmonic)\n1. *The Divine Image*\n2. *Tiger! Tiger!*\n3. *The Land of Dreams*\n4. *The Little Black Boy*\n5. *And Did Those Feet*\n* *Consider, Lord* (Southern, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by John Dunne)\n* *Remember Adam's Fall* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1955\\) voice, piano (anonymous text)\n* *At the Spring* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1955\\) Voice, piano (text by Jasper Fisher)\n* *The Bell Doth Toll* (Southern, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by Thomas Heywood)\n* *Look How the Floor of Heaven* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by William Shakespeare)\n* *If Thou A Reason Dost Desire to Know* (Southern, 1958\\) voice, piano (text by Sir Francis Kynaston)\n* *John Peel* (Southern, 1955\\) voice, piano (text by John Woodcock Graves)\n* Shakespeare Songs (Southern, 1957\\) voice, piano (text by William Shakespeare; 4 songs are from incidental music Thomson wrote for Shakespeare stage plays)\n1. *Was This Fair Face the Cause?* (from *All's Well That Ends Well*)\n2. *Take, O Take Those Lips Away* (from *Measure for Measure*)\n3. *Tell Me Where is Fancy Bred* (from *Merchant of Venice*)\n4. *Pardon, Goddess of the Night* (from *Much Ado About Nothing*)\n5. *Sigh No More, Ladies* (from *Much Ado About Nothing*)\n* *Tres Estmpas de Ninez* (Southern, 1957\\) voice, piano (text by Reyna Rivas; English translation as *Three Sketches from Childhood* by Sherry Mangan)\n1. *Todas las horas* (*All Through the Long Day*)\n2. *Son amigos de todos* (*They Are Everyone's Friends*)\n3. *Nadie lo oye como ellos* (*No One Can Hear Him The Way They Can*)\n* *Mostly About Love* (G. Schirmer, 1959; published separately) voice, piano (text by Kenneth Koch; orig. title: *Songs for Alice Esty*)\n1. *Love Song*\n2. *Down at the Docks*\n3. *Let's Take a Walk*\n4. *A Prayer to St. Catherine*\n* *Collected Poems* (Southern, 1959\\) soprano, baritone and orch. (or piano)\n* *Mass for Solo Voice* (G. Schirmer, 1962\\); Voice (or unison choir) and orchestra (or piano)\n* Praises and Prayers (G. Schirmer, 1963; published separately) voice and piano\n1. from *The Canticle of the Sun* (text by St. Francis of Assisi)\n2. *My Master Hath a Garden* (anonymous; also versions for SATB or SSA chorus)\n3. *Sung by the Shepherd's* (*Hymn to the Nativity* by Richard Crashaw)\n4. *Before Sleeping* (anonymous)\n5. *Jerusalem, My Happy Home* (from The Meditation of St. Augustine)\n* *Two by Marianne Moore* (G. Schirmer, 1963; published separately)\n1. *English Usage*\n2. *My Crow Pluto*\n* *The Feast of Love* according to the poem [Pervigilium Veneris](/wiki/Pervigilium_Veneris \"Pervigilium Veneris\") for baritone and chamber orchestra (or piano) (G. Schirmer, 1964\\)\n* *From Byron's \"Don Juan\"* (Southern, 1967\\) for tenor and orchestra\n* from *Sneden's Landing Variations* (Lingus Press, 1972\\) voice, piano (text by Frank O'Hara)\n* The Courtship of Yongly Bongly Bo (G. Schirmer, 1974\\) voice, piano (text by Edward Lear; orig. part of Lear Cantata)\n* Go to Sleep, Gabriel Liebowitz (manuscript, 1979\\) voice unaccompanied\n* What Is It? (Presser, 1979\\) voice, piano (or guitar) (text by Thomas Campion)\n* The Cat (G. Schirmer, 1980\\) soprano and baritone \\& piano (text by Jack Larson)\n\n",
"### Choral\n\n* *De Profundis* (Weinitraub, 1920/revised 1951\\) for mixed chorus\n* *O My Deir Hert* (Heritage, 1921/rev. 1978\\) for mixed chorus; text by Martin Luther\n* *Sanctus* (manuscript, 1921\\) for men's chorus\n* *Tribulationes Civitatum* (Weintraub, 1922\\) for mixed (or men's) chorus\n* *Three Antiphonal Psalms* (G. Schirmer, 1924\\) for SA or TB chorus (Psalms 123, 133 \\& 136\\)\n* *Agnus Dei* (Presser, 1924\\) for 3 equal voices\n* *Missa Brevis* (manuscript, 1924\\) for men's chorus\n* *Fête Polonaise* (manuscript 1924\\) arranged from Chabrier for men's chorus \\& piano\n* *Benedictus* (manuscript, 1926\\)\n* *Sanctus* (manuscript, 1926\\)\n* *Capital Capitals* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1927\\) for TTBB (or 4 male voices) \\& piano (text by Gertrude Stein)\n* *Saints' Procession* (G. Schirmer, 1928\\) for mixed chorus, mz\\-s, bass solos \\& piano (text by Gertrude Stein from *Four Saints in Three Acts*)\n* *Seven Choruses from the \"Medea\" of Euripides* (G. Schirmer, 1934; text translated by Countee Cullen) for women's chorus \\& percussion (also arranged for mixed chorus by Daniel Pinkham)\n1. *O gentle heart*\n2. *Love, like a leaf*\n3. *O, happy were our fathers*\n4. *Weep for the little lambs*\n5. *Go down, O Sun*\n6. *Behold, O Earth*\n7. *Immortal Zeus controls the fate of Man*\n* *Mass for Two\\-Part Chorus and Percussion* (MCA/Belwins Mills, 1934\\)\n* *My Shepherd Will Supply My Need* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1937; text is Isaac Watt's paraphrase of Psalm 23\\) (also versions for men's or women's chorus, or for voice and piano or organ)\n* *Scenes from the Holy Infancy According to Saint Matthew* (G. Schirmer, 1937\\) for mixed chorus and men's solos\n* *The Bugle Song* (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1941; text by Alfred Lord Tennyson) for unison children's chorus (or solo voice) and piano\n* *Surrey Apple\\-Howler's Song* (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1941\\) children's chorus\n* *Welcome to the New Year* (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1941; text by Elanor Farjeon) for children's (or mixed) chorus\n* *Hymns from the Old South* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1949\\) for mixed chorus (published separately)\n1. *Death, 'Tis a Melancholy Day* (Isaac Watts)\n2. *Green Fields* (John Newton)\n3. *The Morning Star* (Anonymous)\n* *Kyrie Eleison* (Gray/Belwins Mills, 1953\\) \\[later part of the *Missa pro defunctis*]\n* *Never Another* (Columbia, 1955; text by Mark Van Doren)\n* *Song for the Stable* (Columbia, 1955; text by Amanda Benjamin Hall) for mixed chorus\n* *Four Songs to Poems of Thomas Campion* (Southern, 1955\\) mixed chorus (or solo voice), viola, clarinet and harp (or just piano)\n* *Tiger! Tiger!* (Southern, 1955; text by William Blake) SATB (or TTBB) chorus and piano (orig. for solo voice from Campion cycle)\n* *Crossing Brooklyn Ferry* to poems by [Walt Whitman](/wiki/Walt_Whitman \"Walt Whitman\") (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1961\\); mixed chorus and orchestra\n* *Missa pro defunctis* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1960\\) for mixed chorus and orchestra\n* *Dance in Praise* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1962; text by John Symonds); mixed chorus and orchestra\n* *The Holly and the Ivy* (G. Schirmer, 1963\\) SATB chorus (or solo voice) \\& piano\n* *My Master Hath a Garden* (G. Schirmer, 1963\\) for SATB (or SSAA) chorus \\& piano\n* *Five Auvergnat Folk Songs* (Presser, 1964\\) mixed chorus versions of 5 Joseph Canteloube songs (with original piano or orch accomp)\n1. *La Pastoura als camps (La Bergère aux champs)*\n2. *Bailèro (Chant de bergers de Haute\\-Auvergne)*\n3. *Pastourelle*\n4. *La Fiolairé (La Fileuse)* (Anonymous)\n5. *Passo pel prat (Viens par le pré)*\n* *When I Survey the Bright Celestial Sphere* (Peters, 1964; text by William Habbingdon)\n* *The Nativity As Sung By the Shepherds* (G. Schirmer, 1967; Richard Crashaw) for mixed chorus, soloists \\& orch.\n* *How Will Ye Have Your Partridge Today?* (manuscript, 1967; text by Nicholas Brown) Round for 3 voices\n* *A Hymn for Pratt Institute* (manuscript, 1968; text by Rolf Fjelde) for mixed chorus\n* *Cantata on Poems of Edward Lear* (G. Schirmer, 1974\\) for chorus, soloists \\& orch. (or piano)\n1. *The Owl and the Pussycat* for soprano and baritone\n2. *The Jumblies* (Anonymous) for soprano and chorus\n3. *The Pelican Chorus* for soprano, baritone and chorus\n4. *Half an Alphabet* for chorus\n5. *The Akond of Swat* for baritone and chorus\n* *The Peace Place* (Heritage, 1979; text by Jack Larson) for mixed chorus and piano \\[revised as *Fanfare for Peace*]\n* *A Prayer to Venus* (G. Schirmer, 1981; text by John Fletcher) for mixed chorus and piano\n* *Cantantes Eamus* (G. Schirmer, 1982; text by Virgil) for men's chorus and piano\n* *Fanfare for Peace* (Southern, 1983; text by Jack Larson) for chorus, brass \\& perc (or piano) \\[revision of *Peace Place*]\n* *Southern Hymns* (Southern, 1984\\) for mixed chorus and piano\n1. *\"How Bright is the Day!\"* (Rev. S.B. Sawyer)\n2. *Mississippi \"When Gabriel's Awful Trumpet Shall Sound\"* (from *Kentucky Harmony*)\n3. *Death of General Washington* (Stephen Jenks)\n4. *Convention \"How Firm a Foundation\"* for chorus from Caldwell's *Union Harmony*)\n\n",
"### Keyboard\n\n* Prelude (McAfee Music, 1921\\) piano (also version for organ by Calvin Hampton)\n* Pastorale on a Christmas Plainsong (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1922\\) organ\n\t1. Divinium Mysterium\n\t2. God Rest Ye Merry\n\t3. Picardy\n* Fanfare (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1922\\) organ\n* Prelude (G. Schirmer, 1922\\) organ\n* Passacaglia (G. Schirmer, 1922, rev. 1974\\) organ\n* Two Sentimental Tangos (manuscript, 1923\\) piano (originally Three Sentimental Tangos; also orchestrated)\n* Five Chorale\\-Preludes (G. Schirmer, 1924\\) organ\n\t1. O, Sacred Head Now Wounded!\n\t2. The New\\-Born Babe (1st version)\n\t3. The New\\-Born Babe (2nd version)\n\t4. The New\\-Born Babe (3rd version)\n\t5. Praise God, Ye Christians Ev'rywhere\n* *Synthetic Waltzes* (Presser, 1925\\) 2 pianos (or 1 piano, 4 hands)\n* *Five Two\\-Part Inventions* (Presser, 1926\\) piano (4 of these arranged for guitar by David Leisner)\n* *Ten Easy Pieces and a Coda* (Southern, 1926\\) piano\n* *Variations on Sunday School Tunes* (Gray/Belwin Mills, 1927\\) organ (orig. published separately; now collected as *Variations on Four Sunday School Themes*)\n\t1. *Come, Ye Disconsolate*\n\t2. *There's Not a Friend Like the Lowly Jesus*\n\t3. *Will There Be Any Stars in My Crown?*\n\t4. *Shall We Gather At the River?*\n* *Piano Sonata No. 1* (MCA/Belwin Mills, 1929\\) \\[later scored for orchestra as *Symphony No. 2*]\n* *Piano Sonata No. 2* (MCA/Belwin Mills, 1929\\) \\[later score for harp and orchestra as *Autumn: Concertino for Harp, Strings and Percussion*)\n* *Piano Sonata No. 3 \"on white keys\"* (Southern, 1930\\) (for Gertrude Stein)\n* Symphony No. 2 (Leeds/Belwin Mills, 1932\\) reduced from orchestra for piano, 4 hands\n* *Suite from \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\"* (G. Schirmer, 1936\\) reduced for orchestra for piano\n* *Filling Station* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1937\\) piano version of ballet score\n* *Church Organ Wedding Music* (Randall M. Eagen and Associates, 1940, rev. 1978\\)\n* *Piano Sonata No. 4: Guggenheim jeune* (Portrait of Peggy Guggenheim) (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Ten Etudes for Piano* (Carl Fischer, 1944\\)\n* *Nine Etudes for Piano* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\-1951\\)\n* *Walking Song* (manuscript, 1951\\) for piano (from the movie *Tuesday in November*); also version for 2 pianos by Gold and Fizdale\n* *For a Happy Occasion* (Peters, 1951\\) (Originally entitled *Happy Birthday, Mrs. Zimbalist*)\n* *A Study in Stacked\\-Up Thirds* (Southern, 1958\\) \\[later a portrait of Eugene Ormandy]\n* *Pange Lingua* (G. Schirmer, 1962\\) for organ\n* *Pastor Weems and the Cherry Tree* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1975\\) piano version of the ballet\n* *Theme for Improvisation* (manuscript, 1981\\) for organ\n\n",
"### Piano portraits\n\n(Thomson began writing portraits of friends and acquaintances who passed through his life beginning 1929 through 1985\\. Written in the subject's presence in one sitting, they're mostly for piano, usually under 3 minutes each. He orchestrated many and used several as part of larger works.)\n* *Travelling in Spain: Alice Woodfin Branlière* (Boosey \\& Hakwes, 1929\\)\n* *Alternations: A Portrait of Maurice Grosser* (G. Schirmer, 1929\\)\n* *Catalan Waltz: A Portrait of Ramón Senabre* (G. Schirmer, 1929\\)\n* *Clair Leonard's profile* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1930\\)\n* *Madame Dubost chez elle* (Southern, 1930\\)\n* *Pastoral: A Portrait of Jean Ozenne* (G. Schirmer, 1930\\)\n* *Russell Hitchcock, Reading* (Southern, 1930\\)\n* *Sea Coast: A Portrait of Constance Askew* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *A Portrait of R. Kirk Askew* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Souvenir: A Portrait of Paul Bowles* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Ettie Stettheimer* (Southern, 1935\\)\n* *An Old Song: A Portrait of Carrie Stettheimer* (G. Schimer, 1935\\)\n* *Tennis: A Portrait of Henry McBride* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *The Hunt: A Portrait of A. Everett Austin, Jr.* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Hymn: A Portrait of Josiah Marvel* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *The John Mosher Waltzes* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1935\\) (used in ballet *Filling Station*)\n* *Prelude and Fugue: A Portrait of Miss Agnes Rindge* (G. Schirmer, 1935\\)\n* *Helen Austin at Home and Abroad* (Southern, 1935\\)\n* *Meditation: A Portrait of Jere Abbott* (G.Schirmer, 1935\\) (later orchestrated)\n* *Connecticut Waltz: A Portrait of Harold Lewis Cook* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1935\\)\n* *A Day Dream: Portrait of Herbert Whiting* (Carl Fischer, 1935\\)\n* *Portrait of Claude Biais* (manuscript, 1938\\)\n* *A French Boy of Ten: Louis Lange* (Southern, 1938\\)\n* *Maurice Bavoux: Young and Alone* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1938\\)\n* *The Bard: A Portrait of Sherry Mangan* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *In a Bird Cage: A Portrait of Lise Deharme* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *With Trumpet and Horn: A Portrait of Louise Ardant* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Poltergeist: A Portrait of Hans Arp* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Fanfare for France: A Portrait of Max Kahn* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (later for brass and perc; also cello and piano)\n* *Barcarolle: A Portrait of Georges Hugnet* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (later as *Barcarolle for Woodwinds*)\n* *Swiss Waltz: A Portrait of Sophie Tauber\\-Arp* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Eccentric Dance: Portrait of Madame Kristians Tonny* (Carl Fischer, 1940\\)\n* *Tango Lullaby: A Portrait of Mll. \\[Flavie] Alvarez de Toledo* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Invention: Theodate Johnson Busy and Resting* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Bugles and Birds: A Portrait of Pablo Picasso* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Piano Sonata No. 4: Portrait of Peggy Guggenheim* (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Lullaby Which is Also a Spinning Song: A Portrait of Howard Putzel* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Five\\-Finger Exercise: A Portrait of Leon Kochnitzky* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *The Dream World of Peter Rose\\-Pulham* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Dora Maar or the Presence of Pablo Picasso* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Pastoral: A Portrait of [Tristan Tzara](/wiki/Tristan_Tzara \"Tristan Tzara\")* (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Aria: A Portrait of Germaine Hugnet* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Toccata: A Portrait of Mary Widney* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Awake or Asleep: Pierre Mabille* (Southern, 1940\\)\n* *Cantabile: A Portrait of Nicolas de Chatelain* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Duet: A Portrait of Clarita Comtesse de Forceville* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Stretching: A Portrait of Jamie Campbell* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1940\\)\n* *Canons with Cadenza: A Portrait of André Ostier* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\)\n* *Fugue: A Portrait of Alexander Smallens* (G. Schirmer, 1940\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *With Fife and Drums: A Portrait of Mina Curtiss* (G. Schirmer, 1941\\)\n* *Insistences: A Portrait of Louise Crane* (G. Schirmer, 1941\\)\n* *Percussion Piece: A Portrait of Jessie K. Lasell* (manuscript, 1941\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra*)\n* *Parades: A Portrait of Florine Stettheimer* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1941\\) later for brass and percussion as *Metropolitan Museum Fanfare*)\n* *James Patrick Cannon, Professional Revolutionary* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1942\\)\n* *Scottish Memories: Peter Monro Jack* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1942\\)\n* *Prisoner of the Mind: Schuyler Watts* (Southern, 1942\\)\n* *Wedding Music: A Portrait of Jean \\[Mrs. Schuyler] Watts* (G. Schirmer, 1942\\)\n* *Aaron Copland, Persistently Pastoral* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1942\\) (also part of *Eight Portraits for orchestra* as *Pastorale*)\n* *Five\\-Finger Exercise: Portrait of Briggs Buchanan* (Carl Fischer, 1943\\)\n* *Solitude: A Portrait of Lou Harrison* (G. Schirmer, 1945\\)\n* *Chromatic Double Harmonies: Portrait of Sylvia Marlowe* (G. Schirmer, 1951\\) \\[part of *Nine Etudes*)\n* *Homage to Marya Freund and to the Harp* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1956\\)\n* *Edges: A Portrait of Robert Indiana* (G. Schirmer, 1966\\) (later for band)\n* *For [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\")'s Birthday, 18 November 1969: A Study in Stacked\\-Up Thirds* (Southern, 1969\\)\n* *Man of Iron: A Portrait of Willy Eisenhart* (G. Schirmer, 1972\\) (later the last movement in the brass quintet *Family Portrait*)\n* *Bill Katz: Wide Awake* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\)\n* *Norma Flender: Thoughts about Flying* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\)\n* *Richard Flender: Solid Not Stolid* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*, 1982\\)\n* *Scott Wheeler: Free\\-Wheeling* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1981\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Gerald Busby: Giving Full Attention* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Noah Creshevsky: Loyal, Steady, Persistent* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Sam Byers: With Joy* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Morris Golde: Showing Delight* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Christopher Cox: Singing a Song* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Barbara Epstein: Untiring* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Dead Pan: Mrs. Betty Freeman* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *John Wright, Drawing* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Franco Assetto, Drawing* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Round and Round: Dominique Mabokov* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Karen Brown Waltuck: Intensely Two* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Anne\\-Marie Soullière: Something of a Beauty* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Buffie Johnson: Drawing V.T. in Charcoal* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Craig Rutenberg: Swinging* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Paul Sanfacon: On the Ice* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1983\\)\n* *Molly Davies: Terminations* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Dennis Russel Davies: In a Hammock* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Rodney Lister: Music for a Merry\\-Go\\-Round* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Doña Flor: Receiving* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Dr. Marcel Rochce: Making a Decision* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *David Dubal in Flight* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\) (also part of *Eleven Portraits for Orchestra*)\n* *Peter McWilliams: Firmly Spontaneous* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Vassilis Voglis: On the March* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Power Boothe: With Pencil* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Mark Beard: Never Alone* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Louis Rispoli: In a Boat* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Malitte Matta: In the Executive Style* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Glynn Boyd Harte: Reaching* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Senza Expressione: Bennett Lerner* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Phillip Ramey: Thinking Hard* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Charles, Fussell: In Meditation* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *Brendan Lemon: A Study Piece for Piano* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\)\n* *John Houseman: No Changes* (manuscript, 1984\\) (also part of *A Pair of Portraits for Orchestra* with the title *A Double Take*)\n* *Lines: for and about Ron Henggeler* (manuscript, 1984()\n* *Boris Baranovic: Whirling* (manuscript, 1984\\)\n* *Tony Tommasini: A Study in Chords* (manuscript, 1984\\) (also part of *A Pair of Portraits for Orchestra* with the title *Major Chords*)\n* *Christopher Beach: Alone* (manuscript, 1985\\)\n* *Danyal Lawson: Playing* (manuscript 1985\\)\n\n",
"### Chamber ensemble\n\n* *Sonata da Chiesa* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1926, rev. 1973\\), for clarinet, trumpet, horn, trombone, viola\n* *Portraits for Violin Alone* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1928; additional portrait added in 1940\\)\n\t1. *Señorita Juanita de Medina Accompanied by Her Mother*\n\t2. *Madame Marthe\\-Marthine*\n\t3. *Georges Hugnet, Poet and Man of Letters*\n\t4. *Miss Gertrude Stein as a Young Girl*\n\t5. *Cliquet\\-Pleyel in F*\n\t6. *Mrs. C.W.L. (Chester Whitin Lasell)*\n\t7. *Sauguet, From Life*\n\t8. *Ruth Smallens* (1940\\)\n* *Five Portraits for Four Clarinets* (G. Schirmer, 1929\\) for SSAB clarinets\n\t1. *Portrait of Ladies: A Conversation*\n\t2. *Portrait of a Young Man in Good Health: Maurice Grosser with a Cold*\n\t3. *Christian Bérard, Prisoner*\n\t4. *Christian Bérard as a Soldier*\n\t5. *Christian Bérard in Person*\n* *Le Bains\\-Bar* (manuscript, 1929\\) for Violin and Piano (also for piano quintet) \\[later arranged as *At the Beach* for trumpet and band (or piano)]\n* *Sonata for Violin and Piano* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1930\\)\n* *Portraits for Violin and Piano* (G. Schirmer, 1930; additional portrait added 1940\\) (ultimately published with a 1983 addition as *Five Ladies*)\n\t1. *Alice Tolkas*\n\t2. *Mary Reynolds*\n\t3. *Anne Miracle*\n\t4. *Yvonne de Casa Fuerte* (1940\\)\n* *String Quartet No. 1* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1931, rev. 1957\\)\n* *Serenade for Flute and Violin* (Southern, 1931\\)\n* *String Quartet No. 2* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1932, rev. 1957\\) (later scored for orchestra as *Symphony No. 3*)\n* *Four Portraits*, for cello and piano arranged in 1942 by Luigi Silva:\n\t1. *Bugles and Birds* *([Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso \"Pablo Picasso\"))* (1940\\)\n\t2. *Tango Lullaby* *(Flavie Alvarez de Toledo)* (1940\\)\n\t3. *In a Bird Cage* *([Lise Deharme](/wiki/Lise_Deharme \"Lise Deharme\"))* (1940\\)\n\t4. *Fanfare for France* *([Max Kahn](/wiki/Max_Kahn \"Max Kahn\"))* (1940\\)\n* *Sonata for Flute Alone* (Presser, 1943\\)\n* *Barcarolles for Woodwinds* (G. Schirmer, 1944\\) for flute, oboe, English Horn, Clarinet, Bass Clarinet, Bassoon (orchestrated from piano portrait of George Hugnet)\n* *Fanfare for France* (Boosey \\& Hawkes, 1944\\) orchestrated for brass and percussion from piano portrait of Max Kahn \\[one of ten fanfares commissioned by Cincinnati Symphony]\n* *Sonorous and Exquisite Corpses* (Peters, 1944\\-1947\\) written collaboratively by John Cage, Henry Cowell, Lou Harrison and Virgil Thomson; orchestrated 1982 by Robert Hughes for flute/piccolo, clarinet, horn, bassoon, \\& piano and published as *Party Pieces.* ([Exquisite corpse](/wiki/Exquisite_corpse \"Exquisite corpse\") is a method by which the composers add to a composition in sequence: each would write a bar of music plus 2 notes, fold the paper at the bar, and pass it to the next composer, who would use the 2 notes as a base for continuing the composition.)\n1. *Vivace* (Cage\\-Harrison)\n2. *Adagio* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n3. *Grazioso* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n4. *Allegretto* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n5. *Slowly, yet flowing* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n6. *Flowing\\-broad* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n7. *Allegro* (Cage\\-Harrison)\n8. *Majestic\\-broad* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n9. *Vivo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n10. *Flowing\\-rubato* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n11. *Waltz tempo* (Thomson\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n12. *Flowing* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n13. *Allegro* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n14. *A slow, walking tempo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n15. *Maestoso, ma teneramente* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n16. *Allegro preciso* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n17. *March tempo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n18. *Pastoral\\-softly\\-legato* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n19. *A slow 2\\-walking tempo* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n20. *Allegro* (Cowell\\-Cage\\-Harrison)\n* *At the Beach* (Carl Fischer, 1949\\) Concert Waltz for trumpet and band (or piano)\n* *Four Songs to Poems of Thomas Campion* (Southern, 1951\\) mezzo\\-soprano, clarinet, viola and harp (or mezzo and piano)\n* *Lamentations, Etude for Accordion* (Santee Music, 1959\\)\n* *Variations for Koto* (manuscript, 1961\\)\n* *Ode to the Wonders of Nature* (G. Schirmer, 1965\\) for brass and percussion\n* *Etude for Cello and Piano, a Portrait of Frederic James* (manuscript, 1966\\)\n* *Metropolitan Museum Fanfare: Portrait of An American Artist* (G. Schirmer, 1969\\) orchestrated for brass and percussion from piano portrait of Florine Stettheimer\n* *Family Portrait* (G. Schirmer, 1974\\) for brass quintet\n1. *A Fanfare: Robin Smith*\n2. *At Fourteen: Anne Barnard*\n3. *Digging: A Portrait of Howard Rea*\n4. *A Scherzo: Priscilla Rea*\n5. *Man of Iron: Willy Eisenhart* (from piano original)\n* *A Short Fanfare* (manuscript, 1981\\) for 3 trumpets and 2 side drums\n* *Bell Piece* (G. Schirmer, 1983\\) for [carillon](/wiki/Carillon \"Carillon\") (2 or 4 players)\n* *Cynthia Kemper A Fanfare* (G. Schirmer, 1983\\) for violin \\& piano (later published as part of *Five Ladies*)\n* *Lili Hastings* (manuscript, 1983\\) violin and piano\n* *A Portrait of Two* (G. Schirmer, 1984\\) for oboe, bassoon \\& piano\n* *Jay Rosen* (manuscript, 1984\\) for tuba and piano\n* *Stockton Fanfare* (Gentry Publications, 1985\\) for 3 trumpets and 2 side drums\n\n",
"Bibliography\n------------\n\nIncluded among Virgil Thomson's publications are:[Virgil Thomson's Publications on Worldcat Identities worldcat.org](https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n50012238/)\n* Thomson, Virgil. (1940\\) *The State of Music*. New York. Morrow.\n* —. (1945\\) *The Musical Scene*. New York. A. A. Knopf.\n* —. (1948\\) *The Art of Judging Music*. New York. A. A. Knopf.\n* —. (1951\\) *Music, Right and Left*. New York. Henry Holt and Co.\n* —. (1966\\) *Virgil Thomson*. New York. Alfred A. Knopf.\n* —. (1971\\) *American Music Since 1910*. New York. Holt Rinehart and Winston.\n* —. (1981\\) *A Virgil Thomson Reader*. Boston. Houghton and Mifflin.\n* —. (1989\\) *Music With Words: A Composer's View*. New Haven. Yale University Press.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n**Sources**\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Virgil Thomson on archive.org](https://archive.org/search.php?query=Virgil%20Thomson)\n* [Virgil Thomson interview by Bruce Duffie](http://www.bruceduffie.com/vt.html)\n* [Art of the States: Virgil Thomson](https://web.archive.org/web/20041103215400/http://www.artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/composer.pl?comp=174)\n* [Virgil Thomson Foundation](http://www.virgilthomson.org/)\n* [Virgil Thomson oral histories at Oral History of American Music](https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/7/archival_objects/3184046)\n* [Virgil Thomson Papers at Irving S. Gilmore Music Library, Yale University](http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/music.mss.0029)\n* [Virgil Thomson](https://sites.google.com/a/umich.edu/musa/publications/musa-18-virgil-thomson) at Music of the United States of America (MUSA)\n* , WNCN\\-FM (date unknown)\n* , WNCN\\-FM, November 20, 1981\n* , WNCN\\-FM, November 27, 1981\n* [Review](http://www.thenation.com/article/186417/drawing-frame) by [Tim Page](/wiki/Tim_Page_%28music_critic%29 \"Tim Page (music critic)\") in *[The Nation](/wiki/The_Nation \"The Nation\")* of \n* [Thomson interviewed by Vivian Perlis](https://web.archive.org/web/20150906162801/http://web.library.yale.edu/oham/excerpts/thomson) excerpt\n* [DVD with Two Thomson film scores reviewed by Roger Hall](http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/ThePlowTheRiver.htm)\n* [Guide to the Virgil Thomson Papers 1962–1967](https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.VTHOMSON) at the [University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center](https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/)\n* [Finding aid to Virgil Thomson papers at Columbia University. Rare Book \\& Manuscript Library.](https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079399)\n\n[Category:1896 births](/wiki/Category:1896_births \"1896 births\")\n[Category:1989 deaths](/wiki/Category:1989_deaths \"1989 deaths\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American composers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_composers \"20th-century American composers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American male musicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_musicians \"20th-century American male musicians\")\n[Category:20th\\-century classical composers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_classical_composers \"20th-century classical composers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American LGBTQ people](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_LGBTQ_people \"20th-century American LGBTQ people\")\n[Category:American ballet composers](/wiki/Category:American_ballet_composers \"American ballet composers\")\n[Category:American classical composers](/wiki/Category:American_classical_composers \"American classical composers\")\n[Category:American expatriates in France](/wiki/Category:American_expatriates_in_France \"American expatriates in France\")\n[Category:American film score composers](/wiki/Category:American_film_score_composers \"American film score composers\")\n[Category:American LGBTQ composers](/wiki/Category:American_LGBTQ_composers \"American LGBTQ composers\")\n[Category:American male film score composers](/wiki/Category:American_male_film_score_composers \"American male film score composers\")\n[Category:American male opera composers](/wiki/Category:American_male_opera_composers \"American male opera composers\")\n[Category:American music critics](/wiki/Category:American_music_critics \"American music critics\")\n[Category:American opera composers](/wiki/Category:American_opera_composers \"American opera composers\")\n[Category:Centaur Records artists](/wiki/Category:Centaur_Records_artists \"Centaur Records artists\")\n[Category:Composers for carillon](/wiki/Category:Composers_for_carillon \"Composers for carillon\")\n[Category:Harvard University alumni](/wiki/Category:Harvard_University_alumni \"Harvard University alumni\")\n[Category:Kennedy Center honorees](/wiki/Category:Kennedy_Center_honorees \"Kennedy Center honorees\")\n[Category:LGBTQ classical composers](/wiki/Category:LGBTQ_classical_composers \"LGBTQ classical composers\")\n[Category:LGBTQ film score composers](/wiki/Category:LGBTQ_film_score_composers \"LGBTQ film score composers\")\n[Category:LGBTQ people from Missouri](/wiki/Category:LGBTQ_people_from_Missouri \"LGBTQ people from Missouri\")\n[Category:MacDowell Colony fellows](/wiki/Category:MacDowell_Colony_fellows \"MacDowell Colony fellows\")\n[Category:New York Herald Tribune people](/wiki/Category:New_York_Herald_Tribune_people \"New York Herald Tribune people\")\n[Category:Musicians from Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Musicians from Kansas City, Missouri\")\n[Category:Opera critics](/wiki/Category:Opera_critics \"Opera critics\")\n[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Music winners](/wiki/Category:Pulitzer_Prize_for_Music_winners \"Pulitzer Prize for Music winners\")\n[Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients](/wiki/Category:United_States_National_Medal_of_Arts_recipients \"United States National Medal of Arts recipients\")\n[Category:Writers from Missouri](/wiki/Category:Writers_from_Missouri \"Writers from Missouri\")\n\n"
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Michael Novak
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"title": [
"Introduction",
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"Second Vatican Council",
"Early books",
"''Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics''",
"Stanford years",
"SUNY Old Westbury",
"Later career",
"Bibliography",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
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"\n\n* + \n\t**Michael John Novak Jr.** (September 9, 1933 – February 17, 2017\\) was an American [Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") philosopher, journalist, novelist, and diplomat. The author of more than forty books on the philosophy and theology of culture, Novak is most widely known for his book *[The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism](/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Democratic_Capitalism \"The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism\")* (1982\\). In 1993 Novak was honored with an honorary doctorate at [Universidad Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Universidad_Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn \"Universidad Francisco Marroquín\")[Honorary Doctorate Degrees at Universidad Francisco Marroquín](https://www.ufm.edu/cms/es/honorary-doctoral-degrees) (in Guatemala City, Guatemala). due to his commitment to the idea of liberty. In 1994 he was awarded the [Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion](/wiki/Templeton_Prize_for_Progress_in_Religion \"Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion\"), which included a million\\-dollar purse awarded at Buckingham Palace. He wrote books and articles focused on [capitalism](/wiki/Capitalism \"Capitalism\"), religion, and the [politics of democratization](/wiki/Democratization \"Democratization\").\n\nNovak served as [United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights \"United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights\") in 1981 and 1982 and led the US delegation to the [Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Conference_on_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe \"Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe\") in 1986\\. Additionally, Novak served on the board of directors of the now\\-defunct [Coalition for a Democratic Majority](/wiki/Coalition_for_a_Democratic_Majority \"Coalition for a Democratic Majority\"), a conservative anti\\-Communist faction of the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\"), which sought to influence the party's policies in the same direction that the [Committee on the Present Danger](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Present_Danger \"Committee on the Present Danger\") later did. Novak was George Frederick Jewett Scholar in Religion, Philosophy, and Public Policy at the [American Enterprise Institute](/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute \"American Enterprise Institute\"). In 2004, he claimed to be a lifelong Democrat, while noting that he has supported many [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") candidates.[National Review](/wiki/National_Review \"National Review\"), retrieved January 1, 2009 from [http://www.nationalreview.com/novak/novak200409071420\\.asp](http://www.nationalreview.com/novak/novak200409071420.asp)\n\n",
"Early life, education, and family\n---------------------------------\n\nNovak was born on September 9, 1933, in [Johnstown](/wiki/Johnstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Johnstown, Pennsylvania\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), to a Slovak\\-American family, the son of Irene (Sakmar) and Michael J. Novak. He was married to Karen Laub\\-Novak, a professional artist and illustrator, who died of cancer in August 2009\\. They have three children (Richard, Tanya, and Jana) and four grandchildren.\n\nNovak earned a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") degree *[summa cum laude](/wiki/Summa_cum_laude \"Summa cum laude\")* in philosophy and English from [Stonehill College](/wiki/Stonehill_College \"Stonehill College\") in 1956, a [Bachelor of Sacred Theology](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Sacred_Theology \"Bachelor of Sacred Theology\") degree from the [Pontifical Gregorian University](/wiki/Pontifical_Gregorian_University \"Pontifical Gregorian University\") in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") in 1958, and a [Master of Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") degree in history and philosophy of religion from [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") in 1966\\. Novak attended Harvard University to study philosophy and religion, intending to obtain a doctorate in philosophy of religion. Novak stated that he thought the philosophy department was too focused on [analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\"), neglecting religion. He left Harvard after receiving his master's degree and began work as a writer.\n\n",
"Early writings\n--------------\n\n### Second Vatican Council\n\nNovak worked as a correspondent for the *[National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter \"National Catholic Reporter\")* during the second session of the [Second Vatican Council](/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council \"Second Vatican Council\") in Rome, where he also got the opportunity to fulfill a book contract for a fellow reporter who was not able to complete the project. The result was Novak's second book, *The Open Church*, a journalistic account of the events of the second session of the council.\n\nHis writings at the time were criticized by the more conservative factions in the church, and apostolic delegate [Egidio Vagnozzi](/wiki/Egidio_Vagnozzi \"Egidio Vagnozzi\") advised US churchmen to silence him.\n\n",
"### Second Vatican Council\n\nNovak worked as a correspondent for the *[National Catholic Reporter](/wiki/National_Catholic_Reporter \"National Catholic Reporter\")* during the second session of the [Second Vatican Council](/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council \"Second Vatican Council\") in Rome, where he also got the opportunity to fulfill a book contract for a fellow reporter who was not able to complete the project. The result was Novak's second book, *The Open Church*, a journalistic account of the events of the second session of the council.\n\nHis writings at the time were criticized by the more conservative factions in the church, and apostolic delegate [Egidio Vagnozzi](/wiki/Egidio_Vagnozzi \"Egidio Vagnozzi\") advised US churchmen to silence him.\n\n",
"Early books\n-----------\n\nEarly in his career, Novak published two novels: *The Tiber Was Silver* (1961\\) and *Naked I Leave* (1970\\). At the time, he considered the modest $600 advance to be \"a fortune.\"Michael Novak (1999\\) [\"Controversial Engagements\"](http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9904/articles/novak.html), *First Things* (April 1999\\).\n\n### *Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics*\n\nNovak proposed that the [white ethnic](/wiki/White_ethnic \"White ethnic\") was a distinct race of whites from [WASPs](/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestant \"White Anglo-Saxon Protestant\") who had attempted to erase their cultural heritage and assimilate them. He supported the notion of [separate but equal](/wiki/Separate_but_equal \"Separate but equal\") while rejecting [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism \"Multiculturalism\") and [melting pot](/wiki/Melting_pot \"Melting pot\") theory. He argues that [white ethnics](/wiki/White_ethnics \"White ethnics\") will reject assimilation and live separately from other races. He argues that African Americans and white ethnics should unite due to their common class struggle while also denouncing \"socialist\" integration policies that \"unfairly\" supported women and African Americans to the detriment of taxpaying \"white ethnics\".\n\n",
"### *Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics*\n\nNovak proposed that the [white ethnic](/wiki/White_ethnic \"White ethnic\") was a distinct race of whites from [WASPs](/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestant \"White Anglo-Saxon Protestant\") who had attempted to erase their cultural heritage and assimilate them. He supported the notion of [separate but equal](/wiki/Separate_but_equal \"Separate but equal\") while rejecting [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism \"Multiculturalism\") and [melting pot](/wiki/Melting_pot \"Melting pot\") theory. He argues that [white ethnics](/wiki/White_ethnics \"White ethnics\") will reject assimilation and live separately from other races. He argues that African Americans and white ethnics should unite due to their common class struggle while also denouncing \"socialist\" integration policies that \"unfairly\" supported women and African Americans to the detriment of taxpaying \"white ethnics\".\n\n",
"Stanford years\n--------------\n\nNovak's friendship with the [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterian \"Presbyterian\") [theologian](/wiki/Theologian \"Theologian\") [Robert McAfee Brown](/wiki/Robert_McAfee_Brown \"Robert McAfee Brown\") during the [Second Vatican Council](/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council \"Second Vatican Council\") led to a teaching post at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\"), where he became the first [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") to teach in the [humanities](/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\") program. Novak taught at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") from 1965 to 1968, during the key years of student revolt throughout California. During this period, he wrote *A Time to Build* (1967\\), discussing problems of belief and unbelief, [ecumenism](/wiki/Ecumenism \"Ecumenism\"), [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\"), and [war](/wiki/War \"War\"). In 1968, he signed the \"[Writers and Editors War Tax Protest](/wiki/Writers_and_Editors_War_Tax_Protest \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\")\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in [protest against the Vietnam War](/wiki/Protest_against_the_Vietnam_War \"Protest against the Vietnam War\").\"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\" January 30, 1968 *New York Post* In *A Theology for Radical Politics* (1969\\), Novak makes theological arguments in support of the New Left student movement, which he urged to advance the renewal of the human spirit rather than merely to reform social institutions. His book *Politics: Realism and Imagination* includes accounts of visiting American Vietnam War deserters in France (\"Desertion\"), the birth and development of the student movement at Stanford (\"Green Shoots of Counter\\-Culture\") and philosophical essays on [nihilism](/wiki/Nihilism \"Nihilism\") and [Marxism](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\").\n\n",
"SUNY Old Westbury\n-----------------\n\nNovak left Stanford for a post as dean of a new \"experimental\" school at the newly founded [State University of New York at Old Westbury](/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_at_Old_Westbury \"State University of New York at Old Westbury\"), [Long Island](/wiki/Long_Island \"Long Island\").\n\nNovak's writings during this period included the philosophical essay *The Experience of Nothingness* (1970, republished in 1998\\), in which he cautioned the New Left that utopianism could lead to alienation and rootlessness. Novak's novel *Naked I Leave* (1970\\) chronicles his experiences in California and in the Second Vatican Council and his journey from seminarian to reporter.\n\n",
"Later career\n------------\n\nAfter serving at Old Westbury/SUNY from 1969 to 1972, Novak launched the humanities program at the Rockefeller Foundation in 1973–1974\\. In 1976, he accepted a tenured position at Syracuse University as University Professor and Ledden\\-Watson Distinguished Professor of Religion. In the fall semesters of 1987 and 1988, Novak held the W. Harold and Martha Welch chair as Professor of American Studies at the University of Notre Dame.\n\nIn the spring of 1978, Novak joined the [American Enterprise Institute](/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute \"American Enterprise Institute\") for Social Policy Research as a Resident Scholar, a position he held for more than a decade. He would later stay with the American Enterprise Institute as the George Frederick Jewett Chair of Religion, Philosophy, and Public Policy, and as the Institute's Director of Social and Political Studies.Biography at the American Enterprise Institute, retrieved May 25, 2008 from .\n\nNovak was a frequent contributor to magazines and journals including *[First Things](/wiki/First_Things \"First Things\")* and *[National Review](/wiki/National_Review \"National Review\")*. In 1994, he was a signer of the document [Evangelicals and Catholics Together](/wiki/Evangelicals_and_Catholics_Together \"Evangelicals and Catholics Together\"). On December 12, 2007, Novak declared his support for the presidential candidacy of [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney \"Mitt Romney\").\n\nIn 2012, he authored an article entitled 'The Moral Imperative of a Free Economy' in *[The 4% Solution: Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs](/wiki/The_4%25_Solution:Unleashing_the_Economic_Growth_America_Needs \"Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs\")*, published by the [George W. Bush Presidential Center](/wiki/George_W._Bush_Presidential_Center \"George W. Bush Presidential Center\").\n\nNovak was a founding board member of the [Institute on Religion and Democracy](/wiki/Institute_on_Religion_and_Democracy \"Institute on Religion and Democracy\"). He was also a founding member of the [Board of Trustees](/wiki/Board_of_Trustees \"Board of Trustees\") of [Ave Maria University](/wiki/Ave_Maria_University \"Ave Maria University\") and was a member of the [Ave Maria Mutual Funds](/wiki/Ave_Maria_Mutual_Funds \"Ave Maria Mutual Funds\") Catholic Advisory Board. A portrait of Novak by [Igor Babailov](/wiki/Igor_Babailov \"Igor Babailov\") hangs in the Canizaro Library on campus.Igor Babilov's Oil\\-on\\-canvas portrait of Michael Novak, retrieved December 17, 2012 from <http://www.russianamericanacademyofart.com/Novak.html>.\n\nIn 2016 he joined the [Tim and Steph Busch School of Business and Economics](/wiki/Tim_and_Steph_Busch_School_of_Business_and_Economics \"Tim and Steph Busch School of Business and Economics\") of the [Catholic University of America](/wiki/Catholic_University_of_America \"Catholic University of America\") as a distinguished visiting professor.[Michael Novak joins Catholic University](http://www.aei.org/scholars/filter.all,scholarID.44/scholar2.asp) .\n\nNovak died of complications from [colon cancer](/wiki/Colon_cancer \"Colon cancer\") February 17, 2017, in Washington, D.C., at the age of 83\\.\n\n",
"Bibliography\n------------\n\n* *Social Justice Isn't What You Think It Is* (2015\\) , \n* *Writing from Left to Right: My Journey From Liberal to Conservative* (2013\\)\n* *The Myth of Romantic Love and Other Essays* (with Elizabeth Shaw) (2012\\)\n* *Living the Call: An Introduction to the Lay Vocation* (with William E. Simon) (2011\\) , \n* *All Nature is a Sacramental Fire: Moments of Beauty, Sorrow, and Joy* (2011\\)\n* *No One Sees God: The Dark Night of Atheists and Believers* (2008\\)\n* *Washington's God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country* (with Jana Novak) (2006\\) , \n* *Universal Hunger for Liberty: Why the Clash of Civilizations is Not Inevitable* (2004\\)\n* *On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding* (2001\\)\n* *Business as a Calling* (1996\\)\n* *The Catholic Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism* (1993\\).\n* *Free Persons and the Common Good* (1988\\)\n* *Tell Me Why* (1998\\)\n* *The Open Church* (1964, 2002\\)\n* *Joy of Sports* (1976, 1994\\)\n* *Catholic Social Thought and Liberal Institutions* (1984, 1989\\)\n* *This Hemisphere of Liberty* (1990, 1992\\)\n* *Will It Liberate? Questions About Liberation Theology* (1986\\)\n* *Toward the Future*\n* *Toward a theology of the corporation*, Lanham, MD : University Press of America, 1981\\. , \n* *Confession of a Catholic*, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985, , \n* *Moral Clarity in a Nuclear Age* (1983\\) , \n* *Ascent of the Mountain, Flight of the Dove*\n* *Character and Crime* London: Brownson Institute, 1988\\. , \n* *On Cultivating Liberty*\n* *The Fire of Invention*\n* *The Guns of Lattimer*\n* *Choosing Presidents*\n* *A Free Society Reader*\n* *Three in One*\n* *The New Consensus on Family and Welfare: A Community of Self\\-Reliance* (Novak et al.) (1987\\).\n* *[The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism](/wiki/The_spirit_of_democratic_capitalism \"The spirit of democratic capitalism\")* (1982\\). .\n* *Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: The New Political Force of the Seventies* (1972\\). \n* *The Experience of Nothingness* (1970; revised and expanded 1998\\).\n* *Naked I Leave* (novel, 1970\\).\n* *Belief and Unbelief, a Philosophy of Self\\-Knowledge* (1965; 3rd ed. 1994\\).\n* *The Tiber was Silver* (novel, 1962\\). , \n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [American philosophy](/wiki/American_philosophy \"American philosophy\")\n* [Democratic capitalism](/wiki/Democratic_capitalism \"Democratic capitalism\")\n* [List of American philosophers](/wiki/List_of_American_philosophers \"List of American philosophers\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Graduation speech](http://newmedia.ufm.edu/gsm/index.php/Listados:Michael_Novak) at [Universidad Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Universidad_Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn \"Universidad Francisco Marroquín\") in 1993\\.\n[Category:1933 births](/wiki/Category:1933_births \"1933 births\")\n[Category:2017 deaths](/wiki/Category:2017_deaths \"2017 deaths\")\n[Category:American Enterprise Institute](/wiki/Category:American_Enterprise_Institute \"American Enterprise Institute\")\n[Category:American male non\\-fiction writers](/wiki/Category:American_male_non-fiction_writers \"American male non-fiction writers\")\n[Category:American people of Slovak descent](/wiki/Category:American_people_of_Slovak_descent \"American people of Slovak descent\")\n[Category:American people of Slovenian descent](/wiki/Category:American_people_of_Slovenian_descent \"American people of Slovenian descent\")\n[Category:American political philosophers](/wiki/Category:American_political_philosophers \"American political philosophers\")\n[Category:American political writers](/wiki/Category:American_political_writers \"American political writers\")\n[Category:American tax resisters](/wiki/Category:American_tax_resisters \"American tax resisters\")\n[Category:California Democrats](/wiki/Category:California_Democrats \"California Democrats\")\n[Category:Catholic philosophers](/wiki/Category:Catholic_philosophers \"Catholic philosophers\")\n[Category:Harvard University alumni](/wiki/Category:Harvard_University_alumni \"Harvard University alumni\")\n[Category:New York (state) Democrats](/wiki/Category:New_York_%28state%29_Democrats \"New York (state) Democrats\")\n[Category:Pennsylvania Democrats](/wiki/Category:Pennsylvania_Democrats \"Pennsylvania Democrats\")\n[Category:People from Johnstown, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:People_from_Johnstown%2C_Pennsylvania \"People from Johnstown, Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Recipients of the Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk](/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Garrigue_Masaryk \"Recipients of the Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk\")\n[Category:Representatives of the United States to the United Nations Human Rights Council](/wiki/Category:Representatives_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council \"Representatives of the United States to the United Nations Human Rights Council\")\n[Category:Roman Catholic writers](/wiki/Category:Roman_Catholic_writers \"Roman Catholic writers\")\n[Category:State University of New York at Old Westbury faculty](/wiki/Category:State_University_of_New_York_at_Old_Westbury_faculty \"State University of New York at Old Westbury faculty\")\n[Category:Stonehill College alumni](/wiki/Category:Stonehill_College_alumni \"Stonehill College alumni\")\n[Category:Templeton Prize laureates](/wiki/Category:Templeton_Prize_laureates \"Templeton Prize laureates\")\n[Category:The American Spectator people](/wiki/Category:The_American_Spectator_people \"The American Spectator people\")\n[Category:Activists from California](/wiki/Category:Activists_from_California \"Activists from California\")\n[Category:Writers from Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Writers_from_Pennsylvania \"Writers from Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Deaths from colorectal cancer in the United States](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_colorectal_cancer_in_the_United_States \"Deaths from colorectal cancer in the United States\")\n[Category:Catholics from Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Catholics_from_Pennsylvania \"Catholics from Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs](/wiki/Category:Carnegie_Council_for_Ethics_in_International_Affairs \"Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs\")\n[Category:Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Rock_Creek_Cemetery \"Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery\")\n[Category:Busch School of Business faculty](/wiki/Category:Busch_School_of_Business_faculty \"Busch School of Business faculty\")\n\n"
]
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The Stylistics
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2024-10-13T00:19:39Z
| 1,250,429,313 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Career",
"Early years",
"Success: The Bell/Creed years",
"Changing style: Continuing international success",
"Later years",
"Personnel",
"Current members",
"Former members",
"Discography",
"Awards and recognition",
"Inductions",
"RIAA Gold certifications",
"Albums",
"Singles",
"Film and television appearances",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
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"\n\n* + - * + - * + \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n**The Stylistics** are an American [Philadelphia soul](/wiki/Philadelphia_soul \"Philadelphia soul\") group that achieved their greatest chart success in the 1970s. They formed in 1968, with a lineup of singers [Russell Thompkins Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\"), Herb Murrell, Airrion Love, James Smith and James Dunn. All of their US hits were ballads characterized by the falsetto of Russell Thompkins Jr. and the production of [Thom Bell](/wiki/Thom_Bell \"Thom Bell\"). During the early 1970s, the group had twelve consecutive R\\&B top ten hits, including \"[Stop, Look, Listen](/wiki/Stop%2C_Look%2C_Listen_%28To_Your_Heart%29 \"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)\")\", \"[You Are Everything](/wiki/You_Are_Everything \"You Are Everything\")\", \"[Betcha by Golly, Wow](/wiki/Betcha_by_Golly%2C_Wow \"Betcha by Golly, Wow\")\", \"[I'm Stone in Love with You](/wiki/I%27m_Stone_in_Love_with_You \"I'm Stone in Love with You\")\", \"[Break Up to Make Up](/wiki/Break_Up_to_Make_Up \"Break Up to Make Up\")\" and \"[You Make Me Feel Brand New](/wiki/You_Make_Me_Feel_Brand_New \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\")\", which earned them 5 gold singles and 3 gold albums.\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\n### Early years\n\nThe Stylistics were created from two Philadelphia groups, The Percussions and The Monarchs. The two bands were in the same high school. The Stylistics was first conceived when [Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\")'s English teacher, Beverly Hamilton, suggested the two bands become one. [Russell Thompkins Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\"), James Smith and [Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\") came from the Monarchs, and James Dunn and Herb Murrell came from the Percussions. The name \"The Stylistics\" came from their guitar player Robert Douglas.\n\nThree original members, [Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\"), James Dunn, and [Russell Thompkins Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\"), were born in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"). Herb Murrell was born in [Lane, South Carolina](/wiki/Lane%2C_South_Carolina \"Lane, South Carolina\") and James Smith was born in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), but moved to Philadelphia following his father's death in 1962\\.\n\nIn 1970, the group [recorded](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction \"Sound recording and reproduction\") \"You're a Big Girl Now\", a song their [road manager](/wiki/Road_manager \"Road manager\") Marty Bryant [co\\-wrote](/wiki/Songwriter \"Songwriter\") with Robert Douglas, a member of their [backing band](/wiki/Backup_band \"Backup band\") Slim and the Boys, and the single became a regional hit for Sebring Records. Producer Bill Perry spent $400 to record the song in the Virtue Studios in Philadelphia. The larger [Avco Records](/wiki/Avco_Records \"Avco Records\") soon signed the Stylistics, and the single eventually climbed to No. 7 on the US *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [R\\&B](/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs \"Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs\") [chart](/wiki/Record_chart \"Record chart\") in early 1971\\.\n\n### Success: The Bell/Creed years\n\nAfter signing to Avco, the record label approached producer [Thom Bell](/wiki/Thom_Bell \"Thom Bell\"), who had already produced a catalogue of hits for [The Delfonics](/wiki/The_Delfonics \"The Delfonics\"), to work with the group.Jackson, John A (2004\\). *A House on Fire: The Rise and Fall of Philadelphia Soul*. USA: Oxford University Press. . The Stylistics auditioned for Bell, but he was initially unimpressed. He ultimately agreed to produce the group because he believed in the potential of lead singer [Russell Thompkins, Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins%2C_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins, Jr.\")'s distinctive, nasal high [tenor](/wiki/Tenor \"Tenor\") and [falsetto](/wiki/Falsetto \"Falsetto\") voice. Avco gave Bell complete creative control over the Stylistics and he proceeded to focus the group's sound exclusively around Thompkins's voice. On most of the group hits, Bell would have Thompkins sing virtually solo.\n\nThe first song recorded with Bell and his [collaborator](/wiki/Collaboration \"Collaboration\"), lyricist [Linda Creed](/wiki/Linda_Creed \"Linda Creed\"), was \"[Stop, Look, Listen](/wiki/Stop%2C_Look%2C_Listen_%28To_Your_Heart%29 \"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)\")\".<http://www.souljonespresents.com/heroes_thom.html> \n\nTheir hits from this period — distilled from three albums — included \"[Betcha by Golly, Wow](/wiki/Betcha_by_Golly%2C_Wow \"Betcha by Golly, Wow\")\" (U.S. No. 3\\), \"[I'm Stone in Love with You](/wiki/I%27m_Stone_in_Love_with_You \"I'm Stone in Love with You\")\", \"[Break Up to Make Up](/wiki/Break_Up_to_Make_Up \"Break Up to Make Up\")\" (U.S. No. 5\\), \"[You Make Me Feel Brand New](/wiki/You_Make_Me_Feel_Brand_New \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\")\" featuring Thompkins singing a lead vocal duet with Airrion Love, \"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)\", \"[You Are Everything](/wiki/You_Are_Everything \"You Are Everything\")\" and the Top 20 pop chart hit \"[Rockin' Roll Baby](/wiki/Rockin%27_Roll_Baby_%28song%29 \"Rockin' Roll Baby (song)\")\" (U.S. No. 14\\). \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\", the group's biggest U.S. hit, holding at No. 2 for two weeks in 1974, was one of the group's five U.S. [gold](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification \"Music recording sales certification\") singles.\n\nThe Stylistics also found a path on to [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music \"Adult contemporary music\") airwaves, and the group made *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* magazine's Easy Listening singles chart twelve times from 1971 to 1976, with three entries (\"Betcha by Golly, Wow\", \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\" and \"[You'll Never Get to Heaven (If You Break My Heart)](/wiki/You%27ll_Never_Get_to_Heaven_%28If_You_Break_My_Heart%29%23The_Stylistics_version \"You'll Never Get to Heaven (If You Break My Heart)#The Stylistics version\")\") reaching the Top 10\\. Every single that Bell produced for the Stylistics was a Top Ten R\\&B hit, and several — \"You Are Everything\", \"Betcha by Golly Wow!\", \"I'm Stone in Love with You\", \"Break Up to Make Up\" and \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\" — were also Top Ten pop [chart](/wiki/Record_chart \"Record chart\") hits. The group also enjoyed commercial success with hits with this material throughout Europe.\n\n### Changing style: Continuing international success\n\nThom Bell stopped working with the Stylistics in 1974, and the split proved commercially difficult for the group in the U.S. They struggled to find the right material, although their partnership with label owners [Hugo \\& Luigi](/wiki/Hugo_%26_Luigi \"Hugo & Luigi\") as producers and arranger [Van McCoy](/wiki/Van_McCoy \"Van McCoy\") started well, with \"Let's Put It All Together\" (No. 18 pop, No. 8 R\\&B) and \"Heavy Fallin' Out\" (No. 4 R\\&B, No. 41 pop). Later singles were notably less successful, but as U.S. success began to wane, their popularity in Europe, and especially the United Kingdom, increased. Indeed, the lighter 'pop' sound fashioned by McCoy and Hugo \\& Luigi gave the group a U.K. [No. 1](/wiki/Chart-topper \"Chart-topper\") in 1975 with \"[Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)](/wiki/Can%27t_Give_You_Anything_%28But_My_Love%29 \"Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)\")\". Further successes with \"Sing Baby Sing\", \"Na Na Is The Saddest Word\", \"Funky Weekend\" and \"[Can't Help Falling in Love](/wiki/Can%27t_Help_Falling_in_Love \"Can't Help Falling in Love\")\" consolidated the group's European popularity. The Stylistics recorded \"Disco Baby\", \"Love is the Answer\" and \"16 Bars\" also. They are one of the few U.S. acts to have two chart\\-topping [greatest hits](/wiki/Greatest_hits \"Greatest hits\") albums in the U.K.\n\nThe Stylistics switched record labels during this period as Avco Records transitioned into [H\\&L Records](/wiki/H%26L_Records \"H&L Records\") in 1976\\. Notwithstanding this, the band began to struggle with increasingly weak material, and although the singles and albums came out as before, by 1978 chart success had vanished; even a move to Mercury in 1978, for two albums produced by Teddy Randazzo, failed to produce any major success. Russell Thompkins Jr. wrote (in the sleevenotes for the re\\-issue of the 1976 album, *Fabulous*) that the group began to feel that the music they were recording was becoming dated, and not in keeping with the popular [disco](/wiki/Disco \"Disco\") sound of the late 1970s.\n\nIn 1979, they had a small part in the movie *[Hair](/wiki/Hair_%28film%29 \"Hair (film)\")*, directed by [Miloš Forman](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Forman \"Miloš Forman\"), where they play conservative army officers. They double [Nell Carter](/wiki/Nell_Carter \"Nell Carter\") in singing a song called \"White Boys\".\n\n### Later years\n\n[250px\\|thumb\\|The Stylistics performing at [Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island](/wiki/Ford_Amphitheater_at_Coney_Island \"Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island\") in 2019\\.](/wiki/File:The_Stylistics_at_the_Ford_Amphitheater_in_Coney_Island%2C_2019.jpg \"The Stylistics at the Ford Amphitheater in Coney Island, 2019.jpg\")\nIn 1980, the group reunited with Thom Bell and signed with [Philadelphia International Records](/wiki/Philadelphia_International_Records \"Philadelphia International Records\") subsidiary, TSOP Records. They released the single \"[Hurry Up This Way Again](/wiki/Hurry_Up_This_Way_Again \"Hurry Up This Way Again\")\" that year which brought them back into the R\\&B Top 20 (peaking at No. 18\\). Both James Dunn and James Smith departed due to conflicts over the direction of the group; Dunn left before the recording of the album *Hurry Up This Way Again* (1980\\) and Smith after the recording of *Closer Than Close* in 1981\\.Taylor, Marc (1996\\). A Touch of Classic Soul of the Early 1970s, Jamaica, N.Y., Aloiv Publications, Nevertheless, the group continued, recruiting new member Raymond Johnson, but Johnson departed in 1985, leaving the group as a [trio](/wiki/Trio_%28music%29 \"Trio (music)\"). Love, Murrell and Thompkins continued to [tour](/wiki/Concert_tour \"Concert tour\") until 2000, when Thompkins, Jr. left the group.\n\nIn 2000, singer Eban Brown (formerly of The Delfonics, The Manhattans, and Ray, Goodman and Brown) replaced Thompkins as lead singer. That same year, tenor singer Van Fields, who had previously sung with the A Cappella group \"A Perfect Blend\", joined, enabling The Stylistics to grow from a trio back to a quartet. The group was featured live on the DVD *The Stylistics Live at the Convocation Center* (2006\\), as well as with other artists of the 1970s on the DVD, *70s Soul Jam*.\n\nIn 2004, after having left The Stylistics in 2000, former lead singer Thompkins launched his own group called Russell Thompkins Jr, \\& The New Stylistics, returning with former member Johnson, plus James Ranton and Jonathan Buckson. They were featured on the DVD *Old School Soul Party Live!,* which was part of the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\") *My Music* series.\n\nIn 2010, they released an album entitled, *That Same Way* by LAC Management.\n\nIn 2011, Fields departed from the group after 11 years, due to creative differences, and was replaced by singer Jason Sharp.\n\nIn January 2018, after 18 years with The Stylistics, Brown, who is also a jazz guitarist and composer, announced his departure to concentrate on his solo career. He since performed at venues in the States and overseas as a solo artist. Brown was initially replaced by Michael Muse, and after a few months, he was replaced by former [Temptation](/wiki/The_Temptations \"The Temptations\") Barrington \"Bo\" Henderson.\n\nIn 2018, The Stylistics celebrated their 50th. anniversary in the music industry. Their milestone was acknowledged at venues throughout the year during their 50th. Anniversary tour in the States and overseas.\n\nAs of 2024, the remaining members of the original group, Love and Murrell (joined by newer member Jason Sharp) are still performing, continuing the Stylistics' legacy with their unit, while Thompkins and his New Stylistics continue to perform as well. James Smith and James Dunn are retired from singing.\n\n[Barrington \"Bo\" Henderson](/wiki/Barrington_%22Bo%22_Henderson \"Barrington \") left the Stylistics in August 2024, and instead of replacing him, bass singer Jason Sharp moved to lead tenor vocals, making the group a trio for the first time since 2000\\.\n\n",
"### Early years\n\nThe Stylistics were created from two Philadelphia groups, The Percussions and The Monarchs. The two bands were in the same high school. The Stylistics was first conceived when [Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\")'s English teacher, Beverly Hamilton, suggested the two bands become one. [Russell Thompkins Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\"), James Smith and [Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\") came from the Monarchs, and James Dunn and Herb Murrell came from the Percussions. The name \"The Stylistics\" came from their guitar player Robert Douglas.\n\nThree original members, [Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\"), James Dunn, and [Russell Thompkins Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\"), were born in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"). Herb Murrell was born in [Lane, South Carolina](/wiki/Lane%2C_South_Carolina \"Lane, South Carolina\") and James Smith was born in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), but moved to Philadelphia following his father's death in 1962\\.\n\nIn 1970, the group [recorded](/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction \"Sound recording and reproduction\") \"You're a Big Girl Now\", a song their [road manager](/wiki/Road_manager \"Road manager\") Marty Bryant [co\\-wrote](/wiki/Songwriter \"Songwriter\") with Robert Douglas, a member of their [backing band](/wiki/Backup_band \"Backup band\") Slim and the Boys, and the single became a regional hit for Sebring Records. Producer Bill Perry spent $400 to record the song in the Virtue Studios in Philadelphia. The larger [Avco Records](/wiki/Avco_Records \"Avco Records\") soon signed the Stylistics, and the single eventually climbed to No. 7 on the US *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [R\\&B](/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs \"Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs\") [chart](/wiki/Record_chart \"Record chart\") in early 1971\\.\n\n",
"### Success: The Bell/Creed years\n\nAfter signing to Avco, the record label approached producer [Thom Bell](/wiki/Thom_Bell \"Thom Bell\"), who had already produced a catalogue of hits for [The Delfonics](/wiki/The_Delfonics \"The Delfonics\"), to work with the group.Jackson, John A (2004\\). *A House on Fire: The Rise and Fall of Philadelphia Soul*. USA: Oxford University Press. . The Stylistics auditioned for Bell, but he was initially unimpressed. He ultimately agreed to produce the group because he believed in the potential of lead singer [Russell Thompkins, Jr.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins%2C_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins, Jr.\")'s distinctive, nasal high [tenor](/wiki/Tenor \"Tenor\") and [falsetto](/wiki/Falsetto \"Falsetto\") voice. Avco gave Bell complete creative control over the Stylistics and he proceeded to focus the group's sound exclusively around Thompkins's voice. On most of the group hits, Bell would have Thompkins sing virtually solo.\n\nThe first song recorded with Bell and his [collaborator](/wiki/Collaboration \"Collaboration\"), lyricist [Linda Creed](/wiki/Linda_Creed \"Linda Creed\"), was \"[Stop, Look, Listen](/wiki/Stop%2C_Look%2C_Listen_%28To_Your_Heart%29 \"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)\")\".<http://www.souljonespresents.com/heroes_thom.html> \n\nTheir hits from this period — distilled from three albums — included \"[Betcha by Golly, Wow](/wiki/Betcha_by_Golly%2C_Wow \"Betcha by Golly, Wow\")\" (U.S. No. 3\\), \"[I'm Stone in Love with You](/wiki/I%27m_Stone_in_Love_with_You \"I'm Stone in Love with You\")\", \"[Break Up to Make Up](/wiki/Break_Up_to_Make_Up \"Break Up to Make Up\")\" (U.S. No. 5\\), \"[You Make Me Feel Brand New](/wiki/You_Make_Me_Feel_Brand_New \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\")\" featuring Thompkins singing a lead vocal duet with Airrion Love, \"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)\", \"[You Are Everything](/wiki/You_Are_Everything \"You Are Everything\")\" and the Top 20 pop chart hit \"[Rockin' Roll Baby](/wiki/Rockin%27_Roll_Baby_%28song%29 \"Rockin' Roll Baby (song)\")\" (U.S. No. 14\\). \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\", the group's biggest U.S. hit, holding at No. 2 for two weeks in 1974, was one of the group's five U.S. [gold](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification \"Music recording sales certification\") singles.\n\nThe Stylistics also found a path on to [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music \"Adult contemporary music\") airwaves, and the group made *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* magazine's Easy Listening singles chart twelve times from 1971 to 1976, with three entries (\"Betcha by Golly, Wow\", \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\" and \"[You'll Never Get to Heaven (If You Break My Heart)](/wiki/You%27ll_Never_Get_to_Heaven_%28If_You_Break_My_Heart%29%23The_Stylistics_version \"You'll Never Get to Heaven (If You Break My Heart)#The Stylistics version\")\") reaching the Top 10\\. Every single that Bell produced for the Stylistics was a Top Ten R\\&B hit, and several — \"You Are Everything\", \"Betcha by Golly Wow!\", \"I'm Stone in Love with You\", \"Break Up to Make Up\" and \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\" — were also Top Ten pop [chart](/wiki/Record_chart \"Record chart\") hits. The group also enjoyed commercial success with hits with this material throughout Europe.\n\n",
"### Changing style: Continuing international success\n\nThom Bell stopped working with the Stylistics in 1974, and the split proved commercially difficult for the group in the U.S. They struggled to find the right material, although their partnership with label owners [Hugo \\& Luigi](/wiki/Hugo_%26_Luigi \"Hugo & Luigi\") as producers and arranger [Van McCoy](/wiki/Van_McCoy \"Van McCoy\") started well, with \"Let's Put It All Together\" (No. 18 pop, No. 8 R\\&B) and \"Heavy Fallin' Out\" (No. 4 R\\&B, No. 41 pop). Later singles were notably less successful, but as U.S. success began to wane, their popularity in Europe, and especially the United Kingdom, increased. Indeed, the lighter 'pop' sound fashioned by McCoy and Hugo \\& Luigi gave the group a U.K. [No. 1](/wiki/Chart-topper \"Chart-topper\") in 1975 with \"[Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)](/wiki/Can%27t_Give_You_Anything_%28But_My_Love%29 \"Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)\")\". Further successes with \"Sing Baby Sing\", \"Na Na Is The Saddest Word\", \"Funky Weekend\" and \"[Can't Help Falling in Love](/wiki/Can%27t_Help_Falling_in_Love \"Can't Help Falling in Love\")\" consolidated the group's European popularity. The Stylistics recorded \"Disco Baby\", \"Love is the Answer\" and \"16 Bars\" also. They are one of the few U.S. acts to have two chart\\-topping [greatest hits](/wiki/Greatest_hits \"Greatest hits\") albums in the U.K.\n\nThe Stylistics switched record labels during this period as Avco Records transitioned into [H\\&L Records](/wiki/H%26L_Records \"H&L Records\") in 1976\\. Notwithstanding this, the band began to struggle with increasingly weak material, and although the singles and albums came out as before, by 1978 chart success had vanished; even a move to Mercury in 1978, for two albums produced by Teddy Randazzo, failed to produce any major success. Russell Thompkins Jr. wrote (in the sleevenotes for the re\\-issue of the 1976 album, *Fabulous*) that the group began to feel that the music they were recording was becoming dated, and not in keeping with the popular [disco](/wiki/Disco \"Disco\") sound of the late 1970s.\n\nIn 1979, they had a small part in the movie *[Hair](/wiki/Hair_%28film%29 \"Hair (film)\")*, directed by [Miloš Forman](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Forman \"Miloš Forman\"), where they play conservative army officers. They double [Nell Carter](/wiki/Nell_Carter \"Nell Carter\") in singing a song called \"White Boys\".\n\n",
"### Later years\n\n[250px\\|thumb\\|The Stylistics performing at [Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island](/wiki/Ford_Amphitheater_at_Coney_Island \"Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island\") in 2019\\.](/wiki/File:The_Stylistics_at_the_Ford_Amphitheater_in_Coney_Island%2C_2019.jpg \"The Stylistics at the Ford Amphitheater in Coney Island, 2019.jpg\")\nIn 1980, the group reunited with Thom Bell and signed with [Philadelphia International Records](/wiki/Philadelphia_International_Records \"Philadelphia International Records\") subsidiary, TSOP Records. They released the single \"[Hurry Up This Way Again](/wiki/Hurry_Up_This_Way_Again \"Hurry Up This Way Again\")\" that year which brought them back into the R\\&B Top 20 (peaking at No. 18\\). Both James Dunn and James Smith departed due to conflicts over the direction of the group; Dunn left before the recording of the album *Hurry Up This Way Again* (1980\\) and Smith after the recording of *Closer Than Close* in 1981\\.Taylor, Marc (1996\\). A Touch of Classic Soul of the Early 1970s, Jamaica, N.Y., Aloiv Publications, Nevertheless, the group continued, recruiting new member Raymond Johnson, but Johnson departed in 1985, leaving the group as a [trio](/wiki/Trio_%28music%29 \"Trio (music)\"). Love, Murrell and Thompkins continued to [tour](/wiki/Concert_tour \"Concert tour\") until 2000, when Thompkins, Jr. left the group.\n\nIn 2000, singer Eban Brown (formerly of The Delfonics, The Manhattans, and Ray, Goodman and Brown) replaced Thompkins as lead singer. That same year, tenor singer Van Fields, who had previously sung with the A Cappella group \"A Perfect Blend\", joined, enabling The Stylistics to grow from a trio back to a quartet. The group was featured live on the DVD *The Stylistics Live at the Convocation Center* (2006\\), as well as with other artists of the 1970s on the DVD, *70s Soul Jam*.\n\nIn 2004, after having left The Stylistics in 2000, former lead singer Thompkins launched his own group called Russell Thompkins Jr, \\& The New Stylistics, returning with former member Johnson, plus James Ranton and Jonathan Buckson. They were featured on the DVD *Old School Soul Party Live!,* which was part of the [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\") *My Music* series.\n\nIn 2010, they released an album entitled, *That Same Way* by LAC Management.\n\nIn 2011, Fields departed from the group after 11 years, due to creative differences, and was replaced by singer Jason Sharp.\n\nIn January 2018, after 18 years with The Stylistics, Brown, who is also a jazz guitarist and composer, announced his departure to concentrate on his solo career. He since performed at venues in the States and overseas as a solo artist. Brown was initially replaced by Michael Muse, and after a few months, he was replaced by former [Temptation](/wiki/The_Temptations \"The Temptations\") Barrington \"Bo\" Henderson.\n\nIn 2018, The Stylistics celebrated their 50th. anniversary in the music industry. Their milestone was acknowledged at venues throughout the year during their 50th. Anniversary tour in the States and overseas.\n\nAs of 2024, the remaining members of the original group, Love and Murrell (joined by newer member Jason Sharp) are still performing, continuing the Stylistics' legacy with their unit, while Thompkins and his New Stylistics continue to perform as well. James Smith and James Dunn are retired from singing.\n\n[Barrington \"Bo\" Henderson](/wiki/Barrington_%22Bo%22_Henderson \"Barrington \") left the Stylistics in August 2024, and instead of replacing him, bass singer Jason Sharp moved to lead tenor vocals, making the group a trio for the first time since 2000\\.\n\n",
"Personnel\n---------\n\n BOLD – **indicates the original member.**\n### Current members\n\n* **[Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\")** – baritone (1968–present)\n* **Herb Murrell** – baritone (1968–present)\n* Jason Sharp – tenor lead singer (2011–present)\n\n### Former members\n\n* [**Russell Thompkins Jr**.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\") – tenor lead vocals (1968–2000\\)\n* **James Dunn** – baritone (1968–1980\\)\n* **James Smith** – bass (1968–1981\\)\n* Raymond Johnson – bass (1981–1985\\)\n* Harold Eban Brown – tenor lead vocals (2000–2018\\)\n* Van Fields – bass (2000–2011\\)\n* [Barrington \"Bo\" Henderson](/wiki/Barrington_%22Bo%22_Henderson \"Barrington \") – tenor lead vocals (2018–2024\\)\n\n",
"### Current members\n\n* **[Airrion Love](/wiki/Airrion_Love \"Airrion Love\")** – baritone (1968–present)\n* **Herb Murrell** – baritone (1968–present)\n* Jason Sharp – tenor lead singer (2011–present)\n",
"### Former members\n\n* [**Russell Thompkins Jr**.](/wiki/Russell_Thompkins_Jr. \"Russell Thompkins Jr.\") – tenor lead vocals (1968–2000\\)\n* **James Dunn** – baritone (1968–1980\\)\n* **James Smith** – bass (1968–1981\\)\n* Raymond Johnson – bass (1981–1985\\)\n* Harold Eban Brown – tenor lead vocals (2000–2018\\)\n* Van Fields – bass (2000–2011\\)\n* [Barrington \"Bo\" Henderson](/wiki/Barrington_%22Bo%22_Henderson \"Barrington \") – tenor lead vocals (2018–2024\\)\n\n",
"Discography\n-----------\n\n",
"Awards and recognition\n----------------------\n\n### Inductions\n\n* In 1994, The Stylistics were inducted into The Philadelphia Music Alliance Walk of Fame.\n* The Stylistics were inducted into the [Vocal Group Hall of Fame](/wiki/Vocal_Group_Hall_of_Fame \"Vocal Group Hall of Fame\") in 2004\\.\n\n### RIAA Gold certifications\n\nBetween January 1972 and August 1974 The Stylistics were awarded five gold singles and three gold albums.\n\n#### Albums\n\n* February 16, 1973 \\- *[The Stylistics](/wiki/The_Stylistics_%28album%29 \"The Stylistics (album)\")*\n* June 14, 1973 \\- *[Round 2](/wiki/Round_2_%28The_Stylistics_album%29 \"Round 2 (The Stylistics album)\")*\n* August 12, 1974 \\- *[Let's Put It All Together](/wiki/Let%27s_Put_It_All_Together \"Let's Put It All Together\")*\n\n#### Singles\n\n* January 3, 1972 \\- \"[You Are Everything](/wiki/You_Are_Everything \"You Are Everything\")\"\n* April 17, 1972 \\- \"[Betcha by Golly Wow](/wiki/Betcha_by_Golly%2C_Wow \"Betcha by Golly, Wow\")\"\n* December 13, 1972 \\- \"[I'm Stone in Love with You](/wiki/I%27m_Stone_in_Love_with_You \"I'm Stone in Love with You\")\"\n* April 6, 1973 \\- \"[Break Up to Make Up](/wiki/Break_Up_to_Make_Up \"Break Up to Make Up\")\"\n* May 22, 1974 \\- \"[You Make Me Feel Brand New](/wiki/You_Make_Me_Feel_Brand_New \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\")\"\n",
"### Inductions\n\n* In 1994, The Stylistics were inducted into The Philadelphia Music Alliance Walk of Fame.\n* The Stylistics were inducted into the [Vocal Group Hall of Fame](/wiki/Vocal_Group_Hall_of_Fame \"Vocal Group Hall of Fame\") in 2004\\.\n",
"### RIAA Gold certifications\n\nBetween January 1972 and August 1974 The Stylistics were awarded five gold singles and three gold albums.\n\n#### Albums\n\n* February 16, 1973 \\- *[The Stylistics](/wiki/The_Stylistics_%28album%29 \"The Stylistics (album)\")*\n* June 14, 1973 \\- *[Round 2](/wiki/Round_2_%28The_Stylistics_album%29 \"Round 2 (The Stylistics album)\")*\n* August 12, 1974 \\- *[Let's Put It All Together](/wiki/Let%27s_Put_It_All_Together \"Let's Put It All Together\")*\n\n#### Singles\n\n* January 3, 1972 \\- \"[You Are Everything](/wiki/You_Are_Everything \"You Are Everything\")\"\n* April 17, 1972 \\- \"[Betcha by Golly Wow](/wiki/Betcha_by_Golly%2C_Wow \"Betcha by Golly, Wow\")\"\n* December 13, 1972 \\- \"[I'm Stone in Love with You](/wiki/I%27m_Stone_in_Love_with_You \"I'm Stone in Love with You\")\"\n* April 6, 1973 \\- \"[Break Up to Make Up](/wiki/Break_Up_to_Make_Up \"Break Up to Make Up\")\"\n* May 22, 1974 \\- \"[You Make Me Feel Brand New](/wiki/You_Make_Me_Feel_Brand_New \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\")\"\n",
"#### Albums\n\n* February 16, 1973 \\- *[The Stylistics](/wiki/The_Stylistics_%28album%29 \"The Stylistics (album)\")*\n* June 14, 1973 \\- *[Round 2](/wiki/Round_2_%28The_Stylistics_album%29 \"Round 2 (The Stylistics album)\")*\n* August 12, 1974 \\- *[Let's Put It All Together](/wiki/Let%27s_Put_It_All_Together \"Let's Put It All Together\")*\n",
"#### Singles\n\n* January 3, 1972 \\- \"[You Are Everything](/wiki/You_Are_Everything \"You Are Everything\")\"\n* April 17, 1972 \\- \"[Betcha by Golly Wow](/wiki/Betcha_by_Golly%2C_Wow \"Betcha by Golly, Wow\")\"\n* December 13, 1972 \\- \"[I'm Stone in Love with You](/wiki/I%27m_Stone_in_Love_with_You \"I'm Stone in Love with You\")\"\n* April 6, 1973 \\- \"[Break Up to Make Up](/wiki/Break_Up_to_Make_Up \"Break Up to Make Up\")\"\n* May 22, 1974 \\- \"[You Make Me Feel Brand New](/wiki/You_Make_Me_Feel_Brand_New \"You Make Me Feel Brand New\")\"\n",
"Film and television appearances\n-------------------------------\n\nThe Stylistics television appearances. \n\n*[Top of the Pops](/wiki/Top_of_the_Pops \"Top of the Pops\")* \n\nThe Stylistics appeared 10 times on *Top of the Pops* between 1972 and 1978\\.\n* Episode \\#15\\.14 (1978\\)\n* Episode \\#14\\.39 (1977\\)\n* Episode \\#14\\.15 (1977\\)\n* Episode \\#14\\.13 (1977\\)\n* Episode \\#13\\.16 (1976\\)\n* Top of the Pops '75: Part 2 (1975\\)\n* Episode \\#11\\.18 (1974\\)\n* Episode \\#11\\.4 (1974\\)\n* Episode \\#9\\.42 (1972\\)\n* Episode \\#9\\.30 (1972\\)\n\n*[The Mike Douglas Show](/wiki/The_Mike_Douglas_Show \"The Mike Douglas Show\")* \n\nThe Stylistics appeared six times on the show between 1972 and 1978\\.\n* Episode \\#17\\.219 (1978\\)\n* Episode \\#15\\.217 (1976\\)\n* Episode \\#15\\.143 (1976\\)\n* Episode \\#14\\.155 (1975\\)\n* Episode \\#14\\.40 (1974\\)\n* Episode \\#12\\.80 (1972\\)\n\n*[The Midnight Special](/wiki/The_Midnight_Special_%28TV_series%29 \"The Midnight Special (TV series)\")* \n\nThe Stylistics appeared in four episodes of the show.\n* 4th appearance (1974\\)\n* 3rd appearance (1973\\)\n* 2nd appearance (1973\\)\n* 1st appearance (1973\\)\n\n*[Soul Train](/wiki/Soul_Train \"Soul Train\")* \n\nThe Stylistic appeared in two episodes of *Soul Train*.\n* Episode \\#10\\.15 (1984\\)\n* Episode \\#3\\.27 (1974\\)\n\n*[Friday Night with Jonathan Ross](/wiki/Friday_Night_with_Jonathan_Ross \"Friday Night with Jonathan Ross\")*\n* Episode \\#17\\.9 (2009\\)\n\n*[Showtime at the Apollo](/wiki/Showtime_at_the_Apollo \"Showtime at the Apollo\")*\n* Episode \\#17\\.15 (2004\\)\n\n*Sinbad's \"Soul Music Festival: Part 5 1999\"*\n* The Stylistics appeared on the TV Special that took place in St. Thomas, Virgin Islands and was aired on [HBO](/wiki/HBO \"HBO\")\n\n[*The Vera Lynn Show*](/wiki/Vera_Lynn \"Vera Lynn\")\n* Episode \\#2\\.1 (1975\\)\n\n[*Saturday Night Live*](/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_%28season_1%29 \"Saturday Night Live (season 1)\") \n\nIn 1975, The Stylistics appeared on the 1st season of Saturday Night Live.\n* Episode \\#1\\.8 (1975\\)\n\n*[Dinah Shore Show](/wiki/Dinah_Shore_Show \"Dinah Shore Show\")* \n\nThe Stylistics appeared on the 1st season of The Dinah Shore TV Show.\n* Episode \\#1\\.181 (1974\\)\n\n*[Your Hit Parade](/wiki/Your_Hit_Parade \"Your Hit Parade\")*\n* Episode \\#2 (1974\\)\n\n*[Don Kirshner's Rock Concert](/wiki/Don_Kirshner%27s_Rock_Concert \"Don Kirshner's Rock Concert\")*\n* Episode \\#2\\.3 (1974\\)\n\n",
"In popular culture\n------------------\n\n[Tower of Power](/wiki/Tower_of_Power \"Tower of Power\") referenced the Stylistics in their song, \"Sexy Soul\" from their 1995 album, *[Souled Out](/wiki/Souled_Out_%28Tower_of_Power_album%29 \"Souled Out (Tower of Power album)\")*. The song was written by [Emilio Castillo](/wiki/Emilio_Castillo \"Emilio Castillo\").\n\nThe song \"People Make The World Go Around\" from the group's 1970 [self\\-titled debut](/wiki/The_Stylistics_%28album%29 \"The Stylistics (album)\") was used in the 1994 [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee \"Spike Lee\") film *[Crooklyn](/wiki/Crooklyn \"Crooklyn\")*. In 2016, the song was also featured \"Suckas Need Bodyguards,\" the sixth episode in the first season of the *[Luke Cage](/wiki/Luke_Cage_%28TV_series%29 \"Luke Cage (TV series)\")* TV series.\n\nIn the series \"The Wonder Years\" (1988\\) \"Everything is you\" can be heard in the background when Kevin Arnold and Winnie Copper share moments together at the school dance.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of soul musicians](/wiki/List_of_soul_musicians \"List of soul musicians\")\n* [List of R\\&B musicians](/wiki/List_of_R%26B_musicians \"List of R&B musicians\")\n* [List of disco artists (S\\-Z)](/wiki/List_of_disco_artists_%28S-Z%29 \"List of disco artists (S-Z)\")\n* [List of people from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/List_of_people_from_Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"List of people from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\")\n* [Music of Philadelphia](/wiki/Music_of_Philadelphia \"Music of Philadelphia\")\n* [List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart](/wiki/List_of_artists_who_reached_number_one_on_the_UK_Singles_Chart \"List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart\")\n* [List of guests appearing on The Midnight Special](/wiki/List_of_guests_appearing_on_The_Midnight_Special \"List of guests appearing on The Midnight Special\")\n* [List of performers on Top of the Pops](/wiki/List_of_performers_on_Top_of_the_Pops \"List of performers on Top of the Pops\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official website](http://www.thestylistics.org)\n[Category:African\\-American musical groups](/wiki/Category:African-American_musical_groups \"African-American musical groups\")\n[Category:American soul musical groups](/wiki/Category:American_soul_musical_groups \"American soul musical groups\")\n[Category:Vocal quintets](/wiki/Category:Vocal_quintets \"Vocal quintets\")\n[Category:Musical groups established in 1968](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_established_in_1968 \"Musical groups established in 1968\")\n[Category:Musical groups from Philadelphia](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_from_Philadelphia \"Musical groups from Philadelphia\")\n[Category:Philadelphia International Records artists](/wiki/Category:Philadelphia_International_Records_artists \"Philadelphia International Records artists\")\n[Category:Ballad music groups](/wiki/Category:Ballad_music_groups \"Ballad music groups\")\n[Category:Avco Records artists](/wiki/Category:Avco_Records_artists \"Avco Records artists\")\n[Category:H \\& L Records artists](/wiki/Category:H_%26_L_Records_artists \"H & L Records artists\")\n[Category:1968 establishments in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:1968_establishments_in_Pennsylvania \"1968 establishments in Pennsylvania\")\n\n"
]
}
|
The Custom House
|
{
"id": [
4770293
],
"name": [
"Denisarona"
]
}
|
mqwk6zirpwgo276n01ohirkkcydrr2y
|
2024-08-17T06:45:00Z
| 1,234,553,478 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Origins",
"Construction",
"Use and redevelopment",
"Gallery",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**The Custom House** () is a [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") 18th century building in [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\") which houses the [Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage](/wiki/Department_of_Housing%2C_Local_Government_and_Heritage \"Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage\"). It is located on the north bank of the [River Liffey](/wiki/River_Liffey \"River Liffey\"), on [Custom House Quay](/wiki/Custom_House_Quay \"Custom House Quay\") between [Butt Bridge](/wiki/Butt_Bridge \"Butt Bridge\") and [Talbot Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Talbot_Memorial_Bridge \"Talbot Memorial Bridge\").\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n### Origins\n\nA previous Custom House had been built in 1707 by engineer [Thomas Burgh (1670–1730\\)](/wiki/Thomas_Burgh_%281670%E2%80%931730%29 \"Thomas Burgh (1670–1730)\"). However, by the late 18th century it was deemed unfit for purpose.\n\nThe building of a new Custom House for Dublin was the idea of [John Beresford](/wiki/John_Beresford_%28statesman%29 \"John Beresford (statesman)\"), who became the first commissioner of revenue for Ireland in 1780\\. In 1781 he appointed [James Gandon](/wiki/James_Gandon \"James Gandon\") as architect, after [Thomas Cooley](/wiki/Thomas_Cooley_%28architect%29 \"Thomas Cooley (architect)\"), the original architect on the project, had died. This was Gandon's first large\\-scale commission. The new Custom House was unpopular with the [Dublin Corporation](/wiki/Dublin_Corporation \"Dublin Corporation\") and some city merchants who complained that it moved the axis of the city, would leave little room for shipping, and was being built on what at the time was a swamp and is detailed as reclaimed land on John Roque's 1756 map of Dublin as being part of [Amory's Grant](/wiki/Amory_Grant \"Amory Grant\").\n\nPurchase of land was delayed and proved exorbitant and the laying of foundations was disrupted by the High Sheriff and members of the Dublin Corporation with a mob of several thousand. However, Beresford was determined to complete the project and ignored the protests.Sarah Atkinson, Essays, 1896\\. p. 402\n\n### Construction\n\nConstruction started in 1781, and for his assistants, Gandon chose Irish artists such as Meath stone\\-cutter Henry Darley, mason John Semple and carpenter Hugh Henry. Every available mason in Dublin was engaged in the work. When it was completed and opened for business on 7 November 1791, it had cost £200,000 to build – a considerable sum at the time. The four facades of the building are decorated with [coats\\-of\\-arms](/wiki/Heraldry \"Heraldry\") and ornamental sculptures (by [Edward Smyth](/wiki/Edward_Smyth_%28sculptor%29 \"Edward Smyth (sculptor)\")) representing Ireland's rivers. Another artist, Henry Banks, was responsible for the statue on the dome and other statues.\n\nThe adjacent original Custom House Dock and swing bridge on the East side of the building were also designed by Gandon and completed slightly later in 1796\\. Along with [George's Dock](/wiki/George%27s_Dock%2C_Dublin \"George's Dock, Dublin\"), it later formed part of the **Custom House Docks** complex. The old dock was eventually filled in and the swing bridge was removed in the 1940s to be replaced by an extended quay and later to be replaced by Memorial Road.\n\n### Use and redevelopment\n\n[thumb\\|The Custom House at night](/wiki/File:Dublin_Customs_House_at_night.jpg \"Dublin Customs House at night.jpg\")\nAs the port of Dublin moved further downriver, the building's original use for collecting [customs](/wiki/Customs \"Customs\") duties became obsolete, and it was used as the headquarters of the [Local Government Board for Ireland](/wiki/Local_Government_Board_for_Ireland \"Local Government Board for Ireland\"). \n\nDuring the [Irish War of Independence](/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence \"Irish War of Independence\") in 1921, the [Irish Republican Army](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army \"Irish Republican Army\") [burnt down the Custom House](/wiki/Burning_of_the_Custom_House \"Burning of the Custom House\"), to disrupt [British rule in Ireland](/wiki/British_rule_in_Ireland \"British rule in Ireland\") by destroying tax records. Gandon's original interior was completely destroyed in the fire and the central dome collapsed. A large quantity of irreplaceable historical records were also destroyed in the fire. Despite achieving its objectives, the attack on the Custom House was a setback for the [IRA](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army \"Irish Republican Army\") as a large number of Volunteers were captured either during the attack or when falling back.*Michael Collins: A Life* by [James A. Mackay](/wiki/James_A._Mackay \"James A. Mackay\") (), page 199\n\nAfter the [Anglo\\-Irish Treaty](/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty \"Anglo-Irish Treaty\"), it was restored by the [Irish Free State](/wiki/Irish_Free_State \"Irish Free State\") government. The results of this reconstruction can still be seen on the building's exterior today – the dome was rebuilt using Irish [Ardbraccan limestone](/wiki/Ardbraccan%23Ardbraccan_stone \"Ardbraccan#Ardbraccan stone\") which is noticeably darker than the [Portland stone](/wiki/Portland_stone \"Portland stone\") used in the original construction. This was done to promote Irish resources.\n\nFurther restoration and cleaning of the stonework was done by an [Office of Public Works](/wiki/Office_of_Public_Works \"Office of Public Works\") (OPW) team in the 1980s.\n\nIn November 2021, a visitor experience opened at the Custom House, exploring the building, burning and restoration of the structure; it was developed by the OPW, [Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage](/wiki/Department_of_Housing%2C_Local_Government_and_Heritage \"Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage\") and [Fáilte Ireland](/wiki/F%C3%A1ilte_Ireland \"Fáilte Ireland\").\n\n",
"### Origins\n\nA previous Custom House had been built in 1707 by engineer [Thomas Burgh (1670–1730\\)](/wiki/Thomas_Burgh_%281670%E2%80%931730%29 \"Thomas Burgh (1670–1730)\"). However, by the late 18th century it was deemed unfit for purpose.\n\nThe building of a new Custom House for Dublin was the idea of [John Beresford](/wiki/John_Beresford_%28statesman%29 \"John Beresford (statesman)\"), who became the first commissioner of revenue for Ireland in 1780\\. In 1781 he appointed [James Gandon](/wiki/James_Gandon \"James Gandon\") as architect, after [Thomas Cooley](/wiki/Thomas_Cooley_%28architect%29 \"Thomas Cooley (architect)\"), the original architect on the project, had died. This was Gandon's first large\\-scale commission. The new Custom House was unpopular with the [Dublin Corporation](/wiki/Dublin_Corporation \"Dublin Corporation\") and some city merchants who complained that it moved the axis of the city, would leave little room for shipping, and was being built on what at the time was a swamp and is detailed as reclaimed land on John Roque's 1756 map of Dublin as being part of [Amory's Grant](/wiki/Amory_Grant \"Amory Grant\").\n\nPurchase of land was delayed and proved exorbitant and the laying of foundations was disrupted by the High Sheriff and members of the Dublin Corporation with a mob of several thousand. However, Beresford was determined to complete the project and ignored the protests.Sarah Atkinson, Essays, 1896\\. p. 402\n\n",
"### Construction\n\nConstruction started in 1781, and for his assistants, Gandon chose Irish artists such as Meath stone\\-cutter Henry Darley, mason John Semple and carpenter Hugh Henry. Every available mason in Dublin was engaged in the work. When it was completed and opened for business on 7 November 1791, it had cost £200,000 to build – a considerable sum at the time. The four facades of the building are decorated with [coats\\-of\\-arms](/wiki/Heraldry \"Heraldry\") and ornamental sculptures (by [Edward Smyth](/wiki/Edward_Smyth_%28sculptor%29 \"Edward Smyth (sculptor)\")) representing Ireland's rivers. Another artist, Henry Banks, was responsible for the statue on the dome and other statues.\n\nThe adjacent original Custom House Dock and swing bridge on the East side of the building were also designed by Gandon and completed slightly later in 1796\\. Along with [George's Dock](/wiki/George%27s_Dock%2C_Dublin \"George's Dock, Dublin\"), it later formed part of the **Custom House Docks** complex. The old dock was eventually filled in and the swing bridge was removed in the 1940s to be replaced by an extended quay and later to be replaced by Memorial Road.\n\n",
"### Use and redevelopment\n\n[thumb\\|The Custom House at night](/wiki/File:Dublin_Customs_House_at_night.jpg \"Dublin Customs House at night.jpg\")\nAs the port of Dublin moved further downriver, the building's original use for collecting [customs](/wiki/Customs \"Customs\") duties became obsolete, and it was used as the headquarters of the [Local Government Board for Ireland](/wiki/Local_Government_Board_for_Ireland \"Local Government Board for Ireland\"). \n\nDuring the [Irish War of Independence](/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence \"Irish War of Independence\") in 1921, the [Irish Republican Army](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army \"Irish Republican Army\") [burnt down the Custom House](/wiki/Burning_of_the_Custom_House \"Burning of the Custom House\"), to disrupt [British rule in Ireland](/wiki/British_rule_in_Ireland \"British rule in Ireland\") by destroying tax records. Gandon's original interior was completely destroyed in the fire and the central dome collapsed. A large quantity of irreplaceable historical records were also destroyed in the fire. Despite achieving its objectives, the attack on the Custom House was a setback for the [IRA](/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army \"Irish Republican Army\") as a large number of Volunteers were captured either during the attack or when falling back.*Michael Collins: A Life* by [James A. Mackay](/wiki/James_A._Mackay \"James A. Mackay\") (), page 199\n\nAfter the [Anglo\\-Irish Treaty](/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty \"Anglo-Irish Treaty\"), it was restored by the [Irish Free State](/wiki/Irish_Free_State \"Irish Free State\") government. The results of this reconstruction can still be seen on the building's exterior today – the dome was rebuilt using Irish [Ardbraccan limestone](/wiki/Ardbraccan%23Ardbraccan_stone \"Ardbraccan#Ardbraccan stone\") which is noticeably darker than the [Portland stone](/wiki/Portland_stone \"Portland stone\") used in the original construction. This was done to promote Irish resources.\n\nFurther restoration and cleaning of the stonework was done by an [Office of Public Works](/wiki/Office_of_Public_Works \"Office of Public Works\") (OPW) team in the 1980s.\n\nIn November 2021, a visitor experience opened at the Custom House, exploring the building, burning and restoration of the structure; it was developed by the OPW, [Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage](/wiki/Department_of_Housing%2C_Local_Government_and_Heritage \"Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage\") and [Fáilte Ireland](/wiki/F%C3%A1ilte_Ireland \"Fáilte Ireland\").\n\n",
"Gallery\n-------\n\nFile:Dublin\\-Custom\\-House\\-Panorama\\-2012\\.JPG\\|Panoramic view of The Custom House, with \\[\\[Liberty Hall]] on the left, and the \\[\\[International Financial Services Centre, Dublin\\|International Financial Services Centre]] on the right\nFile:Early morning Crossing the LIffey \\- panoramio.jpg\\|Looking east at dawn from \\[\\[Loopline Bridge]]\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Custom House](/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_in_Dublin_%28city%29 \"Buildings and structures in Dublin (city)\")\n[Category:Tourist attractions in Dublin (city)](/wiki/Category:Tourist_attractions_in_Dublin_%28city%29 \"Tourist attractions in Dublin (city)\")\n[Category:Custom houses](/wiki/Category:Custom_houses \"Custom houses\")\n[Category:Government buildings with domes](/wiki/Category:Government_buildings_with_domes \"Government buildings with domes\")\n[Dublin](/wiki/Category:Custom_houses_in_Ireland \"Custom houses in Ireland\")\n[Category:Georgian architecture in Dublin (city)](/wiki/Category:Georgian_architecture_in_Dublin_%28city%29 \"Georgian architecture in Dublin (city)\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Gum tree
|
{
"id": [
11521989
],
"name": [
"Shhhnotsoloud"
]
}
|
qa6q97h4wbmem2yphf7vt9fm39b6ww5
|
2024-07-07T09:01:56Z
| 1,157,389,873 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction"
],
"level": [
1
],
"content": [
"\n**Gum tree** is the common name of several trees and plants:\n\n* [Eucalypteae](/wiki/Eucalypteae \"Eucalypteae\"), particularly:\n\t+ *[Eucalyptus](/wiki/Eucalyptus \"Eucalyptus\")*, which includes the majority of species of gum trees\n\t+ *[Corymbia](/wiki/Corymbia \"Corymbia\")*, which includes the [ghost gums](/wiki/Ghost_gum \"Ghost gum\") and [spotted gums](/wiki/Spotted_gum \"Spotted gum\")\n\t+ *[Angophora](/wiki/Angophora \"Angophora\")*, which includes *[Angophora costata](/wiki/Angophora_costata \"Angophora costata\")* Sydney red gum\n* *[Nyssa sylvatica](/wiki/Nyssa_sylvatica \"Nyssa sylvatica\")*, common names include blackgum, sour gum\n* *[Liquidambar](/wiki/Liquidambar \"Liquidambar\")*, common names include sweetgum, star gum, gum, redgum\n* *[Tristaniopsis laurina](/wiki/Tristaniopsis_laurina \"Tristaniopsis laurina\")*, common names include water gum\n* *[Sapium glandulosum](/wiki/Sapium_glandulosum \"Sapium glandulosum\")*, in the family Euphorbiaceae, common names include gumtree\n\n"
]
}
|
Elimination theory
|
{
"id": [
237258
],
"name": [
"Maxal"
]
}
|
bt33ee5k7nnjjsph845x5yjhpglp94n
|
2024-01-25T05:45:27Z
| 1,061,618,964 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History and connection to modern theories",
"Connection to logic",
"See also",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\nIn [commutative algebra](/wiki/Commutative_algebra \"Commutative algebra\") and [algebraic geometry](/wiki/Algebraic_geometry \"Algebraic geometry\"), **elimination theory** is the classical name for algorithmic approaches to eliminating some variables between [polynomials](/wiki/Polynomial \"Polynomial\") of several variables, in order to solve [systems of polynomial equations](/wiki/Systems_of_polynomial_equations \"Systems of polynomial equations\").\n\nClassical elimination theory culminated with the work of [Francis Macaulay](/wiki/Francis_Sowerby_Macaulay \"Francis Sowerby Macaulay\") on [multivariate resultants](/wiki/Multivariate_resultant \"Multivariate resultant\"), as described in the chapter on *Elimination theory* in the first editions (1930\\) of [Bartel van der Waerden](/wiki/Bartel_Leendert_van_der_Waerden \"Bartel Leendert van der Waerden\")'s *[Moderne Algebra](/wiki/Moderne_Algebra \"Moderne Algebra\")*. After that, elimination theory was ignored by most algebraic geometers for almost thirty years, until the introduction of new methods for solving polynomial equations, such as [Gröbner bases](/wiki/Gr%C3%B6bner_bases \"Gröbner bases\"), which were needed for [computer algebra](/wiki/Computer_algebra \"Computer algebra\").\n\n",
"History and connection to modern theories\n-----------------------------------------\n\nThe field of elimination theory was motivated by the need of methods for solving [systems of polynomial equations](/wiki/Systems_of_polynomial_equations \"Systems of polynomial equations\").\n\nOne of the first results was [Bézout's theorem](/wiki/B%C3%A9zout%27s_theorem \"Bézout's theorem\"), which bounds the number of solutions (in the case of two polynomials in two variables at Bézout time).\n\nExcept for Bézout's theorem, the general approach was to *eliminate* variables for reducing the problem to a single equation in one variable.\n\nThe case of linear equations was completely solved by [Gaussian elimination](/wiki/Gaussian_elimination \"Gaussian elimination\"), where the older method of [Cramer's rule](/wiki/Cramer%27s_rule \"Cramer's rule\") does not proceed by elimination, and works only when the number of equations equals the number of variables. In the 19th century, this was extended to linear [Diophantine equations](/wiki/Diophantine_equation \"Diophantine equation\") and [abelian group](/wiki/Abelian_group \"Abelian group\") with [Hermite normal form](/wiki/Hermite_normal_form \"Hermite normal form\") and [Smith normal form](/wiki/Smith_normal_form \"Smith normal form\").\n\nBefore the 20th century, different types of *eliminants* were introduced, including *[resultants](/wiki/Resultant \"Resultant\")*, and various kinds of *[discriminants](/wiki/Discriminant \"Discriminant\")*. In general, these eliminants are also [invariant](/wiki/Invariant_theory \"Invariant theory\") under various changes of variables, and are also fundamental in [invariant theory](/wiki/Invariant_theory \"Invariant theory\").\n\nAll these concepts are effective, in the sense that their definitions include a method of computation. Around 1890, [David Hilbert](/wiki/David_Hilbert \"David Hilbert\") introduced non\\-effective methods, and this was seen as a revolution, which led most algebraic geometers of the first half of the 20th century to try to \"eliminate elimination\". Nevertheless [Hilbert's Nullstellensatz](/wiki/Hilbert%27s_Nullstellensatz \"Hilbert's Nullstellensatz\"), may be considered to belong to elimination theory, as it asserts that a system of polynomial equations does not have any solution if and only if one may eliminate all unknowns to obtain the constant equation 1 \\= 0\\.\n\nElimination theory culminated with the work of [Leopold Kronecker](/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker \"Leopold Kronecker\"), and finally [Macaulay](/wiki/Francis_Sowerby_Macaulay \"Francis Sowerby Macaulay\"), who introduced [multivariate resultants](/wiki/Multivariate_resultant \"Multivariate resultant\") and [U\\-resultants](/wiki/Resultant%23U-resultant \"Resultant#U-resultant\"), providing complete elimination methods for systems of polynomial equations, which are described in the chapter on *Elimination theory* in the first editions (1930\\) of [van der Waerden's](/wiki/Bartel_Leendert_van_der_Waerden \"Bartel Leendert van der Waerden\") *[Moderne Algebra](/wiki/Moderne_Algebra \"Moderne Algebra\")*.\n\nLater, elimination theory was considered old\\-fashioned and removed from subsequent editions of *Moderne Algebra*. It was generally ignored until the introduction of [computers](/wiki/Computer \"Computer\"), and more specifically of [computer algebra](/wiki/Computer_algebra \"Computer algebra\"), which again made relevant the design of efficient elimination algorithms, rather than merely existence and structural results. The main methods for this renewal of elimination theory are [Gröbner bases](/wiki/Gr%C3%B6bner_bases \"Gröbner bases\") and [cylindrical algebraic decomposition](/wiki/Cylindrical_algebraic_decomposition \"Cylindrical algebraic decomposition\"), introduced around 1970\\.\n\n",
"Connection to logic\n-------------------\n\nThere is also a logical facet to elimination theory, as seen in the [Boolean satisfiability problem](/wiki/Boolean_satisfiability_problem \"Boolean satisfiability problem\"). In the worst case, it is presumably hard to eliminate variables computationally. *[Quantifier elimination](/wiki/Quantifier_elimination \"Quantifier elimination\")* is a term used in [mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\") to explain that, in some theories, every formula is equivalent to a formula without quantifier. This is the case of the theory of [polynomials](/wiki/Polynomial \"Polynomial\") over an [algebraically closed field](/wiki/Algebraically_closed_field \"Algebraically closed field\"), where elimination theory may be viewed as the theory of the methods to make quantifier elimination algorithmically effective. [Quantifier elimination over the reals](/wiki/Tarski%E2%80%93Seidenberg_theorem \"Tarski–Seidenberg theorem\") is another example, which is fundamental in [computational algebraic geometry](/wiki/Algebraic_geometry%23Computational_algebraic_geometry \"Algebraic geometry#Computational algebraic geometry\").\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Buchberger's algorithm](/wiki/Buchberger%27s_algorithm \"Buchberger's algorithm\")\n* [Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms](/wiki/Faug%C3%A8re%27s_F4_and_F5_algorithms \"Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms\")\n* [Resultant](/wiki/Resultant \"Resultant\")\n* [Triangular decomposition](/wiki/Triangular_decomposition \"Triangular decomposition\")\n* [Main theorem of elimination theory](/wiki/Main_theorem_of_elimination_theory \"Main theorem of elimination theory\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n* [Israel Gelfand](/wiki/Israel_Gelfand \"Israel Gelfand\"), Mikhail Kapranov, [Andrey Zelevinsky](/wiki/Andrey_Zelevinsky \"Andrey Zelevinsky\"), *Discriminants, resultants, and multidimensional determinants*. Mathematics: Theory \\& Applications. Birkhäuser Boston, Inc., Boston, MA, 1994\\. x\\+523 pp. \n* David Cox, John Little, Donal O'Shea, *Using Algebraic Geometry*. Revised second edition. [Graduate Texts in Mathematics](/wiki/Graduate_Texts_in_Mathematics \"Graduate Texts in Mathematics\"), vol. 185\\. [Springer\\-Verlag](/wiki/Springer-Verlag \"Springer-Verlag\"), 2005, xii\\+558 pp., \n\n[Category:Algebraic geometry](/wiki/Category:Algebraic_geometry \"Algebraic geometry\")\n[Category:Computer algebra](/wiki/Category:Computer_algebra \"Computer algebra\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Operation Ivy
|
{
"id": [
48041045
],
"name": [
"Luispabloherrera"
]
}
|
8lsi0ox6263danjwe0nnw5kwns2i9yr
|
2024-09-26T14:45:59Z
| 1,245,213,785 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Tests",
"Mike",
"Sampling mission",
"King",
"Summary",
"Gallery",
"Operation Ivy in popular culture",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
4,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n* + \n\t\n\n**Operation Ivy** was the eighth series of [American](/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction \"United States and weapons of mass destruction\") [nuclear tests](/wiki/Nuclear_test \"Nuclear test\"), coming after *[Tumbler\\-Snapper](/wiki/Operation_Tumbler-Snapper \"Operation Tumbler-Snapper\")* and before *[Upshot–Knothole](/wiki/Operation_Upshot%E2%80%93Knothole \"Operation Upshot–Knothole\")*. The two explosions were staged in late 1952 at [Enewetak Atoll](/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll \"Enewetak Atoll\") in the [Pacific Proving Ground](/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Ground \"Pacific Proving Ground\") in the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\").\n\n",
"Background\n----------\n\nThe Operation Ivy test series was the first to involve a hydrogen bomb rather than an atomic bomb, further to the order of President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\") made on January 31, 1950, that the US should continue research into all forms of nuclear weapons. The bombs were prepared by the [US Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission \"United States Atomic Energy Commission\") and Defense Department aboard naval vessels, and were capable of being detonated remotely from the control ship [Estes](/wiki/USS_Estes \"USS Estes\").[The Island is Missing!, article from the U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center](https://www.army.mil/article/47341)\n\n",
"Tests\n-----\n\n### Mike\n\nThe first *Ivy* shot, codenamed *[Mike](/wiki/Ivy_Mike \"Ivy Mike\")*, was the first successful full\\-scale test of a multi\\-megaton [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon \"Thermonuclear weapon\") (\"hydrogen bomb\") using the [Teller\\-Ulam design](/wiki/Teller-Ulam_design \"Teller-Ulam design\"). Unlike later thermonuclear weapons, *Mike* used [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\") as its fusion fuel, maintained as a liquid by an expensive and cumbersome [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenic \"Cryogenic\") system. The bomb was detonated on November 1, 1952, on [Elugelab Island](/wiki/Elugelab \"Elugelab\") yielding 10\\.4 [megatons](/wiki/TNT_equivalent \"TNT equivalent\"), almost 500 times the yield of the bomb dropped on [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki%2C_Nagasaki \"Nagasaki, Nagasaki\"), resulting in the total vaporization of the island. Eight megatons of the yield were from fast fission of the uranium tamper, creating massive amounts of radioactive fallout. The detonation left an underwater crater 6,240 ft (1\\.9 km) wide and 164 ft (50 m) deep where Elugelab Island had been. Following this successful test, the *Mike* design was weaponized as the [EC\\-16](/wiki/Mark_16_nuclear_bomb \"Mark 16 nuclear bomb\"), but it was quickly abandoned for solid\\-fueled designs after the success of the [Castle Bravo](/wiki/Castle_Bravo \"Castle Bravo\") shot.\n\nThe outcome of the test was reported to incoming president [Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") by Atomic Energy Commission Chairman, [Gordon Dean](/wiki/Gordon_Dean_%28lawyer%29 \"Gordon Dean (lawyer)\"), as follows: “The island of Elugelab is missing!”\n\n#### Sampling mission\n\nFour [USAF](/wiki/USAF \"USAF\") [F\\-84G Thunderjets](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet \"F-84 Thunderjet\") equipped with filters were flown through the [mushroom cloud](/wiki/Mushroom_cloud \"Mushroom cloud\")'s stem to collect [radiochemical](/wiki/Nuclear_forensics \"Nuclear forensics\") samples for analysis. \"Red Flight\" Leader [Virgil K. Meroney](/wiki/Virgil_K._Meroney \"Virgil K. Meroney\") of the nascent [1211th Test Squadron](/wiki/1211th_Test_Squadron \"1211th Test Squadron\") flew into the stem of the explosion first. In five minutes, he had gathered all the samples he could, and exited. Jimmy Priestly Robinson, age 28, a captain with the [561st Fighter\\-Day Squadron](/wiki/561st_Fighter-Day_Squadron \"561st Fighter-Day Squadron\"), was lost near the end of his mission. After re\\-emerging from the cloud, both he and his [wingman](/wiki/Wingman \"Wingman\"), pilot Captain Bob Hagan, encountered difficulties picking up rendezvous and runway [navigational beacons](/wiki/Radio_beacon \"Radio beacon\") due to \"electromagnetic after effects\" of the detonation. Robinson hit an area of severe turbulence, entering a spin and barely retaining consciousness. He regained control of his plane at 20,000 feet, but the electromagnetic storm had disrupted his instruments. In rain and poor visibility, without working instruments, Hagan and Robinson were unable to find the [KB\\-29](/wiki/KB-29 \"KB-29\") tanker aircraft to refuel. By the time they were successful in finding the signal, they were dangerously low on fuel, and before reaching the runway on Enewetak, both had depleted their reserves. Hagan made a successful [dead\\-stick landing](/wiki/Deadstick_landing \"Deadstick landing\") on the runway, but Robinson was too far out and attempted to ditch. His jet crashed and sank 3\\.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's plane flipped and his body was never found. Approximately a year after his disappearance, he was awarded a posthumous [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\") for his service.[Department of the Army General Orders \\# 49 dated 9 June 1953 pp. 5–6](http://www.apd.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/go5349.pdf) In 2002, a [memorial stone](/wiki/Cenotaph \"Cenotaph\") at Virginia's [Arlington National Cemetery](/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery \"Arlington National Cemetery\") was erected.\n\nAs a result of the collection of samples from the explosion by [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") pilots, scientists found traces of the isotopes [plutonium\\-246](/wiki/Plutonium-246 \"Plutonium-246\") and [plutonium\\-244](/wiki/Plutonium-244 \"Plutonium-244\"), and confirmed the existence of the predicted but undiscovered elements [einsteinium](/wiki/Einsteinium \"Einsteinium\") and [fermium](/wiki/Fermium \"Fermium\").\n\n### King\n\nThe second test, *[King](/wiki/Ivy_King \"Ivy King\")*, fired the highest\\-yield (500 kilotons) nuclear fission (A\\-bomb) weapon to date using only [nuclear fission](/wiki/Nuclear_fission \"Nuclear fission\") (no fusion nor [fusion boosting](/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon \"Boosted fission weapon\")). This test used an unretarded free\\-fall bomb from a B\\-36 bomber. The bomber suffered minor heat and blast damage and safely returned to base. This \"Super [Oralloy](/wiki/Enriched_uranium \"Enriched uranium\") Bomb\" was intended as a backup to the earlier \"Mike\" test, if the fusion weapon had failed.\n\n",
"### Mike\n\nThe first *Ivy* shot, codenamed *[Mike](/wiki/Ivy_Mike \"Ivy Mike\")*, was the first successful full\\-scale test of a multi\\-megaton [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon \"Thermonuclear weapon\") (\"hydrogen bomb\") using the [Teller\\-Ulam design](/wiki/Teller-Ulam_design \"Teller-Ulam design\"). Unlike later thermonuclear weapons, *Mike* used [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\") as its fusion fuel, maintained as a liquid by an expensive and cumbersome [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenic \"Cryogenic\") system. The bomb was detonated on November 1, 1952, on [Elugelab Island](/wiki/Elugelab \"Elugelab\") yielding 10\\.4 [megatons](/wiki/TNT_equivalent \"TNT equivalent\"), almost 500 times the yield of the bomb dropped on [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki%2C_Nagasaki \"Nagasaki, Nagasaki\"), resulting in the total vaporization of the island. Eight megatons of the yield were from fast fission of the uranium tamper, creating massive amounts of radioactive fallout. The detonation left an underwater crater 6,240 ft (1\\.9 km) wide and 164 ft (50 m) deep where Elugelab Island had been. Following this successful test, the *Mike* design was weaponized as the [EC\\-16](/wiki/Mark_16_nuclear_bomb \"Mark 16 nuclear bomb\"), but it was quickly abandoned for solid\\-fueled designs after the success of the [Castle Bravo](/wiki/Castle_Bravo \"Castle Bravo\") shot.\n\nThe outcome of the test was reported to incoming president [Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") by Atomic Energy Commission Chairman, [Gordon Dean](/wiki/Gordon_Dean_%28lawyer%29 \"Gordon Dean (lawyer)\"), as follows: “The island of Elugelab is missing!”\n\n#### Sampling mission\n\nFour [USAF](/wiki/USAF \"USAF\") [F\\-84G Thunderjets](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet \"F-84 Thunderjet\") equipped with filters were flown through the [mushroom cloud](/wiki/Mushroom_cloud \"Mushroom cloud\")'s stem to collect [radiochemical](/wiki/Nuclear_forensics \"Nuclear forensics\") samples for analysis. \"Red Flight\" Leader [Virgil K. Meroney](/wiki/Virgil_K._Meroney \"Virgil K. Meroney\") of the nascent [1211th Test Squadron](/wiki/1211th_Test_Squadron \"1211th Test Squadron\") flew into the stem of the explosion first. In five minutes, he had gathered all the samples he could, and exited. Jimmy Priestly Robinson, age 28, a captain with the [561st Fighter\\-Day Squadron](/wiki/561st_Fighter-Day_Squadron \"561st Fighter-Day Squadron\"), was lost near the end of his mission. After re\\-emerging from the cloud, both he and his [wingman](/wiki/Wingman \"Wingman\"), pilot Captain Bob Hagan, encountered difficulties picking up rendezvous and runway [navigational beacons](/wiki/Radio_beacon \"Radio beacon\") due to \"electromagnetic after effects\" of the detonation. Robinson hit an area of severe turbulence, entering a spin and barely retaining consciousness. He regained control of his plane at 20,000 feet, but the electromagnetic storm had disrupted his instruments. In rain and poor visibility, without working instruments, Hagan and Robinson were unable to find the [KB\\-29](/wiki/KB-29 \"KB-29\") tanker aircraft to refuel. By the time they were successful in finding the signal, they were dangerously low on fuel, and before reaching the runway on Enewetak, both had depleted their reserves. Hagan made a successful [dead\\-stick landing](/wiki/Deadstick_landing \"Deadstick landing\") on the runway, but Robinson was too far out and attempted to ditch. His jet crashed and sank 3\\.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's plane flipped and his body was never found. Approximately a year after his disappearance, he was awarded a posthumous [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\") for his service.[Department of the Army General Orders \\# 49 dated 9 June 1953 pp. 5–6](http://www.apd.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/go5349.pdf) In 2002, a [memorial stone](/wiki/Cenotaph \"Cenotaph\") at Virginia's [Arlington National Cemetery](/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery \"Arlington National Cemetery\") was erected.\n\nAs a result of the collection of samples from the explosion by [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") pilots, scientists found traces of the isotopes [plutonium\\-246](/wiki/Plutonium-246 \"Plutonium-246\") and [plutonium\\-244](/wiki/Plutonium-244 \"Plutonium-244\"), and confirmed the existence of the predicted but undiscovered elements [einsteinium](/wiki/Einsteinium \"Einsteinium\") and [fermium](/wiki/Fermium \"Fermium\").\n\n",
"#### Sampling mission\n\nFour [USAF](/wiki/USAF \"USAF\") [F\\-84G Thunderjets](/wiki/F-84_Thunderjet \"F-84 Thunderjet\") equipped with filters were flown through the [mushroom cloud](/wiki/Mushroom_cloud \"Mushroom cloud\")'s stem to collect [radiochemical](/wiki/Nuclear_forensics \"Nuclear forensics\") samples for analysis. \"Red Flight\" Leader [Virgil K. Meroney](/wiki/Virgil_K._Meroney \"Virgil K. Meroney\") of the nascent [1211th Test Squadron](/wiki/1211th_Test_Squadron \"1211th Test Squadron\") flew into the stem of the explosion first. In five minutes, he had gathered all the samples he could, and exited. Jimmy Priestly Robinson, age 28, a captain with the [561st Fighter\\-Day Squadron](/wiki/561st_Fighter-Day_Squadron \"561st Fighter-Day Squadron\"), was lost near the end of his mission. After re\\-emerging from the cloud, both he and his [wingman](/wiki/Wingman \"Wingman\"), pilot Captain Bob Hagan, encountered difficulties picking up rendezvous and runway [navigational beacons](/wiki/Radio_beacon \"Radio beacon\") due to \"electromagnetic after effects\" of the detonation. Robinson hit an area of severe turbulence, entering a spin and barely retaining consciousness. He regained control of his plane at 20,000 feet, but the electromagnetic storm had disrupted his instruments. In rain and poor visibility, without working instruments, Hagan and Robinson were unable to find the [KB\\-29](/wiki/KB-29 \"KB-29\") tanker aircraft to refuel. By the time they were successful in finding the signal, they were dangerously low on fuel, and before reaching the runway on Enewetak, both had depleted their reserves. Hagan made a successful [dead\\-stick landing](/wiki/Deadstick_landing \"Deadstick landing\") on the runway, but Robinson was too far out and attempted to ditch. His jet crashed and sank 3\\.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's plane flipped and his body was never found. Approximately a year after his disappearance, he was awarded a posthumous [Distinguished Flying Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\") for his service.[Department of the Army General Orders \\# 49 dated 9 June 1953 pp. 5–6](http://www.apd.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/go5349.pdf) In 2002, a [memorial stone](/wiki/Cenotaph \"Cenotaph\") at Virginia's [Arlington National Cemetery](/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery \"Arlington National Cemetery\") was erected.\n\nAs a result of the collection of samples from the explosion by [U.S. Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") pilots, scientists found traces of the isotopes [plutonium\\-246](/wiki/Plutonium-246 \"Plutonium-246\") and [plutonium\\-244](/wiki/Plutonium-244 \"Plutonium-244\"), and confirmed the existence of the predicted but undiscovered elements [einsteinium](/wiki/Einsteinium \"Einsteinium\") and [fermium](/wiki/Fermium \"Fermium\").\n\n",
"### King\n\nThe second test, *[King](/wiki/Ivy_King \"Ivy King\")*, fired the highest\\-yield (500 kilotons) nuclear fission (A\\-bomb) weapon to date using only [nuclear fission](/wiki/Nuclear_fission \"Nuclear fission\") (no fusion nor [fusion boosting](/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon \"Boosted fission weapon\")). This test used an unretarded free\\-fall bomb from a B\\-36 bomber. The bomber suffered minor heat and blast damage and safely returned to base. This \"Super [Oralloy](/wiki/Enriched_uranium \"Enriched uranium\") Bomb\" was intended as a backup to the earlier \"Mike\" test, if the fusion weapon had failed.\n\n",
"Summary\n-------\n\n| \\+ United States' Ivy series tests and detonations |\n| --- |\n| Name The US, France and Great Britain have code\\-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in \"name1 – 1(with name2\\)\". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.\n\n Date time ([UT](/wiki/Universal_Time \"Universal Time\"))\n \n Local [time zone](/wiki/Time_Zone \"Time Zone\")To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. Historical time zone data obtained from the [IANA time zone database](/wiki/Tz_database \"Tz database\").\n\n [Location](/wiki/List_of_nuclear_test_sites \"List of nuclear test sites\")Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket\\-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. \"\\~\" indicates a likely pro\\-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.\n\n [Elevation](/wiki/Elevation \"Elevation\") \\+ height Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is \"N/A\". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, *Plumbbob/John*. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while \"0\" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.\n\n Delivery,Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the [Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty](/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty \"Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty\"). Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use. \nPurpose Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.\n\n [Device](/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons \"List of nuclear weapons\")Designations for test items where known, \"?\" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.\n\n [Yield](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield \"Nuclear weapon yield\")Estimated energy yield in [tons, kilotons, and megatons](/wiki/TNT_equivalent \"TNT equivalent\"). A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4\\.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).\n\n [Fallout](/wiki/Nuclear_fallout \"Nuclear fallout\")Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine\\-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and \"all\" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.\n\n References\n \n Notes\n \n| *[Mike](/wiki/Ivy_Mike \"Ivy Mike\")* | 19:14:59\\.4 | MHT (11 hrs) | Elugelab (Flora), Enewetak Atoll | \\+ | dry surface,weapons development | \"Sausage\" w/ [TX\\-5](/wiki/Mark_5_nuclear_bomb \"Mark 5 nuclear bomb\") primary | | | | Megaton (\"M\" as in Mike) device. First true experimental H\\-bomb, used [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenic \"Cryogenic\") [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\"); became TX\\-16 weapon. Elugelab completely cratered. |\n| *[King](/wiki/Ivy_King \"Ivy King\")* | 23:30:00\\.0 | MHT (11 hrs) | Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll | 0 \\+ | free air drop,weapons development | [Mk\\-18F](/wiki/Mark_18_nuclear_bomb \"Mark 18 nuclear bomb\") SOB | | | | Kiloton (\"K\" as in King) device. Aka Super oralloy bomb (SOB), used 4 [critical masses](/wiki/Critical_mass \"Critical mass\") of U235\\. Largest pure fission device; also tested chain safety device. |\n\n \n\n",
"Gallery\n-------\n\nIvyMikeCloudTrinity\\&Beyond.jpg\\|''Mike'' mushroom cloud.\nFile:Ivy Mike fallout map.png\\|\\[\\[Nuclear fallout]] map of ''Mike'' test.\nFile:Ivy Mike shot cab.jpg\\|Warehouse building (shot cab) that housed the ''Mike'' device.\nFile:Ivy Mike Sausage device.jpg\\|Cylindrical ''Mike'' device (left) connected to measuring instrumentation (right).\nFile:IvyKingDetonation2\\.gif\\|''King's'' fireball and subsequent \\[\\[mushroom cloud]] from sea\\-level view.\nFile:Ivy King \\- mushroom cloud.jpg\\|''King'' mushroom cloud.\n\n",
"Operation Ivy in popular culture\n--------------------------------\n\nIn the video game [Sid Meier's Civilization VI](/wiki/Civilization_VI \"Civilization VI\"), Operation Ivy is a late game project that the player can construct at one of their cities. Completing the project allows the player to construct thermonuclear devices, which are more powerful than nuclear devices (which are the game's version of an atomic bomb).\n\nThere was an American punk rock band called [Operation Ivy](/wiki/Operation_Ivy_%28band%29 \"Operation Ivy (band)\"), named after the real\\-life nuclear tests.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Curtiss Atomic Marines](https://web.archive.org/web/20120315011216/http://curtissatomicmarines.com/memberprofiles.htm#kc)\n* [Operation Ivy](http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Ivy.html)\n* [Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Navy Personnel at Operation Ivy](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215157/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/rd/DNATR8298.pdf)\n* formerly classified\n* formerly unclassified, for civil defense\n\n[Category:Explosions in 1952](/wiki/Category:Explosions_in_1952 \"Explosions in 1952\")\n[Ivy](/wiki/Category:Enewetak_Atoll_nuclear_explosive_tests \"Enewetak Atoll nuclear explosive tests\")\n[Category:1952 in the United States](/wiki/Category:1952_in_the_United_States \"1952 in the United States\")\n[Category:1952 in Oceania](/wiki/Category:1952_in_Oceania \"1952 in Oceania\")\n[Category:1952 in military history](/wiki/Category:1952_in_military_history \"1952 in military history\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Sickness
|
{
"id": [
21857263
],
"name": [
"KH-1"
]
}
|
hfzkw65not6668tczbp8e3cyy3x3rgc
|
2022-10-25T00:51:15Z
| 1,117,990,322 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Other uses",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Sickness** may refer to:\n\n* [Disease](/wiki/Disease \"Disease\")\n* [Nausea](/wiki/Nausea \"Nausea\")\n* [Sickness behavior](/wiki/Sickness_behavior \"Sickness behavior\")\n",
"Other uses\n----------\n\n* *[The Sickness](/wiki/The_Sickness \"The Sickness\")*, 2000 album by Disturbed\n* [*The Sickness* (novel)](/wiki/The_Sickness_%28novel%29 \"The Sickness (novel)\"), 1999 book in the *Animorphs* series\n* [Corey Taylor](/wiki/Corey_Taylor \"Corey Taylor\"), nicknamed \"The Sickness\", American heavy metal musician\n* *[(sic)nesses](/wiki/%28sic%29nesses \"(sic)nesses\")*, 2010 video album by Slipknot\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Sick (disambiguation)](/wiki/Sick_%28disambiguation%29 \"Sick (disambiguation)\")\n* [Sicko (disambiguation)](/wiki/Sicko_%28disambiguation%29 \"Sicko (disambiguation)\")\n"
]
}
|
Lemuel Francis Abbott
|
{
"id": [
5957417
],
"name": [
"Lord Cornwallis"
]
}
|
37bdhssbjud75d049sk3ionlcqc5flt
|
2024-07-02T02:29:49Z
| 1,232,124,661 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Works",
"Gallery",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[thumb\\|Portrait of Abbott by [Valentine Green](/wiki/Valentine_Green \"Valentine Green\").](/wiki/Image:Valentine_Green%2C_Portrait_of_Lemuel_Francis_Abbott.jpg \"Valentine Green, Portrait of Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg\")\n**Lemuel** \"**Francis**\" **Abbott** (1760/61 – 5 December 1803\\) was an English [portrait painter](/wiki/Portrait_painting \"Portrait painting\"), famous for his painting of [Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\") (currently hanging in the Terracotta Room of number [10 Downing Street](/wiki/10_Downing_Street \"10 Downing Street\")) and for those of other [naval officers](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") and [literary figures](/wiki/British_literature \"British literature\") of the [18th century](/wiki/18th_century_in_literature \"18th century in literature\").\n\n",
"Life\n----\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|Portrait of [Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson\").\\|210x210px](/wiki/Image:HoratioNelson1.jpg \"HoratioNelson1.jpg\")\nHe was born Lemuel Abbott in [Leicestershire](/wiki/Leicestershire \"Leicestershire\") in 1760 or 1761, the son of clergyman [Lemuel Abbott](/wiki/Lemuel_Abbott \"Lemuel Abbott\"), curate of [Anstey](/wiki/Anstey%2C_Leicestershire \"Anstey, Leicestershire\") (and later vicar of [Thornton](/wiki/Thornton%2C_Leicestershire \"Thornton, Leicestershire\")) and his wife Mary.Nisbet, Archibald (2004\\) \"[Abbott, Lemuel Francis \\[Samuel] (1760/1761\\-1802\\), portrait painter](http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/21)\", *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, . Retrieved 23 November 2014 In 1775, at the age of 14, he became a pupil of [Francis Hayman](/wiki/Francis_Hayman \"Francis Hayman\") and lived in London, but returned to his parents after his teacher's death in 1776\\. There he continued to develop his artistic talents independently, but some authorities have suggested that he may also have studied with [Joseph Wright of Derby](/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby \"Joseph Wright of Derby\").Hugh Belsey. \"Abbott, Lemuel Francis.\" Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 9 Feb. 2009[Biography of L F Abbott](http://www.drawpaintsculpt.com/artist-biographies/lemuel-francis-abbott/) (\"London atelier of representational art\").\n\nIn 1780, Abbott married Anna Maria, and again settled in London, residing for many years in Caroline Street in [Bloomsbury](/wiki/Bloomsbury \"Bloomsbury\"). Although he exhibited at the [Royal Academy](/wiki/Royal_Academy \"Royal Academy\"), he never became an Academician. It is said that overwork, due to the commissions he took on, and domestic unhappiness led to his becoming insane. He was declared insane in 1798, and was treated by [Thomas Munro](/wiki/Thomas_Munro \"Thomas Munro\") (1759–1833\\), the chief physician to [Bethlem Hospital](/wiki/Bethlem_Hospital \"Bethlem Hospital\") and a specialist in mental disorders – Munro also treated King [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George III of the United Kingdom\") (1738–1820\\).\n\nAbbott died in London on 5 December 1803\\.\n\n",
"Works\n-----\n\nAbbott painted portraits of many figures of the day. His 1797 portrait of Horatio Nelson was commenced during a period where both men were living in the same lodgings in London's Bond Street. The finished work won the approval of both Nelson and his wife, with lady Nelson writing that \"\\[T]he likeliness is great; I am well pleased with Abbott.\" While the Nelson portrait was Abbott's most famous work, other subjects of the period included Admiral Sir [Robert Calder](/wiki/Robert_Calder \"Robert Calder\"), Rear\\-Admiral Sir [Thomas Pasley](/wiki/Thomas_Pasley \"Thomas Pasley\") and Captain [William Locker](/wiki/William_Locker_%28Royal_Navy%29 \"William Locker (Royal Navy)\"), astronomer Sir [William Herschel](/wiki/William_Herschel \"William Herschel\"), poet [William Cowper](/wiki/William_Cowper \"William Cowper\"), artists [Francesco Bartolozzi](/wiki/Francesco_Bartolozzi \"Francesco Bartolozzi\") and [Joseph Nollekens](/wiki/Joseph_Nollekens \"Joseph Nollekens\"), entrepreneur [Matthew Boulton](/wiki/Matthew_Boulton \"Matthew Boulton\") and industrialist [John Wilkinson](/wiki/John_Wilkinson_%28industrialist%29 \"John Wilkinson (industrialist)\").\n\n[thumb\\|*Portrait of [Henry Callender](/wiki/Henry_Callender \"Henry Callender\") standing full\\-length in a landscape in the attire of Captain General of the [Blackheath Golf Club](/wiki/Blackheath%2C_London \"Blackheath, London\")*, between 1790 and 1798\\.\\|319x319px](/wiki/File:Lemuel_Francis_Abbott_-_Portrait_of_Henry_Callender_standing_full-length_in_a_landscape_in_the_attire_of_Captain_General_of_the_Blackheath_Golf_Club.jpg \"Lemuel Francis Abbott - Portrait of Henry Callender standing full-length in a landscape in the attire of Captain General of the Blackheath Golf Club.jpg\")\nHis portrait of Henry Callender, Captain General of the Royal Blackheath Golf Club, is one of the earliest portrayals of the game of [golf](/wiki/Golf \"Golf\"). Reproductions hang in golf clubs the world over. It was sold at [Bonhams](/wiki/Bonhams \"Bonhams\") in London on 9 December 2015\\.\n\nSome of his paintings were signed \"Francis Lemuel Abbott\", but it is not known why he assumed the additional Christian name, as it was not one with which he was baptised.\nOther famous paintings include, that off one addressed as follows:\nTo the society of goffers at Blackheath this plate is with just respect Dedicated by their most humble servant, Lemuel Francis Abbott\nIt is signed painted by L.F.Abbott 1790\\.\nIt is reported to be that of a Captain William Innes and a pensioner.\nCaptain Innes was as the story goes, an avid fan of the society of goffers.\n\n",
"Gallery\n-------\n\nFile:Henry laurens.jpg\\|\\[\\[Henry Laurens]], c.1781\nFile:William Herschel01 hires.jpg\\|\\[\\[William Herschel]], 1785\nFile:William Cowper by Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg\\|\\[\\[William Cowper]], 1792\nFile:Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood by Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg\\|\\[\\[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood\\|Lord Hood]], 1795\nFile:Portrait of Admiral of the Fleet John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent (1735–1823\\) (by Lemuel Francis Abbott).jpg\\|\\[\\[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent\\|Earl St Vincent]], 1795\nFile:Joseph Nollekens by Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg\\|\\[\\[Joseph Nollekens]], c.1797\nFile:James Hook by Lemuel Francis Abbott.jpg\\|\\[\\[James Hook (composer)]] 1800\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [L F Abbott online](http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/abbott_lemuel_francis.html) (Artcyclopedia)\n* [L F Abbott on Artnet](http://www.artnet.com/artist/640139/lemuel-francis-abbott.html)\n* [Portrait of John Sims](https://web.archive.org/web/20110716014702/http://schwellerfineart.com/wordpress/lemuel-francis-abbott) (Peter Schweller Fine Art)\n* [Portrait of Matthew Boulton](http://www.bmagic.org.uk/objects/1908P20) (Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery)\n* [Portrait of James Heath (engraver)](https://web.archive.org/web/20150307092636/http://www.jjhc.info/heathjames1834portraitabbott.htm)\n\n[Category:1760s births](/wiki/Category:1760s_births \"1760s births\")\n[Category:1802 deaths](/wiki/Category:1802_deaths \"1802 deaths\")\n[Category:People from Leicestershire](/wiki/Category:People_from_Leicestershire \"People from Leicestershire\")\n[Category:18th\\-century English painters](/wiki/Category:18th-century_English_painters \"18th-century English painters\")\n[Category:English male painters](/wiki/Category:English_male_painters \"English male painters\")\n[Category:19th\\-century English painters](/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_painters \"19th-century English painters\")\n[Category:English portrait painters](/wiki/Category:English_portrait_painters \"English portrait painters\")\n[Category:18th\\-century English male artists](/wiki/Category:18th-century_English_male_artists \"18th-century English male artists\")\n[Category:19th\\-century English male artists](/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_male_artists \"19th-century English male artists\")\n\n"
]
}
|
David A. Wagner
|
{
"id": [
47450826
],
"name": [
"2401hz"
]
}
|
iq7a9usomi4q1uv0qxe9hllbjgxwx8u
|
2024-07-26T09:24:06Z
| 1,230,985,311 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Research",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**David A. Wagner** (born 1974\\) is a [professor](/wiki/Professor \"Professor\") of [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\") at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\") and a well\\-known researcher in [cryptography](/wiki/Cryptography \"Cryptography\") and [computer security](/wiki/Computer_security \"Computer security\"). He is a member of the [Election Assistance Commission](/wiki/Election_Assistance_Commission \"Election Assistance Commission\")'s [Technical Guidelines Development Committee](/wiki/Technical_Guidelines_Development_Committee \"Technical Guidelines Development Committee\"), tasked with assisting the EAC in drafting the Voluntary Voting System Guidelines. He was also a member of the [ACCURATE](/wiki/ACCURATE \"ACCURATE\") project.\n\n",
"Biography\n---------\n\nWagner received an A.B. in [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\") from [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") in 1995, an M.S. in [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\") from Berkeley in 1999, and a Ph.D. in computer science from Berkeley in 2000\\. He joined the faculty of Berkeley after graduation, became a Full Professor in 2010, and was chair of the Computer Science Department from 2020 to 2022\\. He has received awards for his teaching.\n\n",
"Research\n--------\n\nWagner has published two books and over 200 peer\\-reviewed scientific papers. His notable achievements include:\n\n* 2017 Development of the [Carlini\\-Wagner](/wiki/Adversarial_machine_learning%23Carlini_%26_Wagner_%28C%26W%29 \"Adversarial machine learning#Carlini & Wagner (C&W)\") attack on machine learning models (with [Nicholas Carlini](/wiki/Nicholas_Carlini \"Nicholas Carlini\")); used it to break 20 adversarial machine learning defenses.\n* 2007 Served as principal investigator for the source code review and also the documentation review of the historic [California state Top\\-to\\-Bottom review](/wiki/Electronic_voting%23California_top_to_bottom_review \"Electronic voting#California top to bottom review\") of electronic voting systems certified for use. Flaws found with vendor\\-supplied [voting machines](/wiki/Voting_machine \"Voting machine\") resulted in decertification and provisional recertification by the Secretary of State.\n* 2001 Cryptanalysis of [WEP](/wiki/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy \"Wired Equivalent Privacy\"), the security protocol used in [802\\.11](/wiki/802.11 \"802.11\") \"[WiFi](/wiki/WiFi \"WiFi\")\" networks (with [Nikita Borisov](/wiki/Nikita_Borisov \"Nikita Borisov\") and [Ian Goldberg](/wiki/Ian_Goldberg \"Ian Goldberg\")).\n* 2000 Cryptanalysis of the [A5/1](/wiki/A5_%28cryptography%29 \"A5 (cryptography)\") [stream cipher](/wiki/Stream_cipher \"Stream cipher\") used in [GSM](/wiki/GSM \"GSM\") [cellphones](/wiki/Cellphone \"Cellphone\") (with [Alex Biryukov](/wiki/Alex_Biryukov \"Alex Biryukov\") and [Adi Shamir](/wiki/Adi_Shamir \"Adi Shamir\")).\n* 1999 Cryptanalysis of [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\")'s [PPTP](/wiki/Point-to-point_tunneling_protocol \"Point-to-point tunneling protocol\") tunnelling protocol (with [Bruce Schneier](/wiki/Bruce_Schneier \"Bruce Schneier\") and \"[Mudge](/wiki/Peiter_Zatko \"Peiter Zatko\")\").\n* 1999 Invention of the [slide attack](/wiki/Slide_attack \"Slide attack\"), a new form of [cryptanalysis](/wiki/Cryptanalysis \"Cryptanalysis\") (with [Alex Biryukov](/wiki/Alex_Biryukov \"Alex Biryukov\")); also the [boomerang attack](/wiki/Boomerang_attack \"Boomerang attack\") and [mod n cryptanalysis](/wiki/Mod_n_cryptanalysis \"Mod n cryptanalysis\") (the latter with Bruce Schneier and John Kelsey).\n* 1998 Development of [Twofish](/wiki/Twofish_encryption_algorithm \"Twofish encryption algorithm\") [block cipher](/wiki/Block_cipher \"Block cipher\"), which was a finalist for [NIST](/wiki/NIST \"NIST\")'s [Advanced Encryption Standard competition](/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard_process \"Advanced Encryption Standard process\") (with [Bruce Schneier](/wiki/Bruce_Schneier \"Bruce Schneier\"), [John Kelsey](/wiki/John_Kelsey_%28cryptanalyst%29 \"John Kelsey (cryptanalyst)\"), [Doug Whiting](/wiki/Doug_Whiting \"Doug Whiting\"), [Chris Hall](/wiki/Chris_Hall_%28cryptographer%29 \"Chris Hall (cryptographer)\"), and [Niels Ferguson](/wiki/Niels_Ferguson \"Niels Ferguson\")).\n* 1997 Cryptanalyzed the [CMEA](/wiki/CMEA_%28cipher%29 \"CMEA (cipher)\") algorithm used in many [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") [cellphones](/wiki/Cellphone \"Cellphone\") (with [Bruce Schneier](/wiki/Bruce_Schneier \"Bruce Schneier\")).\n* 1995 Discovered a flaw in the implementation of [SSL](/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer \"Secure Sockets Layer\") in [Netscape Navigator](/wiki/Netscape_Navigator \"Netscape Navigator\") (with [Ian Goldberg](/wiki/Ian_Goldberg \"Ian Goldberg\")).[Netscape SSL implementation cracked](http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~daw/my-posts/netscape-cracked-0), news posting to `hks.lists.cypherpunks` on 18 Sep 1995\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Professor Wagner's home page](http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~daw/)\n* [David Wagner election research papers](https://web.archive.org/web/20090805180732/http://www.electiontechnology.com/who.php?id=25)\n* [Some of Wagner's publications](https://dblp.uni-trier.de/pers/hd/w/Wagner_0001:David_A=)\n* [Another interview](http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~daw/press/virtual-interview.html)\n\n[Category:1974 births](/wiki/Category:1974_births \"1974 births\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:Modern cryptographers](/wiki/Category:Modern_cryptographers \"Modern cryptographers\")\n[Category:Princeton University alumni](/wiki/Category:Princeton_University_alumni \"Princeton University alumni\")\n[Category:UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni](/wiki/Category:UC_Berkeley_College_of_Engineering_alumni \"UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni\")\n[Category:People associated with computer security](/wiki/Category:People_associated_with_computer_security \"People associated with computer security\")\n[Category:UC Berkeley College of Engineering faculty](/wiki/Category:UC_Berkeley_College_of_Engineering_faculty \"UC Berkeley College of Engineering faculty\")\n[Category:American computer scientists](/wiki/Category:American_computer_scientists \"American computer scientists\")\n[Category:Election technology people](/wiki/Category:Election_technology_people \"Election technology people\")\n\n"
]
}
|
President of Colombia
|
{
"id": [
15364713
],
"name": [
"Saftgurka"
]
}
|
5s8atf1xlvvd0dh86bf5wxhcnfgwg1w
|
2024-10-04T08:43:02Z
| 1,245,638,722 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Executive powers",
"Commander-in-chief",
"Administrative powers",
"Judicial powers",
"Foreign affairs",
"Leadership roles",
"Selection process",
"Eligibility",
"Campaigns and nomination",
"Election",
"Inauguration",
"Presidential sash",
"Incumbency",
"Residence",
"Travel",
"Protection",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\nThe **President of Colombia** (**President of the Republic**) is the [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\") and [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government \"Head of government\") of the [Republic of Colombia](/wiki/Republic_of_Colombia \"Republic of Colombia\"). The president heads the executive branch of the [national government](/wiki/Government_of_Colombia \"Government of Colombia\") and is the [commander\\-in\\-chief](/wiki/Commander-in-chief \"Commander-in-chief\") of the [Military Forces of Colombia](/wiki/Military_Forces_of_Colombia \"Military Forces of Colombia\").\n\nThe power of the presidency has grown substantially since the first president, [Simón Bolívar](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Simón Bolívar\"), took office in 1819\\. While presidential power has waxed and waned over time, the presidency has played an increasingly important role in Colombian political life since the early 20th century, with a notable expansion during the presidency of [Álvaro Uribe](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Uribe \"Álvaro Uribe\").\n\nThe office of [president](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 \"President (government title)\") was established upon the ratification of the Constitution of 1819, by the [Congress of Angostura](/wiki/Congress_of_Angostura \"Congress of Angostura\"), convened in December 1819, when Colombia was the \"*[Gran Colombia](/wiki/Gran_Colombia \"Gran Colombia\")*\". The first president, General [Simón Bolívar](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Simón Bolívar\"),Gobernantes Colombianos, Ignacio Arismendi Posada, Interprint Editors Ltd., Italgraf, Segunda Edición, Page 15, Bogotá, Colombia, 1983 took office in 1819\\. His position, initially self\\-proclaimed, was subsequently ratified by Congress.\n\nThe president is directly elected through Universal Suffrage for a period of four years, along with the [vice president](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Colombia \"Vice President of Colombia\"). According to [article 125](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\"), ratified in 2018, no person who has been elected for a presidential term can be elected for a second. In addition, three vice presidents have become president by virtue of the death or resignation of a president during the term. In total, 34 people have served in [36 presidencies](/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Colombia \"List of presidents of Colombia\") that span 48 four\\-year terms, with [Alfonso López Pumarejo](/wiki/Alfonso_L%C3%B3pez_Pumarejo \"Alfonso López Pumarejo\"), [Álvaro Uribe](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Uribe \"Álvaro Uribe\") and [Juan Manuel Santos](/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Santos \"Juan Manuel Santos\") being the only ones with double terms, in the case of López Pumarejo non\\-consecutive. [Gustavo Petro](/wiki/Gustavo_Petro \"Gustavo Petro\") is the 34th and current president of the Republic of Colombia, having [assumed office](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Gustavo_Petro \"Inauguration of Gustavo Petro\") on August 7, 2022\\.\n\n",
"Executive powers\n----------------\n\n### Commander\\-in\\-chief\n\nOne of the most important executive powers is the role of the president as [Commander\\-in\\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief \"Commander-in-Chief\") of the [Colombian Military Forces](/wiki/Military_Forces_of_Colombia \"Military Forces of Colombia\"). The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the [armed forces](/wiki/Armed_forces \"Armed forces\"). The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as [commander in chief](/wiki/Commander_in_chief \"Commander in chief\") has been ratified in article 189 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\"), where it is described that the president has the function of directing the public force and disposing of it as Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. of the Republic.\n\n### Administrative powers\n\nThe [Executive Branch](/wiki/Executive_Branch \"Executive Branch\") is responsible for executing, in a coordinated manner, all the administrative activities that are at the service of the general interests of the community for the fulfillment of the essential purposes of the [State](/wiki/State_%28polity%29 \"State (polity)\"). It is represented by the President of the Republic, who symbolizes [national unity](/wiki/National_unity \"National unity\"), is the [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\"), [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government \"Head of government\") and supreme administrative authority.\n\nThe [National Government](/wiki/Government_of_Colombia \"Government of Colombia\") is formed by the President of the Republic, the ministers of the office and the directors of administrative departments. The President and the corresponding [Minister](/wiki/Minister_%28government%29 \"Minister (government)\") or [Director](/wiki/Director_%28business%29 \"Director (business)\") of the Department, in each particular business, constitute the Government.\n\n### Judicial powers\n\nThe responsibility of judging the president of the republic is found in the [Supreme Court of Justice](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_of_Colombia \"Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia\"), the main body in the event that the president is taken to Political Trial, within the actions of the Supreme Court there will be 7 of which are, Judge the President of the Republic or whoever acts in his place and the senior officials referred to in article 174, for any punishable act imputed to them, in accordance with article 175 numerals 2 and 3\\.\n\n### Foreign affairs\n\nit requires the president to \"receive the ambassadors.\" This clause, known as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy, and endorses the exclusive [authority](/wiki/Authority \"Authority\") of the president to grant recognition to a foreign government. The Constitution also empowers the president to appoint [Colombian](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") [ambassadors](/wiki/Ambassadors \"Ambassadors\") and to propose and mainly negotiate agreements between Colombia and other [countries](/wiki/Countries \"Countries\"). Such agreements, upon receiving the advice of the [minister of foreign affairs](/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Colombia%29 \"Minister of Foreign Affairs (Colombia)\"), become binding with the force of national law.\n\nWhile foreign affairs have always been an important element of presidential responsibilities, technological advances since the adoption of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\") have increased presidential power. Where previously [ambassadors](/wiki/Ambassador \"Ambassador\") were vested with significant power by the president to negotiate independently on Colombia's behalf, presidents now routinely meet directly with leaders of foreign countries.\n\n",
"### Commander\\-in\\-chief\n\nOne of the most important executive powers is the role of the president as [Commander\\-in\\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief \"Commander-in-Chief\") of the [Colombian Military Forces](/wiki/Military_Forces_of_Colombia \"Military Forces of Colombia\"). The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the [armed forces](/wiki/Armed_forces \"Armed forces\"). The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as [commander in chief](/wiki/Commander_in_chief \"Commander in chief\") has been ratified in article 189 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\"), where it is described that the president has the function of directing the public force and disposing of it as Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. of the Republic.\n\n",
"### Administrative powers\n\nThe [Executive Branch](/wiki/Executive_Branch \"Executive Branch\") is responsible for executing, in a coordinated manner, all the administrative activities that are at the service of the general interests of the community for the fulfillment of the essential purposes of the [State](/wiki/State_%28polity%29 \"State (polity)\"). It is represented by the President of the Republic, who symbolizes [national unity](/wiki/National_unity \"National unity\"), is the [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\"), [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government \"Head of government\") and supreme administrative authority.\n\nThe [National Government](/wiki/Government_of_Colombia \"Government of Colombia\") is formed by the President of the Republic, the ministers of the office and the directors of administrative departments. The President and the corresponding [Minister](/wiki/Minister_%28government%29 \"Minister (government)\") or [Director](/wiki/Director_%28business%29 \"Director (business)\") of the Department, in each particular business, constitute the Government.\n\n",
"### Judicial powers\n\nThe responsibility of judging the president of the republic is found in the [Supreme Court of Justice](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_of_Colombia \"Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia\"), the main body in the event that the president is taken to Political Trial, within the actions of the Supreme Court there will be 7 of which are, Judge the President of the Republic or whoever acts in his place and the senior officials referred to in article 174, for any punishable act imputed to them, in accordance with article 175 numerals 2 and 3\\.\n\n",
"### Foreign affairs\n\nit requires the president to \"receive the ambassadors.\" This clause, known as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy, and endorses the exclusive [authority](/wiki/Authority \"Authority\") of the president to grant recognition to a foreign government. The Constitution also empowers the president to appoint [Colombian](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") [ambassadors](/wiki/Ambassadors \"Ambassadors\") and to propose and mainly negotiate agreements between Colombia and other [countries](/wiki/Countries \"Countries\"). Such agreements, upon receiving the advice of the [minister of foreign affairs](/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Colombia%29 \"Minister of Foreign Affairs (Colombia)\"), become binding with the force of national law.\n\nWhile foreign affairs have always been an important element of presidential responsibilities, technological advances since the adoption of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\") have increased presidential power. Where previously [ambassadors](/wiki/Ambassador \"Ambassador\") were vested with significant power by the president to negotiate independently on Colombia's behalf, presidents now routinely meet directly with leaders of foreign countries.\n\n",
"Leadership roles\n----------------\n\nAs [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\"), the president is the visible face of Colombia's [domestic](/wiki/Domestic_policy \"Domestic policy\") and [foreign policy](/wiki/Foreign_policy \"Foreign policy\"). In his role as leader, one of his aspects is to represent and safeguard the international image of the country, since 1934, the year in which it was officially created, it is the protocol office of the [First Lady](/wiki/First_Lady_of_Colombia \"First Lady of Colombia\"), she is the one who is in charge of accompanying the president at his receptions. and state visits abroad, gaining more importance over time.\n\nThe president of Colombia symbolizes the National Unity, and after taking an oath to the [Constitution of Colombia](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\") and swearing to defend and protect the nation's laws, he is charged to guarantee and protect the rights and liberties of all Colombian nationals.\n\nThe [Administrative Department of the Presidency of Colombia](/wiki/Administrative_Department_of_the_Presidency_of_Colombia \"Administrative Department of the Presidency of Colombia\") has the commission to assist or support the president of Colombia on its constitutional mandated functions and legal issues.\n\nArticle 115 states that the [National Government](/wiki/Government_of_Colombia \"Government of Colombia\") is formed by the president of Colombia, the [vice president of Colombia](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Colombia \"Vice President of Colombia\"), the [Council of Ministers of the Republic of Colombia](/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Republic_of_Colombia \"Council of Ministers of the Republic of Colombia\") and the Directors of the [Administrative Departments of Colombia](/wiki/Administrative_Departments_of_Colombia \"Administrative Departments of Colombia\"). Any official from these entities constitute the [Government of Colombia](/wiki/Government_of_Colombia \"Government of Colombia\") in any particular business.\n\nAny act by the president of Colombia, in order to be legal and enforceable, must be sanctioned by any of the [ministries](/wiki/Ministries_of_Colombia \"Ministries of Colombia\") or department directors, who will also be held responsible for the act. The only exception is if the president appoints or removes ministers, administrative departments' directors and any other officials appointed by him under his administrative authority. Governors of the [Departments of Colombia](/wiki/Departments_of_Colombia \"Departments of Colombia\"), mayors of [Municipalities of Colombia](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Colombia \"Municipalities of Colombia\"), as well as regional superintendents of Colombia, public establishments and industrial and commercial state owned enterprises, are all part of the [executive branch of Colombia](/wiki/Executive_branch_of_Colombia \"Executive branch of Colombia\").\n\n",
"Selection process\n-----------------\n\n### Eligibility\n\nThe president must be a [natural\\-born citizen](/wiki/Natural-born_citizen \"Natural-born citizen\") of Colombia, at least 30 years of age. The [Constitution of Colombia](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\") requires the president to meet the same [eligibility](/wiki/Passive_suffrage \"Passive suffrage\") requirements as the president that can be re\\-elected. Individuals are eligible to serve an unlimited number of terms as president.\n\n* be a [natural\\-born citizen](/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause \"Natural-born-citizen clause\")\n* be a at least 30 years old\n\n### Campaigns and nomination\n\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before primary elections, which political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is the party's or coalition's presidential candidate. In general, the presidential candidate of the party or, failing that, the coalition of parties chooses a candidate for the vice\\-presidency, generally being the second with the highest number of votes in the convention. The most common previous profession of presidents is that of a lawyer.\n\n### Election\n\nThe president and vice president serve a term of office of four years after being elected by [popular vote](/wiki/Direct_election \"Direct election\"). Since 2015, the president is barred from running for reelection, even for a nonconsecutive term.\n\nFrom 1910 to 2005, the president was limited to a single term. However, on 24 November 2005, the [Colombian Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Colombia \"Congress of Colombia\") introduced the [Electoral Guarantees Law](/wiki/Electoral_Guarantees_Law \"Electoral Guarantees Law\") (Ley de Garantias Electorales), which modified Article 152, of the [Colombian Constitution of 1991](/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991 \"Colombian Constitution of 1991\") and allowed a president to run for a second term. The President or Vice President running for re\\-election was required to formally notify the [National Electoral Council](/wiki/National_Electoral_Council_of_Colombia \"National Electoral Council of Colombia\") and guarantee a fair competition for the other contenders. Participation of acting officials in political proselytism was standardized. Presidents or vice presidents not running for office were barred from participating on political proselytism. If one or both were running, they could only engage in political activity four months before the [primary elections](/wiki/Primary_elections \"Primary elections\"). Also, if the president and/or vice president were running for office, they could participate in their [political party](/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Colombia \"List of political parties in Colombia\")'s selection mechanism to postulate candidates. In 2010, the [Constitutional Court of Colombia](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Colombia \"Constitutional Court of Colombia\") threw out a planned referendum to allow presidents to run for three consecutive terms. It ruled that Colombian presidents could only serve two terms, even if they are nonconsecutive. In 2015, a constitutional amendment repealed the 2004 changes and reverted to the original one\\-term limit.\n\n### Inauguration\n\nThe inauguration of the President is made up of various ceremonies and traditions carried out on August 7 every four years. Through democratic elections or coups, resignations and deaths, presidential inaugurations have been important events in the history of Colombia, which at the same time mark the beginning of new eras.\n\n### Presidential sash\n\nThe presidential sash is considered [symbolic](/wiki/Symbol \"Symbol\"), which determines the figure of the president, there are no official records, but the first [presidential sash](/wiki/Presidential_sash \"Presidential sash\") was introduced by [Antonio Nariño](/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o \"Antonio Nariño\"), who simulated the [decoration sash of order](/wiki/State_decoration \"State decoration\"), over the years it has had different designs being one of the most characteristic, its first design that only consisted of the 3 colors of the [national flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Colombia \"Flag of Colombia\"), currently the presidential sash consists of the colors of the flag in the same order with the only difference that it consists of the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_Arms_of_Colombia \"Coat of Arms of Colombia\") in the central part, emulating the [presidential flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_President_of_Colombia \"Flag of the President of Colombia\")\n\n",
"### Eligibility\n\nThe president must be a [natural\\-born citizen](/wiki/Natural-born_citizen \"Natural-born citizen\") of Colombia, at least 30 years of age. The [Constitution of Colombia](/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia \"Constitution of Colombia\") requires the president to meet the same [eligibility](/wiki/Passive_suffrage \"Passive suffrage\") requirements as the president that can be re\\-elected. Individuals are eligible to serve an unlimited number of terms as president.\n\n* be a [natural\\-born citizen](/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause \"Natural-born-citizen clause\")\n* be a at least 30 years old\n",
"### Campaigns and nomination\n\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before primary elections, which political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is the party's or coalition's presidential candidate. In general, the presidential candidate of the party or, failing that, the coalition of parties chooses a candidate for the vice\\-presidency, generally being the second with the highest number of votes in the convention. The most common previous profession of presidents is that of a lawyer.\n\n",
"### Election\n\nThe president and vice president serve a term of office of four years after being elected by [popular vote](/wiki/Direct_election \"Direct election\"). Since 2015, the president is barred from running for reelection, even for a nonconsecutive term.\n\nFrom 1910 to 2005, the president was limited to a single term. However, on 24 November 2005, the [Colombian Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Colombia \"Congress of Colombia\") introduced the [Electoral Guarantees Law](/wiki/Electoral_Guarantees_Law \"Electoral Guarantees Law\") (Ley de Garantias Electorales), which modified Article 152, of the [Colombian Constitution of 1991](/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991 \"Colombian Constitution of 1991\") and allowed a president to run for a second term. The President or Vice President running for re\\-election was required to formally notify the [National Electoral Council](/wiki/National_Electoral_Council_of_Colombia \"National Electoral Council of Colombia\") and guarantee a fair competition for the other contenders. Participation of acting officials in political proselytism was standardized. Presidents or vice presidents not running for office were barred from participating on political proselytism. If one or both were running, they could only engage in political activity four months before the [primary elections](/wiki/Primary_elections \"Primary elections\"). Also, if the president and/or vice president were running for office, they could participate in their [political party](/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Colombia \"List of political parties in Colombia\")'s selection mechanism to postulate candidates. In 2010, the [Constitutional Court of Colombia](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Colombia \"Constitutional Court of Colombia\") threw out a planned referendum to allow presidents to run for three consecutive terms. It ruled that Colombian presidents could only serve two terms, even if they are nonconsecutive. In 2015, a constitutional amendment repealed the 2004 changes and reverted to the original one\\-term limit.\n\n",
"### Inauguration\n\nThe inauguration of the President is made up of various ceremonies and traditions carried out on August 7 every four years. Through democratic elections or coups, resignations and deaths, presidential inaugurations have been important events in the history of Colombia, which at the same time mark the beginning of new eras.\n\n",
"### Presidential sash\n\nThe presidential sash is considered [symbolic](/wiki/Symbol \"Symbol\"), which determines the figure of the president, there are no official records, but the first [presidential sash](/wiki/Presidential_sash \"Presidential sash\") was introduced by [Antonio Nariño](/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o \"Antonio Nariño\"), who simulated the [decoration sash of order](/wiki/State_decoration \"State decoration\"), over the years it has had different designs being one of the most characteristic, its first design that only consisted of the 3 colors of the [national flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Colombia \"Flag of Colombia\"), currently the presidential sash consists of the colors of the flag in the same order with the only difference that it consists of the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_Arms_of_Colombia \"Coat of Arms of Colombia\") in the central part, emulating the [presidential flag](/wiki/Flag_of_the_President_of_Colombia \"Flag of the President of Colombia\")\n\n",
"Incumbency\n----------\n\n### Residence\n\n[thumb\\|325x325px\\|Casa de Nariño](/wiki/File:Casa-narino-1-fachada.jpg \"Casa-narino-1-fachada.jpg\")\nCurrently the [official residence](/wiki/Official_residence \"Official residence\") of the Colombian president is the [Casa de Nariño](/wiki/Casa_de_Nari%C3%B1o \"Casa de Nariño\"). While in office, the president has the right to use its facilities and personnel, including medical care, recreation, domestic services, and security services. The first presidential palace where [Simón Bolívar](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Simón Bolívar\") dispatched after [Independence of Colombia](/wiki/Colombian_Declaration_of_Independence \"Colombian Declaration of Independence\") was the former Palace of the Viceroys, which was located on the western side of the [Plaza Mayor](/wiki/Plaza_de_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Plaza de Bolívar\") of [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"Bogotá\") (where the [Palacio Liévano](/wiki/Palacio_Li%C3%A9vano \"Palacio Liévano\") is currently located). The 1827 earthquake left the property partially destroyed, for which reason the presidential office and the official residence were moved to the [Palacio de San Carlos](/wiki/Palacio_de_San_Carlos_%28Bogot%C3%A1%29 \"Palacio de San Carlos (Bogotá)\"). In 1885, the president [Rafael Núñez](/wiki/Rafael_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_%28politician%29 \"Rafael Núñez (politician)\") ordered the purchase of the house where [Antonio Nariño](/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o \"Antonio Nariño\") was born to use it as an official residence. In 1906, the architect [Gastón Lelarge](/wiki/Gast%C3%B3n_Lelarge \"Gastón Lelarge\") transformed the property into the Palacio de la Carrera and in 1979 the architect Fernando Alsina remodeled the building to the current [Casa de Nariño](/wiki/Casa_de_Nari%C3%B1o \"Casa de Nariño\") and designed the Plaza de Armas that left it directly connected to the [National Capitol](/wiki/National_Capitol \"National Capitol\").\n\nThe House of Illustrious Guests in the city of [Cartagena de Indias](/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias \"Cartagena de Indias\") is the house where the Colombian president receives international guests.[Casa de Huéspedes Ilustres de Cartagena](http://www.absolut-colombia.com/casa-de-huespedes-ilustres-de-cartagena/) Likewise, the President has the Hato Grande country estate, located in [Sopó](/wiki/Sop%C3%B3 \"Sopó\"), [Cundinamarca](/wiki/Cundinamarca_Department \"Cundinamarca Department\") as a resting place, which belonged to General [Francisco de Paula Santander](/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander \"Francisco de Paula Santander\") and was later acquired by the businessman from Antioquia [Pepe Sierra](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Sierra \"José María Sierra\"), whose family donated it to the national government.\n\n### Travel\n\n[thumb\\|[Boeing Business Jet](/wiki/Boeing_Business_Jet \"Boeing Business Jet\").](/wiki/File:Columbia_Air_Force_Boeing_B737-74V%28BBJ%29_FAC_0001_%284391486421%29.jpg \"Columbia Air Force Boeing B737-74V(BBJ) FAC 0001 (4391486421).jpg\")\nWhen traveling within Colombia or abroad, the President of the Republic uses the presidential plane identified with the registration [FAC 0001](/wiki/Colombian_Air_Force_One \"Colombian Air Force One\"), (a [Boeing 737](/wiki/Boeing_737 \"Boeing 737\") Business Jet BBJ class). The president also uses two helicopters in [VIP](/wiki/VIP \"VIP\") configuration, a [Bell 412](/wiki/Bell_412 \"Bell 412\") with the registration FAC 0004 and a [UH\\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk \"Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk\") with the registration FAC 0007\\.\n\n### Protection\n\n[thumb\\|The [Colombian presidential guard](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Presidential_Guard_Battalion \"37th Infantry Presidential Guard Battalion\") changing the guard](/wiki/File:Cambio_de_Guardia.jpg \"Cambio de Guardia.jpg\")\nOn December 7, 1927, President [Miguel Abadía Méndez](/wiki/Miguel_Abad%C3%ADa_M%C3%A9ndez \"Miguel Abadía Méndez\") signed a decree officially founding the Presidential Guard. On August 16, 1928, the battalion was given its current name, with its first commander being Lieutenant Colonel Roberto Perea Sanclemente. Memorable actions of this battalion are remembered such as the protection given to the president during the violent acts of the Bogotazo (April 9, 1948\\) and during the [Palace of Justice Siege](/wiki/Palace_of_Justice_Siege \"Palace of Justice Siege\") on November 6, 1985\\. Resolution 3446 of August 17, 1955, created the medallion “Guardia Presidencial” and Decree 1880 of 1988 ruled the award merits for this prize given to the distinguished members of the battalion for their loyalty, service and good behavior.\n\nSince August 16, 1928, the security of the president has been in the hands of the [Presidential Guard](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Presidential_Guard_Battalion \"37th Infantry Presidential Guard Battalion\"), who also has the mission of maintaining the security of the president, [his family](/wiki/First_family_of_Colombia \"First family of Colombia\") and his official residence, the [Casa de Nariño](/wiki/Casa_de_Nari%C3%B1o \"Casa de Nariño\"). Since 1958 it was given to the Presidential Guard Battalion, a sui generis organization in the [National Army](/wiki/National_Army_of_Colombia \"National Army of Colombia\"), with a representation of the four arms and its units were called [Infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\"), [Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"), [Artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\") and [Engineers](/wiki/Engineers \"Engineers\").\n\n",
"### Residence\n\n[thumb\\|325x325px\\|Casa de Nariño](/wiki/File:Casa-narino-1-fachada.jpg \"Casa-narino-1-fachada.jpg\")\nCurrently the [official residence](/wiki/Official_residence \"Official residence\") of the Colombian president is the [Casa de Nariño](/wiki/Casa_de_Nari%C3%B1o \"Casa de Nariño\"). While in office, the president has the right to use its facilities and personnel, including medical care, recreation, domestic services, and security services. The first presidential palace where [Simón Bolívar](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Simón Bolívar\") dispatched after [Independence of Colombia](/wiki/Colombian_Declaration_of_Independence \"Colombian Declaration of Independence\") was the former Palace of the Viceroys, which was located on the western side of the [Plaza Mayor](/wiki/Plaza_de_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Plaza de Bolívar\") of [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"Bogotá\") (where the [Palacio Liévano](/wiki/Palacio_Li%C3%A9vano \"Palacio Liévano\") is currently located). The 1827 earthquake left the property partially destroyed, for which reason the presidential office and the official residence were moved to the [Palacio de San Carlos](/wiki/Palacio_de_San_Carlos_%28Bogot%C3%A1%29 \"Palacio de San Carlos (Bogotá)\"). In 1885, the president [Rafael Núñez](/wiki/Rafael_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_%28politician%29 \"Rafael Núñez (politician)\") ordered the purchase of the house where [Antonio Nariño](/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o \"Antonio Nariño\") was born to use it as an official residence. In 1906, the architect [Gastón Lelarge](/wiki/Gast%C3%B3n_Lelarge \"Gastón Lelarge\") transformed the property into the Palacio de la Carrera and in 1979 the architect Fernando Alsina remodeled the building to the current [Casa de Nariño](/wiki/Casa_de_Nari%C3%B1o \"Casa de Nariño\") and designed the Plaza de Armas that left it directly connected to the [National Capitol](/wiki/National_Capitol \"National Capitol\").\n\nThe House of Illustrious Guests in the city of [Cartagena de Indias](/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias \"Cartagena de Indias\") is the house where the Colombian president receives international guests.[Casa de Huéspedes Ilustres de Cartagena](http://www.absolut-colombia.com/casa-de-huespedes-ilustres-de-cartagena/) Likewise, the President has the Hato Grande country estate, located in [Sopó](/wiki/Sop%C3%B3 \"Sopó\"), [Cundinamarca](/wiki/Cundinamarca_Department \"Cundinamarca Department\") as a resting place, which belonged to General [Francisco de Paula Santander](/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander \"Francisco de Paula Santander\") and was later acquired by the businessman from Antioquia [Pepe Sierra](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Sierra \"José María Sierra\"), whose family donated it to the national government.\n\n",
"### Travel\n\n[thumb\\|[Boeing Business Jet](/wiki/Boeing_Business_Jet \"Boeing Business Jet\").](/wiki/File:Columbia_Air_Force_Boeing_B737-74V%28BBJ%29_FAC_0001_%284391486421%29.jpg \"Columbia Air Force Boeing B737-74V(BBJ) FAC 0001 (4391486421).jpg\")\nWhen traveling within Colombia or abroad, the President of the Republic uses the presidential plane identified with the registration [FAC 0001](/wiki/Colombian_Air_Force_One \"Colombian Air Force One\"), (a [Boeing 737](/wiki/Boeing_737 \"Boeing 737\") Business Jet BBJ class). The president also uses two helicopters in [VIP](/wiki/VIP \"VIP\") configuration, a [Bell 412](/wiki/Bell_412 \"Bell 412\") with the registration FAC 0004 and a [UH\\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk \"Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk\") with the registration FAC 0007\\.\n\n",
"### Protection\n\n[thumb\\|The [Colombian presidential guard](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Presidential_Guard_Battalion \"37th Infantry Presidential Guard Battalion\") changing the guard](/wiki/File:Cambio_de_Guardia.jpg \"Cambio de Guardia.jpg\")\nOn December 7, 1927, President [Miguel Abadía Méndez](/wiki/Miguel_Abad%C3%ADa_M%C3%A9ndez \"Miguel Abadía Méndez\") signed a decree officially founding the Presidential Guard. On August 16, 1928, the battalion was given its current name, with its first commander being Lieutenant Colonel Roberto Perea Sanclemente. Memorable actions of this battalion are remembered such as the protection given to the president during the violent acts of the Bogotazo (April 9, 1948\\) and during the [Palace of Justice Siege](/wiki/Palace_of_Justice_Siege \"Palace of Justice Siege\") on November 6, 1985\\. Resolution 3446 of August 17, 1955, created the medallion “Guardia Presidencial” and Decree 1880 of 1988 ruled the award merits for this prize given to the distinguished members of the battalion for their loyalty, service and good behavior.\n\nSince August 16, 1928, the security of the president has been in the hands of the [Presidential Guard](/wiki/37th_Infantry_Presidential_Guard_Battalion \"37th Infantry Presidential Guard Battalion\"), who also has the mission of maintaining the security of the president, [his family](/wiki/First_family_of_Colombia \"First family of Colombia\") and his official residence, the [Casa de Nariño](/wiki/Casa_de_Nari%C3%B1o \"Casa de Nariño\"). Since 1958 it was given to the Presidential Guard Battalion, a sui generis organization in the [National Army](/wiki/National_Army_of_Colombia \"National Army of Colombia\"), with a representation of the four arms and its units were called [Infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\"), [Cavalry](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\"), [Artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\") and [Engineers](/wiki/Engineers \"Engineers\").\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of presidents of Colombia](/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Colombia \"List of presidents of Colombia\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Presidencia de la Republica de Colombia](http://www.presidencia.gov.co/) \n* [Georgetown University – Requisites to be President of Colombia](http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Comp/Ejecutivo/Presidencia/requisitos.html)\n\n[Category:Government of Colombia](/wiki/Category:Government_of_Colombia \"Government of Colombia\")\n[Category:Presidency of Colombia](/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Colombia \"Presidency of Colombia\")\n[Category:1819 establishments in Gran Colombia](/wiki/Category:1819_establishments_in_Gran_Colombia \"1819 establishments in Gran Colombia\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Leopoldo Lugones
|
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|
amfpadzptvzcfk6sojgz20rn3aokdk7
|
2024-10-01T18:39:35Z
| 1,215,730,381 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Career",
"Selected bibliography",
"Novella",
"Short story collections",
"Poetry",
"Essays",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
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"content": [
"\n\n**Leopoldo Antonio Lugones Argüello** (13 June 1874 – 18 February 1938\\) was an Argentine poet, essayist, novelist, playwright, historian, professor, translator, biographer, philologist, theologian, diplomat, politician and journalist. His poetic writings are often considered to be the founding works of Spanish\\-language modern poetry (not, however, [modernismo](/wiki/Modernismo \"Modernismo\")). His short stories made him a crucial precursor and also a pioneer of both the fantastic and science fiction literature in Argentina.\n\n",
"Early life\n----------\n\nBorn in [Villa de María del Río Seco](/wiki/Villa_de_Mar%C3%ADa_del_R%C3%ADo_Seco \"Villa de María del Río Seco\"), a city in [Córdoba Province](/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba_Province%2C_Argentina \"Córdoba Province, Argentina\"), in [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\")'s [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") heartland, Lugones belonged to a family of landed gentry. He was the firstborn son of Santiago M. Lugones and Custodia Argüello. His father, son of Pedro Nolasco Lugones, was returning from the city of [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\") to [Santiago del Estero](/wiki/Santiago_del_Estero \"Santiago del Estero\") when he met Custodia Argüello while stopping in [Villa de María](/wiki/Villa_de_Mar%C3%ADa \"Villa de María\"), a locality that was at that time disputed territory between the provinces of Santiago del Estero and Córdoba. It was his mother who gave young Leopoldo his first lessons and was responsible for his strict Catholic upbringing.\n\nWhen Lugones was six years old and following the birth of a second child, the family moved to the city of Santiago del Estero and later to Ojo de Agua, a small town situated in the south of the province of Santiago del Estero close to the border with Córdoba, where the poet's two younger brothers were born: Ramón Miguel Lugones (1880, Santiago del Estero), and the youngest of the four children, Carlos Florencio Lugones (1885, Ojo de Agua). Later his parents sent him to study at the [Colegio Nacional de Monserrat](/wiki/Colegio_Nacional_de_Monserrat \"Colegio Nacional de Monserrat\"), in [Córdoba](/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba%2C_Argentina \"Córdoba, Argentina\"), where his maternal grandmother lived. In 1892 the family would move to that city, at the time when Lugones was beginning his forays into the fields of journalism and literature.\n\nHe first worked for *[La Montaña](/wiki/La_Monta%C3%B1a \"La Montaña\")*, a newspaper, and was in favour with the aristocratic [Manuel Quintana](/wiki/Manuel_Quintana \"Manuel Quintana\"), a candidate to become a [president of Argentina](/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Argentina \"List of Presidents of Argentina\"). This brought him first to [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\") in 1896, where his literary talent developed quickly.\n\nThat year, he married Juana Agudelo, from whom he had a son, Leopoldo *Polo* Lugones, who would become the notorious chief of the [Federal Police](/wiki/Policia_Federal_Argentina \"Policia Federal Argentina\") during the dictatorship of [José Félix Uriburu](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F%C3%A9lix_Uriburu \"José Félix Uriburu\"). In 1899, he became an active Freemason.\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\nLugones was the leading Argentine exponent of the [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\") literary current known as [Modernismo](/wiki/Modernismo \"Modernismo\"). This was a form of [Parnassianism](/wiki/Parnassian_poets \"Parnassian poets\") influenced by [Symbolism](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 \"Symbolism (arts)\"). He was also the author of the incredibly dense and rich stories of *[La Guerra Gaucha](/wiki/La_guerra_gaucha_%28novel%29 \"La guerra gaucha (novel)\")* (1905\\). He was an impassioned journalist, polemicist and public speaker who at first was a [Socialist](/wiki/Socialist \"Socialist\"), later a [conservative](/wiki/Conservatism \"Conservatism\")/[traditionalist](/wiki/Carlism \"Carlism\") and finally a supporter of [Fascism](/wiki/Fascism \"Fascism\") and as such an inspiration for a group of [rightist](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") intellectuals such as [Juan Carulla](/wiki/Juan_Carulla \"Juan Carulla\") and [Rodolfo Irazusta](/wiki/Rodolfo_Irazusta \"Rodolfo Irazusta\").\n\nLeopoldo Lugones went to Europe in 1906, 1911, 1913 and in 1930, in which latter year he supported the [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"Coup d'état\") against the aging [Radical](/wiki/Radical_Civic_Union \"Radical Civic Union\") party president, [Hipólito Yrigoyen](/wiki/Hip%C3%B3lito_Yrigoyen \"Hipólito Yrigoyen\"). Between 1924 and 1931, Lugones took part in the works of the [International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation](/wiki/International_Committee_on_Intellectual_Cooperation \"International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation\") of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\").\n\nOn February 18, 1938, the despairing and disillusioned Lugones committed suicide by taking a mixture of [whisky](/wiki/Whisky \"Whisky\") and [cyanide](/wiki/Cyanide \"Cyanide\") while staying at the river resort of [El Tigre](/wiki/Tigre%2C_Buenos_Aires \"Tigre, Buenos Aires\") in [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\"). Political frustration has been the most widely cited cause of his suicide. Nevertheless, recent publications in Argentina have shed light on another possible motivation: Lugones was very enamored of a girl he met at one of his lectures in the university. He maintained a passionate and emotional relationship with her until, discovered and pressured by his son, he was forced to leave her, causing in him a depressive decline that would end his life.\"Cuando Lugones conoció el amor\" de María Inés Cárdenas de Monner Sans, Seix Barral, Buenos Aires, (1999\\).\n\nHis descendants have had similarly tragic fates. It is believed that his son Polo, the chief of police during Uriburu's dictatorship, was the creator of the [picana](/wiki/Picana \"Picana\") and the one who introduced it as a method of torture. Polo Lugones committed suicide in 1971\\. Polo's younger daughter, [Susana \"Pirí\" Lugones](/wiki/Pir%C3%AD_Lugones \"Pirí Lugones\"), was detained and disappeared in December 1977 as a victim of the [Dirty War](/wiki/Dirty_War \"Dirty War\"). His older daughter, Carmen, whom he called Babú, is still alive. One of Pirí's sons, Alejandro, committed suicide, like his great\\-grandfather, in Tigre. This comprises Lugones' tragic familial fate, curiously similar to that of [Horacio Quiroga](/wiki/Horacio_Quiroga \"Horacio Quiroga\")'s, himself a friend and admirer of Leopoldo Lugones.\n\n",
"Selected bibliography\n---------------------\n\n### Novella\n\n* *El ángel de la sombra* (1926\\)\n\n### Short story collections\n\n* *[La guerra gaucha](/wiki/La_Guerra_Gaucha_%28novel%29 \"La Guerra Gaucha (novel)\")* (1905\\)\n* *[Las fuerzas extrañas](/wiki/Strange_Forces \"Strange Forces\")* (1906\\). *Strange Forces*, trans. Gilbert Alter\\-Gilbert (Latin American Literary Review Press, 2001\\).\n* *Cuentos fatales* (1924\\)\n\n### Poetry\n\n* *Las montañas del oro* (The Mountains of Gold) (1897\\)\n* *Los crepúsculos del jardín* (The Twilight of the Garden) (1905\\)\n* *Lunario sentimental* (Lunario sentimental) (1909\\)\n* *Odas seculares* (Secular Odes) (1910\\)\n* *El libro fiel* (The Faithful Book) (1912\\)\n* *El libro de los paisajes* (The Book of Landscapes) (1917\\)\n* *Las horas doradas* (The Golden Hours) (1922\\)\n* *Romances del Río Seco* (Romances of the Seco River) (posthumously, 1939\\)\n\n### Essays\n\n* 1903: *La reforma educacional. Un ministro y doce académicos*\n* 1904: *El imperio jesuítico*\n* 1910: *Didáctica*\n* 1910: *Las limaduras de Hephaestos. Piedras liminares*\n* 1910: *Las limaduras de Hephaestos. Prometeo (un proscripto del sol)*\n* 1915: *El ejército de la Ilíada*\n* 1916: *El problema feminista*\n* 1917: *Mi beligerancia*\n* 1919: *Las industrias de Atenas*\n* 1919: *La torre de Casandra*\n* 1923: *Acción. Las cuatro conferencias patrióticas del Coliseo*\n* 1924: *Estudios helénicos*\n* 1925: *La organización de la paz*\n* 1928: *Nuevos estudios helénicos*\n* 1930: *La grande Argentina*\n* 1930: *La patria fuerte*\n* 1931: *Política revolucionaria*\n* 1932: *El estado equitativo. Ensayo sobre la realidad argentina*\n\n",
"### Novella\n\n* *El ángel de la sombra* (1926\\)\n",
"### Short story collections\n\n* *[La guerra gaucha](/wiki/La_Guerra_Gaucha_%28novel%29 \"La Guerra Gaucha (novel)\")* (1905\\)\n* *[Las fuerzas extrañas](/wiki/Strange_Forces \"Strange Forces\")* (1906\\). *Strange Forces*, trans. Gilbert Alter\\-Gilbert (Latin American Literary Review Press, 2001\\).\n* *Cuentos fatales* (1924\\)\n",
"### Poetry\n\n* *Las montañas del oro* (The Mountains of Gold) (1897\\)\n* *Los crepúsculos del jardín* (The Twilight of the Garden) (1905\\)\n* *Lunario sentimental* (Lunario sentimental) (1909\\)\n* *Odas seculares* (Secular Odes) (1910\\)\n* *El libro fiel* (The Faithful Book) (1912\\)\n* *El libro de los paisajes* (The Book of Landscapes) (1917\\)\n* *Las horas doradas* (The Golden Hours) (1922\\)\n* *Romances del Río Seco* (Romances of the Seco River) (posthumously, 1939\\)\n",
"### Essays\n\n* 1903: *La reforma educacional. Un ministro y doce académicos*\n* 1904: *El imperio jesuítico*\n* 1910: *Didáctica*\n* 1910: *Las limaduras de Hephaestos. Piedras liminares*\n* 1910: *Las limaduras de Hephaestos. Prometeo (un proscripto del sol)*\n* 1915: *El ejército de la Ilíada*\n* 1916: *El problema feminista*\n* 1917: *Mi beligerancia*\n* 1919: *Las industrias de Atenas*\n* 1919: *La torre de Casandra*\n* 1923: *Acción. Las cuatro conferencias patrióticas del Coliseo*\n* 1924: *Estudios helénicos*\n* 1925: *La organización de la paz*\n* 1928: *Nuevos estudios helénicos*\n* 1930: *La grande Argentina*\n* 1930: *La patria fuerte*\n* 1931: *Política revolucionaria*\n* 1932: *El estado equitativo. Ensayo sobre la realidad argentina*\n\n",
"In popular culture\n------------------\n\n*[La guerra gaucha](/wiki/The_Gaucho_War \"The Gaucho War\")* (*The Gaucha War*) is a [1942](/wiki/Argentine_films_of_1942 \"Argentine films of 1942\") [Argentine](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") [historical drama](/wiki/Historical_drama \"Historical drama\") and [epic film](/wiki/Epic_film \"Epic film\") directed by [Lucas Demare](/wiki/Lucas_Demare \"Lucas Demare\") and starring [Enrique Muiño](/wiki/Enrique_Mui%C3%B1o \"Enrique Muiño\"), [Francisco Petrone](/wiki/Francisco_Petrone \"Francisco Petrone\"), [Ángel Magaña](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Maga%C3%B1a \"Ángel Magaña\"), and [Amelia Bence](/wiki/Amelia_Bence \"Amelia Bence\"). The film's script, written by [Homero Manzi](/wiki/Homero_Manzi \"Homero Manzi\") and [Ulyses Petit de Murat](/wiki/Ulyses_Petit_de_Murat \"Ulyses Petit de Murat\"), is based on the short story collection by Leopoldo Lugones published in 1905\\. The film premiered in [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\") on November 20, 1942, and is considered by critics of Argentine cinema as one of the most successful films in the history of the cinema. Di Núbila, Domingo, *La época de oro. Historia del cine argentino I*, Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Jilguero, 1998, p. 392, .\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of Argentines](/wiki/List_of_Argentines \"List of Argentines\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1874 births](/wiki/Category:1874_births \"1874 births\")\n[Category:1938 suicides](/wiki/Category:1938_suicides \"1938 suicides\")\n[Category:Argentine male writers](/wiki/Category:Argentine_male_writers \"Argentine male writers\")\n[Category:Argentine fascists](/wiki/Category:Argentine_fascists \"Argentine fascists\")\n[Category:Argentine Freemasons](/wiki/Category:Argentine_Freemasons \"Argentine Freemasons\")\n[Category:Argentine Roman Catholics](/wiki/Category:Argentine_Roman_Catholics \"Argentine Roman Catholics\")\n[Category:Argentine socialists](/wiki/Category:Argentine_socialists \"Argentine socialists\")\n[Category:Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_La_Recoleta_Cemetery \"Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery\")\n[Category:Christian fascists](/wiki/Category:Christian_fascists \"Christian fascists\")\n[Category:Modernist writers](/wiki/Category:Modernist_writers \"Modernist writers\")\n[Category:People from Córdoba Province, Argentina](/wiki/Category:People_from_C%C3%B3rdoba_Province%2C_Argentina \"People from Córdoba Province, Argentina\")\n[Category:Suicides in Argentina](/wiki/Category:Suicides_in_Argentina \"Suicides in Argentina\")\n[Category:Suicides by cyanide poisoning](/wiki/Category:Suicides_by_cyanide_poisoning \"Suicides by cyanide poisoning\")\n[Category:1938 deaths](/wiki/Category:1938_deaths \"1938 deaths\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Lango people
|
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45124463
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"name": [
"Mmukwa59"
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pdn7bhypopxxdfc1w8j8bw83k2u4mmd
|
2024-08-05T04:02:17Z
| 1,238,679,663 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early history",
"''Icaya (Isaya) Ogwangguji, M.B.E.''",
"Military",
"Land tenure",
"Culture",
"Lango clans",
"Lango dance",
"Notable people",
"References",
"Footnotes",
"Sources",
"External links"
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"\n\nThe **Lango** are a [Nilotic](/wiki/Nilotic_peoples \"Nilotic peoples\") ethnic group. They live in north\\-central [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), in a region that covers the area formerly known as the [Lango District](/wiki/Lango_sub-region \"Lango sub-region\") until 1974, when it was split into the districts of [Apac](/wiki/Apac_District \"Apac District\") and [Lira](/wiki/Lira_District \"Lira District\"), and subsequently into several additional [districts](/wiki/Districts_of_Uganda \"Districts of Uganda\"). The current Lango Region now includes the districts of [Amolatar](/wiki/Amolatar_District \"Amolatar District\"), [Alebtong](/wiki/Alebtong_District \"Alebtong District\"), [Apac](/wiki/Apac \"Apac\"), [Dokolo](/wiki/Dokolo_District \"Dokolo District\"), [Kole](/wiki/Kole_District \"Kole District\"), [Lira](/wiki/Lira_District \"Lira District\"), [Oyam](/wiki/Oyam_District \"Oyam District\"), [Otuke](/wiki/Otuke_District \"Otuke District\"), and [Kwania](/wiki/Kwania_District \"Kwania District\"). The total population of Lango District is currently about 2,884,000\\.\n[thumb\\|A woman suckling twins, Lango people](/wiki/File:A_woman_suckling_twins%2C_Lango_people._Wellcome_M0013583.jpg \"A woman suckling twins, Lango people. Wellcome M0013583.jpg\")\nThe Lango people speak the [Lango language](/wiki/Lango_language_%28Uganda%29 \"Lango language (Uganda)\"), a [Western Nilotic](/wiki/Western_Nilotic_languages \"Western Nilotic languages\") language of the [Southern Luo](/wiki/Southern_Luo_language \"Southern Luo language\") group.\n\n",
"Early history\n-------------\n\n[thumb\\|A Lango chief with an elaborate headdress. Photo published in 1902\\.](/wiki/File:The_living_races_of_mankind%3B_page_360_%28IA_livingracesofman02hutcrich%29.jpg \"The living races of mankind; page 360 (IA livingracesofman02hutcrich).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Lango House](/wiki/File:Lango_House.JPG \"Lango House.JPG\")\nThe Lango [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition \"Oral tradition\") states that they were part of the \"Lango race\" during the [migration period](/wiki/Migration_Period \"Migration Period\"). This group later split into several distinct groups before entering [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") (see Tarantino, Odwe, Crazollara, Uzoigwe). The name “Lango” is found in [Teso](/wiki/Teso_language \"Teso language\"), [Kumam](/wiki/Kumam_dialect \"Kumam dialect\"), [Karamojong](/wiki/Karamojong_language \"Karamojong language\"), [Jie](/wiki/Jie_people \"Jie people\"), and [Labwor](/wiki/Labwor_language \"Labwor language\") vocabularies, reflecting that how these groups once used to belong to the Lango race.\n\n \n\nHutchinson (1902\\) states Hutchinson (1902\\) adds \n\n",
"*Icaya (Isaya) Ogwangguji, M.B.E.*\n----------------------------------\n\nRwot Ogwangguji was born in 1875 in Abedpiny village in [Lira District](/wiki/Lira_District \"Lira District\") (Okino, Patrick, and Odongo, Bonney). He was the son of a Rwot (chief) – Rwot Olet Apar, the leader of the Oki clan. His first administrative chief title was the Jago (sub\\-chief) of Lira. In 1918, he was elected county chief (Rwot) by Erute county, Lango. He continued as Rwot of Erute county until 28 February 1951, and was later on promoted to the title of Rwot Adwong (Senior Chief). Rwot Ogwangguji is known as a chief who bridged \"old Lango\" into \"new Lango\" through his extensive work history during a period of many changes in the 20th century in Uganda. He was awarded the M.B.E. in the New Year's Honors in 1956 and subsequently retired in December 1957\\. (Wright, M.J., Uganda Journal, Vol. 22, Issue 2, 1958\\).\n\n",
"Military\n--------\n\n[Driberg](/wiki/Jack_Herbert_Driberg \"Jack Herbert Driberg\") described Lango people as The Lango army was united under one [military leader](/wiki/Military_rank \"Military rank\") chosen from available men, and all had to agree to be led by him. These [military](/wiki/Military \"Military\") leaders would lead the Lango [army](/wiki/Army \"Army\") against other groups. Their authority ended when the war was over, and they all returned to their clans and resumed their daily occupations and were not entitled to any special benefits. Famous military leaders were Ongora Okubal, who brought the Lango to their present land, Opyen who succeeded Ongora Okubal and was followed by Arim Oroba, and Agoro Abwango. Agoro Abwango led his men to fight the Banyoro and was killed in [Bunyoro](/wiki/Bunyoro \"Bunyoro\").Kihangire, p. 22 The Lango oral literature has it that as the soldiers who went to help Kabalega retreated towards the Nile, they helped Kabalega and Mwanga, the deposed King of [Bunyoro](/wiki/Bunyoro_sub-region \"Bunyoro sub-region\") and [Buganda](/wiki/Buganda \"Buganda\") respectively cross the [Nile River](/wiki/Nile \"Nile\"). They were moved along the northern corridor of Lake Kwania. At the time, a warrior called Obol Ario who had conquered much of the northern part of the lake was there. It's believed he helped smuggle the two deposed kings towards [Dokolo](/wiki/Dokolo_District \"Dokolo District\"), where they settled at [Kangai](/wiki/Kangai \"Kangai\"). Obol Ario of Apac Okwero Ngec Ayita Clan eventually settled at Amac where he later died and was buried.\n\n",
"Land tenure\n-----------\n\nLand in the [pre\\-colonial](/wiki/History_of_Africa \"History of Africa\") era was [common land](/wiki/Common_land \"Common land\"), and any untilled area belonged to the first person or family who tilled it, and it was passed on to the eldest son. \"Land which had not been cultivated in the past could be tilled by any family, and, when once it had been tilled, the community regarded it as the property of the family whose ancestor first cultivated it.\" Traditional [land tenure](/wiki/Land_tenure \"Land tenure\") is still widely used in rural areas.\n\n",
"Culture\n-------\n\nAlthough many Lango practice Islam or Christianity, the influence of traditional beliefs still plays a significant role in the religious lives of the Lango. In traditional Lango myth, each individual has a guardian spirit and metaphysical soul. Additionally, ancestral cults and belief in the supreme god, *Jok*, played a large role in the religion.\n\nPrimary occupations of the Lango people include hunting, farming and raising livestock.\n\n",
"Lango clans\n-----------\n\nThe Lango people have over 148 registered clans with the Lango Cultural Foundation, a cultural institution mandated with the powers to organize, control and represent all clans in the Lango communities.\n\n",
"Lango dance\n-----------\n\nThe Lango people have several traditional dances. These include Okeme and Abuda which are very popular and performed during cultural functions, weddings or other ceremonies.\n\n",
"Notable people\n--------------\n\n* [Milton Obote](/wiki/Milton_Obote \"Milton Obote\"), the second president of Uganda following independence\n* [Jane Aceng](/wiki/Jane_Aceng \"Jane Aceng\"), [Minister of Health](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Uganda%29 \"Ministry of Health (Uganda)\") of Uganda since 2016\n* [Betty Amongi](/wiki/Betty_Amongi \"Betty Amongi\"), [Minister of Gender, Labour and Social Development](/wiki/Ministry_of_Gender%2C_Labour_and_Social_Development_%28Uganda%29 \"Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (Uganda)\") since 2021\n* [Peter Ogwang](/wiki/Peter_Ogwang \"Peter Ogwang\"), [Minister of State for Sports](/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_and_Sports_%28Uganda%29 \"Ministry of Education and Sports (Uganda)\")\n* [Acen Dorcus](/wiki/Dorcus_Acen \"Dorcus Acen\"), Women's Representative of the [Alebtong District](/wiki/Alebtong_District \"Alebtong District\") since 2021\\.\n* [Denis Hamson Obua](/wiki/Denis_Obua_%28politician%29 \"Denis Obua (politician)\"), Chief Whip of the Parliament of Uganda since 2022\n",
"References\n----------\n\n### Footnotes\n\n### Sources\n\n* Julius peter Odwee 2013 \" Tricentenary of the Lango people in Uganda\"\n* Kihangire, Cyprianus (1957\\). \"The marriage customs of the Lango tribe (Uganda) in relation to canon Law\"\n* Curley, Richard T (1973\\). Elders, Shades, and Women: Ceremonial Change in Lango, Uganda.\n* Tosh, John (1979\\). Clan Leaders and Colonial Chiefs in Lango: The Political History of an East African Stateless Society 1800–1939\\.\n* Hutchinson, H.N., Walter, J., \\& Lydekker, R. (1902\\). The living races of mankind: a popular illustrated account of the customs, habits, pursuits, feasts and ceremonies of the races of mankind throughout the world.\n* Julius P.O. Odwe. Proposal to Celebrate a Tricentenary (300 years) of Lango Existence, Importance and Contributions to Uganda. A conference proposal presented to the Prime Minister, Lango Cultural Foundation, Lira (Uganda), 11 November 2011\\.\n* Wright, M.J. (September 1958\\),\"The early life of Rwot Isaya Ogwangguji, M.B.E.\" Volume 22, Issue 2\\. Pgs. 131–138\\.\n* \"Lango's first palace.\" New Vision online 18 November 2013\\.\n* Tarantino, Angelo. Lango i kare acon (Lango before colonialism). Fountain Publishers, 2004\\.\n",
"### Footnotes\n\n",
"### Sources\n\n* Julius peter Odwee 2013 \" Tricentenary of the Lango people in Uganda\"\n* Kihangire, Cyprianus (1957\\). \"The marriage customs of the Lango tribe (Uganda) in relation to canon Law\"\n* Curley, Richard T (1973\\). Elders, Shades, and Women: Ceremonial Change in Lango, Uganda.\n* Tosh, John (1979\\). Clan Leaders and Colonial Chiefs in Lango: The Political History of an East African Stateless Society 1800–1939\\.\n* Hutchinson, H.N., Walter, J., \\& Lydekker, R. (1902\\). The living races of mankind: a popular illustrated account of the customs, habits, pursuits, feasts and ceremonies of the races of mankind throughout the world.\n* Julius P.O. Odwe. Proposal to Celebrate a Tricentenary (300 years) of Lango Existence, Importance and Contributions to Uganda. A conference proposal presented to the Prime Minister, Lango Cultural Foundation, Lira (Uganda), 11 November 2011\\.\n* Wright, M.J. (September 1958\\),\"The early life of Rwot Isaya Ogwangguji, M.B.E.\" Volume 22, Issue 2\\. Pgs. 131–138\\.\n* \"Lango's first palace.\" New Vision online 18 November 2013\\.\n* Tarantino, Angelo. Lango i kare acon (Lango before colonialism). Fountain Publishers, 2004\\.\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Uganda Bureau of Statistics](http://www.ubos.org)\n* [18 wives of Lango chief shock mourners \\- New Vision Official](http://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1323609/wives-lango-chief-shock-mourners)\n\n[Category:Ethnic groups in Uganda](/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Uganda \"Ethnic groups in Uganda\")\n[Category:Nilotic peoples](/wiki/Category:Nilotic_peoples \"Nilotic peoples\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Ludwig Anzengruber
|
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18872885
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qwbm3gpqa35hq7ik72ixiqfsuvi4z7q
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2023-12-14T13:57:19Z
| 1,189,495,227 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Origins",
"Early life and career",
"Creative period",
"Selected works",
"Dramas",
"Novels",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
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"content": [
"\n[thumb\\|Ludwig Anzengruber.](/wiki/File:Ludwig_Anzengruber.jpg \"Ludwig Anzengruber.jpg\")\n**Ludwig Anzengruber** (29 November 1839 – 10 December 1889\\) was an [Austrian](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") dramatist, novelist and poet. He was born and died in [Vienna, Austria](/wiki/Vienna%2C_Austria \"Vienna, Austria\").\n\n",
"Origins\n-------\n\nThe Anzengruber line originated in the district of [Ried im Innkreis](/wiki/Ried_im_Innkreis \"Ried im Innkreis\") in [Upper Austria](/wiki/Upper_Austria \"Upper Austria\"). Ludwig's grandfather, Jakob Anzengruber, was a farm\\-worker on the Obermayr estate at Weng near [Hofkirchen an der Trattnach](/wiki/Hofkirchen_an_der_Trattnach \"Hofkirchen an der Trattnach\"). His father, Johann Anzengruber, left the family home at an early age and moved to Vienna, where he found work as a bookkeeper in the treasury of the Austrian crown lands. In 1838 he married Maria Herbich, the daughter of a petit bourgeois pharmacist. It is not surprising that the social standing of his parents – his father, from peasant stock, and his mother, a petty bourgeois – regularly played an important role in Ludwig Anzengruber's later works.\n\nLudwig's greatest influence in becoming a dramatist was his father who himself had been a secret poet in the style of [Friedrich Schiller](/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller \"Friedrich Schiller\"), but without success. Only one of his plays, on the subject of [Berthold Schwarz](/wiki/Berthold_Schwarz \"Berthold Schwarz\"), was produced, and probably only because of the spectacular explosion at the end; his other works gathered dust in the drawer of his desk.\n\n",
"Early life and career\n---------------------\n\nLudwig was only 5 years old when his father died in 1844\\. His mother, who was to become the most important person in his life as the years went on, tried to make ends meet with her meager [widow's pension](/wiki/Widow%27s_pension \"Widow's pension\") of 166 [guilders](/wiki/Guilder \"Guilder\") and 40 [kreuzers](/wiki/Kreuzer \"Kreuzer\"). In 1854 when Ludwig’s grandmother, who had been supporting her daughter and grandchild substantially, died, his home and living arrangements became even worse. Financial emergencies drained their savings, but Ludwig's mother was ready to make any sacrifice (including taking up work as a seamstress) so that he could study at the Paulaner elementary school from 1847 to 1850 and then at the [Piarist](/wiki/Piarists \"Piarists\") high school from 1851 to 1853\\. In 1855 he dropped out of school due to increasingly bad grades and from 1856 to 1858 he was an apprentice at the Sallmeyer bookstore. During his employment at the bookstore he was able to read a great deal, but after disagreements with his master his [apprenticeship](/wiki/Apprenticeship \"Apprenticeship\") came to an abrupt end.\n\nAt the age of 19, after a severe bout of [typhoid](/wiki/Typhoid \"Typhoid\"), Ludwig decided to become an actor. Over the next ten years he tried his luck as a professional actor, travelling with different acting troupes throughout the provinces of Austria. He worked as a supporting actor in many a second\\-rate theatre, without, however, displaying any marked talent, and he never made the breakthrough to success, although his stage experience later stood him in good stead. One thing that hindered him was the [dialect](/wiki/Dialect \"Dialect\") that he spoke, a dialect he was never able completely to get rid of. From 1866 he returned to live in Vienna again. During this time he wrote several [dramas](/wiki/Drama \"Drama\") and some [short stories](/wiki/Short_story \"Short story\"), but these were unsuccessful.\n\n",
"Creative period\n---------------\n\nIn 1869 he found his way back into bourgeois society, when he took a job as a clerk (probably because he badly needed money) in the imperial police headquarters in Vienna. In 1870, under the pseudonym **L. Gruber**, he wrote what was to be his breakthrough, his anti\\-clerical drama *[Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld](/wiki/Der_Pfarrer_von_Kirchfeld \"Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld\")* (*The Priest from Kirchfeld*). The play was first produced at the *[Theater an der Wien](/wiki/Theater_an_der_Wien \"Theater an der Wien\")*, and its premiere on 5 November was a great success. [Heinrich Laube](/wiki/Heinrich_Laube \"Heinrich Laube\"), the head of the *[Burgtheater](/wiki/Burgtheater \"Burgtheater\")*, wrote an enthusiastic review and through this Ludwig struck up a friendship with [Peter Rosegger](/wiki/Peter_Rosegger \"Peter Rosegger\"). His overnight success meant that the *police official (4th class)* could step off the career ladder of the civil service and devote himself entirely to literature, which saved him from conflict between being a poet and his duty to his office.\n\nIn 1873, despite his mother's warnings, Anzengruber married the 16\\-year\\-old Adelinde Lipka (1857–1914\\). His young bride, the sister of his childhood friend Franz Lipka, was not up to the demands of practical life, and thus there were repeated crises in their marriage, although Ludwig's considerable debts and very close relationship with his mother were often also to blame for this. Despite their three children, divorce was inevitable, and in 1889 the couple separated officially.\n\nThe following years were very successful for Anzengruber. His plays were produced throughout Europe, though his mother was never able to fully share in his success, as she had died in 1875\\. From April 1882 until May 1885 he was the editor of the Viennese paper *Die Heimat* (*The Homeland*), in May 1884 he became a contributing editor of the Viennese weekly magazine *[Figaro](/wiki/Figaro_%28Vienna%29 \"Figaro (Vienna)\")* and in August 1888 he became the editor of the *Wiener Bote* (*Vienna Messenger*).\n\nIn September 1888 he was given the position of [dramaturg](/wiki/Dramaturg \"Dramaturg\") for the *[Volkstheater Wien](/wiki/Volkstheater_Wien \"Volkstheater Wien\")* in Vienna, which opened on 14 September 1889 with his piece *Der Fleck auf der Ehr* (*The Stain on Honour*).\n\nAt the end of November, the dramatist, who was only fifty years old, became sick with [anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax \"Anthrax\"), and not two weeks later died as a result of blood poisoning.\n\n",
"Selected works\n--------------\n\n### Dramas\n\nMost of Anzengruber's plays deal with Austrian peasant life. They are somewhat melancholy in tone, but interspersed with bright and witty scenes.\n\n* *Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld* (*The Priest from Kirchfeld*) (folk play with music in 4 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 5\\. November 1870\n* *Der Meineidbauer* (*The Perjuring Farmer*) (folk play with music in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 9 December 1871\n* *Die Kreuzelschreiber* (peasant comedy with music in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 12 October 1872\n* *Elfriede* (play in 3 acts) \\- UA: Carl\\-Theater – 24\\. April 1873\n* *Die Tochter des Wucherers* (*The Usurer's Daughter*) (Play with music in 5 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 17 October 1873\n* *Der G'wissenswurm* (*The Worm of Conscience*) (peasant comedy with music in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 19\\. September 1874\n* *Hand und Herz* (*Hand and Heart*) (tragedy in 4 acts) \\- Premiere: [Wiener Stadttheater](/wiki/Wiener_Stadttheater \"Wiener Stadttheater\") – 31 December 1874\n* *Doppelselbstmord* (*Double Suicide*) (tragedy in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 1 February 1876\n* *Der ledige Hof* (play in 4 Acts) \\- UA: Theater an der Wien – 27 January 1877\n* *Das vierte Gebot* (*The Fourth Commandment*) (play in 4 acts) \\- Premiere: [Josefstädter Theater](/wiki/Josefst%C3%A4dter_Theater \"Josefstädter Theater\") – 29 December 1878\n\n### Novels\n\n* *Der Schandfleck* (*The Mark of Shame*) \\- 1st edition: 1877; 2nd edition: 1884\n* *Der Sternsteinhof* (*The Sternstein Manor*) \\- 1885\n\nAnzengruber also published various short stories and tales of village life collected under the title *Wolken und Sunn'schein* (1888\\).\n\n",
"### Dramas\n\nMost of Anzengruber's plays deal with Austrian peasant life. They are somewhat melancholy in tone, but interspersed with bright and witty scenes.\n\n* *Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld* (*The Priest from Kirchfeld*) (folk play with music in 4 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 5\\. November 1870\n* *Der Meineidbauer* (*The Perjuring Farmer*) (folk play with music in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 9 December 1871\n* *Die Kreuzelschreiber* (peasant comedy with music in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 12 October 1872\n* *Elfriede* (play in 3 acts) \\- UA: Carl\\-Theater – 24\\. April 1873\n* *Die Tochter des Wucherers* (*The Usurer's Daughter*) (Play with music in 5 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 17 October 1873\n* *Der G'wissenswurm* (*The Worm of Conscience*) (peasant comedy with music in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 19\\. September 1874\n* *Hand und Herz* (*Hand and Heart*) (tragedy in 4 acts) \\- Premiere: [Wiener Stadttheater](/wiki/Wiener_Stadttheater \"Wiener Stadttheater\") – 31 December 1874\n* *Doppelselbstmord* (*Double Suicide*) (tragedy in 3 acts) \\- Premiere: Theater an der Wien – 1 February 1876\n* *Der ledige Hof* (play in 4 Acts) \\- UA: Theater an der Wien – 27 January 1877\n* *Das vierte Gebot* (*The Fourth Commandment*) (play in 4 acts) \\- Premiere: [Josefstädter Theater](/wiki/Josefst%C3%A4dter_Theater \"Josefstädter Theater\") – 29 December 1878\n",
"### Novels\n\n* *Der Schandfleck* (*The Mark of Shame*) \\- 1st edition: 1877; 2nd edition: 1884\n* *Der Sternsteinhof* (*The Sternstein Manor*) \\- 1885\n\nAnzengruber also published various short stories and tales of village life collected under the title *Wolken und Sunn'schein* (1888\\).\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\nThis article is a translation of the [corresponding German Wikipedia article](/wiki/Ludwig_Anzengruber \"Ludwig Anzengruber\") which lists the following reference works: \\-\n\n* Ludwig Anzengruber, *Ausgewählte Werke. Eine Einführung in das Leben and das Werk des Dichters* Erwin Heinzel. Vienna: Kremayr \\& Scheriau 1966\\.\n* Franz Baumer, *Ludwig Anzengruber*; Weilheim (Stöppel) 1989\\.\n* Anton Bettelheim, *Ludwig Anzengruber*; Berlin 1891\\.\n* Anton Büchner, *Zu Ludwig Anzengrubers Dramentechnik*; Dissertation, Gießen 1911\\.\n* Elisabeth Hanke, *Ludwig Anzengrubers Kalendergeschichten*; Dissertation, Wien 1950\\.\n* Alfred Kleinberg, *Ludwig Anzengruber. Ein Lebensbild.* Stuttgart: Cotta, 1921\\.\n* Aloys Klocke, *Die religiöse and weltanschaulich\\-ethische Problematik bei Ludwig Anzengruber*; Dissertation, Freiburg i. Br. 1955\\.\n* Louis Koessler; *Ludwig Anzengruber \\- auteur dramatique*; Dissertation, Straßburg 1943\\.\n* Werner Martin, *Der Kämpfer. Atheismus bei Anzengruber*; Berlin 1960\\.\n* Edward McInnes, \"Ludwig Anzengruber and the popular dramatic tradition\", in: *Maske and Kothurn* 21 (1975\\), 135\\-152\\.\n* Peter Rosegger, *Peter Rosegger \\- Ludwig Anzengruber. Briefwechsel: 1871 – 1889\\.* Konstanze Fliedl; Karl Wagner (Editors). Vienna: Böhlau, 1995\\. (Literatur in der Geschichte, Geschichte in der Literatur; 33\\)\n* Emma Spröhnle, *Die Psychologie der Bauern bei Anzengruber*; Dissertation, Tübingen 1930\\.\n\nAnzengruber's collected works, with a biography, were published\nin 10 vols. in 1890 (3rd ed. 1897\\); his correspondence has been \nedited by A. Bettelheim (1902\\). See:\n\n* L. Rosner, *Erinnerungen an L. Anzengruber* (1890\\)\n* H. Sittenberger, *Studien zur Dramaturgie der Gegenwart* (1899\\)\n* S. Friedmann, *L. Anzengruber* (1902\\).\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Texts from Ludwig Anzengruber](http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren/anzengru.htm) at Projekt Gutenberg\\-DE\n* [Short biography in German](http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.data.image.a/a613960a.jpg)\n\n[Category:1839 births](/wiki/Category:1839_births \"1839 births\")\n[Category:1889 deaths](/wiki/Category:1889_deaths \"1889 deaths\")\n[Category:Poets from Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Category:Poets_from_Austria-Hungary \"Poets from Austria-Hungary\")\n[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Category:Dramatists_and_playwrights_from_Austria-Hungary \"Dramatists and playwrights from Austria-Hungary\")\n[Category:Novelists from Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Category:Novelists_from_Austria-Hungary \"Novelists from Austria-Hungary\")\n[Category:Deaths from sepsis](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_sepsis \"Deaths from sepsis\")\n[Category:Austrian male dramatists and playwrights](/wiki/Category:Austrian_male_dramatists_and_playwrights \"Austrian male dramatists and playwrights\")\n[Category:Austrian male novelists](/wiki/Category:Austrian_male_novelists \"Austrian male novelists\")\n[Category:Austrian male poets](/wiki/Category:Austrian_male_poets \"Austrian male poets\")\n[Category:Writers from Vienna](/wiki/Category:Writers_from_Vienna \"Writers from Vienna\")\n[Category:19th\\-century Austrian male writers](/wiki/Category:19th-century_Austrian_male_writers \"19th-century Austrian male writers\")\n\n"
]
}
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Seto, Aichi
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9mnjsmlmol34p5x9mbeojvbiqem59ws
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2024-10-03T21:25:35Z
| 1,249,230,036 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"Climate",
"Surrounding municipalities",
"Demographics",
"History",
"Feudal period",
"Early modern period",
"Late modern period",
"Contemporary history",
"Government",
"Sister cities",
"Economy",
"Education",
"University",
"Schools",
"International school",
"Transportation",
"Railways",
"Conventional lines",
"Roads",
"Expressway",
"Japan National Route",
"Local attractions",
"Notable people from Seto",
"References",
"External links"
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"content": [
"\n\n is a [city](/wiki/Cities_of_Japan \"Cities of Japan\") in [Aichi Prefecture](/wiki/Aichi_Prefecture \"Aichi Prefecture\"), Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 127,659 in 56,573 households,[Seto City official statistics](http://www.city.seto.aichi.jp) and a population density of 1,146 persons per km2. The total area was .\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nSeto is located in the hilly northern region of Aichi Prefecture, bordering [Gifu Prefecture](/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture \"Gifu Prefecture\"), approximately 35 minutes from [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") by way of the [Meitetsu Seto Line](/wiki/Meitetsu_Seto_Line \"Meitetsu Seto Line\"). In English, the name of \"Seto\" translates to \"the place where the river runs quickly.\" However, while there is a river in Seto, it is neither significantly large nor quick\\-moving. The city of Seto is famous for its pottery and ceramics, so much so that the generic word for ceramics in Japanese is . The main street along the river is lined with dozens of pottery shops. Every third Saturday and Sunday in September, there is a very large pottery festival called Setomono Matsuri[Seto homestay programme](http://www.seto-homestay.jp/e_content_1.html)(瀬戸物祭り) This festival attracts about 20,000 visitors from around Japan and abroad every year.\n\n### Climate\n\nThe city has a climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and relatively mild winters ([Köppen climate classification](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *Cfa*). The average annual temperature in Seto is 14\\.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1810 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27\\.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 3\\.1 °C.[Seto climate data](https://en.climate-data.org/asia/japan/aichi/seto-4934/)\n\n### Surrounding municipalities\n\n[Aichi Prefecture](/wiki/Aichi_Prefecture \"Aichi Prefecture\")\n* [Kasugai](/wiki/Kasugai%2C_Aichi \"Kasugai, Aichi\")\n* [Nagakute](/wiki/Nagakute \"Nagakute\")\n* [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") ([Moriyama\\-ku](/wiki/Moriyama-ku%2C_Nagoya \"Moriyama-ku, Nagoya\"))\n* [Owariasahi](/wiki/Owariasahi%2C_Aichi \"Owariasahi, Aichi\")\n* [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota%2C_Aichi \"Toyota, Aichi\")\n\n[Gifu Prefecture](/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture \"Gifu Prefecture\")\n* [Tajimi](/wiki/Tajimi%2C_Gifu \"Tajimi, Gifu\")\n* [Toki](/wiki/Toki%2C_Gifu \"Toki, Gifu\")\n",
"### Climate\n\nThe city has a climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and relatively mild winters ([Köppen climate classification](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *Cfa*). The average annual temperature in Seto is 14\\.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1810 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27\\.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 3\\.1 °C.[Seto climate data](https://en.climate-data.org/asia/japan/aichi/seto-4934/)\n\n",
"### Surrounding municipalities\n\n[Aichi Prefecture](/wiki/Aichi_Prefecture \"Aichi Prefecture\")\n* [Kasugai](/wiki/Kasugai%2C_Aichi \"Kasugai, Aichi\")\n* [Nagakute](/wiki/Nagakute \"Nagakute\")\n* [Nagoya](/wiki/Nagoya \"Nagoya\") ([Moriyama\\-ku](/wiki/Moriyama-ku%2C_Nagoya \"Moriyama-ku, Nagoya\"))\n* [Owariasahi](/wiki/Owariasahi%2C_Aichi \"Owariasahi, Aichi\")\n* [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota%2C_Aichi \"Toyota, Aichi\")\n\n[Gifu Prefecture](/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture \"Gifu Prefecture\")\n* [Tajimi](/wiki/Tajimi%2C_Gifu \"Tajimi, Gifu\")\n* [Toki](/wiki/Toki%2C_Gifu \"Toki, Gifu\")\n",
"Demographics\n------------\n\nPer Japanese census data,[Seto population statistics](https://www.citypopulation.de/php/japan-aichi.php) the population of Seto has been increasing over the past 60 years.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n### Feudal period\n\nThe area had been famous for its ceramics production since at least the [Kamakura period](/wiki/Kamakura_period \"Kamakura period\").\n\n### Early modern period\n\nDuring the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\"), the area of modern Seto was controlled by the [Owari Tokugawa](/wiki/Gosanke \"Gosanke\") of [Owari Domain](/wiki/Owari_Domain \"Owari Domain\").\n\n### Late modern period\n\nDuring the [Meiji period](/wiki/Meiji_period \"Meiji period\"), Seto village was organized in 1888 with the establishment of the modern municipalities system, becoming a town in 1892\\.\nAfter annexing the neighboring village of Akatsu in 1925, Seto was raised to city status on October 1, 1929\\.\n\nMuch of the city was destroyed by air raids in 1945 during World War II.\n\n### Contemporary history\n\nIn the postwar period, the city grew as a [bedroom community](/wiki/Bedroom_community \"Bedroom community\") for Nagoya and as a tourist designation. On March 25, 2005, [Expo 2005](/wiki/Expo_2005 \"Expo 2005\") opened with its main site being in [Nagakute](/wiki/Nagakute%2C_Aichi \"Nagakute, Aichi\") and additional activity in Seto.\nThe expo continued until September 25, 2005\\.\n\n",
"### Feudal period\n\nThe area had been famous for its ceramics production since at least the [Kamakura period](/wiki/Kamakura_period \"Kamakura period\").\n\n",
"### Early modern period\n\nDuring the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\"), the area of modern Seto was controlled by the [Owari Tokugawa](/wiki/Gosanke \"Gosanke\") of [Owari Domain](/wiki/Owari_Domain \"Owari Domain\").\n\n",
"### Late modern period\n\nDuring the [Meiji period](/wiki/Meiji_period \"Meiji period\"), Seto village was organized in 1888 with the establishment of the modern municipalities system, becoming a town in 1892\\.\nAfter annexing the neighboring village of Akatsu in 1925, Seto was raised to city status on October 1, 1929\\.\n\nMuch of the city was destroyed by air raids in 1945 during World War II.\n\n",
"### Contemporary history\n\nIn the postwar period, the city grew as a [bedroom community](/wiki/Bedroom_community \"Bedroom community\") for Nagoya and as a tourist designation. On March 25, 2005, [Expo 2005](/wiki/Expo_2005 \"Expo 2005\") opened with its main site being in [Nagakute](/wiki/Nagakute%2C_Aichi \"Nagakute, Aichi\") and additional activity in Seto.\nThe expo continued until September 25, 2005\\.\n\n",
"Government\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|200px\\|City hall](/wiki/File:Seto_City_Hall_01.JPG \"Seto City Hall 01.JPG\")\nSeto has a [mayor\\-council](/wiki/Mayor-council \"Mayor-council\") form of government with a directly elected mayor and a [unicameral](/wiki/Unicameral \"Unicameral\") city legislature of 26 members. The city contributes two members to the Aichi Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of [Aichi 6th district](/wiki/Aichi_6th_district \"Aichi 6th district\") of the [lower house](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Japan \"House of Representatives of Japan\") of the [Diet of Japan](/wiki/Diet_of_Japan \"Diet of Japan\").\n\n",
"Sister cities\n-------------\n\nSister cities\n* [Limoges](/wiki/Limoges \"Limoges\"), [Haute\\-Vienne](/wiki/Haute-Vienne \"Haute-Vienne\"), [Nouvelle\\-Aquitaine](/wiki/Nouvelle-Aquitaine \"Nouvelle-Aquitaine\"), France, since November 18, 2003\n* [Nabeul](/wiki/Nabeul \"Nabeul\"), [Nabeul Governorate](/wiki/Nabeul_Governorate \"Nabeul Governorate\"), [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"), since November 8, 2004\n* [Icheon](/wiki/Icheon \"Icheon\"), [Gyeonggi Province](/wiki/Gyeonggi_Province \"Gyeonggi Province\"), [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"), since April 20, 2006\n\nFriendship cities\n* [Jingdezhen](/wiki/Jingdezhen \"Jingdezhen\"), [Jiangxi](/wiki/Jiangxi \"Jiangxi\"), China, since October 1996\n",
"Economy\n-------\n\nThe economy of Seto remains dominated by ceramics, both for traditional works for private consumption, and also modern industrial ceramics for the electronics industry.\n\n",
"Education\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|200px\\|[Nagoya Gakuin University](/wiki/Nagoya_Gakuin_University \"Nagoya Gakuin University\") Seto campus](/wiki/File:Nagoya_gakuin_by_tvashtri.jpg \"Nagoya gakuin by tvashtri.jpg\")\n\n### University\n\n* [Nagoya Gakuin University](/wiki/Nagoya_Gakuin_University \"Nagoya Gakuin University\") – Seto campus\n\n### Schools\n\n* Primary and secondary education\nSeto has 20 public elementary schools and eight public junior high schools operated by the city government, and one private junior high school. The city has four public high schools operated by the Aichi Prefectural Board of Education. and two private high schools. The city operates one and the prefecture operates two special education schools for the handicapped.\n\n### International school\n\nThe Aichi Korean 7th Elementary School ([愛知朝鮮第七初級学校](/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E7%9F%A5%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%83%E5%88%9D%E7%B4%9A%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1 \"愛知朝鮮第七初級学校\")) – [North Korean school](/wiki/Chosen_gakko \"Chosen gakko\")[Home page](http://aichi7.2.pro.tok2.com/). Aichi Korean 7th Elementary School. Retrieved on October 14, 2015\\. \"愛知県瀬戸市にある在日コリアン児童が通う民族学校です\" is located in Seto\n\n",
"### University\n\n* [Nagoya Gakuin University](/wiki/Nagoya_Gakuin_University \"Nagoya Gakuin University\") – Seto campus\n",
"### Schools\n\n* Primary and secondary education\nSeto has 20 public elementary schools and eight public junior high schools operated by the city government, and one private junior high school. The city has four public high schools operated by the Aichi Prefectural Board of Education. and two private high schools. The city operates one and the prefecture operates two special education schools for the handicapped.\n",
"### International school\n\nThe Aichi Korean 7th Elementary School ([愛知朝鮮第七初級学校](/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E7%9F%A5%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%83%E5%88%9D%E7%B4%9A%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1 \"愛知朝鮮第七初級学校\")) – [North Korean school](/wiki/Chosen_gakko \"Chosen gakko\")[Home page](http://aichi7.2.pro.tok2.com/). Aichi Korean 7th Elementary School. Retrieved on October 14, 2015\\. \"愛知県瀬戸市にある在日コリアン児童が通う民族学校です\" is located in Seto\n\n",
"Transportation\n--------------\n\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Map of [Meitetsu Seto Line](/wiki/Meitetsu_Seto_Line \"Meitetsu Seto Line\")](/wiki/File:Linemap_of_Meitetsu_Seto_Line.svg \"Linemap of Meitetsu Seto Line.svg\")\n[thumb\\|200px\\|The [Kilometre Zero](/wiki/Kilometre_Zero \"Kilometre Zero\") of Seto](/wiki/File:Higashikasugai_Seto_Town_km_zero.jpg \"Higashikasugai Seto Town km zero.jpg\")\n\n### Railways\n\n#### Conventional lines\n\n[20px](/wiki/File:Aikan_logomark.svg \"Aikan logomark.svg\") [Aichi Loop Railway](/wiki/Aichi_Loop_Railway \"Aichi Loop Railway\")\n* [Aichi Loop Line](/wiki/Aichi_Loop_Line \"Aichi Loop Line\"): \\- – – – –\n\n[20px](/wiki/File:Meitetsu_logomark_2.svg \"Meitetsu logomark 2.svg\") [Meitetsu](/wiki/Meitetsu \"Meitetsu\")\n* [Seto Line](/wiki/Meitetsu_Seto_Line \"Meitetsu Seto Line\"): \\- \\- – – \n\n### Roads\n\n#### Expressway\n\n* [24px\\|link\\=\\|alt\\=C3](/wiki/Image:JP_Expressway_C3.svg \"JP Expressway C3.svg\") [Tōkai\\-Kanjō Expressway](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai-Kanj%C5%8D_Expressway \"Tōkai-Kanjō Expressway\")\n\n#### Japan National Route\n\nFile:MT\\-Owari\\-SetoStation.jpg\\|\\[\\[Owari Seto Station]]\nFile:Seto\\-Akazu Interchange 01\\.jpg\\|Seto\\-Akazu Interchange\nFile:Aichi Prefectural Road Route 22 (Seto Takane).jpg\\|\\[\\[Japan National Route 363]]\n",
"### Railways\n\n#### Conventional lines\n\n[20px](/wiki/File:Aikan_logomark.svg \"Aikan logomark.svg\") [Aichi Loop Railway](/wiki/Aichi_Loop_Railway \"Aichi Loop Railway\")\n* [Aichi Loop Line](/wiki/Aichi_Loop_Line \"Aichi Loop Line\"): \\- – – – –\n\n[20px](/wiki/File:Meitetsu_logomark_2.svg \"Meitetsu logomark 2.svg\") [Meitetsu](/wiki/Meitetsu \"Meitetsu\")\n* [Seto Line](/wiki/Meitetsu_Seto_Line \"Meitetsu Seto Line\"): \\- \\- – – \n",
"#### Conventional lines\n\n[20px](/wiki/File:Aikan_logomark.svg \"Aikan logomark.svg\") [Aichi Loop Railway](/wiki/Aichi_Loop_Railway \"Aichi Loop Railway\")\n* [Aichi Loop Line](/wiki/Aichi_Loop_Line \"Aichi Loop Line\"): \\- – – – –\n\n[20px](/wiki/File:Meitetsu_logomark_2.svg \"Meitetsu logomark 2.svg\") [Meitetsu](/wiki/Meitetsu \"Meitetsu\")\n* [Seto Line](/wiki/Meitetsu_Seto_Line \"Meitetsu Seto Line\"): \\- \\- – – \n",
"### Roads\n\n#### Expressway\n\n* [24px\\|link\\=\\|alt\\=C3](/wiki/Image:JP_Expressway_C3.svg \"JP Expressway C3.svg\") [Tōkai\\-Kanjō Expressway](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai-Kanj%C5%8D_Expressway \"Tōkai-Kanjō Expressway\")\n\n#### Japan National Route\n\nFile:MT\\-Owari\\-SetoStation.jpg\\|\\[\\[Owari Seto Station]]\nFile:Seto\\-Akazu Interchange 01\\.jpg\\|Seto\\-Akazu Interchange\nFile:Aichi Prefectural Road Route 22 (Seto Takane).jpg\\|\\[\\[Japan National Route 363]]\n",
"#### Expressway\n\n* [24px\\|link\\=\\|alt\\=C3](/wiki/Image:JP_Expressway_C3.svg \"JP Expressway C3.svg\") [Tōkai\\-Kanjō Expressway](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai-Kanj%C5%8D_Expressway \"Tōkai-Kanjō Expressway\")\n",
"#### Japan National Route\n\nFile:MT\\-Owari\\-SetoStation.jpg\\|\\[\\[Owari Seto Station]]\nFile:Seto\\-Akazu Interchange 01\\.jpg\\|Seto\\-Akazu Interchange\nFile:Aichi Prefectural Road Route 22 (Seto Takane).jpg\\|\\[\\[Japan National Route 363]]\n",
"Local attractions\n-----------------\n\n* [Aichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum](/wiki/Aichi_Prefectural_Ceramic_Museum \"Aichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum\")\n* [Jōkō\\-ji](/wiki/J%C5%8Dk%C5%8D-ji_%28Seto%29 \"Jōkō-ji (Seto)\"), Buddhist temple and mausoleum of [Tokugawa Yoshinao](/wiki/Tokugawa_Yoshinao \"Tokugawa Yoshinao\") of the Owari Domain.\n* [Setogura Museum](/wiki/Setogura_Museum \"Setogura Museum\")\n\nAichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum\\-01\\.jpg\\|Aichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum\nSetogura１.JPG\\|Setogura Museum\nSetomonomatsuri.JPG\\|Setomono Festival\nUnkouji1\\.JPG\\|Unkō\\-ji\nJoukouji3\\.JPG\\|Jōkō\\-ji\nKamagaki3\\.JPG\\|Kamagaki no Komichi\nKamagaki4\\.JPG\\|Hongyō kiln\n\n",
"Notable people from Seto\n------------------------\n\n* [Sayaka Aoki](/wiki/Sayaka_Aoki_%28comedian%29 \"Sayaka Aoki (comedian)\"), comedian\n* [Sōta Fujii](/wiki/S%C5%8Dta_Fujii \"Sōta Fujii\"), professional shogi player\n* [Toru Hasegawa](/wiki/Toru_Hasegawa \"Toru Hasegawa\"),– professional soccer player\n* [Hayata Ito](/wiki/Hayata_Ito \"Hayata Ito\"), professional baseball player\n* [Asaka Seto](/wiki/Asaka_Seto \"Asaka Seto\"), actress\n* [Junji Suzuki](/wiki/Junji_Suzuki \"Junji Suzuki\"), politician\n* [Manpei Takagi](/wiki/Manpei_Takagi \"Manpei Takagi\"), actor\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Cities in Aichi Prefecture](/wiki/Category:Cities_in_Aichi_Prefecture \"Cities in Aichi Prefecture\")\n\n"
]
}
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"... Attention: THIS IS AN OUTLINE\n\n part of the set of 830+ outlines listed at\n [[Wikipedia:Contents/Outlines]].\n\n Wikipedia outlines are\n a special type of list article.\n They make up one of Wikipedia's\n content navigation systems\n\n See [[Wikipedia: Outlines]] and \n [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Outlines]] for more details.\n Further improvements\n to this outline are on the way\n...",
"Discrete mathematical disciplines",
"Concepts in discrete mathematics",
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"Arithmetic",
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"Mathematical relations",
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"\n**[Discrete mathematics](/wiki/Discrete_mathematics \"Discrete mathematics\")** is the study of [mathematical](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\") [structures](/wiki/Mathematical_structure \"Mathematical structure\") that are fundamentally [discrete](/wiki/Discrete_space \"Discrete space\") rather than [continuous](/wiki/Continuous_function \"Continuous function\"). In contrast to [real numbers](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") that have the property of varying \"smoothly\", the objects studied in discrete mathematics – such as [integers](/wiki/Integer \"Integer\"), [graphs](/wiki/Graph_%28discrete_mathematics%29 \"Graph (discrete mathematics)\"), and statements in [logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\")[Richard Johnsonbaugh](/wiki/Richard_Johnsonbaugh \"Richard Johnsonbaugh\"), *Discrete Mathematics*, Prentice Hall, 2008; James Franklin, [Discrete and continuous: a fundamental dichotomy in mathematics](http://scholarship.claremont.edu/jhm/vol7/iss2/18/), *Journal of Humanistic Mathematics* 7 (2017\\), 355\\-378\\. – do not vary smoothly in this way, but have distinct, separated values. Discrete mathematics, therefore, excludes topics in \"continuous mathematics\" such as [calculus](/wiki/Calculus \"Calculus\") and [analysis](/wiki/Mathematical_analysis \"Mathematical analysis\").\n\nIncluded below are many of the standard terms used routinely in university\\-level courses and in research papers. This is not, however, intended as a complete list of mathematical terms; just a selection of typical *[terms of art](/wiki/Term_of_art \"Term of art\")* that may be encountered.\n\n",
"Discrete mathematical disciplines\n---------------------------------\n\nFor further reading in discrete mathematics, beyond a basic level, see these pages. Many of these disciplines are closely related to [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\").\n\n* a study of \n",
"Concepts in discrete mathematics\n--------------------------------\n\n### Sets\n\n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t+ \n### Functions\n\n### Arithmetic\n\n### Elementary algebra\n\n### Mathematical relations\n\n\t+ \n\t+ \n* *Equivalence and identity*\n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\n### Mathematical phraseology\n\n* , \n### Combinatorics\n\n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\n### Probability\n\n### Propositional logic\n\n",
"### Sets\n\n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t+ \n",
"### Functions\n\n",
"### Arithmetic\n\n",
"### Elementary algebra\n\n",
"### Mathematical relations\n\n\t+ \n\t+ \n* *Equivalence and identity*\n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t\t- \n\t\t- \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n",
"### Mathematical phraseology\n\n* , \n",
"### Combinatorics\n\n\t+ \n\t+ \n\t+ \n\n",
"### Probability\n\n",
"### Propositional logic\n\n",
"Mathematicians associated with discrete mathematics\n---------------------------------------------------\n\n* **Leonhard Euler \\- Swiss mathematician (1707\\-1783\\)**\n* **Claude Shannon \\- American mathematician (1916\\-2001\\)**\n* **Donald Knuth \\- American mathematician and computer scientist (b. 1938\\)**\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Archives](https://web.archive.org/web/20180714042048/http://archives.math.utk.edu/topics/discreteMath.html)\n* Jonathan Arbib \\& John Dwyer, *Discrete Mathematics for Cryptography*, 1st Edition .\n* John Dwyer \\& Suzy Jagger, *Discrete Mathematics for Business \\& Computing*, 1st Edition 2010 .\n\n[Discrete mathematics](/wiki/Category:Outlines_of_mathematics_and_logic \"Outlines of mathematics and logic\")\n[Discrete mathematics](/wiki/Category:Outlines \"Outlines\")\n[\\*](/wiki/Category:Discrete_mathematics \"Discrete mathematics\")\n[Discrete mathematics](/wiki/Category:Mathematics-related_lists \"Mathematics-related lists\")\n\n"
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Lord President of the Court of Session
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"Head of the judiciary",
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"\n\nThe **Lord President of the Court of Session** and **Lord Justice General** () is the most senior [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"), the head of the [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_Scotland \"Judiciary of Scotland\"), and the presiding judge of the [College of Justice](/wiki/College_of_Justice \"College of Justice\"), the [Court of Session](/wiki/Court_of_Session \"Court of Session\"), and the [High Court of Justiciary](/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary \"High Court of Justiciary\"). The Lord President holds the title of Lord Justice General of Scotland and the head of the [High Court of Justiciary](/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary \"High Court of Justiciary\") *[ex officio](/wiki/Ex_officio \"Ex officio\")*, as the two offices were combined in 1836\\. The Lord President has authority over any court established under [Scots law](/wiki/Scots_law \"Scots law\"), except for the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") and the [Court of the Lord Lyon](/wiki/Court_of_the_Lord_Lyon \"Court of the Lord Lyon\").\n\nThe current Lord President of the Court of Session is [Lord Carloway](/wiki/Colin_Sutherland%2C_Lord_Carloway \"Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway\"), who was appointed to the position on 18 December 2015\\. In June 2024 Lord Carloway announced he would retire from judicial office in early 2025\\. They are paid according to salary group 1\\.1 of the Judicial Salaries Scale, which in 2016 was £222,862\\.\n\n",
"Remit and jurisdiction\n----------------------\n\n### Head of the judiciary\n\nAs Lord President of the Court of Session and is the most senior [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"), the head of the [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_Scotland \"Judiciary of Scotland\"), and the presiding judge of the [College of Justice](/wiki/College_of_Justice \"College of Justice\"), and the [Court of Session](/wiki/Court_of_Session \"Court of Session\"). Under Section 2(6\\) of the Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008, the Lord President has authority over the judiciary of any court established under [Scots law](/wiki/Scots_law \"Scots law\"), except for the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") and the [Court of the Lord Lyon](/wiki/Court_of_the_Lord_Lyon \"Court of the Lord Lyon\"). The [Scottish Land Court](/wiki/Scottish_Land_Court \"Scottish Land Court\"), which until 1 April 2017 was administered separately, was transferred to the [Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service](/wiki/Scottish_Courts_and_Tribunals_Service \"Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service\"). The 2008 act states:\n\nThe Lord President is supported by the [Judicial Office for Scotland](/wiki/Judicial_Office_for_Scotland \"Judicial Office for Scotland\") which was established on 1 April 2010 as a result of the [Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008](/wiki/Judiciary_and_Courts_%28Scotland%29_Act_2008 \"Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008\"), and the Lord President chairs the corporate board of the [Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service](/wiki/Scottish_Courts_and_Tribunals_Service \"Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service\"). The Lord President, and the wider judiciary, is advised on matters relating to the administration of justice by the Judicial Council for Scotland, which is a non\\-statutory body established in 2007\\. There had been plans for a statutory judges' council but these plans were abandoned in favour of a non\\-statutory council convened by the Lord President.\n\n### Inner House\n\nThe Lord President presides over the 1st Division of the [Inner House](/wiki/Inner_House \"Inner House\") of the Court of Session. The [Inner House](/wiki/Inner_House \"Inner House\") is the part of the Court of Session which acts as a [court of appeal](/wiki/Court_of_appeal \"Court of appeal\") for cases decided the [Outer House](/wiki/Outer_House \"Outer House\") and [Sheriff Appeal Court](/wiki/Sheriff_Appeal_Court \"Sheriff Appeal Court\"), and hearing appeals on [questions of law](/wiki/Question_of_law \"Question of law\") from the [Sheriff Appeal Court](/wiki/Sheriff_Appeal_Court \"Sheriff Appeal Court\"), [Scottish Land Court](/wiki/Scottish_Land_Court \"Scottish Land Court\"), [Court of the Lord Lyon](/wiki/Court_of_the_Lord_Lyon \"Court of the Lord Lyon\"), and the [Lands Tribunal for Scotland](/wiki/Lands_Tribunal_for_Scotland \"Lands Tribunal for Scotland\").\n\n### Official Oath\n\nIn Scotland the [Official Oath](/wiki/Oath_of_Allegiance_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Oath of Allegiance (United Kingdom)\") is taken before the Lord President of the Court of Session.\n\n### Lord Justice General\n\nThe Lord President is also the Lord Justice General of Scotland and the head of the [High Court of Justiciary](/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary \"High Court of Justiciary\") *ex officio*, with the two offices having been combined in 1836\\.The office of Lord Justice General is derived from the [justiciars](/wiki/Justiciar \"Justiciar\") who were appointed from at least the twelfth century. From around 1567 onwards it was held heritably by the [Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Earl_of_Argyll \"Earl of Argyll\") until the heritability was resigned to [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\") in 1607\\.\n\n",
"### Head of the judiciary\n\nAs Lord President of the Court of Session and is the most senior [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") in [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"), the head of the [judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_Scotland \"Judiciary of Scotland\"), and the presiding judge of the [College of Justice](/wiki/College_of_Justice \"College of Justice\"), and the [Court of Session](/wiki/Court_of_Session \"Court of Session\"). Under Section 2(6\\) of the Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008, the Lord President has authority over the judiciary of any court established under [Scots law](/wiki/Scots_law \"Scots law\"), except for the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") and the [Court of the Lord Lyon](/wiki/Court_of_the_Lord_Lyon \"Court of the Lord Lyon\"). The [Scottish Land Court](/wiki/Scottish_Land_Court \"Scottish Land Court\"), which until 1 April 2017 was administered separately, was transferred to the [Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service](/wiki/Scottish_Courts_and_Tribunals_Service \"Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service\"). The 2008 act states:\n\nThe Lord President is supported by the [Judicial Office for Scotland](/wiki/Judicial_Office_for_Scotland \"Judicial Office for Scotland\") which was established on 1 April 2010 as a result of the [Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008](/wiki/Judiciary_and_Courts_%28Scotland%29_Act_2008 \"Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008\"), and the Lord President chairs the corporate board of the [Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service](/wiki/Scottish_Courts_and_Tribunals_Service \"Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service\"). The Lord President, and the wider judiciary, is advised on matters relating to the administration of justice by the Judicial Council for Scotland, which is a non\\-statutory body established in 2007\\. There had been plans for a statutory judges' council but these plans were abandoned in favour of a non\\-statutory council convened by the Lord President.\n\n",
"### Inner House\n\nThe Lord President presides over the 1st Division of the [Inner House](/wiki/Inner_House \"Inner House\") of the Court of Session. The [Inner House](/wiki/Inner_House \"Inner House\") is the part of the Court of Session which acts as a [court of appeal](/wiki/Court_of_appeal \"Court of appeal\") for cases decided the [Outer House](/wiki/Outer_House \"Outer House\") and [Sheriff Appeal Court](/wiki/Sheriff_Appeal_Court \"Sheriff Appeal Court\"), and hearing appeals on [questions of law](/wiki/Question_of_law \"Question of law\") from the [Sheriff Appeal Court](/wiki/Sheriff_Appeal_Court \"Sheriff Appeal Court\"), [Scottish Land Court](/wiki/Scottish_Land_Court \"Scottish Land Court\"), [Court of the Lord Lyon](/wiki/Court_of_the_Lord_Lyon \"Court of the Lord Lyon\"), and the [Lands Tribunal for Scotland](/wiki/Lands_Tribunal_for_Scotland \"Lands Tribunal for Scotland\").\n\n",
"### Official Oath\n\nIn Scotland the [Official Oath](/wiki/Oath_of_Allegiance_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Oath of Allegiance (United Kingdom)\") is taken before the Lord President of the Court of Session.\n\n",
"### Lord Justice General\n\nThe Lord President is also the Lord Justice General of Scotland and the head of the [High Court of Justiciary](/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary \"High Court of Justiciary\") *ex officio*, with the two offices having been combined in 1836\\.The office of Lord Justice General is derived from the [justiciars](/wiki/Justiciar \"Justiciar\") who were appointed from at least the twelfth century. From around 1567 onwards it was held heritably by the [Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Earl_of_Argyll \"Earl of Argyll\") until the heritability was resigned to [the Crown](/wiki/The_Crown \"The Crown\") in 1607\\.\n\n",
"Officeholders\n-------------\n\n### Justiciars\n\n(called Lord Chief Justices by [Scot of Scotstarvet](/wiki/Scot_of_Scotstarvet \"Scot of Scotstarvet\")).\n\n* Argadus, Captain of [Argyll](/wiki/Argyll \"Argyll\"), in the reign of [Ethodius](/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Scotland \"List of legendary kings of Scotland\")\n* Comes Dunetus; in the reign of King [William the Lion](/wiki/William_the_Lion \"William the Lion\"). ([Donnchad II, Earl of Fife](/wiki/Donnchad_II%2C_Earl_of_Fife \"Donnchad II, Earl of Fife\"))\n* [William Comyn](/wiki/William_Cumin \"William Cumin\")\n* [Richard Comyn](/wiki/Richard_Comyn \"Richard Comyn\")\n* [David, Earl of Huntingdon](/wiki/David_of_Scotland%2C_8th_Earl_of_Huntingdon \"David of Scotland, 8th Earl of Huntingdon\") (died 1219\\)\n* Walter Clifford, Justiciary of the Lothians\n* 1216: [Allan](/wiki/Alan_Durward \"Alan Durward\"), Justiciary to King [Alexander II](/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Scotland \"Alexander II of Scotland\")\n* 1224: [William Cumin, Earl of Buchan](/wiki/William_Comyn%2C_jure_uxoris_Earl_of_Buchan \"William Comyn, jure uxoris Earl of Buchan\")\n* [Walter](/wiki/Walter_Stewart%2C_3rd_High_Steward_of_Scotland \"Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland\") (died 1241\\), son of Allan High Steward of Scotland\n* 1239: [William, Earl of Ross](/wiki/Uilleam_I%2C_Earl_of_Ross \"Uilleam I, Earl of Ross\"), \"Lord Chief Justice of Scotland\"\n* [Alexander](/wiki/Alexander_Stewart%2C_4th_High_Steward_of_Scotland \"Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland\") (d.1283\\), [High Steward of Scotland](/wiki/High_Steward_of_Scotland \"High Steward of Scotland\") to King Alexander II\n* 1253: [Alexander Cumin, Earl of Buchan](/wiki/Alexander_Comyn%2C_Earl_of_Buchan \"Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan\")\n* 1366: Robert de Erskine, Justiciary South of the Forth for King [David II](/wiki/David_II_of_Scotland \"David II of Scotland\")\n* bef 1372: Alan de Lawedre of The Bass, Whitslaid, \\& Haltoun, Justiciary South of the Forth, (he received a pension for holding this post in 1374\\).\n* 1437: [James Douglas, Earl of Avondale and Lord Balveny](/wiki/James_Douglas%2C_7th_Earl_of_Douglas \"James Douglas, 7th Earl of Douglas\")\n* 1446: Patrick de Ogilvy, Justiciary South of the Forth\n* 1457: John, Lord Lindsay of the Byres, Justiciary South of the Forth\n* [William Sinclair, 3rd Earl of Orkney \\& Caithness](/wiki/William_Sinclair%2C_1st_Earl_of_Caithness \"William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness\") (d.1480\\), Justiciary North of the Forth for King [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland \"James II of Scotland\")\n* 1477: John Haldane of Gleneagles, Justiciary North of the Forth\n* [Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes](/wiki/Patrick_Hepburn%2C_1st_Lord_Hailes \"Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes\") (died after 1482\\), and Robert, 2nd Lord Lyle, Justiciaries South of the Forth\n* Andrew, Earl of Crawfurd, and [George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly](/wiki/George_Gordon%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Huntly \"George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly\"), Justiciaries North of the Forth\n* 1488: [Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle](/wiki/Robert_Lyle%2C_2nd_Lord_Lyle \"Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle\") (died ), \"Lord Chief Justice\"\n* 1489: [John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis](/wiki/John_Lyon%2C_3rd_Lord_Glamis \"John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis\") (died 1 April 1497\\), and [John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond](/wiki/John_Drummond%2C_1st_Lord_Drummond \"John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond\"): \"Justice\\-General\"\n* 1492: [Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle](/wiki/Robert_Lyle%2C_2nd_Lord_Lyle \"Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle\"), and [John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis](/wiki/John_Lyon%2C_3rd_Lord_Glamis \"John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis\")\n* 1494: [John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond](/wiki/John_Drummond%2C_1st_Lord_Drummond \"John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond\") (died c1519\\)\n* 1504: Andrew Gray, 2nd [Lord Gray](/wiki/Lord_Gray \"Lord Gray\"), and [John Kennedy, 2nd Lord Kennedy](/wiki/John_Kennedy%2C_2nd_Lord_Kennedy \"John Kennedy, 2nd Lord Kennedy\")\n* 1514: [Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Colin_Campbell%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Argyll \"Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll\")\n* 1526: [Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie](/wiki/Archibald_Douglas_of_Kilspindie \"Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie\")\n* 1532: Alexander Mylne, [Abbot of Cambuskenneth](/wiki/Abbot_of_Cambuskenneth \"Abbot of Cambuskenneth\")\n* 1537: [Archibald Campbell, 4th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_4th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 4th Earl of Argyll\")\n* 1567: Sir [Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Colin_Campbell%2C_6th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll\"), (d.1584\\) (heritably)\n* 1578: Sir [Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Colin_Campbell%2C_6th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll\"), (re\\-appointment?)\n* 1589: [Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_7th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll\"), (who exchanged the heritable office of Lord Chief Justice in 1607, for the heritable Lieutenancy of Argyll and Lorn, and most of The Isles).\n\n### Lord Justice\\-General\n\n| | From | Until | Remarks |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [The 7th Earl of Menteith and 1st Earl of Airth](/wiki/William_Graham%2C_1st_Earl_of_Airth \"William Graham, 1st Earl of Airth\") | 11 July 1628 | 8 November 1633 | |\n| [Sir William Elphinstone](/wiki/George_Elphinstone%23William_Elphinstone \"George Elphinstone#William Elphinstone\") | 23 December 1635 | 13 November 1641 | |\n| [Sir Thomas Hope, younger of Kerse](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Hope_of_Kerse \"Sir Thomas Hope of Kerse\") | 18 November 1641 | 23 August 1643 | |\n| [The 8th Earl of Glencairn](/wiki/William_Cunningham%2C_8th_Earl_of_Glencairn \"William Cunningham, 8th Earl of Glencairn\") | 13 November 1646 | 15 February 1649 | |\n| [The 6th Earl of Cassilis](/wiki/John_Kennedy%2C_6th_Earl_of_Cassilis \"John Kennedy, 6th Earl of Cassilis\") | 15 March 1649 | 9 August 1651 | |\n| [The 2nd Earl of Atholl](/wiki/John_Murray%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Atholl \"John Murray, 1st Marquess of Atholl\") | 16 August 1661 | 21 May 1675 | |\n| [The 5th Earl of Moray](/wiki/Alexander_Stuart%2C_5th_Earl_of_Moray \"Alexander Stuart, 5th Earl of Moray\") | 21 May 1675 | 5 May 1676 | |\n| [The Lord Carrington](/wiki/Archibald_Primrose%2C_Lord_Carrington \"Archibald Primrose, Lord Carrington\") | 5 May 1676 | 30 September 1678 | |\n| [The Lord Tarbat](/wiki/George_Mackenzie%2C_1st_Earl_of_Cromartie \"George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie\") | 30 September 1678 | 1 June 1680 | |\n| [The 3rd Earl of Queensberry](/wiki/William_Douglas%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Queensberry \"William Douglas, 3rd Earl of Queensberry\") | 1 June 1680 | 1 March 1682 | |\n| [The 4th Earl of Perth](/wiki/James_Drummond%2C_4th_Earl_of_Perth \"James Drummond, 4th Earl of Perth\") | 1 March 1682 | 13 June 1684 | |\n| [The 3rd Earl of Linlithgow](/wiki/George_Livingston%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Linlithgow \"George Livingston, 3rd Earl of Linlithgow\") | 13 June 1684 | 3 August 1689 | |\n| [The 4th Earl of Lothian](/wiki/Robert_Ker%2C_4th_Earl_of_Lothian \"Robert Ker, 4th Earl of Lothian\") | 3 August 1689 | 15 February 1703 | |\n| [The 1st Earl of Cromartie](/wiki/George_Mackenzie%2C_1st_Earl_of_Cromartie \"George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie\") | 17 October 1704 | 23 October 1710 | |\n| [The 3rd Duke of Argyll and 1st Earl of Ilay](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll\") | 23 October 1710 | 15 April 1761 | |\n| [The 4th Marquess of Tweeddale](/wiki/John_Hay%2C_4th_Marquess_of_Tweeddale \"John Hay, 4th Marquess of Tweeddale\") | 27 June 1761 | 9 December 1762 | |\n| [The 3rd Duke of Queensberry](/wiki/Charles_Douglas%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Queensberry \"Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke of Queensberry\") | 15 April 1763 | 22 October 1778 | |\n| [The 2nd Earl of Mansfield](/wiki/David_Murray%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Mansfield \"David Murray, 2nd Earl of Mansfield\") | 23 October 1778 | 1794 | |\n| [The 3rd Duke of Montrose](/wiki/James_Graham%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Montrose \"James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose\") | 14 January 1795 | 30 December 1836 | |\n|\n\n### Lord President\n\n| | From | Until | Remarks |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Alexander Mylne, Abbot of Cambuskenneth | 1532 | 1543 | [Abbot of Cambuskenneth](/wiki/Abbot_of_Cambuskenneth \"Abbot of Cambuskenneth\") (1519–1548\\) |\n| [Robert Reid](/wiki/Robert_Reid_%28bishop%29 \"Robert Reid (bishop)\"), [Bishop of Orkney](/wiki/Bishop_of_Orkney \"Bishop of Orkney\") | 1543 | 1558 | [Abbot of Kinloss](/wiki/Abbot_of_Kinloss \"Abbot of Kinloss\") (1528–1553\\); [Commendator of Beauly](/wiki/Prior_of_Beauly \"Prior of Beauly\") (1531–1553\\); [Bishop of Orkney](/wiki/Bishop_of_Orkney \"Bishop of Orkney\") (1541–1558\\) |\n| [Henry Sinclair](/wiki/Henry_Sinclair_%28bishop%29 \"Henry Sinclair (bishop)\"), [Bishop of Ross](/wiki/Bishop_of_Ross_%28Scotland%29 \"Bishop of Ross (Scotland)\") | 1558 | 1565 | [Commendator of Kilwinning](/wiki/Abbot_of_Kilwinning \"Abbot of Kilwinning\") (1541–1550\\); [Dean](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 \"Dean (Christianity)\") of [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow_Cathedral \"Glasgow Cathedral\") (1550–1561\\); [Bishop of Ross](/wiki/Bishop_of_Ross_%28Scotland%29 \"Bishop of Ross (Scotland)\") (1558–1565\\) |\n| John Sinclair, [Bishop of Brechin](/wiki/Bishop_of_Brechin \"Bishop of Brechin\") | 1565 | 1566 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1540; [Bishop of Brechin](/wiki/Bishop_of_Brechin \"Bishop of Brechin\") (1565–1566\\) |\n| [The Lord Provand](/wiki/William_Baillie%2C_Lord_Provand \"William Baillie, Lord Provand\") | 1566 | 1567 | |\n| [The Lord Pittendreich](/wiki/James_Balfour%2C_Lord_Pittendreich \"James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich\") | 1567 | 1593 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1561 |\n| [The Lord Fyvie](/wiki/Alexander_Seton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Dunfermline \"Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline\") | 1593 | 1604 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1586; [Provost of Edinburgh](/wiki/List_of_Lord_Provosts_of_Edinburgh \"List of Lord Provosts of Edinburgh\") (1598–1608\\); [Lord Chancellor of Scotland](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor_of_Scotland \"Lord Chancellor of Scotland\") (1604–1622\\); [Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland](/wiki/Lord_High_Commissioner_to_the_Parliament_of_Scotland \"Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland\") (1612–1621\\) |\n| [The 1st Lord Balmerino](/wiki/James_Elphinstone%2C_1st_Lord_Balmerino \"James Elphinstone, 1st Lord Balmerino\") | 1605 | 1609 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1587; [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State%2C_Scotland \"Secretary of State, Scotland\") (1598–1609\\) |\n| [The Lord Fentonbarns](/wiki/John_Preston_of_Fenton_Barns \"John Preston of Fenton Barns\") | 1609 | 1616 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1595 |\n| [The 1st Earl of Melrose](/wiki/Thomas_Hamilton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Haddington \"Thomas Hamilton, 1st Earl of Haddington\") | 1616 | 1625 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1592; [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1595–1596 and 1596–1612\\); [Lord Clerk Register](/wiki/Lord_Clerk_Register \"Lord Clerk Register\") (1612\\) |\n| Sir James Skene of Curriehill | 1626 | 1633 | [Lord Clerk Register](/wiki/Lord_Clerk_Register \"Lord Clerk Register\") (1594–1612\\); Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1594 |\n| [The Lord Newabbey](/wiki/Robert_Spottiswood \"Robert Spottiswood\") | 1633 | 1646 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1622 |\n| [Sir John Gilmour of Craigmillar](/wiki/John_Gilmour_of_Craigmillar \"John Gilmour of Craigmillar\") | 1661 | 1671 | [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Edinburghshire](/wiki/Edinburghshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Edinburghshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1661–1671\\) |\n| [The 1st Viscount Stair](/wiki/James_Dalrymple%2C_1st_Viscount_Stair \"James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount Stair\") | 1671 | 1681 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1661; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Wigtownshire](/wiki/Wigtownshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Wigtownshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1672–1674, 1678 and 1681–1682\\) |\n| [The 1st Earl of Aberdeen](/wiki/George_Gordon%2C_1st_Earl_of_Aberdeen \"George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen\") | 1681 | 1682 | [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Aberdeenshire](/wiki/Aberdeenshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Aberdeenshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1669–1674, 1678 and 1681–1682\\); Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1680; [Lord Chancellor of Scotland](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor_of_Scotland \"Lord Chancellor of Scotland\") (1682–1684\\) |\n| [Sir David Falconer of Newton](/wiki/Sir_David_Falconer \"Sir David Falconer\") | 1682 | 1685 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1676; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Forfarshire](/wiki/Forfarshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Forfarshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1685\\) |\n| [Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath](/wiki/George_Lockhart%2C_Lord_Carnwath \"George Lockhart, Lord Carnwath\") | 1685 | 31 March 1689 | Appointed Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\"), 1672; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Lanarkshire](/wiki/Lanarkshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Lanarkshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1681–1682 and 1685–1686\\) |\n| [The 1st Viscount Stair](/wiki/James_Dalrymple%2C_1st_Viscount_Stair \"James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount Stair\") | 28 October 1689 | 25 November 1695 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1661; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Wigtownshire](/wiki/Wigtownshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Wigtownshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1672–1674, 1678 and 1681–1682\\) |\n| [The Lord North Berwick](/wiki/Hew_Dalrymple%2C_Lord_North_Berwick \"Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick\") | 17 March 1698 | 20 June 1737 | [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [New Galloway](/wiki/New_Galloway_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"New Galloway (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1690–1702\\); Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1695–1698\\); [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [North Berwick](/wiki/North_Berwick \"North Berwick\") (1702–1707\\) |\n| [The Lord Culloden](/wiki/Duncan_Forbes%2C_Lord_Culloden \"Duncan Forbes, Lord Culloden\") | 20 June 1737 | 4 June 1748 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Ayr Burghs](/wiki/Ayr_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ayr Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1721–1722\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Inverness Burghs](/wiki/Inverness_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Inverness Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1722–1737\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1725–1737\\) |\n| [The Lord Arniston, the Elder](/wiki/Robert_Dundas_of_Arniston%2C_the_Elder \"Robert Dundas of Arniston, the Elder\") | 4 June 1748 | 26 August 1753 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1717–1720\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1720–1725\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Midlothian](/wiki/Midlothian_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29_%281708%E2%80%931918%29 \"Midlothian (UK Parliament constituency) (1708–1918)\") (1722–1737\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1737–1753\\) |\n| [The Lord Craigie](/wiki/Robert_Craigie_of_Glendoick%2C_Lord_Craigie \"Robert Craigie of Glendoick, Lord Craigie\") | 22 January 1754 | 10 March 1760 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Tain Burghs](/wiki/Tain_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Tain Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1742–1747\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1742–1746\\) |\n| [The Lord Arniston, the Younger](/wiki/Robert_Dundas%2C_of_Arniston%2C_the_younger \"Robert Dundas, of Arniston, the younger\") | 30 April 1760 | 13 December 1787 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1742–1746\\); Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1746–1760\\) [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1754–1760\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Midlothian](/wiki/Midlothian_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Midlothian (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1754–1760\\) |\n| [The Lord Glenlee](/wiki/Thomas_Miller%2C_Lord_Glenlee \"Thomas Miller, Lord Glenlee\") | 22 December 1787 | 27 September 1789 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Dumfries Burghs](/wiki/Dumfries_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Dumfries Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1761–1766\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1759–1760\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1760–1766\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1766–1787\\) |\n| [The Lord Succoth](/wiki/Ilay_Campbell \"Ilay Campbell\") | 26 October 1789 | 31 August 1808 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1783–1784\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Clyde Burghs](/wiki/Clyde_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Clyde Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1784–1790\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1784–1789\\) |\n| [The Lord Avontoun](/wiki/Robert_Blair%2C_Lord_Avontoun \"Robert Blair, Lord Avontoun\") | 31 August 1808 | 20 May 1811 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1789–1806\\); Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1801–1808\\) |\n| [The Lord Granton](/wiki/Charles_Hope%2C_Lord_Granton \"Charles Hope, Lord Granton\") | 10 October 1811 | 20 July 1841 | [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1801–1804\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Dumfries Burghs](/wiki/Dumfries_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Dumfries Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1802\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1803–1805\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1804–1811\\) |\n| [The Lord Boyle](/wiki/David_Boyle%2C_Lord_Boyle \"David Boyle, Lord Boyle\") | 7 October 1841 | 5 May 1852 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Ayrshire](/wiki/Ayrshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ayrshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1807–1811\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1807–1811\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1811–1841\\) |\n| [The Lord Colonsay](/wiki/Duncan_McNeill%2C_1st_Baron_Colonsay \"Duncan McNeill, 1st Baron Colonsay\") | 14 May 1852 | 25 February 1867 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Argyllshire](/wiki/Argyllshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Argyllshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1843–1851\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1834–1835 \\& 1841–1842\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1842–1846\\) |\n| [The Lord Glencorse](/wiki/John_Inglis%2C_Lord_Glencorse \"John Inglis, Lord Glencorse\") | 25 February 1867 | 20 August 1891 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Stamford](/wiki/Stamford_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Stamford (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1858\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1852\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1852 \\& 1858\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1858–1867\\) |\n| [The Lord Robertson](/wiki/James_Robertson%2C_Baron_Robertson \"James Robertson, Baron Robertson\") | 21 September 1891 | 21 November 1899 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Buteshire](/wiki/Buteshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Buteshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1885–1891\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1885–1886 \\& 1886–1888\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1888–1891\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1899–1909\\) |\n| [The 1st Baron Kinross](/wiki/John_Balfour%2C_1st_Baron_Kinross \"John Balfour, 1st Baron Kinross\") | 21 November 1899 | 22 January 1905 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Clackmannan and Kinross](/wiki/Clackmannanshire_and_Kinross-shire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Clackmannanshire and Kinross-shire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1880–1899\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1880–1881\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1881–1885, 1886 \\& 1892–1895\\) |\n| [1st Baron Dunedin](/wiki/Andrew_Murray%2C_1st_Viscount_Dunedin \"Andrew Murray, 1st Viscount Dunedin\") | 4 February 1905 | 14 October 1913 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Buteshire](/wiki/Buteshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Buteshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1891–1905\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1905–1909\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1909–1913\\); [Secretary for Scotland](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Scotland \"Secretary of State for Scotland\") (1903–1905\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1913–1932\\) |\n| [The 1st Baron Strathclyde](/wiki/Alexander_Ure%2C_1st_Baron_Strathclyde \"Alexander Ure, 1st Baron Strathclyde\") | 14 October 1913 | 1 April 1920 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Linlithgowshire](/wiki/Linlithgowshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Linlithgowshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1895–1913\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1891–1892 \\& 1895–1896\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1896–1903\\) |\n| [The Lord Clyde](/wiki/James_Avon_Clyde%2C_Lord_Clyde \"James Avon Clyde, Lord Clyde\") | 1 April 1920 | 1 April 1935 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1905\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh West](/wiki/Edinburgh_West_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1909–1918\\) and [Edinburgh North](/wiki/Edinburgh_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh North (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1918–1920\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1916–1920\\) |\n| [The Lord Normand](/wiki/Wilfrid_Normand%2C_Baron_Normand \"Wilfrid Normand, Baron Normand\") | 1 April 1935 | 6 January 1947 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh West](/wiki/Edinburgh_West_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1931–1935\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1929 \\& 1931–1933\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1933–1935\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1947–1953\\) |\n| [The Lord Cooper](/wiki/Thomas_Cooper%2C_1st_Baron_Cooper_of_Culross \"Thomas Cooper, 1st Baron Cooper of Culross\") | 6 January 1947 | 23 December 1954 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh West](/wiki/Edinburgh_West_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1935–1941\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1935\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1935–1941\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1941–1954\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1941\\-1947\\); [Lord President of the Court of Session](/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Court_of_Session \"Lord President of the Court of Session\") (1947–1954\\) |\n| [The Lord Clyde](/wiki/James_Latham_Clyde%2C_Lord_Clyde \"James Latham Clyde, Lord Clyde\") | 23 December 1954 | 25 April 1972 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh North](/wiki/Edinburgh_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh North (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1950–1954\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1951–1954\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1954–1972\\) |\n| [The Baron Emslie](/wiki/George_Emslie%2C_Baron_Emslie \"George Emslie, Baron Emslie\") | 25 April 1972 | 27 September 1989 | Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1965–1970\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1970–1989\\) |\n| [The Baron Hope of Craighead](/wiki/David_Hope%2C_Baron_Hope_of_Craighead \"David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead\") | 27 September 1989 | 1 October 1996 | Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1986–1989\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1989–1996\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1996–2009\\); Second Senior Law Lord (2009\\); [Deputy President of the Supreme Court](/wiki/Deputy_President_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Deputy President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") (2009–2013\\) |\n| [The Baron Rodger of Earlsferry](/wiki/Alan_Rodger%2C_Baron_Rodger_of_Earlsferry \"Alan Rodger, Baron Rodger of Earlsferry\") | 1 October 1996 | 13 November 2002 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1989–1992\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1992–1995\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1995–2001\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (2001–2009\\); [Justice of the Supreme Court](/wiki/Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") (2009–2011\\) |\n| [The Baron Cullen of Whitekirk](/wiki/William_Cullen%2C_Baron_Cullen_of_Whitekirk \"William Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk\") | 13 November 2002 | 2 December 2005 | Chairman of the Medical Appeals Tribunals (1977–1986\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1986–2005\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1997–2002\\) |\n| [The Lord Hamilton](/wiki/Arthur_Hamilton%2C_Lord_Hamilton \"Arthur Hamilton, Lord Hamilton\") | 2 December 2005 | 8 June 2012 | Chairman of the Medical Appeals Tribunals (1989–1992\\); President of the Pensions Appeal Tribunal in Scotland (1992–1995\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1995–2012\\) |\n| [The Lord Gill](/wiki/Brian_Gill%2C_Lord_Gill \"Brian Gill, Lord Gill\") | 8 June 2012 | 31 May 2015 | [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1994–2015\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (2001–2012\\) |\n| [The Lord Carloway](/wiki/Colin_Sutherland%2C_Lord_Carloway \"Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway\") | 18 December 2015 | present (*early 2025*) | [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (2000–present); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (2012–2015\\) |\n\n",
"### Justiciars\n\n(called Lord Chief Justices by [Scot of Scotstarvet](/wiki/Scot_of_Scotstarvet \"Scot of Scotstarvet\")).\n\n* Argadus, Captain of [Argyll](/wiki/Argyll \"Argyll\"), in the reign of [Ethodius](/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Scotland \"List of legendary kings of Scotland\")\n* Comes Dunetus; in the reign of King [William the Lion](/wiki/William_the_Lion \"William the Lion\"). ([Donnchad II, Earl of Fife](/wiki/Donnchad_II%2C_Earl_of_Fife \"Donnchad II, Earl of Fife\"))\n* [William Comyn](/wiki/William_Cumin \"William Cumin\")\n* [Richard Comyn](/wiki/Richard_Comyn \"Richard Comyn\")\n* [David, Earl of Huntingdon](/wiki/David_of_Scotland%2C_8th_Earl_of_Huntingdon \"David of Scotland, 8th Earl of Huntingdon\") (died 1219\\)\n* Walter Clifford, Justiciary of the Lothians\n* 1216: [Allan](/wiki/Alan_Durward \"Alan Durward\"), Justiciary to King [Alexander II](/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Scotland \"Alexander II of Scotland\")\n* 1224: [William Cumin, Earl of Buchan](/wiki/William_Comyn%2C_jure_uxoris_Earl_of_Buchan \"William Comyn, jure uxoris Earl of Buchan\")\n* [Walter](/wiki/Walter_Stewart%2C_3rd_High_Steward_of_Scotland \"Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland\") (died 1241\\), son of Allan High Steward of Scotland\n* 1239: [William, Earl of Ross](/wiki/Uilleam_I%2C_Earl_of_Ross \"Uilleam I, Earl of Ross\"), \"Lord Chief Justice of Scotland\"\n* [Alexander](/wiki/Alexander_Stewart%2C_4th_High_Steward_of_Scotland \"Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland\") (d.1283\\), [High Steward of Scotland](/wiki/High_Steward_of_Scotland \"High Steward of Scotland\") to King Alexander II\n* 1253: [Alexander Cumin, Earl of Buchan](/wiki/Alexander_Comyn%2C_Earl_of_Buchan \"Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan\")\n* 1366: Robert de Erskine, Justiciary South of the Forth for King [David II](/wiki/David_II_of_Scotland \"David II of Scotland\")\n* bef 1372: Alan de Lawedre of The Bass, Whitslaid, \\& Haltoun, Justiciary South of the Forth, (he received a pension for holding this post in 1374\\).\n* 1437: [James Douglas, Earl of Avondale and Lord Balveny](/wiki/James_Douglas%2C_7th_Earl_of_Douglas \"James Douglas, 7th Earl of Douglas\")\n* 1446: Patrick de Ogilvy, Justiciary South of the Forth\n* 1457: John, Lord Lindsay of the Byres, Justiciary South of the Forth\n* [William Sinclair, 3rd Earl of Orkney \\& Caithness](/wiki/William_Sinclair%2C_1st_Earl_of_Caithness \"William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness\") (d.1480\\), Justiciary North of the Forth for King [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland \"James II of Scotland\")\n* 1477: John Haldane of Gleneagles, Justiciary North of the Forth\n* [Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes](/wiki/Patrick_Hepburn%2C_1st_Lord_Hailes \"Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes\") (died after 1482\\), and Robert, 2nd Lord Lyle, Justiciaries South of the Forth\n* Andrew, Earl of Crawfurd, and [George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly](/wiki/George_Gordon%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Huntly \"George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly\"), Justiciaries North of the Forth\n* 1488: [Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle](/wiki/Robert_Lyle%2C_2nd_Lord_Lyle \"Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle\") (died ), \"Lord Chief Justice\"\n* 1489: [John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis](/wiki/John_Lyon%2C_3rd_Lord_Glamis \"John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis\") (died 1 April 1497\\), and [John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond](/wiki/John_Drummond%2C_1st_Lord_Drummond \"John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond\"): \"Justice\\-General\"\n* 1492: [Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle](/wiki/Robert_Lyle%2C_2nd_Lord_Lyle \"Robert Lyle, 2nd Lord Lyle\"), and [John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis](/wiki/John_Lyon%2C_3rd_Lord_Glamis \"John Lyon, 3rd Lord Glamis\")\n* 1494: [John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond](/wiki/John_Drummond%2C_1st_Lord_Drummond \"John Drummond, 1st Lord Drummond\") (died c1519\\)\n* 1504: Andrew Gray, 2nd [Lord Gray](/wiki/Lord_Gray \"Lord Gray\"), and [John Kennedy, 2nd Lord Kennedy](/wiki/John_Kennedy%2C_2nd_Lord_Kennedy \"John Kennedy, 2nd Lord Kennedy\")\n* 1514: [Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Colin_Campbell%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Argyll \"Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll\")\n* 1526: [Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie](/wiki/Archibald_Douglas_of_Kilspindie \"Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie\")\n* 1532: Alexander Mylne, [Abbot of Cambuskenneth](/wiki/Abbot_of_Cambuskenneth \"Abbot of Cambuskenneth\")\n* 1537: [Archibald Campbell, 4th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_4th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 4th Earl of Argyll\")\n* 1567: Sir [Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Colin_Campbell%2C_6th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll\"), (d.1584\\) (heritably)\n* 1578: Sir [Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Colin_Campbell%2C_6th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll\"), (re\\-appointment?)\n* 1589: [Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_7th_Earl_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll\"), (who exchanged the heritable office of Lord Chief Justice in 1607, for the heritable Lieutenancy of Argyll and Lorn, and most of The Isles).\n",
"### Lord Justice\\-General\n\n| | From | Until | Remarks |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [The 7th Earl of Menteith and 1st Earl of Airth](/wiki/William_Graham%2C_1st_Earl_of_Airth \"William Graham, 1st Earl of Airth\") | 11 July 1628 | 8 November 1633 | |\n| [Sir William Elphinstone](/wiki/George_Elphinstone%23William_Elphinstone \"George Elphinstone#William Elphinstone\") | 23 December 1635 | 13 November 1641 | |\n| [Sir Thomas Hope, younger of Kerse](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Hope_of_Kerse \"Sir Thomas Hope of Kerse\") | 18 November 1641 | 23 August 1643 | |\n| [The 8th Earl of Glencairn](/wiki/William_Cunningham%2C_8th_Earl_of_Glencairn \"William Cunningham, 8th Earl of Glencairn\") | 13 November 1646 | 15 February 1649 | |\n| [The 6th Earl of Cassilis](/wiki/John_Kennedy%2C_6th_Earl_of_Cassilis \"John Kennedy, 6th Earl of Cassilis\") | 15 March 1649 | 9 August 1651 | |\n| [The 2nd Earl of Atholl](/wiki/John_Murray%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Atholl \"John Murray, 1st Marquess of Atholl\") | 16 August 1661 | 21 May 1675 | |\n| [The 5th Earl of Moray](/wiki/Alexander_Stuart%2C_5th_Earl_of_Moray \"Alexander Stuart, 5th Earl of Moray\") | 21 May 1675 | 5 May 1676 | |\n| [The Lord Carrington](/wiki/Archibald_Primrose%2C_Lord_Carrington \"Archibald Primrose, Lord Carrington\") | 5 May 1676 | 30 September 1678 | |\n| [The Lord Tarbat](/wiki/George_Mackenzie%2C_1st_Earl_of_Cromartie \"George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie\") | 30 September 1678 | 1 June 1680 | |\n| [The 3rd Earl of Queensberry](/wiki/William_Douglas%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Queensberry \"William Douglas, 3rd Earl of Queensberry\") | 1 June 1680 | 1 March 1682 | |\n| [The 4th Earl of Perth](/wiki/James_Drummond%2C_4th_Earl_of_Perth \"James Drummond, 4th Earl of Perth\") | 1 March 1682 | 13 June 1684 | |\n| [The 3rd Earl of Linlithgow](/wiki/George_Livingston%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Linlithgow \"George Livingston, 3rd Earl of Linlithgow\") | 13 June 1684 | 3 August 1689 | |\n| [The 4th Earl of Lothian](/wiki/Robert_Ker%2C_4th_Earl_of_Lothian \"Robert Ker, 4th Earl of Lothian\") | 3 August 1689 | 15 February 1703 | |\n| [The 1st Earl of Cromartie](/wiki/George_Mackenzie%2C_1st_Earl_of_Cromartie \"George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie\") | 17 October 1704 | 23 October 1710 | |\n| [The 3rd Duke of Argyll and 1st Earl of Ilay](/wiki/Archibald_Campbell%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Argyll \"Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll\") | 23 October 1710 | 15 April 1761 | |\n| [The 4th Marquess of Tweeddale](/wiki/John_Hay%2C_4th_Marquess_of_Tweeddale \"John Hay, 4th Marquess of Tweeddale\") | 27 June 1761 | 9 December 1762 | |\n| [The 3rd Duke of Queensberry](/wiki/Charles_Douglas%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Queensberry \"Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke of Queensberry\") | 15 April 1763 | 22 October 1778 | |\n| [The 2nd Earl of Mansfield](/wiki/David_Murray%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Mansfield \"David Murray, 2nd Earl of Mansfield\") | 23 October 1778 | 1794 | |\n| [The 3rd Duke of Montrose](/wiki/James_Graham%2C_3rd_Duke_of_Montrose \"James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose\") | 14 January 1795 | 30 December 1836 | |\n|\n\n",
"### Lord President\n\n| | From | Until | Remarks |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Alexander Mylne, Abbot of Cambuskenneth | 1532 | 1543 | [Abbot of Cambuskenneth](/wiki/Abbot_of_Cambuskenneth \"Abbot of Cambuskenneth\") (1519–1548\\) |\n| [Robert Reid](/wiki/Robert_Reid_%28bishop%29 \"Robert Reid (bishop)\"), [Bishop of Orkney](/wiki/Bishop_of_Orkney \"Bishop of Orkney\") | 1543 | 1558 | [Abbot of Kinloss](/wiki/Abbot_of_Kinloss \"Abbot of Kinloss\") (1528–1553\\); [Commendator of Beauly](/wiki/Prior_of_Beauly \"Prior of Beauly\") (1531–1553\\); [Bishop of Orkney](/wiki/Bishop_of_Orkney \"Bishop of Orkney\") (1541–1558\\) |\n| [Henry Sinclair](/wiki/Henry_Sinclair_%28bishop%29 \"Henry Sinclair (bishop)\"), [Bishop of Ross](/wiki/Bishop_of_Ross_%28Scotland%29 \"Bishop of Ross (Scotland)\") | 1558 | 1565 | [Commendator of Kilwinning](/wiki/Abbot_of_Kilwinning \"Abbot of Kilwinning\") (1541–1550\\); [Dean](/wiki/Dean_%28Christianity%29 \"Dean (Christianity)\") of [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow_Cathedral \"Glasgow Cathedral\") (1550–1561\\); [Bishop of Ross](/wiki/Bishop_of_Ross_%28Scotland%29 \"Bishop of Ross (Scotland)\") (1558–1565\\) |\n| John Sinclair, [Bishop of Brechin](/wiki/Bishop_of_Brechin \"Bishop of Brechin\") | 1565 | 1566 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1540; [Bishop of Brechin](/wiki/Bishop_of_Brechin \"Bishop of Brechin\") (1565–1566\\) |\n| [The Lord Provand](/wiki/William_Baillie%2C_Lord_Provand \"William Baillie, Lord Provand\") | 1566 | 1567 | |\n| [The Lord Pittendreich](/wiki/James_Balfour%2C_Lord_Pittendreich \"James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich\") | 1567 | 1593 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1561 |\n| [The Lord Fyvie](/wiki/Alexander_Seton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Dunfermline \"Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline\") | 1593 | 1604 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1586; [Provost of Edinburgh](/wiki/List_of_Lord_Provosts_of_Edinburgh \"List of Lord Provosts of Edinburgh\") (1598–1608\\); [Lord Chancellor of Scotland](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor_of_Scotland \"Lord Chancellor of Scotland\") (1604–1622\\); [Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland](/wiki/Lord_High_Commissioner_to_the_Parliament_of_Scotland \"Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland\") (1612–1621\\) |\n| [The 1st Lord Balmerino](/wiki/James_Elphinstone%2C_1st_Lord_Balmerino \"James Elphinstone, 1st Lord Balmerino\") | 1605 | 1609 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1587; [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State%2C_Scotland \"Secretary of State, Scotland\") (1598–1609\\) |\n| [The Lord Fentonbarns](/wiki/John_Preston_of_Fenton_Barns \"John Preston of Fenton Barns\") | 1609 | 1616 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1595 |\n| [The 1st Earl of Melrose](/wiki/Thomas_Hamilton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Haddington \"Thomas Hamilton, 1st Earl of Haddington\") | 1616 | 1625 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1592; [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1595–1596 and 1596–1612\\); [Lord Clerk Register](/wiki/Lord_Clerk_Register \"Lord Clerk Register\") (1612\\) |\n| Sir James Skene of Curriehill | 1626 | 1633 | [Lord Clerk Register](/wiki/Lord_Clerk_Register \"Lord Clerk Register\") (1594–1612\\); Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1594 |\n| [The Lord Newabbey](/wiki/Robert_Spottiswood \"Robert Spottiswood\") | 1633 | 1646 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1622 |\n| [Sir John Gilmour of Craigmillar](/wiki/John_Gilmour_of_Craigmillar \"John Gilmour of Craigmillar\") | 1661 | 1671 | [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Edinburghshire](/wiki/Edinburghshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Edinburghshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1661–1671\\) |\n| [The 1st Viscount Stair](/wiki/James_Dalrymple%2C_1st_Viscount_Stair \"James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount Stair\") | 1671 | 1681 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1661; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Wigtownshire](/wiki/Wigtownshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Wigtownshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1672–1674, 1678 and 1681–1682\\) |\n| [The 1st Earl of Aberdeen](/wiki/George_Gordon%2C_1st_Earl_of_Aberdeen \"George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen\") | 1681 | 1682 | [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Aberdeenshire](/wiki/Aberdeenshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Aberdeenshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1669–1674, 1678 and 1681–1682\\); Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1680; [Lord Chancellor of Scotland](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor_of_Scotland \"Lord Chancellor of Scotland\") (1682–1684\\) |\n| [Sir David Falconer of Newton](/wiki/Sir_David_Falconer \"Sir David Falconer\") | 1682 | 1685 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1676; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Forfarshire](/wiki/Forfarshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Forfarshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1685\\) |\n| [Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath](/wiki/George_Lockhart%2C_Lord_Carnwath \"George Lockhart, Lord Carnwath\") | 1685 | 31 March 1689 | Appointed Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\"), 1672; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Lanarkshire](/wiki/Lanarkshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Lanarkshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1681–1682 and 1685–1686\\) |\n| [The 1st Viscount Stair](/wiki/James_Dalrymple%2C_1st_Viscount_Stair \"James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount Stair\") | 28 October 1689 | 25 November 1695 | Appointed a [Lord of Session](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), 1661; [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [Wigtownshire](/wiki/Wigtownshire_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"Wigtownshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1672–1674, 1678 and 1681–1682\\) |\n| [The Lord North Berwick](/wiki/Hew_Dalrymple%2C_Lord_North_Berwick \"Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick\") | 17 March 1698 | 20 June 1737 | [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [New Galloway](/wiki/New_Galloway_%28Parliament_of_Scotland_constituency%29 \"New Galloway (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\") (1690–1702\\); Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1695–1698\\); [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner_%28Scottish_Parliament%29 \"Commissioner (Scottish Parliament)\") for [North Berwick](/wiki/North_Berwick \"North Berwick\") (1702–1707\\) |\n| [The Lord Culloden](/wiki/Duncan_Forbes%2C_Lord_Culloden \"Duncan Forbes, Lord Culloden\") | 20 June 1737 | 4 June 1748 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Ayr Burghs](/wiki/Ayr_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ayr Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1721–1722\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Inverness Burghs](/wiki/Inverness_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Inverness Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1722–1737\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1725–1737\\) |\n| [The Lord Arniston, the Elder](/wiki/Robert_Dundas_of_Arniston%2C_the_Elder \"Robert Dundas of Arniston, the Elder\") | 4 June 1748 | 26 August 1753 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1717–1720\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1720–1725\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Midlothian](/wiki/Midlothian_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29_%281708%E2%80%931918%29 \"Midlothian (UK Parliament constituency) (1708–1918)\") (1722–1737\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1737–1753\\) |\n| [The Lord Craigie](/wiki/Robert_Craigie_of_Glendoick%2C_Lord_Craigie \"Robert Craigie of Glendoick, Lord Craigie\") | 22 January 1754 | 10 March 1760 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Tain Burghs](/wiki/Tain_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Tain Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1742–1747\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1742–1746\\) |\n| [The Lord Arniston, the Younger](/wiki/Robert_Dundas%2C_of_Arniston%2C_the_younger \"Robert Dundas, of Arniston, the younger\") | 30 April 1760 | 13 December 1787 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1742–1746\\); Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1746–1760\\) [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1754–1760\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Midlothian](/wiki/Midlothian_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Midlothian (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1754–1760\\) |\n| [The Lord Glenlee](/wiki/Thomas_Miller%2C_Lord_Glenlee \"Thomas Miller, Lord Glenlee\") | 22 December 1787 | 27 September 1789 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Dumfries Burghs](/wiki/Dumfries_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Dumfries Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1761–1766\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1759–1760\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1760–1766\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1766–1787\\) |\n| [The Lord Succoth](/wiki/Ilay_Campbell \"Ilay Campbell\") | 26 October 1789 | 31 August 1808 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1783–1784\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Clyde Burghs](/wiki/Clyde_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Clyde Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1784–1790\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1784–1789\\) |\n| [The Lord Avontoun](/wiki/Robert_Blair%2C_Lord_Avontoun \"Robert Blair, Lord Avontoun\") | 31 August 1808 | 20 May 1811 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1789–1806\\); Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1801–1808\\) |\n| [The Lord Granton](/wiki/Charles_Hope%2C_Lord_Granton \"Charles Hope, Lord Granton\") | 10 October 1811 | 20 July 1841 | [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1801–1804\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Dumfries Burghs](/wiki/Dumfries_Burghs_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Dumfries Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1802\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1803–1805\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1804–1811\\) |\n| [The Lord Boyle](/wiki/David_Boyle%2C_Lord_Boyle \"David Boyle, Lord Boyle\") | 7 October 1841 | 5 May 1852 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Ayrshire](/wiki/Ayrshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ayrshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1807–1811\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1807–1811\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1811–1841\\) |\n| [The Lord Colonsay](/wiki/Duncan_McNeill%2C_1st_Baron_Colonsay \"Duncan McNeill, 1st Baron Colonsay\") | 14 May 1852 | 25 February 1867 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Argyllshire](/wiki/Argyllshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Argyllshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1843–1851\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1834–1835 \\& 1841–1842\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1842–1846\\) |\n| [The Lord Glencorse](/wiki/John_Inglis%2C_Lord_Glencorse \"John Inglis, Lord Glencorse\") | 25 February 1867 | 20 August 1891 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Stamford](/wiki/Stamford_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Stamford (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1858\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1852\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1852 \\& 1858\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1858–1867\\) |\n| [The Lord Robertson](/wiki/James_Robertson%2C_Baron_Robertson \"James Robertson, Baron Robertson\") | 21 September 1891 | 21 November 1899 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Buteshire](/wiki/Buteshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Buteshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1885–1891\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1885–1886 \\& 1886–1888\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1888–1891\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1899–1909\\) |\n| [The 1st Baron Kinross](/wiki/John_Balfour%2C_1st_Baron_Kinross \"John Balfour, 1st Baron Kinross\") | 21 November 1899 | 22 January 1905 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Clackmannan and Kinross](/wiki/Clackmannanshire_and_Kinross-shire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Clackmannanshire and Kinross-shire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1880–1899\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1880–1881\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1881–1885, 1886 \\& 1892–1895\\) |\n| [1st Baron Dunedin](/wiki/Andrew_Murray%2C_1st_Viscount_Dunedin \"Andrew Murray, 1st Viscount Dunedin\") | 4 February 1905 | 14 October 1913 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Buteshire](/wiki/Buteshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Buteshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1891–1905\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1905–1909\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1909–1913\\); [Secretary for Scotland](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Scotland \"Secretary of State for Scotland\") (1903–1905\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1913–1932\\) |\n| [The 1st Baron Strathclyde](/wiki/Alexander_Ure%2C_1st_Baron_Strathclyde \"Alexander Ure, 1st Baron Strathclyde\") | 14 October 1913 | 1 April 1920 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Linlithgowshire](/wiki/Linlithgowshire_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Linlithgowshire (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1895–1913\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1891–1892 \\& 1895–1896\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1896–1903\\) |\n| [The Lord Clyde](/wiki/James_Avon_Clyde%2C_Lord_Clyde \"James Avon Clyde, Lord Clyde\") | 1 April 1920 | 1 April 1935 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1905\\); [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh West](/wiki/Edinburgh_West_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1909–1918\\) and [Edinburgh North](/wiki/Edinburgh_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh North (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1918–1920\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1916–1920\\) |\n| [The Lord Normand](/wiki/Wilfrid_Normand%2C_Baron_Normand \"Wilfrid Normand, Baron Normand\") | 1 April 1935 | 6 January 1947 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh West](/wiki/Edinburgh_West_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1931–1935\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1929 \\& 1931–1933\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1933–1935\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1947–1953\\) |\n| [The Lord Cooper](/wiki/Thomas_Cooper%2C_1st_Baron_Cooper_of_Culross \"Thomas Cooper, 1st Baron Cooper of Culross\") | 6 January 1947 | 23 December 1954 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh West](/wiki/Edinburgh_West_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1935–1941\\); [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1935\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1935–1941\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1941–1954\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1941\\-1947\\); [Lord President of the Court of Session](/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Court_of_Session \"Lord President of the Court of Session\") (1947–1954\\) |\n| [The Lord Clyde](/wiki/James_Latham_Clyde%2C_Lord_Clyde \"James Latham Clyde, Lord Clyde\") | 23 December 1954 | 25 April 1972 | [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Edinburgh North](/wiki/Edinburgh_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh North (UK Parliament constituency)\") (1950–1954\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1951–1954\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1954–1972\\) |\n| [The Baron Emslie](/wiki/George_Emslie%2C_Baron_Emslie \"George Emslie, Baron Emslie\") | 25 April 1972 | 27 September 1989 | Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1965–1970\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1970–1989\\) |\n| [The Baron Hope of Craighead](/wiki/David_Hope%2C_Baron_Hope_of_Craighead \"David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead\") | 27 September 1989 | 1 October 1996 | Dean of the [Faculty of Advocates](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") (1986–1989\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1989–1996\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (1996–2009\\); Second Senior Law Lord (2009\\); [Deputy President of the Supreme Court](/wiki/Deputy_President_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Deputy President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") (2009–2013\\) |\n| [The Baron Rodger of Earlsferry](/wiki/Alan_Rodger%2C_Baron_Rodger_of_Earlsferry \"Alan Rodger, Baron Rodger of Earlsferry\") | 1 October 1996 | 13 November 2002 | [Solicitor General for Scotland](/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland \"Solicitor General for Scotland\") (1989–1992\\); [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") (1992–1995\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1995–2001\\); [Lord of Appeal in Ordinary](/wiki/Lord_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lord of Appeal in Ordinary\") (2001–2009\\); [Justice of the Supreme Court](/wiki/Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") (2009–2011\\) |\n| [The Baron Cullen of Whitekirk](/wiki/William_Cullen%2C_Baron_Cullen_of_Whitekirk \"William Cullen, Baron Cullen of Whitekirk\") | 13 November 2002 | 2 December 2005 | Chairman of the Medical Appeals Tribunals (1977–1986\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1986–2005\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (1997–2002\\) |\n| [The Lord Hamilton](/wiki/Arthur_Hamilton%2C_Lord_Hamilton \"Arthur Hamilton, Lord Hamilton\") | 2 December 2005 | 8 June 2012 | Chairman of the Medical Appeals Tribunals (1989–1992\\); President of the Pensions Appeal Tribunal in Scotland (1992–1995\\); [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1995–2012\\) |\n| [The Lord Gill](/wiki/Brian_Gill%2C_Lord_Gill \"Brian Gill, Lord Gill\") | 8 June 2012 | 31 May 2015 | [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (1994–2015\\); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (2001–2012\\) |\n| [The Lord Carloway](/wiki/Colin_Sutherland%2C_Lord_Carloway \"Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway\") | 18 December 2015 | present (*early 2025*) | [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\") (2000–present); [Lord Justice Clerk](/wiki/Lord_Justice_Clerk \"Lord Justice Clerk\") (2012–2015\\) |\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of Senators of the College of Justice](/wiki/List_of_Senators_of_the_College_of_Justice \"List of Senators of the College of Justice\")\n* [List of Leading Scottish Legal Cases](/wiki/List_of_Leading_Scottish_Legal_Cases \"List of Leading Scottish Legal Cases\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Lists of judges in Scotland](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_judges_in_Scotland \"Lists of judges in Scotland\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Cupar
|
{
"id": [
24465790
],
"name": [
"Aadirulez8"
]
}
|
3wbf5vdskcsfufrqdeqgl0gpafp3j9d
|
2024-10-15T23:14:36Z
| 1,250,912,664 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Governance",
"Demography",
"Landmarks",
"Economy",
"Leisure",
"Education",
"Transport",
"Military",
"Notable people",
"References",
"Notes",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
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3,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Cupar** ( ; ) is a town, former [royal burgh](/wiki/Royal_burgh \"Royal burgh\") and parish in [Fife](/wiki/Fife \"Fife\"), Scotland. It lies between [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee \"Dundee\") and [Glenrothes](/wiki/Glenrothes \"Glenrothes\"). According to a 2011 population estimate, Cupar had a population around 9,000, making it the ninth\\-largest settlement in Fife, and the civil parish a population of 11,183 (in 2011\\).Census of Scotland 2011, Table KS101SC – Usually Resident Population, publ. by National Records of Scotland. Web site <http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/> retrieved March 2016\\. See \"Standard Outputs\", Table KS101SC, Area type: Civil Parish 1930 It is the historic [county town](/wiki/County_town \"County town\") of Fife, although the council now sits at [Glenrothes](/wiki/Glenrothes \"Glenrothes\").\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe town is believed to have grown around the site of Cupar Castle, which was the seat of the sheriff and was owned by the earls of Fife. The area became a centre for judiciary as the county of Fife and as a market town catering for both cattle and sheep.\n\nTowards the latter stages of the 13th century, the burgh became the site of an assembly of the three estates – clergy, nobility and burgesses – organised by [Alexander III](/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotland \"Alexander III of Scotland\") in 1276 as a predecessor of the [Parliament of Scotland](/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland \"Parliament of Scotland\"). \n\nAlthough written information of a charter for the modern town was lost, evidence suggested that this existed as one of the many properties owned by the Earls of Fife by 1294\\.\n\nDuring the middle of the 14th century, the burgh started to pay customs on taxable incomes, which probably meant that royal burgh status was granted sometime between 1294 and 1328\\. The oldest document, referring to the royal burgh, was a grant by [Robert II](/wiki/Robert_II_of_Scotland \"Robert II of Scotland\") in 1381 to give a port at [Guardbridge](/wiki/Guardbridge \"Guardbridge\") on the [River Eden](/wiki/River_Eden%2C_Fife \"River Eden, Fife\") to help boost trade with [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\"). This grant was officially recognised by [James II](/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland \"James II of Scotland\") in 1428\\.\n\n",
"Governance\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|The imposing Old Church, Cupar, Fife](/wiki/File:Old_Church%2C_Cupar%2C_Fife.jpg \"Old Church, Cupar, Fife.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[County Buildings, Cupar](/wiki/County_Buildings%2C_Cupar \"County Buildings, Cupar\")](/wiki/File:County_buildings%2C_Cupar.jpg \"County buildings, Cupar.jpg\")\n\nCupar is represented by several tiers of elected government. Cupar Community Council is the lowest. Its statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government. Fife Council, the unitary [local authority](/wiki/Local_authority \"Local authority\") for Cupar based in [Glenrothes](/wiki/Glenrothes \"Glenrothes\"), is the [executive](/wiki/Executive_%28government%29 \"Executive (government)\"), [deliberative](/wiki/Deliberation \"Deliberation\") and [legislative](/wiki/Legislative \"Legislative\") body responsible for [local governance](/wiki/Local_government_in_Scotland \"Local government in Scotland\"). The [Scottish Parliament](/wiki/Scottish_Parliament \"Scottish Parliament\") is responsible for [devolved matters](/wiki/Devolution \"Devolution\") such as [education](/wiki/Education_in_Scotland \"Education in Scotland\"), [health](/wiki/Health_in_Scotland \"Health in Scotland\") and [justice](/wiki/Scots_law \"Scots law\") while [reserved matters](/wiki/Reserved_and_excepted_matters \"Reserved and excepted matters\") are dealt with by the [Parliament of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\"). The Cupar area supports three multi\\-member wards with eleven councillors sitting on the committee of Fife Council. [County Buildings](/wiki/County_Buildings%2C_Cupar \"County Buildings, Cupar\") on Catherine Street are the main headquarters for the east region of Fife Council, which deals with administrative, planning and agricultural issues.\n\nCupar is in the UK Parliamentary constituency of [North East Fife](/wiki/North_East_Fife_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"North East Fife (UK Parliament constituency)\"), electing one [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") (MP) to the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom \"House of Commons of the United Kingdom\") by the [first past the post](/wiki/First_past_the_post \"First past the post\") system. [Wendy Chamberlain](/wiki/Wendy_Chamberlain \"Wendy Chamberlain\") of the [Liberal Democrats](/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_%28UK%29 \"Liberal Democrats (UK)\") is the MP. Cupar is in the (smaller) [North East Fife](/wiki/North_East_Fife_%28Scottish_Parliament_constituency%29 \"North East Fife (Scottish Parliament constituency)\") constituency of the [Scottish Parliament](/wiki/Scottish_Parliament \"Scottish Parliament\"), created in 1999 as one of nine within the [Mid Scotland and Fife](/wiki/Mid_Scotland_and_Fife_%28Scottish_Parliament_electoral_region%29 \"Mid Scotland and Fife (Scottish Parliament electoral region)\") electoral region. Each constituency elects one [Member of the Scottish Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_the_Scottish_Parliament \"Member of the Scottish Parliament\") (MSP) and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation. The constituency MSP is [Willie Rennie](/wiki/Willie_Rennie \"Willie Rennie\") of the [Scottish Liberal Democrats](/wiki/Scottish_Liberal_Democrats \"Scottish Liberal Democrats\").\n\nPrior to [Brexit](/wiki/Brexit \"Brexit\") in 2020 it was part of the pan\\-Scotland [European Parliament constituency](/wiki/Scotland_%28European_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Scotland (European Parliament constituency)\") which elected seven [Members of the European Parliament](/wiki/Members_of_the_European_Parliament \"Members of the European Parliament\") (MEP)s using the [d'Hondt method](/wiki/D%27Hondt_method \"D'Hondt method\") of [party\\-list proportional representation](/wiki/Party-list_proportional_representation \"Party-list proportional representation\").\n\n",
"Demography\n----------\n\n| \\+**Cupar compared according to [UK Census 2001](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Census_2001 \"United Kingdom Census 2001\")** |\n| --- |\n| |Cupar\n\nFife\n\nScotland\n\n| Total population | 8,506 | 349,429 | 5,062,011 |\n| [Foreign born](/wiki/British_nationality_law \"British nationality law\") | 1\\.60% | 1\\.18% | 1\\.10% |\n| Over 75 years old | 10\\.29% | 7\\.46% | 7\\.09% |\n| Unemployed | 3\\.10% | 3\\.97% | 4\\.0% |\n\nThe 2001 census reported a population of 8,506, which increased slightly to around 8,980 in 2008\\. The demographic make\\-up resembles the rest of Scotland. The 30–44 age group formed the largest portion of the population (22%). The median age of males and females was 39 and 43 years respectively, compared to 37 and 39 years for the whole of Scotland.\n\nReported places of birth were:\n\n* 95\\.81% in the United Kingdom (including 81\\.64% from Scotland)\n* 0\\.51% in [Ireland](/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland \"Republic of Ireland\")\n* 1\\.60% in other [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") countries\n* 2\\.09% in the rest of the world\n\nThe economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 42\\.20% in full\\-time employment, 12\\.32% in part\\-time employment, 5\\.89% self\\-employed, 3\\.10% unemployed, 2\\.96% students with jobs, 3\\.94% students without jobs, 17\\.68% retired, 4\\.83% looking after home or family, 4\\.35% permanently sick or disabled, and 2\\.72% economically inactive for other reasons. Compared with Scotland's average demography, Cupar has a lower proportion of immigrants, but a higher proportion of over\\-75s.\n\n",
"Landmarks\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|United Parish Church, Cupar](/wiki/File:United_Parish_Church%2C_Cupar.jpg \"United Parish Church, Cupar.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The tower of the Duncan Institute, Cupar](/wiki/File:The_tower_of_the_Duncan_Institute%2C_Cupar.jpg \"The tower of the Duncan Institute, Cupar.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Cupar War Memorial by Henry Snell Gamley](/wiki/File:Cupar_War_Memorial_by_Henry_Snell_Gamley.jpg \"Cupar War Memorial by Henry Snell Gamley.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Typical 19th century houses in Cupar](/wiki/File:Typical_19th_century_houses_in_Cupar.JPG \"Typical 19th century houses in Cupar.JPG\")\nThe Old Gaol was designed by [James Gillespie Graham](/wiki/James_Gillespie_Graham \"James Gillespie Graham\") and built 1813–14\\. After closing as a prison in 1844, it was used by the [Fifeshire Militia](/wiki/Fifeshire_Militia \"Fifeshire Militia\"), later the [Fifeshire Artillery Militia](/wiki/Fifeshire_Artillery_Militia \"Fifeshire Artillery Militia\"). It was purchased by William Watt (seedsman) in 1895 and occupied by that firm until 1988\\. It operated as Watts of Cupar, a bar and restaurant, until it closed and was sold to developers at the end of 2019\\.\n\nThe historic town centre is the junction of Bonnygate and the Crossgate. This is where the town's [mercat cross](/wiki/Mercat_cross \"Mercat cross\"), is located with the original shaft being supported by a unicorn. It dates from 1683\\. To the east is St Catherine Street, home to the burgh chambers and county buildings, both designed by Robert Hutchison. The Category B listed [Cupar Burgh Chambers](/wiki/Cupar_Burgh_Chambers \"Cupar Burgh Chambers\"), built between 1815 and 1817, contains a three\\-story bow street corner and a doric entrance. The adjacent county buildings built between 1812 and 1817 are unique in [Fife](/wiki/Fife \"Fife\") as the only example replicating the style of buildings in the [New Town of Edinburgh](/wiki/New_Town%2C_Edinburgh \"New Town, Edinburgh\"). The Category B\\-listed [Corn Exchange](/wiki/Corn_Exchange%2C_Cupar \"Corn Exchange, Cupar\") tower can be seen across the town skyline.\n\nAt the east end of St Catherine Street is the Category B\\-listed Cupar War Memorial in a [classical Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") style overlooking the Cart Haugh, one of several designed by [John Kinross](/wiki/John_Kinross \"John Kinross\") with assistance from leading contemporary sculptors, for the exception of the Victory statue which was done by [Henry Snell Gamley](/wiki/Henry_Snell_Gamley \"Henry Snell Gamley\"). The memorial was first unveiled by Field Marshal [Earl Haig](/wiki/Earl_Haig \"Earl Haig\") in 1922 and then again for the addition of the [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") memorial in 1950 by the [Earl of Elgin](/wiki/Earl_of_Elgin \"Earl of Elgin\"). Nearby on Coal Road is a Category B\\-listed classical style former prison building built between 1813 and 1814\\.\n\n[thumb\\|Preston Lodge](/wiki/File:Preston_Lodge%2C_Cupar.jpg \"Preston Lodge, Cupar.jpg\") \nOn the Bonnygate, the Category A\\-listed Preston Lodge built by the Laird of Airdrie is the town's second oldest building. The house was built in 1623 and is inscribed on a stone on the west wall. The house was extended in 1702 by James Preston and was remodeled by London [goldsmith](/wiki/Goldsmith \"Goldsmith\") William Preston, in 1765\\. Later, the Reverend Sir James Preston occupied the house between 1775 and 1791, when he was the minister of the Cupar Old Parish Church. The original design of the building is believed to have been inspired by [Culross Palace](/wiki/Culross_Palace \"Culross Palace\") in [Culross](/wiki/Culross \"Culross\"). Situated at the corner of the Crossgate, the Category C listed *Duncan's Institute* by [John Milne](/wiki/John_Milne_%28architect%29 \"John Milne (architect)\"), which was built 1870–71 as a mechanics' institute for the \"working classes of Cupar\" by Mrs Duncan. The building, a mixture of Gothic, Scottish and Flemish styles is recognised in the town for its twisted spire. On the Kirkgate is the Parish Church of Cupar Old and St Michael of Tarvit, designed by the architect, [Hay Bell](/wiki/Hay_Bell \"Hay Bell\"). This consists of the Category A\\-listed Parish Church tower dating from 1415 and the Category B\\-listed main church building from 1745\\. The tower is the only surviving piece of the old Cupar parish church, founded by the [priory of St Andrews](/wiki/Priory_of_St_Andrews \"Priory of St Andrews\").\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Hill of Tarvit](/wiki/File:Tarvit_1.jpeg \"Tarvit 1.jpeg\") To the south of the town on the A914 and A916 is the Category A\\-listed [Hill of Tarvit](/wiki/Hill_of_Tarvit \"Hill of Tarvit\") mansion house and nearby scheduled monument [Scotstarvit Tower](/wiki/Scotstarvit_Tower \"Scotstarvit Tower\"). The [Hill of Tarvit](/wiki/Hill_of_Tarvit \"Hill of Tarvit\") was formerly known as Wemyss Hall, designed by Sir Walter Bruce around 1692\\. When the house was sold in 1904, [Robert Lorimer](/wiki/Robert_Lorimer \"Robert Lorimer\") was commissioned to design a bigger house compared to the existing Wemyss Hall to be able to hold the owner's French architecture. This was completed around 1907 and 1908, granting the present name *Hill of Tarvit*. The house's interior showcased the owner's love of antique furniture ranging from [Flemish](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\") tapestries; [Louis V](/wiki/Louis_V_of_France \"Louis V of France\"); [Louis XI](/wiki/Louis_XI \"Louis XI\"); [English](/wiki/English_people \"English people\") and [Scottish](/wiki/Scottish_people \"Scottish people\") have been considered to be Lormier's best work. The service accommodation showcases the range of rooms and equipment used by a family, prior to the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"). Situated between the Tarvit and Walton Hills, is [Scotstarvit Tower](/wiki/Scotstarvit_Tower \"Scotstarvit Tower\"), a well\\-preserved simple L\\-plan early 17th century tower house of five stories and an attic. To the north of the town is [Hawklaw](/wiki/Hawklaw_Y_Station \"Hawklaw Y Station\"), which operated as a Government Radio Receiving Station between 1942 and 1988\\.\n\n",
"Economy\n-------\n\n[Fife Council](/wiki/Fife_Council \"Fife Council\") is the largest employer in the area. Many people are employed in food and drink.\n\nThe larger employers are [Kettle Produce](https://www.kettle.co.uk/) (fruit and vegetable producer) and [Fishers Services Ltd](/wiki/Fishers_Services_Ltd \"Fishers Services Ltd\"). Other employers include the [SRUC Campus at Elmwood College](https://www.sruc.ac.uk/courses-training/campuses/sruc-elmwood-fife/) (Fife education); [Quaker Oats Ltd](https://quaker.co.uk/) (food and drink) and [Fisher \\& Donaldson](https://www.fisheranddonaldson.com/) (food and drink).\n\nThe main shopping facilities are located between the Bonnygate and Crossgate, including family\\-owned businesses and some smaller chain stores. The town also has a Business Park, Trading Estate and Industrial Estate.\n\n**Cupar Retail Park**\n\nIn November 2021, the South Road retail park was completed. Shops include Burger King, Costa Coffee, B\\&M, Card Factory, Indigo Sun, Baynes the Baker and Nimbus Beds.\n\n",
"Leisure\n-------\n\nCupar has an unusual [golf course](/wiki/Golf_course \"Golf course\") on the side of a hill to the South of town at Hill of Tarvit. The club was founded on 7 November 1855\\. Cupar Golf Club is rich with history and is probably the oldest nine\\-hole club in the world.\n\nThe Kingarrock course at Hill Tarvit Mansion house uses hickory shafted clubs, in the original style.\n\nCupar Sports Centre has a 25\\-metre swimming pool, badminton courts, squash courts and a fitness suite. The swimming pool is the base for Cupar and District Swimming Club. Cupar is home to Cupar Cricket Club, founded in 1884\\. The club is celebrating its 125th anniversary in the 2009 season.\n\nThe Castlehill Community Association is home to local groups including Cupar Camera Club, Cupar Art Club, Cupar \\& District Model Railway Club. They operate from the Old Castlehill Primary School and from 11 St Catherine Street.\n\nCupar also plays host to the biennial [Cupar Arts Festival](/wiki/Cupar_Arts_Festival \"Cupar Arts Festival\").\n\n",
"Education\n---------\n\nCupar is home to one additional needs school, one secondary school, two primary schools, a nursery school and a playgroup.\n\nCupar Pre\\-school Playgroup was opened around 1985\\. As of March 2022, their website shows that they have closed.\n\nFerryfield Playgroup was opened in 1967 by Isobel Blair in her home at Ferryfield. In 1976, it was moved to building at Castlehill (not to be confused by Castlehill Primary School).\n\nWestfield Family Nurture Centre was opened in 1981 as part of Castlehill Primary School, but was made independent at some point. It is Cupar's only nursery.\n\nCastlehill Primary School opened to pupils on the present site in 1975 and is located on the town's outskirts and has enrollment of 420\\.\n\nSt Columbas R C Primary School was opened in 2006\\. It serves the Catholic community of Cupar and the surrounding area. It also enrols non\\-catholic pupils.\n\nKilmaron School caters for pupils that have complex additional support needs. It was built in 1964, and takes in pupils from the ages of 3–18 years.\n\n[Bell Baxter High School](/wiki/Bell_Baxter_High_School \"Bell Baxter High School\") located on Carslogie Road, serves both the town and surrounding villages. Bell Baxter was originally situated at Westport between 1890 and 2010\\. In 1962, Bell Baxter started to move to Carslogie Road, with just the Senior Pupils going at first. In 2010, the Westport site was completely closed. The School roll was recorded in February 2009 and was estimated at 1620 pupils.\n\n[SRUC Elmwood](/wiki/Scotland%27s_Rural_College%23Elmwood_College \"Scotland's Rural College#Elmwood College\") (formerly [Elmwood College](/wiki/Elmwood_College \"Elmwood College\")) has three main campuses situated in the town and surrounding area. The college has been praised as a centre for excellence in golf\\-related studies and specialising in land\\-based education. Local businesses benefit from the work of the SRUC Rural Business Centre.\n\n",
"Transport\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Cupar Railway Station](/wiki/File:Cupar_Railway_Station%2C_Cupar.jpg \"Cupar Railway Station, Cupar.jpg\")\nAn express bus service connects the town every hour between [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") and [St Andrews](/wiki/St_Andrews \"St Andrews\") and also between [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\") and [St Andrews](/wiki/St_Andrews \"St Andrews\"). Other services run less frequently from Stirling and various local villages through Cupar to [St Andrews](/wiki/St_Andrews \"St Andrews\"). An express service also runs via the town from [Kirkcaldy](/wiki/Kirkcaldy \"Kirkcaldy\") to [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee \"Dundee\"). A [railway station](/wiki/Cupar_railway_station \"Cupar railway station\") can be found to the south\\-east of the town centre. The station is situated on the East Coast Main Line, served by [ScotRail](/wiki/ScotRail \"ScotRail\") and [CrossCountry](/wiki/CrossCountry \"CrossCountry\") with regular services running between [Edinburgh Waverley](/wiki/Edinburgh_Waverley_railway_station \"Edinburgh Waverley railway station\") and [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen_railway_station \"Aberdeen railway station\"). Nearby stations are located to the north\\-east of the town at [Leuchars](/wiki/Leuchars_railway_station \"Leuchars railway station\") and to the south of the town in neighbouring [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield_railway_station_%28Scotland%29 \"Springfield railway station (Scotland)\") (limited service) and [Ladybank](/wiki/Ladybank_railway_station \"Ladybank railway station\"). The nearest major international airport is [Edinburgh airport](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") with the nearest ferry sea port at [Rosyth](/wiki/Rosyth \"Rosyth\") being , respectively.\n\n",
"Military\n--------\n\n[Yeomanry House](/wiki/Yeomanry_House%2C_Cupar \"Yeomanry House, Cupar\"), a drill hall completed in 1890, is home to 'C Squadron' of the [Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry](/wiki/Scottish_and_North_Irish_Yeomanry \"Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry\"). The SNIY provides a Light Cavalry capability and have travelled to Germany and the United States on training and on operations in Afghanistan, Iraq and Cyprus. They previously operated the [FV107 Scimitar](/wiki/FV107_Scimitar \"FV107 Scimitar\"), [FV105 Sultan](/wiki/FV105_Sultan \"FV105 Sultan\") and [FV103 Spartan](/wiki/FV103_Spartan \"FV103 Spartan\") light armoured vehicles in the a reconnaissance role. They are paired with the [Royal Scots Dragoon Guards](/wiki/Royal_Scots_Dragoon_Guards \"Royal Scots Dragoon Guards\") based at [Leuchars Station](/wiki/Leuchars_Station \"Leuchars Station\") (formerly RAF Leuchars).\n\nThe [Army Cadet Force](/wiki/Army_Cadet_Force \"Army Cadet Force\") and [Air Training Corps](/wiki/Air_Training_Corps \"Air Training Corps\") 571 (Cupar) Squadron are also active in the town.\n\n",
"Notable people\n--------------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.75\\|[David Maitland Makgill Crichton](/wiki/David_Maitland_Makgill_Crichton \"David Maitland Makgill Crichton\") who campaigned to have a bridge rather than a level crossing](/wiki/File:DMM_Crichton_1801-51_-_geograph.org.uk_-_198921.jpg \"DMM Crichton 1801-51 - geograph.org.uk - 198921.jpg\")\n* [Adam Cairns](/wiki/Adam_Cairns \"Adam Cairns\") (1802–1881\\) Presbyterian minister, emigrated to [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\").\n* [John Finlayson (disciple)](/wiki/John_Finlayson_%28disciple%29 \"John Finlayson (disciple)\") (1770–1854\\) millennium cultist\n* [John Laird](/wiki/John_Laird_%28minister%29 \"John Laird (minister)\") (1811–1896\\) Presbyterian minister and Free Church moderator.\n* [Colonel Robert Hope Moncrieff Aitken](/wiki/Robert_Hope_Moncrieff_Aitken \"Robert Hope Moncrieff Aitken\") (1826–1887\\), recipient of the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\") during the [Indian Mutiny](/wiki/Indian_Mutiny \"Indian Mutiny\"), was born in Cupar.\n* [Henrietta Keddie](/wiki/Henrietta_Keddie \"Henrietta Keddie\"), who wrote as Sarah Tytler, was born in Cupar in 1827\\.\n* [Sir Thomas Russell, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Russell%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Thomas Russell, 1st Baronet\") (1841–1920\\), politician, temperance campaigner and agrarian agitator\n* Lady [Henrietta Gilmour](/wiki/Henrietta_Gilmour \"Henrietta Gilmour\") (1852–1926\\) pioneer photographer, lived at Denbrae House north of Cupar and is buried in Cupar Cemetery.\n* [Robert Robertson](/wiki/Robert_Robertson_%28chemist%29 \"Robert Robertson (chemist)\"), chemist and former the government chemist, was born in Cupar in 1869\\.\n* [Jane Stocks Greig](/wiki/Jane_Stocks_Greig \"Jane Stocks Greig\"), physician and public health specialist, was born in Cupar in 1872\\.\n* [Alexander Nimmo](/wiki/Alexander_Nimmo \"Alexander Nimmo\") (1783–1832\\) civil engineer and geologist active in early 19th\\-century Ireland was born in Cupar.\n* [Rab Noakes](/wiki/Rab_Noakes \"Rab Noakes\"), singer\\-songwriter, is from Cupar.\n* [Rory Douglas\\-Speed](/wiki/Rory_Douglas-Speed \"Rory Douglas-Speed\"), actor, who was born in Cupar in 1992\\.\n* [Caroline Baird](/wiki/Caroline_Baird \"Caroline Baird\") (formally Innes), Paralympic athlete, is from Cupar.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n### Notes\n\n### Bibliography\n\n",
"### Notes\n\n",
"### Bibliography\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Cupar Development Trust](http://www.cupardevtrust.org.uk/)\n* [Cupar Town](https://web.archive.org/web/20130518120826/http://www.cupartown.co.uk/)\n* [Gazetteer for Scotland entry for Cupar](http://www.scottish-places.info/towns/townfirst75.html)\n\n[Category:Royal burghs](/wiki/Category:Royal_burghs \"Royal burghs\")\n[Category:County towns in Scotland](/wiki/Category:County_towns_in_Scotland \"County towns in Scotland\")\n[Category:Towns in Fife](/wiki/Category:Towns_in_Fife \"Towns in Fife\")\n[Category:Parishes in Fife](/wiki/Category:Parishes_in_Fife \"Parishes in Fife\")\n[Category:Former county towns in Scotland](/wiki/Category:Former_county_towns_in_Scotland \"Former county towns in Scotland\")\n\n"
]
}
|
List of IBM products
|
{
"id": [
122189
],
"name": [
"Guy Harris"
]
}
|
e11myf6jklc9er5cbxxikxj2zwy04hk
|
2024-10-01T21:42:15Z
| 1,248,861,133 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Context",
"Unit record equipment",
"Keypunches and verifiers",
"Sorters, statistical, and derived machines",
"Collators",
"Reproducing punch, summary punch, [[gangpunch (computing)|gang punch]], and derived machines",
"Interpreters",
"Tabulators, accounting machines, printers",
"Calculators",
"Time equipment division",
"Typewriters",
"Typeball-based",
"Daisy wheel-based",
"IBM dictation machines",
"Copier/Duplicators",
"World War II ordnance and related products",
"Other non-computer products",
"Computers based on vacuum tubes (1950s)",
"Solid-state computers based on discrete transistors (1960s)",
"IBM 1400 series: 1240, 1401, 1410, 1420, 1440, 1450, 1460, 7010",
"IBM 1620",
"IBM 7030 (''Stretch'')",
"IBM 7070 series: 7070, 7072, 7074",
"IBM 7080",
"IBM 7090 series: 7040, 7044, 7090, 7094, 7094 II",
"Later solid-state computers & systems",
"Computers based on SLT or discrete IC CPUs (1964–1989)",
"Computers based on discrete IC CPUs (1990–present)",
"Computers based on microprocessor CPUs (1981–present)",
"Computers",
"Supercomputers",
"Microprocessors",
"Solid-state computer peripherals",
"Punched card and paper tape equipment",
"Microfilm products",
"Printer/plotter equipment{{anchor|Proprinter|Quietwriter}}",
"Graphics displays",
"Data storage units",
"Core storage",
"Direct-access storage devices",
"Magnetic tape storage",
"Optical storage",
"Storage networking and virtualization",
"Coprocessor units",
"Channels and input/output control units",
"Data communications devices",
"Power supply/distribution units",
"Modems",
"Magnetic ink and optical readers",
"Other",
"IBM PC components and peripherals",
"Embedded systems, application-specific machines/systems",
"Airline reservation systems",
"Bank and finance",
"Computer-aided drafting (CAD)",
"Word processing",
"Other document processing",
"Educational",
"Government: avionics, computation, command and control, and space systems",
"Industry and manufacturing",
"Medical/science/lab equipment",
"Research/advertising (not product) machines",
"Retail/point-of-sale (POS)",
"Telecommunications",
"Unclassified",
"Computer software",
"Operating systems",
"Utilities and languages",
"Middleware and applications",
"Watson Customer Engagement",
"Watson Marketing Portfolio",
"Watson Commerce",
"Watson Supply Chain",
"Watsonx",
"Models",
"Data centers",
"Services",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
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"content": [
"\n\n[300px\\|thumb\\|IBM 526 Printing Summary Punch, ca. 1948, with French keyboard layout](/wiki/File:IBM_526_Printing_Summary_Punch.JPG \"IBM 526 Printing Summary Punch.JPG\")\n\nThe **list of IBM products** is a partial list of products, services, and subsidiaries of [International Business Machines](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") (IBM) Corporation and its predecessor corporations, beginning in the 1890s.\n\n",
"Context\n-------\n\nProducts, services, and subsidiaries have been offered from [International Business Machines](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") (IBM) Corporation and its predecessor corporations since the 1890s. This list comprises those offerings and is [eclectic](/wiki/wikt:Eclectic \"Eclectic\"); it includes, for example, the *[AN/FSQ\\-7](/wiki/AN/FSQ-7_Combat_Direction_Central \"AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central\")*, which was not a product in the sense of *offered for sale*, but was a product in the sense of *manufactured—produced by the labor of IBM*. Several machines manufactured for the Astronomical Computing Bureau at Columbia University are included, as are some machines built only as demonstrations of IBM technology. Missing are many [RPQs](/wiki/Request_price_quotation \"Request price quotation\"), [OEM](/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer \"Original equipment manufacturer\") products (semiconductors, for example), and supplies (punched cards, for example). These products and others are missing simply because no one has added them.\n\nIBM sometimes uses the same number for a system and for the principal component of that system. For example, the [IBM 604](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\") Calculating Unit is a component of the [IBM 604](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\") Calculating Punch. And different IBM divisions used the same model numbers; for example *IBM 01* without context clues could be a reference to a keypunch or to IBM's first electric typewriter.\n\nNumber sequence may not correspond to product development sequence. For example, the 402 tabulator was an improved, modernized 405\\.\n\nIBM uses two naming structures for its modern hardware products. Products are normally given a three\\- or four\\-digit machine type and a model number (it can be a mix of letters and numbers). A product may also have a marketing or brand name. For instance, 2107 is the machine type for the [IBM System Storage DS8000](/wiki/IBM_System_Storage_DS8000 \"IBM System Storage DS8000\"). While the majority of products are listed here by machine type, there are instances where only a marketing or brand name is used. Care should be taken when searching for a particular product as sometimes the type and model numbers overlap. For instance the IBM storage product known as the [Enterprise Storage Server](/wiki/IBM_Enterprise_Storage_Server \"IBM Enterprise Storage Server\") is machine type 2105, and the IBM printing product known as the IBM Infoprint 2105 is machine type 2705, so searching for an [IBM 2105](/wiki/IBM_2105 \"IBM 2105\") could result in two different products—or the wrong product—being found.\n\nIBM introduced the 80\\-column rectangular hole punched card in 1928\\. Pre\\-1928 machine models that continued in production with the new 80\\-column card format had the same model number as before. Machines manufactured prior to 1928 were, in some cases, [retrofitted with 80\\-column card readers and/or punches](/wiki/Keypunch%23Hollerith_and_IBM_keypunches%2C_1890_through_1930s \"Keypunch#Hollerith and IBM keypunches, 1890 through 1930s\") thus there existed machines with pre\\-1928 dates of manufacture that contain 1928 technology.\n\nThis list is organized by classifications of both machines and applications, rather than by product name. Thus some (few) entries will be duplicated. The 1420, for example, is listed both as a member of the 1401 family and as a machine for Bank and finance.\n\nIBM product names have varied over the years; for example these two texts both reference the same product.\n* Mechanical Key Punch, Type 1 (in Machine Methods of Accounting, IBM, 1936\\)\n* Mechanical Punch, Type 001 (in IBM Electric Punched Card Accounting Machines: Principles of Operation, IBM, 1946\\)\nThis article uses the name, or combination of names, most descriptive of the product. Thus the entry for the above is\n* IBM 001: Mechanical Key Punch\n\nProducts of [The Tabulating Machine Company](/wiki/Computing-Tabulating-Recording_Company \"Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company\") can be identified by date, before 1933 when the subsidiaries were merged into IBM.\n\n",
"Unit record equipment\n---------------------\n\n### Keypunches and verifiers\n\n* [Hollerith Keyboard (pantograph) punch](/wiki/Keypunch \"Keypunch\"): Manual card punch, 1890\n* [IBM 001](/wiki/IBM_001 \"IBM 001\"): Mechanical Key Punch, 1910 Book includes photos of some machinesScans of plates in [L.J. Comrie](/wiki/Leslie_Comrie \"Leslie Comrie\") articles from [Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society](/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society \"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\") 1928 and 1932, [here](http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/mnras.html)\n* [IBM 003](/wiki/IBM_003 \"IBM 003\"): Lever Set Gang Punch, 1920\n* [IBM 010](/wiki/IBM_010 \"IBM 010\"): Card Punch pages dated from 1963 to 1974\n* [IBM 011](/wiki/IBM_011 \"IBM 011\"): Electric Key Punch, 1923 An accessible book of recollections (sometimes with errors), with photographs and descriptions of many unit record machines.\n* [IBM 012](/wiki/IBM_012 \"IBM 012\"): Electric Duplicating Key Punch, 1926\n* [IBM 013](/wiki/IBM_013 \"IBM 013\"): Badge Punch\n* [IBM 015](/wiki/IBM_015 \"IBM 015\"): Motor Drive Key Punch, 1915\n* [IBM 016](/wiki/IBM_016 \"IBM 016\"): Motor Drive Duplicating Key Punch, 1927\n* [IBM 020](/wiki/IBM_020 \"IBM 020\"): Card PunchLars Poulsen collected a list of IBM unit record machine types and names.\n\"It was collected over a period of several years from the alt.folklore.computers USENET group. I started out with the ones I knew, and slowly people contributed more items, until we have what you see. I could not point you to a single—or even a few—lists with attributions; it was a community effort.\" – Lars Poulsen That list is [here](http://www.beagle-ears.com/lars/engineer/comphist/ibmmodel.txt)\n* [IBM 024](/wiki/IBM_024 \"IBM 024\"): Card Punch (electronic—tube, [BCD](/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal%23IBM \"Binary-coded decimal#IBM\") zone codes); 1949\n* [IBM 026](/wiki/IBM_026 \"IBM 026\"): Printing Card Punch (electronic—tube, BCD zone codes); 1949\n* [IBM 027](/wiki/IBM_027 \"IBM 027\"): Card Proof Punch, 1956\n* [IBM 028](/wiki/IBM_028 \"IBM 028\"): Printing Card Proof Punch, 1956\n* [IBM 029](/wiki/IBM_029 \"IBM 029\"): Card Punch (electric—diodes \\& relays, [EBCDIC](/wiki/EBCDIC \"EBCDIC\") zone codes); 1964\n* [IBM 031](/wiki/IBM_031 \"IBM 031\"): Alphabetic Duplicating Key Punch; 1933\n* [IBM 032](/wiki/IBM_032 \"IBM 032\"): Alphabetic Printing Key Punch; 1933\n* [IBM 033](/wiki/IBM_033 \"IBM 033\"): Alphabetic Duplicating Printing Punch\n* [IBM 034](/wiki/IBM_034 \"IBM 034\"): Alphabetic Duplicating Printing Key Punch; 1933Machine Methods of Accounting, IBM, 1936\n* [IBM 036](/wiki/IBM_036 \"IBM 036\"): Alphabetic Printing Punch, 1930\n* [IBM 037](/wiki/IBM_037 \"IBM 037\"): Alphabetic Stencil Punch\n* [IBM 040](/wiki/IBM_040 \"IBM 040\"): Tape Controlled Card Punch; 1941\n* [IBM 041](/wiki/IBM_041 \"IBM 041\"): Tape to Card Punch\n* [IBM 043](/wiki/IBM_043 \"IBM 043\"): Tape Controlled Card Punch\n* [IBM 044](/wiki/IBM_044 \"IBM 044\"): Tape Controlled Card Punch\n* [IBM 046](/wiki/IBM_046 \"IBM 046\"): Tape\\-to\\-Card Punch",
"### Keypunches and verifiers\n\n* [Hollerith Keyboard (pantograph) punch](/wiki/Keypunch \"Keypunch\"): Manual card punch, 1890\n* [IBM 001](/wiki/IBM_001 \"IBM 001\"): Mechanical Key Punch, 1910 Book includes photos of some machinesScans of plates in [L.J. Comrie](/wiki/Leslie_Comrie \"Leslie Comrie\") articles from [Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society](/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society \"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\") 1928 and 1932, [here](http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/mnras.html)\n* [IBM 003](/wiki/IBM_003 \"IBM 003\"): Lever Set Gang Punch, 1920\n* [IBM 010](/wiki/IBM_010 \"IBM 010\"): Card Punch pages dated from 1963 to 1974\n* [IBM 011](/wiki/IBM_011 \"IBM 011\"): Electric Key Punch, 1923 An accessible book of recollections (sometimes with errors), with photographs and descriptions of many unit record machines.\n* [IBM 012](/wiki/IBM_012 \"IBM 012\"): Electric Duplicating Key Punch, 1926\n* [IBM 013](/wiki/IBM_013 \"IBM 013\"): Badge Punch\n* [IBM 015](/wiki/IBM_015 \"IBM 015\"): Motor Drive Key Punch, 1915\n* [IBM 016](/wiki/IBM_016 \"IBM 016\"): Motor Drive Duplicating Key Punch, 1927\n* [IBM 020](/wiki/IBM_020 \"IBM 020\"): Card PunchLars Poulsen collected a list of IBM unit record machine types and names.\n\"It was collected over a period of several years from the alt.folklore.computers USENET group. I started out with the ones I knew, and slowly people contributed more items, until we have what you see. I could not point you to a single—or even a few—lists with attributions; it was a community effort.\" – Lars Poulsen That list is [here](http://www.beagle-ears.com/lars/engineer/comphist/ibmmodel.txt)\n* [IBM 024](/wiki/IBM_024 \"IBM 024\"): Card Punch (electronic—tube, [BCD](/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal%23IBM \"Binary-coded decimal#IBM\") zone codes); 1949\n* [IBM 026](/wiki/IBM_026 \"IBM 026\"): Printing Card Punch (electronic—tube, BCD zone codes); 1949\n* [IBM 027](/wiki/IBM_027 \"IBM 027\"): Card Proof Punch, 1956\n* [IBM 028](/wiki/IBM_028 \"IBM 028\"): Printing Card Proof Punch, 1956\n* [IBM 029](/wiki/IBM_029 \"IBM 029\"): Card Punch (electric—diodes \\& relays, [EBCDIC](/wiki/EBCDIC \"EBCDIC\") zone codes); 1964\n* [IBM 031](/wiki/IBM_031 \"IBM 031\"): Alphabetic Duplicating Key Punch; 1933\n* [IBM 032](/wiki/IBM_032 \"IBM 032\"): Alphabetic Printing Key Punch; 1933\n* [IBM 033](/wiki/IBM_033 \"IBM 033\"): Alphabetic Duplicating Printing Punch\n* [IBM 034](/wiki/IBM_034 \"IBM 034\"): Alphabetic Duplicating Printing Key Punch; 1933Machine Methods of Accounting, IBM, 1936\n* [IBM 036](/wiki/IBM_036 \"IBM 036\"): Alphabetic Printing Punch, 1930\n* [IBM 037](/wiki/IBM_037 \"IBM 037\"): Alphabetic Stencil Punch\n* [IBM 040](/wiki/IBM_040 \"IBM 040\"): Tape Controlled Card Punch; 1941\n* [IBM 041](/wiki/IBM_041 \"IBM 041\"): Tape to Card Punch\n* [IBM 043](/wiki/IBM_043 \"IBM 043\"): Tape Controlled Card Punch\n* [IBM 044](/wiki/IBM_044 \"IBM 044\"): Tape Controlled Card Punch\n* [IBM 046](/wiki/IBM_046 \"IBM 046\"): Tape\\-to\\-Card Punch",
"### Sorters, statistical, and derived machines\n\n* [Hollerith automatic sorter](/wiki/Hollerith_automatic_sorter \"Hollerith automatic sorter\"): Horizontal sorter, 1901\n* [Hollerith 2](/wiki/Hollerith_2 \"Hollerith 2\"): Card counting sorter\n* [IBM 70](/wiki/IBM_70 \"IBM 70\"): [Hollerith](/wiki/Hollerith \"Hollerith\") Vertical Sorter; 1908\n* [IBM 71](/wiki/IBM_71 \"IBM 71\"): Vertical Sorter; 1928\n* [IBM 74](/wiki/IBM_74 \"IBM 74\"): Printing Card Counting Sorter, 1930\n* [IBM 75](/wiki/IBM_75 \"IBM 75\"): Card Counting Sorter\n* [IBM 76](/wiki/IBM_76 \"IBM 76\"): Searching Sorter Punch\n* [IBM 80](/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters \"IBM 80 series Card Sorters\"): Card Sorter, 1925\n* [IBM 81](/wiki/IBM_81 \"IBM 81\"): Card Stencil Sorter\n* [IBM 82](/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters \"IBM 80 series Card Sorters\"): Card Sorter, 1948\n* [IBM 83](/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters \"IBM 80 series Card Sorters\"): Card Sorter, 1955\n* [IBM 84](/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters \"IBM 80 series Card Sorters\"): Card Sorter, 1959\n* [IBM 86](/wiki/IBM_86 \"IBM 86\"): Coupon SorterIBM Sales Manual, DP Machines, page 1\\.20, May 1979\n* [IBM 101](/wiki/IBM_101 \"IBM 101\"): Statistical Machine; 1952\n\t+ [IBM 524](/wiki/IBM_524 \"IBM 524\"): Duplicating Summary Punch (Numerical card punch, features of an 016 and can also be connected to a 101\\)IBM 101 Electronic Statistical Machine, A22\\-0502\\-0\n* [IBM 106](/wiki/IBM_106 \"IBM 106\"): Coupon Statistical Machine\n* [IBM 108](/wiki/IBM_108 \"IBM 108\"): Card Proving Machine; 196X\n\t+ [IBM 867](/wiki/IBM_867 \"IBM 867\"): [IBM 108](/wiki/IBM_108 \"IBM 108\") Output Typewriter\n* [IBM 109](/wiki/IBM_109 \"IBM 109\"): Statistical Sorter\n* [IBM 5486](/wiki/IBM_5486 \"IBM 5486\"): Card Sorter for IBM [System/3](/wiki/System/3 \"System/3\")'s [96 column cards](/wiki/Punched_card%23IBM_96_column_punched_card_format \"Punched card#IBM 96 column punched card format\")\n* [IBM 9900](/wiki/IBM_9900 \"IBM 9900\"): Continuous Multiple Access Comparator\n",
"### Collators\n\n* [IBM 072](/wiki/IBM_072 \"IBM 072\"): Alphabetic Collator\n* [IBM 077](/wiki/IBM_077 \"IBM 077\"): Electric Punched Card Collator; 1937\n* [IBM 078](/wiki/IBM_078 \"IBM 078\"): Stencil Collator\n* [IBM 079](/wiki/IBM_079 \"IBM 079\"): Stencil Printing Collator\n* [IBM 085](/wiki/IBM_085 \"IBM 085\"): Numerical Collator; 1957\n* [IBM 087](/wiki/IBM_087 \"IBM 087\"): Alphabetic Collator\n* [IBM 088](/wiki/IBM_088 \"IBM 088\"): Numerical Collator\n* [IBM 089](/wiki/IBM_089 \"IBM 089\"): Alphabetic Collator\n* [IBM 188](/wiki/IBM_188 \"IBM 188\"): Alphabetic Collator\n",
"### Reproducing punch, summary punch, [gang punch](/wiki/Gangpunch_%28computing%29 \"Gangpunch (computing)\"), and derived machines\n\n* [IBM 501](/wiki/IBM_501 \"IBM 501\"): Automatic Numbering Gang Punch\n* [IBM 511](/wiki/IBM_511 \"IBM 511\"): Automatic Reproducing Punch\n* [IBM 512](/wiki/IBM_512 \"IBM 512\"): Reproducing Punch, 1940\n* [IBM 513](/wiki/IBM_519%23IBM_513 \"IBM 519#IBM 513\"): Reproducing Punch, 1945\n* [IBM 514](/wiki/IBM_519%23IBM_514 \"IBM 519#IBM 514\"): Reproducing Punch\n* [IBM 515](/wiki/IBM_515 \"IBM 515\"): Interpreting Reproducing Punch\n* [IBM 516](/wiki/IBM_516 \"IBM 516\"): Automatic Summary Punch\n* [IBM 517](/wiki/IBM_517 \"IBM 517\"): Gang Summary Punch, 1929\n* [IBM 518](/wiki/IBM_518 \"IBM 518\"): Gang Summary Punch, 1929\n* [IBM 519](/wiki/IBM_519 \"IBM 519\"): End Printing Reproducing Punch, 1946\n* [IBM 520](/wiki/IBM_520 \"IBM 520\"): Computing Punch\n* [IBM 522](/wiki/IBM_522 \"IBM 522\"): Duplicator Summary Punch\n* [IBM 523](/wiki/IBM_523 \"IBM 523\"): Gang Summary Punch; 1949\n* [IBM 524](/wiki/IBM_524 \"IBM 524\"): Duplicating Summary Punch (Numerical card punch, features of an 016 and can also be connected to a 101\\)\n* [IBM 526](/wiki/IBM_526 \"IBM 526\"): Printing Summary Punch (electronic, BCD zone codes, \"an 026 arranged for summary punching\")\n* [IBM 528](/wiki/IBM_528 \"IBM 528\"): Accumulating Reproducer\n* [IBM 534](/wiki/IBM_534 \"IBM 534\"): Card Punch (connects to 870, 108, 1230, 1232\\)\n* [IBM 545](/wiki/IBM_545 \"IBM 545\"): Output Punch (an 029 plus connector)\n* [IBM 549](/wiki/IBM_549 \"IBM 549\"): Ticket Converter\n",
"### Interpreters\n\n* [IBM 548](/wiki/IBM_548 \"IBM 548\"): Interpreter\n* [IBM 550](/wiki/IBM_550 \"IBM 550\"): Numerical Interpreter, 1935\n* [IBM 551](/wiki/IBM_551 \"IBM 551\"): Automatic Check Writing Interpreter, 1935\n* [IBM 552](/wiki/IBM_552 \"IBM 552\"): Alphabetic Interpreter\n* [IBM 554](/wiki/IBM_554 \"IBM 554\"): Interpreter\n* [IBM 555](/wiki/IBM_555 \"IBM 555\"): Alphabetic Interpreter\n* [IBM 556](/wiki/IBM_556 \"IBM 556\"): Interpreter\n* [IBM 557](/wiki/IBM_557 \"IBM 557\"): Alphabetic Interpreter\n* [IBM 938](/wiki/IBM_938 \"IBM 938\"): Electrostatic Card Printer\n",
"### Tabulators, accounting machines, printers\n\n* [Hollerith Census Tabulator](/wiki/Tabulating_machine \"Tabulating machine\"): 1890\n* [Hollerith Integrating Tabulator](/wiki/Hollerith_Integrating_Tabulator \"Hollerith Integrating Tabulator\"): 1896\n* [Hollerith Automatic Feed Tabulator](/wiki/Hollerith_Automatic_Feed_Tabulator \"Hollerith Automatic Feed Tabulator\"): 1900\n* [IBM 090](/wiki/IBM_090 \"IBM 090\"): [Hollerith Type I Tabulator](/wiki/Hollerith_Type_I_Tabulator \"Hollerith Type I Tabulator\"), 1906\n* [IBM 091](/wiki/IBM_091 \"IBM 091\"): [Hollerith Type III Tabulator](/wiki/Hollerith_Type_III_Tabulator \"Hollerith Type III Tabulator\"), 1921\n* [IBM 092](/wiki/IBM_092 \"IBM 092\"): Electric Tabulating Machine(first Plugboard, later known as a Control Panel)\n* [IBM 093](/wiki/IBM_093 \"IBM 093\"): Automatic Control Tabulator, 1914 (2 sets of reading brushes, STOP cards not needed)\n* [Hollerith Type 3\\-S Tabulator](/wiki/Hollerith_Type_3-S_Tabulator \"Hollerith Type 3-S Tabulator\"): 192x\n* [IBM 094](/wiki/IBM_094 \"IBM 094\"): Non\\-print Automatic Checking Machine\n* [IBM 211](/wiki/IBM_211 \"IBM 211\"): Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 212](/wiki/IBM_212 \"IBM 212\"): Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 285](/wiki/IBM_285 \"IBM 285\"): Electric Accounting Machine; 1927\n* [IBM 297](/wiki/IBM_297 \"IBM 297\"): Numerical Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 298](/wiki/IBM_298 \"IBM 298\"): Numerical Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 301](/wiki/Tabulating_machine \"Tabulating machine\"): [Hollerith Type IV Tabulator](/wiki/Tabulating_machine \"Tabulating machine\"), 1928\n* [IBM 375](/wiki/IBM_375 \"IBM 375\"): Invoicing Tabulator\n* [IBM Direct Subtraction Accounting Machine](/wiki/IBM_Direct_Subtraction_Accounting_Machine \"IBM Direct Subtraction Accounting Machine\"):\n* [IBM ATB](/wiki/IBM_ATB \"IBM ATB\"): Alphabetic Tabulating model B; 1931\n* [IBM ATC](/wiki/IBM_ATC \"IBM ATC\"): Alphabetic Tabulating model C; 1931? (soon after the ATB)Pugh (1995\\) pp.50–51\n* [IBM 401](/wiki/Tabulating_machine \"Tabulating machine\"): Tabulator; 1933\n* [IBM Electromatic Table Printing Machine](/wiki/IBM_Electromatic_Table_Printing_Machine \"IBM Electromatic Table Printing Machine\"): Typesetting\\-quality printer; 1946\n**402 and known versions**\n* [IBM 402](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Alphabetic Accounting Machine 1948\n* [IBM 402](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Computing Accounting Machine (with solid\\-state computing device)\n* [IBM 403](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Alphabetic Accounting Machine, 1948(MLP—multiple line printing)(version of 402\\)\n* [IBM 403](/wiki/Tabulating_machine \"Tabulating machine\"): Computing Accounting Machine (with solid\\-state computing device)(version of 402\\)\n* [IBM 412](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Accounting Machine (version of 402\\)\n* [IBM 417](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Numerical Accounting Machine (version of 402\\)\n* [IBM 419](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Numerical Accounting Machine(version of 402\\)\n\t+ [IBM 513, 514, 517, 519, 523, 526, 528, or 549](/wiki/IBM_513%2C_514%2C_517%2C_519%2C_523%2C_526%2C_528%2C_or_549 \"IBM 513, 514, 517, 519, 523, 526, 528, or 549\"): Summary punch for 402\n\t+ [IBM 916](/wiki/IBM_916 \"IBM 916\"): Bill Feed for 402(single sheet feed)\n\t+ [IBM 923](/wiki/IBM_923 \"IBM 923\"): Tape\\-Controlled Carriage for 402\n\t+ [IBM 924](/wiki/IBM_924 \"IBM 924\"): Dual Feed Tape Carriage for 402IBM Sales Manual, 11\\-10\\-55\n\t+ [IBM 1997](/wiki/IBM_1997 \"IBM 1997\"): Tape\\-Controlled Bill Feed 402Catalog of Copyright Entries. Third Series: 1962: July–December By Library of Congress. Copyright Office, p.1517\n\n**404**\n* [IBM 404](/wiki/IBM_404 \"IBM 404\"): Accounting Machine\n\n**405 and known versions**\n* [IBM 405](/wiki/Tabulating_machine \"Tabulating machine\"): Alphabetic Bookkeeping and Accounting Machine; 1934 (later: 405 Electric Punched Card Accounting Machine)\n* [IBM 416](/wiki/IBM_416 \"IBM 416\"): Numerical Accounting Machine(version of 405\\)\n\t+ [IBM 514, 519, 523, 526, 528, 549](/wiki/IBM_514%2C_519%2C_523%2C_526%2C_528%2C_549 \"IBM 514, 519, 523, 526, 528, 549\"): Summary punch for 405\n\t+ [IBM 921](/wiki/IBM_921 \"IBM 921\"): International Automatic Carriage for 405, 416 (1938\\)\n\n**407 and known versions**\n* [IBM 407](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): Alphabetic Accounting Machine; 1949\n* [IBM 407](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): Computing Accounting Machine (with solid\\-state computing device)\n* [IBM 408](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): Alphabetic Accounting Machine, 1957(version of 407\\)IBM Sales Manual, 1\\-2\\-57\n* [IBM 409](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): Accounting Machine; 1959(version of 407\\)Based on references such as 407\\-408\\-409 in IBM Functional Wiring PRinciples A24\\-1007\\-0, the 409 is a version of the 407\n* [IBM 421](/wiki/IBM_421 \"IBM 421\"): WTC Computing Accounting Machine (with solid\\-state computing device)(version of 407\\)\n* [IBM 444](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): Accounting Machine(version of 407\\)\n* [IBM 447](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): WTC Computing Accounting Machine (with solid\\-state computing device)(version of 407\\)\n\t+ [IBM 514, 519, 523, 528, 549](/wiki/IBM_514%2C_519%2C_523%2C_528%2C_549 \"IBM 514, 519, 523, 528, 549\"): Summary punch for 407\n\t+ [IBM 922](/wiki/IBM_922 \"IBM 922\"): Tape\\-Controlled Carriage for 407\n* [IBM 418](/wiki/IBM_418 \"IBM 418\"): Numerical Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 420](/wiki/IBM_420 \"IBM 420\"): Alphabetical Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 424](/wiki/IBM_424 \"IBM 424\"): WTC Computing Accounting Machine (with solid\\-state computing device)\n* [IBM 426](/wiki/IBM_426 \"IBM 426\"): Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 427](/wiki/IBM_427 \"IBM 427\"): WTC Accounting Machine (for instance, suitable for British £sd currency)\n* [IBM 450](/wiki/IBM_450 \"IBM 450\"): Accounting Machine\n* [IBM 632](/wiki/IBM_632 \"IBM 632\"): Accounting Machine\n* IBM 850: Stencil Cutter\n* [IBM 856](/wiki/IBM_856 \"IBM 856\"): Card\\-A\\-Type\n* [IBM 857](/wiki/IBM_857 \"IBM 857\"): Document Writer\n* [IBM 858](/wiki/IBM_858 \"IBM 858\"): Cardatype Accounting Machine, 1955\n\t+ [IBM 534](/wiki/IBM_534 \"IBM 534\"): IBM 858 Card Punch (similar to 024\\)\n\t+ [IBM 536](/wiki/IBM_536 \"IBM 536\"): IBM 858 Printing Card Punch (similar to 026\\)\n\t+ IBM 858: IBM 858 Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 863](/wiki/IBM_863 \"IBM 863\"): IBM 858 Arithmetic Unit\n\t+ [IBM 866](/wiki/IBM_866 \"IBM 866\"): IBM 858 Non\\-Transmitting Typewriter\n\t+ [IBM 868](/wiki/IBM_868 \"IBM 868\"): IBM 858 Transmitting Typewriter\n\t+ [IBM 961](/wiki/IBM_961 \"IBM 961\"): IBM 858 8\\-channel Tape Punch\n\t+ [IBM 962](/wiki/IBM_962 \"IBM 962\"): IBM 858 5\\-channel Tape Punch\n\t+ [IBM 972\\-1](/wiki/IBM_972-1 \"IBM 972-1\"): IBM 858 Auxiliary Keyboard for Manual Entry—Twelve columns of keys\\*\n* [IBM 861](/wiki/IBM_861 \"IBM 861\"): Stencil Charger\n* [IBM 869](/wiki/IBM_869 \"IBM 869\"): Typewriter\n* [IBM 870](/wiki/IBM_870 \"IBM 870\"): Document Writing System\n\t+ [IBM 834](/wiki/IBM_834 \"IBM 834\"): IBM 870 Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 836](/wiki/IBM_836 \"IBM 836\"): IBM 870 Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 865](/wiki/IBM_865 \"IBM 865\"): IBM 870 Output typewriters\n\t+ [IBM 866](/wiki/IBM_866 \"IBM 866\"): IBM 870 Non\\-transmitting Typewriter\n\t+ [IBM 868](/wiki/IBM_868 \"IBM 868\"): IBM 870 Transmitting Typewriter\n\t+ [IBM 536](/wiki/IBM_536 \"IBM 536\"): IBM 870 Printing Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 961](/wiki/IBM_961 \"IBM 961\"): IBM 870 Tape Punch (8 channel)\n\t+ [IBM 962](/wiki/IBM_962 \"IBM 962\"): IBM 870 Tape Punch (5 track)\n\t+ [IBM 972\\-2](/wiki/IBM_972-2 \"IBM 972-2\"): IBM 870 Auxiliary Keyboard\n* [IBM 919](/wiki/IBM_919 \"IBM 919\"): Comparing Bill Feed\n* [IBM 920](/wiki/IBM_920 \"IBM 920\"): Bill Feed\n* [IBM 921](/wiki/IBM_921 \"IBM 921\"): International Automatic Carriage\n* [IBM 933](/wiki/IBM_933 \"IBM 933\"): Carbon Ribbon Feed\n* [IBM 939](/wiki/IBM_939 \"IBM 939\"): Electrostatic Address Label Printer\n* [IBM 953](/wiki/IBM_953 \"IBM 953\"): Multiline Posting Machine\n* [IBM 954](/wiki/IBM_954 \"IBM 954\"): Facsimile Posting Machine (fused carbon copy fanfold printout onto an account ledger card)\n* [IBM 964](/wiki/IBM_964 \"IBM 964\"): Auxiliary Printing Tape Punch\n* [IBM 966](/wiki/IBM_966 \"IBM 966\"): Code Comparing Unit\n* [IBM 973](/wiki/IBM_973 \"IBM 973\"): Keyboard\n* [IBM 6400](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Accounting Machine system; 1962\n\t+ [IBM 6405](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Account Machine\n\t+ [IBM 6410](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Account Machine\n\t+ [IBM 6420](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Account Machine\n\t+ [IBM 6430](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Account Machine\n\t+ [IBM 6422](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Auto Ledger Feed\n\t+ [IBM 6425](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Magnetic Ledger Unit\n\t+ [IBM 6426](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 6428](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 6454](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Paper Tape Reader\n\t+ [IBM 6455](/wiki/IBM_6400_Accounting_Machine \"IBM 6400 Accounting Machine\"): Paper Tape Punch\n\n",
"### Calculators\n\n[thumb\\|IBM 601](/wiki/File:IBM_601_-_MfK_Bern.jpg \"IBM 601 - MfK Bern.jpg\")\n* [IBM Machine Load Computer](/wiki/IBM_Machine_Load_Computer \"IBM Machine Load Computer\"): A side rule to determine machine work loads, 20–8704; 1953\n* [IBM 600](/wiki/IBM_600 \"IBM 600\"): Automatic Multiplying Punch; 1931\n* [IBM 601](/wiki/IBM_601 \"IBM 601\"): Electric Multiplier aka Automatic Cross\\-Footing Multiplying Punch; 1933\n* [IBM Relay Calculator](/wiki/IBM_Relay_Calculator \"IBM Relay Calculator\"): aka The IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator (Aberdeen Machine)\n* [IBM 602](/wiki/IBM_602 \"IBM 602\"): Calculating Punch; 1946\n* [IBM 602A](/wiki/IBM_602A \"IBM 602A\"): Calculating Punch; 1948\n* [IBM 603](/wiki/IBM_603 \"IBM 603\"): Electronic Multiplier; 1946\n* [IBM 604](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): Electronic Calculating Punch; 1948\n\t+ IBM 604: IBM 604 Calculating Unit\n\t+ [IBM 521](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): IBM 604 Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 541](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): IBM 604 Card Read Punch\n* [IBM 605](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): Electronic Calculator; 1949 (version of 604\\)\n\t+ [IBM 527](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): IBM 605 High\\-Speed Punch\n* [IBM CPC](/wiki/IBM_CPC \"IBM CPC\"): Card Programmed Electronic Calculator; 1949\n\t+ [IBM 604](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): IBM 604 Calculating Unit\n\t\t- [IBM 521](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): IBM 604 Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 402](/wiki/IBM_402 \"IBM 402\"): Accounting Machine\n\t+ [IBM 417](/wiki/IBM_417 \"IBM 417\"): Accounting Machine\n\t+ [IBM 941](/wiki/IBM_CPC \"IBM CPC\"): IBM CPC Auxiliary Storage Unit; (16—10\\-digit words)\n* [IBM CPC\\-II](/wiki/IBM_CPC \"IBM CPC\"): Card Programmed Electronic Calculator; 1949\n\t+ [IBM 605](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): Electronic Calculating Punch\n\t\t- [IBM 527](/wiki/IBM_604 \"IBM 604\"): Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 412](/wiki/IBM_412 \"IBM 412\"): Accounting Machine\n\t+ [IBM 418](/wiki/IBM_418 \"IBM 418\"): Accounting Machine\n\t+ [IBM 941](/wiki/IBM_CPC \"IBM CPC\"): IBM CPC Auxiliary Storage Unit; (16—10\\-digit words)\n* [IBM 607](/wiki/IBM_607 \"IBM 607\"): Electronic Calculator; 1953\n\t+ [IBM 529](/wiki/IBM_529 \"IBM 529\"): IBM 607 Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 542](/wiki/IBM_542 \"IBM 542\"): IBM 607 Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 942](/wiki/IBM_942 \"IBM 942\"): IBM 607 Electronic Storage Unit; 1953\n* [IBM 608](/wiki/IBM_608 \"IBM 608\"): [Transistorized](/wiki/Transistor \"Transistor\") Electronic Calculator; 1957\n\t+ [IBM 535](/wiki/IBM_535 \"IBM 535\"): IBM 608 Card Read Punch\n* [IBM 609](/wiki/IBM_609 \"IBM 609\"): Calculator; (transistorized) 1960\n* [IBM 623](/wiki/IBM_623 \"IBM 623\"): Calculating Punch\n* [IBM 625](/wiki/IBM_625 \"IBM 625\"): Calculating Punch\n* [IBM 626](/wiki/IBM_626 \"IBM 626\"): Calculating Punch\n* [IBM 628](/wiki/IBM_628 \"IBM 628\"): Magnetic Core CalculatorIBM Sales Manual 1979 p.M 1\\.30IBM WTC 212\\-9924\\-0\n\t+ [IBM 565](/wiki/IBM_565 \"IBM 565\"): IBM 628 Punching Unit\n* [IBM 632](/wiki/IBM_632 \"IBM 632\"), [IBM 633](/wiki/IBM_633 \"IBM 633\"): Electronic Typing Calculator; 1958\n\t+ [IBM 614](/wiki/IBM_614 \"IBM 614\"): IBM 632/3 Typewriter output\n\t+ [IBM 630](/wiki/IBM_630 \"IBM 630\"): IBM 632 Arithmetic Unit\n\t+ [IBM 631](/wiki/IBM_631 \"IBM 631\"): IBM 632 Buffer memory\n\t+ [IBM 634](/wiki/IBM_634 \"IBM 634\"): IBM 632 Non\\-printing Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 635](/wiki/IBM_635 \"IBM 635\"): IBM 632 Non\\-Printing Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 636](/wiki/IBM_636 \"IBM 636\"): IBM 632/3 Printing Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 637](/wiki/IBM_637 \"IBM 637\"): IBM 632 Printing Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 638](/wiki/IBM_638 \"IBM 638\"): IBM 632 Companion Keyboard\n\t+ [IBM 641](/wiki/IBM_641 \"IBM 641\"): IBM 632 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 645](/wiki/IBM_645 \"IBM 645\"): IBM 632 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 648](/wiki/IBM_648 \"IBM 648\"): IBM 632 Tape Punch\n\t+ [IBM 649](/wiki/IBM_649 \"IBM 649\"): IBM 632 Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 644](/wiki/IBM_644 \"IBM 644\"): Calculating Punch\n\n",
"Time equipment division\n-----------------------\n\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Front cover of a sales catalog from January 1920\\. The cover also shows scales and a portable keypunch(2nd from bottom lower left)](/wiki/File:Clock0003.jpeg \"Clock0003.jpeg\")\nIBM manufactured a range of clocks and other devices until 1958 when they sold the Time Equipment Division to [Simplex Time Recorder Company (SimplexGrinnell, as of 2001\\)](/wiki/SimplexGrinnell \"SimplexGrinnell\").\\[, 1935 or earlier\n\n",
"Typewriters\n-----------\n\n* [IBM Remote control keyboard](/wiki/IBM_Remote_control_keyboard \"IBM Remote control keyboard\")\n* [IBM Electric typewriter](/wiki/IBM_Electric_typewriter \"IBM Electric typewriter\"):\n\t+ [Model 01](/wiki/IBM_Electric_typewriter_Model_01 \"IBM Electric typewriter Model 01\"), 1935;\n\t+ Model 01 (Formsholder), Model 02 (Formswriter), Model 10 (Front Feed) and Model 01 (Carbon Ribbon Model), 1937;\n\t+ Chinese Typewriter and Model 04 Arabic Electric Typewriter, 1946;\n\t+ Model 07 Card Stencil Typewriter, 1947;\n\t+ Models 01 and 06 with Automatic Line Selector, 1948;\n* [IBM Electromatic typewriter](/wiki/IBM_Electromatic_typewriter \"IBM Electromatic typewriter\"):\n\t+ Model 03 (Hektowriter), 1938;\n\t+ Model 06 (Toll Biller), 1940;\n\t+ Model 08 (Auto. Formswriter) and Model 09 (Manifest), 1941;\n* IBM Electric Executive Typewriter, 1944;\n* [IBM Electric typewriter](/wiki/IBM_Electric_typewriter \"IBM Electric typewriter\"), both Standard and Executive:\n\t+ Model A, 1948, 1949;\n\t+ Model B, 1954;\n\t+ Model C, 1959;\n\t+ Model D, 1967;\n* [Flexowriter](/wiki/Friden_Flexowriter \"Friden Flexowriter\"): sold to [Friden, Inc.](/wiki/Friden%2C_Inc. \"Friden, Inc.\") in the late 1950s\n\n### Typeball\\-based\n\n* [IBM Selectric typewriter](/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter \"IBM Selectric typewriter\"):\n\t+ [IBM 6121](/wiki/IBM_6121 \"IBM 6121\"): IBM 700 Series Selectric I, 1961;\n\t+ [IBM 6126](/wiki/IBM_6126 \"IBM 6126\"): IBM 800 Series Selectric II (1971\\) and Correcting Selectric II (1973\\);\n\t+ [IBM 6701](/wiki/IBM_6701 \"IBM 6701\"), [6702](/wiki/IBM_6702 \"IBM 6702\"), [6703](/wiki/IBM_6703 \"IBM 6703\"), [6704](/wiki/IBM_6704 \"IBM 6704\"), [6705](/wiki/IBM_6705 \"IBM 6705\"): IBM Selectric III and Correcting Selectric III.\n* Selectric\\-based typewriters:\n\t+ IBM Selectric Composer, 1966;\n\t+ [IBM 6375](/wiki/IBM_6375 \"IBM 6375\"): IBM Electronic Selectric Composer, 1975;\n\t+ [IBM 6240](/wiki/IBM_6240 \"IBM 6240\"): Magnetic card typewriter; 1977\n\t+ IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and Electronic Typewriter 60, 1978;\n\t+ IBM Personal Typewriter, 1982;\n\n### Daisy wheel\\-based\n\n* [IBM Wheelwriter](/wiki/IBM_Wheelwriter \"IBM Wheelwriter\");\n\t+ Wheelwriter 3 and Wheelwriter 5, 1984;\n\t+ Wheelwriter System/20 and System/40, 1985;\n\t+ Wheelwriter 6, 1986;\n\t+ Wheelwriter Series II and Personal Wheelwriter, 1988;\n* [IBM Quietwriter](/wiki/IBM_Quietwriter \"IBM Quietwriter\");\n",
"### Typeball\\-based\n\n* [IBM Selectric typewriter](/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter \"IBM Selectric typewriter\"):\n\t+ [IBM 6121](/wiki/IBM_6121 \"IBM 6121\"): IBM 700 Series Selectric I, 1961;\n\t+ [IBM 6126](/wiki/IBM_6126 \"IBM 6126\"): IBM 800 Series Selectric II (1971\\) and Correcting Selectric II (1973\\);\n\t+ [IBM 6701](/wiki/IBM_6701 \"IBM 6701\"), [6702](/wiki/IBM_6702 \"IBM 6702\"), [6703](/wiki/IBM_6703 \"IBM 6703\"), [6704](/wiki/IBM_6704 \"IBM 6704\"), [6705](/wiki/IBM_6705 \"IBM 6705\"): IBM Selectric III and Correcting Selectric III.\n* Selectric\\-based typewriters:\n\t+ IBM Selectric Composer, 1966;\n\t+ [IBM 6375](/wiki/IBM_6375 \"IBM 6375\"): IBM Electronic Selectric Composer, 1975;\n\t+ [IBM 6240](/wiki/IBM_6240 \"IBM 6240\"): Magnetic card typewriter; 1977\n\t+ IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and Electronic Typewriter 60, 1978;\n\t+ IBM Personal Typewriter, 1982;\n",
"### Daisy wheel\\-based\n\n* [IBM Wheelwriter](/wiki/IBM_Wheelwriter \"IBM Wheelwriter\");\n\t+ Wheelwriter 3 and Wheelwriter 5, 1984;\n\t+ Wheelwriter System/20 and System/40, 1985;\n\t+ Wheelwriter 6, 1986;\n\t+ Wheelwriter Series II and Personal Wheelwriter, 1988;\n* [IBM Quietwriter](/wiki/IBM_Quietwriter \"IBM Quietwriter\");\n",
"IBM dictation machines\n----------------------\n\n[IBM dictation machines](/wiki/IBM_dictation_machines \"IBM dictation machines\") are always referenced by family and model name and never by machine type. In fact the models are sometimes mistakenly taken to be machine types. There are three brand names and several well known models:\n\nIBM Executary dictation equipment line (1960\\-1972\\).\n* IBM Executary Model 211 Dictation Machine (6165\\-211\\)\n* IBM Executary Model 212 Transcribing Machine (6166\\-212\\)\n* IBM Executary Model 224 Dictation Unit (6161\\-224\\)\n* IBM Executary Model 271 Recorder (6171\\-271\\)\n\nIBM input processing equipment (1972\\-1975\\)\n\nIBM 6:5 Cartridge System (1975\\-1981\\)\n* 6:5 Recorder (6164\\-281\\)\n* 6:5 Transcriber (6164\\-282\\)\n* 6:5 Portable (6164\\-284\\)\n\n",
"Copier/Duplicators\n------------------\n\n[IBM Copiers](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\"):\n* [IBM Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Copier \"IBM Copiers#IBM Copier\") (Machine type 6800\\-001\\); introduced 1970, withdrawn June 30, 1981\n* [IBM Copier II](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Copier_II \"IBM Copiers#IBM Copier II\") (Machine type 6801\\-001\\); introduced 1972\n* [IBM 3896 tape/document converter](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Copier_II \"IBM Copiers#IBM Copier II\") (a modified IBM Copier II); withdrawn 1980\n* [IBM Series III Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 10 (Machine type 6802\\-001\\); introduced 1976\n* [IBM Series III Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 20 (Machine type 6803\\-001\\); introduced 1976\n* [IBM Series III Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 30 (Machine type 6805\\-001\\)\n* [IBM Series III Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 40 (Machine type 6806\\-001\\)\n* [IBM Series III Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 50 (Machine type 6809\\-001\\)\n* [IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 60 (Machine type 6808\\-001\\)\n* [IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 70 (Machine type 8880\\-001\\)\n* [IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Series_III_Copier/Duplicator \"IBM Copiers#IBM Series III Copier/Duplicator\") Model 85 (Machine type 8885\\-001\\)\n* [IBM Executive 102 Copier](/wiki/IBM_Copiers%23IBM_Executive_Copier_102 \"IBM Copiers#IBM Executive Copier 102\") (Machine type 6820\\-001\\);introduced 1981, withdrawn 1982\nCollators (a collator was a feature of a copier, but was sold as a separate machine type):\n* [IBM 6852\\-001](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\") Collator\n* [IBM 6852\\-002](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\") Collator\n* [IBM 6852\\-003](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\") Collator\n* [IBM 6852\\-004](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\") Collator\n* [IBM 8881\\-001](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\") Collator\n* [IBM 8881\\-002](/wiki/IBM_Copiers \"IBM Copiers\") Collator\n\nIBM also sold a range of copier supplies including paper rolls (marketed as IBM General Copy Bond), cut sheet paper (marketed as IBM multi\\-system paper) and toner.\n\n*The IBM line of Copier/Duplicators, and their associated service contracts, were sold to [Eastman Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak \"Eastman Kodak\") in 1988\\.*\n\n",
"World War II ordnance and related products\n------------------------------------------\n\n* [M1 Carbine](/wiki/M1_carbine \"M1 carbine\"): Rifle\n* [M7 grenade launchers](/wiki/M7_grenade_launcher \"M7 grenade launcher\") for M1 Garand rifles\n* [Browning Automatic Rifle](/wiki/M1918_Browning_Automatic_Rifle \"M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle\"): [light machine gun](/wiki/Light_machine_gun \"Light machine gun\")\n* 20\\-millimeter aircraft cannon\n* Aircraft and naval fire\\-control instruments\n* 90\\-millimeter anti\\-aircraft gun directors and prediction units\n* [Supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger \"Supercharger\") [impellers](/wiki/Impeller \"Impeller\")\n* [Norden bombsight](/wiki/Norden_bombsight \"Norden bombsight\")\n",
"Other non\\-computer products\n----------------------------\n\n* [IBM 805](/wiki/IBM_805_Test_Scoring_Machine \"IBM 805 Test Scoring Machine\"): IBM Test Scoring Machine, 1938\n* [IBM 820 Time Punch](/wiki/IBM_820_Time_Punch \"IBM 820 Time Punch\")\n* [IBM 9902](/wiki/IBM_9902 \"IBM 9902\"): Test Scoring PunchCatalog of Copyright Entries. Third Series: 1962: July–December\n\n```\nBy Library of Congress. Copyright Office, p.1518\n```\n* [IBM Lectern](/wiki/IBM_Lectern \"IBM Lectern\"): 1954\n* [IBM Radiotype](/wiki/IBM_Radiotype \"IBM Radiotype\") —\n* [IBM Scanistor](/wiki/IBM_Scanistor \"IBM Scanistor\"): Experimental solid\\-state optical scanning device\n* [IBM Shoebox](/wiki/IBM_Shoebox \"IBM Shoebox\"): Voice recognition, 1962\n* [IBM Ticketograph](/wiki/IBM_Ticketograph \"IBM Ticketograph\"): 1937\n* [IBM Toll Collection System](/wiki/IBM_Toll_Collection_System \"IBM Toll Collection System\") —\n* [IBM Wireless Translation System](/wiki/IBM_Wireless_Translation_System \"IBM Wireless Translation System\"): 1947\n* [IBM Hydrogen Peroxide Analyzer](/wiki/IBM_Hydrogen_Peroxide_Analyzer \"IBM Hydrogen Peroxide Analyzer\"): 1982\n* [IBM PW 200 Percussive Welder](/wiki/IBM_PW_200_Percussive_Welder \"IBM PW 200 Percussive Welder\"): 1960s\n* [IBM Industrial Scale](/wiki/IBM_Industrial_Scale \"IBM Industrial Scale\"): 1930s\n* [IBM Style 5011](/wiki/IBM_Style_5011 \"IBM Style 5011\"): ¼ horsepower electric coffee mill; 1920s\n* [IBM Style 5117](/wiki/IBM_Style_5117 \"IBM Style 5117\"): ½ horsepower meat chopper; late 1920s\n* IBM Electric Scoreboard: 1949\n* IBM Cheese Slicer: 1901\n",
"Computers based on vacuum tubes (1950s)\n---------------------------------------\n\nFor these computers most components were unique to a specific computer and are shown here immediately following the computer entry.\n* [IBM 305](/wiki/IBM_305_RAMAC \"IBM 305 RAMAC\"): RAMAC: **R**andom **A**ccess **M**ethod of **A**ccounting and **C**ontrol; 1956\n\t+ IBM 305: Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 323](/wiki/IBM_323 \"IBM 323\"): IBM 305 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 340](/wiki/IBM_340 \"IBM 340\"): IBM 305 Power Supply\n\t+ [IBM 350](/wiki/IBM_350 \"IBM 350\"): IBM 305 Disk StorageIBM 305 Reference Manual, A26\\-3502\\-0, 1958\n\t+ [IBM 370](/wiki/IBM_370_printer \"IBM 370 printer\"): IBM 305 Printer (not to be confused with the much later [System/370](/wiki/System/370 \"System/370\") computers)\n\t+ [IBM 380](/wiki/IBM_380 \"IBM 380\"): IBM 305 Console\n\t+ [IBM 381](/wiki/IBM_381 \"IBM 381\"): IBM 305 Remote Printing Station\n\t+ [IBM 382](/wiki/IBM_382 \"IBM 382\"): IBM 305 Paper Tape Reader\n\t+ [IBM 407](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): IBM 305 Accounting Machine (models R1, R2 used on\\-line)\n* [IBM 610](/wiki/IBM_610 \"IBM 610\"): Automatic Decimal Point Computer; 1957\n* [IBM 650](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): Magnetic Drum Data Processing Machine; 1954\n\t+ [IBM 355](/wiki/IBM_355 \"IBM 355\"): IBM 650 RAMAC (Disk drive)\n\t+ [IBM 407](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\"): IBM 650 Accounting machine on\\-line\n\t+ [IBM 533](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): IBM 650 Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 537](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): IBM 650 Card Read Punch\n\t+ [IBM 543](/wiki/IBM_543 \"IBM 543\"): IBM 650 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 544](/wiki/IBM_544 \"IBM 544\"): IBM 650 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 650](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): IBM 650 Console Unit\n\t+ [IBM 652](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): IBM 650 Disk and Magnetic Tape Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 653](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): IBM 650 Auxiliary Unit (60—10\\-digit words of auxiliary storage, index registers, and decimal floating point)\n\t+ [IBM 654](/wiki/IBM_654 \"IBM 654\"): IBM 650 Auxiliary Alphabetic Unit\n\t+ [IBM 655](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): IBM 650 Power Unit\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder ([7 Track](/wiki/IBM_7-track \"IBM 7-track\")—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 838](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"): Inquiry Station\n* [IBM 701](/wiki/IBM_701 \"IBM 701\"): Electronic Data Processing Machine; 1952\\. Known as the *Defense Calculator* while in development.\n\t+ [IBM 706](/wiki/IBM_706 \"IBM 706\"): IBM 701 Electrostatic Storage Unit (2048—36\\-bit words)\n\t+ [IBM 711](/wiki/IBM_711 \"IBM 711\"): IBM 701 Card reader (150 cards/min); 1952\n\t+ [IBM 716](/wiki/IBM_716 \"IBM 716\"): IBM 701 Printer (150 lines/min); 1952\n\t+ [IBM 721](/wiki/IBM_721 \"IBM 721\"): IBM 701 Punched card recorder; 1952 (100 cards/min)\n\t+ [IBM 726](/wiki/IBM_726 \"IBM 726\"): IBM 701 Dual Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder ([7 Track](/wiki/IBM_7-track \"IBM 7-track\")—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 100 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 731](/wiki/IBM_731 \"IBM 731\"): [IBM 701](/wiki/IBM_701 \"IBM 701\") Magnetic Drum Reader/Recorder; 1952\n\t+ [IBM 736](/wiki/IBM_736 \"IBM 736\"): IBM 701 Power Frame \\#1\n\t+ [IBM 737](/wiki/IBM_737 \"IBM 737\"): IBM 701/[IBM 704](/wiki/IBM_704 \"IBM 704\")/[IBM 709](/wiki/IBM_709 \"IBM 709\") Magnetic Core Storage Unit (4096—36\\-bit words)\n\t+ [IBM 740](/wiki/IBM_740 \"IBM 740\"): IBM 701/IBM 704/IBM 709 Cathode Ray Tube Output Recorder\n\t+ [IBM 741](/wiki/IBM_741 \"IBM 741\"): IBM 701 Power Frame \\#2\n\t+ [IBM 746](/wiki/IBM_746 \"IBM 746\"): IBM 701 Power Distribution Unit\n\t+ [IBM 753](/wiki/IBM_753 \"IBM 753\"): IBM 701 Magnetic Tape Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 780](/wiki/IBM_780 \"IBM 780\"): Cathode Ray Tube Display (used with IBM 740\\)\n* [IBM 702](/wiki/IBM_702 \"IBM 702\"): Electronic Data Processing Machine; 1953\n\t+ [IBM 712](/wiki/IBM_712 \"IBM 712\"): IBM 702 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 717](/wiki/IBM_717 \"IBM 717\"): IBM 702 Printer\n\t\t- [IBM 922](/wiki/IBM_922 \"IBM 922\"): Tape\\-Controlled Carriage\n\t+ [IBM 722](/wiki/IBM_722 \"IBM 722\"): IBM 702 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 732](/wiki/IBM_732 \"IBM 732\"): IBM 702 Magnetic Drum Storage Unit\n\t+ [IBM 752](/wiki/IBM_752 \"IBM 752\"): IBM 702 Tape Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 756](/wiki/IBM_756 \"IBM 756\"): IBM 702 Card Reader Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 757](/wiki/IBM_757 \"IBM 757\"): IBM 702 Printer Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 758](/wiki/IBM_758 \"IBM 758\"): IBM 702 Card Punch Control Unit\n* [IBM 704](/wiki/IBM_704 \"IBM 704\"): Data Processing System; 1956\n\t+ [IBM 711](/wiki/IBM_711 \"IBM 711\"): Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 716](/wiki/IBM_716 \"IBM 716\"): Line Printer\n\t+ [IBM 721](/wiki/IBM_721 \"IBM 721\"): Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 733](/wiki/IBM_733 \"IBM 733\"): Magnetic Drum\n\t+ [IBM 737](/wiki/IBM_737 \"IBM 737\"): IBM 701/IBM 704/IBM 709 Magnetic Core Storage Unit (4096—36\\-bit words, 6\\-bit BCD characters)\n\t+ [IBM 738](/wiki/IBM_738 \"IBM 738\"): IBM 704/IBM 709 Magnetic Core Storage Unit (32768—36\\-bit words, 6\\-bit BCD characters)\n\t+ [IBM 740](/wiki/IBM_740 \"IBM 740\"): IBM 701/IBM 704/IBM 709 Cathode Ray Tube Output Recorder\n\t+ [IBM 780](/wiki/IBM_780 \"IBM 780\"): Cathode Ray Tube Display (used with IBM 740\\)\n* [IBM Card\\-to\\-Tape Converter](/wiki/IBM_Card-to-Tape_Converter \"IBM Card-to-Tape Converter\") (described in IBM 704 Reference manual)\n\t+ [IBM 714](/wiki/IBM_714 \"IBM 714\"): Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 759](/wiki/IBM_759 \"IBM 759\"): Card Reader Control Unit\n* [IBM Tape\\-to\\-Card Converter](/wiki/IBM_Tape-to-Card_Converter \"IBM Tape-to-Card Converter\") (described in IBM 704 Reference manual)\n\t+ [IBM 722](/wiki/IBM_722 \"IBM 722\"): Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 758](/wiki/IBM_758 \"IBM 758\"): Control Unit\n* [IBM Tape\\-controlled Printer](/wiki/IBM_Tape-controlled_Printer \"IBM Tape-controlled Printer\") (described in IBM 704 Reference manual)\n\t+ [IBM 717](/wiki/IBM_717 \"IBM 717\"): Printer\n\t\t- [IBM 922](/wiki/IBM_922 \"IBM 922\"): Tape\\-Controlled Carriage\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 757](/wiki/IBM_757 \"IBM 757\"): Control Unit\n* [IBM Tape\\-controlled Printer](/wiki/IBM_Tape-controlled_Printer \"IBM Tape-controlled Printer\") (described in IBM 704 Reference manual)\n\t+ [IBM 720](/wiki/IBM_720 \"IBM 720\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 719](/wiki/IBM_719 \"IBM 719\"): Printer (dot matrix, 60 print positions)\n\t+ [IBM 730](/wiki/IBM_730 \"IBM 730\"): Printer (dot matrix, 120 print positions)\n\t+ [IBM 760](/wiki/IBM_760 \"IBM 760\"): Printer Control Unit\n* [IBM 705](/wiki/IBM_705 \"IBM 705\"): Data Processing System; 1954\n\t+ [IBM 714](/wiki/IBM_714 \"IBM 714\"): Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 717](/wiki/IBM_717 \"IBM 717\"): Printer\n\t\t- [IBM 922](/wiki/IBM_922 \"IBM 922\"): Tape\\-Controlled Carriage\n\t+ [IBM 720](/wiki/IBM_720 \"IBM 720\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 722](/wiki/IBM_722 \"IBM 722\"): Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 727](/wiki/IBM_727 \"IBM 727\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): Magnetic tape drive models 1 and 3 (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 730](/wiki/IBM_730 \"IBM 730\"): Printer (dot matrix, 120 print positions)\n\t+ [IBM 734](/wiki/IBM_734 \"IBM 734\"): Magnetic Drum Storage\n\t+ [IBM 754](/wiki/IBM_754 \"IBM 754\"): Tape Control\n\t+ [IBM 757](/wiki/IBM_757 \"IBM 757\"): Printer Control\n\t+ [IBM 758](/wiki/IBM_758 \"IBM 758\"): Card Punch Control\n\t+ [IBM 759](/wiki/IBM_759 \"IBM 759\"): Card Reader Control\n\t+ [IBM 760](/wiki/IBM_760 \"IBM 760\"): Control and Storage; connects 2 727 tape units and a 720A or 730A printer to CPU.\n\t+ [IBM 767](/wiki/IBM_767 \"IBM 767\"): Data Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 774](/wiki/IBM_774 \"IBM 774\"): Tape Data Selector\n\t+ [IBM 777](/wiki/IBM_777 \"IBM 777\"): Tape Record Coordinator\n\t+ [IBM 782](/wiki/IBM_782 \"IBM 782\"): Console\n* [IBM 709](/wiki/IBM_709 \"IBM 709\"): Data Processing System; 1958\n\t+ [IBM 711](/wiki/IBM_711 \"IBM 711\"): Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 716](/wiki/IBM_716 \"IBM 716\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 721](/wiki/IBM_721 \"IBM 721\"): Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 733](/wiki/IBM_733 \"IBM 733\"): Magnetic Drum\n\t+ [IBM 737](/wiki/IBM_737 \"IBM 737\"): IBM 701/IBM 704/IBM 709 Magnetic Core Storage Unit (4096—36\\-bit words, 6\\-bit BCD characters)\n\t+ [IBM 738](/wiki/IBM_738 \"IBM 738\"): IBM 704/IBM 709 Magnetic Core Storage Unit (32768—36\\-bit words, 6\\-bit BCD characters)\n\t+ [IBM 740](/wiki/IBM_740 \"IBM 740\"): IBM 701/IBM 704/IBM 709 Cathode Ray Tube Output Recorder\n\t+ [IBM 755](/wiki/IBM_755 \"IBM 755\"): Tape Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 766](/wiki/IBM_766 \"IBM 766\"): Data Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 780](/wiki/IBM_780 \"IBM 780\"): Cathode Ray Tube Display (used with [IBM 740](/wiki/IBM_740 \"IBM 740\"))\n* Other (system not known)\n\t+ [IBM 735](/wiki/IBM_735 \"IBM 735\"): Print Control\n\t+ [IBM 739](/wiki/IBM_739 \"IBM 739\"): Additional Core Storage\n\t+ [IBM 742](/wiki/IBM_742 \"IBM 742\"): Power Unit\n\t+ [IBM 743](/wiki/IBM_743 \"IBM 743\"): Power Supply\n\t+ [IBM 744](/wiki/IBM_744 \"IBM 744\"): Power Unit\n\t+ [IBM 745](/wiki/IBM_745 \"IBM 745\"): Power Unit\n\t+ [IBM 747](/wiki/IBM_747 \"IBM 747\"): Tape Data Selector PS\n\t+ [IBM 748](/wiki/IBM_748 \"IBM 748\"): Data Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 771](/wiki/IBM_771 \"IBM 771\"): Card/Tape Converter\n\t+ [IBM 775](/wiki/IBM_775 \"IBM 775\"): Record Storage Unit\n\t+ [IBM 776](/wiki/IBM_776 \"IBM 776\"): Sp EDPM\n\t+ [IBM 781](/wiki/IBM_781 \"IBM 781\"): Console\n\t+ [IBM 786](/wiki/IBM_786 \"IBM 786\"): Stretch\n\n",
"Solid\\-state computers based on discrete transistors (1960s)\n------------------------------------------------------------\n\n*Further information*: [IBM mainframe](/wiki/IBM_mainframe \"IBM mainframe\"), [IBM minicomputer](/wiki/IBM_minicomputer \"IBM minicomputer\").\n\n### IBM 1400 series: 1240, 1401, 1410, 1420, 1440, 1450, 1460, 7010\n\n* [IBM 1240](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Banking system; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1241](/wiki/IBM_1241 \"IBM 1241\"): Bank Processing Unit\n* [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\"): Small business computer; 1959\n\t+ [IBM 1402](/wiki/IBM_1402 \"IBM 1402\"): IBM 1401 Card reader/punch\n\t+ [IBM 1403](/wiki/IBM_1403 \"IBM 1403\"): IBM 1401 Printer, type chain; 1959\n\t\t- [IBM 1416](/wiki/IBM_1403%23IBM_1416 \"IBM 1403#IBM 1416\"): IBM 1403 and IBM 3203 Interchangeable Train Cartridge\n\t+ [IBM 1405](/wiki/IBM_1405 \"IBM 1405\"): IBM 1401/1410 RAMAC (Disk drive)\n\t+ [IBM 1406](/wiki/IBM_1406 \"IBM 1406\"): IBM 1401 Memory Expansion Unit (4000/8000/12000—6\\-bit characters, check bit, and wordmark)\n\t+ [IBM 1407](/wiki/IBM_1407 \"IBM 1407\"): IBM 1401 Console Inquiry Station\n\t+ [IBM 1409](/wiki/IBM_1409 \"IBM 1409\"): IBM 1401 Console Auxiliary\n\t+ [IBM 7641](/wiki/IBM_7641 \"IBM 7641\"): IBM 1401/1410/1460 Hypertape Control\n* [IBM 1410](/wiki/IBM_1410 \"IBM 1410\"): Midrange business computer; 1960\n\t+ [IBM 1411](/wiki/IBM_1411 \"IBM 1411\"): IBM 1410 processing unit\n\t+ [IBM 1414](/wiki/IBM_1414 \"IBM 1414\"): IBM 1410/7010: I/O Synchronizer\n\t\t- **IBM 1014**: IBM 1414 Remote Inquiry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1415](/wiki/IBM_1415 \"IBM 1415\"): IBM 1410/7010—Console\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 1410/7010, IBM 7070/7074, 7080—File Control\n* [IBM 1420](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): High\\-speed bank transit system; 1962\n* [IBM 1440](/wiki/IBM_1440 \"IBM 1440\"): Low\\-cost business computer; 1962\n\t+ [IBM 1441](/wiki/IBM_1441 \"IBM 1441\"): IBM 1440 Processing unit; 1962\n\t+ [IBM 1442](/wiki/IBM_1442 \"IBM 1442\"): IBM 1440, [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"), and [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\") Card reader/punch\n\t+ [IBM 1443](/wiki/IBM_1443 \"IBM 1443\"): IBM 1440/[IBM 1620 II](/wiki/IBM_1620_Model_II \"IBM 1620 Model II\") Printer, flying type bar\n\t+ [IBM 1447](/wiki/IBM_1447 \"IBM 1447\"): IBM 1240/1401/1440/1450/1460 Operator's Console\n\t+ [IBM 1448](/wiki/IBM_1448 \"IBM 1448\"): IBM 1240/1440/1460 Transmission Control Unit(between system and 1030/1050/1060/AT\\&T...)\n* [IBM 1450](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Data Processing System for small banks; 1968\n* [IBM 1460](/wiki/IBM_1460 \"IBM 1460\"): Almost twice as fast as the 1401; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1447](/wiki/IBM_1447 \"IBM 1447\"): IBM 1460 System Console\n\t+ [IBM 1461](/wiki/IBM_1461 \"IBM 1461\"): IBM 1460—Input/Output Control\n\t+ [IBM 1462](/wiki/IBM_1462 \"IBM 1462\"): IBM 1460—Printer Control\n* [IBM 7010](/wiki/IBM_7010 \"IBM 7010\"): High\\-capacity version of 1410; 1962\n\n### IBM 1620\n\n* [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"): Data Processing System; 1959\n\t+ [IBM 1443](/wiki/IBM_1443 \"IBM 1443\"): [IBM 1440](/wiki/IBM_1440 \"IBM 1440\")/[IBM 1620 II](/wiki/IBM_1620_Model_II \"IBM 1620 Model II\") Printer, flying type bar\n\t+ [IBM 1621](/wiki/IBM_1621 \"IBM 1621\"): IBM 1620 Paper tape reader\n\t+ [IBM 1622](/wiki/IBM_1622 \"IBM 1622\"): IBM 1620 Punched card reader/punch\n\t+ [IBM 1623](/wiki/IBM_1623 \"IBM 1623\"): [IBM 1620 I](/wiki/IBM_1620_Model_I \"IBM 1620 Model I\") Memory Expansion Unit (20000/40000—4\\-bit digits, flag and check bits; **CF8421**)\n\t+ [IBM 1624](/wiki/IBM_1624 \"IBM 1624\"): IBM 1620 Paper tape punch\n\t+ [IBM 1625](/wiki/IBM_1625 \"IBM 1625\"): IBM 1620 II Memory Unit (20000/40000/60000—4\\-bit digits, flag and check bits; **CF8421**)\n\t+ [IBM 1626](/wiki/IBM_1626 \"IBM 1626\"): IBM 1620 Plotter control\n\t+ [IBM 1627](/wiki/IBM_1627 \"IBM 1627\"): IBM 1620 Plotter. Also used by [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\").\n\n### IBM 7030 (*Stretch*)\n\n* [IBM 7030](/wiki/IBM_7030 \"IBM 7030\"): [Supercomputer](/wiki/Supercomputer \"Supercomputer\"); 1960 (*Stretch*)\n\t+ [IBM 353](/wiki/IBM_353 \"IBM 353\"): IBM 7030 Disk drive\n\t+ [IBM 354](/wiki/IBM_354 \"IBM 354\"): IBM 7030 Disk drive controller\n\t+ [IBM 7152](/wiki/IBM_7152 \"IBM 7152\"): IBM 7030 Operator's Console\n\t+ [IBM 7302](/wiki/IBM_7302 \"IBM 7302\"): IBM 7030 Core Storage (16384 72\\-bit words: 64 data bits \\& 8 [ECC](/wiki/Error-correcting_code \"Error-correcting code\") bits)\n\t+ [IBM 7303](/wiki/IBM_7303 \"IBM 7303\"): IBM 7030 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7503](/wiki/IBM_7503 \"IBM 7503\"): IBM 7030 Punched card reader\n\t+ [IBM 7612](/wiki/IBM_7612 \"IBM 7612\"): IBM 7030 Disk Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 7619](/wiki/IBM_7619 \"IBM 7619\"): IBM 7030 I/O exchange (8, 16, 24, or 32 I/O channels)\n\n### IBM 7070 series: 7070, 7072, 7074\n\n* [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\"): Intermediate data processing system; 1960\n* [IBM 7072](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\"): Intermediate data processing system; 1962\n* [IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\"): Intermediate data processing system; 1961\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Magnetic tape Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7104](/wiki/IBM_7104 \"IBM 7104\"): IBM 7074 High\\-Speed Processor\n\t+ [IBM 7150](/wiki/IBM_7150 \"IBM 7150\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Console Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 7300](/wiki/IBM_7300 \"IBM 7300\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7301](/wiki/IBM_7301 \"IBM 7301\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Core Storage (5000/9990—10\\-digit words)\n\t+ [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 hypertape (7074 only)\n\t+ [IBM 7400](/wiki/IBM_7400 \"IBM 7400\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Printer\n\t+ [IBM 7500](/wiki/IBM_7500 \"IBM 7500\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 7501](/wiki/IBM_7501 \"IBM 7501\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Console Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 7550](/wiki/IBM_7550 \"IBM 7550\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 7600](/wiki/IBM_7600 \"IBM 7600\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Input\\-Output Control\n\t+ [IBM 7601](/wiki/IBM_7601 \"IBM 7601\"): IBM 7070 Arithmetic and Program Control\n\t+ [IBM 7602](/wiki/IBM_7602 \"IBM 7602\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Core Storage Controller for IBM 7301\n\t+ [IBM 7603](/wiki/IBM_7603 \"IBM 7603\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Input\\-Output Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 7604](/wiki/IBM_7604 \"IBM 7604\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Tape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7605](/wiki/IBM_7605 \"IBM 7605\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Control\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 1410/IBM 7010, IBM 7070/IBM 7074, IBM 7080 File Control\n\t+ [IBM 7640](/wiki/IBM_7640 \"IBM 7640\"): IBM 7074/IBM 7080 Hypertape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7802](/wiki/IBM_7802 \"IBM 7802\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Power Converter\n\t+ [IBM 7907](/wiki/IBM_7907 \"IBM 7907\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Data Channel (8 bit)\n* [IBM 7710](/wiki/IBM_7710 \"IBM 7710\"): Data Communication Unit\n* [IBM 7711](/wiki/IBM_7711 \"IBM 7711\"): Data Communication Unit\n\n### IBM 7080\n\n* [IBM 7080](/wiki/IBM_7080 \"IBM 7080\"): High\\-capacity business computer; 1961\n\t+ [IBM 717](/wiki/IBM_717 \"IBM 717\"): IBM 7080 150 LPM printer\n\t+ [IBM 720](/wiki/IBM_720 \"IBM 720\"): IBM 7080 500 LPM printer\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): IBM 7080 Magnetic tape Unit\n\t+ [IBM 730](/wiki/IBM_730 \"IBM 730\"): IBM 7080 1000 LPM printer\n\t+ [IBM 735](/wiki/IBM_735 \"IBM 735\"): IBM 7080 Printer Control for IBM 730\n\t+ [IBM 757](/wiki/IBM_757 \"IBM 757\"): IBM 7080 printer control for 717\n\t+ [IBM 760](/wiki/IBM_760 \"IBM 760\"): IBM 7080 Control and Storage\n\t\t- Model 1 for IBM 720 Printer\n\t\t- Model 2 for IBM 730 Printer\n\t+ [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 7080 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): IBM 7080 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7153](/wiki/IBM_7153 \"IBM 7153\"): IBM 7080 Console Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 7302](/wiki/IBM_7302 \"IBM 7302\"): IBM 7080 Core Storage (80000/160000—6\\-bit characters, check bit ; **CBA8421**)\n\t+ [IBM 7305](/wiki/IBM_7305 \"IBM 7305\"): IBM 7080 Core Storage Controller and I/O Controller for IBM 7302\n\t+ [IBM 7502](/wiki/IBM_7502 \"IBM 7502\"): IBM 7080 Console Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 7621](/wiki/IBM_7621 \"IBM 7621\"): IBM 7080 Tape Control (729\\)\n\t+ [IBM 7622](/wiki/IBM_7622 \"IBM 7622\"): IBM 7080 Signal Control (vacuum tube peripherals)\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 7080 File Control\n\t+ [IBM 7640](/wiki/IBM_7640 \"IBM 7640\"): IBM 7080 Hypertape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7800](/wiki/IBM_7800 \"IBM 7800\"): IBM 7080 Power Converter\n\t+ [IBM 7801](/wiki/IBM_7801 \"IBM 7801\"): IBM 7080 Power Control\n\t+ [IBM 7908](/wiki/IBM_7908 \"IBM 7908\"): IBM 7080 Data Channel (8 bit)\n\n### IBM 7090 series: 7040, 7044, 7090, 7094, 7094 II\n\n* [IBM 7040](/wiki/IBM_7040 \"IBM 7040\"): Low\\-cost version of 7094; 1963 Included an extension to the 7090/7094 instruction set to handle character string(s) thus improving the speed of commercial applications (COBOL).\n\t+ [IBM 7106](/wiki/IBM_7106 \"IBM 7106\"): Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1414](/wiki/IBM_1414 \"IBM 1414\"): IBM 7040 I/O Synchronizer\n\t\t- **IBM 1014**: IBM 1414 Remote Inquiry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\"): IBM 7040 card, printer, magnetic tape, tele\\-processing input/output\n* [IBM 7044](/wiki/IBM_7044 \"IBM 7044\"): Low\\-cost version of 7094; 1963 This was a high performance version of the 7040 with the same extensions to the 7090/7094 instruction set; it also attached 7094 I/O devices.\n\t+ [IBM 7107](/wiki/IBM_7107 \"IBM 7107\"): Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1414](/wiki/IBM_1414 \"IBM 1414\"): IBM 7040 I/O Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\"): IBM 7040 card, printer, magnetic tape, tele\\-processing input/output\n* [IBM 7090](/wiki/IBM_7090 \"IBM 7090\"): High\\-capacity scientific computer; 1959\n* [IBM 7094](/wiki/IBM_7094 \"IBM 7094\"): Improved version of 7090; 1962\n* [IBM 7094 II](/wiki/IBM_7094_Model_II \"IBM 7094 Model II\"): Improved version of 7094; 1964\n\t+ [IBM 711](/wiki/IBM_711 \"IBM 711\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 716](/wiki/IBM_716 \"IBM 716\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Printer\n\t+ [IBM 721](/wiki/IBM_721 \"IBM 721\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Magnetic tape Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7151](/wiki/IBM_7151 \"IBM 7151\"): IBM 7090 Console Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 7151\\-2: IBM 7094 Console Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 7302](/wiki/IBM_7302 \"IBM 7302\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094/[IBM 7094 II](/wiki/IBM_7094_Model_II \"IBM 7094 Model II\") Core Storage (32768—36\\-bit words, 6\\-bit BCD characters)\n\t+ [IBM 7320](/wiki/IBM_7320 \"IBM 7320\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Drum Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Hypertape\n\t+ [IBM 7606](/wiki/IBM_7606 \"IBM 7606\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094/IBM 7094 II Multiplexer and Core Storage Controller for IBM 7302\n\t+ [IBM 7607](/wiki/IBM_7607 \"IBM 7607\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Data Channel (6 bit)\n\t+ [IBM 7608](/wiki/IBM_7608 \"IBM 7608\"): IBM 7090 Power Converter\n\t+ [IBM 7617](/wiki/IBM_7617 \"IBM 7617\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Data Channel Console\n\t+ [IBM 7618](/wiki/IBM_7618 \"IBM 7618\"): IBM 7090 Power Control\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 File Control\n\t+ [IBM 7640](/wiki/IBM_7640 \"IBM 7640\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Hypertape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7909](/wiki/IBM_7909 \"IBM 7909\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Data Channel (8 bit)\n\t+ [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361 \"IBM 2361\"): [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s [Manned Spacecraft Center](/wiki/Manned_Spacecraft_Center \"Manned Spacecraft Center\") IBM 7094 II Core Storage Unit (524288—36\\-bit words); 1964\n",
"### IBM 1400 series: 1240, 1401, 1410, 1420, 1440, 1450, 1460, 7010\n\n* [IBM 1240](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Banking system; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1241](/wiki/IBM_1241 \"IBM 1241\"): Bank Processing Unit\n* [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\"): Small business computer; 1959\n\t+ [IBM 1402](/wiki/IBM_1402 \"IBM 1402\"): IBM 1401 Card reader/punch\n\t+ [IBM 1403](/wiki/IBM_1403 \"IBM 1403\"): IBM 1401 Printer, type chain; 1959\n\t\t- [IBM 1416](/wiki/IBM_1403%23IBM_1416 \"IBM 1403#IBM 1416\"): IBM 1403 and IBM 3203 Interchangeable Train Cartridge\n\t+ [IBM 1405](/wiki/IBM_1405 \"IBM 1405\"): IBM 1401/1410 RAMAC (Disk drive)\n\t+ [IBM 1406](/wiki/IBM_1406 \"IBM 1406\"): IBM 1401 Memory Expansion Unit (4000/8000/12000—6\\-bit characters, check bit, and wordmark)\n\t+ [IBM 1407](/wiki/IBM_1407 \"IBM 1407\"): IBM 1401 Console Inquiry Station\n\t+ [IBM 1409](/wiki/IBM_1409 \"IBM 1409\"): IBM 1401 Console Auxiliary\n\t+ [IBM 7641](/wiki/IBM_7641 \"IBM 7641\"): IBM 1401/1410/1460 Hypertape Control\n* [IBM 1410](/wiki/IBM_1410 \"IBM 1410\"): Midrange business computer; 1960\n\t+ [IBM 1411](/wiki/IBM_1411 \"IBM 1411\"): IBM 1410 processing unit\n\t+ [IBM 1414](/wiki/IBM_1414 \"IBM 1414\"): IBM 1410/7010: I/O Synchronizer\n\t\t- **IBM 1014**: IBM 1414 Remote Inquiry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1415](/wiki/IBM_1415 \"IBM 1415\"): IBM 1410/7010—Console\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 1410/7010, IBM 7070/7074, 7080—File Control\n* [IBM 1420](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): High\\-speed bank transit system; 1962\n* [IBM 1440](/wiki/IBM_1440 \"IBM 1440\"): Low\\-cost business computer; 1962\n\t+ [IBM 1441](/wiki/IBM_1441 \"IBM 1441\"): IBM 1440 Processing unit; 1962\n\t+ [IBM 1442](/wiki/IBM_1442 \"IBM 1442\"): IBM 1440, [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"), and [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\") Card reader/punch\n\t+ [IBM 1443](/wiki/IBM_1443 \"IBM 1443\"): IBM 1440/[IBM 1620 II](/wiki/IBM_1620_Model_II \"IBM 1620 Model II\") Printer, flying type bar\n\t+ [IBM 1447](/wiki/IBM_1447 \"IBM 1447\"): IBM 1240/1401/1440/1450/1460 Operator's Console\n\t+ [IBM 1448](/wiki/IBM_1448 \"IBM 1448\"): IBM 1240/1440/1460 Transmission Control Unit(between system and 1030/1050/1060/AT\\&T...)\n* [IBM 1450](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Data Processing System for small banks; 1968\n* [IBM 1460](/wiki/IBM_1460 \"IBM 1460\"): Almost twice as fast as the 1401; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1447](/wiki/IBM_1447 \"IBM 1447\"): IBM 1460 System Console\n\t+ [IBM 1461](/wiki/IBM_1461 \"IBM 1461\"): IBM 1460—Input/Output Control\n\t+ [IBM 1462](/wiki/IBM_1462 \"IBM 1462\"): IBM 1460—Printer Control\n* [IBM 7010](/wiki/IBM_7010 \"IBM 7010\"): High\\-capacity version of 1410; 1962\n",
"### IBM 1620\n\n* [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"): Data Processing System; 1959\n\t+ [IBM 1443](/wiki/IBM_1443 \"IBM 1443\"): [IBM 1440](/wiki/IBM_1440 \"IBM 1440\")/[IBM 1620 II](/wiki/IBM_1620_Model_II \"IBM 1620 Model II\") Printer, flying type bar\n\t+ [IBM 1621](/wiki/IBM_1621 \"IBM 1621\"): IBM 1620 Paper tape reader\n\t+ [IBM 1622](/wiki/IBM_1622 \"IBM 1622\"): IBM 1620 Punched card reader/punch\n\t+ [IBM 1623](/wiki/IBM_1623 \"IBM 1623\"): [IBM 1620 I](/wiki/IBM_1620_Model_I \"IBM 1620 Model I\") Memory Expansion Unit (20000/40000—4\\-bit digits, flag and check bits; **CF8421**)\n\t+ [IBM 1624](/wiki/IBM_1624 \"IBM 1624\"): IBM 1620 Paper tape punch\n\t+ [IBM 1625](/wiki/IBM_1625 \"IBM 1625\"): IBM 1620 II Memory Unit (20000/40000/60000—4\\-bit digits, flag and check bits; **CF8421**)\n\t+ [IBM 1626](/wiki/IBM_1626 \"IBM 1626\"): IBM 1620 Plotter control\n\t+ [IBM 1627](/wiki/IBM_1627 \"IBM 1627\"): IBM 1620 Plotter. Also used by [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\").\n",
"### IBM 7030 (*Stretch*)\n\n* [IBM 7030](/wiki/IBM_7030 \"IBM 7030\"): [Supercomputer](/wiki/Supercomputer \"Supercomputer\"); 1960 (*Stretch*)\n\t+ [IBM 353](/wiki/IBM_353 \"IBM 353\"): IBM 7030 Disk drive\n\t+ [IBM 354](/wiki/IBM_354 \"IBM 354\"): IBM 7030 Disk drive controller\n\t+ [IBM 7152](/wiki/IBM_7152 \"IBM 7152\"): IBM 7030 Operator's Console\n\t+ [IBM 7302](/wiki/IBM_7302 \"IBM 7302\"): IBM 7030 Core Storage (16384 72\\-bit words: 64 data bits \\& 8 [ECC](/wiki/Error-correcting_code \"Error-correcting code\") bits)\n\t+ [IBM 7303](/wiki/IBM_7303 \"IBM 7303\"): IBM 7030 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7503](/wiki/IBM_7503 \"IBM 7503\"): IBM 7030 Punched card reader\n\t+ [IBM 7612](/wiki/IBM_7612 \"IBM 7612\"): IBM 7030 Disk Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 7619](/wiki/IBM_7619 \"IBM 7619\"): IBM 7030 I/O exchange (8, 16, 24, or 32 I/O channels)\n",
"### IBM 7070 series: 7070, 7072, 7074\n\n* [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\"): Intermediate data processing system; 1960\n* [IBM 7072](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\"): Intermediate data processing system; 1962\n* [IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\"): Intermediate data processing system; 1961\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Magnetic tape Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7104](/wiki/IBM_7104 \"IBM 7104\"): IBM 7074 High\\-Speed Processor\n\t+ [IBM 7150](/wiki/IBM_7150 \"IBM 7150\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Console Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 7300](/wiki/IBM_7300 \"IBM 7300\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7301](/wiki/IBM_7301 \"IBM 7301\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Core Storage (5000/9990—10\\-digit words)\n\t+ [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 hypertape (7074 only)\n\t+ [IBM 7400](/wiki/IBM_7400 \"IBM 7400\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Printer\n\t+ [IBM 7500](/wiki/IBM_7500 \"IBM 7500\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 7501](/wiki/IBM_7501 \"IBM 7501\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Console Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 7550](/wiki/IBM_7550 \"IBM 7550\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 7600](/wiki/IBM_7600 \"IBM 7600\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Input\\-Output Control\n\t+ [IBM 7601](/wiki/IBM_7601 \"IBM 7601\"): IBM 7070 Arithmetic and Program Control\n\t+ [IBM 7602](/wiki/IBM_7602 \"IBM 7602\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Core Storage Controller for IBM 7301\n\t+ [IBM 7603](/wiki/IBM_7603 \"IBM 7603\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Input\\-Output Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 7604](/wiki/IBM_7604 \"IBM 7604\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Tape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7605](/wiki/IBM_7605 \"IBM 7605\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Disk Control\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 1410/IBM 7010, IBM 7070/IBM 7074, IBM 7080 File Control\n\t+ [IBM 7640](/wiki/IBM_7640 \"IBM 7640\"): IBM 7074/IBM 7080 Hypertape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7802](/wiki/IBM_7802 \"IBM 7802\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Power Converter\n\t+ [IBM 7907](/wiki/IBM_7907 \"IBM 7907\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Data Channel (8 bit)\n* [IBM 7710](/wiki/IBM_7710 \"IBM 7710\"): Data Communication Unit\n* [IBM 7711](/wiki/IBM_7711 \"IBM 7711\"): Data Communication Unit\n",
"### IBM 7080\n\n* [IBM 7080](/wiki/IBM_7080 \"IBM 7080\"): High\\-capacity business computer; 1961\n\t+ [IBM 717](/wiki/IBM_717 \"IBM 717\"): IBM 7080 150 LPM printer\n\t+ [IBM 720](/wiki/IBM_720 \"IBM 720\"): IBM 7080 500 LPM printer\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): IBM 7080 Magnetic tape Unit\n\t+ [IBM 730](/wiki/IBM_730 \"IBM 730\"): IBM 7080 1000 LPM printer\n\t+ [IBM 735](/wiki/IBM_735 \"IBM 735\"): IBM 7080 Printer Control for IBM 730\n\t+ [IBM 757](/wiki/IBM_757 \"IBM 757\"): IBM 7080 printer control for 717\n\t+ [IBM 760](/wiki/IBM_760 \"IBM 760\"): IBM 7080 Control and Storage\n\t\t- Model 1 for IBM 720 Printer\n\t\t- Model 2 for IBM 730 Printer\n\t+ [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 7080 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): IBM 7080 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7153](/wiki/IBM_7153 \"IBM 7153\"): IBM 7080 Console Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 7302](/wiki/IBM_7302 \"IBM 7302\"): IBM 7080 Core Storage (80000/160000—6\\-bit characters, check bit ; **CBA8421**)\n\t+ [IBM 7305](/wiki/IBM_7305 \"IBM 7305\"): IBM 7080 Core Storage Controller and I/O Controller for IBM 7302\n\t+ [IBM 7502](/wiki/IBM_7502 \"IBM 7502\"): IBM 7080 Console Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 7621](/wiki/IBM_7621 \"IBM 7621\"): IBM 7080 Tape Control (729\\)\n\t+ [IBM 7622](/wiki/IBM_7622 \"IBM 7622\"): IBM 7080 Signal Control (vacuum tube peripherals)\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 7080 File Control\n\t+ [IBM 7640](/wiki/IBM_7640 \"IBM 7640\"): IBM 7080 Hypertape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7800](/wiki/IBM_7800 \"IBM 7800\"): IBM 7080 Power Converter\n\t+ [IBM 7801](/wiki/IBM_7801 \"IBM 7801\"): IBM 7080 Power Control\n\t+ [IBM 7908](/wiki/IBM_7908 \"IBM 7908\"): IBM 7080 Data Channel (8 bit)\n",
"### IBM 7090 series: 7040, 7044, 7090, 7094, 7094 II\n\n* [IBM 7040](/wiki/IBM_7040 \"IBM 7040\"): Low\\-cost version of 7094; 1963 Included an extension to the 7090/7094 instruction set to handle character string(s) thus improving the speed of commercial applications (COBOL).\n\t+ [IBM 7106](/wiki/IBM_7106 \"IBM 7106\"): Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1414](/wiki/IBM_1414 \"IBM 1414\"): IBM 7040 I/O Synchronizer\n\t\t- **IBM 1014**: IBM 1414 Remote Inquiry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\"): IBM 7040 card, printer, magnetic tape, tele\\-processing input/output\n* [IBM 7044](/wiki/IBM_7044 \"IBM 7044\"): Low\\-cost version of 7094; 1963 This was a high performance version of the 7040 with the same extensions to the 7090/7094 instruction set; it also attached 7094 I/O devices.\n\t+ [IBM 7107](/wiki/IBM_7107 \"IBM 7107\"): Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1414](/wiki/IBM_1414 \"IBM 1414\"): IBM 7040 I/O Synchronizer\n\t+ [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\"): IBM 7040 card, printer, magnetic tape, tele\\-processing input/output\n* [IBM 7090](/wiki/IBM_7090 \"IBM 7090\"): High\\-capacity scientific computer; 1959\n* [IBM 7094](/wiki/IBM_7094 \"IBM 7094\"): Improved version of 7090; 1962\n* [IBM 7094 II](/wiki/IBM_7094_Model_II \"IBM 7094 Model II\"): Improved version of 7094; 1964\n\t+ [IBM 711](/wiki/IBM_711 \"IBM 711\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Card Reader\n\t+ [IBM 716](/wiki/IBM_716 \"IBM 716\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Printer\n\t+ [IBM 721](/wiki/IBM_721 \"IBM 721\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Card Punch\n\t+ [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Magnetic tape Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Disk Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7151](/wiki/IBM_7151 \"IBM 7151\"): IBM 7090 Console Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 7151\\-2: IBM 7094 Console Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 7302](/wiki/IBM_7302 \"IBM 7302\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094/[IBM 7094 II](/wiki/IBM_7094_Model_II \"IBM 7094 Model II\") Core Storage (32768—36\\-bit words, 6\\-bit BCD characters)\n\t+ [IBM 7320](/wiki/IBM_7320 \"IBM 7320\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Drum Storage\n\t+ [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Hypertape\n\t+ [IBM 7606](/wiki/IBM_7606 \"IBM 7606\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094/IBM 7094 II Multiplexer and Core Storage Controller for IBM 7302\n\t+ [IBM 7607](/wiki/IBM_7607 \"IBM 7607\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Data Channel (6 bit)\n\t+ [IBM 7608](/wiki/IBM_7608 \"IBM 7608\"): IBM 7090 Power Converter\n\t+ [IBM 7617](/wiki/IBM_7617 \"IBM 7617\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Data Channel Console\n\t+ [IBM 7618](/wiki/IBM_7618 \"IBM 7618\"): IBM 7090 Power Control\n\t+ [IBM 7631](/wiki/IBM_7631 \"IBM 7631\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 File Control\n\t+ [IBM 7640](/wiki/IBM_7640 \"IBM 7640\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Hypertape Control\n\t+ [IBM 7909](/wiki/IBM_7909 \"IBM 7909\"): IBM 7090/IBM 7094 Data Channel (8 bit)\n\t+ [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361 \"IBM 2361\"): [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s [Manned Spacecraft Center](/wiki/Manned_Spacecraft_Center \"Manned Spacecraft Center\") IBM 7094 II Core Storage Unit (524288—36\\-bit words); 1964\n",
"Later solid\\-state computers \\& systems\n---------------------------------------\n\n### Computers based on SLT or discrete IC CPUs (1964–1989\\)\n\n* [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"): high\\-precision scientific computer; 1965\n\t+ [IBM 1132](/wiki/IBM_1132 \"IBM 1132\"): [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\") Printer, based on [IBM 407](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\") type\\-wheel mechanism\n\t+ [IBM 1133](/wiki/IBM_1133 \"IBM 1133\"): [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\") Multiplexer and [cycle stealer](/wiki/Cycle_steal \"Cycle steal\"), to connect an [IBM 1403](/wiki/IBM_1403 \"IBM 1403\") fast printer\n* [IBM 2020](/wiki/IBM_2020 \"IBM 2020\"): [System/360](/wiki/System/360 \"System/360\") Model 20 Central Processing Unit; almost a 360: 1966\n* [IBM 2022](/wiki/IBM_2022 \"IBM 2022\"): System/360 Model 22 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2025](/wiki/IBM_2025 \"IBM 2025\"): System/360 Model 25 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2030](/wiki/IBM_2030 \"IBM 2030\"): System/360 Model 30 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2040](/wiki/IBM_2040 \"IBM 2040\"): System/360 Model 40 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2044](/wiki/IBM_2044 \"IBM 2044\"): System/360 Model 44 Central Processing Unit; scientific 360; business with special feature\n* [IBM 2050](/wiki/IBM_2050 \"IBM 2050\"): System/360 Model 50 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360\n* [IBM 2060](/wiki/IBM_2060 \"IBM 2060\"): System/360 Models 60 and 62 Central Processing Unit; mid\\-range 360; announced but never released\n* [IBM 2064](/wiki/IBM_2064 \"IBM 2064\"): System/360 Models 64 and 66 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360; multi\\-processor with virtual memory (DAT); announced but never released\n* [IBM 2065](/wiki/IBM_2065 \"IBM 2065\"): System/360 Model 65 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360: used by [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") in Apollo project\n* [IBM 2067](/wiki/IBM_2067 \"IBM 2067\"): System/360 Model 67 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360; multi\\-processor with virtual memory (DAT)\n* [IBM 2070](/wiki/IBM_2070 \"IBM 2070\"): System/360 Model 70 Central Processing Unit; high range 360; announced but never released\n* [IBM 2075](/wiki/IBM_2075 \"IBM 2075\"): System/360 Model 75 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 2085](/wiki/IBM_2085 \"IBM 2085\"): System/360 Model 85 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n\t+ [IBM 5450](/wiki/IBM_5450 \"IBM 5450\"): Display console used with Model 85 (80 characters x 35 lines)\n* [IBM 2091](/wiki/IBM_2091 \"IBM 2091\"): System/360 Model 91 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 2095](/wiki/IBM_2095 \"IBM 2095\"): System/360 Model 95 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 2195](/wiki/IBM_2195 \"IBM 2195\"): System/360 Model 195 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 3031](/wiki/IBM_3031 \"IBM 3031\"): [System/370](/wiki/System/370 \"System/370\")\\-compatible mainframe; high range (first series to incorporate integral, i.e., internal, stand\\-alone channels, these being stripped\\-down 3158\\-type CPUs, but operating in \"channel mode\", only)\n\t+ [IBM 3017](/wiki/IBM_3017 \"IBM 3017\"): Power Distribution Unit/Motor Generator (3031 processor complex)\n* [IBM 3032](/wiki/IBM_3032 \"IBM 3032\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; high range (first series to incorporate integral, i.e., internal, stand\\-alone channels, these being stripped\\-down 3158\\-type CPUs, but operating in \"channel mode\", only)\n\t+ [IBM 3027](/wiki/IBM_3027 \"IBM 3027\"): Power and Coolant Distribution Unit (3032 processor complex)\n* [IBM 3033](/wiki/IBM_3033 \"IBM 3033\"): System/370\\-compatible multiprocessor complex; high range; 1977 (first series to incorporate integral, i.e., internal, stand\\-alone channels, these being stripped\\-down 3158\\-type CPUs, but operating in \"channel mode\", only)\n\t+ [IBM 3037](/wiki/IBM_3037 \"IBM 3037\"): Power and Coolant Distribution Unit (3033 processor complex)\n* [IBM 3036](/wiki/IBM_3036 \"IBM 3036\"): Dual\\-display (operator's) console, shipped with 303X\n* [IBM 3038](/wiki/IBM_3038 \"IBM 3038\"): Multiprocessor Communication Unit for 3033 MP\n* [IBM 3042](/wiki/IBM_3042 \"IBM 3042\"): Attached processor for 3033 Model A\n* [IBM 3081](/wiki/IBM_3081 \"IBM 3081\"): System/370\\-compatible dual\\-processor mainframe; high range; models: D, G, G2, GX, K (1981\\), K2, KX (2 \\= enhanced version); 1980\n\t+ [IBM 3082](/wiki/IBM_3082 \"IBM 3082\"): Processor Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3087](/wiki/IBM_3087 \"IBM 3087\"): Coolant Distribution Unit\n\t+ [IBM 3089](/wiki/IBM_3089 \"IBM 3089\"): Power Unit\n* [IBM 3083](/wiki/IBM_3083 \"IBM 3083\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe, single processor 3081; high range; models: B (1982\\), B2, BX, CX, E (1982\\), E2, EX, J (1982\\), J2, JX\n* [IBM 3084](/wiki/IBM_3084 \"IBM 3084\"): System/370\\-compatible Quad\\-processor mainframe; high range; 3081 \\+ 3081 with same serial number, but two on/off switches; models: Q 2\\-way, Q 2\\-way2, QX 2\\-way, Q 4\\-way, Q 4\\-way2, QX 4\\-way; 1982\n* [IBM 3090](/wiki/IBM_3090 \"IBM 3090\"): System/370 mainframe; high range; J series supersedes S series. Models: 150, 150E, 180, 200 (1985\\), 400 2\\-way (1985\\), 400 4\\-way (1985\\), 600E (1987\\), 600S (1988\\). A 400 actually consists of two 200s mounted together in a single frame. Although it provides an enormous computing power, some limits, like CSA size, are still fixed by the 16MB line in MVS.\n\t+ [IBM 3097](/wiki/IBM_3097 \"IBM 3097\"): Power and Coolant Distribution Unit\n* [IBM 3115](/wiki/IBM_3115 \"IBM 3115\"): System/370 Model 115 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3125](/wiki/IBM_3125 \"IBM 3125\"): System/370 Model 125 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3135](/wiki/IBM_3135 \"IBM 3135\"): System/370 Model 135 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3145](/wiki/IBM_3145 \"IBM 3145\"): System/370 Model 145 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3155](/wiki/IBM_3155 \"IBM 3155\"): System/370 Model 155 Central Processing Unit; mid range; without virtual memory \\[DAT] unless upgraded to 155\\-II\n* [IBM 3165](/wiki/IBM_3165 \"IBM 3165\"): System/370 Model 165 Central Processing Unit; mid range; without virtual memory \\[DAT] unless upgraded to 165\\-II\n\t+ [IBM 3066](/wiki/IBM_3066 \"IBM 3066\"): Display console used with Models 165 and 166 (80 characters x 35 lines)\n* [IBM 3138](/wiki/IBM_3138 \"IBM 3138\"): System/370 Model 138 Central Processing Unit; small range;\n* [IBM 3148](/wiki/IBM_3148 \"IBM 3148\"): System/370 Model 148 Central Processing Unit; small range;\n* [IBM 3158](/wiki/IBM_3158 \"IBM 3158\"): System/370 Model 158 Central Processing Unit; mid range;\n* [IBM 3168](/wiki/IBM_3168 \"IBM 3168\"): System/370 Model 168 Central Processing Unit; high range;\n\t+ [IBM 3066](/wiki/IBM_3066 \"IBM 3066\"): Display console used with Models 165 and 166 (80 characters x 35 lines)\n* [IBM 3195](/wiki/IBM_3195 \"IBM 3195\"): System/370 Model 195 Central Processing Unit; high range; without virtual memory \\[DAT]\n* [IBM 3741](/wiki/IBM_3741 \"IBM 3741\"): data station; 1973\n* [IBM 3790](/wiki/IBM_3790 \"IBM 3790\"): distributed computer; announced 1975 (followed by the [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\"))\n\t+ [IBM 3791](/wiki/IBM_3791 \"IBM 3791\"): Controller, model 1 or 2\\.\n\t+ [IBM 3792](/wiki/IBM_3792 \"IBM 3792\"): Auxiliary control unit.\n\t+ [IBM 3793](/wiki/IBM_3793 \"IBM 3793\"): Keyboard\\-Printer.\n* [IBM 4300](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): series of System/370\\-compatible mainframe models; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4321](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; successor of 4331\n\t+ [IBM 4321](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4331](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4341](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; mid range; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4361](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; 1983\n\t+ [IBM 4381](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; mid range; 1983\n* [IBM 5100](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\"): portable computer; evolution of the 1973 SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) prototype; 1975\n\t+ [IBM 5103](/wiki/IBM_5103 \"IBM 5103\"): Dot matrix printer\n* [IBM 5110](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\"): portable computer; models 1, 2 \\& 3 featured a [QIC](/wiki/Quarter-inch_cartridge \"Quarter-inch cartridge\") [tape drive](/wiki/Tape_drive \"Tape drive\"), and then [floppy disk](/wiki/Floppy_disk \"Floppy disk\") drives; 1978\n* [IBM 5120](/wiki/IBM_5120 \"IBM 5120\"): portable computer; featured two built\\-in 8\\-inch 1\\.2 MB floppy disk drives; 1980\n* [IBM 5280](/wiki/IBM_5280 \"IBM 5280\"): Distributed Data System; 1980\n\t+ [IBM 5281](/wiki/IBM_5281 \"IBM 5281\"): Data Station for 5280\n\t+ [IBM 5282](/wiki/IBM_5282 \"IBM 5282\"): Dual Data Station for 5280\n\t+ [IBM 5285](/wiki/IBM_5285 \"IBM 5285\"): Programmable Data Station\n\t+ [IBM 5286](/wiki/IBM_5286 \"IBM 5286\"): Dual Programmable Data Station\n\t+ [IBM 5288](/wiki/IBM_5288 \"IBM 5288\"): Programmable Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 5225](/wiki/IBM_5225 \"IBM 5225\"): Printer for 5280 (floor\\-standing; Models 1, 2, 3, 4\\)\n\t+ [IBM 5256](/wiki/IBM_5256 \"IBM 5256\"): Printer for 5280 (table\\-top, dot\\-matrix; Models 1, 2, 3\\)\n* [IBM 5320](/wiki/IBM_5320 \"IBM 5320\"): [System/32](/wiki/System/32 \"System/32\"), low\\-end business computer; 1975\n* [IBM 5340](/wiki/IBM_5340 \"IBM 5340\"): [System/34](/wiki/System/34 \"System/34\"), System unit, successor of System/32, but had also a second System/3 processor; 1977\n* [IBM 5360](/wiki/IBM_5360 \"IBM 5360\"): [System/36](/wiki/System/36 \"System/36\") System Unit\n* [IBM 5362](/wiki/IBM_5362 \"IBM 5362\"): System/36 System Unit\n* [IBM 5363](/wiki/IBM_5363 \"IBM 5363\"): System/36 System Unit\n* [IBM 5364](/wiki/IBM_5364 \"IBM 5364\"); System/36 System Unit\n* [IBM 5381](/wiki/IBM_5381 \"IBM 5381\"): [System/38](/wiki/System/38 \"System/38\") System Unit; 1978\n* [IBM 5382](/wiki/IBM_5382 \"IBM 5382\"): System/38 System Unit\n* [IBM 5410](/wiki/IBM_5410 \"IBM 5410\"): [System/3](/wiki/System/3 \"System/3\") model 10 processor; for small businesses; 1969\n* [IBM 5415](/wiki/IBM_5415 \"IBM 5415\"): System/3 model 15 processor; 1973\n* [IBM 5520](/wiki/IBM_5520 \"IBM 5520\"): Administrative System; 1979\n* [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\"): distributed computer; announced 1978\n* [IBM 8150](/wiki/IBM_8150 \"IBM 8150\"): processor\n* [IBM 9370](/wiki/IBM_9370 \"IBM 9370\"): series of System/370 mainframe models; partly replaced [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\"); low range; 1986\n\t+ [IBM 9371](/wiki/IBM_9371 \"IBM 9371\"): \"Micro Channel 370\" ESA models 010, 012, 014 (later 110, 112, 114\\); 1990\n\t+ [IBM 9373](/wiki/IBM_9373 \"IBM 9373\"): models 20, 30\n\t+ [IBM 9375](/wiki/IBM_9375 \"IBM 9375\"): models 40, 50, 60\n\t+ [IBM 9377](/wiki/IBM_9377 \"IBM 9377\"): models 80 and 90\n* [IBM Series/1](/wiki/IBM_Series/1 \"IBM Series/1\"): brand name for process control computers; 1976\n* [IBM System/3](/wiki/IBM_System/3 \"IBM System/3\"): brand name for small business computers; 1969\n* [IBM System/36](/wiki/IBM_System/36 \"IBM System/36\"): brand name for minicomputers; successor of System/34; 1983\n* [IBM System/38](/wiki/IBM_System/38 \"IBM System/38\"): brand name for minicomputers; indirect successor of [IBM Future Systems project](/wiki/IBM_Future_Systems_project \"IBM Future Systems project\"); 1979\n* [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\"): brand name for mainframes; 1964\n* [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"): brand name for mainframes, successor of System/360; 1970\n* [Application System/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): brand name for computers, successor of System/38; 1988\n\n### Computers based on discrete IC CPUs (1990–present)\n\n* [IBM ES/9000 family](/wiki/IBM_ES/9000_family \"IBM ES/9000 family\") of [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") mainframes; 1990\n\t+ [IBM ES/9021](/wiki/IBM_ES/9021 \"IBM ES/9021\"): water\\-cooled ES/9000 type\n\t+ [IBM ES/9121](/wiki/IBM_ES/9121 \"IBM ES/9121\"): air\\-cooled standalone ES/9000 type\n\t+ [IBM ES/9221](/wiki/IBM_ES/9221 \"IBM ES/9221\"): air\\-cooled rack mounted ES/9000 type\n* [IBM 9406](/wiki/IBM_9406 \"IBM 9406\"): [AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\") minicomputer\n* [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): [midrange computer](/wiki/Midrange_computer \"Midrange computer\") system, successor to System/38; 1988\n* [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\"): brand name for mainframes with [ESA/390](/wiki/ESA/390 \"ESA/390\") architecture; successor of System/370; 1990\n\n### Computers based on microprocessor CPUs (1981–present)\n\n#### Computers\n\n* [IBM System/23](/wiki/IBM_System/23 \"IBM System/23\"): DataMaster, based on the [Intel 8085](/wiki/Intel_8085 \"Intel 8085\")\n\t+ 5322 Desktop all\\-in\\-one model\n\t+ 5324 Floor tower model\n* [IBM 2003](/wiki/IBM_2003 \"IBM 2003\"): a very small mainframe with [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") architecture; 1990s, also known as [Multiprise 2000](/wiki/Multiprise_2000 \"Multiprise 2000\")\n Slide 28: \"9672 to zSeries\".\n* [IBM 2064](/wiki/IBM_2064 \"IBM 2064\"): zSeries z900; note number collision with earlier System/360\\-64; 2000\n* [IBM 2066](/wiki/IBM_2066 \"IBM 2066\"): zSeries z800; less powerful variant of the z900\n* [IBM 2084](/wiki/IBM_2084 \"IBM 2084\"): zSeries z990; successor of larger z900 models\n* [IBM 2086](/wiki/IBM_2086 \"IBM 2086\"): zSeries z890; successor of the z800 and smaller z900 models; 2004\n* [IBM 2094](/wiki/IBM_2094 \"IBM 2094\"): [System z9](/wiki/System_z9 \"System z9\") Enterprise Class (z9 EC); initially known as z9\\-109; 2005\n* [IBM 2096](/wiki/IBM_2096 \"IBM 2096\"): System z9 Business Class (z9 BC); successor to z890; 2006\n* [IBM 2097](/wiki/IBM_2097 \"IBM 2097\"): [System z10 Enterprise Class (z10 EC)](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\"); successor to z9 EC; 2008\n* [IBM 2098](/wiki/IBM_2098 \"IBM 2098\"): [System z10 Business Class (z10 BC)](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\"); successor to z9 BC; 2008\n* IBM 2817: [zEnterprise 196 (z196\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen1_%28114_and_196%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen1 (114 and 196)\"); successor to z10 EC; 2010\n* IBM 2818: [zEnterprise 114 (z114\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen1_%28114_and_196%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen1 (114 and 196)\"); successor to z10 BC; 2011\n* IBM 2827: [zEnterprise EC12 (zEC12\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen2_%28zBC12_and_zEC12%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen2 (zBC12 and zEC12)\"); successor to z196; 2012\n* IBM 2828: [zEnterprise BC12 (zBC12\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen2_%28zBC12_and_zEC12%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen2 (zBC12 and zEC12)\"); successor to z114; 2013\n IBM\n* IBM 2964: [IBM z Systems z13 (z13\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23IBM_z13 \"IBM Z#IBM z13\"); successor to zEC12; 2015\n IBM\n* [IBM Personal Computer](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer \"IBM Personal Computer\"): Superseded the [IBM Portable Computer](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\").\n\t+ IBM 5150: the classic [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\")—1981\n\t+ IBM 5160: [IBM Personal Computer XT](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT \"IBM Personal Computer XT\")—1983\n\t+ [IBM 5162](/wiki/IBM_5162_Personal_Computer_XT/286 \"IBM 5162 Personal Computer XT/286\"): IBM Personal Computer XT/286\n\t+ IBM 5271: [IBM 3270 PC](/wiki/IBM_3270_PC \"IBM 3270 PC\")—1983\n\t+ [IBM 5160 Model 588](/wiki/PC-based_IBM-compatible_mainframes%23Personal_Computer_XT/370 \"PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes#Personal Computer XT/370\"): PC XT/370, a PC XT with a special add\\-in card containing an Intel 8087 math coprocessor and two [Motorola 68000](/wiki/Motorola_68000 \"Motorola 68000\") chips to execute/emulate the [System/370](/wiki/System/370 \"System/370\") instructions—1983\\.\n\t+ IBM 5155: [IBM Portable](/wiki/IBM_Portable \"IBM Portable\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 4860: [IBM PCjr](/wiki/IBM_PCjr \"IBM PCjr\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 5170: [IBM Personal Computer/AT](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer/AT \"IBM Personal Computer/AT\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 5140: [IBM Convertible](/wiki/IBM_Convertible \"IBM Convertible\")—1986\n\t+ IBM 5281: [IBM 3270 PC](/wiki/IBM_3270_PC \"IBM 3270 PC\") but based on an IBM AT.\n* [IBM 5550](/wiki/IBM_5550 \"IBM 5550\"): Personal Computer Series for Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and China\n\t+ IBM 5510: [IBM JX](/wiki/IBM_JX \"IBM JX\") (for Japan, Australia and New Zealand)\n\t+ IBM 5511: [IBM JX](/wiki/IBM_JX \"IBM JX\") (for Japan, Australia and New Zealand)\n\t+ IBM 5530: Smaller desktop, without communications adapter\n\t+ IBM 5535: Portable\n\t+ IBM 5541: Desktop\n\t+ IBM 5551: Floor standing\n\t+ IBM 5561: Larger floor standing\n* [IBM PS/2](/wiki/IBM_PS/2 \"IBM PS/2\"): range\n* [IBM PS/1](/wiki/IBM_PS/1 \"IBM PS/1\"): range, later succeeded by [IBM Aptiva](/wiki/IBM_Aptiva \"IBM Aptiva\")\n* [IBM Aptiva](/wiki/IBM_Aptiva \"IBM Aptiva\"): Personal Computer\n* [IBM PS/ValuePoint](/wiki/IBM_PS/ValuePoint \"IBM PS/ValuePoint\"): range\n* [IBM RT PC](/wiki/IBM_RT_PC \"IBM RT PC\"): series; [ROMP](/wiki/IBM_ROMP \"IBM ROMP\")\\-based; 1986\n* [IBM 4575](/wiki/IBM_4575 \"IBM 4575\"): [System/88](/wiki/Stratus_Technologies \"Stratus Technologies\") processor; 1986\n* [IBM 4576](/wiki/IBM_4576 \"IBM 4576\"): System/88 processor\n* [IBM 7060](/wiki/IBM_7060 \"IBM 7060\"), also known as [Multiprise 3000](/wiki/Multiprise_3000 \"Multiprise 3000\"): a very small mainframe with [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") architecture; models H30, H50, H70; 1999\n* [IBM System 9000](/wiki/IBM_System_9000 \"IBM System 9000\"): lab data controller, based on [Motorola 68000](/wiki/Motorola_68000 \"Motorola 68000\")\n* [IBM 9075](/wiki/IBM_9075 \"IBM 9075\"): [PCradio](/wiki/IBM_PCradio \"IBM PCradio\"), a battery\\-powered personal computer; 1991\n* [IBM 9672](/wiki/IBM_9672 \"IBM 9672\"): largest mainframes from [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") line; 1994\n\t+ G1: 9672\\-R*n*1, 9672\\-E*nn*, 9672\\-P*nn*\n\t+ G2: 9672\\-R*n*2, 9672\\-R*n*3\n\t+ G3: 9672\\-R*n*4\n\t+ G4: 9672\\-R*n*5\n\t+ G5: 9672\\-*nn*6\n\t+ G6: 9672\\-*nn*7\n* [IBM 9674](/wiki/IBM_9674 \"IBM 9674\"): coupling facility for interconnecting [IBM 9672](/wiki/IBM_9672 \"IBM 9672\") computers\n* [IBM PC Series](/wiki/IBM_PC_Series \"IBM PC Series\"): PC300 and 700 range including 300GL and 300PL\n* [IBM NetVista](/wiki/IBM_NetVista \"IBM NetVista\"): Corporate PCs\n* [IBM ThinkCentre](/wiki/ThinkCentre \"ThinkCentre\"): PC range now made under license by [Lenovo Group](/wiki/Lenovo_Group \"Lenovo Group\")\n* [IBM ThinkPad](/wiki/ThinkPad \"ThinkPad\"): Notebooks now made under license by [Lenovo Group](/wiki/Lenovo_Group \"Lenovo Group\")\n* [IBM IntelliStation](/wiki/IBM_IntelliStation \"IBM IntelliStation\") Workstations: Pro based on Intel PC processors, and POWER based on PowerPC processors\n* [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\"): brand name for mainframes with [ESA/390](/wiki/ESA/390 \"ESA/390\") architecture; successor of System/370; 1990\n* [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): Later iSeries and System i, merged into IBM Power Systems in 2008; 1988\n* [IBM System p](/wiki/IBM_System_p \"IBM System p\"): First RS/6000, then pSeries, then p5 and now System p5, merged into IBM Power Systems in 2008; 1990\n* [IBM System x](/wiki/IBM_System_x \"IBM System x\"): Originally PC Server, then Netfinity, then xSeries and now System x\n* [System z](/wiki/IBM_System_z \"IBM System z\"): brand name for mainframes with [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\"); rename of zSeries; 2006\n* [zSeries](/wiki/ZSeries \"ZSeries\"): brand name for mainframes with [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\"); successor of System/390; 2000\n* [IBM PureSystems](/wiki/PureSystems \"PureSystems\"): Converged system\n* [IBM System Cluster 1350](/wiki/IBM_System_Cluster_1350 \"IBM System Cluster 1350\")\n* [IBM BladeCenter](/wiki/IBM_BladeCenter \"IBM BladeCenter\"): IBM's Blade server architecture\n* [IBM *e*Server 32x](/wiki/IBM_System_x%23IBM_eServer \"IBM System x#IBM eServer\"): AMD processor\\-based server products\n* [IBM OpenPower](/wiki/OpenPower \"OpenPower\"): POWER5 based hardware for running Linux.\n\n#### Supercomputers\n\n* [IBM Blue Gene](/wiki/IBM_Blue_Gene \"IBM Blue Gene\"): 2000\n* [IBM Kittyhawk](/wiki/IBM_Kittyhawk \"IBM Kittyhawk\"): 2008 White paper issued.\n\n#### Microprocessors\n\n* [IBM 801](/wiki/IBM_801 \"IBM 801\"): Pioneering prototype RISC processor; 1980\n* [IBM ROMP](/wiki/IBM_ROMP \"IBM ROMP\"): RISC processor, also known as 032 processor\n* IBM APC: RISC Processor, successor to the 032\n* IBM CnC/M68000: Processor for XT/370 and AT/370\n* IBM P/370: Processor for Personal System 370\n* IBM P/390 microprocessor: processor for P/390 and R/390\n* [IBM Power](/wiki/IBM_Power_microprocessors \"IBM Power microprocessors\"): Processors for some [RS/6000](/wiki/RS/6000 \"RS/6000\") and successors, later [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"), and [IBM Power Systems](/wiki/IBM_Power_Systems \"IBM Power Systems\")\n\t+ [POWER1](/wiki/POWER1 \"POWER1\")\n\t+ [POWER2](/wiki/POWER2 \"POWER2\")\n\t+ [POWER3](/wiki/POWER3 \"POWER3\")\n\t+ [POWER4](/wiki/POWER4 \"POWER4\")\n\t+ [POWER5](/wiki/POWER5 \"POWER5\")\n\t+ [POWER6](/wiki/POWER6 \"POWER6\")\n\t+ [POWER7](/wiki/POWER7 \"POWER7\")\n\t+ [POWER8](/wiki/POWER8 \"POWER8\")\n\t+ [POWER9](/wiki/POWER9 \"POWER9\")\n\t+ [Power10](/wiki/Power10 \"Power10\")\n* [PowerPC](/wiki/PowerPC \"PowerPC\"): Processors for some [RS/6000](/wiki/RS/6000 \"RS/6000\") and successors and earlier [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"), some also used in non\\-IBM systems\n\t+ [PowerPC 601](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_601 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 601\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 603](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_603 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 603\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 604](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_604 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 604\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 620](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_620 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 620\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 7xx](/wiki/PowerPC_7xx \"PowerPC 7xx\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 4xx](/wiki/PowerPC_400 \"PowerPC 400\") embedded CPUs\n\t+ [IBM RS64](/wiki/IBM_RS64 \"IBM RS64\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 970](/wiki/PowerPC_970 \"PowerPC 970\")\n\t+ [Cell microprocessor](/wiki/Cell_microprocessor \"Cell microprocessor\")\n\t+ [Gekko](/wiki/PowerPC_G3%23Gekko \"PowerPC G3#Gekko\"), [Broadway](/wiki/PowerPC_G3%23Broadway \"PowerPC G3#Broadway\") and [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_%28processor%29 \"Xenon (processor)\") CPUs for [game consoles](/wiki/Game_console \"Game console\").\n* IBM z/Architecture processors: for z/Architecture mainframes\n\t+ [IBM z10](/wiki/IBM_z10 \"IBM z10\")\n\t+ [IBM z196](/wiki/IBM_z196 \"IBM z196\")\n\t+ [IBM zEC12](/wiki/IBM_zEC12 \"IBM zEC12\")\n\t+ [IBM z13](/wiki/IBM_z13 \"IBM z13\")\n\t+ [IBM z14](/wiki/IBM_z14 \"IBM z14\")\n\t+ [IBM z15](/wiki/IBM_z15 \"IBM z15\")\n\t+ [IBM Telum](/wiki/IBM_Telum \"IBM Telum\")\n",
"### Computers based on SLT or discrete IC CPUs (1964–1989\\)\n\n* [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"): high\\-precision scientific computer; 1965\n\t+ [IBM 1132](/wiki/IBM_1132 \"IBM 1132\"): [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\") Printer, based on [IBM 407](/wiki/IBM_407 \"IBM 407\") type\\-wheel mechanism\n\t+ [IBM 1133](/wiki/IBM_1133 \"IBM 1133\"): [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\") Multiplexer and [cycle stealer](/wiki/Cycle_steal \"Cycle steal\"), to connect an [IBM 1403](/wiki/IBM_1403 \"IBM 1403\") fast printer\n* [IBM 2020](/wiki/IBM_2020 \"IBM 2020\"): [System/360](/wiki/System/360 \"System/360\") Model 20 Central Processing Unit; almost a 360: 1966\n* [IBM 2022](/wiki/IBM_2022 \"IBM 2022\"): System/360 Model 22 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2025](/wiki/IBM_2025 \"IBM 2025\"): System/360 Model 25 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2030](/wiki/IBM_2030 \"IBM 2030\"): System/360 Model 30 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2040](/wiki/IBM_2040 \"IBM 2040\"): System/360 Model 40 Central Processing Unit; small range 360\n* [IBM 2044](/wiki/IBM_2044 \"IBM 2044\"): System/360 Model 44 Central Processing Unit; scientific 360; business with special feature\n* [IBM 2050](/wiki/IBM_2050 \"IBM 2050\"): System/360 Model 50 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360\n* [IBM 2060](/wiki/IBM_2060 \"IBM 2060\"): System/360 Models 60 and 62 Central Processing Unit; mid\\-range 360; announced but never released\n* [IBM 2064](/wiki/IBM_2064 \"IBM 2064\"): System/360 Models 64 and 66 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360; multi\\-processor with virtual memory (DAT); announced but never released\n* [IBM 2065](/wiki/IBM_2065 \"IBM 2065\"): System/360 Model 65 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360: used by [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") in Apollo project\n* [IBM 2067](/wiki/IBM_2067 \"IBM 2067\"): System/360 Model 67 Central Processing Unit; mid range 360; multi\\-processor with virtual memory (DAT)\n* [IBM 2070](/wiki/IBM_2070 \"IBM 2070\"): System/360 Model 70 Central Processing Unit; high range 360; announced but never released\n* [IBM 2075](/wiki/IBM_2075 \"IBM 2075\"): System/360 Model 75 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 2085](/wiki/IBM_2085 \"IBM 2085\"): System/360 Model 85 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n\t+ [IBM 5450](/wiki/IBM_5450 \"IBM 5450\"): Display console used with Model 85 (80 characters x 35 lines)\n* [IBM 2091](/wiki/IBM_2091 \"IBM 2091\"): System/360 Model 91 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 2095](/wiki/IBM_2095 \"IBM 2095\"): System/360 Model 95 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 2195](/wiki/IBM_2195 \"IBM 2195\"): System/360 Model 195 Central Processing Unit; high range 360\n* [IBM 3031](/wiki/IBM_3031 \"IBM 3031\"): [System/370](/wiki/System/370 \"System/370\")\\-compatible mainframe; high range (first series to incorporate integral, i.e., internal, stand\\-alone channels, these being stripped\\-down 3158\\-type CPUs, but operating in \"channel mode\", only)\n\t+ [IBM 3017](/wiki/IBM_3017 \"IBM 3017\"): Power Distribution Unit/Motor Generator (3031 processor complex)\n* [IBM 3032](/wiki/IBM_3032 \"IBM 3032\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; high range (first series to incorporate integral, i.e., internal, stand\\-alone channels, these being stripped\\-down 3158\\-type CPUs, but operating in \"channel mode\", only)\n\t+ [IBM 3027](/wiki/IBM_3027 \"IBM 3027\"): Power and Coolant Distribution Unit (3032 processor complex)\n* [IBM 3033](/wiki/IBM_3033 \"IBM 3033\"): System/370\\-compatible multiprocessor complex; high range; 1977 (first series to incorporate integral, i.e., internal, stand\\-alone channels, these being stripped\\-down 3158\\-type CPUs, but operating in \"channel mode\", only)\n\t+ [IBM 3037](/wiki/IBM_3037 \"IBM 3037\"): Power and Coolant Distribution Unit (3033 processor complex)\n* [IBM 3036](/wiki/IBM_3036 \"IBM 3036\"): Dual\\-display (operator's) console, shipped with 303X\n* [IBM 3038](/wiki/IBM_3038 \"IBM 3038\"): Multiprocessor Communication Unit for 3033 MP\n* [IBM 3042](/wiki/IBM_3042 \"IBM 3042\"): Attached processor for 3033 Model A\n* [IBM 3081](/wiki/IBM_3081 \"IBM 3081\"): System/370\\-compatible dual\\-processor mainframe; high range; models: D, G, G2, GX, K (1981\\), K2, KX (2 \\= enhanced version); 1980\n\t+ [IBM 3082](/wiki/IBM_3082 \"IBM 3082\"): Processor Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3087](/wiki/IBM_3087 \"IBM 3087\"): Coolant Distribution Unit\n\t+ [IBM 3089](/wiki/IBM_3089 \"IBM 3089\"): Power Unit\n* [IBM 3083](/wiki/IBM_3083 \"IBM 3083\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe, single processor 3081; high range; models: B (1982\\), B2, BX, CX, E (1982\\), E2, EX, J (1982\\), J2, JX\n* [IBM 3084](/wiki/IBM_3084 \"IBM 3084\"): System/370\\-compatible Quad\\-processor mainframe; high range; 3081 \\+ 3081 with same serial number, but two on/off switches; models: Q 2\\-way, Q 2\\-way2, QX 2\\-way, Q 4\\-way, Q 4\\-way2, QX 4\\-way; 1982\n* [IBM 3090](/wiki/IBM_3090 \"IBM 3090\"): System/370 mainframe; high range; J series supersedes S series. Models: 150, 150E, 180, 200 (1985\\), 400 2\\-way (1985\\), 400 4\\-way (1985\\), 600E (1987\\), 600S (1988\\). A 400 actually consists of two 200s mounted together in a single frame. Although it provides an enormous computing power, some limits, like CSA size, are still fixed by the 16MB line in MVS.\n\t+ [IBM 3097](/wiki/IBM_3097 \"IBM 3097\"): Power and Coolant Distribution Unit\n* [IBM 3115](/wiki/IBM_3115 \"IBM 3115\"): System/370 Model 115 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3125](/wiki/IBM_3125 \"IBM 3125\"): System/370 Model 125 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3135](/wiki/IBM_3135 \"IBM 3135\"): System/370 Model 135 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3145](/wiki/IBM_3145 \"IBM 3145\"): System/370 Model 145 Central Processing Unit; small range\n* [IBM 3155](/wiki/IBM_3155 \"IBM 3155\"): System/370 Model 155 Central Processing Unit; mid range; without virtual memory \\[DAT] unless upgraded to 155\\-II\n* [IBM 3165](/wiki/IBM_3165 \"IBM 3165\"): System/370 Model 165 Central Processing Unit; mid range; without virtual memory \\[DAT] unless upgraded to 165\\-II\n\t+ [IBM 3066](/wiki/IBM_3066 \"IBM 3066\"): Display console used with Models 165 and 166 (80 characters x 35 lines)\n* [IBM 3138](/wiki/IBM_3138 \"IBM 3138\"): System/370 Model 138 Central Processing Unit; small range;\n* [IBM 3148](/wiki/IBM_3148 \"IBM 3148\"): System/370 Model 148 Central Processing Unit; small range;\n* [IBM 3158](/wiki/IBM_3158 \"IBM 3158\"): System/370 Model 158 Central Processing Unit; mid range;\n* [IBM 3168](/wiki/IBM_3168 \"IBM 3168\"): System/370 Model 168 Central Processing Unit; high range;\n\t+ [IBM 3066](/wiki/IBM_3066 \"IBM 3066\"): Display console used with Models 165 and 166 (80 characters x 35 lines)\n* [IBM 3195](/wiki/IBM_3195 \"IBM 3195\"): System/370 Model 195 Central Processing Unit; high range; without virtual memory \\[DAT]\n* [IBM 3741](/wiki/IBM_3741 \"IBM 3741\"): data station; 1973\n* [IBM 3790](/wiki/IBM_3790 \"IBM 3790\"): distributed computer; announced 1975 (followed by the [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\"))\n\t+ [IBM 3791](/wiki/IBM_3791 \"IBM 3791\"): Controller, model 1 or 2\\.\n\t+ [IBM 3792](/wiki/IBM_3792 \"IBM 3792\"): Auxiliary control unit.\n\t+ [IBM 3793](/wiki/IBM_3793 \"IBM 3793\"): Keyboard\\-Printer.\n* [IBM 4300](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): series of System/370\\-compatible mainframe models; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4321](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; successor of 4331\n\t+ [IBM 4321](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4331](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4341](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; mid range; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 4361](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; low range; 1983\n\t+ [IBM 4381](/wiki/IBM_4300_series \"IBM 4300 series\"): System/370\\-compatible mainframe; mid range; 1983\n* [IBM 5100](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\"): portable computer; evolution of the 1973 SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) prototype; 1975\n\t+ [IBM 5103](/wiki/IBM_5103 \"IBM 5103\"): Dot matrix printer\n* [IBM 5110](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\"): portable computer; models 1, 2 \\& 3 featured a [QIC](/wiki/Quarter-inch_cartridge \"Quarter-inch cartridge\") [tape drive](/wiki/Tape_drive \"Tape drive\"), and then [floppy disk](/wiki/Floppy_disk \"Floppy disk\") drives; 1978\n* [IBM 5120](/wiki/IBM_5120 \"IBM 5120\"): portable computer; featured two built\\-in 8\\-inch 1\\.2 MB floppy disk drives; 1980\n* [IBM 5280](/wiki/IBM_5280 \"IBM 5280\"): Distributed Data System; 1980\n\t+ [IBM 5281](/wiki/IBM_5281 \"IBM 5281\"): Data Station for 5280\n\t+ [IBM 5282](/wiki/IBM_5282 \"IBM 5282\"): Dual Data Station for 5280\n\t+ [IBM 5285](/wiki/IBM_5285 \"IBM 5285\"): Programmable Data Station\n\t+ [IBM 5286](/wiki/IBM_5286 \"IBM 5286\"): Dual Programmable Data Station\n\t+ [IBM 5288](/wiki/IBM_5288 \"IBM 5288\"): Programmable Control Unit\n\t+ [IBM 5225](/wiki/IBM_5225 \"IBM 5225\"): Printer for 5280 (floor\\-standing; Models 1, 2, 3, 4\\)\n\t+ [IBM 5256](/wiki/IBM_5256 \"IBM 5256\"): Printer for 5280 (table\\-top, dot\\-matrix; Models 1, 2, 3\\)\n* [IBM 5320](/wiki/IBM_5320 \"IBM 5320\"): [System/32](/wiki/System/32 \"System/32\"), low\\-end business computer; 1975\n* [IBM 5340](/wiki/IBM_5340 \"IBM 5340\"): [System/34](/wiki/System/34 \"System/34\"), System unit, successor of System/32, but had also a second System/3 processor; 1977\n* [IBM 5360](/wiki/IBM_5360 \"IBM 5360\"): [System/36](/wiki/System/36 \"System/36\") System Unit\n* [IBM 5362](/wiki/IBM_5362 \"IBM 5362\"): System/36 System Unit\n* [IBM 5363](/wiki/IBM_5363 \"IBM 5363\"): System/36 System Unit\n* [IBM 5364](/wiki/IBM_5364 \"IBM 5364\"); System/36 System Unit\n* [IBM 5381](/wiki/IBM_5381 \"IBM 5381\"): [System/38](/wiki/System/38 \"System/38\") System Unit; 1978\n* [IBM 5382](/wiki/IBM_5382 \"IBM 5382\"): System/38 System Unit\n* [IBM 5410](/wiki/IBM_5410 \"IBM 5410\"): [System/3](/wiki/System/3 \"System/3\") model 10 processor; for small businesses; 1969\n* [IBM 5415](/wiki/IBM_5415 \"IBM 5415\"): System/3 model 15 processor; 1973\n* [IBM 5520](/wiki/IBM_5520 \"IBM 5520\"): Administrative System; 1979\n* [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\"): distributed computer; announced 1978\n* [IBM 8150](/wiki/IBM_8150 \"IBM 8150\"): processor\n* [IBM 9370](/wiki/IBM_9370 \"IBM 9370\"): series of System/370 mainframe models; partly replaced [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\"); low range; 1986\n\t+ [IBM 9371](/wiki/IBM_9371 \"IBM 9371\"): \"Micro Channel 370\" ESA models 010, 012, 014 (later 110, 112, 114\\); 1990\n\t+ [IBM 9373](/wiki/IBM_9373 \"IBM 9373\"): models 20, 30\n\t+ [IBM 9375](/wiki/IBM_9375 \"IBM 9375\"): models 40, 50, 60\n\t+ [IBM 9377](/wiki/IBM_9377 \"IBM 9377\"): models 80 and 90\n* [IBM Series/1](/wiki/IBM_Series/1 \"IBM Series/1\"): brand name for process control computers; 1976\n* [IBM System/3](/wiki/IBM_System/3 \"IBM System/3\"): brand name for small business computers; 1969\n* [IBM System/36](/wiki/IBM_System/36 \"IBM System/36\"): brand name for minicomputers; successor of System/34; 1983\n* [IBM System/38](/wiki/IBM_System/38 \"IBM System/38\"): brand name for minicomputers; indirect successor of [IBM Future Systems project](/wiki/IBM_Future_Systems_project \"IBM Future Systems project\"); 1979\n* [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\"): brand name for mainframes; 1964\n* [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"): brand name for mainframes, successor of System/360; 1970\n* [Application System/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): brand name for computers, successor of System/38; 1988\n\n",
"### Computers based on discrete IC CPUs (1990–present)\n\n* [IBM ES/9000 family](/wiki/IBM_ES/9000_family \"IBM ES/9000 family\") of [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") mainframes; 1990\n\t+ [IBM ES/9021](/wiki/IBM_ES/9021 \"IBM ES/9021\"): water\\-cooled ES/9000 type\n\t+ [IBM ES/9121](/wiki/IBM_ES/9121 \"IBM ES/9121\"): air\\-cooled standalone ES/9000 type\n\t+ [IBM ES/9221](/wiki/IBM_ES/9221 \"IBM ES/9221\"): air\\-cooled rack mounted ES/9000 type\n* [IBM 9406](/wiki/IBM_9406 \"IBM 9406\"): [AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\") minicomputer\n* [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): [midrange computer](/wiki/Midrange_computer \"Midrange computer\") system, successor to System/38; 1988\n* [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\"): brand name for mainframes with [ESA/390](/wiki/ESA/390 \"ESA/390\") architecture; successor of System/370; 1990\n",
"### Computers based on microprocessor CPUs (1981–present)\n\n#### Computers\n\n* [IBM System/23](/wiki/IBM_System/23 \"IBM System/23\"): DataMaster, based on the [Intel 8085](/wiki/Intel_8085 \"Intel 8085\")\n\t+ 5322 Desktop all\\-in\\-one model\n\t+ 5324 Floor tower model\n* [IBM 2003](/wiki/IBM_2003 \"IBM 2003\"): a very small mainframe with [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") architecture; 1990s, also known as [Multiprise 2000](/wiki/Multiprise_2000 \"Multiprise 2000\")\n Slide 28: \"9672 to zSeries\".\n* [IBM 2064](/wiki/IBM_2064 \"IBM 2064\"): zSeries z900; note number collision with earlier System/360\\-64; 2000\n* [IBM 2066](/wiki/IBM_2066 \"IBM 2066\"): zSeries z800; less powerful variant of the z900\n* [IBM 2084](/wiki/IBM_2084 \"IBM 2084\"): zSeries z990; successor of larger z900 models\n* [IBM 2086](/wiki/IBM_2086 \"IBM 2086\"): zSeries z890; successor of the z800 and smaller z900 models; 2004\n* [IBM 2094](/wiki/IBM_2094 \"IBM 2094\"): [System z9](/wiki/System_z9 \"System z9\") Enterprise Class (z9 EC); initially known as z9\\-109; 2005\n* [IBM 2096](/wiki/IBM_2096 \"IBM 2096\"): System z9 Business Class (z9 BC); successor to z890; 2006\n* [IBM 2097](/wiki/IBM_2097 \"IBM 2097\"): [System z10 Enterprise Class (z10 EC)](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\"); successor to z9 EC; 2008\n* [IBM 2098](/wiki/IBM_2098 \"IBM 2098\"): [System z10 Business Class (z10 BC)](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\"); successor to z9 BC; 2008\n* IBM 2817: [zEnterprise 196 (z196\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen1_%28114_and_196%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen1 (114 and 196)\"); successor to z10 EC; 2010\n* IBM 2818: [zEnterprise 114 (z114\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen1_%28114_and_196%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen1 (114 and 196)\"); successor to z10 BC; 2011\n* IBM 2827: [zEnterprise EC12 (zEC12\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen2_%28zBC12_and_zEC12%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen2 (zBC12 and zEC12)\"); successor to z196; 2012\n* IBM 2828: [zEnterprise BC12 (zBC12\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen2_%28zBC12_and_zEC12%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen2 (zBC12 and zEC12)\"); successor to z114; 2013\n IBM\n* IBM 2964: [IBM z Systems z13 (z13\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23IBM_z13 \"IBM Z#IBM z13\"); successor to zEC12; 2015\n IBM\n* [IBM Personal Computer](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer \"IBM Personal Computer\"): Superseded the [IBM Portable Computer](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\").\n\t+ IBM 5150: the classic [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\")—1981\n\t+ IBM 5160: [IBM Personal Computer XT](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT \"IBM Personal Computer XT\")—1983\n\t+ [IBM 5162](/wiki/IBM_5162_Personal_Computer_XT/286 \"IBM 5162 Personal Computer XT/286\"): IBM Personal Computer XT/286\n\t+ IBM 5271: [IBM 3270 PC](/wiki/IBM_3270_PC \"IBM 3270 PC\")—1983\n\t+ [IBM 5160 Model 588](/wiki/PC-based_IBM-compatible_mainframes%23Personal_Computer_XT/370 \"PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes#Personal Computer XT/370\"): PC XT/370, a PC XT with a special add\\-in card containing an Intel 8087 math coprocessor and two [Motorola 68000](/wiki/Motorola_68000 \"Motorola 68000\") chips to execute/emulate the [System/370](/wiki/System/370 \"System/370\") instructions—1983\\.\n\t+ IBM 5155: [IBM Portable](/wiki/IBM_Portable \"IBM Portable\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 4860: [IBM PCjr](/wiki/IBM_PCjr \"IBM PCjr\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 5170: [IBM Personal Computer/AT](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer/AT \"IBM Personal Computer/AT\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 5140: [IBM Convertible](/wiki/IBM_Convertible \"IBM Convertible\")—1986\n\t+ IBM 5281: [IBM 3270 PC](/wiki/IBM_3270_PC \"IBM 3270 PC\") but based on an IBM AT.\n* [IBM 5550](/wiki/IBM_5550 \"IBM 5550\"): Personal Computer Series for Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and China\n\t+ IBM 5510: [IBM JX](/wiki/IBM_JX \"IBM JX\") (for Japan, Australia and New Zealand)\n\t+ IBM 5511: [IBM JX](/wiki/IBM_JX \"IBM JX\") (for Japan, Australia and New Zealand)\n\t+ IBM 5530: Smaller desktop, without communications adapter\n\t+ IBM 5535: Portable\n\t+ IBM 5541: Desktop\n\t+ IBM 5551: Floor standing\n\t+ IBM 5561: Larger floor standing\n* [IBM PS/2](/wiki/IBM_PS/2 \"IBM PS/2\"): range\n* [IBM PS/1](/wiki/IBM_PS/1 \"IBM PS/1\"): range, later succeeded by [IBM Aptiva](/wiki/IBM_Aptiva \"IBM Aptiva\")\n* [IBM Aptiva](/wiki/IBM_Aptiva \"IBM Aptiva\"): Personal Computer\n* [IBM PS/ValuePoint](/wiki/IBM_PS/ValuePoint \"IBM PS/ValuePoint\"): range\n* [IBM RT PC](/wiki/IBM_RT_PC \"IBM RT PC\"): series; [ROMP](/wiki/IBM_ROMP \"IBM ROMP\")\\-based; 1986\n* [IBM 4575](/wiki/IBM_4575 \"IBM 4575\"): [System/88](/wiki/Stratus_Technologies \"Stratus Technologies\") processor; 1986\n* [IBM 4576](/wiki/IBM_4576 \"IBM 4576\"): System/88 processor\n* [IBM 7060](/wiki/IBM_7060 \"IBM 7060\"), also known as [Multiprise 3000](/wiki/Multiprise_3000 \"Multiprise 3000\"): a very small mainframe with [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") architecture; models H30, H50, H70; 1999\n* [IBM System 9000](/wiki/IBM_System_9000 \"IBM System 9000\"): lab data controller, based on [Motorola 68000](/wiki/Motorola_68000 \"Motorola 68000\")\n* [IBM 9075](/wiki/IBM_9075 \"IBM 9075\"): [PCradio](/wiki/IBM_PCradio \"IBM PCradio\"), a battery\\-powered personal computer; 1991\n* [IBM 9672](/wiki/IBM_9672 \"IBM 9672\"): largest mainframes from [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") line; 1994\n\t+ G1: 9672\\-R*n*1, 9672\\-E*nn*, 9672\\-P*nn*\n\t+ G2: 9672\\-R*n*2, 9672\\-R*n*3\n\t+ G3: 9672\\-R*n*4\n\t+ G4: 9672\\-R*n*5\n\t+ G5: 9672\\-*nn*6\n\t+ G6: 9672\\-*nn*7\n* [IBM 9674](/wiki/IBM_9674 \"IBM 9674\"): coupling facility for interconnecting [IBM 9672](/wiki/IBM_9672 \"IBM 9672\") computers\n* [IBM PC Series](/wiki/IBM_PC_Series \"IBM PC Series\"): PC300 and 700 range including 300GL and 300PL\n* [IBM NetVista](/wiki/IBM_NetVista \"IBM NetVista\"): Corporate PCs\n* [IBM ThinkCentre](/wiki/ThinkCentre \"ThinkCentre\"): PC range now made under license by [Lenovo Group](/wiki/Lenovo_Group \"Lenovo Group\")\n* [IBM ThinkPad](/wiki/ThinkPad \"ThinkPad\"): Notebooks now made under license by [Lenovo Group](/wiki/Lenovo_Group \"Lenovo Group\")\n* [IBM IntelliStation](/wiki/IBM_IntelliStation \"IBM IntelliStation\") Workstations: Pro based on Intel PC processors, and POWER based on PowerPC processors\n* [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\"): brand name for mainframes with [ESA/390](/wiki/ESA/390 \"ESA/390\") architecture; successor of System/370; 1990\n* [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): Later iSeries and System i, merged into IBM Power Systems in 2008; 1988\n* [IBM System p](/wiki/IBM_System_p \"IBM System p\"): First RS/6000, then pSeries, then p5 and now System p5, merged into IBM Power Systems in 2008; 1990\n* [IBM System x](/wiki/IBM_System_x \"IBM System x\"): Originally PC Server, then Netfinity, then xSeries and now System x\n* [System z](/wiki/IBM_System_z \"IBM System z\"): brand name for mainframes with [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\"); rename of zSeries; 2006\n* [zSeries](/wiki/ZSeries \"ZSeries\"): brand name for mainframes with [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\"); successor of System/390; 2000\n* [IBM PureSystems](/wiki/PureSystems \"PureSystems\"): Converged system\n* [IBM System Cluster 1350](/wiki/IBM_System_Cluster_1350 \"IBM System Cluster 1350\")\n* [IBM BladeCenter](/wiki/IBM_BladeCenter \"IBM BladeCenter\"): IBM's Blade server architecture\n* [IBM *e*Server 32x](/wiki/IBM_System_x%23IBM_eServer \"IBM System x#IBM eServer\"): AMD processor\\-based server products\n* [IBM OpenPower](/wiki/OpenPower \"OpenPower\"): POWER5 based hardware for running Linux.\n\n#### Supercomputers\n\n* [IBM Blue Gene](/wiki/IBM_Blue_Gene \"IBM Blue Gene\"): 2000\n* [IBM Kittyhawk](/wiki/IBM_Kittyhawk \"IBM Kittyhawk\"): 2008 White paper issued.\n\n#### Microprocessors\n\n* [IBM 801](/wiki/IBM_801 \"IBM 801\"): Pioneering prototype RISC processor; 1980\n* [IBM ROMP](/wiki/IBM_ROMP \"IBM ROMP\"): RISC processor, also known as 032 processor\n* IBM APC: RISC Processor, successor to the 032\n* IBM CnC/M68000: Processor for XT/370 and AT/370\n* IBM P/370: Processor for Personal System 370\n* IBM P/390 microprocessor: processor for P/390 and R/390\n* [IBM Power](/wiki/IBM_Power_microprocessors \"IBM Power microprocessors\"): Processors for some [RS/6000](/wiki/RS/6000 \"RS/6000\") and successors, later [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"), and [IBM Power Systems](/wiki/IBM_Power_Systems \"IBM Power Systems\")\n\t+ [POWER1](/wiki/POWER1 \"POWER1\")\n\t+ [POWER2](/wiki/POWER2 \"POWER2\")\n\t+ [POWER3](/wiki/POWER3 \"POWER3\")\n\t+ [POWER4](/wiki/POWER4 \"POWER4\")\n\t+ [POWER5](/wiki/POWER5 \"POWER5\")\n\t+ [POWER6](/wiki/POWER6 \"POWER6\")\n\t+ [POWER7](/wiki/POWER7 \"POWER7\")\n\t+ [POWER8](/wiki/POWER8 \"POWER8\")\n\t+ [POWER9](/wiki/POWER9 \"POWER9\")\n\t+ [Power10](/wiki/Power10 \"Power10\")\n* [PowerPC](/wiki/PowerPC \"PowerPC\"): Processors for some [RS/6000](/wiki/RS/6000 \"RS/6000\") and successors and earlier [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"), some also used in non\\-IBM systems\n\t+ [PowerPC 601](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_601 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 601\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 603](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_603 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 603\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 604](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_604 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 604\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 620](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_620 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 620\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 7xx](/wiki/PowerPC_7xx \"PowerPC 7xx\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 4xx](/wiki/PowerPC_400 \"PowerPC 400\") embedded CPUs\n\t+ [IBM RS64](/wiki/IBM_RS64 \"IBM RS64\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 970](/wiki/PowerPC_970 \"PowerPC 970\")\n\t+ [Cell microprocessor](/wiki/Cell_microprocessor \"Cell microprocessor\")\n\t+ [Gekko](/wiki/PowerPC_G3%23Gekko \"PowerPC G3#Gekko\"), [Broadway](/wiki/PowerPC_G3%23Broadway \"PowerPC G3#Broadway\") and [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_%28processor%29 \"Xenon (processor)\") CPUs for [game consoles](/wiki/Game_console \"Game console\").\n* IBM z/Architecture processors: for z/Architecture mainframes\n\t+ [IBM z10](/wiki/IBM_z10 \"IBM z10\")\n\t+ [IBM z196](/wiki/IBM_z196 \"IBM z196\")\n\t+ [IBM zEC12](/wiki/IBM_zEC12 \"IBM zEC12\")\n\t+ [IBM z13](/wiki/IBM_z13 \"IBM z13\")\n\t+ [IBM z14](/wiki/IBM_z14 \"IBM z14\")\n\t+ [IBM z15](/wiki/IBM_z15 \"IBM z15\")\n\t+ [IBM Telum](/wiki/IBM_Telum \"IBM Telum\")\n",
"#### Computers\n\n* [IBM System/23](/wiki/IBM_System/23 \"IBM System/23\"): DataMaster, based on the [Intel 8085](/wiki/Intel_8085 \"Intel 8085\")\n\t+ 5322 Desktop all\\-in\\-one model\n\t+ 5324 Floor tower model\n* [IBM 2003](/wiki/IBM_2003 \"IBM 2003\"): a very small mainframe with [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") architecture; 1990s, also known as [Multiprise 2000](/wiki/Multiprise_2000 \"Multiprise 2000\")\n Slide 28: \"9672 to zSeries\".\n* [IBM 2064](/wiki/IBM_2064 \"IBM 2064\"): zSeries z900; note number collision with earlier System/360\\-64; 2000\n* [IBM 2066](/wiki/IBM_2066 \"IBM 2066\"): zSeries z800; less powerful variant of the z900\n* [IBM 2084](/wiki/IBM_2084 \"IBM 2084\"): zSeries z990; successor of larger z900 models\n* [IBM 2086](/wiki/IBM_2086 \"IBM 2086\"): zSeries z890; successor of the z800 and smaller z900 models; 2004\n* [IBM 2094](/wiki/IBM_2094 \"IBM 2094\"): [System z9](/wiki/System_z9 \"System z9\") Enterprise Class (z9 EC); initially known as z9\\-109; 2005\n* [IBM 2096](/wiki/IBM_2096 \"IBM 2096\"): System z9 Business Class (z9 BC); successor to z890; 2006\n* [IBM 2097](/wiki/IBM_2097 \"IBM 2097\"): [System z10 Enterprise Class (z10 EC)](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\"); successor to z9 EC; 2008\n* [IBM 2098](/wiki/IBM_2098 \"IBM 2098\"): [System z10 Business Class (z10 BC)](/wiki/IBM_System_z10 \"IBM System z10\"); successor to z9 BC; 2008\n* IBM 2817: [zEnterprise 196 (z196\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen1_%28114_and_196%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen1 (114 and 196)\"); successor to z10 EC; 2010\n* IBM 2818: [zEnterprise 114 (z114\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen1_%28114_and_196%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen1 (114 and 196)\"); successor to z10 BC; 2011\n* IBM 2827: [zEnterprise EC12 (zEC12\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen2_%28zBC12_and_zEC12%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen2 (zBC12 and zEC12)\"); successor to z196; 2012\n* IBM 2828: [zEnterprise BC12 (zBC12\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23zEnterprise_gen2_%28zBC12_and_zEC12%29 \"IBM Z#zEnterprise gen2 (zBC12 and zEC12)\"); successor to z114; 2013\n IBM\n* IBM 2964: [IBM z Systems z13 (z13\\)](/wiki/IBM_Z%23IBM_z13 \"IBM Z#IBM z13\"); successor to zEC12; 2015\n IBM\n* [IBM Personal Computer](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer \"IBM Personal Computer\"): Superseded the [IBM Portable Computer](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\").\n\t+ IBM 5150: the classic [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\")—1981\n\t+ IBM 5160: [IBM Personal Computer XT](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT \"IBM Personal Computer XT\")—1983\n\t+ [IBM 5162](/wiki/IBM_5162_Personal_Computer_XT/286 \"IBM 5162 Personal Computer XT/286\"): IBM Personal Computer XT/286\n\t+ IBM 5271: [IBM 3270 PC](/wiki/IBM_3270_PC \"IBM 3270 PC\")—1983\n\t+ [IBM 5160 Model 588](/wiki/PC-based_IBM-compatible_mainframes%23Personal_Computer_XT/370 \"PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes#Personal Computer XT/370\"): PC XT/370, a PC XT with a special add\\-in card containing an Intel 8087 math coprocessor and two [Motorola 68000](/wiki/Motorola_68000 \"Motorola 68000\") chips to execute/emulate the [System/370](/wiki/System/370 \"System/370\") instructions—1983\\.\n\t+ IBM 5155: [IBM Portable](/wiki/IBM_Portable \"IBM Portable\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 4860: [IBM PCjr](/wiki/IBM_PCjr \"IBM PCjr\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 5170: [IBM Personal Computer/AT](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer/AT \"IBM Personal Computer/AT\")—1984\n\t+ IBM 5140: [IBM Convertible](/wiki/IBM_Convertible \"IBM Convertible\")—1986\n\t+ IBM 5281: [IBM 3270 PC](/wiki/IBM_3270_PC \"IBM 3270 PC\") but based on an IBM AT.\n* [IBM 5550](/wiki/IBM_5550 \"IBM 5550\"): Personal Computer Series for Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and China\n\t+ IBM 5510: [IBM JX](/wiki/IBM_JX \"IBM JX\") (for Japan, Australia and New Zealand)\n\t+ IBM 5511: [IBM JX](/wiki/IBM_JX \"IBM JX\") (for Japan, Australia and New Zealand)\n\t+ IBM 5530: Smaller desktop, without communications adapter\n\t+ IBM 5535: Portable\n\t+ IBM 5541: Desktop\n\t+ IBM 5551: Floor standing\n\t+ IBM 5561: Larger floor standing\n* [IBM PS/2](/wiki/IBM_PS/2 \"IBM PS/2\"): range\n* [IBM PS/1](/wiki/IBM_PS/1 \"IBM PS/1\"): range, later succeeded by [IBM Aptiva](/wiki/IBM_Aptiva \"IBM Aptiva\")\n* [IBM Aptiva](/wiki/IBM_Aptiva \"IBM Aptiva\"): Personal Computer\n* [IBM PS/ValuePoint](/wiki/IBM_PS/ValuePoint \"IBM PS/ValuePoint\"): range\n* [IBM RT PC](/wiki/IBM_RT_PC \"IBM RT PC\"): series; [ROMP](/wiki/IBM_ROMP \"IBM ROMP\")\\-based; 1986\n* [IBM 4575](/wiki/IBM_4575 \"IBM 4575\"): [System/88](/wiki/Stratus_Technologies \"Stratus Technologies\") processor; 1986\n* [IBM 4576](/wiki/IBM_4576 \"IBM 4576\"): System/88 processor\n* [IBM 7060](/wiki/IBM_7060 \"IBM 7060\"), also known as [Multiprise 3000](/wiki/Multiprise_3000 \"Multiprise 3000\"): a very small mainframe with [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") architecture; models H30, H50, H70; 1999\n* [IBM System 9000](/wiki/IBM_System_9000 \"IBM System 9000\"): lab data controller, based on [Motorola 68000](/wiki/Motorola_68000 \"Motorola 68000\")\n* [IBM 9075](/wiki/IBM_9075 \"IBM 9075\"): [PCradio](/wiki/IBM_PCradio \"IBM PCradio\"), a battery\\-powered personal computer; 1991\n* [IBM 9672](/wiki/IBM_9672 \"IBM 9672\"): largest mainframes from [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\") line; 1994\n\t+ G1: 9672\\-R*n*1, 9672\\-E*nn*, 9672\\-P*nn*\n\t+ G2: 9672\\-R*n*2, 9672\\-R*n*3\n\t+ G3: 9672\\-R*n*4\n\t+ G4: 9672\\-R*n*5\n\t+ G5: 9672\\-*nn*6\n\t+ G6: 9672\\-*nn*7\n* [IBM 9674](/wiki/IBM_9674 \"IBM 9674\"): coupling facility for interconnecting [IBM 9672](/wiki/IBM_9672 \"IBM 9672\") computers\n* [IBM PC Series](/wiki/IBM_PC_Series \"IBM PC Series\"): PC300 and 700 range including 300GL and 300PL\n* [IBM NetVista](/wiki/IBM_NetVista \"IBM NetVista\"): Corporate PCs\n* [IBM ThinkCentre](/wiki/ThinkCentre \"ThinkCentre\"): PC range now made under license by [Lenovo Group](/wiki/Lenovo_Group \"Lenovo Group\")\n* [IBM ThinkPad](/wiki/ThinkPad \"ThinkPad\"): Notebooks now made under license by [Lenovo Group](/wiki/Lenovo_Group \"Lenovo Group\")\n* [IBM IntelliStation](/wiki/IBM_IntelliStation \"IBM IntelliStation\") Workstations: Pro based on Intel PC processors, and POWER based on PowerPC processors\n* [System/390](/wiki/System/390 \"System/390\"): brand name for mainframes with [ESA/390](/wiki/ESA/390 \"ESA/390\") architecture; successor of System/370; 1990\n* [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"): Later iSeries and System i, merged into IBM Power Systems in 2008; 1988\n* [IBM System p](/wiki/IBM_System_p \"IBM System p\"): First RS/6000, then pSeries, then p5 and now System p5, merged into IBM Power Systems in 2008; 1990\n* [IBM System x](/wiki/IBM_System_x \"IBM System x\"): Originally PC Server, then Netfinity, then xSeries and now System x\n* [System z](/wiki/IBM_System_z \"IBM System z\"): brand name for mainframes with [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\"); rename of zSeries; 2006\n* [zSeries](/wiki/ZSeries \"ZSeries\"): brand name for mainframes with [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\"); successor of System/390; 2000\n* [IBM PureSystems](/wiki/PureSystems \"PureSystems\"): Converged system\n* [IBM System Cluster 1350](/wiki/IBM_System_Cluster_1350 \"IBM System Cluster 1350\")\n* [IBM BladeCenter](/wiki/IBM_BladeCenter \"IBM BladeCenter\"): IBM's Blade server architecture\n* [IBM *e*Server 32x](/wiki/IBM_System_x%23IBM_eServer \"IBM System x#IBM eServer\"): AMD processor\\-based server products\n* [IBM OpenPower](/wiki/OpenPower \"OpenPower\"): POWER5 based hardware for running Linux.\n",
"#### Supercomputers\n\n* [IBM Blue Gene](/wiki/IBM_Blue_Gene \"IBM Blue Gene\"): 2000\n* [IBM Kittyhawk](/wiki/IBM_Kittyhawk \"IBM Kittyhawk\"): 2008 White paper issued.\n",
"#### Microprocessors\n\n* [IBM 801](/wiki/IBM_801 \"IBM 801\"): Pioneering prototype RISC processor; 1980\n* [IBM ROMP](/wiki/IBM_ROMP \"IBM ROMP\"): RISC processor, also known as 032 processor\n* IBM APC: RISC Processor, successor to the 032\n* IBM CnC/M68000: Processor for XT/370 and AT/370\n* IBM P/370: Processor for Personal System 370\n* IBM P/390 microprocessor: processor for P/390 and R/390\n* [IBM Power](/wiki/IBM_Power_microprocessors \"IBM Power microprocessors\"): Processors for some [RS/6000](/wiki/RS/6000 \"RS/6000\") and successors, later [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"), and [IBM Power Systems](/wiki/IBM_Power_Systems \"IBM Power Systems\")\n\t+ [POWER1](/wiki/POWER1 \"POWER1\")\n\t+ [POWER2](/wiki/POWER2 \"POWER2\")\n\t+ [POWER3](/wiki/POWER3 \"POWER3\")\n\t+ [POWER4](/wiki/POWER4 \"POWER4\")\n\t+ [POWER5](/wiki/POWER5 \"POWER5\")\n\t+ [POWER6](/wiki/POWER6 \"POWER6\")\n\t+ [POWER7](/wiki/POWER7 \"POWER7\")\n\t+ [POWER8](/wiki/POWER8 \"POWER8\")\n\t+ [POWER9](/wiki/POWER9 \"POWER9\")\n\t+ [Power10](/wiki/Power10 \"Power10\")\n* [PowerPC](/wiki/PowerPC \"PowerPC\"): Processors for some [RS/6000](/wiki/RS/6000 \"RS/6000\") and successors and earlier [IBM AS/400](/wiki/IBM_AS/400 \"IBM AS/400\"), some also used in non\\-IBM systems\n\t+ [PowerPC 601](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_601 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 601\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 603](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_603 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 603\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 604](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_604 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 604\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 620](/wiki/PowerPC_600%23PowerPC_620 \"PowerPC 600#PowerPC 620\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 7xx](/wiki/PowerPC_7xx \"PowerPC 7xx\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 4xx](/wiki/PowerPC_400 \"PowerPC 400\") embedded CPUs\n\t+ [IBM RS64](/wiki/IBM_RS64 \"IBM RS64\")\n\t+ [PowerPC 970](/wiki/PowerPC_970 \"PowerPC 970\")\n\t+ [Cell microprocessor](/wiki/Cell_microprocessor \"Cell microprocessor\")\n\t+ [Gekko](/wiki/PowerPC_G3%23Gekko \"PowerPC G3#Gekko\"), [Broadway](/wiki/PowerPC_G3%23Broadway \"PowerPC G3#Broadway\") and [Xenon](/wiki/Xenon_%28processor%29 \"Xenon (processor)\") CPUs for [game consoles](/wiki/Game_console \"Game console\").\n* IBM z/Architecture processors: for z/Architecture mainframes\n\t+ [IBM z10](/wiki/IBM_z10 \"IBM z10\")\n\t+ [IBM z196](/wiki/IBM_z196 \"IBM z196\")\n\t+ [IBM zEC12](/wiki/IBM_zEC12 \"IBM zEC12\")\n\t+ [IBM z13](/wiki/IBM_z13 \"IBM z13\")\n\t+ [IBM z14](/wiki/IBM_z14 \"IBM z14\")\n\t+ [IBM z15](/wiki/IBM_z15 \"IBM z15\")\n\t+ [IBM Telum](/wiki/IBM_Telum \"IBM Telum\")\n",
"Solid\\-state computer peripherals\n---------------------------------\n\n### Punched card and paper tape equipment\n\n* [IBM 1011](/wiki/IBM_1011 \"IBM 1011\"): IBM 1401/1440/1460/1414 I/O Sync—Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 1012](/wiki/IBM_1012 \"IBM 1012\"): IBM 1401/1440/1460—Tape Punch\n* [IBM 1017](/wiki/IBM_1017 \"IBM 1017\"): IBM S/360—Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 1018](/wiki/IBM_1018 \"IBM 1018\"): IBM S/360—Paper Tape Punch\n* [IBM 1134](/wiki/IBM_1134 \"IBM 1134\"): [paper tape reader](/wiki/Punched_tape \"Punched tape\")\n* [IBM 1402](/wiki/IBM_1402 \"IBM 1402\"): [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\") and several other systems card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1412](/wiki/IBM_1412 \"IBM 1412\"): Punched card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1442](/wiki/IBM_1442 \"IBM 1442\"): [IBM 1440](/wiki/IBM_1440 \"IBM 1440\") and [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\") Card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1444](/wiki/IBM_1444 \"IBM 1444\"): IBM 1240/1440 Punched card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1622](/wiki/IBM_1622 \"IBM 1622\"): [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\") Card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1902](/wiki/IBM_1902 \"IBM 1902\"): Paper Tape Punch\n* [IBM 1903](/wiki/IBM_1903 \"IBM 1903\"): Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 2501](/wiki/IBM_2501 \"IBM 2501\"): IBM System/360 Card reader (up to 1,200 cpm)\n* [IBM 2502](/wiki/IBM_2502 \"IBM 2502\"): Card Reader\n* [IBM 2520](/wiki/IBM_2520 \"IBM 2520\") Card Read Punch (Model A1\\), Card Punch (Models A2, A3\\)IBM System 360/Model 20 System Summary, p. 13A1 500 CPM Read\\-only, A2 Punch 500 CPM, A3 Punch 300 CPM\n* [IBM 2540](/wiki/IBM_2540 \"IBM 2540\"): IBM System/360 Card reader/punch\n* [IBM 2560](/wiki/IBM_2560 \"IBM 2560\"): [IBM System/360 Model 20](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_20 \"IBM System/360 Model 20\") Multifunction card machine (reader/punch/interpreter/multi\\-hopper)\n* [IBM 2671](/wiki/IBM_2671 \"IBM 2671\"): Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 2826](/wiki/IBM_2826 \"IBM 2826\"): Control unit for 1017 and 1018\n* [IBM 3504](/wiki/IBM_3504 \"IBM 3504\"): [Card reader](/wiki/Punched_card_reader \"Punched card reader\")\n* [IBM 3505](/wiki/IBM_3505 \"IBM 3505\"): [Card reader](/wiki/Punched_card_reader \"Punched card reader\")\n* [IBM 3525](/wiki/IBM_3525 \"IBM 3525\"): Multi\\-function card unit\n* [IBM 5424](/wiki/IBM_5424 \"IBM 5424\"): [IBM System/3](/wiki/IBM_System/3 \"IBM System/3\") MFCU Multi Function Card Unit (reader/punch/printer/multi\\-hopper)\\- 96 column cards\n* [IBM 5425](/wiki/IBM_5425 \"IBM 5425\"): [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\") MFCU Multi Function Card Unit (reader/punch/printer/multi\\-hopper), for handling 96\\-column cards\n\n### Microfilm products\n\nIBM announced a range of Microfilm products in 1963 and 1964 and withdrew them in 1969\\.\n* [IBM 9921](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Document Viewer Model I\n* [IBM 9922](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Document Viewer Model II\n* [IBM 9948](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Thermal Copier\n* [IBM 9949](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Micro Viewer\n* [IBM 9950](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Diazo Copier\n* [IBM 9951](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Camera\n* [IBM 9952](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Standard Micro\\-Viewer\\-Printer\n* [IBM 9953](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Viewer\\-Printer Stacker Module\n* [IBM 9954](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Diazo Copier\n* [IBM 9955](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Microfiche Processor\n* [IBM 9956](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Camera\n* [IBM 9965](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Diazo Copier\n\n### Printer/plotter equipment\n\n* [IBM 1094](/wiki/IBM_1094 \"IBM 1094\"): Line\\-Entry Keyboard\n* [IBM 1403](/wiki/IBM_1403 \"IBM 1403\"): High\\-Speed Impact Printer\n* [IBM 1404](/wiki/IBM_1404 \"IBM 1404\"): IBM 1401/Sys360—Printer\n* [IBM 1416](/wiki/IBM_1416 \"IBM 1416\"): Impact Printer print character chain\n* [IBM 1445](/wiki/IBM_1445 \"IBM 1445\"): IBM 1240/1401/1440/Sys360—Printer\n* [IBM 1446](/wiki/IBM_1446 \"IBM 1446\"): IBM 1440—Printer Control unit for 1403\n* [IBM 2203](/wiki/IBM_2203 \"IBM 2203\"): Printer\n* [IBM 2213](/wiki/IBM_2213 \"IBM 2213\"): Printer\n* [IBM 2245](/wiki/IBM_2245 \"IBM 2245\"): Line printer for [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\"), [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\") and [Korean](/wiki/Korean_language \"Korean language\") text\n* [IBM 2280](/wiki/IBM_2280 \"IBM 2280\"): Film Recorder\n* [IBM 2282](/wiki/IBM_2282 \"IBM 2282\"): Film Recorder/Scanner\n* [IBM 2285](/wiki/IBM_2285 \"IBM 2285\"): Display Copier\n* [IBM 2680](/wiki/IBM_2680 \"IBM 2680\"): High\\-speed photo typesetter; 1967\n* IBM 3130: Advanced Function Printer\n* IBM 3160: Advanced Function Printer\n* IBM 3170: Full Color Digital Printer\n* [IBM 3203](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3203 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3203\"): Printer\n* [IBM 3211](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3211 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3211\"): High\\-Speed Impact Printer for Sys/370\n* [IBM 3216](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3216 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3216\"): 3211 Impact Printer's character print train\n* [IBM 3262](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3262 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3262\"): Line printer\n* [IBM 3268](/wiki/IBM_3268 \"IBM 3268\"): Dot matrix printer\n* [IBM 3284](/wiki/IBM_3284 \"IBM 3284\"): Printer\n* [IBM 3287](/wiki/IBM_3287 \"IBM 3287\"): Color printer; 1979\n* [IBM 3288](/wiki/IBM_3288 \"IBM 3288\"): Line printer\n* [IBM 3800](/wiki/IBM_3800 \"IBM 3800\"): First laser printer introduced by IBM; 1976–1990\\. [incl. photo](https://web.archive.org/web/20050117192756/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1976.html)\n\t+ [IBM 3800\\-1](/wiki/IBM_3800%233800_Model_001 \"IBM 3800#3800 Model 001\"): Early laser printer, 1975\n\t+ [IBM 3800\\-2](/wiki/IBM_3800%233800_Model_002 \"IBM 3800#3800 Model 002\"): Part of [IBM Kanji System](/wiki/IBM_Kanji_System \"IBM Kanji System\") for Japanese language processing, 1979\n\t+ [IBM 3800\\-3](/wiki/IBM_3800%233800_Model_003 \"IBM 3800#3800 Model 003\"): Continuous form printer; 1982\n* [IBM 3811](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3811 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3811\"): Control Unit for 3211\n* [IBM 3812](/wiki/IBM_3812 \"IBM 3812\"): Table top page printer; 12 ppm, 1986\n* [IBM 3816](/wiki/IBM_3816 \"IBM 3816\"): Table top page printer; 24 ppm, 1989\n* [IBM 3820](/wiki/IBM_3820 \"IBM 3820\"): Laser page printer; 20 ppm, 1985\n* [IBM 3825](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3825 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3825\"): Laser page printer; 58 ppm, 1989\n* [IBM 3827](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3827 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3827\"): Laser page printer; 92 ppm, 1988\n* [IBM 3828](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3828 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3828\"): MICR Laser page printer; 92 ppm, 1990\n* [IBM 3829](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3829 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3829\"): Laser page printer; 92 ppm, 1993\n* [IBM 3835](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3835 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3835\"): Continuous forms laser printer; 88ppm, 1988\n* [IBM 3852\\-2](/wiki/IBM_3852-2 \"IBM 3852-2\"): Inkjet printer for [IBM 3192](/wiki/IBM_3192 \"IBM 3192\") terminal\n* [IBM 3900](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3900 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3900\"): Various models 001; OW1 DR1/2 etc., succeeded by infoprint 4000\n* [IBM 3935](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3935 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3935\"): Laser page printer; 35 ppm, 1993\n* [IBM 4000](/wiki/IBM_4000 \"IBM 4000\"): Various models succeeded by infoprint 4100\n* [IBM 4019](/wiki/IBM_4019 \"IBM 4019\"): Laser printer for PC. 10 text pages per minute.\n* [IBM 4039\\-16L](/wiki/IBM_4039-16L \"IBM 4039-16L\"): Lexmark laser printer\n* [IBM 4055](/wiki/IBM_4055 \"IBM 4055\"): InfoWindow touch screen display\n* [IBM 4079](/wiki/IBM_4079 \"IBM 4079\"): Color inkjet printer\n* [IBM 4201](/wiki/IBM_4201 \"IBM 4201\"): ProPrinterII Model 002\n* [IBM 4202](/wiki/IBM_4202 \"IBM 4202\"): ProPrinter XL\n* [IBM 4207](/wiki/IBM_4207 \"IBM 4207\"): ProPrinter X24\n* [IBM 4208](/wiki/IBM_4208 \"IBM 4208\"): ProPrinter XL24\n* [IBM 4210](/wiki/IBM_4210 \"IBM 4210\"): APA matrix table top WS printer for the S/38\\-36\n* [IBM 4214](/wiki/IBM_4214 \"IBM 4214\"): Table top printer\n* [IBM 4216](/wiki/IBM_4216 \"IBM 4216\"): Personal pageprinter model 020\n* [IBM 4224](/wiki/IBM_4224 \"IBM 4224\"): Table top serial printer; 1986\n* [IBM 4230](/wiki/IBM_4230 \"IBM 4230\"): Tabletop matrix printer, 600cps. Also 4232\n* [IBM 4234](/wiki/IBM_4234 \"IBM 4234\"): Floor standing dot band printer; 1986\n* [IBM 4245](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_4245 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 4245\"): Line printer\n* [IBM 4247](/wiki/IBM_4247 \"IBM 4247\"): Tabletop matrix printer, 1100cps\n* [IBM 4248](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_4248 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 4248\"): Impact printer; 1984\n* [IBM 4250/II](/wiki/IBM_4250/II \"IBM 4250/II\"): ElectroCompositor model 002\n* [IBM 4279](/wiki/IBM_4279 \"IBM 4279\"): Terminal Control Unit (for 4506 Digital TV Displays) \n* [IBM 4506](/wiki/IBM_4506 \"IBM 4506\"): Digital TV display unit\n* [IBM 4975](/wiki/IBM_4975 \"IBM 4975\"): Printer\n* [IBM 5083](/wiki/IBM_5083 \"IBM 5083\"): Tablet\n* [IBM 5087](/wiki/IBM_5087 \"IBM 5087\"): Screen printer\n* [IBM 5201](/wiki/IBM_5201 \"IBM 5201\"): Printer\n* [IBM 5202](/wiki/IBM_5202 \"IBM 5202\"): Printer (Quietwriter III)\n* [IBM 5203](/wiki/IBM_System/3 \"IBM System/3\"): Line printer for System/3\\. Ran at 100 or 200 lines per minute.\n* [IBM 5210](/wiki/IBM_5210 \"IBM 5210\"): Printer\n* [IBM 5211](/wiki/IBM_5211 \"IBM 5211\"): Printer 160 or 300 lpm, sold with System/34\n* [IBM 5215](/wiki/IBM_5215 \"IBM 5215\"): [Selectric](/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter \"IBM Selectric typewriter\")\\-element printer for [Displaywriter](/wiki/IBM_Displaywriter_System \"IBM Displaywriter System\")\n* [IBM 5218](/wiki/IBM_5218 \"IBM 5218\"): Daisywheel printer for Displaywriter\n* [IBM 5219](/wiki/IBM_5219 \"IBM 5219\"): Letter quality printer\n* [IBM 5223](/wiki/IBM_5223 \"IBM 5223\"): Wheelprinter E\n* [IBM 5224](/wiki/IBM_5224 \"IBM 5224\"): Table top printer\n* [IBM 5225](/wiki/IBM_5225 \"IBM 5225\"): Floor standing printer\n* [IBM 5253](/wiki/IBM_5253 \"IBM 5253\"): CRT display station for [5520](/wiki/IBM_5520 \"IBM 5520\"); 1979\n* [IBM 5254](/wiki/IBM_5254 \"IBM 5254\"): CRT display station for 5520; 1979\n* [IBM 5256](/wiki/IBM_5256 \"IBM 5256\"): Table top printer; 1977\n* [IBM 5257](/wiki/IBM_5257 \"IBM 5257\"): Daisy wheel printer for 5520; 1979\n* [IBM 5258](/wiki/IBM_5258 \"IBM 5258\"): Ink jet printer for 5520; 1979\n* [IBM 5262](/wiki/IBM_5262 \"IBM 5262\"): Floor standing line printer\n* [IBM 5294](/wiki/IBM_5294 \"IBM 5294\"): Twinax remote control unit\n* [IBM 5394](/wiki/IBM_5394 \"IBM 5394\"): Twinax remote controller (also 5494\\)\n* [IBM 6180](/wiki/IBM_6180 \"IBM 6180\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 6186](/wiki/IBM_6186 \"IBM 6186\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 6262](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_6262 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 6262\"): Line Printer\n* [IBM 6400](/wiki/IBM_6400 \"IBM 6400\"): Line matrix printer\n* [IBM 6500](/wiki/IBM_6500 \"IBM 6500\"): IPDS printer, coax or twinax attached\n* [IBM 6670](/wiki/IBM_6670 \"IBM 6670\"): Information Distributor; combination laser printer and photocopier; part of [Office System/6](/wiki/IBM_OS/6 \"IBM OS/6\"); 1979\n* [IBM 7701](/wiki/IBM_7701 \"IBM 7701\"): Magnetic Tape Transmission Terminal; 1960\n* [IBM 7372](/wiki/IBM_7372 \"IBM 7372\"): Color plotter, 6 pen, desktop\n* [IBM 7374](/wiki/IBM_7374 \"IBM 7374\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 7375](/wiki/IBM_7375 \"IBM 7375\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 7350](/wiki/IBM_7350 \"IBM 7350\"): Image processor, a specialized terminal for scientific and research applications; 1983\n* [IBM 7400](/wiki/IBM_7400 \"IBM 7400\"): [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\")/[IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\") Printer\n* [IBM 7404](/wiki/IBM_7404 \"IBM 7404\"): Graphic Output\n* [IBM 7456](/wiki/IBM_7456 \"IBM 7456\"): Plant floor terminal\n* [IBM 7900](/wiki/IBM_7900 \"IBM 7900\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Inquiry Station\n* [IBM 8775](/wiki/IBM_8775 \"IBM 8775\"): Terminal\n* [IBM LPFK](/wiki/IBM_LPFK \"IBM LPFK\"): Lighted Program Function Keyboard\n* [IBM XY749](/wiki/IBM_XY749 \"IBM XY749\"): Plotter\n* [IBM XY750](/wiki/IBM_XY750 \"IBM XY750\"): Plotter\n\n### Graphics displays\n\n* [IBM 2350](/wiki/IBM_2350 \"IBM 2350\"): Graphics display system; 1977\n* [IBM 5081](/wiki/IBM_5081 \"IBM 5081\"): Color and monochrome display; separate RGB connections, capable of 1280×1024 resolution, up to diagonal.\n* [IBM 5080](/wiki/IBM_5080 \"IBM 5080\"): Graphics System; for [System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\")\n* [IBM 5085](/wiki/IBM_5085 \"IBM 5085\"): Graphics Processor. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System for System/370\\.\n* [IBM 5088](/wiki/IBM_5088 \"IBM 5088\"): Graphics Channel Controller. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System for System/370\\.\n* [IBM 6090](/wiki/IBM_6090 \"IBM 6090\"): High\\-end graphics system for the System/370\n* [IBM 6153](/wiki/IBM_6153 \"IBM 6153\"): Advanced monochrome graphics display\n* [IBM 6154](/wiki/IBM_6154 \"IBM 6154\"): Advanced color graphics display\n* [IBM 6155](/wiki/IBM_6155 \"IBM 6155\"): Extended monochrome graphics display\n\n### Data storage units\n\n#### Core storage\n\n* [IBM 2360](/wiki/IBM_2360_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2360 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the (never shipped) IBM System/360 models 60 and 64\n* [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361_Large_Capacity_Storage \"IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage\"): Large Capacity Storage for the IBM System/360 models 50, 60, 62, 65, 70, and 75\n* [IBM 2362](/wiki/IBM_2362_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2362 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the (never shipped) IBM System/360 models 62, 66, 68 and 70\n* [IBM 2365](/wiki/IBM_2365_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2365 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 models 65, 67, 75 and 85\n* [IBM 2385](/wiki/IBM_2385_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2385 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 model 85\n* [IBM 2395](/wiki/IBM_2395_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2395 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 models 91 and 95\n\n#### Direct\\-access storage devices\n\nIn IBM's terminology beginning with the System/360 disk and such devices featuring short access times were collectively called [DASD](/wiki/Direct_Access_Storage_Device \"Direct Access Storage Device\"). The [IBM 2321 Data Cell](/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell \"IBM 2321 Data Cell\") is a DASD that used tape as its storage medium. See also [history of IBM magnetic disk drives](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives\").\n* [IBM 353](/wiki/IBM_353 \"IBM 353\"): Disk drive for [IBM 7030](/wiki/IBM_7030 \"IBM 7030\") Stretch\n* [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 1240/1410/1440/1460/70XX—Disk drive; 1961\n* [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 1311](/wiki/IBM_1311 \"IBM 1311\"): IBM 1240/1401/1410/1440/1450/1460/1620/7010/1710/7740 Disk drive using IBM 1316 disk pack\n\t+ [IBM 1316](/wiki/IBM_1316 \"IBM 1316\"): 2,000,000\\-character removable disk pack for 1311, 2311; 1962\n* [IBM 1405](/wiki/IBM_1405 \"IBM 1405\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 1742](/wiki/IBM_DS4500 \"IBM DS4500\"): [IBM System Storage](/wiki/IBM_Storage \"IBM Storage\") DS4500\n* [IBM 1814](/wiki/IBM_DS4700 \"IBM DS4700\"): IBM System Storage DS4700\n* [IBM 1750](/wiki/IBM_DS6000 \"IBM DS6000\"): IBM System Storage DS6000 Series\n* [IBM 1815](/wiki/IBM_DS4800 \"IBM DS4800\"): IBM System Storage DS4800\n* [IBM 2072](/wiki/IBM_2072 \"IBM 2072\"): [IBM Storwize V3700](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V3700 \"IBM Storwize V3700\") (IBM FlashSystem 5000\\)\n* [IBM 2073](/wiki/IBM_2073 \"IBM 2073\"): [IBM Storwize V7000 Unified](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V7000_Unified \"IBM Storwize V7000 Unified\")\n* [IBM 2076](/wiki/IBM_2076 \"IBM 2076\"): [IBM Storwize V7000](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_family \"IBM Storwize family\") (IBM FlashSystem 7200\\)\n* [IBM 2078](/wiki/IBM_2078 \"IBM 2078\"): [IBM Storwize V5000](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V5000 \"IBM Storwize V5000\")\n* [IBM 2105](/wiki/IBM_Enterprise_Storage_Server \"IBM Enterprise Storage Server\"): Enterprise Storage Server, or ESS, or Shark (utilized 7133\\)\n* [IBM 2106](/wiki/IBM_2106 \"IBM 2106\"): Extender for IBM 2105 Shark\n* [IBM 2107](/wiki/IBM_DS8000 \"IBM DS8000\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series\n* [IBM 2301](/wiki/IBM_2301 \"IBM 2301\"): Drum Storage Unit\n* [IBM 2302](/wiki/IBM_2302 \"IBM 2302\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 2303](/wiki/IBM_2303 \"IBM 2303\"): Drum Storage Unit\n* [IBM 2305\\-1](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2305 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2305\"): Fixed head disk 3\\.0 MB/s Transfer rate, 5 MB capacity\n* [IBM 2305\\-2](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2305 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2305\"): Fixed head disk 1\\.5 MB/s Transfer rate, 10 MB capacity\n* [IBM 2310](/wiki/IBM_2310 \"IBM 2310\"): Cartridge disk drive, used 2315 cartridge.\n\t+ [IBM 2315](/wiki/IBM_2310 \"IBM 2310\"): 1 MB cartridge used on 2310 and with a disk drive component on multiple systems, e.g. [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\").\n* [IBM 2311](/wiki/IBM_2311 \"IBM 2311\"): Disk drive using IBM 1316 disk pack (removable—7\\.5 MB)\n* [IBM 2312](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk drive using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2313](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk facility with 4 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2314](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk subsystem with 9 drives, one spare using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2318](/wiki/IBM_2318 \"IBM 2318\"): Disk facility with 2 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2319](/wiki/IBM_2319 \"IBM 2319\"): Disk Facility with 3 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n\t+ [IBM 2316](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): 28\\.6 MB Disk pack for 2314 *et al.*\n* [IBM 2321](/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell \"IBM 2321 Data Cell\"): Data cell drive. Drive with removable cells containing tape strips (400 MB)\n* [IBM 2421](/wiki/IBM_2421 \"IBM 2421\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 1 year's warranty\n* [IBM 2422](/wiki/IBM_2422 \"IBM 2422\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 2 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2423](/wiki/IBM_2423 \"IBM 2423\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 3 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2424](/wiki/IBM_2424 \"IBM 2424\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 4 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2810](/wiki/IBM_2810 \"IBM 2810\"): IBM XIV Storage System (Generations 1 through 3; varies by model)\n* [IBM 2812](/wiki/IBM_2812 \"IBM 2812\"): IBM XIV Storage System (Generations 1 through 3; varies by model)\n* [IBM 2851](/wiki/IBM_2851 \"IBM 2851\"): IBM Scale\\-Out Network Attached Storage (SONAS)\n* [IBM 3310](/wiki/IBM_3310 \"IBM 3310\"): Fixed FBA drive\n* [IBM 3330](/wiki/IBM_3330 \"IBM 3330\"): Disk drive. (100 MB each spindle, up to 32 spindles per \"subsystem\"); 1970\n\t+ [IBM 3336](/wiki/IBM_3336 \"IBM 3336\"): Disk pack for 3330–1, 3330–2; 1970\n* [IBM 3330\\-11](/wiki/IBM_3330 \"IBM 3330\"): Disk drive. Double the density of 3330–1; 1973\\.\n\t+ [IBM 3336\\-11](/wiki/IBM_3336-11 \"IBM 3336-11\"): Disk pack for 3330–11; 1973\n* [IBM 3333](/wiki/IBM_3333 \"IBM 3333\"): Disk drive, a variant of 3330 and 3333\\-11\n* [IBM 3340](/wiki/IBM_3340 \"IBM 3340\"): 'Winchester'\\-type disk drive, removable. Model \\-4, more?; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3348](/wiki/IBM_3340 \"IBM 3340\"): 35 or 70 MB data modules used with IBM 3340\n* [IBM 3344](/wiki/IBM_3344 \"IBM 3344\"): Four 3340's simulated with a 3350 HDA under the covers\n* [IBM 3350](/wiki/IBM_3350 \"IBM 3350\"): Disk drive (317\\.10 MB—1976\\)\n* [IBM 3363](/wiki/IBM_3363 \"IBM 3363\"): Optical disk drive\n* [IBM 3370](/wiki/IBM_3370 \"IBM 3370\"): FBA drive (used to store microcode and config info for the 3090\\. Connected through 3092\\); native DASD for 4331, 4361 (70 MB—1979\\).\n* [IBM 3375](/wiki/IBM_3375 \"IBM 3375\"): Disk drive (\"The Ugly Duckling\" of IBM's DASD devices). 409\\.8 MB/actuator. First with dual\\-path access (via 'D' box)\n* [IBM 3380](/wiki/IBM_3380 \"IBM 3380\"): Disk drive; 2\\.46 GB per each 2\\-drive module (1981\\), later double\\- and triple\\-density versions\n* [IBM 3390](/wiki/IBM_3390 \"IBM 3390\"): Disk drive; 1, 2, 3 and 9 GB initially; later expanded to 27 GB\n* [IBM 3540](/wiki/IBM_3540 \"IBM 3540\"): Diskette I/O unit\n* [IBM 3830](/wiki/IBM_3830 \"IBM 3830\"): Storage control models 1, 2 and 3\n* [IBM 3850](/wiki/IBM_3850 \"IBM 3850\"): Mass Storage System (MSS); virtual 3330\\-1 volumes, each backed up by a pair of cartridges, 1974\n\t+ [IBM 3830](/wiki/IBM_3830 \"IBM 3830\")\\-11: Provided virtual 3330\\-1 (3330V) drives to the host; attached staging 3330 and 3350 drives for use by the 3851, 1974\n\t+ [IBM 3851](/wiki/IBM_3850 \"IBM 3850\"): Mass Storage Facility. Robot arms retrieving cylindrical [helically scanned](/wiki/Helical_scan \"Helical scan\") tape cartridges.\n* IBM 3880: Dual\\-channel DASD controller for 3350,3375,3380\\. 1981\\. Later models with up to 64MB cache. First hard disk cache in the industry.\n* [IBM 3990](/wiki/IBM_3990 \"IBM 3990\"): Quad\\-channel DASD controller for 3390\\.\n* IBM 4662: IBM FlashSystem 5200\n* [IBM 4963](/wiki/IBM_4963 \"IBM 4963\"): Disk subsystem\n* [IBM 4964](/wiki/IBM_4964 \"IBM 4964\"): Diskette unit for Series/1\n* [IBM 4965](/wiki/IBM_4965 \"IBM 4965\"): Diskette drive and I/O expansion unit\n* [IBM 4966](/wiki/IBM_4966 \"IBM 4966\"): Diskette magazine unit\n* [IBM 4967](/wiki/IBM_4967 \"IBM 4967\"): High performance disk subsystem\n* [IBM 5444](/wiki/IBM_5444 \"IBM 5444\"): Fixed/Removable disk file for System/3\n* [IBM 5445](/wiki/IBM_5445 \"IBM 5445\"): Disk Storage for System/3\n* [IBM 5447](/wiki/IBM_5447 \"IBM 5447\"): Disk Storage and Control for System/3\n* [IBM 7133](/wiki/IBM_7133 \"IBM 7133\"): [SSA](/wiki/Serial_Storage_Architecture \"Serial Storage Architecture\") Disk Enclosure (for RS/6000\\)\n* [IBM 7300](/wiki/IBM_7300 \"IBM 7300\"): [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\")/[IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\") Disk Storage\n* [IBM 7320](/wiki/IBM_7320 \"IBM 7320\"): Drum drive\n* [IBM 9331](/wiki/IBM_9331 \"IBM 9331\"): 8\" Floppy disk drive\n* [IBM 9332](/wiki/IBM_9332 \"IBM 9332\"): Disk drive; 1986\n* [IBM 9333](/wiki/IBM_9333 \"IBM 9333\"): Serial Link Disk Subsystem\n* [IBM 9335](/wiki/IBM_9335 \"IBM 9335\"): Disk subsystem in a set of drawers. For AS/400, System 36/38 or 9370\n* [IBM 9337](/wiki/IBM_9337 \"IBM 9337\"): Disk Array Subsystem; 1992\n* [IBM 9345](/wiki/IBM_9345 \"IBM 9345\"): Disk Array Subsystem; employed commodity 5¼\" hard drives; simulated 3390 hard disks but had a smaller track capacity\n\n#### Magnetic tape storage\n\n* [IBM 050](/wiki/IBM_050 \"IBM 050\"): Magnetic Data Inscriber (key operated, records on tape cartridge for [IBM 2495](/wiki/IBM_2495 \"IBM 2495\") data entry into an IBM System 360\\)\n* [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): Magnetic tape drive ([7 Track](/wiki/IBM_7-track \"IBM 7-track\")—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2401](/wiki/IBM_7_track%23IBM_2400_Series \"IBM 7 track#IBM 2400 Series\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2401](/wiki/IBM_2401 \"IBM 2401\"): Magnetic tape drive ([9 Track](/wiki/9-track_tape \"9-track tape\")—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 800/1600 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2415](/wiki/IBM_2415 \"IBM 2415\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 800/1600 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2420](/wiki/IBM_2420 \"IBM 2420\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 2440](/wiki/IBM_2440 \"IBM 2440\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 2495](/wiki/IBM_2495 \"IBM 2495\"): Tape Cartridge Reader (reads [IBM 050](/wiki/IBM_050 \"IBM 050\") prepared cartridges into an IBM System 360\\)\n* [IBM 3400\\-4](/wiki/IBM_3400-4 \"IBM 3400-4\"): Lower density tape\n* [IBM 3400\\-6](/wiki/IBM_3400-6 \"IBM 3400-6\"): Normal tape\n* [IBM 3410](/wiki/IBM_3410 \"IBM 3410\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit); 1971\n* [IBM 3411](/wiki/IBM_3411 \"IBM 3411\"): Magnetic tape unit and controller\n* [IBM 3420](/wiki/9-track_tape \"9-track tape\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3422](/wiki/IBM_3422 \"IBM 3422\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit); 1986\n* [IBM 3424](/wiki/IBM_3424 \"IBM 3424\"): Tape unit. Brazil and SA only.\n* [IBM 3430](/wiki/IBM_3430 \"IBM 3430\"): Top loading tape drive; 1983\n* [IBM 3440](/wiki/IBM_3440 \"IBM 3440\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3480](/wiki/IBM_3480_Family \"IBM 3480 Family\"): Cartridge tape drive; 1984\n* [IBM 3490](/wiki/IBM_3480_Family \"IBM 3480 Family\"): Cartridge tape drive; 1991\n* [IBM 3494](/wiki/IBM_3494 \"IBM 3494\"): Enterprise tape library\n\t+ [IBM Virtual Tape Server](/wiki/IBM_Virtual_Tape_Server \"IBM Virtual Tape Server\") (VTS): tape virtualization engine for IBM 3494\n* [IBM 3495](/wiki/IBM_3495 \"IBM 3495\"): Robotic tape library\n* [IBM 3573](/wiki/IBM_3573 \"IBM 3573\") models L2U, L3S, F3S: TS3100 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3573](/wiki/IBM_3573 \"IBM 3573\") models L4U, L2H, F3H: TS3200 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3576](/wiki/IBM_3576 \"IBM 3576\"): TS3310 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3577](/wiki/IBM_3577 \"IBM 3577\"): TS3400 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3580](/wiki/IBM_3580 \"IBM 3580\"): [LTO](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\") tape drive\n* [IBM 3584](/wiki/IBM_3584 \"IBM 3584\"): TS3500 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3584](/wiki/IBM_3584 \"IBM 3584\"): TS4500 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3588](/wiki/IBM_3588 \"IBM 3588\") model F3B: TS1030 Tape Drive; [LTO3](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\")\n* [IBM 3588](/wiki/IBM_3588 \"IBM 3588\") model F4A: TS1040 Tape Drive; 2007; [LTO4](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\"); TS2340 is a standalone version.\n* [IBM 3590](/wiki/IBM_3590_Family \"IBM 3590 Family\"): tape drive (Magstar)\n* [IBM 3592](/wiki/IBM_3590_Family \"IBM 3590 Family\"): TS1120 Tape Drive; model J1A known as *Jaguar* in 2004; model E05 in 2007\n* [IBM 3803](/wiki/IBM_3803 \"IBM 3803\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3954](/wiki/IBM_3954 \"IBM 3954\"): TS7510 and TS7520 Virtualization Engines\n* [IBM 3954](/wiki/IBM_3954 \"IBM 3954\"): TS7510 and TS7520 Virtualization Engines\n* [IBM 3956](/wiki/IBM_3956 \"IBM 3956\"): TS7740 Virtualization Engine; models CC6 and CX6\n* [IBM 3957](/wiki/IBM_3957 \"IBM 3957\"): TS7700 Virtualization Engine; model V06\n* [IBM 4480](/wiki/IBM_4480 \"IBM 4480\"): Cartridge drives which could be mounted by a robot\n* [IBM 4580](/wiki/IBM_4580 \"IBM 4580\"): System/88 disk drive\n* [IBM 4581](/wiki/IBM_4581 \"IBM 4581\"): System/88 disk drive\n* [IBM 4585](/wiki/IBM_4585 \"IBM 4585\"): Autoload streaming magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 4968](/wiki/IBM_4968 \"IBM 4968\"): Autoload streaming magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 6157](/wiki/IBM_6157 \"IBM 6157\"): Streaming tape drive\n* [IBM 7208](/wiki/IBM_7208 \"IBM 7208\"): 8\\-mm SCSI tape drive\n* [IBM 7330](/wiki/IBM_7330 \"IBM 7330\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): Hypertape\n* [IBM 8809](/wiki/IBM_8809 \"IBM 8809\"): Magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 9347](/wiki/IBM_9347 \"IBM 9347\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 9349](/wiki/IBM_9349 \"IBM 9349\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n\n#### Optical storage\n\n* [IBM 1350](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo Image Retrieval System\n* [IBM 1360](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photodigital Storage System (terabit)\n\t+ [IBM 1352](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Cell File\n\t+ [IBM 1361](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Cell File and Control\n\t+ [IBM 1364](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo\\-Digital Reader\n\t+ [IBM 1365](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo\\-Digital Recorder\n\t+ [IBM 1367](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Data Controller\n* [IBM 3995](/wiki/IBM_3995 \"IBM 3995\"): Optical Library (terabyte)\n\n#### Storage networking and virtualization\n\n* [IBM 3044](/wiki/IBM_3044 \"IBM 3044\"): Fiber optic channel extender link\n* [IBM 9034](/wiki/IBM_9034 \"IBM 9034\"): [ESCON](/wiki/ESCON \"ESCON\")/Parallel Converter\n* IBM 2005: [Storage area network](/wiki/Storage_area_network \"Storage area network\") (SAN) [Fibre Channel switch](/wiki/Fibre_Channel_switch \"Fibre Channel switch\") (OEM from [Brocade Communications Systems](/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems \"Brocade Communications Systems\"))\n* IBM 2029: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer (OEM from [Nortel](/wiki/Nortel \"Nortel\"))\n* IBM 2031: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from [McData](/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems \"Brocade Communications Systems\"))\n* IBM 2032: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from McData)\n* IBM 2053: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from [Cisco](/wiki/Cisco \"Cisco\"))\n* IBM 2054: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* IBM 2061: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* IBM 2062: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* [IBM 2103](/wiki/IBM_2103 \"IBM 2103\")\\-H07: [SAN](/wiki/Storage_area_network \"Storage area network\") [Fibre Channel](/wiki/Fibre_Channel \"Fibre Channel\") Hub\n* IBM 2109: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 2498: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 2499: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 3534: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* [IBM SAN File System](/wiki/IBM_SAN_File_System \"IBM SAN File System\"): a software for sharing [file systems](/wiki/File_system \"File system\") in SAN\n* [IBM 2145](/wiki/IBM_SAN_Volume_Controller \"IBM SAN Volume Controller\"): System Storage SAN Volume Controller (SVC)\n* IBM 9729: Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexer\n\n### Coprocessor units\n\n* [IBM 2938](/wiki/IBM_2938 \"IBM 2938\"): Array processor; attach to 2044 (model 1\\) or 2165 (model 2\\)\n* [IBM 3092](/wiki/IBM_3092 \"IBM 3092\"): [IBM 3090](/wiki/IBM_3090 \"IBM 3090\") Processor controller\n* [IBM 3838](/wiki/IBM_3838 \"IBM 3838\"): Array processor; 1976\n* [IBM 4758](/wiki/IBM_4758 \"IBM 4758\"): PCI Cryptographic Coprocessor\n* [IBM 4764](/wiki/IBM_4764 \"IBM 4764\"): PCI\\-X Cryptographic Coprocessor\n* [IBM 4765](/wiki/IBM_4765 \"IBM 4765\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor\n* [IBM 4767](/wiki/IBM_4767 \"IBM 4767\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor (Crypto Express5S \\[CEX5S] on Z, MTM 4767–002, FC EJ32/EJ33 on Power)\n* [IBM 4768](/wiki/IBM_4768 \"IBM 4768\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor (Crypto Express6S \\[CEX6S] on Z)\n* [IBM 4769](/wiki/IBM_4769 \"IBM 4769\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor (Crypto Express7S \\[CEX7S] on Z)\n\n### Channels and input/output control units\n\n* [IBM 2820](/wiki/IBM_2820 \"IBM 2820\"): Drum Storage Control Unit for 2301 Drum Storage Units\n* [IBM 2821](/wiki/IBM_2821_Control_Unit \"IBM 2821 Control Unit\"): Control unit (for 2540 Reader/Punch and 1403 Printer)\n* [IBM 2822](/wiki/IBM_2822 \"IBM 2822\"): Paper Tape Reader Control\n* [IBM 2835](/wiki/IBM_2835 \"IBM 2835\"): Control unit model 1 (for 2305\\-1 Disk)\n* [IBM 2835](/wiki/IBM_2835 \"IBM 2835\"): Control unit model 2 (for 2305\\-2 Disk)\n* [IBM 2841](/wiki/IBM_2841 \"IBM 2841\"): DASD Control unit (for 2311, 2302, 2303, 2321 and 7320\\)\n* IBM 2846: Channel controller for System/360 Model 67\n* [IBM 2860](/wiki/IBM_2860 \"IBM 2860\"): Selector Channel (for SYS/360 2065 \\& above, 370/165, 168 and 195\\)\n* [IBM 2870](/wiki/IBM_2870 \"IBM 2870\"): Multiplex Channel (for SYS/360 2065 \\& above, 370/165, 168 and 195\\)\n* [IBM 2880](/wiki/IBM_2880 \"IBM 2880\"): Block Multiplex Channel (for 360/85 and 195, 370/165, 168, 195\\)\n* [IBM 2914](/wiki/IBM_2914 \"IBM 2914\"): Switching Unit (for manually switching channels between central processing units)\n* [IBM 3088](/wiki/IBM_3088 \"IBM 3088\"): Multisystem channel communications unit\n* [IBM 3172](/wiki/IBM_3172 \"IBM 3172\"): LAN Interconnect Controller (or Nways Interconnect Controller)\n* [IBM 3814](/wiki/IBM_3814 \"IBM 3814\"): Switching Management System\n* [IBM 4959](/wiki/IBM_4959 \"IBM 4959\"): I/O expansion unit\n* [IBM 4987](/wiki/IBM_4987 \"IBM 4987\"): Programmable communication subsystem\n* [IBM 5085](/wiki/IBM_5085 \"IBM 5085\"): Graphics Processor. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System.\n* [IBM 5088](/wiki/IBM_5088 \"IBM 5088\"): Graphics Channel Controller. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System.\n* [IBM 5209](/wiki/IBM_5209 \"IBM 5209\"): 5250\\-3270 link protocol converter\n* [IBM 7299](/wiki/IBM_7299 \"IBM 7299\"): Active Star Hub for twinax terminals\n* [IBM 7426](/wiki/IBM_7426 \"IBM 7426\"): Terminal interface unit\n* [IBM 7621](/wiki/IBM_7621 \"IBM 7621\"): Tape Control\n* [IBM 7909](/wiki/IBM_7909 \"IBM 7909\"): Data Channel\n* [IBM 8102](/wiki/IBM_8102 \"IBM 8102\"): Storage and I/O unit for 8100 Information System\n\n### Data communications devices\n\n* [IBM 3270](/wiki/IBM_3270 \"IBM 3270\")\n\t+ [IBM 3178](/wiki/IBM_3178 \"IBM 3178\"): Display station for IBM 3270\n\t+ [IBM 3179](/wiki/IBM_3179 \"IBM 3179\"): Display station (color or graphics) for IBM 3270\n\t+ [IBM 3180](/wiki/IBM_3180 \"IBM 3180\"): Monochrome display station, configurable to 80 columns (24, 32 or 43 rows), 132 columns (27 rows)\n\t+ [IBM 3191](/wiki/IBM_3191 \"IBM 3191\"): Monochrome display station\n\t+ [IBM 3192G](/wiki/IBM_3192G \"IBM 3192G\"): Terminal. 24 or 32 lines. Graphics.\n\t+ [IBM 3193](/wiki/IBM_3193 \"IBM 3193\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3194](/wiki/IBM_3194 \"IBM 3194\"): Advanced function color display\n\t+ [IBM 3196](/wiki/IBM_3196 \"IBM 3196\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3197](/wiki/IBM_3197 \"IBM 3197\"): Color display work station\n\t+ [IBM 3279](/wiki/IBM_3279 \"IBM 3279\"): Color graphic terminal; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 3290](/wiki/IBM_3290 \"IBM 3290\"): Gas panel display terminal with 62x160 screen configurable with one to four logical screens, each of which could be further subdivided into partitions under software control; 1983\n\t+ [IBM 3174](/wiki/IBM_3174 \"IBM 3174\"): 3270 Subsystem controller\n\t+ [IBM 3271](/wiki/IBM_3271 \"IBM 3271\"): Remote 3270 control unit\n\t+ [IBM 3272](/wiki/IBM_3272 \"IBM 3272\"): Local 3270 control unit\n\t+ [IBM 3274](/wiki/IBM_3274 \"IBM 3274\"): 3270 Control unit\n\t+ [IBM 3275](/wiki/IBM_3275 \"IBM 3275\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3276](/wiki/IBM_3276 \"IBM 3276\"): 3270 Control unit display station\n\t+ [IBM 3277](/wiki/IBM_3270 \"IBM 3270\"): Terminal\n\t+ [IBM 3278](/wiki/IBM_3278 \"IBM 3278\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3299](/wiki/IBM_3299 \"IBM 3299\"): 3270 Terminal Multiplexer\n* [IBM 1009](/wiki/IBM_1009 \"IBM 1009\"): IBM 1401/1440/1414/1460 Data Transmission Unit\n* [IBM 1013](/wiki/IBM_1013 \"IBM 1013\"): Card Transmission Terminal\n* [IBM 1015](/wiki/IBM_1015_%28terminal%29 \"IBM 1015 (terminal)\"): Inquiry/Display TerminalIBM Booklet 520\\-1122, titled , 2250, 2260 Displays: inside has 1015 Inquiry Display Terminal, 2260 Display Station, 2250 Display Unit\n* IBM 2210: NWays Multiprotocol Router (router)\n* IBM 2217: NWays Multiprotocol Concentrator\n* [IBM 2250](/wiki/IBM_2250 \"IBM 2250\"): Vector Graphics Display Terminal\n* [IBM 2260](/wiki/IBM_2260 \"IBM 2260\"): CRT Terminal\n* IBM 2265: Display Station\n* [IBM 2701](/wiki/IBM_270x \"IBM 270x\"): Data Adapter Unit (communication controller)\n* [IBM 2702](/wiki/IBM_270x \"IBM 270x\"): Transmission Control (communication controller)\n* [IBM 2703](/wiki/IBM_270x \"IBM 270x\"): Transmission Control (communication controller)\n* [IBM 2740](/wiki/IBM_2740 \"IBM 2740\"): Typewriter communication terminal; 1965\n* [IBM 2741](/wiki/IBM_2741 \"IBM 2741\"): Typewriter communication terminal; 1965\n* [IBM 2770](/wiki/IBM_2770 \"IBM 2770\"): Data Communications System; 1969\n\t+ [IBM 2772](/wiki/IBM_2770 \"IBM 2770\"): Multi\\-Purpose Control Unit: 1969\n* [IBM 2922](/wiki/IBM_2922 \"IBM 2922\"): Programmable terminal; 1972\n* [IBM 2840](/wiki/IBM_2840 \"IBM 2840\"): Display unit\n* [IBM 3101](/wiki/IBM_3101 \"IBM 3101\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3102](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3102_Printer \"IBM 3101#IBM 3102 Printer\"): Thermal printer for attachment to IBM 3101, 3151, 3161, etc.\n* [IBM 3104](/wiki/IBM_3104 \"IBM 3104\"): Display station for attachment to IBM 5250\n* [IBM 2840](/wiki/IBM_2840 \"IBM 2840\"): Display Control Unit Model I for 2250 Model\\-II Analog Displays\n* [IBM 2840](/wiki/IBM_2840 \"IBM 2840\"): Display Control Unit Model II for 2250 Model III Analog Displays\n* [IBM 2848](/wiki/IBM_2848 \"IBM 2848\"): Display Controller (for 2260\\)\n* [IBM 3151](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3151 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3151\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3161](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3161/3163 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3161/3163\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3163](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3161/3163 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3161/3163\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3164](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3164 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3164\"): ASCII color display station\n* [IBM 3192](/wiki/IBM_3192 \"IBM 3192\"): Monochrome display station, configurable to 80 columns (24, 32 or 43 rows), 132 columns (27 rows). Record and playback keystrokes function. All configuration done through keyboard.\n* [IBM 3486](/wiki/IBM_3486 \"IBM 3486\"): 3487, 3488 \"Info Window\" twinax displays\n* [IBM 3735](/wiki/IBM_3735 \"IBM 3735\"): Programmable Buffered Terminal\n* [IBM 3767](/wiki/IBM_3767 \"IBM 3767\"): Communication terminal\n* [IBM 3780](/wiki/IBM_3780 \"IBM 3780\"): Data communications terminal; 1972\n\t+ [IBM 3781](/wiki/IBM_3780 \"IBM 3780\"): Card Punch (optional)\n* [IBM 3770](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Data Communication system. All Terminals came with integrated desk\n\t+ [IBM 3771](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1, 2 and 3\n\t+ [IBM 3773](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1, P1, 2, P2, 3 and P3\n\t+ [IBM 3774](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1, P1, 2 and P2\n\t+ [IBM 3775](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1 and P1\n\t+ [IBM 3776](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1 and\n\t+ [IBM 3777](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Model 1\n\t+ [IBM 3783](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Card Attachment Unit, attached 2502 or 3521 to any 3770 terminal except 3777\n\t+ [IBM 3784](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Line Printer, optional second printer for the 3774\n* [IBM 7740](/wiki/IBM_7740 \"IBM 7740\"): Communication control unit; 1963\n* [IBM 7750](/wiki/IBM_7750 \"IBM 7750\"): Transmission Control UnitUsed by [CTSS](/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System \"Compatible Time-Sharing System\")\n* [IBM 3704](/wiki/IBM_3705_Communications_Controller \"IBM 3705 Communications Controller\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3705](/wiki/IBM_3705_Communications_Controller \"IBM 3705 Communications Controller\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3708](/wiki/IBM_3708 \"IBM 3708\"): Network control unit\n* [IBM 3710](/wiki/IBM_3710 \"IBM 3710\"): Network Controller\n* [IBM 3720](/wiki/IBM_3720 \"IBM 3720\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3721](/wiki/IBM_3721 \"IBM 3721\"): Expansion unit for IBM 3720\n* [IBM 3724](/wiki/IBM_3724 \"IBM 3724\"): Controller\n* [IBM 3725](/wiki/IBM_3725 \"IBM 3725\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3728](/wiki/IBM_3728 \"IBM 3728\"): Communication control matrix switch\n* [IBM 3745](/wiki/IBM_3745 \"IBM 3745\"): High\\-speed communication controller; 1988\\. Model \\-410, more?\n* [IBM 3746](/wiki/IBM_3745 \"IBM 3745\"): Multiprotocol Controller\n* [IBM 5250](/wiki/IBM_5250 \"IBM 5250\"): CRT terminal; 1977\n* [IBM 5251](/wiki/IBM_5251 \"IBM 5251\"): Display Station\n* [IBM 5252](/wiki/IBM_5252 \"IBM 5252\"): Dual display CRT terminal; 1978\n* [IBM 7171](/wiki/IBM_7171 \"IBM 7171\"): ASCII Device Attachment Control Unit (S/370 Channel\\-attached protocol converter for mapping [ASCII](/wiki/ASCII \"ASCII\") display screens to [IBM 3270](/wiki/IBM_3270 \"IBM 3270\") format)\n\n### Power supply/distribution units\n\n* [IBM 3089](/wiki/IBM_3089 \"IBM 3089\"): [IBM 3081](/wiki/IBM_3081 \"IBM 3081\")/[IBM 3090](/wiki/IBM_3090 \"IBM 3090\") Power controller. 50 Hz → 400 kHz\n\n### Modems\n\n* [IBM 3833](/wiki/IBM_3833 \"IBM 3833\"): Modem; 1985\n* [IBM 3834](/wiki/IBM_3834 \"IBM 3834\"): Modem; 1985\n* [IBM 3863](/wiki/IBM_3863 \"IBM 3863\"): Modem\n* [IBM 3864](/wiki/IBM_3864 \"IBM 3864\"): Modem\n* [IBM 3865](/wiki/IBM_3865 \"IBM 3865\"): Modem\n* [IBM 3868](/wiki/IBM_3868 \"IBM 3868\"): Rack\\-mounted modem\n* [IBM 5810](/wiki/IBM_5810 \"IBM 5810\"): Limited\\-distance multi\\-modem enclosure (for 5811 and 5812\\)\n* [IBM 5811](/wiki/IBM_5811 \"IBM 5811\"): Limited\\-distance modem\n* [IBM 5812](/wiki/IBM_5812 \"IBM 5812\"): Limited\\-distance modem\n* [IBM 5841](/wiki/IBM_5841 \"IBM 5841\"): 1,200\\-bit/s modem\n* [IBM 5842](/wiki/IBM_5842 \"IBM 5842\"): 2,400\\-bit/s modem; 1986\n* [IBM 5865](/wiki/IBM_5865 \"IBM 5865\"): Modem\n* [IBM 5866](/wiki/IBM_5866 \"IBM 5866\"): Modem\n* [IBM 5868](/wiki/IBM_5868 \"IBM 5868\"): Rack mounted modem\n\n### Magnetic ink and optical readers\n\n* [IBM 1210](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1210 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1210\"): Magnetic character\\-reader/sorter; 1959\n* [IBM 1219](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1219 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1219\"): Reader/sorter (to sort things like postal orders); 1961\n* [IBM 1230](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1230_Optical_Mark_Scoring_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1230 Optical Mark Scoring Reader\"): Test Scoring\n* [IBM 1231](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1231_Optical_Mark_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1231 Optical Mark Page Reader\"): Optical Mark Page Reader\n* [IBM 1232](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1232_Optical_Mark_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1232 Optical Mark Page Reader\"): Optical Mark Page Reader\n* [IBM 1255](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1255_/_IBM_1270 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1255 / IBM 1270\"): Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1259](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1259 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1259\"): Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1270](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1255_/_IBM_1270 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1255 / IBM 1270\"): Optical Reader Sorter\n* [IBM 1275](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1275_Optical_Reader_Sorter \"IBM document processors#IBM 1275 Optical Reader Sorter\"): Optical Reader Sorter\n* [IBM 1285](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1285_Optical_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1285 Optical Reader\"): IBM 1401/1440/1460/Sys360 Optical Reader for printed numbers\n* [IBM 1287](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1287_Optical_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1287 Optical Reader\"): S/360 Optical Reader for handwritten numbers\n* [IBM 1288](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1288_Optical_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1288 Optical Page Reader\"): S/360 Optical Page Reader for hand written numbers and OCR\\-A Font\n* [IBM 1412](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1412 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1412\"): Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1418](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1418_Optical_Character_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1418 Optical Character Reader\"): IBM 1401/1460/Sys360—Optical Reader\n* [IBM 1419](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1419 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1419\"): IBM 1401/1410/Sys360—Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1428](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1428_Alphanumeric_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1428 Alphanumeric Reader\"): IBM 1401/1460/Sys360—Optical Reader\n* [IBM 1975](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1975_Optical_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1975 Optical Page Reader\"): Optical Page Reader (Used at [SSA](/wiki/Social_Security_Administration \"Social Security Administration\") from 1965 to 1977\\)\n* [IBM 2956\\-2](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_2956_Optical_Mark/Hole_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 2956 Optical Mark/Hole Reader\"): Optical Mark/Hole Reader\n* [IBM 2956\\-3](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_2956_Optical_Mark/Hole_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 2956 Optical Mark/Hole Reader\"): Optical Mark/Hole Reader\n* [IBM 2956\\-5](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_2956 \"IBM document processors#IBM 2956\"): Multi\\-Pocket MCR Reader Sorter (RPQ W19976\\)\n* [IBM 3881](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3881_Optical_Mark_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3881 Optical Mark Reader\"): Optical Mark Reader\n* [IBM 3886](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3886_Optical_character_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3886 Optical character Reader\"): Optical Character Reader\n* [IBM 3890](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3890 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3890\"): Document processor\n* [IBM 3897](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3897:Image_capture_system \"Image capture system\"): Image capture system\n* [IBM 3898](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3897:Image_capture_system \"Image capture system\"): Image processor\n\n### Other\n\n* [IBM 3117](/wiki/IBM_3117 \"IBM 3117\"): Image scanner\n* [IBM 3118](/wiki/IBM_3118 \"IBM 3118\"): Image scanner\n* [IBM 4577](/wiki/IBM_4577 \"IBM 4577\"): System/88 expansion cabinet\n* [IBM 4993](/wiki/IBM_4993 \"IBM 4993\"): Series/1\\-S/370 termination enclosure\n* [IBM 4997](/wiki/IBM_4997 \"IBM 4997\"): Rack enclosure\n* [IBM 7170](/wiki/IBM_7170 \"IBM 7170\"): Device attachment control unit\n* [IBM 7770](/wiki/IBM_7770 \"IBM 7770\"): Audio Response Unit\n* [IBM 7772](/wiki/IBM_7772 \"IBM 7772\"): Audio Response Unit\n* [IBM 9037](/wiki/IBM_9037 \"IBM 9037\"): [Sysplex Timer](/wiki/Sysplex_Timer \"Sysplex Timer\")\n\n### IBM PC components and peripherals\n\n* IBM 2215: 15\" Multisync Color Monitor with Digital Controls 65 kHz for Asia Pacific\n* IBM 4707: Monochrome monitor for Wheelwriter word processor\n* IBM 5144: PC convertible monochrome display\n* IBM 5145: PC convertible color display\n* [IBM 5151](/wiki/IBM_5151 \"IBM 5151\"): IBM PC Display—Monochrome (green) CRT monitor, designed for [MDA](/wiki/IBM_Monochrome_Display_Adapter \"IBM Monochrome Display Adapter\") (1981\\)\n* IBM 5152: IBM PC Graphics Printer (technically this was an Epson MX\\-80 dot matrix printer (1979\\) [:File:Epson MX\\-80\\.jpg](/wiki/Epson_MX-80.jpg \"Epson MX-80.jpg\"), but it was IBM\\-labelled (1981\\)\n* IBM 5153: IBM PC Color Display—CRT monitor, designed for [CGA](/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter \"Color Graphics Adapter\") (1983\\)\n* IBM 5154: IBM Enhanced Color Display—for [EGA](/wiki/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter \"Enhanced Graphics Adapter\") (1984\\)\n* IBM 5161: Expansion Unit for the IBM PC, a second chassis that was connected via ISA bus extender and receiver cards and a 60\\-pin cable connector; the Expansion Unit had its own power supply with enough wattage to drive up to two hard drives (the IBM 5150's original power supply was insufficient for hard drives) (1981–1987?)\n* IBM 5173: [PC Network](/wiki/IBM_PC_Network \"IBM PC Network\") baseband extender\n* [IBM 5175](/wiki/IBM_5175 \"IBM 5175\"): IBM Professional Graphics Controller (PGC, PGA) (1984\\)\n* IBM 5181: Personal Computer Compact Printer\n* IBM 5182: Personal Computer Color Printer\n* IBM 5201: Quietwriter Printer Model 2\n* IBM 5202: Quietwriter III printer\n* IBM 6312: PS/ValuePoint Color Display\n* IBM 6314: PS/ValuePoint Color Display\n* IBM 6317: Color display\n* IBM 6319: PS/ValuePoint Color Display\n* IBM 6324: Color display\n* IBM 6325: Color display\n* IBM 6327: Color display\n* IBM 8503: Monochrome monitor for PC\n* IBM 8507: PS/2 monochrome display\n* IBM 8512: PS/2 color display\n* IBM 8513: PS/2 color display\n* [IBM 8514](/wiki/IBM_8514 \"IBM 8514\"): PS/2 large color display\n* [IBM 8514/A](/wiki/IBM_8514/A \"IBM 8514/A\"): Display adaptor\n* [IBM T220/T221 LCD monitors](/wiki/IBM_T220/T221_LCD_monitors \"IBM T220/T221 LCD monitors\"): 9503 Ultra\\-high resolution monitor\n* IBM 9521: Monitor\n* IBM 9524: Monitor\n* IBM 9525: Monitor\n* IBM 9527: Monitor\n* IBM E74: CRT monitor, *ca* 2001\n* IBM E74M: CRT monitor with built\\-in speakers and microphone (model no. 6517\\-U7N) *ca* 2001\n* [IBM PC keyboard](/wiki/IBM_PC_keyboard \"IBM PC keyboard\") (84 keys)(1981\\)\n* IBM PC keyboard (101 keys) Enhanced (1984\\)\n* [Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA)](/wiki/IBM_Monochrome_Display_Adapter \"IBM Monochrome Display Adapter\")\n* [Color Graphics Adapter (CGA)](/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter \"Color Graphics Adapter\")\n* [Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)](/wiki/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter \"Enhanced Graphics Adapter\")\n* [Professional Graphics controller (PGC)](/wiki/Professional_Graphics_Controller \"Professional Graphics Controller\")\n* [Multicolor Graphics Adapter (MCGA)](/wiki/Multi-Color_Graphics_Array \"Multi-Color Graphics Array\")\n* [Video Graphics Array (VGA)](/wiki/Video_Graphics_Array \"Video Graphics Array\")\n* [Micro Channel architecture (MCA)](/wiki/Micro_Channel_architecture \"Micro Channel architecture\"): 32\\-bit expansion bus for PS/2\n* [Mwave](/wiki/IBM_Mwave \"IBM Mwave\")\n* IBM [Deskstar](/wiki/Deskstar \"Deskstar\"), [Travelstar](/wiki/Travelstar \"Travelstar\") and [Ultrastar](/wiki/Ultrastar_%28WD_brand%29 \"Ultrastar (WD brand)\") series of hard disk drives for desktops and laptops, respectively (Acquired by [hard disk drive](/wiki/Hard_disk_drive \"Hard disk drive\") division of [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi \"Hitachi\"))\n",
"### Punched card and paper tape equipment\n\n* [IBM 1011](/wiki/IBM_1011 \"IBM 1011\"): IBM 1401/1440/1460/1414 I/O Sync—Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 1012](/wiki/IBM_1012 \"IBM 1012\"): IBM 1401/1440/1460—Tape Punch\n* [IBM 1017](/wiki/IBM_1017 \"IBM 1017\"): IBM S/360—Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 1018](/wiki/IBM_1018 \"IBM 1018\"): IBM S/360—Paper Tape Punch\n* [IBM 1134](/wiki/IBM_1134 \"IBM 1134\"): [paper tape reader](/wiki/Punched_tape \"Punched tape\")\n* [IBM 1402](/wiki/IBM_1402 \"IBM 1402\"): [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\") and several other systems card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1412](/wiki/IBM_1412 \"IBM 1412\"): Punched card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1442](/wiki/IBM_1442 \"IBM 1442\"): [IBM 1440](/wiki/IBM_1440 \"IBM 1440\") and [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\") Card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1444](/wiki/IBM_1444 \"IBM 1444\"): IBM 1240/1440 Punched card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1622](/wiki/IBM_1622 \"IBM 1622\"): [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\") Card reader/punch\n* [IBM 1902](/wiki/IBM_1902 \"IBM 1902\"): Paper Tape Punch\n* [IBM 1903](/wiki/IBM_1903 \"IBM 1903\"): Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 2501](/wiki/IBM_2501 \"IBM 2501\"): IBM System/360 Card reader (up to 1,200 cpm)\n* [IBM 2502](/wiki/IBM_2502 \"IBM 2502\"): Card Reader\n* [IBM 2520](/wiki/IBM_2520 \"IBM 2520\") Card Read Punch (Model A1\\), Card Punch (Models A2, A3\\)IBM System 360/Model 20 System Summary, p. 13A1 500 CPM Read\\-only, A2 Punch 500 CPM, A3 Punch 300 CPM\n* [IBM 2540](/wiki/IBM_2540 \"IBM 2540\"): IBM System/360 Card reader/punch\n* [IBM 2560](/wiki/IBM_2560 \"IBM 2560\"): [IBM System/360 Model 20](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_20 \"IBM System/360 Model 20\") Multifunction card machine (reader/punch/interpreter/multi\\-hopper)\n* [IBM 2671](/wiki/IBM_2671 \"IBM 2671\"): Paper Tape Reader\n* [IBM 2826](/wiki/IBM_2826 \"IBM 2826\"): Control unit for 1017 and 1018\n* [IBM 3504](/wiki/IBM_3504 \"IBM 3504\"): [Card reader](/wiki/Punched_card_reader \"Punched card reader\")\n* [IBM 3505](/wiki/IBM_3505 \"IBM 3505\"): [Card reader](/wiki/Punched_card_reader \"Punched card reader\")\n* [IBM 3525](/wiki/IBM_3525 \"IBM 3525\"): Multi\\-function card unit\n* [IBM 5424](/wiki/IBM_5424 \"IBM 5424\"): [IBM System/3](/wiki/IBM_System/3 \"IBM System/3\") MFCU Multi Function Card Unit (reader/punch/printer/multi\\-hopper)\\- 96 column cards\n* [IBM 5425](/wiki/IBM_5425 \"IBM 5425\"): [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\") MFCU Multi Function Card Unit (reader/punch/printer/multi\\-hopper), for handling 96\\-column cards\n",
"### Microfilm products\n\nIBM announced a range of Microfilm products in 1963 and 1964 and withdrew them in 1969\\.\n* [IBM 9921](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Document Viewer Model I\n* [IBM 9922](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Document Viewer Model II\n* [IBM 9948](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Thermal Copier\n* [IBM 9949](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Micro Viewer\n* [IBM 9950](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Diazo Copier\n* [IBM 9951](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Camera\n* [IBM 9952](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Standard Micro\\-Viewer\\-Printer\n* [IBM 9953](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Viewer\\-Printer Stacker Module\n* [IBM 9954](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Diazo Copier\n* [IBM 9955](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Microfiche Processor\n* [IBM 9956](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Camera\n* [IBM 9965](/wiki/IBM_microfilm_products \"IBM microfilm products\"): Diazo Copier\n\n",
"### Printer/plotter equipment\n\n* [IBM 1094](/wiki/IBM_1094 \"IBM 1094\"): Line\\-Entry Keyboard\n* [IBM 1403](/wiki/IBM_1403 \"IBM 1403\"): High\\-Speed Impact Printer\n* [IBM 1404](/wiki/IBM_1404 \"IBM 1404\"): IBM 1401/Sys360—Printer\n* [IBM 1416](/wiki/IBM_1416 \"IBM 1416\"): Impact Printer print character chain\n* [IBM 1445](/wiki/IBM_1445 \"IBM 1445\"): IBM 1240/1401/1440/Sys360—Printer\n* [IBM 1446](/wiki/IBM_1446 \"IBM 1446\"): IBM 1440—Printer Control unit for 1403\n* [IBM 2203](/wiki/IBM_2203 \"IBM 2203\"): Printer\n* [IBM 2213](/wiki/IBM_2213 \"IBM 2213\"): Printer\n* [IBM 2245](/wiki/IBM_2245 \"IBM 2245\"): Line printer for [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_language \"Chinese language\"), [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\") and [Korean](/wiki/Korean_language \"Korean language\") text\n* [IBM 2280](/wiki/IBM_2280 \"IBM 2280\"): Film Recorder\n* [IBM 2282](/wiki/IBM_2282 \"IBM 2282\"): Film Recorder/Scanner\n* [IBM 2285](/wiki/IBM_2285 \"IBM 2285\"): Display Copier\n* [IBM 2680](/wiki/IBM_2680 \"IBM 2680\"): High\\-speed photo typesetter; 1967\n* IBM 3130: Advanced Function Printer\n* IBM 3160: Advanced Function Printer\n* IBM 3170: Full Color Digital Printer\n* [IBM 3203](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3203 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3203\"): Printer\n* [IBM 3211](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3211 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3211\"): High\\-Speed Impact Printer for Sys/370\n* [IBM 3216](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3216 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3216\"): 3211 Impact Printer's character print train\n* [IBM 3262](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3262 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3262\"): Line printer\n* [IBM 3268](/wiki/IBM_3268 \"IBM 3268\"): Dot matrix printer\n* [IBM 3284](/wiki/IBM_3284 \"IBM 3284\"): Printer\n* [IBM 3287](/wiki/IBM_3287 \"IBM 3287\"): Color printer; 1979\n* [IBM 3288](/wiki/IBM_3288 \"IBM 3288\"): Line printer\n* [IBM 3800](/wiki/IBM_3800 \"IBM 3800\"): First laser printer introduced by IBM; 1976–1990\\. [incl. photo](https://web.archive.org/web/20050117192756/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1976.html)\n\t+ [IBM 3800\\-1](/wiki/IBM_3800%233800_Model_001 \"IBM 3800#3800 Model 001\"): Early laser printer, 1975\n\t+ [IBM 3800\\-2](/wiki/IBM_3800%233800_Model_002 \"IBM 3800#3800 Model 002\"): Part of [IBM Kanji System](/wiki/IBM_Kanji_System \"IBM Kanji System\") for Japanese language processing, 1979\n\t+ [IBM 3800\\-3](/wiki/IBM_3800%233800_Model_003 \"IBM 3800#3800 Model 003\"): Continuous form printer; 1982\n* [IBM 3811](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_3811 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 3811\"): Control Unit for 3211\n* [IBM 3812](/wiki/IBM_3812 \"IBM 3812\"): Table top page printer; 12 ppm, 1986\n* [IBM 3816](/wiki/IBM_3816 \"IBM 3816\"): Table top page printer; 24 ppm, 1989\n* [IBM 3820](/wiki/IBM_3820 \"IBM 3820\"): Laser page printer; 20 ppm, 1985\n* [IBM 3825](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3825 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3825\"): Laser page printer; 58 ppm, 1989\n* [IBM 3827](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3827 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3827\"): Laser page printer; 92 ppm, 1988\n* [IBM 3828](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3828 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3828\"): MICR Laser page printer; 92 ppm, 1990\n* [IBM 3829](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3829 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3829\"): Laser page printer; 92 ppm, 1993\n* [IBM 3835](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3835 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3835\"): Continuous forms laser printer; 88ppm, 1988\n* [IBM 3852\\-2](/wiki/IBM_3852-2 \"IBM 3852-2\"): Inkjet printer for [IBM 3192](/wiki/IBM_3192 \"IBM 3192\") terminal\n* [IBM 3900](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3900 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3900\"): Various models 001; OW1 DR1/2 etc., succeeded by infoprint 4000\n* [IBM 3935](/wiki/IBM_3800%23IBM_3935 \"IBM 3800#IBM 3935\"): Laser page printer; 35 ppm, 1993\n* [IBM 4000](/wiki/IBM_4000 \"IBM 4000\"): Various models succeeded by infoprint 4100\n* [IBM 4019](/wiki/IBM_4019 \"IBM 4019\"): Laser printer for PC. 10 text pages per minute.\n* [IBM 4039\\-16L](/wiki/IBM_4039-16L \"IBM 4039-16L\"): Lexmark laser printer\n* [IBM 4055](/wiki/IBM_4055 \"IBM 4055\"): InfoWindow touch screen display\n* [IBM 4079](/wiki/IBM_4079 \"IBM 4079\"): Color inkjet printer\n* [IBM 4201](/wiki/IBM_4201 \"IBM 4201\"): ProPrinterII Model 002\n* [IBM 4202](/wiki/IBM_4202 \"IBM 4202\"): ProPrinter XL\n* [IBM 4207](/wiki/IBM_4207 \"IBM 4207\"): ProPrinter X24\n* [IBM 4208](/wiki/IBM_4208 \"IBM 4208\"): ProPrinter XL24\n* [IBM 4210](/wiki/IBM_4210 \"IBM 4210\"): APA matrix table top WS printer for the S/38\\-36\n* [IBM 4214](/wiki/IBM_4214 \"IBM 4214\"): Table top printer\n* [IBM 4216](/wiki/IBM_4216 \"IBM 4216\"): Personal pageprinter model 020\n* [IBM 4224](/wiki/IBM_4224 \"IBM 4224\"): Table top serial printer; 1986\n* [IBM 4230](/wiki/IBM_4230 \"IBM 4230\"): Tabletop matrix printer, 600cps. Also 4232\n* [IBM 4234](/wiki/IBM_4234 \"IBM 4234\"): Floor standing dot band printer; 1986\n* [IBM 4245](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_4245 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 4245\"): Line printer\n* [IBM 4247](/wiki/IBM_4247 \"IBM 4247\"): Tabletop matrix printer, 1100cps\n* [IBM 4248](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_4248 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 4248\"): Impact printer; 1984\n* [IBM 4250/II](/wiki/IBM_4250/II \"IBM 4250/II\"): ElectroCompositor model 002\n* [IBM 4279](/wiki/IBM_4279 \"IBM 4279\"): Terminal Control Unit (for 4506 Digital TV Displays) \n* [IBM 4506](/wiki/IBM_4506 \"IBM 4506\"): Digital TV display unit\n* [IBM 4975](/wiki/IBM_4975 \"IBM 4975\"): Printer\n* [IBM 5083](/wiki/IBM_5083 \"IBM 5083\"): Tablet\n* [IBM 5087](/wiki/IBM_5087 \"IBM 5087\"): Screen printer\n* [IBM 5201](/wiki/IBM_5201 \"IBM 5201\"): Printer\n* [IBM 5202](/wiki/IBM_5202 \"IBM 5202\"): Printer (Quietwriter III)\n* [IBM 5203](/wiki/IBM_System/3 \"IBM System/3\"): Line printer for System/3\\. Ran at 100 or 200 lines per minute.\n* [IBM 5210](/wiki/IBM_5210 \"IBM 5210\"): Printer\n* [IBM 5211](/wiki/IBM_5211 \"IBM 5211\"): Printer 160 or 300 lpm, sold with System/34\n* [IBM 5215](/wiki/IBM_5215 \"IBM 5215\"): [Selectric](/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter \"IBM Selectric typewriter\")\\-element printer for [Displaywriter](/wiki/IBM_Displaywriter_System \"IBM Displaywriter System\")\n* [IBM 5218](/wiki/IBM_5218 \"IBM 5218\"): Daisywheel printer for Displaywriter\n* [IBM 5219](/wiki/IBM_5219 \"IBM 5219\"): Letter quality printer\n* [IBM 5223](/wiki/IBM_5223 \"IBM 5223\"): Wheelprinter E\n* [IBM 5224](/wiki/IBM_5224 \"IBM 5224\"): Table top printer\n* [IBM 5225](/wiki/IBM_5225 \"IBM 5225\"): Floor standing printer\n* [IBM 5253](/wiki/IBM_5253 \"IBM 5253\"): CRT display station for [5520](/wiki/IBM_5520 \"IBM 5520\"); 1979\n* [IBM 5254](/wiki/IBM_5254 \"IBM 5254\"): CRT display station for 5520; 1979\n* [IBM 5256](/wiki/IBM_5256 \"IBM 5256\"): Table top printer; 1977\n* [IBM 5257](/wiki/IBM_5257 \"IBM 5257\"): Daisy wheel printer for 5520; 1979\n* [IBM 5258](/wiki/IBM_5258 \"IBM 5258\"): Ink jet printer for 5520; 1979\n* [IBM 5262](/wiki/IBM_5262 \"IBM 5262\"): Floor standing line printer\n* [IBM 5294](/wiki/IBM_5294 \"IBM 5294\"): Twinax remote control unit\n* [IBM 5394](/wiki/IBM_5394 \"IBM 5394\"): Twinax remote controller (also 5494\\)\n* [IBM 6180](/wiki/IBM_6180 \"IBM 6180\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 6186](/wiki/IBM_6186 \"IBM 6186\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 6262](/wiki/IBM_hammer_printers%23IBM_6262 \"IBM hammer printers#IBM 6262\"): Line Printer\n* [IBM 6400](/wiki/IBM_6400 \"IBM 6400\"): Line matrix printer\n* [IBM 6500](/wiki/IBM_6500 \"IBM 6500\"): IPDS printer, coax or twinax attached\n* [IBM 6670](/wiki/IBM_6670 \"IBM 6670\"): Information Distributor; combination laser printer and photocopier; part of [Office System/6](/wiki/IBM_OS/6 \"IBM OS/6\"); 1979\n* [IBM 7701](/wiki/IBM_7701 \"IBM 7701\"): Magnetic Tape Transmission Terminal; 1960\n* [IBM 7372](/wiki/IBM_7372 \"IBM 7372\"): Color plotter, 6 pen, desktop\n* [IBM 7374](/wiki/IBM_7374 \"IBM 7374\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 7375](/wiki/IBM_7375 \"IBM 7375\"): Color plotter\n* [IBM 7350](/wiki/IBM_7350 \"IBM 7350\"): Image processor, a specialized terminal for scientific and research applications; 1983\n* [IBM 7400](/wiki/IBM_7400 \"IBM 7400\"): [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\")/[IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\") Printer\n* [IBM 7404](/wiki/IBM_7404 \"IBM 7404\"): Graphic Output\n* [IBM 7456](/wiki/IBM_7456 \"IBM 7456\"): Plant floor terminal\n* [IBM 7900](/wiki/IBM_7900 \"IBM 7900\"): IBM 7070/IBM 7074 Inquiry Station\n* [IBM 8775](/wiki/IBM_8775 \"IBM 8775\"): Terminal\n* [IBM LPFK](/wiki/IBM_LPFK \"IBM LPFK\"): Lighted Program Function Keyboard\n* [IBM XY749](/wiki/IBM_XY749 \"IBM XY749\"): Plotter\n* [IBM XY750](/wiki/IBM_XY750 \"IBM XY750\"): Plotter\n",
"### Graphics displays\n\n* [IBM 2350](/wiki/IBM_2350 \"IBM 2350\"): Graphics display system; 1977\n* [IBM 5081](/wiki/IBM_5081 \"IBM 5081\"): Color and monochrome display; separate RGB connections, capable of 1280×1024 resolution, up to diagonal.\n* [IBM 5080](/wiki/IBM_5080 \"IBM 5080\"): Graphics System; for [System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\")\n* [IBM 5085](/wiki/IBM_5085 \"IBM 5085\"): Graphics Processor. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System for System/370\\.\n* [IBM 5088](/wiki/IBM_5088 \"IBM 5088\"): Graphics Channel Controller. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System for System/370\\.\n* [IBM 6090](/wiki/IBM_6090 \"IBM 6090\"): High\\-end graphics system for the System/370\n* [IBM 6153](/wiki/IBM_6153 \"IBM 6153\"): Advanced monochrome graphics display\n* [IBM 6154](/wiki/IBM_6154 \"IBM 6154\"): Advanced color graphics display\n* [IBM 6155](/wiki/IBM_6155 \"IBM 6155\"): Extended monochrome graphics display\n",
"### Data storage units\n\n#### Core storage\n\n* [IBM 2360](/wiki/IBM_2360_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2360 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the (never shipped) IBM System/360 models 60 and 64\n* [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361_Large_Capacity_Storage \"IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage\"): Large Capacity Storage for the IBM System/360 models 50, 60, 62, 65, 70, and 75\n* [IBM 2362](/wiki/IBM_2362_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2362 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the (never shipped) IBM System/360 models 62, 66, 68 and 70\n* [IBM 2365](/wiki/IBM_2365_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2365 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 models 65, 67, 75 and 85\n* [IBM 2385](/wiki/IBM_2385_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2385 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 model 85\n* [IBM 2395](/wiki/IBM_2395_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2395 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 models 91 and 95\n\n#### Direct\\-access storage devices\n\nIn IBM's terminology beginning with the System/360 disk and such devices featuring short access times were collectively called [DASD](/wiki/Direct_Access_Storage_Device \"Direct Access Storage Device\"). The [IBM 2321 Data Cell](/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell \"IBM 2321 Data Cell\") is a DASD that used tape as its storage medium. See also [history of IBM magnetic disk drives](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives\").\n* [IBM 353](/wiki/IBM_353 \"IBM 353\"): Disk drive for [IBM 7030](/wiki/IBM_7030 \"IBM 7030\") Stretch\n* [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 1240/1410/1440/1460/70XX—Disk drive; 1961\n* [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 1311](/wiki/IBM_1311 \"IBM 1311\"): IBM 1240/1401/1410/1440/1450/1460/1620/7010/1710/7740 Disk drive using IBM 1316 disk pack\n\t+ [IBM 1316](/wiki/IBM_1316 \"IBM 1316\"): 2,000,000\\-character removable disk pack for 1311, 2311; 1962\n* [IBM 1405](/wiki/IBM_1405 \"IBM 1405\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 1742](/wiki/IBM_DS4500 \"IBM DS4500\"): [IBM System Storage](/wiki/IBM_Storage \"IBM Storage\") DS4500\n* [IBM 1814](/wiki/IBM_DS4700 \"IBM DS4700\"): IBM System Storage DS4700\n* [IBM 1750](/wiki/IBM_DS6000 \"IBM DS6000\"): IBM System Storage DS6000 Series\n* [IBM 1815](/wiki/IBM_DS4800 \"IBM DS4800\"): IBM System Storage DS4800\n* [IBM 2072](/wiki/IBM_2072 \"IBM 2072\"): [IBM Storwize V3700](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V3700 \"IBM Storwize V3700\") (IBM FlashSystem 5000\\)\n* [IBM 2073](/wiki/IBM_2073 \"IBM 2073\"): [IBM Storwize V7000 Unified](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V7000_Unified \"IBM Storwize V7000 Unified\")\n* [IBM 2076](/wiki/IBM_2076 \"IBM 2076\"): [IBM Storwize V7000](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_family \"IBM Storwize family\") (IBM FlashSystem 7200\\)\n* [IBM 2078](/wiki/IBM_2078 \"IBM 2078\"): [IBM Storwize V5000](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V5000 \"IBM Storwize V5000\")\n* [IBM 2105](/wiki/IBM_Enterprise_Storage_Server \"IBM Enterprise Storage Server\"): Enterprise Storage Server, or ESS, or Shark (utilized 7133\\)\n* [IBM 2106](/wiki/IBM_2106 \"IBM 2106\"): Extender for IBM 2105 Shark\n* [IBM 2107](/wiki/IBM_DS8000 \"IBM DS8000\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series\n* [IBM 2301](/wiki/IBM_2301 \"IBM 2301\"): Drum Storage Unit\n* [IBM 2302](/wiki/IBM_2302 \"IBM 2302\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 2303](/wiki/IBM_2303 \"IBM 2303\"): Drum Storage Unit\n* [IBM 2305\\-1](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2305 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2305\"): Fixed head disk 3\\.0 MB/s Transfer rate, 5 MB capacity\n* [IBM 2305\\-2](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2305 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2305\"): Fixed head disk 1\\.5 MB/s Transfer rate, 10 MB capacity\n* [IBM 2310](/wiki/IBM_2310 \"IBM 2310\"): Cartridge disk drive, used 2315 cartridge.\n\t+ [IBM 2315](/wiki/IBM_2310 \"IBM 2310\"): 1 MB cartridge used on 2310 and with a disk drive component on multiple systems, e.g. [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\").\n* [IBM 2311](/wiki/IBM_2311 \"IBM 2311\"): Disk drive using IBM 1316 disk pack (removable—7\\.5 MB)\n* [IBM 2312](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk drive using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2313](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk facility with 4 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2314](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk subsystem with 9 drives, one spare using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2318](/wiki/IBM_2318 \"IBM 2318\"): Disk facility with 2 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2319](/wiki/IBM_2319 \"IBM 2319\"): Disk Facility with 3 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n\t+ [IBM 2316](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): 28\\.6 MB Disk pack for 2314 *et al.*\n* [IBM 2321](/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell \"IBM 2321 Data Cell\"): Data cell drive. Drive with removable cells containing tape strips (400 MB)\n* [IBM 2421](/wiki/IBM_2421 \"IBM 2421\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 1 year's warranty\n* [IBM 2422](/wiki/IBM_2422 \"IBM 2422\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 2 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2423](/wiki/IBM_2423 \"IBM 2423\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 3 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2424](/wiki/IBM_2424 \"IBM 2424\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 4 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2810](/wiki/IBM_2810 \"IBM 2810\"): IBM XIV Storage System (Generations 1 through 3; varies by model)\n* [IBM 2812](/wiki/IBM_2812 \"IBM 2812\"): IBM XIV Storage System (Generations 1 through 3; varies by model)\n* [IBM 2851](/wiki/IBM_2851 \"IBM 2851\"): IBM Scale\\-Out Network Attached Storage (SONAS)\n* [IBM 3310](/wiki/IBM_3310 \"IBM 3310\"): Fixed FBA drive\n* [IBM 3330](/wiki/IBM_3330 \"IBM 3330\"): Disk drive. (100 MB each spindle, up to 32 spindles per \"subsystem\"); 1970\n\t+ [IBM 3336](/wiki/IBM_3336 \"IBM 3336\"): Disk pack for 3330–1, 3330–2; 1970\n* [IBM 3330\\-11](/wiki/IBM_3330 \"IBM 3330\"): Disk drive. Double the density of 3330–1; 1973\\.\n\t+ [IBM 3336\\-11](/wiki/IBM_3336-11 \"IBM 3336-11\"): Disk pack for 3330–11; 1973\n* [IBM 3333](/wiki/IBM_3333 \"IBM 3333\"): Disk drive, a variant of 3330 and 3333\\-11\n* [IBM 3340](/wiki/IBM_3340 \"IBM 3340\"): 'Winchester'\\-type disk drive, removable. Model \\-4, more?; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3348](/wiki/IBM_3340 \"IBM 3340\"): 35 or 70 MB data modules used with IBM 3340\n* [IBM 3344](/wiki/IBM_3344 \"IBM 3344\"): Four 3340's simulated with a 3350 HDA under the covers\n* [IBM 3350](/wiki/IBM_3350 \"IBM 3350\"): Disk drive (317\\.10 MB—1976\\)\n* [IBM 3363](/wiki/IBM_3363 \"IBM 3363\"): Optical disk drive\n* [IBM 3370](/wiki/IBM_3370 \"IBM 3370\"): FBA drive (used to store microcode and config info for the 3090\\. Connected through 3092\\); native DASD for 4331, 4361 (70 MB—1979\\).\n* [IBM 3375](/wiki/IBM_3375 \"IBM 3375\"): Disk drive (\"The Ugly Duckling\" of IBM's DASD devices). 409\\.8 MB/actuator. First with dual\\-path access (via 'D' box)\n* [IBM 3380](/wiki/IBM_3380 \"IBM 3380\"): Disk drive; 2\\.46 GB per each 2\\-drive module (1981\\), later double\\- and triple\\-density versions\n* [IBM 3390](/wiki/IBM_3390 \"IBM 3390\"): Disk drive; 1, 2, 3 and 9 GB initially; later expanded to 27 GB\n* [IBM 3540](/wiki/IBM_3540 \"IBM 3540\"): Diskette I/O unit\n* [IBM 3830](/wiki/IBM_3830 \"IBM 3830\"): Storage control models 1, 2 and 3\n* [IBM 3850](/wiki/IBM_3850 \"IBM 3850\"): Mass Storage System (MSS); virtual 3330\\-1 volumes, each backed up by a pair of cartridges, 1974\n\t+ [IBM 3830](/wiki/IBM_3830 \"IBM 3830\")\\-11: Provided virtual 3330\\-1 (3330V) drives to the host; attached staging 3330 and 3350 drives for use by the 3851, 1974\n\t+ [IBM 3851](/wiki/IBM_3850 \"IBM 3850\"): Mass Storage Facility. Robot arms retrieving cylindrical [helically scanned](/wiki/Helical_scan \"Helical scan\") tape cartridges.\n* IBM 3880: Dual\\-channel DASD controller for 3350,3375,3380\\. 1981\\. Later models with up to 64MB cache. First hard disk cache in the industry.\n* [IBM 3990](/wiki/IBM_3990 \"IBM 3990\"): Quad\\-channel DASD controller for 3390\\.\n* IBM 4662: IBM FlashSystem 5200\n* [IBM 4963](/wiki/IBM_4963 \"IBM 4963\"): Disk subsystem\n* [IBM 4964](/wiki/IBM_4964 \"IBM 4964\"): Diskette unit for Series/1\n* [IBM 4965](/wiki/IBM_4965 \"IBM 4965\"): Diskette drive and I/O expansion unit\n* [IBM 4966](/wiki/IBM_4966 \"IBM 4966\"): Diskette magazine unit\n* [IBM 4967](/wiki/IBM_4967 \"IBM 4967\"): High performance disk subsystem\n* [IBM 5444](/wiki/IBM_5444 \"IBM 5444\"): Fixed/Removable disk file for System/3\n* [IBM 5445](/wiki/IBM_5445 \"IBM 5445\"): Disk Storage for System/3\n* [IBM 5447](/wiki/IBM_5447 \"IBM 5447\"): Disk Storage and Control for System/3\n* [IBM 7133](/wiki/IBM_7133 \"IBM 7133\"): [SSA](/wiki/Serial_Storage_Architecture \"Serial Storage Architecture\") Disk Enclosure (for RS/6000\\)\n* [IBM 7300](/wiki/IBM_7300 \"IBM 7300\"): [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\")/[IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\") Disk Storage\n* [IBM 7320](/wiki/IBM_7320 \"IBM 7320\"): Drum drive\n* [IBM 9331](/wiki/IBM_9331 \"IBM 9331\"): 8\" Floppy disk drive\n* [IBM 9332](/wiki/IBM_9332 \"IBM 9332\"): Disk drive; 1986\n* [IBM 9333](/wiki/IBM_9333 \"IBM 9333\"): Serial Link Disk Subsystem\n* [IBM 9335](/wiki/IBM_9335 \"IBM 9335\"): Disk subsystem in a set of drawers. For AS/400, System 36/38 or 9370\n* [IBM 9337](/wiki/IBM_9337 \"IBM 9337\"): Disk Array Subsystem; 1992\n* [IBM 9345](/wiki/IBM_9345 \"IBM 9345\"): Disk Array Subsystem; employed commodity 5¼\" hard drives; simulated 3390 hard disks but had a smaller track capacity\n\n#### Magnetic tape storage\n\n* [IBM 050](/wiki/IBM_050 \"IBM 050\"): Magnetic Data Inscriber (key operated, records on tape cartridge for [IBM 2495](/wiki/IBM_2495 \"IBM 2495\") data entry into an IBM System 360\\)\n* [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): Magnetic tape drive ([7 Track](/wiki/IBM_7-track \"IBM 7-track\")—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2401](/wiki/IBM_7_track%23IBM_2400_Series \"IBM 7 track#IBM 2400 Series\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2401](/wiki/IBM_2401 \"IBM 2401\"): Magnetic tape drive ([9 Track](/wiki/9-track_tape \"9-track tape\")—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 800/1600 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2415](/wiki/IBM_2415 \"IBM 2415\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 800/1600 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2420](/wiki/IBM_2420 \"IBM 2420\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 2440](/wiki/IBM_2440 \"IBM 2440\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 2495](/wiki/IBM_2495 \"IBM 2495\"): Tape Cartridge Reader (reads [IBM 050](/wiki/IBM_050 \"IBM 050\") prepared cartridges into an IBM System 360\\)\n* [IBM 3400\\-4](/wiki/IBM_3400-4 \"IBM 3400-4\"): Lower density tape\n* [IBM 3400\\-6](/wiki/IBM_3400-6 \"IBM 3400-6\"): Normal tape\n* [IBM 3410](/wiki/IBM_3410 \"IBM 3410\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit); 1971\n* [IBM 3411](/wiki/IBM_3411 \"IBM 3411\"): Magnetic tape unit and controller\n* [IBM 3420](/wiki/9-track_tape \"9-track tape\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3422](/wiki/IBM_3422 \"IBM 3422\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit); 1986\n* [IBM 3424](/wiki/IBM_3424 \"IBM 3424\"): Tape unit. Brazil and SA only.\n* [IBM 3430](/wiki/IBM_3430 \"IBM 3430\"): Top loading tape drive; 1983\n* [IBM 3440](/wiki/IBM_3440 \"IBM 3440\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3480](/wiki/IBM_3480_Family \"IBM 3480 Family\"): Cartridge tape drive; 1984\n* [IBM 3490](/wiki/IBM_3480_Family \"IBM 3480 Family\"): Cartridge tape drive; 1991\n* [IBM 3494](/wiki/IBM_3494 \"IBM 3494\"): Enterprise tape library\n\t+ [IBM Virtual Tape Server](/wiki/IBM_Virtual_Tape_Server \"IBM Virtual Tape Server\") (VTS): tape virtualization engine for IBM 3494\n* [IBM 3495](/wiki/IBM_3495 \"IBM 3495\"): Robotic tape library\n* [IBM 3573](/wiki/IBM_3573 \"IBM 3573\") models L2U, L3S, F3S: TS3100 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3573](/wiki/IBM_3573 \"IBM 3573\") models L4U, L2H, F3H: TS3200 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3576](/wiki/IBM_3576 \"IBM 3576\"): TS3310 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3577](/wiki/IBM_3577 \"IBM 3577\"): TS3400 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3580](/wiki/IBM_3580 \"IBM 3580\"): [LTO](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\") tape drive\n* [IBM 3584](/wiki/IBM_3584 \"IBM 3584\"): TS3500 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3584](/wiki/IBM_3584 \"IBM 3584\"): TS4500 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3588](/wiki/IBM_3588 \"IBM 3588\") model F3B: TS1030 Tape Drive; [LTO3](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\")\n* [IBM 3588](/wiki/IBM_3588 \"IBM 3588\") model F4A: TS1040 Tape Drive; 2007; [LTO4](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\"); TS2340 is a standalone version.\n* [IBM 3590](/wiki/IBM_3590_Family \"IBM 3590 Family\"): tape drive (Magstar)\n* [IBM 3592](/wiki/IBM_3590_Family \"IBM 3590 Family\"): TS1120 Tape Drive; model J1A known as *Jaguar* in 2004; model E05 in 2007\n* [IBM 3803](/wiki/IBM_3803 \"IBM 3803\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3954](/wiki/IBM_3954 \"IBM 3954\"): TS7510 and TS7520 Virtualization Engines\n* [IBM 3954](/wiki/IBM_3954 \"IBM 3954\"): TS7510 and TS7520 Virtualization Engines\n* [IBM 3956](/wiki/IBM_3956 \"IBM 3956\"): TS7740 Virtualization Engine; models CC6 and CX6\n* [IBM 3957](/wiki/IBM_3957 \"IBM 3957\"): TS7700 Virtualization Engine; model V06\n* [IBM 4480](/wiki/IBM_4480 \"IBM 4480\"): Cartridge drives which could be mounted by a robot\n* [IBM 4580](/wiki/IBM_4580 \"IBM 4580\"): System/88 disk drive\n* [IBM 4581](/wiki/IBM_4581 \"IBM 4581\"): System/88 disk drive\n* [IBM 4585](/wiki/IBM_4585 \"IBM 4585\"): Autoload streaming magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 4968](/wiki/IBM_4968 \"IBM 4968\"): Autoload streaming magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 6157](/wiki/IBM_6157 \"IBM 6157\"): Streaming tape drive\n* [IBM 7208](/wiki/IBM_7208 \"IBM 7208\"): 8\\-mm SCSI tape drive\n* [IBM 7330](/wiki/IBM_7330 \"IBM 7330\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): Hypertape\n* [IBM 8809](/wiki/IBM_8809 \"IBM 8809\"): Magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 9347](/wiki/IBM_9347 \"IBM 9347\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 9349](/wiki/IBM_9349 \"IBM 9349\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n\n#### Optical storage\n\n* [IBM 1350](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo Image Retrieval System\n* [IBM 1360](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photodigital Storage System (terabit)\n\t+ [IBM 1352](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Cell File\n\t+ [IBM 1361](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Cell File and Control\n\t+ [IBM 1364](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo\\-Digital Reader\n\t+ [IBM 1365](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo\\-Digital Recorder\n\t+ [IBM 1367](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Data Controller\n* [IBM 3995](/wiki/IBM_3995 \"IBM 3995\"): Optical Library (terabyte)\n\n#### Storage networking and virtualization\n\n* [IBM 3044](/wiki/IBM_3044 \"IBM 3044\"): Fiber optic channel extender link\n* [IBM 9034](/wiki/IBM_9034 \"IBM 9034\"): [ESCON](/wiki/ESCON \"ESCON\")/Parallel Converter\n* IBM 2005: [Storage area network](/wiki/Storage_area_network \"Storage area network\") (SAN) [Fibre Channel switch](/wiki/Fibre_Channel_switch \"Fibre Channel switch\") (OEM from [Brocade Communications Systems](/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems \"Brocade Communications Systems\"))\n* IBM 2029: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer (OEM from [Nortel](/wiki/Nortel \"Nortel\"))\n* IBM 2031: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from [McData](/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems \"Brocade Communications Systems\"))\n* IBM 2032: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from McData)\n* IBM 2053: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from [Cisco](/wiki/Cisco \"Cisco\"))\n* IBM 2054: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* IBM 2061: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* IBM 2062: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* [IBM 2103](/wiki/IBM_2103 \"IBM 2103\")\\-H07: [SAN](/wiki/Storage_area_network \"Storage area network\") [Fibre Channel](/wiki/Fibre_Channel \"Fibre Channel\") Hub\n* IBM 2109: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 2498: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 2499: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 3534: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* [IBM SAN File System](/wiki/IBM_SAN_File_System \"IBM SAN File System\"): a software for sharing [file systems](/wiki/File_system \"File system\") in SAN\n* [IBM 2145](/wiki/IBM_SAN_Volume_Controller \"IBM SAN Volume Controller\"): System Storage SAN Volume Controller (SVC)\n* IBM 9729: Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexer\n",
"#### Core storage\n\n* [IBM 2360](/wiki/IBM_2360_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2360 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the (never shipped) IBM System/360 models 60 and 64\n* [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361_Large_Capacity_Storage \"IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage\"): Large Capacity Storage for the IBM System/360 models 50, 60, 62, 65, 70, and 75\n* [IBM 2362](/wiki/IBM_2362_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2362 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the (never shipped) IBM System/360 models 62, 66, 68 and 70\n* [IBM 2365](/wiki/IBM_2365_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2365 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 models 65, 67, 75 and 85\n* [IBM 2385](/wiki/IBM_2385_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2385 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 model 85\n* [IBM 2395](/wiki/IBM_2395_Processor_Storage \"IBM 2395 Processor Storage\"): Processor Storage for the IBM System/360 models 91 and 95\n",
"#### Direct\\-access storage devices\n\nIn IBM's terminology beginning with the System/360 disk and such devices featuring short access times were collectively called [DASD](/wiki/Direct_Access_Storage_Device \"Direct Access Storage Device\"). The [IBM 2321 Data Cell](/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell \"IBM 2321 Data Cell\") is a DASD that used tape as its storage medium. See also [history of IBM magnetic disk drives](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives\").\n* [IBM 353](/wiki/IBM_353 \"IBM 353\"): Disk drive for [IBM 7030](/wiki/IBM_7030 \"IBM 7030\") Stretch\n* [IBM 1301](/wiki/IBM_1301 \"IBM 1301\"): IBM 1240/1410/1440/1460/70XX—Disk drive; 1961\n* [IBM 1302](/wiki/IBM_1302 \"IBM 1302\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 1311](/wiki/IBM_1311 \"IBM 1311\"): IBM 1240/1401/1410/1440/1450/1460/1620/7010/1710/7740 Disk drive using IBM 1316 disk pack\n\t+ [IBM 1316](/wiki/IBM_1316 \"IBM 1316\"): 2,000,000\\-character removable disk pack for 1311, 2311; 1962\n* [IBM 1405](/wiki/IBM_1405 \"IBM 1405\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 1742](/wiki/IBM_DS4500 \"IBM DS4500\"): [IBM System Storage](/wiki/IBM_Storage \"IBM Storage\") DS4500\n* [IBM 1814](/wiki/IBM_DS4700 \"IBM DS4700\"): IBM System Storage DS4700\n* [IBM 1750](/wiki/IBM_DS6000 \"IBM DS6000\"): IBM System Storage DS6000 Series\n* [IBM 1815](/wiki/IBM_DS4800 \"IBM DS4800\"): IBM System Storage DS4800\n* [IBM 2072](/wiki/IBM_2072 \"IBM 2072\"): [IBM Storwize V3700](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V3700 \"IBM Storwize V3700\") (IBM FlashSystem 5000\\)\n* [IBM 2073](/wiki/IBM_2073 \"IBM 2073\"): [IBM Storwize V7000 Unified](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V7000_Unified \"IBM Storwize V7000 Unified\")\n* [IBM 2076](/wiki/IBM_2076 \"IBM 2076\"): [IBM Storwize V7000](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_family \"IBM Storwize family\") (IBM FlashSystem 7200\\)\n* [IBM 2078](/wiki/IBM_2078 \"IBM 2078\"): [IBM Storwize V5000](/wiki/IBM_Storwize_V5000 \"IBM Storwize V5000\")\n* [IBM 2105](/wiki/IBM_Enterprise_Storage_Server \"IBM Enterprise Storage Server\"): Enterprise Storage Server, or ESS, or Shark (utilized 7133\\)\n* [IBM 2106](/wiki/IBM_2106 \"IBM 2106\"): Extender for IBM 2105 Shark\n* [IBM 2107](/wiki/IBM_DS8000 \"IBM DS8000\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series\n* [IBM 2301](/wiki/IBM_2301 \"IBM 2301\"): Drum Storage Unit\n* [IBM 2302](/wiki/IBM_2302 \"IBM 2302\"): Disk drive\n* [IBM 2303](/wiki/IBM_2303 \"IBM 2303\"): Drum Storage Unit\n* [IBM 2305\\-1](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2305 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2305\"): Fixed head disk 3\\.0 MB/s Transfer rate, 5 MB capacity\n* [IBM 2305\\-2](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives%23IBM_2305 \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives#IBM 2305\"): Fixed head disk 1\\.5 MB/s Transfer rate, 10 MB capacity\n* [IBM 2310](/wiki/IBM_2310 \"IBM 2310\"): Cartridge disk drive, used 2315 cartridge.\n\t+ [IBM 2315](/wiki/IBM_2310 \"IBM 2310\"): 1 MB cartridge used on 2310 and with a disk drive component on multiple systems, e.g. [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\").\n* [IBM 2311](/wiki/IBM_2311 \"IBM 2311\"): Disk drive using IBM 1316 disk pack (removable—7\\.5 MB)\n* [IBM 2312](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk drive using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2313](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk facility with 4 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2314](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): Disk subsystem with 9 drives, one spare using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2318](/wiki/IBM_2318 \"IBM 2318\"): Disk facility with 2 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n* [IBM 2319](/wiki/IBM_2319 \"IBM 2319\"): Disk Facility with 3 disk drives using IBM 2316 disk pack (removable—28\\.6 MB)\n\t+ [IBM 2316](/wiki/IBM_2314 \"IBM 2314\"): 28\\.6 MB Disk pack for 2314 *et al.*\n* [IBM 2321](/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell \"IBM 2321 Data Cell\"): Data cell drive. Drive with removable cells containing tape strips (400 MB)\n* [IBM 2421](/wiki/IBM_2421 \"IBM 2421\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 1 year's warranty\n* [IBM 2422](/wiki/IBM_2422 \"IBM 2422\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 2 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2423](/wiki/IBM_2423 \"IBM 2423\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 3 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2424](/wiki/IBM_2424 \"IBM 2424\"): IBM System Storage DS8000 Series with 4 years' warranty\n* [IBM 2810](/wiki/IBM_2810 \"IBM 2810\"): IBM XIV Storage System (Generations 1 through 3; varies by model)\n* [IBM 2812](/wiki/IBM_2812 \"IBM 2812\"): IBM XIV Storage System (Generations 1 through 3; varies by model)\n* [IBM 2851](/wiki/IBM_2851 \"IBM 2851\"): IBM Scale\\-Out Network Attached Storage (SONAS)\n* [IBM 3310](/wiki/IBM_3310 \"IBM 3310\"): Fixed FBA drive\n* [IBM 3330](/wiki/IBM_3330 \"IBM 3330\"): Disk drive. (100 MB each spindle, up to 32 spindles per \"subsystem\"); 1970\n\t+ [IBM 3336](/wiki/IBM_3336 \"IBM 3336\"): Disk pack for 3330–1, 3330–2; 1970\n* [IBM 3330\\-11](/wiki/IBM_3330 \"IBM 3330\"): Disk drive. Double the density of 3330–1; 1973\\.\n\t+ [IBM 3336\\-11](/wiki/IBM_3336-11 \"IBM 3336-11\"): Disk pack for 3330–11; 1973\n* [IBM 3333](/wiki/IBM_3333 \"IBM 3333\"): Disk drive, a variant of 3330 and 3333\\-11\n* [IBM 3340](/wiki/IBM_3340 \"IBM 3340\"): 'Winchester'\\-type disk drive, removable. Model \\-4, more?; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3348](/wiki/IBM_3340 \"IBM 3340\"): 35 or 70 MB data modules used with IBM 3340\n* [IBM 3344](/wiki/IBM_3344 \"IBM 3344\"): Four 3340's simulated with a 3350 HDA under the covers\n* [IBM 3350](/wiki/IBM_3350 \"IBM 3350\"): Disk drive (317\\.10 MB—1976\\)\n* [IBM 3363](/wiki/IBM_3363 \"IBM 3363\"): Optical disk drive\n* [IBM 3370](/wiki/IBM_3370 \"IBM 3370\"): FBA drive (used to store microcode and config info for the 3090\\. Connected through 3092\\); native DASD for 4331, 4361 (70 MB—1979\\).\n* [IBM 3375](/wiki/IBM_3375 \"IBM 3375\"): Disk drive (\"The Ugly Duckling\" of IBM's DASD devices). 409\\.8 MB/actuator. First with dual\\-path access (via 'D' box)\n* [IBM 3380](/wiki/IBM_3380 \"IBM 3380\"): Disk drive; 2\\.46 GB per each 2\\-drive module (1981\\), later double\\- and triple\\-density versions\n* [IBM 3390](/wiki/IBM_3390 \"IBM 3390\"): Disk drive; 1, 2, 3 and 9 GB initially; later expanded to 27 GB\n* [IBM 3540](/wiki/IBM_3540 \"IBM 3540\"): Diskette I/O unit\n* [IBM 3830](/wiki/IBM_3830 \"IBM 3830\"): Storage control models 1, 2 and 3\n* [IBM 3850](/wiki/IBM_3850 \"IBM 3850\"): Mass Storage System (MSS); virtual 3330\\-1 volumes, each backed up by a pair of cartridges, 1974\n\t+ [IBM 3830](/wiki/IBM_3830 \"IBM 3830\")\\-11: Provided virtual 3330\\-1 (3330V) drives to the host; attached staging 3330 and 3350 drives for use by the 3851, 1974\n\t+ [IBM 3851](/wiki/IBM_3850 \"IBM 3850\"): Mass Storage Facility. Robot arms retrieving cylindrical [helically scanned](/wiki/Helical_scan \"Helical scan\") tape cartridges.\n* IBM 3880: Dual\\-channel DASD controller for 3350,3375,3380\\. 1981\\. Later models with up to 64MB cache. First hard disk cache in the industry.\n* [IBM 3990](/wiki/IBM_3990 \"IBM 3990\"): Quad\\-channel DASD controller for 3390\\.\n* IBM 4662: IBM FlashSystem 5200\n* [IBM 4963](/wiki/IBM_4963 \"IBM 4963\"): Disk subsystem\n* [IBM 4964](/wiki/IBM_4964 \"IBM 4964\"): Diskette unit for Series/1\n* [IBM 4965](/wiki/IBM_4965 \"IBM 4965\"): Diskette drive and I/O expansion unit\n* [IBM 4966](/wiki/IBM_4966 \"IBM 4966\"): Diskette magazine unit\n* [IBM 4967](/wiki/IBM_4967 \"IBM 4967\"): High performance disk subsystem\n* [IBM 5444](/wiki/IBM_5444 \"IBM 5444\"): Fixed/Removable disk file for System/3\n* [IBM 5445](/wiki/IBM_5445 \"IBM 5445\"): Disk Storage for System/3\n* [IBM 5447](/wiki/IBM_5447 \"IBM 5447\"): Disk Storage and Control for System/3\n* [IBM 7133](/wiki/IBM_7133 \"IBM 7133\"): [SSA](/wiki/Serial_Storage_Architecture \"Serial Storage Architecture\") Disk Enclosure (for RS/6000\\)\n* [IBM 7300](/wiki/IBM_7300 \"IBM 7300\"): [IBM 7070](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\")/[IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7070 \"IBM 7070\") Disk Storage\n* [IBM 7320](/wiki/IBM_7320 \"IBM 7320\"): Drum drive\n* [IBM 9331](/wiki/IBM_9331 \"IBM 9331\"): 8\" Floppy disk drive\n* [IBM 9332](/wiki/IBM_9332 \"IBM 9332\"): Disk drive; 1986\n* [IBM 9333](/wiki/IBM_9333 \"IBM 9333\"): Serial Link Disk Subsystem\n* [IBM 9335](/wiki/IBM_9335 \"IBM 9335\"): Disk subsystem in a set of drawers. For AS/400, System 36/38 or 9370\n* [IBM 9337](/wiki/IBM_9337 \"IBM 9337\"): Disk Array Subsystem; 1992\n* [IBM 9345](/wiki/IBM_9345 \"IBM 9345\"): Disk Array Subsystem; employed commodity 5¼\" hard drives; simulated 3390 hard disks but had a smaller track capacity\n\n",
"#### Magnetic tape storage\n\n* [IBM 050](/wiki/IBM_050 \"IBM 050\"): Magnetic Data Inscriber (key operated, records on tape cartridge for [IBM 2495](/wiki/IBM_2495 \"IBM 2495\") data entry into an IBM System 360\\)\n* [IBM 729](/wiki/IBM_729 \"IBM 729\"): Magnetic tape drive ([7 Track](/wiki/IBM_7-track \"IBM 7-track\")—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2401](/wiki/IBM_7_track%23IBM_2400_Series \"IBM 7 track#IBM 2400 Series\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556/800 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2401](/wiki/IBM_2401 \"IBM 2401\"): Magnetic tape drive ([9 Track](/wiki/9-track_tape \"9-track tape\")—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 800/1600 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2415](/wiki/IBM_2415 \"IBM 2415\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 800/1600 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 2420](/wiki/IBM_2420 \"IBM 2420\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 2440](/wiki/IBM_2440 \"IBM 2440\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 2495](/wiki/IBM_2495 \"IBM 2495\"): Tape Cartridge Reader (reads [IBM 050](/wiki/IBM_050 \"IBM 050\") prepared cartridges into an IBM System 360\\)\n* [IBM 3400\\-4](/wiki/IBM_3400-4 \"IBM 3400-4\"): Lower density tape\n* [IBM 3400\\-6](/wiki/IBM_3400-6 \"IBM 3400-6\"): Normal tape\n* [IBM 3410](/wiki/IBM_3410 \"IBM 3410\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit); 1971\n* [IBM 3411](/wiki/IBM_3411 \"IBM 3411\"): Magnetic tape unit and controller\n* [IBM 3420](/wiki/9-track_tape \"9-track tape\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3422](/wiki/IBM_3422 \"IBM 3422\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit); 1986\n* [IBM 3424](/wiki/IBM_3424 \"IBM 3424\"): Tape unit. Brazil and SA only.\n* [IBM 3430](/wiki/IBM_3430 \"IBM 3430\"): Top loading tape drive; 1983\n* [IBM 3440](/wiki/IBM_3440 \"IBM 3440\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3480](/wiki/IBM_3480_Family \"IBM 3480 Family\"): Cartridge tape drive; 1984\n* [IBM 3490](/wiki/IBM_3480_Family \"IBM 3480 Family\"): Cartridge tape drive; 1991\n* [IBM 3494](/wiki/IBM_3494 \"IBM 3494\"): Enterprise tape library\n\t+ [IBM Virtual Tape Server](/wiki/IBM_Virtual_Tape_Server \"IBM Virtual Tape Server\") (VTS): tape virtualization engine for IBM 3494\n* [IBM 3495](/wiki/IBM_3495 \"IBM 3495\"): Robotic tape library\n* [IBM 3573](/wiki/IBM_3573 \"IBM 3573\") models L2U, L3S, F3S: TS3100 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3573](/wiki/IBM_3573 \"IBM 3573\") models L4U, L2H, F3H: TS3200 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3576](/wiki/IBM_3576 \"IBM 3576\"): TS3310 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3577](/wiki/IBM_3577 \"IBM 3577\"): TS3400 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3580](/wiki/IBM_3580 \"IBM 3580\"): [LTO](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\") tape drive\n* [IBM 3584](/wiki/IBM_3584 \"IBM 3584\"): TS3500 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3584](/wiki/IBM_3584 \"IBM 3584\"): TS4500 Tape Library\n* [IBM 3588](/wiki/IBM_3588 \"IBM 3588\") model F3B: TS1030 Tape Drive; [LTO3](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\")\n* [IBM 3588](/wiki/IBM_3588 \"IBM 3588\") model F4A: TS1040 Tape Drive; 2007; [LTO4](/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open \"Linear Tape-Open\"); TS2340 is a standalone version.\n* [IBM 3590](/wiki/IBM_3590_Family \"IBM 3590 Family\"): tape drive (Magstar)\n* [IBM 3592](/wiki/IBM_3590_Family \"IBM 3590 Family\"): TS1120 Tape Drive; model J1A known as *Jaguar* in 2004; model E05 in 2007\n* [IBM 3803](/wiki/IBM_3803 \"IBM 3803\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 3954](/wiki/IBM_3954 \"IBM 3954\"): TS7510 and TS7520 Virtualization Engines\n* [IBM 3954](/wiki/IBM_3954 \"IBM 3954\"): TS7510 and TS7520 Virtualization Engines\n* [IBM 3956](/wiki/IBM_3956 \"IBM 3956\"): TS7740 Virtualization Engine; models CC6 and CX6\n* [IBM 3957](/wiki/IBM_3957 \"IBM 3957\"): TS7700 Virtualization Engine; model V06\n* [IBM 4480](/wiki/IBM_4480 \"IBM 4480\"): Cartridge drives which could be mounted by a robot\n* [IBM 4580](/wiki/IBM_4580 \"IBM 4580\"): System/88 disk drive\n* [IBM 4581](/wiki/IBM_4581 \"IBM 4581\"): System/88 disk drive\n* [IBM 4585](/wiki/IBM_4585 \"IBM 4585\"): Autoload streaming magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 4968](/wiki/IBM_4968 \"IBM 4968\"): Autoload streaming magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 6157](/wiki/IBM_6157 \"IBM 6157\"): Streaming tape drive\n* [IBM 7208](/wiki/IBM_7208 \"IBM 7208\"): 8\\-mm SCSI tape drive\n* [IBM 7330](/wiki/IBM_7330 \"IBM 7330\"): Magnetic tape drive (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 parity bit; 200/556 characters/inch)\n* [IBM 7340](/wiki/IBM_7340 \"IBM 7340\"): Hypertape\n* [IBM 8809](/wiki/IBM_8809 \"IBM 8809\"): Magnetic tape unit\n* [IBM 9347](/wiki/IBM_9347 \"IBM 9347\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n* [IBM 9349](/wiki/IBM_9349 \"IBM 9349\"): Magnetic tape drive (9 Track—8 data bits \\& 1 parity bit)\n",
"#### Optical storage\n\n* [IBM 1350](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo Image Retrieval System\n* [IBM 1360](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photodigital Storage System (terabit)\n\t+ [IBM 1352](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Cell File\n\t+ [IBM 1361](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Cell File and Control\n\t+ [IBM 1364](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo\\-Digital Reader\n\t+ [IBM 1365](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Photo\\-Digital Recorder\n\t+ [IBM 1367](/wiki/IBM_1360 \"IBM 1360\"): Data Controller\n* [IBM 3995](/wiki/IBM_3995 \"IBM 3995\"): Optical Library (terabyte)\n",
"#### Storage networking and virtualization\n\n* [IBM 3044](/wiki/IBM_3044 \"IBM 3044\"): Fiber optic channel extender link\n* [IBM 9034](/wiki/IBM_9034 \"IBM 9034\"): [ESCON](/wiki/ESCON \"ESCON\")/Parallel Converter\n* IBM 2005: [Storage area network](/wiki/Storage_area_network \"Storage area network\") (SAN) [Fibre Channel switch](/wiki/Fibre_Channel_switch \"Fibre Channel switch\") (OEM from [Brocade Communications Systems](/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems \"Brocade Communications Systems\"))\n* IBM 2029: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer (OEM from [Nortel](/wiki/Nortel \"Nortel\"))\n* IBM 2031: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from [McData](/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems \"Brocade Communications Systems\"))\n* IBM 2032: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from McData)\n* IBM 2053: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from [Cisco](/wiki/Cisco \"Cisco\"))\n* IBM 2054: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* IBM 2061: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* IBM 2062: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Cisco)\n* [IBM 2103](/wiki/IBM_2103 \"IBM 2103\")\\-H07: [SAN](/wiki/Storage_area_network \"Storage area network\") [Fibre Channel](/wiki/Fibre_Channel \"Fibre Channel\") Hub\n* IBM 2109: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 2498: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 2499: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* IBM 3534: Storage area network (SAN) Fibre Channel switch (OEM from Brocade Communications Systems)\n* [IBM SAN File System](/wiki/IBM_SAN_File_System \"IBM SAN File System\"): a software for sharing [file systems](/wiki/File_system \"File system\") in SAN\n* [IBM 2145](/wiki/IBM_SAN_Volume_Controller \"IBM SAN Volume Controller\"): System Storage SAN Volume Controller (SVC)\n* IBM 9729: Optical Wavelength Division Multiplexer\n",
"### Coprocessor units\n\n* [IBM 2938](/wiki/IBM_2938 \"IBM 2938\"): Array processor; attach to 2044 (model 1\\) or 2165 (model 2\\)\n* [IBM 3092](/wiki/IBM_3092 \"IBM 3092\"): [IBM 3090](/wiki/IBM_3090 \"IBM 3090\") Processor controller\n* [IBM 3838](/wiki/IBM_3838 \"IBM 3838\"): Array processor; 1976\n* [IBM 4758](/wiki/IBM_4758 \"IBM 4758\"): PCI Cryptographic Coprocessor\n* [IBM 4764](/wiki/IBM_4764 \"IBM 4764\"): PCI\\-X Cryptographic Coprocessor\n* [IBM 4765](/wiki/IBM_4765 \"IBM 4765\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor\n* [IBM 4767](/wiki/IBM_4767 \"IBM 4767\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor (Crypto Express5S \\[CEX5S] on Z, MTM 4767–002, FC EJ32/EJ33 on Power)\n* [IBM 4768](/wiki/IBM_4768 \"IBM 4768\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor (Crypto Express6S \\[CEX6S] on Z)\n* [IBM 4769](/wiki/IBM_4769 \"IBM 4769\"): PCIe Cryptographic Coprocessor (Crypto Express7S \\[CEX7S] on Z)\n",
"### Channels and input/output control units\n\n* [IBM 2820](/wiki/IBM_2820 \"IBM 2820\"): Drum Storage Control Unit for 2301 Drum Storage Units\n* [IBM 2821](/wiki/IBM_2821_Control_Unit \"IBM 2821 Control Unit\"): Control unit (for 2540 Reader/Punch and 1403 Printer)\n* [IBM 2822](/wiki/IBM_2822 \"IBM 2822\"): Paper Tape Reader Control\n* [IBM 2835](/wiki/IBM_2835 \"IBM 2835\"): Control unit model 1 (for 2305\\-1 Disk)\n* [IBM 2835](/wiki/IBM_2835 \"IBM 2835\"): Control unit model 2 (for 2305\\-2 Disk)\n* [IBM 2841](/wiki/IBM_2841 \"IBM 2841\"): DASD Control unit (for 2311, 2302, 2303, 2321 and 7320\\)\n* IBM 2846: Channel controller for System/360 Model 67\n* [IBM 2860](/wiki/IBM_2860 \"IBM 2860\"): Selector Channel (for SYS/360 2065 \\& above, 370/165, 168 and 195\\)\n* [IBM 2870](/wiki/IBM_2870 \"IBM 2870\"): Multiplex Channel (for SYS/360 2065 \\& above, 370/165, 168 and 195\\)\n* [IBM 2880](/wiki/IBM_2880 \"IBM 2880\"): Block Multiplex Channel (for 360/85 and 195, 370/165, 168, 195\\)\n* [IBM 2914](/wiki/IBM_2914 \"IBM 2914\"): Switching Unit (for manually switching channels between central processing units)\n* [IBM 3088](/wiki/IBM_3088 \"IBM 3088\"): Multisystem channel communications unit\n* [IBM 3172](/wiki/IBM_3172 \"IBM 3172\"): LAN Interconnect Controller (or Nways Interconnect Controller)\n* [IBM 3814](/wiki/IBM_3814 \"IBM 3814\"): Switching Management System\n* [IBM 4959](/wiki/IBM_4959 \"IBM 4959\"): I/O expansion unit\n* [IBM 4987](/wiki/IBM_4987 \"IBM 4987\"): Programmable communication subsystem\n* [IBM 5085](/wiki/IBM_5085 \"IBM 5085\"): Graphics Processor. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System.\n* [IBM 5088](/wiki/IBM_5088 \"IBM 5088\"): Graphics Channel Controller. Part of IBM 5080 Graphics System.\n* [IBM 5209](/wiki/IBM_5209 \"IBM 5209\"): 5250\\-3270 link protocol converter\n* [IBM 7299](/wiki/IBM_7299 \"IBM 7299\"): Active Star Hub for twinax terminals\n* [IBM 7426](/wiki/IBM_7426 \"IBM 7426\"): Terminal interface unit\n* [IBM 7621](/wiki/IBM_7621 \"IBM 7621\"): Tape Control\n* [IBM 7909](/wiki/IBM_7909 \"IBM 7909\"): Data Channel\n* [IBM 8102](/wiki/IBM_8102 \"IBM 8102\"): Storage and I/O unit for 8100 Information System\n",
"### Data communications devices\n\n* [IBM 3270](/wiki/IBM_3270 \"IBM 3270\")\n\t+ [IBM 3178](/wiki/IBM_3178 \"IBM 3178\"): Display station for IBM 3270\n\t+ [IBM 3179](/wiki/IBM_3179 \"IBM 3179\"): Display station (color or graphics) for IBM 3270\n\t+ [IBM 3180](/wiki/IBM_3180 \"IBM 3180\"): Monochrome display station, configurable to 80 columns (24, 32 or 43 rows), 132 columns (27 rows)\n\t+ [IBM 3191](/wiki/IBM_3191 \"IBM 3191\"): Monochrome display station\n\t+ [IBM 3192G](/wiki/IBM_3192G \"IBM 3192G\"): Terminal. 24 or 32 lines. Graphics.\n\t+ [IBM 3193](/wiki/IBM_3193 \"IBM 3193\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3194](/wiki/IBM_3194 \"IBM 3194\"): Advanced function color display\n\t+ [IBM 3196](/wiki/IBM_3196 \"IBM 3196\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3197](/wiki/IBM_3197 \"IBM 3197\"): Color display work station\n\t+ [IBM 3279](/wiki/IBM_3279 \"IBM 3279\"): Color graphic terminal; 1979\n\t+ [IBM 3290](/wiki/IBM_3290 \"IBM 3290\"): Gas panel display terminal with 62x160 screen configurable with one to four logical screens, each of which could be further subdivided into partitions under software control; 1983\n\t+ [IBM 3174](/wiki/IBM_3174 \"IBM 3174\"): 3270 Subsystem controller\n\t+ [IBM 3271](/wiki/IBM_3271 \"IBM 3271\"): Remote 3270 control unit\n\t+ [IBM 3272](/wiki/IBM_3272 \"IBM 3272\"): Local 3270 control unit\n\t+ [IBM 3274](/wiki/IBM_3274 \"IBM 3274\"): 3270 Control unit\n\t+ [IBM 3275](/wiki/IBM_3275 \"IBM 3275\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3276](/wiki/IBM_3276 \"IBM 3276\"): 3270 Control unit display station\n\t+ [IBM 3277](/wiki/IBM_3270 \"IBM 3270\"): Terminal\n\t+ [IBM 3278](/wiki/IBM_3278 \"IBM 3278\"): Display station\n\t+ [IBM 3299](/wiki/IBM_3299 \"IBM 3299\"): 3270 Terminal Multiplexer\n* [IBM 1009](/wiki/IBM_1009 \"IBM 1009\"): IBM 1401/1440/1414/1460 Data Transmission Unit\n* [IBM 1013](/wiki/IBM_1013 \"IBM 1013\"): Card Transmission Terminal\n* [IBM 1015](/wiki/IBM_1015_%28terminal%29 \"IBM 1015 (terminal)\"): Inquiry/Display TerminalIBM Booklet 520\\-1122, titled , 2250, 2260 Displays: inside has 1015 Inquiry Display Terminal, 2260 Display Station, 2250 Display Unit\n* IBM 2210: NWays Multiprotocol Router (router)\n* IBM 2217: NWays Multiprotocol Concentrator\n* [IBM 2250](/wiki/IBM_2250 \"IBM 2250\"): Vector Graphics Display Terminal\n* [IBM 2260](/wiki/IBM_2260 \"IBM 2260\"): CRT Terminal\n* IBM 2265: Display Station\n* [IBM 2701](/wiki/IBM_270x \"IBM 270x\"): Data Adapter Unit (communication controller)\n* [IBM 2702](/wiki/IBM_270x \"IBM 270x\"): Transmission Control (communication controller)\n* [IBM 2703](/wiki/IBM_270x \"IBM 270x\"): Transmission Control (communication controller)\n* [IBM 2740](/wiki/IBM_2740 \"IBM 2740\"): Typewriter communication terminal; 1965\n* [IBM 2741](/wiki/IBM_2741 \"IBM 2741\"): Typewriter communication terminal; 1965\n* [IBM 2770](/wiki/IBM_2770 \"IBM 2770\"): Data Communications System; 1969\n\t+ [IBM 2772](/wiki/IBM_2770 \"IBM 2770\"): Multi\\-Purpose Control Unit: 1969\n* [IBM 2922](/wiki/IBM_2922 \"IBM 2922\"): Programmable terminal; 1972\n* [IBM 2840](/wiki/IBM_2840 \"IBM 2840\"): Display unit\n* [IBM 3101](/wiki/IBM_3101 \"IBM 3101\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3102](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3102_Printer \"IBM 3101#IBM 3102 Printer\"): Thermal printer for attachment to IBM 3101, 3151, 3161, etc.\n* [IBM 3104](/wiki/IBM_3104 \"IBM 3104\"): Display station for attachment to IBM 5250\n* [IBM 2840](/wiki/IBM_2840 \"IBM 2840\"): Display Control Unit Model I for 2250 Model\\-II Analog Displays\n* [IBM 2840](/wiki/IBM_2840 \"IBM 2840\"): Display Control Unit Model II for 2250 Model III Analog Displays\n* [IBM 2848](/wiki/IBM_2848 \"IBM 2848\"): Display Controller (for 2260\\)\n* [IBM 3151](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3151 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3151\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3161](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3161/3163 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3161/3163\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3163](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3161/3163 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3161/3163\"): ASCII display station\n* [IBM 3164](/wiki/IBM_3101%23IBM_3164 \"IBM 3101#IBM 3164\"): ASCII color display station\n* [IBM 3192](/wiki/IBM_3192 \"IBM 3192\"): Monochrome display station, configurable to 80 columns (24, 32 or 43 rows), 132 columns (27 rows). Record and playback keystrokes function. All configuration done through keyboard.\n* [IBM 3486](/wiki/IBM_3486 \"IBM 3486\"): 3487, 3488 \"Info Window\" twinax displays\n* [IBM 3735](/wiki/IBM_3735 \"IBM 3735\"): Programmable Buffered Terminal\n* [IBM 3767](/wiki/IBM_3767 \"IBM 3767\"): Communication terminal\n* [IBM 3780](/wiki/IBM_3780 \"IBM 3780\"): Data communications terminal; 1972\n\t+ [IBM 3781](/wiki/IBM_3780 \"IBM 3780\"): Card Punch (optional)\n* [IBM 3770](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Data Communication system. All Terminals came with integrated desk\n\t+ [IBM 3771](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1, 2 and 3\n\t+ [IBM 3773](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1, P1, 2, P2, 3 and P3\n\t+ [IBM 3774](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1, P1, 2 and P2\n\t+ [IBM 3775](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1 and P1\n\t+ [IBM 3776](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Models 1 and\n\t+ [IBM 3777](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Communication Terminal Model 1\n\t+ [IBM 3783](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Card Attachment Unit, attached 2502 or 3521 to any 3770 terminal except 3777\n\t+ [IBM 3784](/wiki/IBM_3770 \"IBM 3770\"): Line Printer, optional second printer for the 3774\n* [IBM 7740](/wiki/IBM_7740 \"IBM 7740\"): Communication control unit; 1963\n* [IBM 7750](/wiki/IBM_7750 \"IBM 7750\"): Transmission Control UnitUsed by [CTSS](/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System \"Compatible Time-Sharing System\")\n* [IBM 3704](/wiki/IBM_3705_Communications_Controller \"IBM 3705 Communications Controller\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3705](/wiki/IBM_3705_Communications_Controller \"IBM 3705 Communications Controller\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3708](/wiki/IBM_3708 \"IBM 3708\"): Network control unit\n* [IBM 3710](/wiki/IBM_3710 \"IBM 3710\"): Network Controller\n* [IBM 3720](/wiki/IBM_3720 \"IBM 3720\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3721](/wiki/IBM_3721 \"IBM 3721\"): Expansion unit for IBM 3720\n* [IBM 3724](/wiki/IBM_3724 \"IBM 3724\"): Controller\n* [IBM 3725](/wiki/IBM_3725 \"IBM 3725\"): Communication Controller\n* [IBM 3728](/wiki/IBM_3728 \"IBM 3728\"): Communication control matrix switch\n* [IBM 3745](/wiki/IBM_3745 \"IBM 3745\"): High\\-speed communication controller; 1988\\. Model \\-410, more?\n* [IBM 3746](/wiki/IBM_3745 \"IBM 3745\"): Multiprotocol Controller\n* [IBM 5250](/wiki/IBM_5250 \"IBM 5250\"): CRT terminal; 1977\n* [IBM 5251](/wiki/IBM_5251 \"IBM 5251\"): Display Station\n* [IBM 5252](/wiki/IBM_5252 \"IBM 5252\"): Dual display CRT terminal; 1978\n* [IBM 7171](/wiki/IBM_7171 \"IBM 7171\"): ASCII Device Attachment Control Unit (S/370 Channel\\-attached protocol converter for mapping [ASCII](/wiki/ASCII \"ASCII\") display screens to [IBM 3270](/wiki/IBM_3270 \"IBM 3270\") format)\n",
"### Power supply/distribution units\n\n* [IBM 3089](/wiki/IBM_3089 \"IBM 3089\"): [IBM 3081](/wiki/IBM_3081 \"IBM 3081\")/[IBM 3090](/wiki/IBM_3090 \"IBM 3090\") Power controller. 50 Hz → 400 kHz\n",
"### Modems\n\n* [IBM 3833](/wiki/IBM_3833 \"IBM 3833\"): Modem; 1985\n* [IBM 3834](/wiki/IBM_3834 \"IBM 3834\"): Modem; 1985\n* [IBM 3863](/wiki/IBM_3863 \"IBM 3863\"): Modem\n* [IBM 3864](/wiki/IBM_3864 \"IBM 3864\"): Modem\n* [IBM 3865](/wiki/IBM_3865 \"IBM 3865\"): Modem\n* [IBM 3868](/wiki/IBM_3868 \"IBM 3868\"): Rack\\-mounted modem\n* [IBM 5810](/wiki/IBM_5810 \"IBM 5810\"): Limited\\-distance multi\\-modem enclosure (for 5811 and 5812\\)\n* [IBM 5811](/wiki/IBM_5811 \"IBM 5811\"): Limited\\-distance modem\n* [IBM 5812](/wiki/IBM_5812 \"IBM 5812\"): Limited\\-distance modem\n* [IBM 5841](/wiki/IBM_5841 \"IBM 5841\"): 1,200\\-bit/s modem\n* [IBM 5842](/wiki/IBM_5842 \"IBM 5842\"): 2,400\\-bit/s modem; 1986\n* [IBM 5865](/wiki/IBM_5865 \"IBM 5865\"): Modem\n* [IBM 5866](/wiki/IBM_5866 \"IBM 5866\"): Modem\n* [IBM 5868](/wiki/IBM_5868 \"IBM 5868\"): Rack mounted modem\n",
"### Magnetic ink and optical readers\n\n* [IBM 1210](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1210 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1210\"): Magnetic character\\-reader/sorter; 1959\n* [IBM 1219](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1219 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1219\"): Reader/sorter (to sort things like postal orders); 1961\n* [IBM 1230](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1230_Optical_Mark_Scoring_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1230 Optical Mark Scoring Reader\"): Test Scoring\n* [IBM 1231](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1231_Optical_Mark_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1231 Optical Mark Page Reader\"): Optical Mark Page Reader\n* [IBM 1232](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1232_Optical_Mark_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1232 Optical Mark Page Reader\"): Optical Mark Page Reader\n* [IBM 1255](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1255_/_IBM_1270 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1255 / IBM 1270\"): Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1259](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1259 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1259\"): Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1270](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1255_/_IBM_1270 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1255 / IBM 1270\"): Optical Reader Sorter\n* [IBM 1275](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1275_Optical_Reader_Sorter \"IBM document processors#IBM 1275 Optical Reader Sorter\"): Optical Reader Sorter\n* [IBM 1285](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1285_Optical_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1285 Optical Reader\"): IBM 1401/1440/1460/Sys360 Optical Reader for printed numbers\n* [IBM 1287](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1287_Optical_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1287 Optical Reader\"): S/360 Optical Reader for handwritten numbers\n* [IBM 1288](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1288_Optical_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1288 Optical Page Reader\"): S/360 Optical Page Reader for hand written numbers and OCR\\-A Font\n* [IBM 1412](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1412 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1412\"): Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1418](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1418_Optical_Character_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1418 Optical Character Reader\"): IBM 1401/1460/Sys360—Optical Reader\n* [IBM 1419](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1419 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1419\"): IBM 1401/1410/Sys360—Magnetic Character Reader\n* [IBM 1428](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1428_Alphanumeric_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1428 Alphanumeric Reader\"): IBM 1401/1460/Sys360—Optical Reader\n* [IBM 1975](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1975_Optical_Page_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1975 Optical Page Reader\"): Optical Page Reader (Used at [SSA](/wiki/Social_Security_Administration \"Social Security Administration\") from 1965 to 1977\\)\n* [IBM 2956\\-2](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_2956_Optical_Mark/Hole_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 2956 Optical Mark/Hole Reader\"): Optical Mark/Hole Reader\n* [IBM 2956\\-3](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_2956_Optical_Mark/Hole_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 2956 Optical Mark/Hole Reader\"): Optical Mark/Hole Reader\n* [IBM 2956\\-5](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_2956 \"IBM document processors#IBM 2956\"): Multi\\-Pocket MCR Reader Sorter (RPQ W19976\\)\n* [IBM 3881](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3881_Optical_Mark_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3881 Optical Mark Reader\"): Optical Mark Reader\n* [IBM 3886](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3886_Optical_character_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3886 Optical character Reader\"): Optical Character Reader\n* [IBM 3890](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3890 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3890\"): Document processor\n* [IBM 3897](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3897:Image_capture_system \"Image capture system\"): Image capture system\n* [IBM 3898](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3897:Image_capture_system \"Image capture system\"): Image processor\n",
"### Other\n\n* [IBM 3117](/wiki/IBM_3117 \"IBM 3117\"): Image scanner\n* [IBM 3118](/wiki/IBM_3118 \"IBM 3118\"): Image scanner\n* [IBM 4577](/wiki/IBM_4577 \"IBM 4577\"): System/88 expansion cabinet\n* [IBM 4993](/wiki/IBM_4993 \"IBM 4993\"): Series/1\\-S/370 termination enclosure\n* [IBM 4997](/wiki/IBM_4997 \"IBM 4997\"): Rack enclosure\n* [IBM 7170](/wiki/IBM_7170 \"IBM 7170\"): Device attachment control unit\n* [IBM 7770](/wiki/IBM_7770 \"IBM 7770\"): Audio Response Unit\n* [IBM 7772](/wiki/IBM_7772 \"IBM 7772\"): Audio Response Unit\n* [IBM 9037](/wiki/IBM_9037 \"IBM 9037\"): [Sysplex Timer](/wiki/Sysplex_Timer \"Sysplex Timer\")\n",
"### IBM PC components and peripherals\n\n* IBM 2215: 15\" Multisync Color Monitor with Digital Controls 65 kHz for Asia Pacific\n* IBM 4707: Monochrome monitor for Wheelwriter word processor\n* IBM 5144: PC convertible monochrome display\n* IBM 5145: PC convertible color display\n* [IBM 5151](/wiki/IBM_5151 \"IBM 5151\"): IBM PC Display—Monochrome (green) CRT monitor, designed for [MDA](/wiki/IBM_Monochrome_Display_Adapter \"IBM Monochrome Display Adapter\") (1981\\)\n* IBM 5152: IBM PC Graphics Printer (technically this was an Epson MX\\-80 dot matrix printer (1979\\) [:File:Epson MX\\-80\\.jpg](/wiki/Epson_MX-80.jpg \"Epson MX-80.jpg\"), but it was IBM\\-labelled (1981\\)\n* IBM 5153: IBM PC Color Display—CRT monitor, designed for [CGA](/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter \"Color Graphics Adapter\") (1983\\)\n* IBM 5154: IBM Enhanced Color Display—for [EGA](/wiki/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter \"Enhanced Graphics Adapter\") (1984\\)\n* IBM 5161: Expansion Unit for the IBM PC, a second chassis that was connected via ISA bus extender and receiver cards and a 60\\-pin cable connector; the Expansion Unit had its own power supply with enough wattage to drive up to two hard drives (the IBM 5150's original power supply was insufficient for hard drives) (1981–1987?)\n* IBM 5173: [PC Network](/wiki/IBM_PC_Network \"IBM PC Network\") baseband extender\n* [IBM 5175](/wiki/IBM_5175 \"IBM 5175\"): IBM Professional Graphics Controller (PGC, PGA) (1984\\)\n* IBM 5181: Personal Computer Compact Printer\n* IBM 5182: Personal Computer Color Printer\n* IBM 5201: Quietwriter Printer Model 2\n* IBM 5202: Quietwriter III printer\n* IBM 6312: PS/ValuePoint Color Display\n* IBM 6314: PS/ValuePoint Color Display\n* IBM 6317: Color display\n* IBM 6319: PS/ValuePoint Color Display\n* IBM 6324: Color display\n* IBM 6325: Color display\n* IBM 6327: Color display\n* IBM 8503: Monochrome monitor for PC\n* IBM 8507: PS/2 monochrome display\n* IBM 8512: PS/2 color display\n* IBM 8513: PS/2 color display\n* [IBM 8514](/wiki/IBM_8514 \"IBM 8514\"): PS/2 large color display\n* [IBM 8514/A](/wiki/IBM_8514/A \"IBM 8514/A\"): Display adaptor\n* [IBM T220/T221 LCD monitors](/wiki/IBM_T220/T221_LCD_monitors \"IBM T220/T221 LCD monitors\"): 9503 Ultra\\-high resolution monitor\n* IBM 9521: Monitor\n* IBM 9524: Monitor\n* IBM 9525: Monitor\n* IBM 9527: Monitor\n* IBM E74: CRT monitor, *ca* 2001\n* IBM E74M: CRT monitor with built\\-in speakers and microphone (model no. 6517\\-U7N) *ca* 2001\n* [IBM PC keyboard](/wiki/IBM_PC_keyboard \"IBM PC keyboard\") (84 keys)(1981\\)\n* IBM PC keyboard (101 keys) Enhanced (1984\\)\n* [Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA)](/wiki/IBM_Monochrome_Display_Adapter \"IBM Monochrome Display Adapter\")\n* [Color Graphics Adapter (CGA)](/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter \"Color Graphics Adapter\")\n* [Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)](/wiki/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter \"Enhanced Graphics Adapter\")\n* [Professional Graphics controller (PGC)](/wiki/Professional_Graphics_Controller \"Professional Graphics Controller\")\n* [Multicolor Graphics Adapter (MCGA)](/wiki/Multi-Color_Graphics_Array \"Multi-Color Graphics Array\")\n* [Video Graphics Array (VGA)](/wiki/Video_Graphics_Array \"Video Graphics Array\")\n* [Micro Channel architecture (MCA)](/wiki/Micro_Channel_architecture \"Micro Channel architecture\"): 32\\-bit expansion bus for PS/2\n* [Mwave](/wiki/IBM_Mwave \"IBM Mwave\")\n* IBM [Deskstar](/wiki/Deskstar \"Deskstar\"), [Travelstar](/wiki/Travelstar \"Travelstar\") and [Ultrastar](/wiki/Ultrastar_%28WD_brand%29 \"Ultrastar (WD brand)\") series of hard disk drives for desktops and laptops, respectively (Acquired by [hard disk drive](/wiki/Hard_disk_drive \"Hard disk drive\") division of [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi \"Hitachi\"))\n",
"Embedded systems, application\\-specific machines/systems\n--------------------------------------------------------\n\n### Airline reservation systems\n\n* [Deltamatic](/wiki/Deltamatic \"Deltamatic\"): [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines \"Delta Air Lines\") reservations system\n* [PANAMAC](/wiki/PANAMAC \"PANAMAC\"): [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways \"Pan American World Airways\") reservations system\n* [Programmed Airline Reservations System](/wiki/Programmed_Airline_Reservations_System \"Programmed Airline Reservations System\") (PARS): airline reservations system\n* [Sabre](/wiki/Sabre_%28computer_system%29 \"Sabre (computer system)\"): reservations system, originally used by [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines \"American Airlines\")\n* [IBM 9081](/wiki/IBM_9081 \"IBM 9081\"): airlines version of the [3081](/wiki/IBM_3081 \"IBM 3081\")\n* [IBM 9083](/wiki/IBM_9083 \"IBM 9083\"): airlines version of the 3083\n* [IBM 9190](/wiki/IBM_9190 \"IBM 9190\"): airlines version of the 3090\n\n### Bank and finance\n\n* [IBM 801](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_801 \"IBM document processors#IBM 801\"): Proof Machine\n* [IBM 802](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_802 \"IBM document processors#IBM 802\"): Proof Machine, 24 pockets\n* [IBM 803](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_803 \"IBM document processors#IBM 803\"): Proof Machine, 32 pockets; 1949 to 1981, a product for 32 years!\n* [IBM 1201](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1201 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1201\"): Proof Inscriber. Proofing machine that was also an inscriber\n* [IBM 1202](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1202 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1202\"): Utility Inscriber, an electric type\\-writer, used to inscribe documents with magnetic ink\n* [IBM 1203](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1203 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1203\"): Unit Inscriber (keyoperated, print on checks, etc. with magnetic ink)\n* [IBM 1206](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1206 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1206\"): Unit Inscriber (CMC\\-7 encoder)\n* [IBM 1240](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Banking system; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1241](/wiki/IBM_1241 \"IBM 1241\"): Bank Processing Unit\n* [IBM 1260](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1260 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1260\"): Electronic Inscriber (keyoperated for proving deposits, sorting and listing of checks)\n* [IBM 1420](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): High\\-speed Bank Transit System; 1962\n* [IBM 1450](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Data Processing System for small banks; 1968\n* [IBM 2730](/wiki/IBM_2730 \"IBM 2730\"): Transaction validation terminal; 1971\n* [IBM 2984](/wiki/IBM_2984 \"IBM 2984\"): Cash dispensing terminal; 1972\n* [IBM 3600](/wiki/IBM_3600 \"IBM 3600\"): Finance Communication System; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3601](/wiki/IBM_3601 \"IBM 3601\"): Branch Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3602](/wiki/IBM_3602 \"IBM 3602\"): Branch Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3604](/wiki/IBM_3604 \"IBM 3604\"): Teller Terminal (Keyboard/Magnetic Swipe/Display/Optional PINpad)\n\t+ [IBM 3606](/wiki/IBM_3606 \"IBM 3606\"): Teller Terminal (Keyboard/Magnetic Swipe/Display)\n\t+ [IBM 3608](/wiki/IBM_3608 \"IBM 3608\"): Printer with Keyboard and Display\n\t+ [IBM 3609](/wiki/IBM_3609 \"IBM 3609\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3610](/wiki/IBM_3610 \"IBM 3610\"): Document Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3611](/wiki/IBM_3611 \"IBM 3611\"): Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3612](/wiki/IBM_3612 \"IBM 3612\"): Document/Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3613](/wiki/IBM_3613 \"IBM 3613\"): Journal Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3614](/wiki/IBM_3614 \"IBM 3614\"): [Automatic teller machine](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine \"Automated teller machine\") (ATM aka CTF); 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3615](/wiki/IBM_3615 \"IBM 3615\"): Administrative Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3616](/wiki/IBM_3616 \"IBM 3616\"): Journal Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3618](/wiki/IBM_3618 \"IBM 3618\"): Administrative Line Printer (155 lpm, first IBM band printer)\n\t+ [IBM 3619](/wiki/IBM_3619 \"IBM 3619\"): Line Printer ('Australian' administrative printer version)\n\t+ [IBM 3620](/wiki/IBM_3620 \"IBM 3620\"): Magnetic Stripe Reader Encoder and Journal/Document Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3621](/wiki/IBM_3621 \"IBM 3621\"): Statement Printer with Magnetic Stripe Reader and optional Keyboard/PINpad\n\t+ [IBM 3624](/wiki/IBM_3624 \"IBM 3624\"): Through\\-the\\-wall ATM; 1979\n* [IBM 3670](/wiki/IBM_3670 \"IBM 3670\"): Brokerage communications system; 1971\n* [IBM 3895](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3895 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3895\"): Deposit processing system; 1978\n* [IBM 4700](/wiki/IBM_4700 \"IBM 4700\"): Branch Banking Equipment; 1981\n\t+ [IBM 4701](/wiki/IBM_4701 \"IBM 4701\"): Branch Controller (8\" floppy disc)\n\t+ [IBM 4702](/wiki/IBM_4702 \"IBM 4702\"): Branch Controller (5¼\" HD floppy disc; hard disc)\n\t+ [IBM 4704](/wiki/IBM_4704 \"IBM 4704\"): Teller Terminal (Keyboard/Magnetic Swipe/Display/Optional PINpad)\n\t+ [IBM 4710](/wiki/IBM_4710 \"IBM 4710\"): Journal/Cutform Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4712](/wiki/IBM_4712 \"IBM 4712\"): Journal/Cutform Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4713](/wiki/IBM_4713 \"IBM 4713\"): Verification Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4715](/wiki/IBM_4715 \"IBM 4715\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4720](/wiki/IBM_4720 \"IBM 4720\"): Cutform/Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4722](/wiki/IBM_4722 \"IBM 4722\"): Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4723](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_4723 \"IBM document processors#IBM 4723\"): Document Processor\n\t+ [IBM 4730](/wiki/IBM_4730 \"IBM 4730\"): Counter\\-style [Personal Banking Machine](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine \"Automated teller machine\") (PBM); 1983\n\t+ [IBM 4731](/wiki/IBM_4731 \"IBM 4731\"): In\\-lobby PBM; 1983\n\t+ [IBM 4732](/wiki/IBM_4732 \"IBM 4732\"): In\\-lobby PBM; 1987\n\t+ [IBM 4736](/wiki/IBM_4736 \"IBM 4736\"): Cash\\-only PBM\n\t+ [IBM 4737](/wiki/IBM_4737 \"IBM 4737\"): Self\\-service transaction station\n\t+ [IBM 4781](/wiki/IBM_4781 \"IBM 4781\"): Table Top ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1060](/wiki/Diebold_1060 \"Diebold 1060\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4782](/wiki/IBM_4782 \"IBM 4782\"): In\\-lobby ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1062](/wiki/Diebold_1062 \"Diebold 1062\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4783](/wiki/IBM_4783 \"IBM 4783\"): Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1064](/wiki/Diebold_1064 \"Diebold 1064\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4785](/wiki/IBM_4785 \"IBM 4785\"): Exterior ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1072](/wiki/Diebold_1072 \"Diebold 1072\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4786](/wiki/IBM_4786 \"IBM 4786\"): Exterior Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1071](/wiki/Diebold_1071 \"Diebold 1071\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4787](/wiki/IBM_4787 \"IBM 4787\"): Exterior Drive\\-up ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1073](/wiki/Diebold_1073 \"Diebold 1073\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4788](/wiki/IBM_4788 \"IBM 4788\"): Exterior Self\\-standing Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1074](/wiki/Diebold_1074 \"Diebold 1074\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4789](/wiki/IBM_4789 \"IBM 4789\"): Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1063](/wiki/Diebold_1063 \"Diebold 1063\"))\n\t+ [IBM 5922](/wiki/IBM_5922 \"IBM 5922\"): Low\\-speed [magnetic ink character recognition](/wiki/Magnetic_ink_character_recognition \"Magnetic ink character recognition\") (MICR) Reader\n* [IBM 5995](/wiki/IBM_5995 \"IBM 5995\"): Branch Controller\n\n### Computer\\-aided drafting (CAD)\n\n* [IBM 7361](/wiki/IBM_7361 \"IBM 7361\"): Fastdraft System; 1982, a low\\-cost drafting system using a light pen and a CRT screen\n\t+ IBM 7361: Graphics Processor Unit\n\t+ IBM 3251: Graphics Display Station Model 2\n\n### Word processing\n\n* [IBM MT/ST](/wiki/IBM_MT/ST \"IBM MT/ST\"): Magnetic Tape/Selectric Typewriter; 1964\n* [IBM MC/ST](/wiki/IBM_MC/ST \"IBM MC/ST\"): Magnetic Card/Selectric Typewriter (Mag Card); 1969\n* [IBM Displaywriter System](/wiki/IBM_Displaywriter_System \"IBM Displaywriter System\"); 1980\n\t+ [IBM 6360](/wiki/IBM_6360 \"IBM 6360\"): IBM Displaywriter: Diskette Unit\n\t+ [IBM 6361](/wiki/IBM_6361 \"IBM 6361\"): IBM Displaywriter: Mag Card Unit\n\t+ [IBM 6580](/wiki/IBM_Displaywriter_System \"IBM Displaywriter System\"): IBM Displaywriter: Display Station\n* [IBM Office System/6](/wiki/OS/6 \"OS/6\")\n\t+ [IBM 6/420](/wiki/IBM_6/420 \"IBM 6/420\"): stand\\-alone information processing unit; part of the Office System/6; 1978\n\t+ [IBM 6/430](/wiki/IBM_6/430 \"IBM 6/430\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1977\n\t+ [IBM 6/440](/wiki/IBM_6/440 \"IBM 6/440\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1977\n\t+ [IBM 6/442](/wiki/IBM_6/442 \"IBM 6/442\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1978\n\t+ [IBM 6/450](/wiki/IBM_6/450 \"IBM 6/450\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1977\n\t+ [IBM 6/452](/wiki/IBM_6/452 \"IBM 6/452\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1978\n\n### Other document processing\n\n* [IBM 1282](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1282_Optical_Reader_Card_Punch \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1282 Optical Reader Card Punch\"): Optical reader card punch IBM Sales Manual, May 79\n* [IBM 3740](/wiki/IBM_3740 \"IBM 3740\"): Data entry system; 1973\n\t+ IBM 3741: Data Station Models 1 and 2, Programmable Work Stations Models 3 and 4\n\t+ IBM 3742: Dual Data Station\n\t+ IBM 3713: Printer\n\t+ IBM 3715: Printer\n\t+ IBM 3717: Printer\n\t+ IBM 3747: Data Converter\n* [IBM 3694](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3694 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3694\"): Document Processor; 1980\n* [IBM 3881](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3881_Optical_Mark_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3881 Optical Mark Reader\"): Optical Mark Reader; 1972\n* [IBM 3886](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3886_Optical_Character_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3886 Optical Character Reader\"): Optical Character Reader; 1972\n* [IBM 3890](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3890 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3890\"): Document Processor; 1973\n* [IBM 3891](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3891 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3891\"): Document Processor; 1989\n* [IBM 3892](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3892 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3892\"): Document Processor; 1987\n* [IBM 3895](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3895 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3895\"): Document Reader/Inscriber; 1977\n* [IBM 5321](/wiki/IBM_5321 \"IBM 5321\"): Mag Card Unit for System/32; 1976\n* [IBM 6640](/wiki/IBM_6640 \"IBM 6640\"): Document printer; 1976; in 1977 reassigned being part of the [Office System/6](/wiki/IBM_OS/6 \"IBM OS/6\")\n* IBM 9370: Document reproducer; 1966\n\n### Educational\n\n* [IBM 1500](/wiki/IBM_1500 \"IBM 1500\"): Computer\\-assisted instruction system; 1966\n\t+ IBM 1510: Display Console\n\t+ IBM 1512: Image Projector\n\n### Government: avionics, computation, command and control, and space systems\n\n* [IBM Relay Calculator](/wiki/IBM_Relay_Calculator \"IBM Relay Calculator\"): aka The IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator (Aberdeen Machine), 1944\n* [IBM NORC](/wiki/IBM_Naval_Ordnance_Research_Calculator \"IBM Naval Ordnance Research Calculator\"): Naval Ordnance Research Calculator; 1954\n* [AN/FSQ\\-7](/wiki/AN/FSQ-7_Combat_Direction_Central \"AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central\"): computer for the [Semi\\-Automatic Ground Environment](/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment \"Semi-Automatic Ground Environment\"); 1959 (IBM had the manufacturing contract.)\n\t+ [IBM 728](/wiki/IBM_728 \"IBM 728\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 synchronization bit; 248 characters/inch)\n* [AN/FSQ\\-8 Combat Control Central](/wiki/AN/FSQ-8_Combat_Control_Central \"AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central\"): variant of the AN/FSQ\\-7\n* [AN/FSQ\\-31V](/wiki/IBM_AN/FSQ-31_SAC_Data_Processing_System \"IBM AN/FSQ-31 SAC Data Processing System\"): [US Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") Command and Control Data Processing Element for [SACCS](/wiki/Strategic_Automated_Command_and_Control_System \"Strategic Automated Command and Control System\"); 1959–1960\n\t+ [IBM 4020](/wiki/IBM_4020_Military_Computer \"IBM 4020 Military Computer\"): IBM id for the [AN/FSQ\\-31V](/wiki/AN/FSQ-31V \"AN/FSQ-31V\")\n* [AN/FSQ\\-32](/wiki/AN/FSQ-32 \"AN/FSQ-32\"): SAGE Solid State Computer\n* [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361 \"IBM 2361\"): [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s [Manned Spacecraft Center](/wiki/Johnson_Space_Center \"Johnson Space Center\") IBM 7094 II Core Storage Unit (524288—36\\-bit words); 1964\n* [ASC\\-15 Titan II Guidance Computer](/wiki/ASC-15 \"ASC-15\")\n* [Gemini Guidance Computer](/wiki/Project_Gemini \"Project Gemini\")\n* [Saturn Guidance Computer](/wiki/Saturn_Launch_Vehicle_Digital_Computer \"Saturn Launch Vehicle Digital Computer\")\n* [Saturn instrument unit](/wiki/Saturn_V_Instrument_Unit \"Saturn V Instrument Unit\")\n* [IBM System/4 Pi](/wiki/IBM_System/4_Pi \"IBM System/4 Pi\"): avionics computers; military and NASA; 1967\n\t+ [Skylab Onboard Computers](/wiki/IBM_System/4_Pi \"IBM System/4 Pi\")\n\t+ [Space Shuttle General Purpose Computer](/wiki/IBM_System/4_Pi \"IBM System/4 Pi\")\n\t+ [AN/ASQ\\-155](/wiki/Grumman_A-6_Intruder \"Grumman A-6 Intruder\") computer\n* [IBM RAD6000](/wiki/IBM_RAD6000 \"IBM RAD6000\"): Radiation\\-hardened single board computer, based on the IBM RISC Single Chip CPU\n* [ASCI White](/wiki/ASCI_White \"ASCI White\") Supercomputer: Built as stage three of the [Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative](/wiki/Advanced_Simulation_and_Computing_Program \"Advanced Simulation and Computing Program\") (ASCI) started by the U.S. [Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\") and the [National Nuclear Security Administration](/wiki/National_Nuclear_Security_Administration \"National Nuclear Security Administration\")\n* [IBM 7950](/wiki/IBM_7950 \"IBM 7950\"): [Cryptanalytic computer](/wiki/Cryptanalytic_computer \"Cryptanalytic computer\") using 7030 as CPU; 1962 (*Harvest*)\n\t+ [IBM 7951](/wiki/IBM_7951 \"IBM 7951\"): IBM 7950 Stream coprocessor\n\t+ [IBM 7952](/wiki/IBM_7952 \"IBM 7952\"): IBM 7950 High performance core storage (1024—72\\-bit words: 64 data bits \\& 8 ECC bits)\n\t+ [IBM 7955](/wiki/IBM_7955 \"IBM 7955\"): IBM 7950 **Tractor** Magnetic tape system (22 Track—16 data bits \\& 6 [ECC](/wiki/Error_correction_code \"Error correction code\") bits; 2,400 words/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 7959](/wiki/IBM_7959 \"IBM 7959\"): IBM 7950 High\\-speed I/O exchange\n* [IBM 9020](/wiki/IBM_9020 \"IBM 9020\"): for [FAA](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration \"Federal Aviation Administration\") and one system for the UK [CAA](/wiki/UK_CAA \"UK CAA\").\n\t+ [IBM 7201](/wiki/IBM_7201 \"IBM 7201\"): enhanced 2065 (S/360\\-65\\) used as a Computing Element (CE) in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7231](/wiki/IBM_7231 \"IBM 7231\"): enhanced 2050 (S/360\\-50\\) used as an Input Output Control Element (IOCE) in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7251](/wiki/IBM_7251 \"IBM 7251\"): 512KiB (byte \\= 8 bits \\+ P) core Storage Element (SE) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7289\\-02](/wiki/IBM_7289-02 \"IBM 7289-02\"): Peripheral Adapter Module (PAM) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7289\\-04](/wiki/IBM_7289-04 \"IBM 7289-04\"): Display Element (DE) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7262](/wiki/IBM_7262 \"IBM 7262\"): System Console (SC) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7265](/wiki/IBM_7265 \"IBM 7265\"): Configuration Console (CC) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\n### Industry and manufacturing\n\n* [IBM 357](/wiki/IBM_357 \"IBM 357\"): Data Collection system; 1959\n\t+ IBM 013: Badge Punch\n\t+ IBM 024/026: Card Punch (81 col)\n\t+ IBM 357: Input Station (Badge and/or serial card reader)\n\t+ IBM 358: Input Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 360: Clock Read\\-Out Control\n\t+ IBM 361: Read\\-Out Clock\n\t+ IBM 372: Manual Entry\n\t+ IBM 373: Punch Switch\n\t+ IBM 374: Cartridge Reader\n* [IBM 1001](/wiki/IBM_1001 \"IBM 1001\"): Data transmission system; 1960\n* [IBM 1030](/wiki/IBM_1030 \"IBM 1030\"): Data Collection system; 1963\n\t+ IBM 1031: Input Station.\n\t+ IBM 1032: Digital Time Unit.\n\t+ IBM 1033: Printer.\n\t+ IBM 1034: Card Punch\n\t+ IBM 1035: Badge Reader\n* [IBM 1050](/wiki/IBM_1050 \"IBM 1050\"): Data Communications System; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1026](/wiki/IBM_1026 \"IBM 1026\"): Transmission Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1051: Central Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1052: Printer\\-Keyboard, based on [Selectric](/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter \"IBM Selectric typewriter\") mechanism\n\t+ IBM 1053: Console Printer, based on Selectric mechanism\n\t+ IBM 1054: Paper Tape Reader\n\t+ IBM 1055: Paper Tape Punch\n\t+ IBM 1057: Punched Card Output\n\t+ [IBM 1058](/wiki/IBM_1058 \"IBM 1058\"): Printing Card Punch Output\n\t+ [IBM 1092](/wiki/IBM_1092 \"IBM 1092\"): Programmed Keyboard (keyboard storage for input to 1050\\)\n\t+ [IBM 1093](/wiki/IBM_1093 \"IBM 1093\"): Programmed Keyboard (used in tandem with 1092 for transmission to 24/26 or 7770\\)\n* [IBM 1060](/wiki/IBM_1060 \"IBM 1060\"): Data Communications System\n\t+ [IBM 1026](/wiki/IBM_1026 \"IBM 1026\"): Transmission Control Unit\n* [IBM 1070](/wiki/IBM_1070 \"IBM 1070\"): Process Communication System; 1964\n\t+ IBM 1026: IBM 1030/1050/1060/1070 Transmission Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1071: Terminal Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1072: Terminal Multiplexer\n\t+ IBM 1073: Latching Contact Operate Model 1\n\t+ IBM 1073: Counter Terminal Model 2\n\t+ IBM 1073: Digital\\-Pulse Converter Model 3\n\t+ IBM 1074: Binary Display\n\t+ IBM 1075: Decimal Display\n\t+ IBM 1076: Manual Binary Input\n\t+ IBM 1077: Manual Decimal Input\n\t+ IBM 1078: Pulse Counter\n* [IBM 1080](/wiki/IBM_1080 \"IBM 1080\"): Data Acquisition System\n\t+ [IBM 1081](/wiki/IBM_1081 \"IBM 1081\"): DAS Control...for analytical applications\n\t+ [IBM 1082](/wiki/IBM_1082 \"IBM 1082\"): Punched Card Input\n\t+ [IBM 1083](/wiki/IBM_1083 \"IBM 1083\"): Remote Control (provides Operator Scan Request)\n\t+ [IBM 1084](/wiki/IBM_1084 \"IBM 1084\"): Sampler Reader (Technicon Sampler 40\\)\n\t+ [IBM 1055](/wiki/IBM_1055 \"IBM 1055\"): Paper Tape Punch\n\t+ [IBM 1057](/wiki/IBM_1057 \"IBM 1057\"): Punched Card Output\n\t+ [IBM 1058](/wiki/IBM_1058 \"IBM 1058\"): Printing Card Punch Output\n* [IBM 1710](/wiki/IBM_1710 \"IBM 1710\"): Control system based on [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"); 1961\n\t+ [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"): IBM 1710 Central Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1711](/wiki/IBM_1711 \"IBM 1711\"): IBM 1710 Data Converter (A/D)\n\t+ [IBM 1712](/wiki/IBM_1712 \"IBM 1712\"): IBM 1710 Multiplexer and Terminal Unit\n* [IBM 1720](/wiki/IBM_1720 \"IBM 1720\"): Control system based on [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"); 1961\n* [IBM 1800](/wiki/IBM_1800_Data_Acquisition_and_Control_System \"IBM 1800 Data Acquisition and Control System\"): Process control variant of the [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"); 1964\n* [IBM 2790](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Data Communications System; 1969\n\t+ [IBM 2715](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Transmission controller\n\t+ [IBM 2791](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Area Station\n\t+ [IBM 2793](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Area Station\n\t+ [IBM 2795:](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\") Data Entry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 2796](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Data Entry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 2797](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Data Entry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 2798](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Guided Display Unit\n* [IBM 3630](/wiki/IBM_3630 \"IBM 3630\"): Plant Communications System; 1978\n* [IBM 3730](/wiki/IBM_3790%23IBM_3730 \"IBM 3790#IBM 3730\"): Distributed office communication system; 1978\n* [IBM Series/1](/wiki/IBM_Series/1 \"IBM Series/1\"): brand name for process control computers; 1976\n\t+ [IBM 4953](/wiki/IBM_4953 \"IBM 4953\"): [Series/1](/wiki/Series/1 \"Series/1\") processor model 3; 1976\n\t+ [IBM 4954](/wiki/IBM_4954 \"IBM 4954\"): Series/1 processor model 4\n\t+ [IBM 4955](/wiki/IBM_4955 \"IBM 4955\"): Series/1 processor model 5; 1976\n\t+ [IBM 4956](/wiki/IBM_4956 \"IBM 4956\"): Series/1 processor model 6\n\t+ [IBM 4982](/wiki/IBM_4982 \"IBM 4982\"): Sensor I/O unit\n* [IBM 5010](/wiki/IBM_5010 \"IBM 5010\"): [System/7](/wiki/System/7 \"System/7\") processor; industrial control; 1970\n\t+ [IBM 5012](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): Multifunction Module\n\t+ [IBM 5013:](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\") Digital Input/Output Module\n\t+ IBM 5014: Analog Input Module\n\t+ [IBM 5022](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): Disk Storage Unit\n\t+ [IBM 5025](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\") Enclosure\n\t+ [IBM 5028](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): Operator Station\n\t+ [IBM 5010E](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): [System/7](/wiki/System/7 \"System/7\") Maritime Application/Bridge System; 1974\n\t\t- [IBM 5090](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): N01 Radar Navigation Interface Module\n\t\t- [IBM 5090](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): N02 Bridge Console\n\t\t- [IBM 5026](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): C03 Enclosure (vibration hardened)\n* [IBM 5230](/wiki/IBM_5230 \"IBM 5230\"): Data Collection system;\n\t+ [IBM 5231:](/wiki/c:File:IBM_5231_Data_Collection_System_Controller_Model_I.jpg \"File:IBM 5231 Data Collection System Controller Model I.jpg\") Controller Models 1,2, and 3\n\t+ [IBM 5234](/wiki/IBM_5234 \"IBM 5234\"): Time Entry Station Models 1 and 2\n\t+ [IBM 5235](/wiki/IBM_5235 \"IBM 5235\"): Data Entry Station\n\t+ [IBM 5230](/wiki/IBM_5230 \"IBM 5230\"): Data Collection System Accessory Package\n* [IBM 5275](/wiki/IBM_5275 \"IBM 5275\"): Direct Numerical Control Station; 1973\n* [IBM 5531](/wiki/IBM_5531 \"IBM 5531\"): Industrial computer for plant environments; 1984\n* [IBM 5937](/wiki/IBM_5937 \"IBM 5937\"): Industrial Terminal; 1976\n* [IBM 7531](/wiki/IBM_7531 \"IBM 7531\"): [Industrial computer](/wiki/Industrial_computer \"Industrial computer\"); 1985\n* [IBM 7532](/wiki/IBM_7532 \"IBM 7532\"): Industrial computer; 1985\n* [IBM 7535](/wiki/IBM_7535 \"IBM 7535\"): Industrial robotic system; 1982\n* [IBM 7552](/wiki/IBM_7552 \"IBM 7552\"): Industrial computer; 1986\n* [IBM 7565](/wiki/IBM_7565 \"IBM 7565\"): Industrial robotic system; 1982\n* [IBM 7700](/wiki/IBM_7700_Data_Acquisition_System \"IBM 7700 Data Acquisition System\"): Data Acquisition System, not marketed; 1964\n* [IBM 9003](/wiki/IBM_9003 \"IBM 9003\"): Industrial computer; 1985\n\n### Medical/science/lab equipment\n\n* [IBM 2991](/wiki/IBM_2991 \"IBM 2991\"): Blood cell separator; 1972; model 2 1976\n* [IBM 2997](/wiki/IBM_2997 \"IBM 2997\"): Blood cell separator; 1977\n* [IBM 5880](/wiki/IBM_5880 \"IBM 5880\"): Electrocardiograph system; 1978\n* [IBM 9630](/wiki/IBM_9630 \"IBM 9630\"): Gas chromograph; 1985\n\n### Research/advertising (not product) machines\n\n* [IBM Columbia Difference Tabulator](/wiki/IBM_Columbia_Difference_Tabulator \"IBM Columbia Difference Tabulator\"): 1931\n* [IBM ASCC](/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I \"Harvard Mark I\"): Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (aka. Harvard Mark I); 1944\n* [IBM SSEC](/wiki/IBM_SSEC \"IBM SSEC\"): Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator; 1948\n* [IBM Deep Blue](/wiki/IBM_Deep_Blue \"IBM Deep Blue\"): Chess playing computer developed for 1997 match with [Garry Kasparov](/wiki/Garry_Kasparov \"Garry Kasparov\")\n* [IBM Watson](/wiki/IBM_Watson \"IBM Watson\"): An [artificially intelligent](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") computer system capable of answering questions posed in [natural language](/wiki/Natural_language \"Natural language\"), specifically developed to answer questions on the [quiz show](/wiki/Quiz_show \"Quiz show\") *[Jeopardy!](/wiki/Jeopardy%21 \"Jeopardy!\")*.\n\n### Retail/point\\-of\\-sale (POS)\n\n* [IBM 3650](/wiki/IBM_3650 \"IBM 3650\"): Retail Store System; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3651](/wiki/IBM_3651 \"IBM 3651\"): Store Controller Model A50 or B50\n\t+ [IBM 3653](/wiki/IBM_3653 \"IBM 3653\"): Point of Sale Terminal\n\t+ [IBM 3657](/wiki/IBM_3657 \"IBM 3657\"): Ticket Unit\n\t+ [IBM 3659](/wiki/IBM_3659 \"IBM 3659\"): Remote Communications Unit\n\t+ [IBM 3784](/wiki/IBM_3784 \"IBM 3784\"): Line Printer\n* [IBM 3660](/wiki/IBM_3660 \"IBM 3660\"): Supermarket System; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3651](/wiki/IBM_3651 \"IBM 3651\"): Store Controller Model A60 or B60\n\t+ [IBM 3661](/wiki/IBM_3661 \"IBM 3661\"): Store Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3663](/wiki/IBM_3663 \"IBM 3663\"): Supermarket Terminal ; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3666](/wiki/IBM_3666 \"IBM 3666\") Checkout Scanner\n\t+ [IBM 3669](/wiki/IBM_3669 \"IBM 3669\"): Store Communications Unit\n* [IBM 4610](/wiki/IBM_4610 \"IBM 4610\"): SureMark Retail Printer\n* [IBM 4683](/wiki/IBM_4683 \"IBM 4683\"): PC Based Retail System; 1987\n* [IBM 4693](/wiki/IBM_4693 \"IBM 4693\"): PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM 4694](/wiki/IBM_4694 \"IBM 4694\"): PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SurePOS 300](/wiki/IBM_SurePOS_300 \"IBM SurePOS 300\"): Cost effective PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SurePOS 500](/wiki/IBM_SurePOS_500 \"IBM SurePOS 500\"): All in one PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SurePOS 700](/wiki/IBM_SurePOS_700 \"IBM SurePOS 700\"): High performance PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SureOne](/wiki/IBM_SureOne \"IBM SureOne\"): PC Based Retail System\n* [AnyPlace POS](/wiki/AnyPlace_POS \"AnyPlace POS\"): Customer touch screen kiosk\n* BART (Bay Area Rapid Transport) fare collection machines; 1972\n\n### Telecommunications\n\n* International Time Recording Co. Series 970: Telephone System (1930s)\n* SAIS (Semi\\-Automatic Intercept System): Added automated custom [intercept messages](/wiki/Intercept_message \"Intercept message\") to the [Bell System](/wiki/Bell_System \"Bell System\")'s operator\\-based centralized intercept system, using a computer\\-controlled [magnetic drum](/wiki/Drum_memory \"Drum memory\") audio playback medium. Late 1960s.\n* [IBM 1750](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Switching System\n* [IBM 1755](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Operator station\n* [IBM 2750](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Switching System\n* [IBM 3750](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Switching System\n* [IBM 3755](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Operator Desk\n* [IBM 8750](/wiki/IBM_8750_Business_Communication_System \"IBM 8750 Business Communication System\"): Business Communications System (ROLM)\n* [IBM 9750](/wiki/ROLM \"ROLM\"): Business Communications System (ROLM)\n* [IBM 9751](/wiki/ROLM \"ROLM\"): CBX: Main component of 9750 system\n* [IBM Simon](/wiki/IBM_Simon \"IBM Simon\"): Smartphone; 1994\n\n### Unclassified\n\n* [IBM TouchMobile](/wiki/IBM_TouchMobile \"IBM TouchMobile\") a hand\\-held computer announced in 1993\n",
"### Airline reservation systems\n\n* [Deltamatic](/wiki/Deltamatic \"Deltamatic\"): [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines \"Delta Air Lines\") reservations system\n* [PANAMAC](/wiki/PANAMAC \"PANAMAC\"): [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways \"Pan American World Airways\") reservations system\n* [Programmed Airline Reservations System](/wiki/Programmed_Airline_Reservations_System \"Programmed Airline Reservations System\") (PARS): airline reservations system\n* [Sabre](/wiki/Sabre_%28computer_system%29 \"Sabre (computer system)\"): reservations system, originally used by [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines \"American Airlines\")\n* [IBM 9081](/wiki/IBM_9081 \"IBM 9081\"): airlines version of the [3081](/wiki/IBM_3081 \"IBM 3081\")\n* [IBM 9083](/wiki/IBM_9083 \"IBM 9083\"): airlines version of the 3083\n* [IBM 9190](/wiki/IBM_9190 \"IBM 9190\"): airlines version of the 3090\n",
"### Bank and finance\n\n* [IBM 801](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_801 \"IBM document processors#IBM 801\"): Proof Machine\n* [IBM 802](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_802 \"IBM document processors#IBM 802\"): Proof Machine, 24 pockets\n* [IBM 803](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_803 \"IBM document processors#IBM 803\"): Proof Machine, 32 pockets; 1949 to 1981, a product for 32 years!\n* [IBM 1201](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1201 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1201\"): Proof Inscriber. Proofing machine that was also an inscriber\n* [IBM 1202](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1202 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1202\"): Utility Inscriber, an electric type\\-writer, used to inscribe documents with magnetic ink\n* [IBM 1203](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1203 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1203\"): Unit Inscriber (keyoperated, print on checks, etc. with magnetic ink)\n* [IBM 1206](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1206 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1206\"): Unit Inscriber (CMC\\-7 encoder)\n* [IBM 1240](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Banking system; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1241](/wiki/IBM_1241 \"IBM 1241\"): Bank Processing Unit\n* [IBM 1260](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_1260 \"IBM document processors#IBM 1260\"): Electronic Inscriber (keyoperated for proving deposits, sorting and listing of checks)\n* [IBM 1420](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): High\\-speed Bank Transit System; 1962\n* [IBM 1450](/wiki/IBM_1400_series \"IBM 1400 series\"): Data Processing System for small banks; 1968\n* [IBM 2730](/wiki/IBM_2730 \"IBM 2730\"): Transaction validation terminal; 1971\n* [IBM 2984](/wiki/IBM_2984 \"IBM 2984\"): Cash dispensing terminal; 1972\n* [IBM 3600](/wiki/IBM_3600 \"IBM 3600\"): Finance Communication System; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3601](/wiki/IBM_3601 \"IBM 3601\"): Branch Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3602](/wiki/IBM_3602 \"IBM 3602\"): Branch Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3604](/wiki/IBM_3604 \"IBM 3604\"): Teller Terminal (Keyboard/Magnetic Swipe/Display/Optional PINpad)\n\t+ [IBM 3606](/wiki/IBM_3606 \"IBM 3606\"): Teller Terminal (Keyboard/Magnetic Swipe/Display)\n\t+ [IBM 3608](/wiki/IBM_3608 \"IBM 3608\"): Printer with Keyboard and Display\n\t+ [IBM 3609](/wiki/IBM_3609 \"IBM 3609\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3610](/wiki/IBM_3610 \"IBM 3610\"): Document Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3611](/wiki/IBM_3611 \"IBM 3611\"): Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3612](/wiki/IBM_3612 \"IBM 3612\"): Document/Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3613](/wiki/IBM_3613 \"IBM 3613\"): Journal Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3614](/wiki/IBM_3614 \"IBM 3614\"): [Automatic teller machine](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine \"Automated teller machine\") (ATM aka CTF); 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3615](/wiki/IBM_3615 \"IBM 3615\"): Administrative Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3616](/wiki/IBM_3616 \"IBM 3616\"): Journal Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3618](/wiki/IBM_3618 \"IBM 3618\"): Administrative Line Printer (155 lpm, first IBM band printer)\n\t+ [IBM 3619](/wiki/IBM_3619 \"IBM 3619\"): Line Printer ('Australian' administrative printer version)\n\t+ [IBM 3620](/wiki/IBM_3620 \"IBM 3620\"): Magnetic Stripe Reader Encoder and Journal/Document Printer\n\t+ [IBM 3621](/wiki/IBM_3621 \"IBM 3621\"): Statement Printer with Magnetic Stripe Reader and optional Keyboard/PINpad\n\t+ [IBM 3624](/wiki/IBM_3624 \"IBM 3624\"): Through\\-the\\-wall ATM; 1979\n* [IBM 3670](/wiki/IBM_3670 \"IBM 3670\"): Brokerage communications system; 1971\n* [IBM 3895](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3895 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3895\"): Deposit processing system; 1978\n* [IBM 4700](/wiki/IBM_4700 \"IBM 4700\"): Branch Banking Equipment; 1981\n\t+ [IBM 4701](/wiki/IBM_4701 \"IBM 4701\"): Branch Controller (8\" floppy disc)\n\t+ [IBM 4702](/wiki/IBM_4702 \"IBM 4702\"): Branch Controller (5¼\" HD floppy disc; hard disc)\n\t+ [IBM 4704](/wiki/IBM_4704 \"IBM 4704\"): Teller Terminal (Keyboard/Magnetic Swipe/Display/Optional PINpad)\n\t+ [IBM 4710](/wiki/IBM_4710 \"IBM 4710\"): Journal/Cutform Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4712](/wiki/IBM_4712 \"IBM 4712\"): Journal/Cutform Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4713](/wiki/IBM_4713 \"IBM 4713\"): Verification Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4715](/wiki/IBM_4715 \"IBM 4715\"): Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4720](/wiki/IBM_4720 \"IBM 4720\"): Cutform/Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4722](/wiki/IBM_4722 \"IBM 4722\"): Passbook Printer\n\t+ [IBM 4723](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_4723 \"IBM document processors#IBM 4723\"): Document Processor\n\t+ [IBM 4730](/wiki/IBM_4730 \"IBM 4730\"): Counter\\-style [Personal Banking Machine](/wiki/Automated_teller_machine \"Automated teller machine\") (PBM); 1983\n\t+ [IBM 4731](/wiki/IBM_4731 \"IBM 4731\"): In\\-lobby PBM; 1983\n\t+ [IBM 4732](/wiki/IBM_4732 \"IBM 4732\"): In\\-lobby PBM; 1987\n\t+ [IBM 4736](/wiki/IBM_4736 \"IBM 4736\"): Cash\\-only PBM\n\t+ [IBM 4737](/wiki/IBM_4737 \"IBM 4737\"): Self\\-service transaction station\n\t+ [IBM 4781](/wiki/IBM_4781 \"IBM 4781\"): Table Top ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1060](/wiki/Diebold_1060 \"Diebold 1060\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4782](/wiki/IBM_4782 \"IBM 4782\"): In\\-lobby ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1062](/wiki/Diebold_1062 \"Diebold 1062\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4783](/wiki/IBM_4783 \"IBM 4783\"): Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1064](/wiki/Diebold_1064 \"Diebold 1064\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4785](/wiki/IBM_4785 \"IBM 4785\"): Exterior ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1072](/wiki/Diebold_1072 \"Diebold 1072\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4786](/wiki/IBM_4786 \"IBM 4786\"): Exterior Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1071](/wiki/Diebold_1071 \"Diebold 1071\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4787](/wiki/IBM_4787 \"IBM 4787\"): Exterior Drive\\-up ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1073](/wiki/Diebold_1073 \"Diebold 1073\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4788](/wiki/IBM_4788 \"IBM 4788\"): Exterior Self\\-standing Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1074](/wiki/Diebold_1074 \"Diebold 1074\"))\n\t+ [IBM 4789](/wiki/IBM_4789 \"IBM 4789\"): Cash\\-only ATM; 1991 (re\\-badged [Diebold 1063](/wiki/Diebold_1063 \"Diebold 1063\"))\n\t+ [IBM 5922](/wiki/IBM_5922 \"IBM 5922\"): Low\\-speed [magnetic ink character recognition](/wiki/Magnetic_ink_character_recognition \"Magnetic ink character recognition\") (MICR) Reader\n* [IBM 5995](/wiki/IBM_5995 \"IBM 5995\"): Branch Controller\n",
"### Computer\\-aided drafting (CAD)\n\n* [IBM 7361](/wiki/IBM_7361 \"IBM 7361\"): Fastdraft System; 1982, a low\\-cost drafting system using a light pen and a CRT screen\n\t+ IBM 7361: Graphics Processor Unit\n\t+ IBM 3251: Graphics Display Station Model 2\n",
"### Word processing\n\n* [IBM MT/ST](/wiki/IBM_MT/ST \"IBM MT/ST\"): Magnetic Tape/Selectric Typewriter; 1964\n* [IBM MC/ST](/wiki/IBM_MC/ST \"IBM MC/ST\"): Magnetic Card/Selectric Typewriter (Mag Card); 1969\n* [IBM Displaywriter System](/wiki/IBM_Displaywriter_System \"IBM Displaywriter System\"); 1980\n\t+ [IBM 6360](/wiki/IBM_6360 \"IBM 6360\"): IBM Displaywriter: Diskette Unit\n\t+ [IBM 6361](/wiki/IBM_6361 \"IBM 6361\"): IBM Displaywriter: Mag Card Unit\n\t+ [IBM 6580](/wiki/IBM_Displaywriter_System \"IBM Displaywriter System\"): IBM Displaywriter: Display Station\n* [IBM Office System/6](/wiki/OS/6 \"OS/6\")\n\t+ [IBM 6/420](/wiki/IBM_6/420 \"IBM 6/420\"): stand\\-alone information processing unit; part of the Office System/6; 1978\n\t+ [IBM 6/430](/wiki/IBM_6/430 \"IBM 6/430\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1977\n\t+ [IBM 6/440](/wiki/IBM_6/440 \"IBM 6/440\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1977\n\t+ [IBM 6/442](/wiki/IBM_6/442 \"IBM 6/442\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1978\n\t+ [IBM 6/450](/wiki/IBM_6/450 \"IBM 6/450\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1977\n\t+ [IBM 6/452](/wiki/IBM_6/452 \"IBM 6/452\"): information processor; part of the Office System/6; 1978\n",
"### Other document processing\n\n* [IBM 1282](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_1282_Optical_Reader_Card_Punch \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 1282 Optical Reader Card Punch\"): Optical reader card punch IBM Sales Manual, May 79\n* [IBM 3740](/wiki/IBM_3740 \"IBM 3740\"): Data entry system; 1973\n\t+ IBM 3741: Data Station Models 1 and 2, Programmable Work Stations Models 3 and 4\n\t+ IBM 3742: Dual Data Station\n\t+ IBM 3713: Printer\n\t+ IBM 3715: Printer\n\t+ IBM 3717: Printer\n\t+ IBM 3747: Data Converter\n* [IBM 3694](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3694 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3694\"): Document Processor; 1980\n* [IBM 3881](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3881_Optical_Mark_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3881 Optical Mark Reader\"): Optical Mark Reader; 1972\n* [IBM 3886](/wiki/IBM_optical_mark_and_character_readers%23IBM_3886_Optical_Character_Reader \"IBM optical mark and character readers#IBM 3886 Optical Character Reader\"): Optical Character Reader; 1972\n* [IBM 3890](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3890 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3890\"): Document Processor; 1973\n* [IBM 3891](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3891 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3891\"): Document Processor; 1989\n* [IBM 3892](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3892 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3892\"): Document Processor; 1987\n* [IBM 3895](/wiki/IBM_document_processors%23IBM_3895 \"IBM document processors#IBM 3895\"): Document Reader/Inscriber; 1977\n* [IBM 5321](/wiki/IBM_5321 \"IBM 5321\"): Mag Card Unit for System/32; 1976\n* [IBM 6640](/wiki/IBM_6640 \"IBM 6640\"): Document printer; 1976; in 1977 reassigned being part of the [Office System/6](/wiki/IBM_OS/6 \"IBM OS/6\")\n* IBM 9370: Document reproducer; 1966\n",
"### Educational\n\n* [IBM 1500](/wiki/IBM_1500 \"IBM 1500\"): Computer\\-assisted instruction system; 1966\n\t+ IBM 1510: Display Console\n\t+ IBM 1512: Image Projector\n",
"### Government: avionics, computation, command and control, and space systems\n\n* [IBM Relay Calculator](/wiki/IBM_Relay_Calculator \"IBM Relay Calculator\"): aka The IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator (Aberdeen Machine), 1944\n* [IBM NORC](/wiki/IBM_Naval_Ordnance_Research_Calculator \"IBM Naval Ordnance Research Calculator\"): Naval Ordnance Research Calculator; 1954\n* [AN/FSQ\\-7](/wiki/AN/FSQ-7_Combat_Direction_Central \"AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central\"): computer for the [Semi\\-Automatic Ground Environment](/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment \"Semi-Automatic Ground Environment\"); 1959 (IBM had the manufacturing contract.)\n\t+ [IBM 728](/wiki/IBM_728 \"IBM 728\"): Magnetic Tape Reader/Recorder (7 Track—6 data bits \\& 1 synchronization bit; 248 characters/inch)\n* [AN/FSQ\\-8 Combat Control Central](/wiki/AN/FSQ-8_Combat_Control_Central \"AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central\"): variant of the AN/FSQ\\-7\n* [AN/FSQ\\-31V](/wiki/IBM_AN/FSQ-31_SAC_Data_Processing_System \"IBM AN/FSQ-31 SAC Data Processing System\"): [US Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") Command and Control Data Processing Element for [SACCS](/wiki/Strategic_Automated_Command_and_Control_System \"Strategic Automated Command and Control System\"); 1959–1960\n\t+ [IBM 4020](/wiki/IBM_4020_Military_Computer \"IBM 4020 Military Computer\"): IBM id for the [AN/FSQ\\-31V](/wiki/AN/FSQ-31V \"AN/FSQ-31V\")\n* [AN/FSQ\\-32](/wiki/AN/FSQ-32 \"AN/FSQ-32\"): SAGE Solid State Computer\n* [IBM 2361](/wiki/IBM_2361 \"IBM 2361\"): [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s [Manned Spacecraft Center](/wiki/Johnson_Space_Center \"Johnson Space Center\") IBM 7094 II Core Storage Unit (524288—36\\-bit words); 1964\n* [ASC\\-15 Titan II Guidance Computer](/wiki/ASC-15 \"ASC-15\")\n* [Gemini Guidance Computer](/wiki/Project_Gemini \"Project Gemini\")\n* [Saturn Guidance Computer](/wiki/Saturn_Launch_Vehicle_Digital_Computer \"Saturn Launch Vehicle Digital Computer\")\n* [Saturn instrument unit](/wiki/Saturn_V_Instrument_Unit \"Saturn V Instrument Unit\")\n* [IBM System/4 Pi](/wiki/IBM_System/4_Pi \"IBM System/4 Pi\"): avionics computers; military and NASA; 1967\n\t+ [Skylab Onboard Computers](/wiki/IBM_System/4_Pi \"IBM System/4 Pi\")\n\t+ [Space Shuttle General Purpose Computer](/wiki/IBM_System/4_Pi \"IBM System/4 Pi\")\n\t+ [AN/ASQ\\-155](/wiki/Grumman_A-6_Intruder \"Grumman A-6 Intruder\") computer\n* [IBM RAD6000](/wiki/IBM_RAD6000 \"IBM RAD6000\"): Radiation\\-hardened single board computer, based on the IBM RISC Single Chip CPU\n* [ASCI White](/wiki/ASCI_White \"ASCI White\") Supercomputer: Built as stage three of the [Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative](/wiki/Advanced_Simulation_and_Computing_Program \"Advanced Simulation and Computing Program\") (ASCI) started by the U.S. [Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\") and the [National Nuclear Security Administration](/wiki/National_Nuclear_Security_Administration \"National Nuclear Security Administration\")\n* [IBM 7950](/wiki/IBM_7950 \"IBM 7950\"): [Cryptanalytic computer](/wiki/Cryptanalytic_computer \"Cryptanalytic computer\") using 7030 as CPU; 1962 (*Harvest*)\n\t+ [IBM 7951](/wiki/IBM_7951 \"IBM 7951\"): IBM 7950 Stream coprocessor\n\t+ [IBM 7952](/wiki/IBM_7952 \"IBM 7952\"): IBM 7950 High performance core storage (1024—72\\-bit words: 64 data bits \\& 8 ECC bits)\n\t+ [IBM 7955](/wiki/IBM_7955 \"IBM 7955\"): IBM 7950 **Tractor** Magnetic tape system (22 Track—16 data bits \\& 6 [ECC](/wiki/Error_correction_code \"Error correction code\") bits; 2,400 words/inch)\n\t+ [IBM 7959](/wiki/IBM_7959 \"IBM 7959\"): IBM 7950 High\\-speed I/O exchange\n* [IBM 9020](/wiki/IBM_9020 \"IBM 9020\"): for [FAA](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration \"Federal Aviation Administration\") and one system for the UK [CAA](/wiki/UK_CAA \"UK CAA\").\n\t+ [IBM 7201](/wiki/IBM_7201 \"IBM 7201\"): enhanced 2065 (S/360\\-65\\) used as a Computing Element (CE) in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7231](/wiki/IBM_7231 \"IBM 7231\"): enhanced 2050 (S/360\\-50\\) used as an Input Output Control Element (IOCE) in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7251](/wiki/IBM_7251 \"IBM 7251\"): 512KiB (byte \\= 8 bits \\+ P) core Storage Element (SE) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7289\\-02](/wiki/IBM_7289-02 \"IBM 7289-02\"): Peripheral Adapter Module (PAM) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7289\\-04](/wiki/IBM_7289-04 \"IBM 7289-04\"): Display Element (DE) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7262](/wiki/IBM_7262 \"IBM 7262\"): System Console (SC) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n\t+ [IBM 7265](/wiki/IBM_7265 \"IBM 7265\"): Configuration Console (CC) used in the IBM 9020 complex\n",
"### Industry and manufacturing\n\n* [IBM 357](/wiki/IBM_357 \"IBM 357\"): Data Collection system; 1959\n\t+ IBM 013: Badge Punch\n\t+ IBM 024/026: Card Punch (81 col)\n\t+ IBM 357: Input Station (Badge and/or serial card reader)\n\t+ IBM 358: Input Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 360: Clock Read\\-Out Control\n\t+ IBM 361: Read\\-Out Clock\n\t+ IBM 372: Manual Entry\n\t+ IBM 373: Punch Switch\n\t+ IBM 374: Cartridge Reader\n* [IBM 1001](/wiki/IBM_1001 \"IBM 1001\"): Data transmission system; 1960\n* [IBM 1030](/wiki/IBM_1030 \"IBM 1030\"): Data Collection system; 1963\n\t+ IBM 1031: Input Station.\n\t+ IBM 1032: Digital Time Unit.\n\t+ IBM 1033: Printer.\n\t+ IBM 1034: Card Punch\n\t+ IBM 1035: Badge Reader\n* [IBM 1050](/wiki/IBM_1050 \"IBM 1050\"): Data Communications System; 1963\n\t+ [IBM 1026](/wiki/IBM_1026 \"IBM 1026\"): Transmission Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1051: Central Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1052: Printer\\-Keyboard, based on [Selectric](/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter \"IBM Selectric typewriter\") mechanism\n\t+ IBM 1053: Console Printer, based on Selectric mechanism\n\t+ IBM 1054: Paper Tape Reader\n\t+ IBM 1055: Paper Tape Punch\n\t+ IBM 1057: Punched Card Output\n\t+ [IBM 1058](/wiki/IBM_1058 \"IBM 1058\"): Printing Card Punch Output\n\t+ [IBM 1092](/wiki/IBM_1092 \"IBM 1092\"): Programmed Keyboard (keyboard storage for input to 1050\\)\n\t+ [IBM 1093](/wiki/IBM_1093 \"IBM 1093\"): Programmed Keyboard (used in tandem with 1092 for transmission to 24/26 or 7770\\)\n* [IBM 1060](/wiki/IBM_1060 \"IBM 1060\"): Data Communications System\n\t+ [IBM 1026](/wiki/IBM_1026 \"IBM 1026\"): Transmission Control Unit\n* [IBM 1070](/wiki/IBM_1070 \"IBM 1070\"): Process Communication System; 1964\n\t+ IBM 1026: IBM 1030/1050/1060/1070 Transmission Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1071: Terminal Control Unit\n\t+ IBM 1072: Terminal Multiplexer\n\t+ IBM 1073: Latching Contact Operate Model 1\n\t+ IBM 1073: Counter Terminal Model 2\n\t+ IBM 1073: Digital\\-Pulse Converter Model 3\n\t+ IBM 1074: Binary Display\n\t+ IBM 1075: Decimal Display\n\t+ IBM 1076: Manual Binary Input\n\t+ IBM 1077: Manual Decimal Input\n\t+ IBM 1078: Pulse Counter\n* [IBM 1080](/wiki/IBM_1080 \"IBM 1080\"): Data Acquisition System\n\t+ [IBM 1081](/wiki/IBM_1081 \"IBM 1081\"): DAS Control...for analytical applications\n\t+ [IBM 1082](/wiki/IBM_1082 \"IBM 1082\"): Punched Card Input\n\t+ [IBM 1083](/wiki/IBM_1083 \"IBM 1083\"): Remote Control (provides Operator Scan Request)\n\t+ [IBM 1084](/wiki/IBM_1084 \"IBM 1084\"): Sampler Reader (Technicon Sampler 40\\)\n\t+ [IBM 1055](/wiki/IBM_1055 \"IBM 1055\"): Paper Tape Punch\n\t+ [IBM 1057](/wiki/IBM_1057 \"IBM 1057\"): Punched Card Output\n\t+ [IBM 1058](/wiki/IBM_1058 \"IBM 1058\"): Printing Card Punch Output\n* [IBM 1710](/wiki/IBM_1710 \"IBM 1710\"): Control system based on [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"); 1961\n\t+ [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"): IBM 1710 Central Processing Unit\n\t+ [IBM 1711](/wiki/IBM_1711 \"IBM 1711\"): IBM 1710 Data Converter (A/D)\n\t+ [IBM 1712](/wiki/IBM_1712 \"IBM 1712\"): IBM 1710 Multiplexer and Terminal Unit\n* [IBM 1720](/wiki/IBM_1720 \"IBM 1720\"): Control system based on [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\"); 1961\n* [IBM 1800](/wiki/IBM_1800_Data_Acquisition_and_Control_System \"IBM 1800 Data Acquisition and Control System\"): Process control variant of the [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\"); 1964\n* [IBM 2790](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Data Communications System; 1969\n\t+ [IBM 2715](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Transmission controller\n\t+ [IBM 2791](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Area Station\n\t+ [IBM 2793](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Area Station\n\t+ [IBM 2795:](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\") Data Entry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 2796](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Data Entry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 2797](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Data Entry Unit\n\t+ [IBM 2798](/wiki/IBM_2790 \"IBM 2790\"): Guided Display Unit\n* [IBM 3630](/wiki/IBM_3630 \"IBM 3630\"): Plant Communications System; 1978\n* [IBM 3730](/wiki/IBM_3790%23IBM_3730 \"IBM 3790#IBM 3730\"): Distributed office communication system; 1978\n* [IBM Series/1](/wiki/IBM_Series/1 \"IBM Series/1\"): brand name for process control computers; 1976\n\t+ [IBM 4953](/wiki/IBM_4953 \"IBM 4953\"): [Series/1](/wiki/Series/1 \"Series/1\") processor model 3; 1976\n\t+ [IBM 4954](/wiki/IBM_4954 \"IBM 4954\"): Series/1 processor model 4\n\t+ [IBM 4955](/wiki/IBM_4955 \"IBM 4955\"): Series/1 processor model 5; 1976\n\t+ [IBM 4956](/wiki/IBM_4956 \"IBM 4956\"): Series/1 processor model 6\n\t+ [IBM 4982](/wiki/IBM_4982 \"IBM 4982\"): Sensor I/O unit\n* [IBM 5010](/wiki/IBM_5010 \"IBM 5010\"): [System/7](/wiki/System/7 \"System/7\") processor; industrial control; 1970\n\t+ [IBM 5012](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): Multifunction Module\n\t+ [IBM 5013:](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\") Digital Input/Output Module\n\t+ IBM 5014: Analog Input Module\n\t+ [IBM 5022](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): Disk Storage Unit\n\t+ [IBM 5025](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\") Enclosure\n\t+ [IBM 5028](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): Operator Station\n\t+ [IBM 5010E](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): [System/7](/wiki/System/7 \"System/7\") Maritime Application/Bridge System; 1974\n\t\t- [IBM 5090](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): N01 Radar Navigation Interface Module\n\t\t- [IBM 5090](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): N02 Bridge Console\n\t\t- [IBM 5026](/wiki/IBM_System/7 \"IBM System/7\"): C03 Enclosure (vibration hardened)\n* [IBM 5230](/wiki/IBM_5230 \"IBM 5230\"): Data Collection system;\n\t+ [IBM 5231:](/wiki/c:File:IBM_5231_Data_Collection_System_Controller_Model_I.jpg \"File:IBM 5231 Data Collection System Controller Model I.jpg\") Controller Models 1,2, and 3\n\t+ [IBM 5234](/wiki/IBM_5234 \"IBM 5234\"): Time Entry Station Models 1 and 2\n\t+ [IBM 5235](/wiki/IBM_5235 \"IBM 5235\"): Data Entry Station\n\t+ [IBM 5230](/wiki/IBM_5230 \"IBM 5230\"): Data Collection System Accessory Package\n* [IBM 5275](/wiki/IBM_5275 \"IBM 5275\"): Direct Numerical Control Station; 1973\n* [IBM 5531](/wiki/IBM_5531 \"IBM 5531\"): Industrial computer for plant environments; 1984\n* [IBM 5937](/wiki/IBM_5937 \"IBM 5937\"): Industrial Terminal; 1976\n* [IBM 7531](/wiki/IBM_7531 \"IBM 7531\"): [Industrial computer](/wiki/Industrial_computer \"Industrial computer\"); 1985\n* [IBM 7532](/wiki/IBM_7532 \"IBM 7532\"): Industrial computer; 1985\n* [IBM 7535](/wiki/IBM_7535 \"IBM 7535\"): Industrial robotic system; 1982\n* [IBM 7552](/wiki/IBM_7552 \"IBM 7552\"): Industrial computer; 1986\n* [IBM 7565](/wiki/IBM_7565 \"IBM 7565\"): Industrial robotic system; 1982\n* [IBM 7700](/wiki/IBM_7700_Data_Acquisition_System \"IBM 7700 Data Acquisition System\"): Data Acquisition System, not marketed; 1964\n* [IBM 9003](/wiki/IBM_9003 \"IBM 9003\"): Industrial computer; 1985\n",
"### Medical/science/lab equipment\n\n* [IBM 2991](/wiki/IBM_2991 \"IBM 2991\"): Blood cell separator; 1972; model 2 1976\n* [IBM 2997](/wiki/IBM_2997 \"IBM 2997\"): Blood cell separator; 1977\n* [IBM 5880](/wiki/IBM_5880 \"IBM 5880\"): Electrocardiograph system; 1978\n* [IBM 9630](/wiki/IBM_9630 \"IBM 9630\"): Gas chromograph; 1985\n",
"### Research/advertising (not product) machines\n\n* [IBM Columbia Difference Tabulator](/wiki/IBM_Columbia_Difference_Tabulator \"IBM Columbia Difference Tabulator\"): 1931\n* [IBM ASCC](/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I \"Harvard Mark I\"): Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (aka. Harvard Mark I); 1944\n* [IBM SSEC](/wiki/IBM_SSEC \"IBM SSEC\"): Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator; 1948\n* [IBM Deep Blue](/wiki/IBM_Deep_Blue \"IBM Deep Blue\"): Chess playing computer developed for 1997 match with [Garry Kasparov](/wiki/Garry_Kasparov \"Garry Kasparov\")\n* [IBM Watson](/wiki/IBM_Watson \"IBM Watson\"): An [artificially intelligent](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") computer system capable of answering questions posed in [natural language](/wiki/Natural_language \"Natural language\"), specifically developed to answer questions on the [quiz show](/wiki/Quiz_show \"Quiz show\") *[Jeopardy!](/wiki/Jeopardy%21 \"Jeopardy!\")*.\n",
"### Retail/point\\-of\\-sale (POS)\n\n* [IBM 3650](/wiki/IBM_3650 \"IBM 3650\"): Retail Store System; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3651](/wiki/IBM_3651 \"IBM 3651\"): Store Controller Model A50 or B50\n\t+ [IBM 3653](/wiki/IBM_3653 \"IBM 3653\"): Point of Sale Terminal\n\t+ [IBM 3657](/wiki/IBM_3657 \"IBM 3657\"): Ticket Unit\n\t+ [IBM 3659](/wiki/IBM_3659 \"IBM 3659\"): Remote Communications Unit\n\t+ [IBM 3784](/wiki/IBM_3784 \"IBM 3784\"): Line Printer\n* [IBM 3660](/wiki/IBM_3660 \"IBM 3660\"): Supermarket System; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3651](/wiki/IBM_3651 \"IBM 3651\"): Store Controller Model A60 or B60\n\t+ [IBM 3661](/wiki/IBM_3661 \"IBM 3661\"): Store Controller\n\t+ [IBM 3663](/wiki/IBM_3663 \"IBM 3663\"): Supermarket Terminal ; 1973\n\t+ [IBM 3666](/wiki/IBM_3666 \"IBM 3666\") Checkout Scanner\n\t+ [IBM 3669](/wiki/IBM_3669 \"IBM 3669\"): Store Communications Unit\n* [IBM 4610](/wiki/IBM_4610 \"IBM 4610\"): SureMark Retail Printer\n* [IBM 4683](/wiki/IBM_4683 \"IBM 4683\"): PC Based Retail System; 1987\n* [IBM 4693](/wiki/IBM_4693 \"IBM 4693\"): PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM 4694](/wiki/IBM_4694 \"IBM 4694\"): PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SurePOS 300](/wiki/IBM_SurePOS_300 \"IBM SurePOS 300\"): Cost effective PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SurePOS 500](/wiki/IBM_SurePOS_500 \"IBM SurePOS 500\"): All in one PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SurePOS 700](/wiki/IBM_SurePOS_700 \"IBM SurePOS 700\"): High performance PC Based Retail System\n* [IBM SureOne](/wiki/IBM_SureOne \"IBM SureOne\"): PC Based Retail System\n* [AnyPlace POS](/wiki/AnyPlace_POS \"AnyPlace POS\"): Customer touch screen kiosk\n* BART (Bay Area Rapid Transport) fare collection machines; 1972\n",
"### Telecommunications\n\n* International Time Recording Co. Series 970: Telephone System (1930s)\n* SAIS (Semi\\-Automatic Intercept System): Added automated custom [intercept messages](/wiki/Intercept_message \"Intercept message\") to the [Bell System](/wiki/Bell_System \"Bell System\")'s operator\\-based centralized intercept system, using a computer\\-controlled [magnetic drum](/wiki/Drum_memory \"Drum memory\") audio playback medium. Late 1960s.\n* [IBM 1750](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Switching System\n* [IBM 1755](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Operator station\n* [IBM 2750](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Switching System\n* [IBM 3750](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Switching System\n* [IBM 3755](/wiki/IBM_1750%2C_2750_and_3750_Switching_Systems \"IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems\"): Operator Desk\n* [IBM 8750](/wiki/IBM_8750_Business_Communication_System \"IBM 8750 Business Communication System\"): Business Communications System (ROLM)\n* [IBM 9750](/wiki/ROLM \"ROLM\"): Business Communications System (ROLM)\n* [IBM 9751](/wiki/ROLM \"ROLM\"): CBX: Main component of 9750 system\n* [IBM Simon](/wiki/IBM_Simon \"IBM Simon\"): Smartphone; 1994\n",
"### Unclassified\n\n* [IBM TouchMobile](/wiki/IBM_TouchMobile \"IBM TouchMobile\") a hand\\-held computer announced in 1993\n",
"Computer software\n-----------------\n\nSome software listings are for software families, not products (*Fortran* was not a product; *Fortran H* was a product).\n\nSome IBM software products were distributed free (no charge for the software itself, a common practice early in the industry). The term \"[Program Product](/wiki/Software_as_a_Product \"Software as a Product\")\" was used by IBM to denote that the software is generally availableUnlike a [PRPQ](/wiki/Request_price_quotation \"Request price quotation\"). at an additional charge. Prior to June 1969, the majority of software packages written by IBM were available at no charge to IBM customers; with the June 1969 announcement, new software not designated as \"System Control Programming\" became Program Products, although existing non\\-system software remained available for free.\n\n### Operating systems\n\n* [AIX](/wiki/IBM_AIX \"IBM AIX\"), IBM's family of proprietary UNIX OS's (Advanced Interactive eXecutive) on multiple platforms\n* BPS/360 [(Basic Programming Support/360\\)](/wiki/IBM_Basic_Programming_Support \"IBM Basic Programming Support\")\n* [BOS/360](/wiki/BOS/360 \"BOS/360\") (Basic Operating System/360\\)\n* [TOS/360](/wiki/TOS/360 \"TOS/360\") (Tape Operating System/360\\)\n* DM2, Disk Monitor System Version 2 for the [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\")\n* [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 \"DOS/360\") ([Disk Operating System](/wiki/Disk_operating_system \"Disk operating system\")/360\\)\n* [DOS/VS](/wiki/DOS/VS \"DOS/VS\") (Disk Operating System/Virtual Storage—370\\), virtual memory successor to DOS/360\n\t+ [DOS/VSE](/wiki/DOS/VSE \"DOS/VSE\") (Virtual Storage Extended—370, 4300\\)\n\t+ VSE/AF (VSE/Advanced Functions) enhancements to DOS/VSE\n\t+ [VSE/SP](/wiki/VSE/SP \"VSE/SP\") (VSE/System Package), integrates DOS/VSE, VSE/AF and other products, replaces SSX/VSE\n\t+ [VSE/ESA](/wiki/VSE/ESA \"VSE/ESA\") (Virtual Storage Extended/Enterprise System Architecture), replaces VSE/SP\n\t+ [z/VSE](/wiki/Z/VSE \"Z/VSE\") for [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\")\n* [DPCX](/wiki/DPCX \"DPCX\") (Distributed Processing Control eXecutive) for [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\")\n* [DPPX](/wiki/IBM_DPPX \"IBM DPPX\") (Distributed Processing Programming eXecutive) for [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\") and, later, the [ES/9370](/wiki/ES/9370 \"ES/9370\")\n* CPF (Control Program Facility) for the [System/38](/wiki/System/38 \"System/38\")\n* [IBM i](/wiki/IBM_i \"IBM i\"), previously i5/OS and OS/400, successor to CPF for [AS/400](/wiki/AS/400 \"AS/400\"), [IBM Power Systems](/wiki/IBM_Power_Systems \"IBM Power Systems\"), and [PureSystems](/wiki/PureSystems \"PureSystems\")\n* [IBSYS](/wiki/IBSYS \"IBSYS\")/IBJOB ([IBM 7090](/wiki/IBM_7090 \"IBM 7090\")/[94](/wiki/IBM_7094 \"IBM 7094\") operating system)\n* IX/370 An IBM proprietary UNIX OS (Interactive eXecutive for [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"))\n* Model 44 Programming System for the [System/360 Model 44](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_44 \"IBM System/360 Model 44\")\n* [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\") (Operating System/360 for [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\"))\n\t+ [PCP](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23PCP \"OS/360 and successors#PCP\") (Primary Control Program option)\n\t+ [MFT](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23MFT \"OS/360 and successors#MFT\") (Multiprogramming with a Fixed number of Tasks option)\n\t+ [MVT](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23MVT \"OS/360 and successors#MVT\") (Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks option)\n\t\t- [M65MP](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23M65MP \"OS/360 and successors#M65MP\") (Model 65 Multiprocessor option)\n* [OS/VS1](/wiki/OS/VS1 \"OS/VS1\") (Operating System—Virtual Storage 1\\) for [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"), virtual memory successor to MFT\n* OS/VS2 (Operating System—Virtual Storage 2\\) for IBM System/370, virtual memory successor to MVT\n\t+ [SVS](/wiki/OS/VS2_%28SVS%29 \"OS/VS2 (SVS)\"): Release 1 (Single Virtual Storage)\n\t+ [MVS](/wiki/MVS \"MVS\"): Release 2–3\\.8 (Multiple Virtual address Spaces)\n\t\t- [MVS/370](/wiki/MVS%23MVS/370 \"MVS#MVS/370\") (OS/VS2 2\\.0\\-3\\.8, MVS/SE, MVS/SP V1\\)\n\t\t\t* MVS/SE: MVS System Extensions\n\t\t\t\t+ Release 1: based on OS/VS2 R3\\.7 plus selectable units\n\t\t\t\t+ Release 2: based on OS/VS2 R3\\.8 plus selectable units\n\t\t\t* MVS/SP V1: MVS/System Product, replacement for MVS/SE\n\t\t- [MVS/XA](/wiki/MVS%23MVS/XA \"MVS#MVS/XA\") (Multiple Virtual Systems—Extended Architecture): MVS/SP V2\n\t\t- [MVS/ESA](/wiki/MVS%23MVS/ESA \"MVS#MVS/ESA\") (Multiple Virtual Systems—Enterprise Systems Architecture)\n\t\t\t* MVS/SP V3\n\t\t\t* MVS/ESA SP V4\n\t\t\t* MVS/ESA SP V5\n* [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 \"OS/390\"), successor to MVS/ESA for [IBM System/390](/wiki/IBM_System/390 \"IBM System/390\")\n* [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS \"Z/OS\"), successor to OS/390 for [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\") and, up through Version 1\\.5, System/390\n* [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 \"OS/2\") (Operating System/2\\) for the IBM [PS/2](/wiki/PS/2 \"PS/2\") and other x86 systems\n* [PC DOS](/wiki/PC_DOS \"PC DOS\") ([Personal Computer](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\") Disk Operating System)\n* [System Support Program](/wiki/System_Support_Program \"System Support Program\") for System/34, System/36\n* [Transaction Processing Facility](/wiki/Transaction_Processing_Facility \"Transaction Processing Facility\") (TPF), formerly [IBM Airline Control Program](/wiki/IBM_Airline_Control_Program \"IBM Airline Control Program\") (ACP)\n* [z/TPF](/wiki/Z/TPF \"Z/TPF\"), successor to TPF\n* [TSS/360](/wiki/TSS/360 \"TSS/360\") (Time Sharing System, a failed predecessor to VM/CMS, intended for the [IBM System/360 Model 67](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_67 \"IBM System/360 Model 67\"))\n* [CP\\-67](/wiki/CP-67 \"CP-67\") May refer to either a package for the [360/67](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_67 \"IBM System/360 Model 67\") or only to the Control program of that package.\n* [CP/CMS](/wiki/CP/CMS \"CP/CMS\") Another name for the CP\\-67 package for the 360/67; predecessor to VM.\n* [VM](/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29 \"VM (operating system)\"), sometimes called VM/CMS (Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System) Successor systems to [CP\\-67](/wiki/CP-67 \"CP-67\") for the S/370 and later machines. First appeared as Virtual Machine Facility/370 and most recently as [z/VM](/wiki/Z/VM \"Z/VM\").\n\t+ VM/SE Virtual Machine/System Extension, also known as System Extension Program Product (SEPP). An enhancement to Virtual Machine Facility/370, replaced by VM/SP.\n\t+ VM/BSE Virtual Machine/Basic System Extension, also known as Basic System Extension Program Product (BSEPP). An enhancement to Virtual Machine Facility/370, providing some of the facilities of VM/se, replaced by VM/SP.\n\t+ VM/SP Virtual Machine/System Product, replacing VM/SE and the base for all future VM versions.\n\t+ VM/XA Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture 31\\-bit VM\n\t\t- VM/XA MF (Virtual machine/Extended architecture Migration Aid)\n\t\t- VM/XA SF (Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture Systems Facility), successor to VM/XA SF\n\t\t- VM/XA SP (Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture Systems Product), successor to VM/XA SF\n\t+ [VM/ESA](/wiki/VM/ESA \"VM/ESA\") (Virtual Machine/Enterprise System Architecture), successor to VM/XA\n\t+ [z/VM](/wiki/Z/VM \"Z/VM\"), successor to VM/ESA\n* [4690 OS](/wiki/4690_OS \"4690 OS\") (retail)\n\n### Utilities and languages\n\n* [A20 handler](/wiki/A20_handler \"A20 handler\") for the PC (address line 20 handler)\n* [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\")\n* [ALGOL 60](/wiki/ALGOL_60 \"ALGOL 60\")\n\t+ ALGOL F compiler for [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\")\n* [APL](/wiki/APL_%28programming_language%29 \"APL (programming language)\")\n\t+ [IBM APL implementations](/wiki/APL_%28programming_language%29%23Commercial_availability \"APL (programming language)#Commercial availability\")\n\t+ [IBM APL2 implementations](/wiki/APL_%28programming_language%29%23APL2 \"APL (programming language)#APL2\")\n* [Autocoder](/wiki/Autocoder \"Autocoder\") macro assemblers for various machines, with nothing in common but the name\n* [COBOL](/wiki/COBOL \"COBOL\")\n\t+ [IBM COBOL](/wiki/IBM_COBOL \"IBM COBOL\") compilers\n* IBM Compilers (formerly [VisualAge](/wiki/VisualAge \"VisualAge\") compilers (C/C\\+\\+, Fortran, Java, et al.))\n* [CSP](/wiki/IBM_Cross_System_Product_%28CSP%29 \"IBM Cross System Product (CSP)\") (Cross System Product)\n* [Eclipse](/wiki/Eclipse_%28software%29 \"Eclipse (software)\") an IDE\n* [EGL](/wiki/Enterprise_Generation_Language \"Enterprise Generation Language\") (Enterprise Generation Language)\n* [FARGO](/wiki/FARGO_%28programming_language%29 \"FARGO (programming language)\") (Fourteen\\-o\\-one Automatic Report Generation Operation). Predecessor of [RPG](/wiki/RPG_programming_language \"RPG programming language\") for the [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\")\n* [FAP](/wiki/FORTRAN_Assembly_Program \"FORTRAN Assembly Program\") assembler for the IBM 709, 7090, and 7094 (FORTRAN Assembly Program)\n* [FORTRAN](/wiki/Fortran%23History \"Fortran#History\") (originally developed by IBM for the 704\\) (FORmula TRANslator)\n* [Generalized Markup Language](/wiki/IBM_Generalized_Markup_Language \"IBM Generalized Markup Language\") A [document markup language](/wiki/Markup_language \"Markup language\"), part of Document Composition Facility (DCF)\n* [IBM Information Access](/wiki/IBM_Information_Access \"IBM Information Access\") Gave customers access to the Retain and PTF databases, circa 1981\n* [ISPF](/wiki/ISPF \"ISPF\") Interactive System Productivity Facility. An IDE for MVS and z/OS systems\n* [JCL](/wiki/Job_Control_Language \"Job Control Language\") batch job language for [OS/360 and successors](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\")\n* [JES1](/wiki/Job_Entry_Subsystem_1_%28JES1%29 \"Job Entry Subsystem 1 (JES1)\"), [JES2 and JES3](/wiki/Job_Entry_Subsystem_2/3 \"Job Entry Subsystem 2/3\"), job entry and [spooling](/wiki/Spooling \"Spooling\") subsystems\n* MAP (Macro Assembly Program in the IBJOB component of [IBSYS](/wiki/IBM_7090/94_IBSYS \"IBM 7090/94 IBSYS\"))\n* [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\")\n* [PL/I](/wiki/PL/I \"PL/I\") (Programming Language/One)\n\t+ [PL/I F compiler for OS/360 and PL/I D compiler for DOS/360](/wiki/PL/I%23IBM_PL/I_F_and_D_compilers \"PL/I#IBM PL/I F and D compilers\")\n\t+ [PL/I Optimizing Compiler and PL/I Checkout Compiler](/wiki/PL/I%23IBM_PL/I_optimizing_and_checkout_compilers \"PL/I#IBM PL/I optimizing and checkout compilers\")\n\t+ IBM Enterprise PL/I\n\t+ [IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, and z/OS](/wiki/PL/I%23IBM_PL/I_for_OS/2%2C_AIX%2C_Linux%2C_z/OS \"PL/I#IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS\")\n* [PL/S](/wiki/IBM_PL/S \"IBM PL/S\") (Programming Language/Systems), originally named BSL (Basic Systems Language), later PL/AS, PL/X\n* [POWER](/wiki/IBM_POWER_%28software%29 \"IBM POWER (software)\") spooler for [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 \"DOS/360\") and successors (Program Output Writers and Execution Readers)\n* [REXX](/wiki/REXX \"REXX\") scripting language (REstructured eXtended eXecutor)\n* [RPG](/wiki/IBM_RPG \"IBM RPG\") (Report Program Generator)\n\t+ RPG for IBM 1401 and System/360\n\t+ [RPG II](/wiki/RPG_II \"RPG II\") for [System/3](/wiki/System/3 \"System/3\"), [System/32](/wiki/System/32 \"System/32\"), [System/34](/wiki/System/34 \"System/34\"), [System/36](/wiki/System/36 \"System/36\"), and [System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\")\n\t+ [RPG III](/wiki/RPG_III \"RPG III\") for [System/38](/wiki/System/38 \"System/38\"), its successor [AS/400](/wiki/AS/400 \"AS/400\"), and System/370\n\t+ RPG IV for RISC AS/400 and other machines running [IBM i](/wiki/IBM_i \"IBM i\")\n* SOAP ([Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program](/wiki/Symbolic_Optimal_Assembly_Program \"Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program\") for [IBM 650](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"))\n* [Script](/wiki/SCRIPT_%28markup%29 \"SCRIPT (markup)\") A [document markup language](/wiki/Markup_language \"Markup language\")\n\t+ SCRIPT component of [CP/CMS](/wiki/CP/CMS \"CP/CMS\")\n\t+ SCRIPT/370\n\t+ SCRIPT/VS Component of Document Composition Facility (DCF)\n\t+ SCRIPT/PC A subset of SCRIPT running under [PC DOS](/wiki/IBM_PC_DOS \"IBM PC DOS\")\n* SPS ([Symbolic Programming System](/wiki/Symbolic_Programming_System \"Symbolic Programming System\")). An assembler1401 SPS and 1620 SPS were incompatible for [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\") or [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\") systems, less capable than Autocoder\n* VFU (Vocabulary File Utility) for IBM 7772\n* [XEDIT](/wiki/XEDIT \"XEDIT\") an editor for VM/CMS systems\n\n### Middleware and applications\n\nIBM distributes its diverse collection of software products over several brands; mainly:\n1. IBM's own branding for many software products originally developed in\\-house;\n2. Lotus: collaboration and communication;\n3. Rational: software development and maintenance;\n4. Tivoli: management, operations, and Cloud; \n5. WebSphere: Internet. \n6. Watson Main article: [IBM Watson](/wiki/Watson_%28computer%29 \"Watson (computer)\")\n7. Watsonx Main article: [IBM Watsonx](/wiki/IBM_Watsonx \"IBM Watsonx\")\n\n* [9PAC](/wiki/IBM_709/90_9PAC \"IBM 709/90 9PAC\") Report generator for the IBM 7090 (709 PACkage)\n* [IBM Administrative Terminal System](/wiki/IBM_Administrative_Terminal_System \"IBM Administrative Terminal System\") (ATS) Online Text Entry, Editing, Processing, Storage and Retrieval\n* [IBM Advanced Text Management System](/wiki/IBM_Advanced_Text_Management_System \"IBM Advanced Text Management System\") (ATMS) A CICS\\-based successor to ATS, ATMS served as the text entry system for STorage And Retrieval System ([STAIRS](/wiki/IBM_STAIRS \"IBM STAIRS\"))\n* [IBM Assistant Series](/wiki/IBM_Assistant_Series \"IBM Assistant Series\") (Filing Assistant, Reporting Assistant, Graphing Assistant, Writing Assistant and Planning Assistant)\n* [IBM Audio Distribution System](/wiki/IBM_Audio_Distribution_System \"IBM Audio Distribution System\")\n* [IBM BS12](/wiki/IBM_BS12 \"IBM BS12\") (IBM Business System 12\\)\n* [IBM CICS](/wiki/CICS \"CICS\") (Customer Information Control System)\n* IBM [CICS Transaction Gateway](/wiki/CICS_Transaction_Gateway \"CICS Transaction Gateway\")\n* IBM CICS Web interpreter, [IBM OD390](/wiki/IBM_OD390 \"IBM OD390\")\n* [IBM Cloudscape](/wiki/Apache_Derby \"Apache Derby\") Pure Java Database Server. Now open source [Apache Derby](/wiki/Apache_Derby \"Apache Derby\")\n* [IBM Cognos Business Intelligence](/wiki/IBM_Cognos_Business_Intelligence \"IBM Cognos Business Intelligence\") Business Intelligence Suite\n* [IBM Concurrent Copy](/wiki/IBM_Concurrent_Copy \"IBM Concurrent Copy\"), backup software\n* [IBM Content Manager OnDemand](/wiki/IBM_Content_Manager_OnDemand \"IBM Content Manager OnDemand\") (CMOD)\n* [IBM Db2](/wiki/IBM_Db2 \"IBM Db2\") Relational DBMS (DataBase 2\\)\n* IBM DB2 Content Manager\n* [IBM DB2 Document Manager](/wiki/IBM_DB2_Document_Manager \"IBM DB2 Document Manager\")\n* [IBM DB2 Records Manager](/wiki/IBM_DB2_Records_Manager \"IBM DB2 Records Manager\")\n* [IBM Deep Computing Visualization for Linux V1\\.2](/wiki/IBM_Deep_Computing_Visualization_for_Linux_V1.2 \"IBM Deep Computing Visualization for Linux V1.2\")\n* [IBM DISOSS](/wiki/IBM_DISOSS \"IBM DISOSS\") Distributed Office Support System\n* IBM Document Composition Facility (DCF); includes [SCRIPT/VS](/wiki/SCRIPT_%28markup%29 \"SCRIPT (markup)\")\n* IBM Document Library Facility (DLF)\n* IBM BookMaster \n* IBM BookManager\n* [IBM FileNet](/wiki/FileNet \"FileNet\") products, P8 Business Process Management and Enterprise Content Management ([FileNet](/wiki/FileNet \"FileNet\") bought by IBM)\n* [IBM Graphical Data Display Manager](/wiki/GDDM \"GDDM\") (GDDM).\n* [IBM Generalized Information System](/wiki/IBM_Generalized_Information_System \"IBM Generalized Information System\") (GIS).\n* [IBM HTTP Server](/wiki/IBM_HTTP_Server \"IBM HTTP Server\")\n* [IBM i2](/wiki/I2_Limited \"I2 Limited\") Analyst's Notebook and COPLINK\n* [IBM Information Management System](/wiki/IBM_Information_Management_System \"IBM Information Management System\") (IMS) Hierarchical database management system (DBMS)\n* [IBM Informix Dynamic Server](/wiki/IBM_Informix_Dynamic_Server \"IBM Informix Dynamic Server\")\n* [IBM Lotus cc:Mail](/wiki/cc:Mail \"Mail\")\n* [IBM Lotus Connections](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Connections \"IBM Lotus Connections\")\n* [IBM Lotus Expeditor](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Expeditor \"IBM Lotus Expeditor\")\n* [IBM Lotus QuickPlace](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_QuickPlace \"IBM Lotus QuickPlace\")\n* IBM Lotus Quickr\n* [IBM Lotus Notes](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Notes \"IBM Lotus Notes\") ([Lotus Development](/wiki/Lotus_Software \"Lotus Software\") was bought by IBM in 1995\\)\n* [IBM Lotus Sametime](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Sametime \"IBM Lotus Sametime\")\n* [IBM Lotus SmartSuite](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_SmartSuite \"IBM Lotus SmartSuite\") Office Suite\n* [IBM Lotus Symphony](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Symphony \"IBM Lotus Symphony\") Office Suite\n* IBM Maximo Asset Management\n* [IBM Network Design and Analysis](/wiki/IBM_Network_Design_and_Analysis \"IBM Network Design and Analysis\") (NETDA)\n* [IBM Network Performance Monitor](/wiki/IBM_Network_Performance_Monitor \"IBM Network Performance Monitor\") (NPM)\n* [IBM OfficeVision](/wiki/IBM_OfficeVision \"IBM OfficeVision\") (originally named PROFS)\n* [IBM OMEGAMON](/wiki/IBM_OMEGAMON \"IBM OMEGAMON\")\n* [IBM Personal Communications](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Communications \"IBM Personal Communications\") Emulator, also known as Host Access Client\n* [IBM Planning Analytics](/wiki/IBM_Planning_Analytics \"IBM Planning Analytics\")\n* IBM Print Management Facility (PMF)\n* IBM Print Services Facility (PSF)\n* [IBM QualityStage](/wiki/IBM_QualityStage \"IBM QualityStage\") Acquired from Ascential\n* [Rational Software](/wiki/Rational_Software \"Rational Software\")'s products (Rational bought by IBM in 2003\\)\n* [IBM Rational Application Developer](/wiki/IBM_Rational_Application_Developer \"IBM Rational Application Developer\")\n* [IBM Rational Software Architect](/wiki/IBM_Rational_Software_Architect \"IBM Rational Software Architect\")\n* [IBM Rational System Architect](/wiki/IBM_Rational_System_Architect \"IBM Rational System Architect\")\n* IBM Rational Asset Manager\n* [IBM Rational Automation Framework](/wiki/IBM_Rational_Automation_Framework \"IBM Rational Automation Framework\") Previously known as IBM Rational Automation Framework for WebSphere\n* [IBM Red Brick Database Server](/wiki/IBM_Red_Brick_Database_Server \"IBM Red Brick Database Server\")\n* [IBM RFID Information Center](/wiki/IBM_RFID_Information_Center \"IBM RFID Information Center\") (RFIDIC) Tracking and tracing products through supply chains\n* [IBM Screen Definition Facility II](/wiki/IBM_Screen_Definition_Facility_II \"IBM Screen Definition Facility II\") (SDF II), a software tool for the interactive development of screen definition panels.\n* [IBM SearchManager](/wiki/IBM_SearchManager \"IBM SearchManager\") text search, successor to STAIRS\n* [IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager](/wiki/IBM_Security_Key_Lifecycle_Manager \"IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager\")\n* [IBM Softek TDMF](/wiki/IBM_Softek_TDMF \"IBM Softek TDMF\")\n* [IBM STorage And Information Retrieval System](/wiki/IBM_STAIRS \"IBM STAIRS\") (STAIRS) Text search\n* [IBM Sterling B2B Integrator](/wiki/IBM_Sterling_B2B_Integrator \"IBM Sterling B2B Integrator\")\n* [IBM Teleprocessing Network Simulator](/wiki/IBM_TPNS \"IBM TPNS\") (TPNS)\n* [IBM Tivoli Access Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Access_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Access Manager\") (TAM)\n* [IBM Tivoli Application Dependency Discovery Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Application_Dependency_Discovery_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Application Dependency Discovery Manager\") ([TADDM](/wiki/TADDM \"TADDM\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Asset Manager for IT](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Asset_Manager_for_IT \"IBM Tivoli Asset Manager for IT\") ([TAMIT](/wiki/TAMIT \"TAMIT\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Framework](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Framework \"IBM Tivoli Framework\") ([Tivoli Systems](/wiki/Tivoli_Systems%2C_Inc. \"Tivoli Systems, Inc.\") was bought by IBM in 1995\\)\n* [IBM Tivoli Change and Configuration Management Database](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Change_and_Configuration_Management_Database \"IBM Tivoli Change and Configuration Management Database\") ([CCMDB](/wiki/CCMDB \"CCMDB\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Compliance Insight Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Compliance_Insight_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Compliance Insight Manager\") ([TCIM](/wiki/TCIM \"TCIM\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Monitoring](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Monitoring \"IBM Tivoli Monitoring\")\n* [IBM Tivoli Netview](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Netview \"IBM Tivoli Netview\")\n* [IBM Tivoli Netcool](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Netcool \"IBM Tivoli Netcool\")\n* IBM [Tivoli Provisioning Manager](/wiki/Tivoli_Provisioning_Manager \"Tivoli Provisioning Manager\")\n* IBM [Tivoli Service Automation Manager](/wiki/Tivoli_Service_Automation_Manager \"Tivoli Service Automation Manager\")\n* [IBM Tivoli Storage Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Storage_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Storage Manager\") (Formerly ADSM, moved to Tivoli in 1999\\)\n* IBM Tivoli Storage Manager FastBack\n* [IBM Tivoli Workload Scheduler](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Workload_Scheduler \"IBM Tivoli Workload Scheduler\")\n* [IBM Tivoli System Automation](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_System_Automation \"IBM Tivoli System Automation\")\n* [IBM U2](/wiki/IBM_U2 \"IBM U2\"), including IBM UniVerse and IBM UniData [Dimensional database](/wiki/Dimensional_database \"Dimensional database\") DBMS\n* [IBM ViaVoice](/wiki/IBM_ViaVoice \"IBM ViaVoice\") Dictation (early version: IBM VoiceType)\n* [IBM Virtualization Engine](/wiki/IBM_Virtualization_Engine \"IBM Virtualization Engine\")\n* [IBM VSPC](/wiki/Virtual_Storage_Personal_Computing \"Virtual Storage Personal Computing\")\n* [IBM WebSphere](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere \"IBM WebSphere\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Application Server](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Application_Server \"IBM WebSphere Application Server\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Adapters](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Adapters \"IBM WebSphere Adapters\")\n* [IBM Websphere Business Events](/wiki/IBM_Websphere_Business_Events \"IBM Websphere Business Events\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Banking Transformation Toolkit](/wiki/Banking_Transformation_Toolkit \"Banking Transformation Toolkit\")\n* [IBM Websphere Host On\\-Demand](/wiki/IBM_Websphere_Host_On-Demand \"IBM Websphere Host On-Demand\") (HOD) Host On\\-Demand Web\\-based TN3270, TN5250 and VT440 Terminal Emulation.\n* [IBM WebSphere Message Broker](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Message_Broker \"IBM WebSphere Message Broker\")\n* [IBM WebSphere MQ](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_MQ \"IBM WebSphere MQ\") (previously known as IBM MQSeries)\n* [IBM WebSphere Portal](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Portal \"IBM WebSphere Portal\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Portlet Factory](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Portlet_Factory \"IBM WebSphere Portlet Factory\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Process Server](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Process_Server \"IBM WebSphere Process Server\")\n* [WebSphere Service Registry and Repository](/wiki/WebSphere_Service_Registry_and_Repository \"WebSphere Service Registry and Repository\")\n* [IBM Worklight](/wiki/IBM_Worklight \"IBM Worklight\") (Mobile application platform)\n* [IBM Workplace Web Content Management](/wiki/IBM_Workplace_Web_Content_Management \"IBM Workplace Web Content Management\") (IWWCM) Web content management for WebSphere Portal and Domino servers (Presence Online dba Aptrix bought by IBM in 2003\\)\n* [IBM Works](/wiki/IBM_Works \"IBM Works\") Office suite for OS/2\n* IBM Z Operational Log and Data Analytics\n* IBM Z Anomaly Analytics with Watson\n* IBM z/OS Workload Interaction Navigator\n* TOURCast\n* CoScripter\n* ICCF Interactive Computing and Control Facility. An interactive editor that runs under CICS on DOS/VSE. Now included as part of \"VSE Central Functions.\"\n* NCCF Network Communications Control Facility. A network monitoring and control subsystem\n\n#### Watson Customer Engagement\n\nThe Watson Customer Engagement (commonly known as WCE and formerly known as IBM Commerce) business unit supports marketing, commerce, and supply chain software development and product offerings for IBM. Software and solutions offered as part of these three portfolios by WCE are as follows:\n\n##### Watson Marketing Portfolio\n\n* Watson Campaign Automation\n* IBM Tealeaf\n* IBM Campaign\n* Customer Experience Analytics\n* Watson Marketing Insights\n* IBM Journey Designer\n* Watson Real\\-Time Personalization\n* Watson Content Hub\n\n##### Watson Commerce\n\n* IBM Configure, Price, Quote\n* IBM Digital Commerce\n* [IBM WebSphere Commerce](/wiki/WebSphere_Commerce \"WebSphere Commerce\")\n* Watson Commerce Insights\n* IBM Order Management\n* IBM Store Engagement\n* Watson Order Optimizer\n* IBM Call Center\n* IBM Inventory Visibility\n* IBM Watson Pay\n* IBM Payment Gateway\n* IBM Dynamic Pricing\n* IBM Price Optimization\n* IBM Price Management\n* IBM Markdown Optimization\n* Forms Experience Builder\n\n##### Watson Supply Chain\n\n* IBM Supply Chain Business Network\n* IBM Connect:Direct\n* IBM Supply Chain Insights\n* IBM B2B Integration Portfolio\n* IBM Strategic Supply Management\n\n#### Watsonx\n\n* watsonx.ai\n* watsonx.data\n* watsonx.governance\n\n##### Models\n\n* [IBM Granite](/wiki/IBM_Granite \"IBM Granite\")\n",
"### Operating systems\n\n* [AIX](/wiki/IBM_AIX \"IBM AIX\"), IBM's family of proprietary UNIX OS's (Advanced Interactive eXecutive) on multiple platforms\n* BPS/360 [(Basic Programming Support/360\\)](/wiki/IBM_Basic_Programming_Support \"IBM Basic Programming Support\")\n* [BOS/360](/wiki/BOS/360 \"BOS/360\") (Basic Operating System/360\\)\n* [TOS/360](/wiki/TOS/360 \"TOS/360\") (Tape Operating System/360\\)\n* DM2, Disk Monitor System Version 2 for the [IBM 1130](/wiki/IBM_1130 \"IBM 1130\")\n* [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 \"DOS/360\") ([Disk Operating System](/wiki/Disk_operating_system \"Disk operating system\")/360\\)\n* [DOS/VS](/wiki/DOS/VS \"DOS/VS\") (Disk Operating System/Virtual Storage—370\\), virtual memory successor to DOS/360\n\t+ [DOS/VSE](/wiki/DOS/VSE \"DOS/VSE\") (Virtual Storage Extended—370, 4300\\)\n\t+ VSE/AF (VSE/Advanced Functions) enhancements to DOS/VSE\n\t+ [VSE/SP](/wiki/VSE/SP \"VSE/SP\") (VSE/System Package), integrates DOS/VSE, VSE/AF and other products, replaces SSX/VSE\n\t+ [VSE/ESA](/wiki/VSE/ESA \"VSE/ESA\") (Virtual Storage Extended/Enterprise System Architecture), replaces VSE/SP\n\t+ [z/VSE](/wiki/Z/VSE \"Z/VSE\") for [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\")\n* [DPCX](/wiki/DPCX \"DPCX\") (Distributed Processing Control eXecutive) for [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\")\n* [DPPX](/wiki/IBM_DPPX \"IBM DPPX\") (Distributed Processing Programming eXecutive) for [IBM 8100](/wiki/IBM_8100 \"IBM 8100\") and, later, the [ES/9370](/wiki/ES/9370 \"ES/9370\")\n* CPF (Control Program Facility) for the [System/38](/wiki/System/38 \"System/38\")\n* [IBM i](/wiki/IBM_i \"IBM i\"), previously i5/OS and OS/400, successor to CPF for [AS/400](/wiki/AS/400 \"AS/400\"), [IBM Power Systems](/wiki/IBM_Power_Systems \"IBM Power Systems\"), and [PureSystems](/wiki/PureSystems \"PureSystems\")\n* [IBSYS](/wiki/IBSYS \"IBSYS\")/IBJOB ([IBM 7090](/wiki/IBM_7090 \"IBM 7090\")/[94](/wiki/IBM_7094 \"IBM 7094\") operating system)\n* IX/370 An IBM proprietary UNIX OS (Interactive eXecutive for [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"))\n* Model 44 Programming System for the [System/360 Model 44](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_44 \"IBM System/360 Model 44\")\n* [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\") (Operating System/360 for [IBM System/360](/wiki/IBM_System/360 \"IBM System/360\"))\n\t+ [PCP](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23PCP \"OS/360 and successors#PCP\") (Primary Control Program option)\n\t+ [MFT](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23MFT \"OS/360 and successors#MFT\") (Multiprogramming with a Fixed number of Tasks option)\n\t+ [MVT](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23MVT \"OS/360 and successors#MVT\") (Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks option)\n\t\t- [M65MP](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors%23M65MP \"OS/360 and successors#M65MP\") (Model 65 Multiprocessor option)\n* [OS/VS1](/wiki/OS/VS1 \"OS/VS1\") (Operating System—Virtual Storage 1\\) for [IBM System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\"), virtual memory successor to MFT\n* OS/VS2 (Operating System—Virtual Storage 2\\) for IBM System/370, virtual memory successor to MVT\n\t+ [SVS](/wiki/OS/VS2_%28SVS%29 \"OS/VS2 (SVS)\"): Release 1 (Single Virtual Storage)\n\t+ [MVS](/wiki/MVS \"MVS\"): Release 2–3\\.8 (Multiple Virtual address Spaces)\n\t\t- [MVS/370](/wiki/MVS%23MVS/370 \"MVS#MVS/370\") (OS/VS2 2\\.0\\-3\\.8, MVS/SE, MVS/SP V1\\)\n\t\t\t* MVS/SE: MVS System Extensions\n\t\t\t\t+ Release 1: based on OS/VS2 R3\\.7 plus selectable units\n\t\t\t\t+ Release 2: based on OS/VS2 R3\\.8 plus selectable units\n\t\t\t* MVS/SP V1: MVS/System Product, replacement for MVS/SE\n\t\t- [MVS/XA](/wiki/MVS%23MVS/XA \"MVS#MVS/XA\") (Multiple Virtual Systems—Extended Architecture): MVS/SP V2\n\t\t- [MVS/ESA](/wiki/MVS%23MVS/ESA \"MVS#MVS/ESA\") (Multiple Virtual Systems—Enterprise Systems Architecture)\n\t\t\t* MVS/SP V3\n\t\t\t* MVS/ESA SP V4\n\t\t\t* MVS/ESA SP V5\n* [OS/390](/wiki/OS/390 \"OS/390\"), successor to MVS/ESA for [IBM System/390](/wiki/IBM_System/390 \"IBM System/390\")\n* [z/OS](/wiki/Z/OS \"Z/OS\"), successor to OS/390 for [z/Architecture](/wiki/Z/Architecture \"Z/Architecture\") and, up through Version 1\\.5, System/390\n* [OS/2](/wiki/OS/2 \"OS/2\") (Operating System/2\\) for the IBM [PS/2](/wiki/PS/2 \"PS/2\") and other x86 systems\n* [PC DOS](/wiki/PC_DOS \"PC DOS\") ([Personal Computer](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\") Disk Operating System)\n* [System Support Program](/wiki/System_Support_Program \"System Support Program\") for System/34, System/36\n* [Transaction Processing Facility](/wiki/Transaction_Processing_Facility \"Transaction Processing Facility\") (TPF), formerly [IBM Airline Control Program](/wiki/IBM_Airline_Control_Program \"IBM Airline Control Program\") (ACP)\n* [z/TPF](/wiki/Z/TPF \"Z/TPF\"), successor to TPF\n* [TSS/360](/wiki/TSS/360 \"TSS/360\") (Time Sharing System, a failed predecessor to VM/CMS, intended for the [IBM System/360 Model 67](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_67 \"IBM System/360 Model 67\"))\n* [CP\\-67](/wiki/CP-67 \"CP-67\") May refer to either a package for the [360/67](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_67 \"IBM System/360 Model 67\") or only to the Control program of that package.\n* [CP/CMS](/wiki/CP/CMS \"CP/CMS\") Another name for the CP\\-67 package for the 360/67; predecessor to VM.\n* [VM](/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29 \"VM (operating system)\"), sometimes called VM/CMS (Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System) Successor systems to [CP\\-67](/wiki/CP-67 \"CP-67\") for the S/370 and later machines. First appeared as Virtual Machine Facility/370 and most recently as [z/VM](/wiki/Z/VM \"Z/VM\").\n\t+ VM/SE Virtual Machine/System Extension, also known as System Extension Program Product (SEPP). An enhancement to Virtual Machine Facility/370, replaced by VM/SP.\n\t+ VM/BSE Virtual Machine/Basic System Extension, also known as Basic System Extension Program Product (BSEPP). An enhancement to Virtual Machine Facility/370, providing some of the facilities of VM/se, replaced by VM/SP.\n\t+ VM/SP Virtual Machine/System Product, replacing VM/SE and the base for all future VM versions.\n\t+ VM/XA Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture 31\\-bit VM\n\t\t- VM/XA MF (Virtual machine/Extended architecture Migration Aid)\n\t\t- VM/XA SF (Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture Systems Facility), successor to VM/XA SF\n\t\t- VM/XA SP (Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture Systems Product), successor to VM/XA SF\n\t+ [VM/ESA](/wiki/VM/ESA \"VM/ESA\") (Virtual Machine/Enterprise System Architecture), successor to VM/XA\n\t+ [z/VM](/wiki/Z/VM \"Z/VM\"), successor to VM/ESA\n* [4690 OS](/wiki/4690_OS \"4690 OS\") (retail)\n",
"### Utilities and languages\n\n* [A20 handler](/wiki/A20_handler \"A20 handler\") for the PC (address line 20 handler)\n* [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\")\n* [ALGOL 60](/wiki/ALGOL_60 \"ALGOL 60\")\n\t+ ALGOL F compiler for [OS/360](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\")\n* [APL](/wiki/APL_%28programming_language%29 \"APL (programming language)\")\n\t+ [IBM APL implementations](/wiki/APL_%28programming_language%29%23Commercial_availability \"APL (programming language)#Commercial availability\")\n\t+ [IBM APL2 implementations](/wiki/APL_%28programming_language%29%23APL2 \"APL (programming language)#APL2\")\n* [Autocoder](/wiki/Autocoder \"Autocoder\") macro assemblers for various machines, with nothing in common but the name\n* [COBOL](/wiki/COBOL \"COBOL\")\n\t+ [IBM COBOL](/wiki/IBM_COBOL \"IBM COBOL\") compilers\n* IBM Compilers (formerly [VisualAge](/wiki/VisualAge \"VisualAge\") compilers (C/C\\+\\+, Fortran, Java, et al.))\n* [CSP](/wiki/IBM_Cross_System_Product_%28CSP%29 \"IBM Cross System Product (CSP)\") (Cross System Product)\n* [Eclipse](/wiki/Eclipse_%28software%29 \"Eclipse (software)\") an IDE\n* [EGL](/wiki/Enterprise_Generation_Language \"Enterprise Generation Language\") (Enterprise Generation Language)\n* [FARGO](/wiki/FARGO_%28programming_language%29 \"FARGO (programming language)\") (Fourteen\\-o\\-one Automatic Report Generation Operation). Predecessor of [RPG](/wiki/RPG_programming_language \"RPG programming language\") for the [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\")\n* [FAP](/wiki/FORTRAN_Assembly_Program \"FORTRAN Assembly Program\") assembler for the IBM 709, 7090, and 7094 (FORTRAN Assembly Program)\n* [FORTRAN](/wiki/Fortran%23History \"Fortran#History\") (originally developed by IBM for the 704\\) (FORmula TRANslator)\n* [Generalized Markup Language](/wiki/IBM_Generalized_Markup_Language \"IBM Generalized Markup Language\") A [document markup language](/wiki/Markup_language \"Markup language\"), part of Document Composition Facility (DCF)\n* [IBM Information Access](/wiki/IBM_Information_Access \"IBM Information Access\") Gave customers access to the Retain and PTF databases, circa 1981\n* [ISPF](/wiki/ISPF \"ISPF\") Interactive System Productivity Facility. An IDE for MVS and z/OS systems\n* [JCL](/wiki/Job_Control_Language \"Job Control Language\") batch job language for [OS/360 and successors](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\")\n* [JES1](/wiki/Job_Entry_Subsystem_1_%28JES1%29 \"Job Entry Subsystem 1 (JES1)\"), [JES2 and JES3](/wiki/Job_Entry_Subsystem_2/3 \"Job Entry Subsystem 2/3\"), job entry and [spooling](/wiki/Spooling \"Spooling\") subsystems\n* MAP (Macro Assembly Program in the IBJOB component of [IBSYS](/wiki/IBM_7090/94_IBSYS \"IBM 7090/94 IBSYS\"))\n* [Pascal](/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29 \"Pascal (programming language)\")\n* [PL/I](/wiki/PL/I \"PL/I\") (Programming Language/One)\n\t+ [PL/I F compiler for OS/360 and PL/I D compiler for DOS/360](/wiki/PL/I%23IBM_PL/I_F_and_D_compilers \"PL/I#IBM PL/I F and D compilers\")\n\t+ [PL/I Optimizing Compiler and PL/I Checkout Compiler](/wiki/PL/I%23IBM_PL/I_optimizing_and_checkout_compilers \"PL/I#IBM PL/I optimizing and checkout compilers\")\n\t+ IBM Enterprise PL/I\n\t+ [IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, and z/OS](/wiki/PL/I%23IBM_PL/I_for_OS/2%2C_AIX%2C_Linux%2C_z/OS \"PL/I#IBM PL/I for OS/2, AIX, Linux, z/OS\")\n* [PL/S](/wiki/IBM_PL/S \"IBM PL/S\") (Programming Language/Systems), originally named BSL (Basic Systems Language), later PL/AS, PL/X\n* [POWER](/wiki/IBM_POWER_%28software%29 \"IBM POWER (software)\") spooler for [DOS/360](/wiki/DOS/360 \"DOS/360\") and successors (Program Output Writers and Execution Readers)\n* [REXX](/wiki/REXX \"REXX\") scripting language (REstructured eXtended eXecutor)\n* [RPG](/wiki/IBM_RPG \"IBM RPG\") (Report Program Generator)\n\t+ RPG for IBM 1401 and System/360\n\t+ [RPG II](/wiki/RPG_II \"RPG II\") for [System/3](/wiki/System/3 \"System/3\"), [System/32](/wiki/System/32 \"System/32\"), [System/34](/wiki/System/34 \"System/34\"), [System/36](/wiki/System/36 \"System/36\"), and [System/370](/wiki/IBM_System/370 \"IBM System/370\")\n\t+ [RPG III](/wiki/RPG_III \"RPG III\") for [System/38](/wiki/System/38 \"System/38\"), its successor [AS/400](/wiki/AS/400 \"AS/400\"), and System/370\n\t+ RPG IV for RISC AS/400 and other machines running [IBM i](/wiki/IBM_i \"IBM i\")\n* SOAP ([Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program](/wiki/Symbolic_Optimal_Assembly_Program \"Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program\") for [IBM 650](/wiki/IBM_650 \"IBM 650\"))\n* [Script](/wiki/SCRIPT_%28markup%29 \"SCRIPT (markup)\") A [document markup language](/wiki/Markup_language \"Markup language\")\n\t+ SCRIPT component of [CP/CMS](/wiki/CP/CMS \"CP/CMS\")\n\t+ SCRIPT/370\n\t+ SCRIPT/VS Component of Document Composition Facility (DCF)\n\t+ SCRIPT/PC A subset of SCRIPT running under [PC DOS](/wiki/IBM_PC_DOS \"IBM PC DOS\")\n* SPS ([Symbolic Programming System](/wiki/Symbolic_Programming_System \"Symbolic Programming System\")). An assembler1401 SPS and 1620 SPS were incompatible for [IBM 1401](/wiki/IBM_1401 \"IBM 1401\") or [IBM 1620](/wiki/IBM_1620 \"IBM 1620\") systems, less capable than Autocoder\n* VFU (Vocabulary File Utility) for IBM 7772\n* [XEDIT](/wiki/XEDIT \"XEDIT\") an editor for VM/CMS systems\n",
"### Middleware and applications\n\nIBM distributes its diverse collection of software products over several brands; mainly:\n1. IBM's own branding for many software products originally developed in\\-house;\n2. Lotus: collaboration and communication;\n3. Rational: software development and maintenance;\n4. Tivoli: management, operations, and Cloud; \n5. WebSphere: Internet. \n6. Watson Main article: [IBM Watson](/wiki/Watson_%28computer%29 \"Watson (computer)\")\n7. Watsonx Main article: [IBM Watsonx](/wiki/IBM_Watsonx \"IBM Watsonx\")\n\n* [9PAC](/wiki/IBM_709/90_9PAC \"IBM 709/90 9PAC\") Report generator for the IBM 7090 (709 PACkage)\n* [IBM Administrative Terminal System](/wiki/IBM_Administrative_Terminal_System \"IBM Administrative Terminal System\") (ATS) Online Text Entry, Editing, Processing, Storage and Retrieval\n* [IBM Advanced Text Management System](/wiki/IBM_Advanced_Text_Management_System \"IBM Advanced Text Management System\") (ATMS) A CICS\\-based successor to ATS, ATMS served as the text entry system for STorage And Retrieval System ([STAIRS](/wiki/IBM_STAIRS \"IBM STAIRS\"))\n* [IBM Assistant Series](/wiki/IBM_Assistant_Series \"IBM Assistant Series\") (Filing Assistant, Reporting Assistant, Graphing Assistant, Writing Assistant and Planning Assistant)\n* [IBM Audio Distribution System](/wiki/IBM_Audio_Distribution_System \"IBM Audio Distribution System\")\n* [IBM BS12](/wiki/IBM_BS12 \"IBM BS12\") (IBM Business System 12\\)\n* [IBM CICS](/wiki/CICS \"CICS\") (Customer Information Control System)\n* IBM [CICS Transaction Gateway](/wiki/CICS_Transaction_Gateway \"CICS Transaction Gateway\")\n* IBM CICS Web interpreter, [IBM OD390](/wiki/IBM_OD390 \"IBM OD390\")\n* [IBM Cloudscape](/wiki/Apache_Derby \"Apache Derby\") Pure Java Database Server. Now open source [Apache Derby](/wiki/Apache_Derby \"Apache Derby\")\n* [IBM Cognos Business Intelligence](/wiki/IBM_Cognos_Business_Intelligence \"IBM Cognos Business Intelligence\") Business Intelligence Suite\n* [IBM Concurrent Copy](/wiki/IBM_Concurrent_Copy \"IBM Concurrent Copy\"), backup software\n* [IBM Content Manager OnDemand](/wiki/IBM_Content_Manager_OnDemand \"IBM Content Manager OnDemand\") (CMOD)\n* [IBM Db2](/wiki/IBM_Db2 \"IBM Db2\") Relational DBMS (DataBase 2\\)\n* IBM DB2 Content Manager\n* [IBM DB2 Document Manager](/wiki/IBM_DB2_Document_Manager \"IBM DB2 Document Manager\")\n* [IBM DB2 Records Manager](/wiki/IBM_DB2_Records_Manager \"IBM DB2 Records Manager\")\n* [IBM Deep Computing Visualization for Linux V1\\.2](/wiki/IBM_Deep_Computing_Visualization_for_Linux_V1.2 \"IBM Deep Computing Visualization for Linux V1.2\")\n* [IBM DISOSS](/wiki/IBM_DISOSS \"IBM DISOSS\") Distributed Office Support System\n* IBM Document Composition Facility (DCF); includes [SCRIPT/VS](/wiki/SCRIPT_%28markup%29 \"SCRIPT (markup)\")\n* IBM Document Library Facility (DLF)\n* IBM BookMaster \n* IBM BookManager\n* [IBM FileNet](/wiki/FileNet \"FileNet\") products, P8 Business Process Management and Enterprise Content Management ([FileNet](/wiki/FileNet \"FileNet\") bought by IBM)\n* [IBM Graphical Data Display Manager](/wiki/GDDM \"GDDM\") (GDDM).\n* [IBM Generalized Information System](/wiki/IBM_Generalized_Information_System \"IBM Generalized Information System\") (GIS).\n* [IBM HTTP Server](/wiki/IBM_HTTP_Server \"IBM HTTP Server\")\n* [IBM i2](/wiki/I2_Limited \"I2 Limited\") Analyst's Notebook and COPLINK\n* [IBM Information Management System](/wiki/IBM_Information_Management_System \"IBM Information Management System\") (IMS) Hierarchical database management system (DBMS)\n* [IBM Informix Dynamic Server](/wiki/IBM_Informix_Dynamic_Server \"IBM Informix Dynamic Server\")\n* [IBM Lotus cc:Mail](/wiki/cc:Mail \"Mail\")\n* [IBM Lotus Connections](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Connections \"IBM Lotus Connections\")\n* [IBM Lotus Expeditor](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Expeditor \"IBM Lotus Expeditor\")\n* [IBM Lotus QuickPlace](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_QuickPlace \"IBM Lotus QuickPlace\")\n* IBM Lotus Quickr\n* [IBM Lotus Notes](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Notes \"IBM Lotus Notes\") ([Lotus Development](/wiki/Lotus_Software \"Lotus Software\") was bought by IBM in 1995\\)\n* [IBM Lotus Sametime](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Sametime \"IBM Lotus Sametime\")\n* [IBM Lotus SmartSuite](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_SmartSuite \"IBM Lotus SmartSuite\") Office Suite\n* [IBM Lotus Symphony](/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Symphony \"IBM Lotus Symphony\") Office Suite\n* IBM Maximo Asset Management\n* [IBM Network Design and Analysis](/wiki/IBM_Network_Design_and_Analysis \"IBM Network Design and Analysis\") (NETDA)\n* [IBM Network Performance Monitor](/wiki/IBM_Network_Performance_Monitor \"IBM Network Performance Monitor\") (NPM)\n* [IBM OfficeVision](/wiki/IBM_OfficeVision \"IBM OfficeVision\") (originally named PROFS)\n* [IBM OMEGAMON](/wiki/IBM_OMEGAMON \"IBM OMEGAMON\")\n* [IBM Personal Communications](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Communications \"IBM Personal Communications\") Emulator, also known as Host Access Client\n* [IBM Planning Analytics](/wiki/IBM_Planning_Analytics \"IBM Planning Analytics\")\n* IBM Print Management Facility (PMF)\n* IBM Print Services Facility (PSF)\n* [IBM QualityStage](/wiki/IBM_QualityStage \"IBM QualityStage\") Acquired from Ascential\n* [Rational Software](/wiki/Rational_Software \"Rational Software\")'s products (Rational bought by IBM in 2003\\)\n* [IBM Rational Application Developer](/wiki/IBM_Rational_Application_Developer \"IBM Rational Application Developer\")\n* [IBM Rational Software Architect](/wiki/IBM_Rational_Software_Architect \"IBM Rational Software Architect\")\n* [IBM Rational System Architect](/wiki/IBM_Rational_System_Architect \"IBM Rational System Architect\")\n* IBM Rational Asset Manager\n* [IBM Rational Automation Framework](/wiki/IBM_Rational_Automation_Framework \"IBM Rational Automation Framework\") Previously known as IBM Rational Automation Framework for WebSphere\n* [IBM Red Brick Database Server](/wiki/IBM_Red_Brick_Database_Server \"IBM Red Brick Database Server\")\n* [IBM RFID Information Center](/wiki/IBM_RFID_Information_Center \"IBM RFID Information Center\") (RFIDIC) Tracking and tracing products through supply chains\n* [IBM Screen Definition Facility II](/wiki/IBM_Screen_Definition_Facility_II \"IBM Screen Definition Facility II\") (SDF II), a software tool for the interactive development of screen definition panels.\n* [IBM SearchManager](/wiki/IBM_SearchManager \"IBM SearchManager\") text search, successor to STAIRS\n* [IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager](/wiki/IBM_Security_Key_Lifecycle_Manager \"IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager\")\n* [IBM Softek TDMF](/wiki/IBM_Softek_TDMF \"IBM Softek TDMF\")\n* [IBM STorage And Information Retrieval System](/wiki/IBM_STAIRS \"IBM STAIRS\") (STAIRS) Text search\n* [IBM Sterling B2B Integrator](/wiki/IBM_Sterling_B2B_Integrator \"IBM Sterling B2B Integrator\")\n* [IBM Teleprocessing Network Simulator](/wiki/IBM_TPNS \"IBM TPNS\") (TPNS)\n* [IBM Tivoli Access Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Access_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Access Manager\") (TAM)\n* [IBM Tivoli Application Dependency Discovery Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Application_Dependency_Discovery_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Application Dependency Discovery Manager\") ([TADDM](/wiki/TADDM \"TADDM\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Asset Manager for IT](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Asset_Manager_for_IT \"IBM Tivoli Asset Manager for IT\") ([TAMIT](/wiki/TAMIT \"TAMIT\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Framework](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Framework \"IBM Tivoli Framework\") ([Tivoli Systems](/wiki/Tivoli_Systems%2C_Inc. \"Tivoli Systems, Inc.\") was bought by IBM in 1995\\)\n* [IBM Tivoli Change and Configuration Management Database](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Change_and_Configuration_Management_Database \"IBM Tivoli Change and Configuration Management Database\") ([CCMDB](/wiki/CCMDB \"CCMDB\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Compliance Insight Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Compliance_Insight_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Compliance Insight Manager\") ([TCIM](/wiki/TCIM \"TCIM\"))\n* [IBM Tivoli Monitoring](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Monitoring \"IBM Tivoli Monitoring\")\n* [IBM Tivoli Netview](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Netview \"IBM Tivoli Netview\")\n* [IBM Tivoli Netcool](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Netcool \"IBM Tivoli Netcool\")\n* IBM [Tivoli Provisioning Manager](/wiki/Tivoli_Provisioning_Manager \"Tivoli Provisioning Manager\")\n* IBM [Tivoli Service Automation Manager](/wiki/Tivoli_Service_Automation_Manager \"Tivoli Service Automation Manager\")\n* [IBM Tivoli Storage Manager](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Storage_Manager \"IBM Tivoli Storage Manager\") (Formerly ADSM, moved to Tivoli in 1999\\)\n* IBM Tivoli Storage Manager FastBack\n* [IBM Tivoli Workload Scheduler](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_Workload_Scheduler \"IBM Tivoli Workload Scheduler\")\n* [IBM Tivoli System Automation](/wiki/IBM_Tivoli_System_Automation \"IBM Tivoli System Automation\")\n* [IBM U2](/wiki/IBM_U2 \"IBM U2\"), including IBM UniVerse and IBM UniData [Dimensional database](/wiki/Dimensional_database \"Dimensional database\") DBMS\n* [IBM ViaVoice](/wiki/IBM_ViaVoice \"IBM ViaVoice\") Dictation (early version: IBM VoiceType)\n* [IBM Virtualization Engine](/wiki/IBM_Virtualization_Engine \"IBM Virtualization Engine\")\n* [IBM VSPC](/wiki/Virtual_Storage_Personal_Computing \"Virtual Storage Personal Computing\")\n* [IBM WebSphere](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere \"IBM WebSphere\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Application Server](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Application_Server \"IBM WebSphere Application Server\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Adapters](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Adapters \"IBM WebSphere Adapters\")\n* [IBM Websphere Business Events](/wiki/IBM_Websphere_Business_Events \"IBM Websphere Business Events\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Banking Transformation Toolkit](/wiki/Banking_Transformation_Toolkit \"Banking Transformation Toolkit\")\n* [IBM Websphere Host On\\-Demand](/wiki/IBM_Websphere_Host_On-Demand \"IBM Websphere Host On-Demand\") (HOD) Host On\\-Demand Web\\-based TN3270, TN5250 and VT440 Terminal Emulation.\n* [IBM WebSphere Message Broker](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Message_Broker \"IBM WebSphere Message Broker\")\n* [IBM WebSphere MQ](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_MQ \"IBM WebSphere MQ\") (previously known as IBM MQSeries)\n* [IBM WebSphere Portal](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Portal \"IBM WebSphere Portal\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Portlet Factory](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Portlet_Factory \"IBM WebSphere Portlet Factory\")\n* [IBM WebSphere Process Server](/wiki/IBM_WebSphere_Process_Server \"IBM WebSphere Process Server\")\n* [WebSphere Service Registry and Repository](/wiki/WebSphere_Service_Registry_and_Repository \"WebSphere Service Registry and Repository\")\n* [IBM Worklight](/wiki/IBM_Worklight \"IBM Worklight\") (Mobile application platform)\n* [IBM Workplace Web Content Management](/wiki/IBM_Workplace_Web_Content_Management \"IBM Workplace Web Content Management\") (IWWCM) Web content management for WebSphere Portal and Domino servers (Presence Online dba Aptrix bought by IBM in 2003\\)\n* [IBM Works](/wiki/IBM_Works \"IBM Works\") Office suite for OS/2\n* IBM Z Operational Log and Data Analytics\n* IBM Z Anomaly Analytics with Watson\n* IBM z/OS Workload Interaction Navigator\n* TOURCast\n* CoScripter\n* ICCF Interactive Computing and Control Facility. An interactive editor that runs under CICS on DOS/VSE. Now included as part of \"VSE Central Functions.\"\n* NCCF Network Communications Control Facility. A network monitoring and control subsystem\n\n#### Watson Customer Engagement\n\nThe Watson Customer Engagement (commonly known as WCE and formerly known as IBM Commerce) business unit supports marketing, commerce, and supply chain software development and product offerings for IBM. Software and solutions offered as part of these three portfolios by WCE are as follows:\n\n##### Watson Marketing Portfolio\n\n* Watson Campaign Automation\n* IBM Tealeaf\n* IBM Campaign\n* Customer Experience Analytics\n* Watson Marketing Insights\n* IBM Journey Designer\n* Watson Real\\-Time Personalization\n* Watson Content Hub\n\n##### Watson Commerce\n\n* IBM Configure, Price, Quote\n* IBM Digital Commerce\n* [IBM WebSphere Commerce](/wiki/WebSphere_Commerce \"WebSphere Commerce\")\n* Watson Commerce Insights\n* IBM Order Management\n* IBM Store Engagement\n* Watson Order Optimizer\n* IBM Call Center\n* IBM Inventory Visibility\n* IBM Watson Pay\n* IBM Payment Gateway\n* IBM Dynamic Pricing\n* IBM Price Optimization\n* IBM Price Management\n* IBM Markdown Optimization\n* Forms Experience Builder\n\n##### Watson Supply Chain\n\n* IBM Supply Chain Business Network\n* IBM Connect:Direct\n* IBM Supply Chain Insights\n* IBM B2B Integration Portfolio\n* IBM Strategic Supply Management\n\n#### Watsonx\n\n* watsonx.ai\n* watsonx.data\n* watsonx.governance\n\n##### Models\n\n* [IBM Granite](/wiki/IBM_Granite \"IBM Granite\")\n",
"#### Watson Customer Engagement\n\nThe Watson Customer Engagement (commonly known as WCE and formerly known as IBM Commerce) business unit supports marketing, commerce, and supply chain software development and product offerings for IBM. Software and solutions offered as part of these three portfolios by WCE are as follows:\n\n##### Watson Marketing Portfolio\n\n* Watson Campaign Automation\n* IBM Tealeaf\n* IBM Campaign\n* Customer Experience Analytics\n* Watson Marketing Insights\n* IBM Journey Designer\n* Watson Real\\-Time Personalization\n* Watson Content Hub\n\n##### Watson Commerce\n\n* IBM Configure, Price, Quote\n* IBM Digital Commerce\n* [IBM WebSphere Commerce](/wiki/WebSphere_Commerce \"WebSphere Commerce\")\n* Watson Commerce Insights\n* IBM Order Management\n* IBM Store Engagement\n* Watson Order Optimizer\n* IBM Call Center\n* IBM Inventory Visibility\n* IBM Watson Pay\n* IBM Payment Gateway\n* IBM Dynamic Pricing\n* IBM Price Optimization\n* IBM Price Management\n* IBM Markdown Optimization\n* Forms Experience Builder\n\n##### Watson Supply Chain\n\n* IBM Supply Chain Business Network\n* IBM Connect:Direct\n* IBM Supply Chain Insights\n* IBM B2B Integration Portfolio\n* IBM Strategic Supply Management\n",
"##### Watson Marketing Portfolio\n\n* Watson Campaign Automation\n* IBM Tealeaf\n* IBM Campaign\n* Customer Experience Analytics\n* Watson Marketing Insights\n* IBM Journey Designer\n* Watson Real\\-Time Personalization\n* Watson Content Hub\n",
"##### Watson Commerce\n\n* IBM Configure, Price, Quote\n* IBM Digital Commerce\n* [IBM WebSphere Commerce](/wiki/WebSphere_Commerce \"WebSphere Commerce\")\n* Watson Commerce Insights\n* IBM Order Management\n* IBM Store Engagement\n* Watson Order Optimizer\n* IBM Call Center\n* IBM Inventory Visibility\n* IBM Watson Pay\n* IBM Payment Gateway\n* IBM Dynamic Pricing\n* IBM Price Optimization\n* IBM Price Management\n* IBM Markdown Optimization\n* Forms Experience Builder\n",
"##### Watson Supply Chain\n\n* IBM Supply Chain Business Network\n* IBM Connect:Direct\n* IBM Supply Chain Insights\n* IBM B2B Integration Portfolio\n* IBM Strategic Supply Management\n",
"#### Watsonx\n\n* watsonx.ai\n* watsonx.data\n* watsonx.governance\n\n##### Models\n\n* [IBM Granite](/wiki/IBM_Granite \"IBM Granite\")\n",
"##### Models\n\n* [IBM Granite](/wiki/IBM_Granite \"IBM Granite\")\n",
"Data centers\n------------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|A 40\\-foot [Portable Modular Data Center](/wiki/Portable_Modular_Data_Center \"Portable Modular Data Center\")](/wiki/File:IBMPortableModularDataCenter.jpg \"IBMPortableModularDataCenter.jpg\")\n* [Portable Modular Data Center](/wiki/Portable_Modular_Data_Center \"Portable Modular Data Center\")\n* Scalable Modular Data Center\n\n",
"Services\n--------\n\n* [Call/360](/wiki/Call/360 \"Call/360\") timesharing service (1968\\)\n* [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\")'s service bureau business: an in\\-house service, offered until 1957\\. See SBC, below.\n* [Silverpop](/wiki/Silverpop \"Silverpop\"), an Atlanta\\-based software company\n* [Service Bureau Corporation](/wiki/Service_Bureau_Corporation \"Service Bureau Corporation\") (SBC) was a subsidiary of IBM formed in 1957 to operate IBM's former service bureau business as an independent company. In 1973 sold to Control Data Corporation.\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [IBM Product Center](/wiki/IBM_Product_Center \"IBM Product Center\")\n* [History of IBM magnetic disk drives](/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives \"History of IBM magnetic disk drives\")\n* [History of hard disk drives](/wiki/History_of_hard_disk_drives \"History of hard disk drives\")\n* [OS/360 and successors](/wiki/OS/360_and_successors \"OS/360 and successors\")\n* [:Category:IBM products](/wiki/IBM_products \"IBM products\")\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [IBM Mainframe Family tree \\& chronology](http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/mainframe/mainframe_FT1.html)\n* [IBM Storage basic information sources](http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_basic.html)\n* [IBM Offering Information](https://ibm.com/common/ssi)\n\n[products](/wiki/Category:IBM_lists \"IBM lists\")\n[IBM](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_products \"Lists of products\")\n[IBM](/wiki/Category:Products_by_individual_company \"Products by individual company\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Potomac Company
|
{
"id": [
44716191
],
"name": [
"Elina9k"
]
}
|
bnbqdtixl6uli3kfl0s9oeqisikdjkv
|
2024-08-23T18:01:40Z
| 1,221,666,057 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"History",
"Economic impact",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\nThe **Potomac Company** (spelled variously as **Patowmack**, **Potowmack**, **Potowmac**, and **Compony**) was created in 1785 to make [improvements](/wiki/Internal_improvements \"Internal improvements\") to the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\") and improve its navigability for commerce. The project is perhaps the first conceptual seed planted in the minds of the new American capitalists in what became a flurry of transportation infrastructure projects, most privately funded, that drove [wagon road](/wiki/Wagon_road \"Wagon road\") [turnpikes](/wiki/Toll_road \"Toll road\"), [navigations, and canals](/wiki/Canal \"Canal\"), and then as the technology developed, investment funds for railroads across the rough country of the Appalachian Mountains. \n\nIn a few decades, the eastern seaboard was crisscrossed by private turnpikes and canals were being built from Massachusetts to Illinois ushering in the brief seven decades of the [American Canal Age](/wiki/American_Canal_Age \"American Canal Age\"). The Potomac Company's achievement was not just to be an early example, but of being significant also in size and scope of the project, which involved taming a mountain stream fed river with icing conditions and unpredictable freshets (floods).\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nThe Potomac Company built five skirting canals around the major falls of the Potomac opening the river to commercial bulk goods traffic from the [Chesapeake Bay](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay \"Chesapeake Bay\") mouth to [Cumberland, Maryland](/wiki/Cumberland%2C_Maryland \"Cumberland, Maryland\") in the [Cumberland Narrows](/wiki/Cumberland_Narrows \"Cumberland Narrows\") notch leading west across the Alleghenies, where it intersected [Nemacolin's Trail](/wiki/Nemacolin%27s_Trail \"Nemacolin's Trail\") near [Braddock's Road](/wiki/Braddock%27s_Road \"Braddock's Road\"), later made the first [National Road](/wiki/National_Road \"National Road\"), today's U.S. Route 40\\. \n\nWhen completed, bulk goods could ship by wagon out of the Pennsylvania and Virginia Alleghenies plateau country downhill to the river port where the canal allowed boats and rafts to float downstream towards Georgetown, a significant port of the time on the Potomac River, now an upscale bedroom community and college town within the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\"). The company had been championed by prominent men of both Maryland and Virginia, including [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"), who was its first president, as well as an investor in the company. [Tobias Lear](/wiki/Tobias_Lear_V \"Tobias Lear V\"), Washington's personal secretary, was its chairman for a period. Other principals of the company included [Thomas Johnson](/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_%28jurist%29 \"Thomas Johnson (jurist)\") of Maryland.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe Potomac Company's charter stated that its goal was linking the [East Coast with](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") the [Old Northwest](/wiki/Northwest_Territory \"Northwest Territory\"), including the [Ohio Country](/wiki/Ohio_Country \"Ohio Country\"), by building a canal up through a water gap through the [Allegheny Front](/wiki/Allegheny_Front \"Allegheny Front\") into the nearer frontiers connecting to the headwaters of either the [Ohio River](/wiki/Ohio_River \"Ohio River\") tributaries, the [Cheat](/wiki/Cheat_River \"Cheat River\"), or [Monongahela Rivers](/wiki/Monongahela_River \"Monongahela River\"). It had an early and more immediate goal of improving the navigability of the Potomac River, by building canals and navigations around a succession of blocking rapids or falls of the lower and middle Potomac River. In this latter goal, it succeeded. \n\nThe larger endeavor, connecting coastal communities with the blossoming trans\\-Allegheny settlements, was championed by [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") and other [Founding Fathers](/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States \"Founding Fathers of the United States\"), and became a pet project for the nation's first president, [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"), who had experience on [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\") and [Western Pennsylvania](/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania \"Western Pennsylvania\") from his days as frontier surveyor and militia officer and saw these regions ultimately fail due to insufficient capitalization, an unstable American economy, a lack of sufficient investors, a lack of government aid from a poor and young [federal government](/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States \"Federal government of the United States\"), and conflicts between states. Although the company charter was surrendered to the [Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Ohio_Canal_Company \"Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company\") in 1828, its curtailment has overall minor significance only as in that it serves as an example of how a deficient amount of support from the responsible leadership balancing the federal government can seem to undermine a large, desirable infrastructure project that is a conceptual overreach, or could attract sufficient private funding. Its apparent failure, on the other hand, can be understood as a project which gave way to a superior technology, as railways came along and grew up before the slow subscription system of stocks common to the day attracted sufficient funding. In the day, men of means and many such officials of the early Federalist U.S. government were very conscious of the desirable effects of building transportation infrastructure to link the near west and tie it to the eastern seaboard. As settlers poured west over the mountains after the Revolutionary War, serious concerns arose that newly settled lands would become financially tied better to and so make arrangements with Spanish, French, or British colonies to the west, south, and Canada, and given a look at water communication, the risk was very real. Hence, from the start, the fledgling Constitutional Republic was conscience of benefits that could accrue from its involvement in developing infrastructure in the fledgling republic but was unable to generate revenues to boost such efforts. The rare exception in the era receiving federal public works monies was over a decade later and deemed far less risky, the [Cumberland Turnpike](/wiki/Cumberland_Turnpike \"Cumberland Turnpike\") conversion into a migration [wagon road](/wiki/Wagon_road \"Wagon road\") and the first [National Highway](/wiki/National_Road \"National Road\"), later to become [US 40](/wiki/US_40 \"US 40\").\n\nWhile slim flat bottom [river boats](/wiki/River_boat \"River boat\") called [bateaux](/wiki/Bateaux \"Bateaux\") could be poled up\\-river in even the shallowest of waters, they could not traverse the [fall line](/wiki/Fall_line \"Fall line\"), the area where an upland region (continental bedrock) and a coastal plain (coastal [alluvia](/wiki/Alluvia \"Alluvia\")) meet, typically in waterfalls or cascades of successive rapids.\n\nOne of the major constructions of the Potomac Company was the [Patowmack Canal](/wiki/Patowmack_Canal \"Patowmack Canal\"). A major engineering feat of the time, the Potomack Canal permitted boats to navigate around [Great Falls](/wiki/Great_Falls_of_the_Potomac_River \"Great Falls of the Potomac River\"), where the Potomac River drops a treacherous 75 feet through the unnavigable [Mather Gorge](/wiki/Mather_Gorge \"Mather Gorge\").\n\nAfter 21 years, the Potomack Canal was sold, along with the other assets of the Potomac Company to the [Chesapeake and Ohio Canal](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Ohio_Canal \"Chesapeake and Ohio Canal\") Company, which built a canal on the opposite, [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\") side of the Potomac River.\n\nAs early as 1749 many leaders in Maryland and Virginia had been interested in making the Potomac River into a major transportation route to the trans\\-Appalachian West. Advocates included Philadelphia resident [Ben Franklin](/wiki/Ben_Franklin \"Ben Franklin\"), who advocated many other waterway improvements as well as being vital to develop American industries and enhance trade with the interior frontiers of the days before the [French and Indian War](/wiki/French_and_Indian_War \"French and Indian War\") to combat the influence of [New France](/wiki/New_France \"New France\") (in Pennsylvania and) across the [Appalachians](/wiki/Appalachians \"Appalachians\"). The project to improve the Potomac was seen as a major opportunity strategically (it would transport troops to the frontier with the French or the Indians more rapidly) and economically (it would increase fur trade and improve real estate values). A lack of technology, a severe shortage of labor, conflicts with foreign and colonial powers, and internal rivalries would prevent the project from being started until the 1780s, thirty years later.\n\nIn 1784, a year after the Treaty of Paris was signed, George Washington and Horatio Gates traveled to Annapolis to seek the state's assent to the project. Washington urged Virginia Governor Benjamin Harrison to bring the matter to the Virginia Assembly, citing the \"commercial and political importance\" of the project. Washington's formidable reputation in the U.S. during the time after the Revolution persuaded the governor to present a letter to the Virginia Assembly asking for support for the project. The Virginia Assembly appointed Washington, Gates, and Thomas Blackburn commissioners to seek Maryland's agreement. Washington's subsequent visit to Annapolis was successful and led to the incorporation of the Potomac Company in 1784 Maryland and 1785 in Virginia. These meetings would continue and have a major impact on national development as the navigations on the Potomac were in regular use supporting coal from Cumberland to Georgetown until 1929; in 1908 the [Inland Waterways Commission](/wiki/Inland_Waterways_Commission \"Inland Waterways Commission\") notes the following significance:\n\nWhile it was not the first or only project started after the end of the American Revolution, its incorporation was a milestone because it was the first project that connected different regions and required the cooperation of multiple state governments. While the Potomac Company's charter eventually failed, the Maryland and Virginia acts of incorporation were very similar—the company stated it was going to raise 220,000 Spanish dollars (50, 000 pounds sterling) through 500 shares and also stated its plan and timeline. In the charter, the Potomac Company had three years to clear the upper Potomac, and ten years to build bypass canals and locks around the Little and Great Falls (a distance of 175 miles). Both states passed additional laws to go further—building roads and connecting headwaters to link the Potomac River to the Ohio River.\n\nThe Potomac Company originally wanted to hire only free labor, but due to the shortage of labor, the directors hired free, indentured, and slave labor to build the locks and canals and deepen the river. [James Rumsey](/wiki/James_Rumsey \"James Rumsey\"), well known for his work with steam\\-propelled riverboats, was hired as the project's chief engineer.\n\nThere was a large conflict with Virginia Governor [Henry Lee III](/wiki/Henry_Lee_III \"Henry Lee III\") (father of [Robert E. Lee](/wiki/Robert_E._Lee \"Robert E. Lee\")), who purchased of land around Great Falls (he named it \"Matildaville\" after his wife) to build a warehouse for goods being transported down the Potomac (predicting the route would quickly become profitable after the project's completion). The legal troubles of the Potomac Company kept its lawyers in and out of court constantly.\n\nThe decline in public confidence in the project led to a more difficult economic position because the Potomac Company relied on individually buying shares for funds. Maryland and Virginia continued funding the Potomac Company's project beyond the original contract. However even continued investment by Maryland, Virginia, and some individuals could not offset growing expenses due to poor technical advice, labor problems, poor planning, and incessant repair work. The work was stop and go because of the continuous need to raise more money. At many points in the project's history (for example in) all work would stop as the company begged for economic assistance, settled lawsuits, and revised its plan.\n\nThree of the canals, at Seneca Falls, House Falls (near [Harpers Ferry](/wiki/Harpers_Ferry \"Harpers Ferry\")), and Payne's Falls (Shenandoah) did not need locks, and were completed. The Little Falls canal was more difficult, and as a money\\-saving measure, wooden locks were used.Kytle, Elizabeth, *Home on the Canal*, Cabin John Press, 1983\\. p. 10\n\nIn February 1802, the locks at Great Falls were completed, and the Potomac Company was expected to be immediately profitable. Also in 1802, the Patowmack Canal was completed after 17 years of construction. However, the poor snow in the winter of 1801\\-1802 and little spring rain in 1802 meant the river was too shallow to navigate that year. The late realization of these unanticipated problems caused the company to give up its earlier goal to link the Potomac and the Ohio Valley, and the new goal was to improve other rivers in the watershed such as the [Shenandoah](/wiki/Shenandoah_River \"Shenandoah River\"), the [Monocacy](/wiki/Monocacy_River \"Monocacy River\"), and [Antietam Creek](/wiki/Antietam_Creek \"Antietam Creek\"). At [Harpers Ferry, Virginia](/wiki/Harpers_Ferry%2C_Virginia \"Harpers Ferry, Virginia\") (since 1863, West Virginia) the Company built the [Shenandoah Canal](/wiki/Shenandoah_Canal \"Shenandoah Canal\") in the Shenandoah River, creating [Virginius Island](/wiki/Virginius_Island%2C_West_Virginia \"Virginius Island, West Virginia\"), an industrial center.\n\nA commission in 1821 agreed that water transport in the Potomac valley would only be possible with a still\\-water canal, and the Potomac Company announced it could not fulfill its charter. Virginia created the Potomac Canal Company. Maryland incorporated the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company in 1825, and Congress quickly approved its charter.\n\nIn 1817, fellow directors elected [John Mason](/wiki/John_Mason_%281766%E2%80%931849%29 \"John Mason (1766–1849)\") of [Analostan Island](/wiki/Analostan_Island \"Analostan Island\"), and son of President Washington's mentor and fellow Founding Father [George Mason IV](/wiki/George_Mason_IV \"George Mason IV\") as director. This last president served for eleven years before the corporation's assets were merged into the more successful [Chesapeake and Ohio Canal](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Ohio_Canal \"Chesapeake and Ohio Canal\"). p. 46\n\n",
"Economic impact\n---------------\n\nThe failure of the Potomac Company to make the Potomac River navigable does not mean that that project was without serious economic implications. The failure of the Potomac Company was largely attributed to a lack of federal support and oversight, and the U.S. government was much more careful to support interstate infrastructure projects after that. The significance of transportation in such a large country cannot be understated, and the failure of such a large project made clear that expensive (but in the long term, profitable) infrastructure projects would not be achieved without support from the federal government.\n\nFurther, the Potomac Company's plan made it possible for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company to take over and complete the project. These two regions were linked, and goods and services moved through the Potomac for nearly a century.\n\n",
"Legacy\n------\n\nIn his will, Washington left fifty shares toward the endowment of a university in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\"). The shares were lost, however.\n\nThe Potomac Company, an investment bank based in Philadelphia, is not related in any way to the original Potomac Company referenced above.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Alexandria Canal (Virginia)](/wiki/Alexandria_Canal_%28Virginia%29 \"Alexandria Canal (Virginia)\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n**Notes**\n\n**Further reading**\n* **Note:** Books are list chronologically.\n\n* Littlefield, Douglas R. (1984\\) \"The Potomac Company: A Misadventure in Financing an Early American Internal Improvement Project.\" Business History Review 58\\.4: 562\\-585\\.\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Historic American Engineering Record](/wiki/Historic_American_Engineering_Record \"Historic American Engineering Record\") (HAER) documentation:\n[Category:George Washington](/wiki/Category:George_Washington \"George Washington\")\n[Category:Canals in Maryland](/wiki/Category:Canals_in_Maryland \"Canals in Maryland\")\n[Category:Chesapeake Bay watershed](/wiki/Category:Chesapeake_Bay_watershed \"Chesapeake Bay watershed\")\n[Category:Historic American Engineering Record in Virginia](/wiki/Category:Historic_American_Engineering_Record_in_Virginia \"Historic American Engineering Record in Virginia\")\n[Category:Potomac River watershed](/wiki/Category:Potomac_River_watershed \"Potomac River watershed\")\n[Category:Potomac River](/wiki/Category:Potomac_River \"Potomac River\")\n[Category:Canals in Virginia](/wiki/Category:Canals_in_Virginia \"Canals in Virginia\")\n[Category:Shenandoah River](/wiki/Category:Shenandoah_River \"Shenandoah River\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Krajenka
|
{
"id": [
3138265
],
"name": [
"WOSlinker"
]
}
|
f4rgmkvkrejh0g63lxkyyeszve9qsdo
|
2024-05-01T22:50:30Z
| 1,218,363,698 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Geographical location",
"History",
"Number of inhabitants by year",
"Notable people",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Krajenka** () is a [town](/wiki/Town \"Town\") in the [Greater Poland Voivodeship](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship \"Greater Poland Voivodeship\") of [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"). It has 3,804 inhabitants (2005\\) and lies in [Złotów County](/wiki/Z%C5%82ot%C3%B3w_County \"Złotów County\").\n\n",
"Geographical location\n---------------------\n\nKrajenka is located approximately 15 kilometers south of [Złotów](/wiki/Z%C5%82ot%C3%B3w \"Złotów\"), 50 kilometers south\\-east of [Szczecinek](/wiki/Szczecinek \"Szczecinek\") and 160 kilometers east of the regional center, [Szczecin](/wiki/Szczecin \"Szczecin\"). It is located on the river, a tributary of the [Gwda](/wiki/Gwda \"Gwda\") river. It is part of the ethnographic region of [Krajna](/wiki/Krajna \"Krajna\"), located in the northern part of the historic [Greater Poland](/wiki/Greater_Poland \"Greater Poland\") region.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Saint Anne church](/wiki/File:PL_Krajenka%2C_ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_par._p.w._%C5%9B%C5%9B._Miko%C5%82aja_i_Anny_01.JPG \"PL Krajenka, kościół par. p.w. śś. Mikołaja i Anny 01.JPG\")\nThe first mention of the town is from 1286, back then it belonged to noble family of Danaborski whose Coat of Arms was Toporczyk. The name of the town itself comes from the Polish word Krajna, which meant in the past a location on the borders of Polish state. Throughout centuries it was connected to Polish royalty and such families as Danaborski, Dahlke, Kościelecki, Grudziński, [Działyński](/wiki/Dzia%C5%82y%C5%84ski \"Działyński\"), [Sułkowski](/wiki/Su%C5%82kowski_family \"Sułkowski family\"), Komierowski.\n\n[Magdeburg city rights](/wiki/Magdeburg_rights \"Magdeburg rights\") were granted in 1420 by the Polish king [Władysław Jagiełło](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Jagie%C5%82%C5%82o \"Władysław Jagiełło\").\n\nFollowing the [First Partition of Poland](/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland \"First Partition of Poland\"), in 1772 it was annexed by [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"). In 1787 the city suffered a fire. After the last Polish owner of the town was killed by the Prussians in 1807, the town was confiscated by Prussian officials and passed from Polish to German hands. In 1846 a Protestant church was built by the famous German architect [Carl Friedrich Schinkel](/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Schinkel \"Carl Friedrich Schinkel\"). In 1871 a railway station of the [Prussian Eastern Railway](/wiki/Prussian_Eastern_Railway \"Prussian Eastern Railway\") was built south of the river. The town was then the property of [Prince Friedrich Leopold of Prussia](/wiki/Prince_Friedrich_Leopold_of_Prussia \"Prince Friedrich Leopold of Prussia\"). According to the German census of 1890, the town had a population of 3,344, of which 400 (12%) were [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\").\n\nDespite the policy of [Germanisation](/wiki/Germanisation \"Germanisation\"), local [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\") in the early 20th century founded the People's Bank and a Polish Catholic Society. After Poland regained independence in 1918, the Polish inhabitants made efforts to reintegrate the town with Poland, but despite their requests and protests, the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\") granted the town to [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"). Then it was made part of the province of [Grenzmark Posen\\-Westpreußen](/wiki/Grenzmark_Posen-Westpreu%C3%9Fen \"Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen\"). On 21 June 1924, the town made history within German law as the [Reichsgericht](/wiki/Reichsgericht \"Reichsgericht\") confirmed private ownership by Prinz Friedrich Leopold, including, where he died in 1931\\. In 1931, local Poles founded a Polish school. Its teacher, Franciszek Gliszewski, was arrested and murdered by the Germans in the [Flossenbürg concentration camp](/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp \"Flossenbürg concentration camp\") after the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in 1939\\.Maria Wardzyńska, *Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, [IPN](/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance \"Institute of National Remembrance\"), Warszawa, 2009, p. 80 (in Polish)\n\nOn 30 January 1945 the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") occupied the abandoned and severely destroyed town during the final stages of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Many of the inhabitants had fled during the winter of 1944/1945\\. After the war the town was finally reintegrated with Poland under the [Potsdam Agreement](/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement \"Potsdam Agreement\").\n[thumb\\|Saint Joseph church](/wiki/File:PL_Krajenka%2C_Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_p.w._%C5%9Bw._J%C3%B3zefa%2C_04.JPG \"PL Krajenka, Kościół p.w. św. Józefa, 04.JPG\")\n\n### Number of inhabitants by year\n\n| Year | Number |\n| --- | --- |\n| 1772 | 900 |\n| 1783 | 848 |\n| 1805 | 1,946 |\n| 1831 | 2,035 |\n| 1853 | 3,063 |\n| 1857 | 2,061 |\n| 1875 | 3,303 |\n| 1880 | 3,531 |\n| 1890 | 3,344 |\n| 1925 | 3,354 |\n| 1933 | 3,345 |\n| 1939 | 3,233 |\n| 1945 | 150 |\n| 1960 | 3,100 |\n| 2006 | 3,651 |\n\nNote that the table is based on primary, possibly inaccurate or biased sources.[Johann Friedrich Goldbeck](/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Goldbeck \"Johann Friedrich Goldbeck\"): *Volständige Topographie des Königreichs Preußen*. Part II: *Topographie von West\\-Preußen*. Marienwerder 1789, [p. 102, paragraph 8](https://books.google.com/books?id=SQw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA102).Michael Rademacher: *[Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte Provinz Pommern, Kreis Flatow](http://www.verwaltungsgeschichte.de/flatow.html)* (2006\\).August Eduard Preuß: *Preußische Landes\\- und Volkskunde*. Königsberg 1835, [p. 378\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=L_sAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA378)F. W. F. Schmitt: *Topographie des Flatower Kreises*. In: *Preußische Provinzialblätter*, Andere Folge, Band VII, Königsberg 1855, [pp. 115\\-116\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=HbMtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115)\n\n",
"### Number of inhabitants by year\n\n| Year | Number |\n| --- | --- |\n| 1772 | 900 |\n| 1783 | 848 |\n| 1805 | 1,946 |\n| 1831 | 2,035 |\n| 1853 | 3,063 |\n| 1857 | 2,061 |\n| 1875 | 3,303 |\n| 1880 | 3,531 |\n| 1890 | 3,344 |\n| 1925 | 3,354 |\n| 1933 | 3,345 |\n| 1939 | 3,233 |\n| 1945 | 150 |\n| 1960 | 3,100 |\n| 2006 | 3,651 |\n\nNote that the table is based on primary, possibly inaccurate or biased sources.[Johann Friedrich Goldbeck](/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Goldbeck \"Johann Friedrich Goldbeck\"): *Volständige Topographie des Königreichs Preußen*. Part II: *Topographie von West\\-Preußen*. Marienwerder 1789, [p. 102, paragraph 8](https://books.google.com/books?id=SQw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA102).Michael Rademacher: *[Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte Provinz Pommern, Kreis Flatow](http://www.verwaltungsgeschichte.de/flatow.html)* (2006\\).August Eduard Preuß: *Preußische Landes\\- und Volkskunde*. Königsberg 1835, [p. 378\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=L_sAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA378)F. W. F. Schmitt: *Topographie des Flatower Kreises*. In: *Preußische Provinzialblätter*, Andere Folge, Band VII, Königsberg 1855, [pp. 115\\-116\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=HbMtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA115)\n\n",
"Notable people\n--------------\n\n* (1914\\-1939\\), Polish Catholic priest, murdered by the Germans during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")\n* [Siggi Wilzig](/wiki/Siggi_Wilzig \"Siggi Wilzig\") (1926\\-2003\\), Auschwitz Holocaust survivor, CEO of Wilshire Oil Company[Paid Notice: Deaths WILZIG, SIGGI B.](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9501EFDC113EF93AA35752C0A9659C8B63), The New York Times\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Krojanker](/wiki/Krojanker \"Krojanker\"), several surnames derived from the names of the location\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official website of Krajenka](http://www.krajenka.pl/)\n* William Remus: [*Krojanke (Krojanka)*](http://remus.shidler.hawaii.edu/genes/WPrussia/krojanke/home.htm) (2008\\)\n\n[Category:Cities and towns in Greater Poland Voivodeship](/wiki/Category:Cities_and_towns_in_Greater_Poland_Voivodeship \"Cities and towns in Greater Poland Voivodeship\")\n[Category:Złotów County](/wiki/Category:Z%C5%82ot%C3%B3w_County \"Złotów County\")\n\n"
]
}
|
List of United States senators from Maine
|
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32395809
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"name": [
"SuperWIKI"
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}
|
k3dwige2mcrsycpbt907lki304lbc3r
|
2024-07-09T02:02:04Z
| 1,223,567,209 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"List of senators",
"See also",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\") was admitted to the [Union](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") on March 15, 1820\\. The state's [U.S. senators](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") belong to [class 1](/wiki/Classes_of_United_States_senators \"Classes of United States senators\") and [class 2](/wiki/Classes_of_United_States_senators \"Classes of United States senators\"). [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Susan Collins](/wiki/Susan_Collins \"Susan Collins\") (first elected in [1996](/wiki/1996_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1996 United States Senate election in Maine\")) and [Independent](/wiki/Independent_politician \"Independent politician\") [Angus King](/wiki/Angus_King \"Angus King\") (first elected in [2012](/wiki/2012_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2012 United States Senate election in Maine\")) are Maine's current U.S. senators, making Maine one of seven states to have a split United States Senate delegation. [William P. Frye](/wiki/William_P._Frye \"William P. Frye\") was Maine's longest serving senator (1881–1911\\). [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\") is one of fifteen states alongside [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\"), [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"), [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\"), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana \"Indiana\"), [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\"), [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota \"South Dakota\") and [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\") to have a younger senior senator and an older junior senator.\n\n",
"List of senators\n----------------\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=4 \\| 1\n\\| rowspan\\=4 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_John_Holmes.jpg \"Senator John Holmes.jpg\") \n**[John Holmes](/wiki/John_Holmes_%28Maine_politician%29 \"John Holmes (Maine politician)\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Democratic\\- \nRepublican](/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party \"Democratic-Republican Party\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=4 \\| Jun 13, 1820 – \nMar 3, 1827\n\\| [Elected in 1820](/wiki/1820_United_States_Senate_elections_in_Maine \"1820 United States Senate elections in Maine\").\n\\| 1\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| 1\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Elected in 1820](/wiki/1820_United_States_Senate_elections_in_Maine \"1820 United States Senate elections in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=7 \\| Jun 14, 1820 – \nMar 3, 1829\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Democratic\\- \nRepublican](/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party \"Democratic-Republican Party\")\n\\| rowspan\\=7 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_John_Chandler.jpg \"Senator John Chandler.jpg\") \n**[John Chandler](/wiki/John_Chandler \"John Chandler\")**\n! rowspan\\=7 \\| 1\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1821](/wiki/1821_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1821 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 2\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 2\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1823](/wiki/1823_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1823 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \\| [National \nRepublican](/wiki/National_Republican_Party \"National Republican Party\")\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Jacksonian](/wiki/Jacksonian_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Jacksonian Party (United States)\")\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! 2\n\\| align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Albion_K._Parris.jpg \"Albion K. Parris.jpg\") \n**[Albion Parris](/wiki/Albion_Parris \"Albion Parris\")**\n\\| \\| [Jacksonian](/wiki/Jacksonian_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Jacksonian Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap \\| Mar 4, 1827 – \nAug 26, 1828\n\\| [Elected in 1827](/wiki/1827_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1827 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned to become a judge on the [Maine Supreme Judicial Court](/wiki/Maine_Supreme_Judicial_Court \"Maine Supreme Judicial Court\").\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 3\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\\| nowrap \\| Aug 26, 1828 – \nJan 15, 1829\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 3\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_John_Holmes.jpg \"Senator John Holmes.jpg\") \n**[John Holmes](/wiki/John_Holmes_%28Maine_politician%29 \"John Holmes (Maine politician)\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [National \nRepublican](/wiki/National_Republican_Party \"National Republican Party\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Jan 15, 1829 – \nMar 3, 1833\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| Elected to finish Parris's term.Retired.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 3\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1829](/wiki/1829_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1829 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Mar 4, 1829 – \nJan 1, 1835\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [National \nRepublican](/wiki/National_Republican_Party \"National Republican Party\")\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Peleg_Sprague_%281793-1880%29_at_the_age_of_51.jpg \"Peleg Sprague (1793-1880) at the age of 51.jpg\") \n**[Peleg Sprague](/wiki/Peleg_Sprague_%28Maine_politician%29 \"Peleg Sprague (Maine politician)\")**\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 2\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=4 \\| 4\n\\| rowspan\\=4 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Ether_Shepley.png \"Ether Shepley.png\") \n**[Ether Shepley](/wiki/Ether_Shepley \"Ether Shepley\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Jacksonian](/wiki/Jacksonian_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Jacksonian Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=4 \\| Mar 4, 1833 – \nMar 3, 1836\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Elected in 1833](/wiki/1833_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1833 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned to become Justice of the [Maine Supreme Judicial Court](/wiki/Maine_Supreme_Judicial_Court \"Maine Supreme Judicial Court\").\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| 4\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Jan 1, 1835 – \nJan 20, 1835\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| [Elected to finish Sprague's term](/wiki/1835_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1835 United States Senate special election in Maine\"), having already been elected to the next term.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=5 \\| Jan 20, 1835 – \nMar 3, 1841\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Jacksonian](/wiki/Jacksonian_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Jacksonian Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=5 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:John_Ruggles.jpg \"John Ruggles.jpg\") \n**[John Ruggles](/wiki/John_Ruggles \"John Ruggles\")**\n! rowspan\\=5 \\| 3\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| 4\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Elected in 1835](/wiki/1835_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1835 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! 5\n\\| align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_Judah_Dana.jpg \"Senator Judah Dana.jpg\") \n**[Judah Dana](/wiki/Judah_Dana \"Judah Dana\")**\n\\| \\| [Jacksonian](/wiki/Jacksonian_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Jacksonian Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap \\| Mar 4, 1836 – \nMar 3, 1837\n\\| Appointed to continue Shepley's term.Either lost election to finish the term or retired when elected successor qualified.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 6\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_Reuel_Williams.jpg \"Senator Reuel Williams.jpg\") \n**[Reuel Williams](/wiki/Reuel_Williams \"Reuel Williams\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Mar 4, 1837 – \nFeb 15, 1843\n\\| Elected to finish Shepley's term.\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1839](/wiki/1839_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1839 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned.\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 5\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 5\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Elected in 1840](/wiki/1840_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1840 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=5 \\| Mar 4, 1841 – \nMar 3, 1847\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Whig](/wiki/Whig_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Whig Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=5 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_George_Evans_of_Maine.jpg \"Senator George Evans of Maine.jpg\") \n**[George Evans](/wiki/George_Evans_%28American_politician%29 \"George Evans (American politician)\")**\n! rowspan\\=5 \\| 4\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=2 \\| Feb 15, 1843 – \nDec 4, 1843\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 7\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:JohnFairfield_%28cropped%29.jpg \"JohnFairfield (cropped).jpg\") \n**[John Fairfield](/wiki/John_Fairfield \"John Fairfield\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Dec 4, 1843 – \nDec 24, 1847\n\\| Elected to finish Williams's term.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| Re\\-elected in 1844 or 1845\\.Died.\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| 6\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| 6\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Elected in 1846](/wiki/1846_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1846 United States Senate election in Maine\").[Online biographies](http://www.onlinebiographies.info/me/rmm/bradbury-jw.htm) , Bradbury, J.W.Retired.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=6 \\| Mar 4, 1847 – \nMar 3, 1853\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=6 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:James_Bradbury.jpg \"James Bradbury.jpg\") \n**[James W. Bradbury](/wiki/James_W._Bradbury \"James W. Bradbury\")**\n! rowspan\\=6 \\| 5\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\\| nowrap \\| Dec 24, 1847 – \nJan 5, 1848\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! 8\n\\| align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_Wyman_Moor.jpg \"Senator Wyman Moor.jpg\") \n**[Wyman B. S. Moor](/wiki/Wyman_B._S._Moor \"Wyman B. S. Moor\")**\n\\| \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap \\| Jan 5, 1848 – \nJune 7, 1848\n\\| Appointed to continue Fairfield's term.Successor elected.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=7 \\| 9\n\\| rowspan\\=7 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Hannibal_Hamlin%2C_photo_portrait_seated%2C_c1860-65.jpg \"Hannibal Hamlin, photo portrait seated, c1860-65.jpg\") \n**[Hannibal Hamlin](/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin \"Hannibal Hamlin\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=7 \\| Jun 8, 1848 – \nJan 7, 1857\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| Elected to finish Fairfield's term.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1851](/wiki/1851_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1851 United States Senate election in Maine\").Changed parties in 1856\\.Resigned to become [Governor of Maine](/wiki/Governor_of_Maine \"Governor of Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=7 \\| 7\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \n\\| rowspan\\=7 \\| 7\n\\| Legislature failed to elect.\n\\| nowrap \\| Mar 4, 1853 – \nFeb 10, 1854\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Elected to finish term](/wiki/1854_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1854 United States Senate special election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=10 \\| Feb 10, 1854 – \nJul 1, 1864\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Whig](/wiki/Whig_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Whig Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=10 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Hon._Wm._Pitt_Fessenden_of_Maine.png \"Hon. Wm. Pitt Fessenden of Maine.png\") \n**[William P. Fessenden](/wiki/William_P._Fessenden \"William P. Fessenden\")**\n! rowspan\\=10 \\| 6\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\\| nowrap \\| Jan 7, 1857 – \nJan 16, 1857\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! 10\n\\| align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Amos_Nourse.jpg \"Amos Nourse.jpg\") \n**[Amos Nourse](/wiki/Amos_Nourse \"Amos Nourse\")**\n\\| \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap \\| Jan 16, 1857 – \nMar 3, 1857\n\\| Elected to finish Hamlin's term.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=2 \\| 11\n\\| rowspan\\=2 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Hannibal_Hamlin%2C_photo_portrait_seated%2C_c1860-65.jpg \"Hannibal Hamlin, photo portrait seated, c1860-65.jpg\") \n**[Hannibal Hamlin](/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin \"Hannibal Hamlin\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=2 \\| Mar 4, 1857 – \nJan 17, 1861\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Elected in 1857](/wiki/1857_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1857 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned to become [Vice President of the United States](/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States \"Vice President of the United States\").\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| 8\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| 8\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1859](/wiki/1859_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1859 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned to become [U.S. Secretary of the Treasury](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury \"United States Secretary of the Treasury\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=7 \\| 12\n\\| rowspan\\=7 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Lot_Morrill%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_ca1865-1880.jpg \"Lot Morrill, Brady-Handy photo portrait, ca1865-1880.jpg\") \n**[Lot M. Morrill](/wiki/Lot_M._Morrill \"Lot M. Morrill\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=7 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=7 \\| Jan 17, 1861 – \nMar 3, 1869\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| Elected to finish Hamlin's term.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1863](/wiki/1863_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1863 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 9\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Jul 1, 1864 – \nOct 27, 1864\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| Appointed to continue Fessenden's term.[Elected in 1865 to finish Fessenden's term](/wiki/1865_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1865 United States Senate special election in Maine\").Retired.\n\\| nowrap \\| Oct 27, 1864 – \nMar 3, 1865\n\\| \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:NAFarwell.jpg \"NAFarwell.jpg\") \n**[Nathan A. Farwell](/wiki/Nathan_A._Farwell \"Nathan A. Farwell\")**\n! 7\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 9\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| Elected in 1864 or 1865\\.Died.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Mar 4, 1865 – \nSep 8, 1869\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Hon._Wm._Pitt_Fessenden_of_Maine.png \"Hon. Wm. Pitt Fessenden of Maine.png\") \n**[William P. Fessenden](/wiki/William_P._Fessenden \"William P. Fessenden\")**\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 8\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=10 \\| 13\n\\| rowspan\\=10 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Hannibal_Hamlin%2C_photo_portrait_seated%2C_c1860-65.jpg \"Hannibal Hamlin, photo portrait seated, c1860-65.jpg\") \n**[Hannibal Hamlin](/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin \"Hannibal Hamlin\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=10 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=10 \\| Mar 4, 1869 – \nMar 3, 1881\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Elected in 1869](/wiki/1869_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1869 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 10\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Sep 8, 1869 – \nOct 30, 1869\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| Appointed to finish Fessenden's term.[Elected in 1870 to finish Fessenden's term](/wiki/1870_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1870 United States Senate special election in Maine\").Byrd \\& Wolff, p. 118\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=4 \\| Oct 30, 1869 – \nJul 7, 1876\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=4 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Lot_Morrill%2C_Brady-Handy_photo_portrait%2C_ca1865-1880.jpg \"Lot Morrill, Brady-Handy photo portrait, ca1865-1880.jpg\") \n**[Lot M. Morrill](/wiki/Lot_M._Morrill \"Lot M. Morrill\")**\n! rowspan\\=4 \\| 9\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 10\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| Re\\-election year unknown.Resigned to become [U.S. Secretary of the Treasury](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury \"United States Secretary of the Treasury\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1875](/wiki/1875_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1875 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 11\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Jul 7, 1876 – \nJul 10, 1876\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| Appointed to finish Morrill's term.[Elected in 1877 to finish Morrill's term](/wiki/1877_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1877 United States Senate special election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=4 \\| Jul 10, 1876 – \nMar 5, 1881\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=4 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:James_G._Blaine_-_Brady-Handy.jpg \"James G. Blaine - Brady-Handy.jpg\") \n**[James G. Blaine](/wiki/James_G._Blaine \"James G. Blaine\")**\n! rowspan\\=4 \\| 10\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 11\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected to full term in 1877](/wiki/1877_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1877 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned to become [U.S. Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State \"United States Secretary of State\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=17 \\| 14\n\\| rowspan\\=17 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_Eugene_Hale_as_a_Member_of_the_55th_US_Congress.jpeg \"Senator Eugene Hale as a Member of the 55th US Congress.jpeg\") \n**[Eugene Hale](/wiki/Eugene_Hale \"Eugene Hale\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=17 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=17 \\| Mar 4, 1881 – \nMar 3, 1911\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Elected in 1881](/wiki/1881_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1881 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 12\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Mar 5, 1881 – \nMar 18, 1881\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| [Elected to finish Blaine's term](/wiki/1881_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1881 United States Senate special election in Maine\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=16 \\| Mar 18, 1881 – \nAug 8, 1911\n\\| rowspan\\=16 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=16 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:William_P._Frye_-_Brady-Handy.jpg \"William P. Frye - Brady-Handy.jpg\") \n**[William P. Frye](/wiki/William_P._Frye \"William P. Frye\")**\n! rowspan\\=16 \\| 11\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 12\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1883](/wiki/1883_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1883 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1887](/wiki/1887_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1887 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 13\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 13\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1889](/wiki/1889_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1889 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1893](/wiki/1893_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1893 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 14\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 14\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1895](/wiki/1895_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1895 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1899](/wiki/1899_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1899 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 15\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 15\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1901](/wiki/1901_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1901 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1905](/wiki/1905_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1905 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 16\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 16\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1907](/wiki/1907_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1907 United States Senate election in Maine\").Died.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=7 \\| 15\n\\| rowspan\\=7 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Charles_Fletcher_Johnson_%28Congress_Bio%29.jpg \"Charles Fletcher Johnson (Congress Bio).jpg\") \n**[Charles F. Johnson](/wiki/Charles_F._Johnson \"Charles F. Johnson\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=7 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=7 \\| Mar 4, 1911 – \nMar 3, 1917\n\\| rowspan\\=7 \\| [Elected in 1911](/wiki/1911_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1911 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\\| rowspan\\=7 \\| 17\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Aug 8, 1911 – \nSep 23, 1911\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| Appointed to continue Frye's term.[Elected in 1912 to finish Frye's term](/wiki/1912_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1912 United States Senate special election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\\| nowrap \\| Sep 23, 1911 – \nMar 3, 1913\n\\| \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Obadiah_Gardner.jpg \"Obadiah Gardner.jpg\") \n**[Obadiah Gardner](/wiki/Obadiah_Gardner \"Obadiah Gardner\")**\n! 12\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 17\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Elected in 1913](/wiki/1913_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1913 United States Senate election in Maine\").Died.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=2 \\| Mar 4, 1913 – \nJun 16, 1916\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=2 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Edwin_Chick_Burleigh.jpg \"Edwin Chick Burleigh.jpg\") \n**[Edwin C. Burleigh](/wiki/Edwin_C._Burleigh \"Edwin C. Burleigh\")**\n! rowspan\\=2 \\| 13\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Jun 16, 1916 – \nSep 12, 1916\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Elected to finish Burleigh's term](/wiki/1916_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Maine \"1916 United States Senate special election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=6 \\| Sep 12, 1916 – \nAug 23, 1926\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=6 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:FERNALD%2C_BERT_M._SENATOR_LCCN2016857531_%28cropped%29.jpg \"FERNALD, BERT M. SENATOR LCCN2016857531 (cropped).jpg\") \n**[Bert M. Fernald](/wiki/Bert_M._Fernald \"Bert M. Fernald\")**\n! rowspan\\=6 \\| 14\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=14 \\| 16\n\\| rowspan\\=14 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Frederickhale.jpg \"Frederickhale.jpg\") \n**[Frederick Hale](/wiki/Frederick_Hale_%28American_politician%29 \"Frederick Hale (American politician)\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=14 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=14 \\| Mar 4, 1917 – \nJan 3, 1941\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1916](/wiki/1916_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1916 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 18\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 18\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1918](/wiki/1918_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1918 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1922](/wiki/1922_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1922 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 19\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 19\n\\| [Re\\-elected in 1924](/wiki/1924_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1924 United States Senate election in Maine\").Died.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| nowrap \\| Aug 23, 1926 – \nNov 30, 1926\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| Elected to finish Fernald's term.Retired.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Nov 30, 1926 – \nMar 3, 1931\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Arthur_Robinson_Gould.jpg \"Arthur Robinson Gould.jpg\") \n**[Arthur R. Gould](/wiki/Arthur_R._Gould \"Arthur R. Gould\")**\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 15\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1928](/wiki/1928_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1928 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 20\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 20\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1930](/wiki/1930_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1930 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=9 \\| Mar 4, 1931 – \nJan 3, 1949\n\\| rowspan\\=9 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=9 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:WallaceWhiteJr.jpg \"WallaceWhiteJr.jpg\") \n**[Wallace H. White](/wiki/Wallace_H._White \"Wallace H. White\")**\n! rowspan\\=9 \\| 16\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1934](/wiki/1934_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1934 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 21\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 21\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1936](/wiki/1936_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1936 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=6 \\| 17\n\\| rowspan\\=6 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Owen_Brewster_4a.jpg \"Owen Brewster 4a.jpg\") \n**[Owen Brewster](/wiki/Owen_Brewster \"Owen Brewster\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=6 \\| Jan 3, 1941 – \nDec 31, 1952\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1940](/wiki/1940_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1940 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 22\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 22\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1942](/wiki/1942_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1942 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1946](/wiki/1946_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1946 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned, having already lost renomination.\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| 23\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| 23\n\\| rowspan\\=4 \\| [Elected in 1948](/wiki/1948_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1948 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=13 \\| Jan 3, 1949 – \nJan 3, 1973\n\\| rowspan\\=13 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=13 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Margaret_Chase_Smith.jpg \"Margaret Chase Smith.jpg\") \n**[Margaret Chase Smith](/wiki/Margaret_Chase_Smith \"Margaret Chase Smith\")**\n! rowspan\\=13 \\| 17\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\\| nowrap \\| Dec 31, 1952 – \nJan 3, 1953\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 18\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Frederick_George_Payne.jpg \"Frederick George Payne.jpg\") \n**[Frederick G. Payne](/wiki/Frederick_G._Payne \"Frederick G. Payne\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Jan 3, 1953 – \nJan 3, 1959\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1952](/wiki/1952_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1952 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 24\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 24\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1954](/wiki/1954_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1954 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=11 \\| 19\n\\| rowspan\\=11 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Edmund_Muskie.jpg \"Edmund Muskie.jpg\") \n**[Edmund Muskie](/wiki/Edmund_Muskie \"Edmund Muskie\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=11 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=11 \\| Jan 3, 1959 – \nMay 7, 1980\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1958](/wiki/1958_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1958 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 25\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 25\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1960](/wiki/1960_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1960 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1964](/wiki/1964_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1964 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 26\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 26\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1966](/wiki/1966_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1966 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1970](/wiki/1970_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1970 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 27\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 27\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1972](/wiki/1972_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1972 United States Senate election in Maine\").Lost re\\-election.\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=3 \\| Jan 3, 1973 – \nJan 3, 1979\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=3 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Wm_D_Hathaway_Senate.jpg \"Wm D Hathaway Senate.jpg\") \n**[Bill Hathaway](/wiki/William_Hathaway \"William Hathaway\")**\n! rowspan\\=3 \\| 18\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1976](/wiki/1976_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1976 United States Senate election in Maine\").Resigned to become [U.S. Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State \"United States Secretary of State\").\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 28\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| 28\n\\| rowspan\\=5 \\| [Elected in 1978](/wiki/1978_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1978 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=11 \\| Jan 3, 1979 – \nJan 3, 1997\n\\| rowspan\\=11 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=11 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_William_Cohen_%28R-ME%29.jpg \"Senator William Cohen (R-ME).jpg\") \n**[William Cohen](/wiki/William_Cohen \"William Cohen\")**\n! rowspan\\=11 \\| 19\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| colspan\\=3 \\| *Vacant*\n\\| nowrap \\| May 7, 1980 – \nMay 19, 1980\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=8 \\| 20\n\\| rowspan\\=8 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:George_John_Mitchell.jpg \"George John Mitchell.jpg\") \n**[George J. Mitchell](/wiki/George_J._Mitchell \"George J. Mitchell\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=8 \\| [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=8 \\| May 19, 1980 – \nJan 3, 1995\n\\| rowspan\\=2 \\| Appointed to finish Muskie's term.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected to full term in 1982](/wiki/1982_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1982 United States Senate election in Maine\").[Appointed Senators](https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/senators_appointed.htm), senate.gov, section \"Art and History\".\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 29\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 29\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1984](/wiki/1984_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1984 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1988](/wiki/1988_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1988 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 30\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 30\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 1990](/wiki/1990_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1990 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=9 \\| 21\n\\| rowspan\\=9 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Olympia_Snowe%2C_official_photo_2.JPG \"Olympia Snowe, official photo 2.JPG\") \n**[Olympia Snowe](/wiki/Olympia_Snowe \"Olympia Snowe\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=9 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=9 \\| Jan 3, 1995 – \nJan 3, 2013\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1994](/wiki/1994_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1994 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 31\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 31\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 1996](/wiki/1996_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"1996 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=15 nowrap \\| Jan 3, 1997 – \npresent\n\\| rowspan\\=15 \\| [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\")\n\\| rowspan\\=15 align\\=right \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Senator_Susan_Collins_2014_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Senator Susan Collins 2014 official portrait (cropped).jpg\") \n**[Susan Collins](/wiki/Susan_Collins \"Susan Collins\")**\n! rowspan\\=15 \\| 20\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2000](/wiki/2000_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2000 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 32\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 32\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2002](/wiki/2002_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2002 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2006](/wiki/2006_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2006 United States Senate election in Maine\").Retired.\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 33\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 33\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2008](/wiki/2008_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2008 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n! rowspan\\=6 \\| 22\n\\| rowspan\\=6 align\\=left \\| [100px](/wiki/File:Angus_King%2C_official_portrait%2C_113th_Congress.jpg \"Angus King, official portrait, 113th Congress.jpg\") \n**[Angus King](/wiki/Angus_King \"Angus King\")**\n\\| rowspan\\=6 \\| [Independent](/wiki/Independent_politician_%28United_States%29 \"Independent politician (United States)\")\n\\| nowrap rowspan\\=6 \\| Jan 3, 2013 – \npresent\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Elected in 2012](/wiki/2012_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2012 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 34\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 34\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2014](/wiki/2014_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2014 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2018](/wiki/2018_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2018 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 35\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| 35\n\\| rowspan\\=3 \\| [Re\\-elected in 2020](/wiki/2020_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2020 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| rowspan\\=2 colspan\\=5 \\| To be determined in the [2024 election](/wiki/2024_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2024 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\\| rowspan\\=2\\|36\n\\| \n\n\\|\\- style\\=\"height:2em\"\n\\| \n\\| 36\n\\| colspan\\=5 \\| To be determined in the [2026 election](/wiki/2026_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maine \"2026 United States Senate election in Maine\").\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of United States representatives from Maine](/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Maine \"List of United States representatives from Maine\")\n* [United States congressional delegations from Maine](/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Maine \"United States congressional delegations from Maine\")\n* [Elections in Maine](/wiki/Elections_in_Maine \"Elections in Maine\")\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[United States Senators](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_Maine_politicians \"Lists of Maine politicians\")\n[Maine](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_United_States_senators_by_state \"Lists of United States senators by state\")\n\n"
]
}
|
James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury
|
{
"id": [
35936988
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"name": [
"JJMC89 bot III"
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|
9hw4cmvdj3y0htqa9z9wipho9oeqv30
|
2024-08-15T22:25:06Z
| 1,213,120,386 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Political career",
"Family",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - * \n\n**James Brownlow William Gascoyne\\-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury**, (17 April 1791 – 12 April 1868\\), styled **Viscount Cranborne** until 1823, was a British [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") politician. He held office under [the Earl of Derby](/wiki/Edward_Smith-Stanley%2C_14th_Earl_of_Derby \"Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby\") as [Lord Privy Seal](/wiki/Lord_Privy_Seal \"Lord Privy Seal\") in 1852 and [Lord President of the Council](/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Council \"Lord President of the Council\") between 1858 and 1859\\. He was the father of [Robert Gascoyne\\-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%2C_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury \"Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury\"), three times [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\"), and grandfather of [Arthur Balfour](/wiki/Arthur_Balfour \"Arthur Balfour\"), who also served as Prime Minister.\n\n",
"Background\n----------\n\nSalisbury was the son of [James Cecil, 1st Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/James_Cecil%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Salisbury \"James Cecil, 1st Marquess of Salisbury\"), and [Lady Emily Mary Hill](/wiki/Emily_Cecil%2C_Marchioness_of_Salisbury \"Emily Cecil, Marchioness of Salisbury\"), daughter of [Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire](/wiki/Wills_Hill%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Downshire \"Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire\").[thepeerage.com Sir James Brownlow William Gascoyne\\-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury](http://www.thepeerage.com/p1392.htm#i13917)\n\n",
"Political career\n----------------\n\nSalisbury entered the [House of Commons](/wiki/British_House_of_Commons \"British House of Commons\") in 1813 as [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Weymouth and Melcombe Regis](/wiki/Weymouth_and_Melcombe_Regis_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Weymouth and Melcombe Regis (UK Parliament constituency)\"), a seat he held until 1817, and then sat for [Hertford](/wiki/Hertford_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Hertford (UK Parliament constituency)\") between 1817 and 1823\\.\n\nIn the latter year, he succeeded his father in the [marquessate](/wiki/Marquess_of_Salisbury \"Marquess of Salisbury\") and entered the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords \"House of Lords\"). He served in the [Lord Derby](/wiki/Edward_Smith-Stanley%2C_14th_Earl_of_Derby \"Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby\")'s first two cabinets as [Lord Privy Seal](/wiki/Lord_Privy_Seal \"Lord Privy Seal\") in 1852 and as [Lord President of the Council](/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Council \"Lord President of the Council\") between 1858 and 1859\\. He was sworn of the [Privy Council](/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Most_Honourable_Privy_Council \"Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council\") in 1826 and made a [Knight of the Garter](/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter \"Order of the Garter\") in 1842\\.\n\nApart from his political career he also served as titular [Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex](/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Middlesex \"Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex\") between 1841 and 1868, and followed his father as [colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29%23Colonel_of_the_Regiment \"Colonel (United Kingdom)#Colonel of the Regiment\") of the [Hertfordshire Militia](/wiki/Hertfordshire_Militia \"Hertfordshire Militia\").[H.G. Hart](/wiki/Henry_George_Hart \"Henry George Hart\"), *The New Annual Army List, and Militia List*, 1840\\. During a period of unrest in 1830 he raised the [South Hertfordshire Yeomanry Cavalry](/wiki/South_Hertfordshire_Yeomanry_Cavalry \"South Hertfordshire Yeomanry Cavalry\") and commanded it with the rank of [major](/wiki/Major_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Major (United Kingdom)\"). He was promoted to [lieutenant\\-colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)\") the following year when the regiment was expanded. In 1847, however, he exchanged with his second\\-in\\-command, [James Grimston, 2nd Earl of Verulam](/wiki/James_Grimston%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Verulam \"James Grimston, 2nd Earl of Verulam\"), and reverted to the rank of major.Lt\\-Col J.D. Sainsbury, *The Hertfordshire Yeomanry: An Illustrated History 1794–1920*, Welwyn: Hart Books/Hertfordshire Yeomanry and Artillery Historical Trust, 1994, ISBN 0\\-948527\\-03\\-X, pp. 39–50\\.\n\n",
"Family\n------\n\nLord Salisbury was married twice. His first marriage was on 2 February 1821 to Frances Mary Gascoyne (born 25 January 1802, died 15 October 1839\\), daughter of [Bamber Gascoyne](/wiki/Bamber_Gascoyne_%28the_younger%29 \"Bamber Gascoyne (the younger)\") of Childwall Hall, [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire \"Lancashire\"), and his wife Sarah Bridget Frances Price. A biography of her by [Carola Oman](/wiki/Carola_Oman \"Carola Oman\") appeared in 1966\\. Upon marrying Frances, he added her surname to his own.*The Gascoyne Heiress: The Life and Diaries of Frances Mary Gascoyne\\-Cecil, 1802\\-39* (London: Hodder \\& Stoughton, 1968\\). Retrieved 7 August 2012\\. The couple had six children, including:\n* James Emilius William Evelyn Gascoyne\\-Cecil, Viscount Cranborne (29 October 1821 – 14 June 1865\\), died unmarried.\n* Lady Mildred Arabella Charlotte Gascoyne\\-Cecil (21 October 1822 – 18 March 1881\\), married [Alexander Beresford Hope](/wiki/Alexander_Beresford_Hope \"Alexander Beresford Hope\") and had children.\n* Lord Arthur Gascoyne\\-Cecil (19 December 1823 – 25 April 1825\\), died in infancy.\n* Lady Blanche Mary Harriet (5 March 1825 – 16 May 1872\\), married [James Maitland Balfour](/wiki/James_Maitland_Balfour \"James Maitland Balfour\"); mother of Prime Minister [Arthur Balfour](/wiki/Arthur_Balfour \"Arthur Balfour\").\n* [Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne\\-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%2C_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury \"Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury\") (3 February 1830 – 22 August 1903\\), [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\") three times between 1885 and 1902, married Georgina Alderson and had children.\n* [Lieutenant\\-Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant-Colonel \"Lieutenant-Colonel\") [Lord Eustace Brownlow Henry Gascoyne\\-Cecil](/wiki/Lord_Eustace_Cecil \"Lord Eustace Cecil\") (24 April 1834 – 3 July 1921\\), married Lady Gertrude Louisa Scott and had children.\n\nLord Salisbury's second marriage, on 29 April 1847, was to Lady [Mary Catherine Sackville\\-West](/wiki/Mary_Stanley%2C_Countess_of_Derby \"Mary Stanley, Countess of Derby\"), daughter of [George Sackville\\-West, 5th Earl De La Warr](/wiki/George_Sackville-West%2C_5th_Earl_De_La_Warr \"George Sackville-West, 5th Earl De La Warr\"), and [Elizabeth Sackville\\-West, Countess De La Warr](/wiki/Elizabeth_Sackville-West%2C_Countess_De_La_Warr \"Elizabeth Sackville-West, Countess De La Warr\"), with whom he had five children: \n* Lord Sackville Arthur Cecil (16 March 1848 – 29 January 1898\\), died unmarried.\n* [Lady Mary Arabella Arthur Cecil](/wiki/Mary_Arabella_Stewart%2C_Countess_of_Galloway \"Mary Arabella Stewart, Countess of Galloway\") (26 April 1850 – 18 August 1903\\), married [Alan Stewart, 10th Earl of Galloway](/wiki/Alan_Stewart%2C_10th_Earl_of_Galloway \"Alan Stewart, 10th Earl of Galloway\").\n* Lady Margaret Elizabeth Cecil (1850 – 11 March 1919\\), died unmarried.\n* Lord Arthur Cecil (3 July 1851– 16 July 1913\\), married Elizabeth Ann Wilson and had children; married secondly, in 1902, Frederica von Klenck, daughter of diplomat Baron Otto von Klenck, of [Gmunden](/wiki/Gmunden \"Gmunden\"), and his British\\-born wife née Stewart.\n* [Lieutenant\\-Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant-Colonel \"Lieutenant-Colonel\") Lord Lionel Cecil (21 March 1853 – 13 January 1901\\), died unmarried.\n\nLord Salisbury died in April 1868, aged 76, and was succeeded as marquess by his third, eldest surviving son, Robert. The Marchioness of Salisbury died in December 1900\\.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1791 births](/wiki/Category:1791_births \"1791 births\")\n[Category:1868 deaths](/wiki/Category:1868_deaths \"1868 deaths\")\n[James](/wiki/Category:Marquesses_of_Salisbury \"Marquesses of Salisbury\")\n[Cranborne, James Gascoyne\\-Cecil, Viscount](/wiki/Category:Tory_MPs_%28pre-1834%29 \"Tory MPs (pre-1834)\")\n[Category:Knights of the Garter](/wiki/Category:Knights_of_the_Garter \"Knights of the Garter\")\n[Category:Lord\\-lieutenants of Middlesex](/wiki/Category:Lord-lieutenants_of_Middlesex \"Lord-lieutenants of Middlesex\")\n[Salisbury2](/wiki/Category:Hertfordshire_Militia_officers \"Hertfordshire Militia officers\")\n[Category:Hertfordshire Yeomanry officers](/wiki/Category:Hertfordshire_Yeomanry_officers \"Hertfordshire Yeomanry officers\")\n[Category:Lord Presidents of the Council](/wiki/Category:Lord_Presidents_of_the_Council \"Lord Presidents of the Council\")\n[Category:Lords Privy Seal](/wiki/Category:Lords_Privy_Seal \"Lords Privy Seal\")\n[Cranborne, James Gascoyne\\-Cecil, Viscount](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_for_English_constituencies \"Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies\")\n[Cranborne, James Gascoyne\\-Cecil, Viscount](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1812%E2%80%931818 \"UK MPs 1812–1818\")\n[Cranborne, James Gascoyne\\-Cecil, Viscount](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1818%E2%80%931820 \"UK MPs 1818–1820\")\n[Cranborne, James Gascoyne\\-Cecil, Viscount](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1820%E2%80%931826 \"UK MPs 1820–1826\")\n[Salisbury, M2](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_who_inherited_peerages \"UK MPs who inherited peerages\")\n[James, Salisbury 2](/wiki/Category:Cecil_family \"Cecil family\")\n[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\")\n[Category:Parents of prime ministers of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Parents_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parents of prime ministers of the United Kingdom\")\n\n"
]
}
|
The Colour Out of Space
|
{
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6056090
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64mytideeptlj0s3r1hwvbbps1zmti5
|
2024-09-09T05:26:02Z
| 1,237,341,614 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Synopsis",
"Background",
"Reception and legacy",
"Film adaptations",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
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"content": [
"\n\n\"**The Colour Out of Space**\" is a [science fiction/horror](/wiki/Lovecraftian_horror \"Lovecraftian horror\") [short story](/wiki/Short_story \"Short story\") by American author [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft \"H. P. Lovecraft\"), written in March 1927\\. In the tale, an unnamed narrator pieces together the story of an area known by the locals as the \"blasted [heath](/wiki/Heath \"Heath\")\" (most likely after a line from either [Milton](/wiki/John_Milton \"John Milton\")'s *[Paradise Lost](/wiki/Paradise_Lost \"Paradise Lost\")* or [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\")'s *[Macbeth](/wiki/Macbeth \"Macbeth\")*) in the hills west of the fictional town of [Arkham](/wiki/Arkham \"Arkham\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"). The narrator discovers that many years ago a meteorite crashed there, poisoning every living being nearby: vegetation grows large but foul\\-tasting, animals are driven mad and deformed into grotesque shapes, and the people go insane or die one by one.\n\nLovecraft began writing \"The Colour Out of Space\" immediately after finishing his previous short novel, *[The Case of Charles Dexter Ward](/wiki/The_Case_of_Charles_Dexter_Ward \"The Case of Charles Dexter Ward\")*, and in the midst of final revision on his [horror fiction](/wiki/Horror_fiction \"Horror fiction\") essay \"[Supernatural Horror in Literature](/wiki/Supernatural_Horror_in_Literature \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\")\". Seeking to create a truly alien life form, he drew inspiration from numerous fiction and nonfiction sources. First appearing in the September 1927 edition of [Hugo Gernsback](/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback \"Hugo Gernsback\")'s science fiction magazine *[Amazing Stories](/wiki/Amazing_Stories \"Amazing Stories\")*, \"The Colour Out of Space\" became one of Lovecraft's most popular works, and remained his personal favorite of his short stories. It has been adapted to film several times, as *[Die, Monster, Die!](/wiki/Die%2C_Monster%2C_Die%21 \"Die, Monster, Die!\")* (1965\\), [*The Curse*](/wiki/The_Curse_%281987_film%29 \"The Curse (1987 film)\") (1987\\), *Colour from the Dark* (2008\\), *The Colour Out of Space* (*Die Farbe*) (2010\\) and *[Color Out of Space](/wiki/Color_Out_of_Space_%28film%29 \"Color Out of Space (film)\")* (2019\\).\n\n",
"Synopsis\n--------\n\nThe narrator, an unnamed [surveyor](/wiki/Surveying \"Surveying\") from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), describes his attempts to uncover the secrets behind a shunned place referred to by the locals of the hills west of [Arkham](/wiki/Arkham \"Arkham\") as the \"blasted [heath](/wiki/Heath \"Heath\")\". Unable to garner any information from the townspeople, the protagonist seeks out an old and allegedly crazy man by the name of Ammi Pierce, who relates his experiences with a farmer named Nahum Gardner and his family who used to live on the property.\n\nA [meteorite](/wiki/Meteorite \"Meteorite\") crashed into Nahum's land over fifty years prior, in June 1882\\. At the time, local scientists take a sample from the meteorite, and are perplexed by several strange behaviors that it exhibits. The sample disappears overnight after being stored in a glass beaker. When attempting to take a second sample from the meteorite, the scientists reveal a globule encased in the meteorite emitting a strange color. It was \"only by analogy that they called it a color at all\", as it fell outside of the range of anything known in the [visible spectrum](/wiki/Visible_spectrum \"Visible spectrum\"). One of the scientists hits the globule with a hammer, and it disintegrates. Overnight, the meteorite disappears after being struck by bolts of [lightning](/wiki/Lightning \"Lightning\").\n\nThe following season, Nahum's crops grow unnaturally large and abundant. When he discovers that, despite their appearance, they are inedible, he becomes convinced that the meteorite has poisoned the soil. Over the following year, the problem spreads to the surrounding plants and animals, altering them in unusual ways. All of the vegetation on the farm begins to become grey and brittle.\n\nMrs. Gardner goes [mad](/wiki/Insanity \"Insanity\"), and Nahum decides to keep her locked in the attic. Over time, the family becomes isolated from the neighboring farmers, and Pierce becomes their only contact with the outside world. Pierce informs Nahum that their [well](/wiki/Well \"Well\") water has gone bad and suggests digging and drinking from a new one, but Nahum refuses to take his advice. Thaddeus, one of Nahum's sons, also goes mad, and Nahum locks him in a different room of the attic. The [livestock](/wiki/Livestock \"Livestock\") start to take on disturbing forms and die off. Like the crops, their meat is inedible. Thaddeus dies in the attic, and Nahum buries his remains behind the farm. Merwin, another of Nahum's sons, vanishes while retrieving water from the contaminated well.\n\nAfter weeks of no contact with Nahum, Pierce visits the farmstead. He meets Nahum in his house, and realizes that he, like his wife and son, has also gone mad. When asked about Zenas, Nahum's last son who was accounted for, Nahum tells Pierce that Zenas \"lives in the well\". Pierce ascends the stairs to the attic and finds that Mrs. Gardner has taken on a horrible form. It is implied that Pierce kills her in an act of mercy. When he descends the stairs, he finds that Nahum too has become horribly deformed. Nahum has a moment of lucidity and tells Pierce that the color that arrived on the meteorite is responsible, and that it has been siphoning the life out of the surrounding area. Shortly afterwards, Nahum dies.\n\nPierce leaves and returns to the farmstead with six men. The group discovers both Merwin's and Zenas's eroding [skeletons](/wiki/Skeleton \"Skeleton\") at the bottom of the well, along with the bones of several other creatures. As they reflect upon their discoveries in the house, the color begins to pour out from the well. The trees start to convulse, and the greyed organic material on the farm begins to faintly glow with the color. The men flee the house as the color flies from the well into the sky and disappears. Pierce alone turns back after the color has gone and witnesses some residual part of the color attempt to ascend briefly, only to fail and return to the well. The knowledge that part of the color still resides on Earth is sufficient to disturb his mental state. When some of the men return the following day, they find only Pierce's dead [horse](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\"), acres of grey dust, and untouched inorganic matter. Upon hearing the rumors of what has taken place, many of the residents of the surrounding area decide to move away.\n\n",
"Background\n----------\n\n[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Lovecraft was inspired to write \"The Colour Out of Space\" in part by *[The Book of the Damned](/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Damned \"The Book of the Damned\")* by [Charles Fort](/wiki/Charles_Fort \"Charles Fort\") (pictured, 1920\\)](/wiki/File:Fort_charles_1920.jpg \"Fort charles 1920.jpg\")\n\nLovecraft began writing \"The Colour Out of Space\" in March 1927, immediately after completing *[The Case of Charles Dexter Ward](/wiki/The_Case_of_Charles_Dexter_Ward \"The Case of Charles Dexter Ward\")*. As he wrote the tale, however, he was also typing the final draft of his essay on [horror fiction](/wiki/Horror_fiction \"Horror fiction\"), \"[Supernatural Horror in Literature](/wiki/Supernatural_Horror_in_Literature \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\")\". Although the author himself claimed that his inspiration was the newly constructed [Scituate Reservoir](/wiki/Scituate_Reservoir \"Scituate Reservoir\") in [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\"), Lovecraft scholar [S. T. Joshi](/wiki/S._T._Joshi \"S. T. Joshi\") believes that the planned [Quabbin Reservoir](/wiki/Quabbin_Reservoir \"Quabbin Reservoir\") in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") must have influenced him as well. American writer and [pulp fiction](/wiki/Pulp_fiction_%28genre%29 \"Pulp fiction (genre)\") enthusiast [Will Murray](/wiki/Will_Murray_%28writer%29 \"Will Murray (writer)\") cites paranormal investigator [Charles Fort](/wiki/Charles_Fort \"Charles Fort\"), and the \"thunderstones\" (lightning\\-drawing rocks that may have fallen from the sky) he describes in *[The Book of the Damned](/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Damned \"The Book of the Damned\")*, as possible inspirations for the behavior of the meteorite.[Murray, Will](/wiki/Will_Murray_%28writer%29 \"Will Murray (writer)\"), \"Sources for 'The Colour Out of Space'\", *Crypt of Cthulhu* No. 28 (Yuletide 1984\\), pp. 3\\-5; cited in S. T. Joshi, *Annotated Lovecraft*, p. 70\\. Andy Troy argues that the story was an allegory for the coverage of the [Radium Girls](/wiki/Radium_Girls \"Radium Girls\") scandal in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, with the symptoms of the Gardners matching the newspaper's description of [radium necrosis](/wiki/Radium_jaw \"Radium jaw\"). Edward Guimont and Horace A. Smith have proposed that the March 1926 rocket test flight by [Robert H. Goddard](/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard \"Robert H. Goddard\") on a farm in [Auburn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Auburn%2C_Massachusetts \"Auburn, Massachusetts\") may also have served as an influence on the story.\n\nLovecraft was dismayed at the all\\-too human depiction of aliens in other works of fiction, and his goal for \"Colour\" was to create an entity that was truly alien. In doing so, he drew inspiration from a number of sources describing colors outside of the visible spectrum. Most notably, Joshi points to Hugh Elliott's *Modern Science and Materialism*, a 1919 nonfiction book that mentions the \"extremely limited\" senses of humans, such that of the many \"aethereal waves\" striking the eyes, \"The majority cannot be perceived by the retina at all\".[Joshi, S. T.](/wiki/S._T._Joshi \"S. T. Joshi\"), \"The Sources for 'From Beyond'\", *Crypt of Cthulhu* No. 38 (Eastertide 1986\\): 15\\-19 Lovecraft had used this concept previously, in his 1920 short story, \"[From Beyond](/wiki/From_Beyond_%28short_story%29 \"From Beyond (short story)\")\". Completed by the end of March, \"The Colour Out of Space\" first appeared in [Hugo Gernsback](/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback \"Hugo Gernsback\")'s science fiction magazine *[Amazing Stories](/wiki/Amazing_Stories \"Amazing Stories\")* in September 1927\\. The story was illustrated by J. M. de Aragón, an artist who produced occasional artwork for the magazine.\n\n",
"Reception and legacy\n--------------------\n\n[upright\\|thumb\\|\"The Colour Out of Space\" appeared in the September 1927 edition of *[Amazing Stories](/wiki/Amazing_Stories \"Amazing Stories\")*, published by [Experimenter Publishing](/wiki/Experimenter_Publishing \"Experimenter Publishing\").](/wiki/File:Amazing_stories_192709.jpg \"Amazing stories 192709.jpg\")\n\n\"The Colour Out of Space\" became the only work from *Amazing Stories* to make [Edward O'Brien's](/wiki/Edward_Joseph_Harrington_O%27Brien \"Edward Joseph Harrington O'Brien\") anthology of *[The Best American Short Stories](/wiki/The_Best_American_Short_Stories \"The Best American Short Stories\")*, appearing in the 1928 \"Roll of Honor\". Gernsback paid Lovecraft only $25 (approximately $ in present\\-day terms) and was late in doing so, leading Lovecraft to refer to the publisher as \"Hugo the Rat\". He never again submitted anything to the publication. Lovecraft did not write another major short story until the following year, when he authored \"[The Dunwich Horror](/wiki/The_Dunwich_Horror \"The Dunwich Horror\")\", although he did pen \"[History of the Necronomicon](/wiki/History_of_the_Necronomicon \"History of the Necronomicon\")\" and \"[Ibid](/wiki/Ibid_%28short_story%29 \"Ibid (short story)\")\" as minor works in\\-between, as well as an account of a [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\") night's dream that he called \"[The Very Old Folk](/wiki/The_Very_Old_Folk \"The Very Old Folk\")\".\n\nIn addition to being Lovecraft's personal favourite of his short stories, critics generally consider \"The Colour Out of Space\" one of his best works, and the first with his trademark blending of science fiction and horror. Lovecraft scholar Donald R. Burleson referred to the tale as \"one of his stylistically and conceptually finest short stories\".Burleson, \"Critical\", p. 135 Joshi praises the work as one of Lovecraft's best and most frightening, particularly for the vagueness of the description of the story's eponymous horror. He also lauded the work as Lovecraft's most successful attempt to create something entirely outside of the human experience, as the entity's motive (if any) is unknown and it is impossible to discern whether or not the \"colour\" is emotional, moral, or even conscious. His only criticism is that it is \"just a little too long\".Joshi, \"Subtler\", p. 137 [E. F. Bleiler](/wiki/E._F._Bleiler \"E. F. Bleiler\") described \"The Colour Out of Space\" as \"an excellent story, one of Lovecraft's finest works; in my opinion the best original story to appear in *Amazing Stories*\". The text of \"The Colour Out of Space\", like many of Lovecraft's works, has fallen into public domain and can be accessed in several compilations of the author's work, as well as on the Internet. It also had a strong influence on [Brian Aldiss](/wiki/Brian_Aldiss \"Brian Aldiss\")'s *The Saliva Tree*, which has been seen as a rewriting of Lovecraft's tale. In 1984, the novel *The Color Out of Time* by [Michael Shea](/wiki/Michael_Shea_%28author%29 \"Michael Shea (author)\") was published as a sequel to the original novelette.\n\n### Film adaptations\n\nThe 1965 film *[Die, Monster, Die!](/wiki/Die%2C_Monster%2C_Die%21 \"Die, Monster, Die!\")*, directed by [Daniel Haller](/wiki/Daniel_Haller \"Daniel Haller\"), is based on \"The Colour Out of Space\". The film stars [Nick Adams](/wiki/Nick_Adams_%28actor%2C_born_1931%29 \"Nick Adams (actor, born 1931)\"), [Suzan Farmer](/wiki/Suzan_Farmer \"Suzan Farmer\"), and [Boris Karloff](/wiki/Boris_Karloff \"Boris Karloff\"). Lovecraft scholar Don G. Smith claims that, of the scenes that are derived from Lovecraft's work, the \"blasted heath doesn't live up to Lovecraft's description\"Smith, p. 45 and asserts that, overall, the film does not capture Lovecraft's intent to \"...play...with the idea of an alien life form completely different from anything humans can imagine\".Smith, p. 47 Smith considers Haller's work an imitation of [Roger Corman](/wiki/Roger_Corman \"Roger Corman\")'s [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe \"Edgar Allan Poe\") films, rather than a serious attempt to adapt Lovecraft's tale. Another adaptation, [*The Curse*](/wiki/The_Curse_%281987_film%29 \"The Curse (1987 film)\") (1987\\), was directed by [David Keith](/wiki/David_L._Keith \"David L. Keith\") and stars [Wil Wheaton](/wiki/Wil_Wheaton \"Wil Wheaton\"), [Claude Akins](/wiki/Claude_Akins \"Claude Akins\"), [Cooper Huckabee](/wiki/Cooper_Huckabee \"Cooper Huckabee\"), and [John Schneider](/wiki/John_Schneider_%28screen_actor%29 \"John Schneider (screen actor)\"). It more closely follows the plot of Lovecraft's work, albeit set in the 1980s. Lovecraft scholar Charles P. Mitchell referred to the film as faithful to the author's original work, but Mitchell claimed that \"\\[t]he last twenty minutes of the film are so disjointed that they virtually ruin the entire film.\"Mitchell, p. 115\n\nThe 2008 film *Colour from the Dark*, directed by Ivan Zuccon, is an adaptation set in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). The film stars Michael Segal, [Debbie Rochon](/wiki/Debbie_Rochon \"Debbie Rochon\"), [Marysia Kay](/wiki/Marysia_Kay \"Marysia Kay\"), Gerry Shanahan, and [Eleanor James](/wiki/Eleanor_James \"Eleanor James\"). [Bloody Disgusting](/wiki/Bloody_Disgusting \"Bloody Disgusting\") praised the film, stating Zuccon \"managed to do the famous writer's twisted tale of unseen terror a really fair share of justice by capturing the bleak, grotesque and utterly frightening atmosphere of the source material very, very well\". The 2010 film *Die Farbe* (*The Color*), directed by Huan Vu, is an adaptation set in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"). It is shot mainly in black and white, the exception being the \"Colour\" itself. S. T. Joshi described it as \"the best Lovecraft film adaptation ever made\". The 2018 film *[Annihilation](/wiki/Annihilation_%28film%29 \"Annihilation (film)\")*—itself based on the 2014 [novel of the same name](/wiki/Annihilation_%28VanderMeer_novel%29 \"Annihilation (VanderMeer novel)\") by [Jeff VanderMeer](/wiki/Jeff_VanderMeer \"Jeff VanderMeer\")—contains numerous plot similarities with Lovecraft's story, most prominently a colorful alien entity that crash lands on earth and begins mutating nearby plant and animal life.\n\nA new version was adapted by writer/director [Richard Stanley](/wiki/Richard_Stanley_%28director%29 \"Richard Stanley (director)\") and released in 2019 under the title *[Color Out of Space](/wiki/Color_Out_of_Space_%28film%29 \"Color Out of Space (film)\")*. This film stars [Nicolas Cage](/wiki/Nicolas_Cage \"Nicolas Cage\") and [Joely Richardson](/wiki/Joely_Richardson \"Joely Richardson\"), and was produced by [Elijah Wood](/wiki/Elijah_Wood \"Elijah Wood\") through his production company [SpectreVision](/wiki/SpectreVision \"SpectreVision\"). It has a contemporary setting but keeps Lovecraft's plot intact. It is intended to be the first film in a trilogy of Lovecraft adaptations set in a [shared universe](/wiki/Shared_universe \"Shared universe\").\n\n[Stephen King](/wiki/Stephen_King \"Stephen King\") says that his 1987 novel *[The Tommyknockers](/wiki/The_Tommyknockers \"The Tommyknockers\")*, in which residents of a small town in rural [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\") are physically and mentally affected by the emanations from an alien ship unearthed in the nearby woods, and which also features a major character named Gardner, was strongly influenced by \"The Colour Out of Space\". Like many of his works at that time, it was adapted into [a TV miniseries](/wiki/The_Tommyknockers_%28miniseries%29 \"The Tommyknockers (miniseries)\"), broadcast in 1993; in 2018 it was reported to be in development as a feature film.\n\n",
"### Film adaptations\n\nThe 1965 film *[Die, Monster, Die!](/wiki/Die%2C_Monster%2C_Die%21 \"Die, Monster, Die!\")*, directed by [Daniel Haller](/wiki/Daniel_Haller \"Daniel Haller\"), is based on \"The Colour Out of Space\". The film stars [Nick Adams](/wiki/Nick_Adams_%28actor%2C_born_1931%29 \"Nick Adams (actor, born 1931)\"), [Suzan Farmer](/wiki/Suzan_Farmer \"Suzan Farmer\"), and [Boris Karloff](/wiki/Boris_Karloff \"Boris Karloff\"). Lovecraft scholar Don G. Smith claims that, of the scenes that are derived from Lovecraft's work, the \"blasted heath doesn't live up to Lovecraft's description\"Smith, p. 45 and asserts that, overall, the film does not capture Lovecraft's intent to \"...play...with the idea of an alien life form completely different from anything humans can imagine\".Smith, p. 47 Smith considers Haller's work an imitation of [Roger Corman](/wiki/Roger_Corman \"Roger Corman\")'s [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe \"Edgar Allan Poe\") films, rather than a serious attempt to adapt Lovecraft's tale. Another adaptation, [*The Curse*](/wiki/The_Curse_%281987_film%29 \"The Curse (1987 film)\") (1987\\), was directed by [David Keith](/wiki/David_L._Keith \"David L. Keith\") and stars [Wil Wheaton](/wiki/Wil_Wheaton \"Wil Wheaton\"), [Claude Akins](/wiki/Claude_Akins \"Claude Akins\"), [Cooper Huckabee](/wiki/Cooper_Huckabee \"Cooper Huckabee\"), and [John Schneider](/wiki/John_Schneider_%28screen_actor%29 \"John Schneider (screen actor)\"). It more closely follows the plot of Lovecraft's work, albeit set in the 1980s. Lovecraft scholar Charles P. Mitchell referred to the film as faithful to the author's original work, but Mitchell claimed that \"\\[t]he last twenty minutes of the film are so disjointed that they virtually ruin the entire film.\"Mitchell, p. 115\n\nThe 2008 film *Colour from the Dark*, directed by Ivan Zuccon, is an adaptation set in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). The film stars Michael Segal, [Debbie Rochon](/wiki/Debbie_Rochon \"Debbie Rochon\"), [Marysia Kay](/wiki/Marysia_Kay \"Marysia Kay\"), Gerry Shanahan, and [Eleanor James](/wiki/Eleanor_James \"Eleanor James\"). [Bloody Disgusting](/wiki/Bloody_Disgusting \"Bloody Disgusting\") praised the film, stating Zuccon \"managed to do the famous writer's twisted tale of unseen terror a really fair share of justice by capturing the bleak, grotesque and utterly frightening atmosphere of the source material very, very well\". The 2010 film *Die Farbe* (*The Color*), directed by Huan Vu, is an adaptation set in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"). It is shot mainly in black and white, the exception being the \"Colour\" itself. S. T. Joshi described it as \"the best Lovecraft film adaptation ever made\". The 2018 film *[Annihilation](/wiki/Annihilation_%28film%29 \"Annihilation (film)\")*—itself based on the 2014 [novel of the same name](/wiki/Annihilation_%28VanderMeer_novel%29 \"Annihilation (VanderMeer novel)\") by [Jeff VanderMeer](/wiki/Jeff_VanderMeer \"Jeff VanderMeer\")—contains numerous plot similarities with Lovecraft's story, most prominently a colorful alien entity that crash lands on earth and begins mutating nearby plant and animal life.\n\nA new version was adapted by writer/director [Richard Stanley](/wiki/Richard_Stanley_%28director%29 \"Richard Stanley (director)\") and released in 2019 under the title *[Color Out of Space](/wiki/Color_Out_of_Space_%28film%29 \"Color Out of Space (film)\")*. This film stars [Nicolas Cage](/wiki/Nicolas_Cage \"Nicolas Cage\") and [Joely Richardson](/wiki/Joely_Richardson \"Joely Richardson\"), and was produced by [Elijah Wood](/wiki/Elijah_Wood \"Elijah Wood\") through his production company [SpectreVision](/wiki/SpectreVision \"SpectreVision\"). It has a contemporary setting but keeps Lovecraft's plot intact. It is intended to be the first film in a trilogy of Lovecraft adaptations set in a [shared universe](/wiki/Shared_universe \"Shared universe\").\n\n[Stephen King](/wiki/Stephen_King \"Stephen King\") says that his 1987 novel *[The Tommyknockers](/wiki/The_Tommyknockers \"The Tommyknockers\")*, in which residents of a small town in rural [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\") are physically and mentally affected by the emanations from an alien ship unearthed in the nearby woods, and which also features a major character named Gardner, was strongly influenced by \"The Colour Out of Space\". Like many of his works at that time, it was adapted into [a TV miniseries](/wiki/The_Tommyknockers_%28miniseries%29 \"The Tommyknockers (miniseries)\"), broadcast in 1993; in 2018 it was reported to be in development as a feature film.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [1927 in science fiction](/wiki/1927_in_science_fiction \"1927 in science fiction\")\n* [Impossible color](/wiki/Impossible_color \"Impossible color\")\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1927 short stories](/wiki/Category:1927_short_stories \"1927 short stories\")\n[Category:Cthulhu Mythos short stories](/wiki/Category:Cthulhu_Mythos_short_stories \"Cthulhu Mythos short stories\")\n[Category:Fiction about impact events](/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_impact_events \"Fiction about impact events\")\n[Category:Fiction about meteoroids](/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_meteoroids \"Fiction about meteoroids\")\n[Category:Pulp stories](/wiki/Category:Pulp_stories \"Pulp stories\")\n[Category:Short stories adapted into films](/wiki/Category:Short_stories_adapted_into_films \"Short stories adapted into films\")\n[Category:Short stories by H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/Category:Short_stories_by_H._P._Lovecraft \"Short stories by H. P. Lovecraft\")\n[Category:Short stories set in Massachusetts](/wiki/Category:Short_stories_set_in_Massachusetts \"Short stories set in Massachusetts\")\n[Category:Works originally published in Amazing Stories](/wiki/Category:Works_originally_published_in_Amazing_Stories \"Works originally published in Amazing Stories\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Canonization of Joan of Arc
|
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48299214
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|
pd3rysm8putkrvkwywhygwc7vbnsmy0
|
2024-08-24T05:41:24Z
| 1,241,962,422 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Path to sainthood",
"Death and 15th century",
"16th century",
"18th and 19th centuries",
"20th century to present",
"Popularity",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
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"content": [
"\n\n**Joan of Arc (1412–1431\\) was formally canonized** as a [saint](/wiki/Saint \"Saint\") of the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") on 16 May 1920 by [Pope Benedict XV](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XV \"Pope Benedict XV\") in his bull *Divina disponente*,Pope Benedict XV, *Divina Disponente* (Latin), 16 May 1920, [https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict\\-xv/la/bulls/documents/hf\\_ben\\-xv\\_bulls\\_19200516\\_divina\\-disponente.html](https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xv/la/bulls/documents/hf_ben-xv_bulls_19200516_divina-disponente.html). which concluded the [canonization](/wiki/Canonization \"Canonization\") process that the [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") instigated after a petition of 1869 of the [French Catholic hierarchy](/wiki/French_Catholic_hierarchy \"French Catholic hierarchy\"). Although pro\\-English clergy had [Joan](/wiki/Joan_of_Arc \"Joan of Arc\") [burnt at the stake](/wiki/Execution_by_burning \"Execution by burning\") for [heresy](/wiki/Heresy \"Heresy\") in 1431, she was rehabilitated in 1456 after [a posthumous retrial](/wiki/Retrial_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Retrial of Joan of Arc\"). Subsequently, she became a [folk saint](/wiki/Folk_saint \"Folk saint\") among French Catholics and soldiers inspired by her story of being commanded by God to fight for [France](/wiki/France \"France\") against [England](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England \"Kingdom of England\"). Many French regimes encouraged her cult, and the [Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic \"French Third Republic\") was sympathetic to the canonization petition prior to the [1905 separation of church and state](/wiki/1905_French_law_on_the_Separation_of_the_Churches_and_the_State \"1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State\").\n\n",
"Path to sainthood\n-----------------\n\n### Death and 15th century\n\nAs with other saints who were excommunicated or investigated by ecclesiastic courts, such as [Athanasius](/wiki/Athanasius \"Athanasius\"), [Teresa of Ávila](/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila \"Teresa of Ávila\"), and [John of the Cross](/wiki/John_of_the_Cross \"John of the Cross\"), Joan was put on trial by an Inquisitorial court. In her case, the court was influenced by the [English](/wiki/England \"England\"), which occupied northern France, leading to her execution in the marketplace of [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen \"Rouen\"). When the French retook Rouen in 1449, a series of investigations were launched. Her now\\-widowed mother [Isabelle Romée](/wiki/Isabelle_Rom%C3%A9e \"Isabelle Romée\") and Joan's brothers Jéan and [Pierre](/wiki/Pierre_d%27Arc \"Pierre d'Arc\"), who were with Joan at the [Siege of Orléans](/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Siege of Orléans\"), petitioned [Pope Nicholas V](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V \"Pope Nicholas V\") to reopen her case. The formal appeal was conducted in 1455 by [Jean Bréhal](/wiki/Jean_Br%C3%A9hal \"Jean Bréhal\"), [Inquisitor\\-General](/wiki/Inquisition \"Inquisition\") of France, under the aegis of [Pope Callixtus III](/wiki/Pope_Callixtus_III \"Pope Callixtus III\"). Isabelle addressed the opening session of the appellate trial at [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris \"Notre Dame de Paris\") with an impassioned plea to clear her daughter's name. Joan was exonerated on 7 July 1456, with Bréhal's summary of case evidence describing her as being executed by a court which itself had violated [Church law](/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church \"Canon law of the Catholic Church\").Pernoud, Regine. \"Joan of Arc by Herself and Her Witnesses\". Scarborough House, 1994; pp 268–269\\.\n\nThe city of [Orléans](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans \"Orléans\") had commemorated her death each year beginning in 1432, and from 1435 onward performed a religious play centered on the lifting of the siege. The play represented her as a divinely\\-sent savior guided by angels. In 1452, during one of the postwar investigations into her execution, [Cardinal d'Estouteville](/wiki/Cardinal_d%27Estouteville \"Cardinal d'Estouteville\") declared that this play would merit qualification as a [pilgrimage](/wiki/Pilgrimage \"Pilgrimage\") site by which attendees could gain an [indulgence](/wiki/Indulgence \"Indulgence\").\n\nNot long after the appeal, [Pope Pius II](/wiki/Pope_Pius_II \"Pope Pius II\"), who died in 1464, wrote an approving piece about her in his memoirs.Fraioli, Deborah. \"Joan of Arc: the Early Debate\". Boydell Press, 2000; pp. 31, 33, 40, 52, 55\\.\n\n### 16th century\n\nAn anonymous author wrote a biography of Joan's life, stating that it was compiled \"By order of the King, [Louis XII](/wiki/Louis_XII_of_France \"Louis XII of France\") of that name\" in circa 1500\\.[*The First Biography of Joan of Arc: Translated and Annotated by Daniel Rankin and Claire Quintal*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-5AnyffsHu4C&pg=PA111) [University of Pittsburgh Press](/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press \"University of Pittsburgh Press\") (1964\\) [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 2 April 2017\n\n### 18th and 19th centuries\n\nJoan's [cult of personality](/wiki/Cult_of_personality \"Cult of personality\") was opposed by the leaders of the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") as she was a devout [Catholic](/wiki/Catholicism \"Catholicism\") who had served the [monarchy](/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs \"List of French monarchs\"). They banned the yearly celebration of the lifting of the [Siege of Orléans](/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Siege of Orléans\"), and Joan's relics, including her sword and banner, were destroyed. A statue of Joan erected by the people of Orléans in 1571 (to replace one destroyed by [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\") in 1568\\) was melted down and made into a [cannon](/wiki/Cannon \"Cannon\").[\"The Maid of Orléans\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Fds-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA319) by [Andrew Lang](/wiki/Andrew_Lang \"Andrew Lang\") *[The English Illustrated Magazine](/wiki/The_English_Illustrated_Magazine \"The English Illustrated Magazine\")* Vol. 16 (October 1896–March 1897\\), pp. 315–320 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017\n\nRecognizing he could use Joan for his [nationalist](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") purposes, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") allowed Orléans to resume its yearly celebration of the lifting of the siege, commissioned [Augustin Dupré](/wiki/Augustin_Dupr%C3%A9 \"Augustin Dupré\") to strike a commemorative coin,[\"1803 France \\- Napoleon \\- The Monument of Joan of Arc by Augustin Dupré\"](https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/coins_to_medals/37/product/1803_france__napoleon__the_monument_of_joan_of_arc_by_augustin_dupre/627964/Default.aspx) *VHobbies.com* 25 March 2017[\"Monuments\" *Memoirs of Jeanne d'Arc*, Vol. 2](https://books.google.com/books?id=79MGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR282); J. Moyes, London (1824\\), p. cclxxvi [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017 and had [Jean\\-Antoine Chaptal](/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Chaptal \"Jean-Antoine Chaptal\") inform the mayor of Orléans that he approved of a resolution by the [municipal council](/wiki/City_council_%28France%29 \"City council (France)\") for [Edme\\-François\\-Étienne Gois](/wiki/Edme-Fran%C3%A7ois-%C3%89tienne_Gois \"Edme-François-Étienne Gois\") to erect his statue of Joan: \n> \"The illustrious career of Joan of Arc proves that there is no miracle French genius cannot perform in the face of a threat against national freedom.\"[\"To Citizen Chaptal\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=wSV8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67) *Napoleon Self\\-Revealed* ed. by J.M. Thompson [Houghton Mifflin](/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt \"Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\") (1934\\); reprinted as *Napoleon's Letters* (2013\\), p. 67 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 28 March 2017[\"Report Made to the Athénée des Arts de Paris](https://books.google.com/books?id=oP07AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA130) by MM. [Rondelet](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rondelet \"Jean-Baptiste Rondelet\"), [Beauvallet](/wiki/Pierre-Nicolas_Beauvallet \"Pierre-Nicolas Beauvallet\"), and [Duchesne](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Duchesne \"Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Duchesne\") on the Founding the Statue of Joan of Arc in Bronze, by a Way Never Before Used for Large Works, by MM. Rousseau and Genon, Under the Direction of M. Gois\" *[Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts](/wiki/Journal_of_Natural_Philosophy%2C_Chemistry%2C_and_the_Arts \"Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts\")* Vol. 13 (1806\\), pp. 128–135 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017\n\n Gois's work was relocated to Place Dauphiné in 1855,[\"Orléans: Jeanne d'Arc guerrière\"](http://vanderkrogt.net/statues/object.php?webpage=ST&record=frce064) *vanderkrogt.net* 25 March 2017 replaced with a statue of Joan by [Denis Foyatier](/wiki/Denis_Foyatier \"Denis Foyatier\").[\"Orléans: Jeanne d'Arc\"](http://vanderkrogt.net/statues/object.php?webpage=ST&record=frce061) *vanderkrogt.net* 25 March 2017\n\nAlthough [Nicolas Lenglet Du Fresnoy](/wiki/Nicolas_Lenglet_Du_Fresnoy \"Nicolas Lenglet Du Fresnoy\") and [Clément Charles François de Laverdy](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Laverdy \"Clément Charles François de Laverdy\") are credited with the first full\\-length biographies of Joan, several English authors ironically sparked a movement which led to her canonization. [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") [English literature](/wiki/English_literature \"English literature\") professor Herschel Baker noted in his introduction to *[Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI_%28play%29 \"Henry VI (play)\")* for *[The Riverside Shakespeare](/wiki/The_Riverside_Shakespeare \"The Riverside Shakespeare\")* how appalled [William Warburton](/wiki/William_Warburton \"William Warburton\") was by the depiction of Joan in *[Henry VI, Part 1](/wiki/Henry_VI%2C_Part_1 \"Henry VI, Part 1\")*, and that [Edmond Malone](/wiki/Edmond_Malone \"Edmond Malone\") sought in \"Dissertation on the Three Parts of Henry VI\" (1787\\) to prove [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\") had no hand in its [authorship](/wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question \"Shakespeare authorship question\") (1974; p. 587\\). [Charles Lamb](/wiki/Charles_Lamb \"Charles Lamb\") chided [Samuel Taylor Coleridge](/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge \"Samuel Taylor Coleridge\") for reducing Joan to \"a pot girl\" in the first drafts of *[The Destiny of Nations](/wiki/The_Destiny_of_Nations \"The Destiny of Nations\")*, initially part of [Robert Southey](/wiki/Robert_Southey \"Robert Southey\")'s *[Joan of Arc](/wiki/Joan_of_Arc_%28poem%29 \"Joan of Arc (poem)\")*. She was the subject of essays by [Lord Mahon](/wiki/Philip_Stanhope%2C_5th_Earl_Stanhope \"Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope\") for *[The Quarterly Review](/wiki/Quarterly_Review \"Quarterly Review\")*,[*Joan of Arc: Reprinted From Lord Mahon's Historical Essays*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1XYBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA25) [John Murray](/wiki/John_Murray_%28publishing_house%29 \"John Murray (publishing house)\") (1853\\) [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 20 January 2017 and by [Thomas De Quincey](/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey \"Thomas De Quincey\") for *[Tait's](/wiki/Tait%27s_Edinburgh_Magazine \"Tait's Edinburgh Magazine\")*.[\"Selections\" *English Classic Series \\#69*](https://books.google.com/books?id=B7Q0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15); Maynard, Merrill \\& Co. (1892\\), pp. 9–41 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 20 January 2017 In 1890, the [Joan of Arc Church](/wiki/St_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Church%2C_Farnham \"St Joan of Arc's Church, Farnham\") was dedicated to her.\n\nAs Joan found her way further into [popular culture](/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Cultural depictions of Joan of Arc\"), the [Government of France](/wiki/Government_of_France \"Government of France\") commissioned [Emmanuel Frémiet](/wiki/Emmanuel_Fr%C3%A9miet \"Emmanuel Frémiet\") to erect a statue of her in the [Place des Pyramides](/wiki/Place_des_Pyramides \"Place des Pyramides\")—the only public commission of the state from 1870 to 1914\\. The [French Navy](/wiki/French_Navy \"French Navy\") dedicated [four vessels](/wiki/French_ship_Jeanne_d%27Arc \"French ship Jeanne d'Arc\") to her: a 52\\-gun [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") (1820\\); a 42\\-gun frigate (1852\\); an [ironclad](/wiki/Ironclad_warship \"Ironclad warship\") [corvette](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\") [warship](/wiki/French_ironclad_Jeanne_d%27Arc \"French ironclad Jeanne d'Arc\") (1867\\); and an [armored cruiser](/wiki/Armored_cruiser \"Armored cruiser\") (1899\\). [Philippe\\-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes](/wiki/Philippe-Alexandre_Le_Brun_de_Charmettes \"Philippe-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes\")'s biography (1817\\), and [Jules Quicherat](/wiki/Jules_Quicherat \"Jules Quicherat\")'s account of her [trial](/wiki/Trial_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Trial of Joan of Arc\") and [rehabilitation](/wiki/Retrial_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Retrial of Joan of Arc\") (1841–1849\\) seemed to have inspired canonization efforts.\n\nIn 1869, to celebrate the 440th anniversary of the lifting of the Siege, [Félix Dupanloup](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Dupanloup \"Félix Dupanloup\"), [Bishop of Orléans](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Orléans\"), delivered a second [panegyric](/wiki/Panegyric \"Panegyric\") on Joan, attended by: [Jean\\-François\\-Anne Landriot](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois-Anne_Landriot \"Jean-François-Anne Landriot\"); [Guillaume\\-René Meignan](/wiki/Guillaume-Ren%C3%A9_Meignan \"Guillaume-René Meignan\"); [Georges Darboy](/wiki/Georges_Darboy \"Georges Darboy\"); [Joseph\\-Alfred Foulon](/wiki/Joseph-Alfred_Foulon \"Joseph-Alfred Foulon\"); [Henri\\-Marie\\-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose](/wiki/Henri-Marie-Gaston_Boisnormand_de_Bonnechose \"Henri-Marie-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose\"); [Louis\\-Édouard\\-François\\-Desiré Pie](/wiki/Louis-%C3%89douard-Fran%C3%A7ois-Desir%C3%A9_Pie \"Louis-Édouard-François-Desiré Pie\"); [Joseph\\-Hippolyte Guibert](/wiki/Joseph-Hippolyte_Guibert \"Joseph-Hippolyte Guibert\"); [Charles Lavigerie](/wiki/Charles_Lavigerie \"Charles Lavigerie\"); Charles\\-Amable de La Tour d'Auvergne\\-Lauraguais, [Bishop of Bourges](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Bourges \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bourges\"); Félix\\-Joseph\\-François\\-Barthélemy de Las Cases, [Bishop of Constantine](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Constantine \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Constantine\"); Joseph\\-Armand Gignoux, [Bishop of Beauvais](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Beauvais \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Beauvais\"); Louis\\-Marie\\-Joseph\\-Eusèbe, [Bishop of Saint\\-Dié](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Saint-Di%C3%A9 \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint-Dié\"); Louis\\-Théophile Pallu du Parc, [Bishop of Blois](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Blois \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Blois\"); Emmanuel\\-Jules Ravinet, [Bishop of Troyes](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Troyes \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes\"); Augustin Hacquard, [Bishop of Verdun](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Verdun \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Verdun\"); and Pierre\\-Marie\\-Gervais Lacarrière, former [Bishop of Basse\\-Terre](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Basse-Terre \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Basse-Terre\") and [Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe \"Guadeloupe\").[\"The Second Panegyric on Joan of Arc\"](https://newspapers.bc.edu/?a=d&d=pilot18690828-01.2.30) From *[The Catholic Telegraph](/wiki/The_Catholic_Telegraph \"The Catholic Telegraph\")*. *[The Pilot](/wiki/The_Pilot_%28Massachusetts_newspaper%29 \"The Pilot (Massachusetts newspaper)\")* vol. 32; no. 35 (28 August 1869\\) p. 3\\. Retrieved 15 May 2020[\"May 10, 1869\\. Letters of a Young Irishwoman to Her Sister\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=RhBGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA766) *[Catholic World](/wiki/Catholic_World \"Catholic World\")* vol. XXIV; no. 144 (March 1877\\) p. 768; via [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\"). Retrieved 15 May 2020[\"The Festival of Joan of Arc at Orleans\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=xgcFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA207) *[Evangelical Christendom](/wiki/Evangelical_Alliance \"Evangelical Alliance\")* (1 June 1869\\) Vol X; pp. 206–207 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 29 November 2017 Supported by [Henri\\-Alexandre Wallon](/wiki/Henri-Alexandre_Wallon \"Henri-Alexandre Wallon\"),[\"Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-JcLOEKvJ2kC&pg=PA156) *The Past in French History* by [Robert Gildea](/wiki/Robert_Gildea \"Robert Gildea\") (1994\\) [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press \"Yale University Press\") p. 156; [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 27 November 2017 Dupanloup submitted a petition to [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\"), signed by the aforementioned bishops, and other dignitaries, for Joan to be canonized,[\"Joan the Saint\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iUIaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA269) *The Maid of Orleans: The Life and Mysticism of Joan of Arc* by [Sven Stolpe](/wiki/Sven_Stolpe \"Sven Stolpe\") (1956\\) [Pantheon Books](/wiki/Pantheon_Books \"Pantheon Books\"); reprint (2014\\) [Ignatius Press](/wiki/Ignatius_Press \"Ignatius Press\"); p. 269 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 27 November 2017 but the [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") postponed further action.\n\nIn 1874, [depositions](/wiki/Deposition_%28law%29 \"Deposition (law)\") began to be collected, received by Cardinal [Luigi Bilio](/wiki/Luigi_Bilio \"Luigi Bilio\") in 1876\\. Dupanloup's successor, Bishop [Pierre\\-Hector Coullié](/wiki/Pierre-Hector_Coulli%C3%A9 \"Pierre-Hector Coullié\"), directed an inquest to authenticate her acts and testimony from her trial and rehabilitation. On 27 January 1894, the [Curia](/wiki/Congregation_%28Roman_Curia%29 \"Congregation (Roman Curia)\") (Cardinals [Benedetto Aloisi\\-Masella](/wiki/Benedetto_Aloisi_Masella \"Benedetto Aloisi Masella\"), Angelo Bianchi, [Benoît\\-Marie Langénieux](/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt-Marie_Lang%C3%A9nieux \"Benoît-Marie Langénieux\"), [Luigi Macchi](/wiki/Luigi_Macchi \"Luigi Macchi\"), [Camillo Mazzella](/wiki/Camillo_Mazzella \"Camillo Mazzella\"), [Paul Melchers](/wiki/Paul_Melchers \"Paul Melchers\"), [Mario Mocenni](/wiki/Mario_Mocenni \"Mario Mocenni\"), [Lucido Parocchi](/wiki/Lucido_Parocchi \"Lucido Parocchi\"), [Fulco Luigi Ruffo\\-Scilla](/wiki/Fulco_Luigi_Ruffo-Scilla \"Fulco Luigi Ruffo-Scilla\"), and [Isidoro Verga](/wiki/Isidoro_Verga \"Isidoro Verga\")) voted unanimously that [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") sign the *Commissio Introductionis Causæ Servæ Dei Joannæ d'Arc*, which he did that afternoon.[\"The Beatification of Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=IbpZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA444) *[The Literary Digest](/wiki/The_Literary_Digest \"The Literary Digest\")* (1 March 1894\\) Vol. VIII; No. 18, pp. 22−23 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 27 March 2017[*The Saints: Joan of Arc*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SmMRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA185) by [Louis Petit de Julleville](/wiki/Louis_Petit_de_Julleville \"Louis Petit de Julleville\") (1901\\) [Duckworth \\& Co.](/wiki/Duckworth_Overlook \"Duckworth Overlook\") pp. 185–191 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 24 February 2017[\"Appendix: D. The Proposed Canonization of Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb8aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA37) *Joan of Arc* by [Francis Cabot Lowell](/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_%28judge%29 \"Francis Cabot Lowell (judge)\") (1896\\) [Houghton Mifflin Company](/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt \"Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\") pp. 372–373 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 6 December 2016\n\n### 20th century to present\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Commemorative medallion made in France at the time of Joan of Arc's beatification](/wiki/Image:Joan.n06.p01.png \"Joan.n06.p01.png\")\nHowever, the path to sainthood did not go smoothly. On 20 August 1902, the [papal consistory](/wiki/Papal_consistory \"Papal consistory\") rejected adding Joan to the [Calendar of saints](/wiki/Calendar_of_saints \"Calendar of saints\"), citing: she launched the [assault on Paris](/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_%281429%29 \"Siege of Paris (1429)\") on the birthday of [Mary, mother of Jesus](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus \"Mary, mother of Jesus\"); her capture (\"proof\" her claim that she was sent by God was false); her attempts to escape from prison; her abjure after being threatened with death; and doubts of her [purity](/wiki/Virginity \"Virginity\").[\"Was Not Made a Saint: Why Consistory Refused to Canonize Joan of Arc\"](https://newspapers.library.in.gov/cgi-bin/indiana?a=d&d=IJ19020907.1.24) *[Indianapolis Journal](/wiki/Indianapolis_Journal \"Indianapolis Journal\")* (7 September 1902\\), p. 12 *newspapers.library.in.gov* 25 March 2017[\"Joan of Arc Not to be Canonized\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=srRCAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA612) *[Harper's Weekly](/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly \"Harper's Weekly\")* (11 April 1903\\) Vol. XLVII; No. 2416, p. 610 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017 On 17 November 1903, the [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") met to discuss Joan's cause at the behest of [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X \"Pope Pius X\"). A decree proclaiming Joan's heroic virtue was issued on 6 January 1904 by Cardinal [Serafino Cretoni](/wiki/Serafino_Cretoni \"Serafino Cretoni\"),[\"Joan of Arc \\- Her Heroic Virtue: Text of the Decree\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iyc9KW3XoxMC&pg=PA90) *[The Tablet](/wiki/The_Tablet \"The Tablet\")* (16 January 1904\\) Vol. 103; No. 3323, pp. 88–89 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 26 March 2017 and Pius proclaimed her [venerable](/wiki/The_Venerable \"The Venerable\") on 8 January.[*Life of His Holiness Pope Pius X*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AmQJAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA392) by Josef Schmidlin and [Anton de Waal](/wiki/Anton_de_Waal \"Anton de Waal\") (1904\\) [Benziger Brothers](/wiki/RCL_Benziger \"RCL Benziger\"), p. 392 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 26 March 2017 The Decree of the Three Miracles was issued on 13 December 1908, and The Decree of [Beatification](/wiki/Beatification \"Beatification\") was read five days later, which was issued formally by the Congregation of Rites on 24 January 1909\\.[\"The Blessed Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ46AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA743) by Bishop [Thomas James Conaty](/wiki/Thomas_James_Conaty \"Thomas James Conaty\") *The West Coast Magazine* Vol. 7; No. 6\\. (March 1910\\), pp. 737–745 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017[\"Blessed Joan of Arc. Reading of the Decree of the French Heroine\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19081219&id=oLs0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=7YQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4245,4654033) *[The Gazette (Montreal)](/wiki/The_Gazette_%28Montreal%29 \"The Gazette (Montreal)\")* (19 December 1908\\), p. 14 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 3 August 2016\n\nThe beatification ceremony was held on 18 April 1909, presided by Cardinals [Sebastiano Martinelli](/wiki/Sebastiano_Martinelli \"Sebastiano Martinelli\") and [Mariano Rampolla](/wiki/Mariano_Rampolla \"Mariano Rampolla\"). [Bishop Stanislas Touchet](/wiki/Stanislas_Touchet \"Stanislas Touchet\") performed the [Mass](/wiki/Pontifical_High_Mass \"Pontifical High Mass\"). Cardinals [Serafino Vannutelli](/wiki/Serafino_Vannutelli \"Serafino Vannutelli\"), [Pierre Andrieu](/wiki/Pierre_Andrieu \"Pierre Andrieu\"), [Louis Luçon](/wiki/Louis_Lu%C3%A7on \"Louis Luçon\"), Coullié, [Girolamo Maria Gotti](/wiki/Girolamo_Maria_Gotti \"Girolamo Maria Gotti\"), [José Calassanç Vives y Tuto](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Calassan%C3%A7_Vives_y_Tuto \"José Calassanç Vives y Tuto\"), then\\-[Monsignor](/wiki/Monsignor \"Monsignor\") [Rafael Merry del Val](/wiki/Rafael_Merry_del_Val \"Rafael Merry del Val\"),[\"The Spectator\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=855FAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA549) *[The Outlook](/wiki/The_Outlook_%28New_York%29 \"The Outlook (New York)\")* (3 July 1909\\) Vol. 92, pp. 548–550 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 19 May 2016 Bishop [John Patrick Farrelly](/wiki/John_Patrick_Farrelly \"John Patrick Farrelly\"), Bishop [Thomas Kennedy](/wiki/Thomas_Francis_Kennedy_%28bishop%29 \"Thomas Francis Kennedy (bishop)\"), Monsignor [Robert Seton](/wiki/Robert_Seton_%28bishop%29 \"Robert Seton (bishop)\"), Count Giulio Porro\\-Lambertenghi (grandson of [Luigi Porro Lambertenghi](/wiki/Luigi_Porro_Lambertenghi \"Luigi Porro Lambertenghi\")) with [tribunes](/wiki/Tribune \"Tribune\") from [The Knights of Malta](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta\"), [The Duke of Alençon](/wiki/Prince_Ferdinand%2C_Duke_of_Alen%C3%A7on \"Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Alençon\") and [The Duke of Vendôme](/wiki/Prince_Emmanuel%2C_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me \"Prince Emmanuel, Duke of Vendôme\"), then\\-Archbishop [William Henry O'Connell](/wiki/William_Henry_O%27Connell \"William Henry O'Connell\"),[\"Pilgrims Honor Maid of Orleans\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=gKLIUvgTho8C&dat=19090419&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Daily Republican](/wiki/Cape_Girardeau%2C_Missouri \"Cape Girardeau, Missouri\")* (19 April 1909\\), p. 2 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 24 February 2017 and [The Duke of Norfolk](/wiki/Henry_Fitzalan-Howard%2C_15th_Duke_of_Norfolk \"Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 15th Duke of Norfolk\")[\"The Beatification of Joan of Arc\"](http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/58274530) *[The Age](/wiki/The_Age \"The Age\")* (20 April 1909\\) via *The Kilmore Free Press* (24 June 1909\\) p. 1 [Trove](/wiki/Trove \"Trove\") 24 February 2017 attended. Pius—who was determined that the ceremony would not be used by [Legitimists](/wiki/Legitimists \"Legitimists\") to attack the [Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic \"French Third Republic\")[\"The Beatification of Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-TMiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA601) *[Current Literature](/wiki/Current_Literature \"Current Literature\")* vol. XLVI no. 6 (June 1909\\) pp. 601–603 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 21 June 2017—venerated the relics that afternoon, flanked by 70 French [prelates](/wiki/Prelate \"Prelate\").[\"The Maid of Orleans: Joan of Arc Beatified and The Pope Venerates the Relics\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=Fr8DH2VBP9sC&dat=19090419&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Gazette (Montreal)](/wiki/The_Gazette_%28Montreal%29 \"The Gazette (Montreal)\")* (19 April 1909\\), p. 4 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 18 October 2016\n\nHer beatification approximately coincided with the French invention of the [Janvier transfer engraving machine](/wiki/Coining_%28metalworking%29 \"Coining (metalworking)\") (also called a die engraving pantograph), which facilitates the creation of minted coins and commemorative medallions. This invention, together with the already well\\-established French sculptural tradition, added another element to Joan's beatification: a series of well\\-made religious art medals featuring scenes from her life.\n\n[Edmond Richer](/wiki/Edmond_Richer \"Edmond Richer\")'s *La première histoire en date de Jeanne d'Arc: histoire de la Pucelle d'Orléans*, written between 1625 and 1630, was published in two volumes in 1911 by [Henri and Jules Desclée](/wiki/Henri_and_Jules_Descl%C3%A9e \"Henri and Jules Desclée\").[\"Edmond Richer (1560–1631\\)\"](http://www.prdl.org/author_view.php?s=10&limit=10&a_id=872&sort=) *[Post\\-Reformation Digital Library](/wiki/Post-Reformation_Digital_Library \"Post-Reformation Digital Library\")*. Retrieved 15 September 2017\n\nDuring [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), French troops carried her image into battle with them. During one battle, they interpreted a German searchlight image projected onto low\\-lying clouds as an appearance by Joan, which bolstered their morale greatly. \\[see: *The Maid of Orléans: The Story of Joan of Arc Told to American Soldiers* by [Charles Saroléa](/wiki/Charles_Sarol%C3%A9a \"Charles Saroléa\") (1918\\)]\n\nHer canonization was held on 16 May 1920\\. Over 60,000 people attended the ceremony, including 140 descendants of Joan's family. Dignitaries included: Vendôme, Lambertenghi with The Knights of Malta, now\\-Bishop O'Connell, [Gabriel Hanotaux](/wiki/Gabriel_Hanotaux \"Gabriel Hanotaux\"), [Princess Zinaida Yusupova](/wiki/Zinaida_Yusupova \"Zinaida Yusupova\"), [Princess Irina Alexandrovna](/wiki/Princess_Irina_Alexandrovna_of_Russia \"Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia\"), [Prince Feodor Alexandrovich](/wiki/Prince_Feodor_Alexandrovich_of_Russia \"Prince Feodor Alexandrovich of Russia\"), [The Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Miguel%2C_Duke_of_Braganza \"Miguel, Duke of Braganza\"), [The Count de Salis\\-Soglio](/wiki/John_Francis_Charles%2C_7th_Count_de_Salis-Soglio \"John Francis Charles, 7th Count de Salis-Soglio\"), [Rafael Valentín Errázuriz](/wiki/Rafael_Valent%C3%ADn_Err%C3%A1zuriz \"Rafael Valentín Errázuriz\"), [Diego von Bergen](/wiki/Diego_von_Bergen \"Diego von Bergen\"), Bishop [John Patrick Carroll](/wiki/John_Patrick_Carroll \"John Patrick Carroll\"), Archbishop [Edward Joseph Hanna](/wiki/Edward_Joseph_Hanna \"Edward Joseph Hanna\"), Bishop [Daniel Mary Gorman](/wiki/Daniel_Mary_Gorman \"Daniel Mary Gorman\"), Bishop [Paul Joseph Nussbaum](/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Nussbaum \"Paul Joseph Nussbaum\"), the student body of [The American College of Rome](/wiki/Pontifical_North_American_College \"Pontifical North American College\"), and now\\-Cardinal Merry del Val, who greeted [Pope Benedict XV](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XV \"Pope Benedict XV\") as Benedict entered St. Peter's Basilica to preside over the rites. The Latin bull of [Pope Benedict XV](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XV \"Pope Benedict XV\") effecting her canonization was *Divina Disponente* of the same date. Approximately 100,000 persons celebrated at [Westminster Cathedral](/wiki/Westminster_Cathedral \"Westminster Cathedral\") and French churches throughout [London](/wiki/London \"London\").[\"Maid of Orleans is Made a Saint\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=hqOjcs7Dif8C&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Toronto World](/wiki/The_Toronto_World \"The Toronto World\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 11 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 19 May 2016[\"Joan of Arc is Declared Saint in Ceremony by Church at Rome\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=ZWXmI6zqLYMC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Bakersfield Californian](/wiki/The_Bakersfield_Californian \"The Bakersfield Californian\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 2 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 19 May 2016[\"Impressive Ceremonies Used in Canonizing Joan of Arc\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9QBZAAAAIBAJ&sjid=fEcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5812%2C1729318) *[The Deseret News](/wiki/The_Deseret_News \"The Deseret News\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 8 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 19 May 2016[\"Joan of Arc is Exalted by Pope\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=aEyKTaVlRPYC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[Telegraph\\-Herald](/wiki/Telegraph-Herald \"Telegraph-Herald\")* (17 May 1920\\), pp. 1,8 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 21 May 2016[\"Remarkable Scene: 100,000 Watched Great War Pageant in London\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=Fr8DH2VBP9sC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Gazette (Montreal)](/wiki/The_Gazette_%28Montreal%29 \"The Gazette (Montreal)\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 1 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 22 May 2016\n\nIn the 18 May 1920 *[Le Matin](/wiki/Le_Matin_%28France%29 \"Le Matin (France)\")*, former [President of France](/wiki/President_of_France \"President of France\") [Raymond Poincaré](/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9 \"Raymond Poincaré\") wrote that Joan's canonization \"fulfills the last part of her mission in bringing together forever in the sacredness of her memory\" one\\-time mortal enemies [England](/wiki/England \"England\") and [France](/wiki/France \"France\"): \"In her spirit, let us remain united for the good of Mankind\".[\"Mission is Fulfilled: Spirit of Joan of Arc Unites Britain and France\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=Fr8DH2VBP9sC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) [Edwin L. James](/wiki/Edwin_Leland_James \"Edwin Leland James\") *[Montreal Gazette](/wiki/Montreal_Gazette \"Montreal Gazette\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 1 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 22 May 2016\n\n",
"### Death and 15th century\n\nAs with other saints who were excommunicated or investigated by ecclesiastic courts, such as [Athanasius](/wiki/Athanasius \"Athanasius\"), [Teresa of Ávila](/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila \"Teresa of Ávila\"), and [John of the Cross](/wiki/John_of_the_Cross \"John of the Cross\"), Joan was put on trial by an Inquisitorial court. In her case, the court was influenced by the [English](/wiki/England \"England\"), which occupied northern France, leading to her execution in the marketplace of [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen \"Rouen\"). When the French retook Rouen in 1449, a series of investigations were launched. Her now\\-widowed mother [Isabelle Romée](/wiki/Isabelle_Rom%C3%A9e \"Isabelle Romée\") and Joan's brothers Jéan and [Pierre](/wiki/Pierre_d%27Arc \"Pierre d'Arc\"), who were with Joan at the [Siege of Orléans](/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Siege of Orléans\"), petitioned [Pope Nicholas V](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V \"Pope Nicholas V\") to reopen her case. The formal appeal was conducted in 1455 by [Jean Bréhal](/wiki/Jean_Br%C3%A9hal \"Jean Bréhal\"), [Inquisitor\\-General](/wiki/Inquisition \"Inquisition\") of France, under the aegis of [Pope Callixtus III](/wiki/Pope_Callixtus_III \"Pope Callixtus III\"). Isabelle addressed the opening session of the appellate trial at [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris \"Notre Dame de Paris\") with an impassioned plea to clear her daughter's name. Joan was exonerated on 7 July 1456, with Bréhal's summary of case evidence describing her as being executed by a court which itself had violated [Church law](/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church \"Canon law of the Catholic Church\").Pernoud, Regine. \"Joan of Arc by Herself and Her Witnesses\". Scarborough House, 1994; pp 268–269\\.\n\nThe city of [Orléans](/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans \"Orléans\") had commemorated her death each year beginning in 1432, and from 1435 onward performed a religious play centered on the lifting of the siege. The play represented her as a divinely\\-sent savior guided by angels. In 1452, during one of the postwar investigations into her execution, [Cardinal d'Estouteville](/wiki/Cardinal_d%27Estouteville \"Cardinal d'Estouteville\") declared that this play would merit qualification as a [pilgrimage](/wiki/Pilgrimage \"Pilgrimage\") site by which attendees could gain an [indulgence](/wiki/Indulgence \"Indulgence\").\n\nNot long after the appeal, [Pope Pius II](/wiki/Pope_Pius_II \"Pope Pius II\"), who died in 1464, wrote an approving piece about her in his memoirs.Fraioli, Deborah. \"Joan of Arc: the Early Debate\". Boydell Press, 2000; pp. 31, 33, 40, 52, 55\\.\n\n",
"### 16th century\n\nAn anonymous author wrote a biography of Joan's life, stating that it was compiled \"By order of the King, [Louis XII](/wiki/Louis_XII_of_France \"Louis XII of France\") of that name\" in circa 1500\\.[*The First Biography of Joan of Arc: Translated and Annotated by Daniel Rankin and Claire Quintal*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-5AnyffsHu4C&pg=PA111) [University of Pittsburgh Press](/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press \"University of Pittsburgh Press\") (1964\\) [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 2 April 2017\n\n",
"### 18th and 19th centuries\n\nJoan's [cult of personality](/wiki/Cult_of_personality \"Cult of personality\") was opposed by the leaders of the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") as she was a devout [Catholic](/wiki/Catholicism \"Catholicism\") who had served the [monarchy](/wiki/List_of_French_monarchs \"List of French monarchs\"). They banned the yearly celebration of the lifting of the [Siege of Orléans](/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Siege of Orléans\"), and Joan's relics, including her sword and banner, were destroyed. A statue of Joan erected by the people of Orléans in 1571 (to replace one destroyed by [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\") in 1568\\) was melted down and made into a [cannon](/wiki/Cannon \"Cannon\").[\"The Maid of Orléans\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Fds-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA319) by [Andrew Lang](/wiki/Andrew_Lang \"Andrew Lang\") *[The English Illustrated Magazine](/wiki/The_English_Illustrated_Magazine \"The English Illustrated Magazine\")* Vol. 16 (October 1896–March 1897\\), pp. 315–320 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017\n\nRecognizing he could use Joan for his [nationalist](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") purposes, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") allowed Orléans to resume its yearly celebration of the lifting of the siege, commissioned [Augustin Dupré](/wiki/Augustin_Dupr%C3%A9 \"Augustin Dupré\") to strike a commemorative coin,[\"1803 France \\- Napoleon \\- The Monument of Joan of Arc by Augustin Dupré\"](https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/coins_to_medals/37/product/1803_france__napoleon__the_monument_of_joan_of_arc_by_augustin_dupre/627964/Default.aspx) *VHobbies.com* 25 March 2017[\"Monuments\" *Memoirs of Jeanne d'Arc*, Vol. 2](https://books.google.com/books?id=79MGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR282); J. Moyes, London (1824\\), p. cclxxvi [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017 and had [Jean\\-Antoine Chaptal](/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Chaptal \"Jean-Antoine Chaptal\") inform the mayor of Orléans that he approved of a resolution by the [municipal council](/wiki/City_council_%28France%29 \"City council (France)\") for [Edme\\-François\\-Étienne Gois](/wiki/Edme-Fran%C3%A7ois-%C3%89tienne_Gois \"Edme-François-Étienne Gois\") to erect his statue of Joan: \n> \"The illustrious career of Joan of Arc proves that there is no miracle French genius cannot perform in the face of a threat against national freedom.\"[\"To Citizen Chaptal\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=wSV8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67) *Napoleon Self\\-Revealed* ed. by J.M. Thompson [Houghton Mifflin](/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt \"Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\") (1934\\); reprinted as *Napoleon's Letters* (2013\\), p. 67 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 28 March 2017[\"Report Made to the Athénée des Arts de Paris](https://books.google.com/books?id=oP07AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA130) by MM. [Rondelet](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Rondelet \"Jean-Baptiste Rondelet\"), [Beauvallet](/wiki/Pierre-Nicolas_Beauvallet \"Pierre-Nicolas Beauvallet\"), and [Duchesne](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Duchesne \"Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Duchesne\") on the Founding the Statue of Joan of Arc in Bronze, by a Way Never Before Used for Large Works, by MM. Rousseau and Genon, Under the Direction of M. Gois\" *[Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts](/wiki/Journal_of_Natural_Philosophy%2C_Chemistry%2C_and_the_Arts \"Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts\")* Vol. 13 (1806\\), pp. 128–135 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017\n\n Gois's work was relocated to Place Dauphiné in 1855,[\"Orléans: Jeanne d'Arc guerrière\"](http://vanderkrogt.net/statues/object.php?webpage=ST&record=frce064) *vanderkrogt.net* 25 March 2017 replaced with a statue of Joan by [Denis Foyatier](/wiki/Denis_Foyatier \"Denis Foyatier\").[\"Orléans: Jeanne d'Arc\"](http://vanderkrogt.net/statues/object.php?webpage=ST&record=frce061) *vanderkrogt.net* 25 March 2017\n\nAlthough [Nicolas Lenglet Du Fresnoy](/wiki/Nicolas_Lenglet_Du_Fresnoy \"Nicolas Lenglet Du Fresnoy\") and [Clément Charles François de Laverdy](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Laverdy \"Clément Charles François de Laverdy\") are credited with the first full\\-length biographies of Joan, several English authors ironically sparked a movement which led to her canonization. [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") [English literature](/wiki/English_literature \"English literature\") professor Herschel Baker noted in his introduction to *[Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI_%28play%29 \"Henry VI (play)\")* for *[The Riverside Shakespeare](/wiki/The_Riverside_Shakespeare \"The Riverside Shakespeare\")* how appalled [William Warburton](/wiki/William_Warburton \"William Warburton\") was by the depiction of Joan in *[Henry VI, Part 1](/wiki/Henry_VI%2C_Part_1 \"Henry VI, Part 1\")*, and that [Edmond Malone](/wiki/Edmond_Malone \"Edmond Malone\") sought in \"Dissertation on the Three Parts of Henry VI\" (1787\\) to prove [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\") had no hand in its [authorship](/wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question \"Shakespeare authorship question\") (1974; p. 587\\). [Charles Lamb](/wiki/Charles_Lamb \"Charles Lamb\") chided [Samuel Taylor Coleridge](/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge \"Samuel Taylor Coleridge\") for reducing Joan to \"a pot girl\" in the first drafts of *[The Destiny of Nations](/wiki/The_Destiny_of_Nations \"The Destiny of Nations\")*, initially part of [Robert Southey](/wiki/Robert_Southey \"Robert Southey\")'s *[Joan of Arc](/wiki/Joan_of_Arc_%28poem%29 \"Joan of Arc (poem)\")*. She was the subject of essays by [Lord Mahon](/wiki/Philip_Stanhope%2C_5th_Earl_Stanhope \"Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope\") for *[The Quarterly Review](/wiki/Quarterly_Review \"Quarterly Review\")*,[*Joan of Arc: Reprinted From Lord Mahon's Historical Essays*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1XYBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA25) [John Murray](/wiki/John_Murray_%28publishing_house%29 \"John Murray (publishing house)\") (1853\\) [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 20 January 2017 and by [Thomas De Quincey](/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey \"Thomas De Quincey\") for *[Tait's](/wiki/Tait%27s_Edinburgh_Magazine \"Tait's Edinburgh Magazine\")*.[\"Selections\" *English Classic Series \\#69*](https://books.google.com/books?id=B7Q0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15); Maynard, Merrill \\& Co. (1892\\), pp. 9–41 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 20 January 2017 In 1890, the [Joan of Arc Church](/wiki/St_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Church%2C_Farnham \"St Joan of Arc's Church, Farnham\") was dedicated to her.\n\nAs Joan found her way further into [popular culture](/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Cultural depictions of Joan of Arc\"), the [Government of France](/wiki/Government_of_France \"Government of France\") commissioned [Emmanuel Frémiet](/wiki/Emmanuel_Fr%C3%A9miet \"Emmanuel Frémiet\") to erect a statue of her in the [Place des Pyramides](/wiki/Place_des_Pyramides \"Place des Pyramides\")—the only public commission of the state from 1870 to 1914\\. The [French Navy](/wiki/French_Navy \"French Navy\") dedicated [four vessels](/wiki/French_ship_Jeanne_d%27Arc \"French ship Jeanne d'Arc\") to her: a 52\\-gun [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") (1820\\); a 42\\-gun frigate (1852\\); an [ironclad](/wiki/Ironclad_warship \"Ironclad warship\") [corvette](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\") [warship](/wiki/French_ironclad_Jeanne_d%27Arc \"French ironclad Jeanne d'Arc\") (1867\\); and an [armored cruiser](/wiki/Armored_cruiser \"Armored cruiser\") (1899\\). [Philippe\\-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes](/wiki/Philippe-Alexandre_Le_Brun_de_Charmettes \"Philippe-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes\")'s biography (1817\\), and [Jules Quicherat](/wiki/Jules_Quicherat \"Jules Quicherat\")'s account of her [trial](/wiki/Trial_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Trial of Joan of Arc\") and [rehabilitation](/wiki/Retrial_of_Joan_of_Arc \"Retrial of Joan of Arc\") (1841–1849\\) seemed to have inspired canonization efforts.\n\nIn 1869, to celebrate the 440th anniversary of the lifting of the Siege, [Félix Dupanloup](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Dupanloup \"Félix Dupanloup\"), [Bishop of Orléans](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Orléans\"), delivered a second [panegyric](/wiki/Panegyric \"Panegyric\") on Joan, attended by: [Jean\\-François\\-Anne Landriot](/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois-Anne_Landriot \"Jean-François-Anne Landriot\"); [Guillaume\\-René Meignan](/wiki/Guillaume-Ren%C3%A9_Meignan \"Guillaume-René Meignan\"); [Georges Darboy](/wiki/Georges_Darboy \"Georges Darboy\"); [Joseph\\-Alfred Foulon](/wiki/Joseph-Alfred_Foulon \"Joseph-Alfred Foulon\"); [Henri\\-Marie\\-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose](/wiki/Henri-Marie-Gaston_Boisnormand_de_Bonnechose \"Henri-Marie-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose\"); [Louis\\-Édouard\\-François\\-Desiré Pie](/wiki/Louis-%C3%89douard-Fran%C3%A7ois-Desir%C3%A9_Pie \"Louis-Édouard-François-Desiré Pie\"); [Joseph\\-Hippolyte Guibert](/wiki/Joseph-Hippolyte_Guibert \"Joseph-Hippolyte Guibert\"); [Charles Lavigerie](/wiki/Charles_Lavigerie \"Charles Lavigerie\"); Charles\\-Amable de La Tour d'Auvergne\\-Lauraguais, [Bishop of Bourges](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Bourges \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bourges\"); Félix\\-Joseph\\-François\\-Barthélemy de Las Cases, [Bishop of Constantine](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Constantine \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Constantine\"); Joseph\\-Armand Gignoux, [Bishop of Beauvais](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Beauvais \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Beauvais\"); Louis\\-Marie\\-Joseph\\-Eusèbe, [Bishop of Saint\\-Dié](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Saint-Di%C3%A9 \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint-Dié\"); Louis\\-Théophile Pallu du Parc, [Bishop of Blois](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Blois \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Blois\"); Emmanuel\\-Jules Ravinet, [Bishop of Troyes](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Troyes \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes\"); Augustin Hacquard, [Bishop of Verdun](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Verdun \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Verdun\"); and Pierre\\-Marie\\-Gervais Lacarrière, former [Bishop of Basse\\-Terre](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Basse-Terre \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Basse-Terre\") and [Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe \"Guadeloupe\").[\"The Second Panegyric on Joan of Arc\"](https://newspapers.bc.edu/?a=d&d=pilot18690828-01.2.30) From *[The Catholic Telegraph](/wiki/The_Catholic_Telegraph \"The Catholic Telegraph\")*. *[The Pilot](/wiki/The_Pilot_%28Massachusetts_newspaper%29 \"The Pilot (Massachusetts newspaper)\")* vol. 32; no. 35 (28 August 1869\\) p. 3\\. Retrieved 15 May 2020[\"May 10, 1869\\. Letters of a Young Irishwoman to Her Sister\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=RhBGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA766) *[Catholic World](/wiki/Catholic_World \"Catholic World\")* vol. XXIV; no. 144 (March 1877\\) p. 768; via [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\"). Retrieved 15 May 2020[\"The Festival of Joan of Arc at Orleans\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=xgcFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA207) *[Evangelical Christendom](/wiki/Evangelical_Alliance \"Evangelical Alliance\")* (1 June 1869\\) Vol X; pp. 206–207 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 29 November 2017 Supported by [Henri\\-Alexandre Wallon](/wiki/Henri-Alexandre_Wallon \"Henri-Alexandre Wallon\"),[\"Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-JcLOEKvJ2kC&pg=PA156) *The Past in French History* by [Robert Gildea](/wiki/Robert_Gildea \"Robert Gildea\") (1994\\) [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press \"Yale University Press\") p. 156; [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 27 November 2017 Dupanloup submitted a petition to [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\"), signed by the aforementioned bishops, and other dignitaries, for Joan to be canonized,[\"Joan the Saint\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iUIaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA269) *The Maid of Orleans: The Life and Mysticism of Joan of Arc* by [Sven Stolpe](/wiki/Sven_Stolpe \"Sven Stolpe\") (1956\\) [Pantheon Books](/wiki/Pantheon_Books \"Pantheon Books\"); reprint (2014\\) [Ignatius Press](/wiki/Ignatius_Press \"Ignatius Press\"); p. 269 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 27 November 2017 but the [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") postponed further action.\n\nIn 1874, [depositions](/wiki/Deposition_%28law%29 \"Deposition (law)\") began to be collected, received by Cardinal [Luigi Bilio](/wiki/Luigi_Bilio \"Luigi Bilio\") in 1876\\. Dupanloup's successor, Bishop [Pierre\\-Hector Coullié](/wiki/Pierre-Hector_Coulli%C3%A9 \"Pierre-Hector Coullié\"), directed an inquest to authenticate her acts and testimony from her trial and rehabilitation. On 27 January 1894, the [Curia](/wiki/Congregation_%28Roman_Curia%29 \"Congregation (Roman Curia)\") (Cardinals [Benedetto Aloisi\\-Masella](/wiki/Benedetto_Aloisi_Masella \"Benedetto Aloisi Masella\"), Angelo Bianchi, [Benoît\\-Marie Langénieux](/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt-Marie_Lang%C3%A9nieux \"Benoît-Marie Langénieux\"), [Luigi Macchi](/wiki/Luigi_Macchi \"Luigi Macchi\"), [Camillo Mazzella](/wiki/Camillo_Mazzella \"Camillo Mazzella\"), [Paul Melchers](/wiki/Paul_Melchers \"Paul Melchers\"), [Mario Mocenni](/wiki/Mario_Mocenni \"Mario Mocenni\"), [Lucido Parocchi](/wiki/Lucido_Parocchi \"Lucido Parocchi\"), [Fulco Luigi Ruffo\\-Scilla](/wiki/Fulco_Luigi_Ruffo-Scilla \"Fulco Luigi Ruffo-Scilla\"), and [Isidoro Verga](/wiki/Isidoro_Verga \"Isidoro Verga\")) voted unanimously that [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") sign the *Commissio Introductionis Causæ Servæ Dei Joannæ d'Arc*, which he did that afternoon.[\"The Beatification of Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=IbpZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA444) *[The Literary Digest](/wiki/The_Literary_Digest \"The Literary Digest\")* (1 March 1894\\) Vol. VIII; No. 18, pp. 22−23 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 27 March 2017[*The Saints: Joan of Arc*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SmMRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA185) by [Louis Petit de Julleville](/wiki/Louis_Petit_de_Julleville \"Louis Petit de Julleville\") (1901\\) [Duckworth \\& Co.](/wiki/Duckworth_Overlook \"Duckworth Overlook\") pp. 185–191 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 24 February 2017[\"Appendix: D. The Proposed Canonization of Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb8aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA37) *Joan of Arc* by [Francis Cabot Lowell](/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_%28judge%29 \"Francis Cabot Lowell (judge)\") (1896\\) [Houghton Mifflin Company](/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt \"Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\") pp. 372–373 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 6 December 2016\n\n",
"### 20th century to present\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Commemorative medallion made in France at the time of Joan of Arc's beatification](/wiki/Image:Joan.n06.p01.png \"Joan.n06.p01.png\")\nHowever, the path to sainthood did not go smoothly. On 20 August 1902, the [papal consistory](/wiki/Papal_consistory \"Papal consistory\") rejected adding Joan to the [Calendar of saints](/wiki/Calendar_of_saints \"Calendar of saints\"), citing: she launched the [assault on Paris](/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_%281429%29 \"Siege of Paris (1429)\") on the birthday of [Mary, mother of Jesus](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus \"Mary, mother of Jesus\"); her capture (\"proof\" her claim that she was sent by God was false); her attempts to escape from prison; her abjure after being threatened with death; and doubts of her [purity](/wiki/Virginity \"Virginity\").[\"Was Not Made a Saint: Why Consistory Refused to Canonize Joan of Arc\"](https://newspapers.library.in.gov/cgi-bin/indiana?a=d&d=IJ19020907.1.24) *[Indianapolis Journal](/wiki/Indianapolis_Journal \"Indianapolis Journal\")* (7 September 1902\\), p. 12 *newspapers.library.in.gov* 25 March 2017[\"Joan of Arc Not to be Canonized\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=srRCAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA612) *[Harper's Weekly](/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly \"Harper's Weekly\")* (11 April 1903\\) Vol. XLVII; No. 2416, p. 610 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017 On 17 November 1903, the [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") met to discuss Joan's cause at the behest of [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X \"Pope Pius X\"). A decree proclaiming Joan's heroic virtue was issued on 6 January 1904 by Cardinal [Serafino Cretoni](/wiki/Serafino_Cretoni \"Serafino Cretoni\"),[\"Joan of Arc \\- Her Heroic Virtue: Text of the Decree\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iyc9KW3XoxMC&pg=PA90) *[The Tablet](/wiki/The_Tablet \"The Tablet\")* (16 January 1904\\) Vol. 103; No. 3323, pp. 88–89 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 26 March 2017 and Pius proclaimed her [venerable](/wiki/The_Venerable \"The Venerable\") on 8 January.[*Life of His Holiness Pope Pius X*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AmQJAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA392) by Josef Schmidlin and [Anton de Waal](/wiki/Anton_de_Waal \"Anton de Waal\") (1904\\) [Benziger Brothers](/wiki/RCL_Benziger \"RCL Benziger\"), p. 392 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 26 March 2017 The Decree of the Three Miracles was issued on 13 December 1908, and The Decree of [Beatification](/wiki/Beatification \"Beatification\") was read five days later, which was issued formally by the Congregation of Rites on 24 January 1909\\.[\"The Blessed Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ46AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA743) by Bishop [Thomas James Conaty](/wiki/Thomas_James_Conaty \"Thomas James Conaty\") *The West Coast Magazine* Vol. 7; No. 6\\. (March 1910\\), pp. 737–745 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 25 March 2017[\"Blessed Joan of Arc. Reading of the Decree of the French Heroine\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19081219&id=oLs0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=7YQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4245,4654033) *[The Gazette (Montreal)](/wiki/The_Gazette_%28Montreal%29 \"The Gazette (Montreal)\")* (19 December 1908\\), p. 14 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 3 August 2016\n\nThe beatification ceremony was held on 18 April 1909, presided by Cardinals [Sebastiano Martinelli](/wiki/Sebastiano_Martinelli \"Sebastiano Martinelli\") and [Mariano Rampolla](/wiki/Mariano_Rampolla \"Mariano Rampolla\"). [Bishop Stanislas Touchet](/wiki/Stanislas_Touchet \"Stanislas Touchet\") performed the [Mass](/wiki/Pontifical_High_Mass \"Pontifical High Mass\"). Cardinals [Serafino Vannutelli](/wiki/Serafino_Vannutelli \"Serafino Vannutelli\"), [Pierre Andrieu](/wiki/Pierre_Andrieu \"Pierre Andrieu\"), [Louis Luçon](/wiki/Louis_Lu%C3%A7on \"Louis Luçon\"), Coullié, [Girolamo Maria Gotti](/wiki/Girolamo_Maria_Gotti \"Girolamo Maria Gotti\"), [José Calassanç Vives y Tuto](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Calassan%C3%A7_Vives_y_Tuto \"José Calassanç Vives y Tuto\"), then\\-[Monsignor](/wiki/Monsignor \"Monsignor\") [Rafael Merry del Val](/wiki/Rafael_Merry_del_Val \"Rafael Merry del Val\"),[\"The Spectator\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=855FAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA549) *[The Outlook](/wiki/The_Outlook_%28New_York%29 \"The Outlook (New York)\")* (3 July 1909\\) Vol. 92, pp. 548–550 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 19 May 2016 Bishop [John Patrick Farrelly](/wiki/John_Patrick_Farrelly \"John Patrick Farrelly\"), Bishop [Thomas Kennedy](/wiki/Thomas_Francis_Kennedy_%28bishop%29 \"Thomas Francis Kennedy (bishop)\"), Monsignor [Robert Seton](/wiki/Robert_Seton_%28bishop%29 \"Robert Seton (bishop)\"), Count Giulio Porro\\-Lambertenghi (grandson of [Luigi Porro Lambertenghi](/wiki/Luigi_Porro_Lambertenghi \"Luigi Porro Lambertenghi\")) with [tribunes](/wiki/Tribune \"Tribune\") from [The Knights of Malta](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta\"), [The Duke of Alençon](/wiki/Prince_Ferdinand%2C_Duke_of_Alen%C3%A7on \"Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Alençon\") and [The Duke of Vendôme](/wiki/Prince_Emmanuel%2C_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me \"Prince Emmanuel, Duke of Vendôme\"), then\\-Archbishop [William Henry O'Connell](/wiki/William_Henry_O%27Connell \"William Henry O'Connell\"),[\"Pilgrims Honor Maid of Orleans\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=gKLIUvgTho8C&dat=19090419&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Daily Republican](/wiki/Cape_Girardeau%2C_Missouri \"Cape Girardeau, Missouri\")* (19 April 1909\\), p. 2 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 24 February 2017 and [The Duke of Norfolk](/wiki/Henry_Fitzalan-Howard%2C_15th_Duke_of_Norfolk \"Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 15th Duke of Norfolk\")[\"The Beatification of Joan of Arc\"](http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/58274530) *[The Age](/wiki/The_Age \"The Age\")* (20 April 1909\\) via *The Kilmore Free Press* (24 June 1909\\) p. 1 [Trove](/wiki/Trove \"Trove\") 24 February 2017 attended. Pius—who was determined that the ceremony would not be used by [Legitimists](/wiki/Legitimists \"Legitimists\") to attack the [Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic \"French Third Republic\")[\"The Beatification of Joan of Arc\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-TMiAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA601) *[Current Literature](/wiki/Current_Literature \"Current Literature\")* vol. XLVI no. 6 (June 1909\\) pp. 601–603 [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\") 21 June 2017—venerated the relics that afternoon, flanked by 70 French [prelates](/wiki/Prelate \"Prelate\").[\"The Maid of Orleans: Joan of Arc Beatified and The Pope Venerates the Relics\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=Fr8DH2VBP9sC&dat=19090419&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Gazette (Montreal)](/wiki/The_Gazette_%28Montreal%29 \"The Gazette (Montreal)\")* (19 April 1909\\), p. 4 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 18 October 2016\n\nHer beatification approximately coincided with the French invention of the [Janvier transfer engraving machine](/wiki/Coining_%28metalworking%29 \"Coining (metalworking)\") (also called a die engraving pantograph), which facilitates the creation of minted coins and commemorative medallions. This invention, together with the already well\\-established French sculptural tradition, added another element to Joan's beatification: a series of well\\-made religious art medals featuring scenes from her life.\n\n[Edmond Richer](/wiki/Edmond_Richer \"Edmond Richer\")'s *La première histoire en date de Jeanne d'Arc: histoire de la Pucelle d'Orléans*, written between 1625 and 1630, was published in two volumes in 1911 by [Henri and Jules Desclée](/wiki/Henri_and_Jules_Descl%C3%A9e \"Henri and Jules Desclée\").[\"Edmond Richer (1560–1631\\)\"](http://www.prdl.org/author_view.php?s=10&limit=10&a_id=872&sort=) *[Post\\-Reformation Digital Library](/wiki/Post-Reformation_Digital_Library \"Post-Reformation Digital Library\")*. Retrieved 15 September 2017\n\nDuring [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), French troops carried her image into battle with them. During one battle, they interpreted a German searchlight image projected onto low\\-lying clouds as an appearance by Joan, which bolstered their morale greatly. \\[see: *The Maid of Orléans: The Story of Joan of Arc Told to American Soldiers* by [Charles Saroléa](/wiki/Charles_Sarol%C3%A9a \"Charles Saroléa\") (1918\\)]\n\nHer canonization was held on 16 May 1920\\. Over 60,000 people attended the ceremony, including 140 descendants of Joan's family. Dignitaries included: Vendôme, Lambertenghi with The Knights of Malta, now\\-Bishop O'Connell, [Gabriel Hanotaux](/wiki/Gabriel_Hanotaux \"Gabriel Hanotaux\"), [Princess Zinaida Yusupova](/wiki/Zinaida_Yusupova \"Zinaida Yusupova\"), [Princess Irina Alexandrovna](/wiki/Princess_Irina_Alexandrovna_of_Russia \"Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia\"), [Prince Feodor Alexandrovich](/wiki/Prince_Feodor_Alexandrovich_of_Russia \"Prince Feodor Alexandrovich of Russia\"), [The Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Miguel%2C_Duke_of_Braganza \"Miguel, Duke of Braganza\"), [The Count de Salis\\-Soglio](/wiki/John_Francis_Charles%2C_7th_Count_de_Salis-Soglio \"John Francis Charles, 7th Count de Salis-Soglio\"), [Rafael Valentín Errázuriz](/wiki/Rafael_Valent%C3%ADn_Err%C3%A1zuriz \"Rafael Valentín Errázuriz\"), [Diego von Bergen](/wiki/Diego_von_Bergen \"Diego von Bergen\"), Bishop [John Patrick Carroll](/wiki/John_Patrick_Carroll \"John Patrick Carroll\"), Archbishop [Edward Joseph Hanna](/wiki/Edward_Joseph_Hanna \"Edward Joseph Hanna\"), Bishop [Daniel Mary Gorman](/wiki/Daniel_Mary_Gorman \"Daniel Mary Gorman\"), Bishop [Paul Joseph Nussbaum](/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Nussbaum \"Paul Joseph Nussbaum\"), the student body of [The American College of Rome](/wiki/Pontifical_North_American_College \"Pontifical North American College\"), and now\\-Cardinal Merry del Val, who greeted [Pope Benedict XV](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XV \"Pope Benedict XV\") as Benedict entered St. Peter's Basilica to preside over the rites. The Latin bull of [Pope Benedict XV](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XV \"Pope Benedict XV\") effecting her canonization was *Divina Disponente* of the same date. Approximately 100,000 persons celebrated at [Westminster Cathedral](/wiki/Westminster_Cathedral \"Westminster Cathedral\") and French churches throughout [London](/wiki/London \"London\").[\"Maid of Orleans is Made a Saint\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=hqOjcs7Dif8C&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Toronto World](/wiki/The_Toronto_World \"The Toronto World\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 11 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 19 May 2016[\"Joan of Arc is Declared Saint in Ceremony by Church at Rome\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=ZWXmI6zqLYMC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Bakersfield Californian](/wiki/The_Bakersfield_Californian \"The Bakersfield Californian\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 2 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 19 May 2016[\"Impressive Ceremonies Used in Canonizing Joan of Arc\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9QBZAAAAIBAJ&sjid=fEcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5812%2C1729318) *[The Deseret News](/wiki/The_Deseret_News \"The Deseret News\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 8 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 19 May 2016[\"Joan of Arc is Exalted by Pope\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=aEyKTaVlRPYC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[Telegraph\\-Herald](/wiki/Telegraph-Herald \"Telegraph-Herald\")* (17 May 1920\\), pp. 1,8 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 21 May 2016[\"Remarkable Scene: 100,000 Watched Great War Pageant in London\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=Fr8DH2VBP9sC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) *[The Gazette (Montreal)](/wiki/The_Gazette_%28Montreal%29 \"The Gazette (Montreal)\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 1 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 22 May 2016\n\nIn the 18 May 1920 *[Le Matin](/wiki/Le_Matin_%28France%29 \"Le Matin (France)\")*, former [President of France](/wiki/President_of_France \"President of France\") [Raymond Poincaré](/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9 \"Raymond Poincaré\") wrote that Joan's canonization \"fulfills the last part of her mission in bringing together forever in the sacredness of her memory\" one\\-time mortal enemies [England](/wiki/England \"England\") and [France](/wiki/France \"France\"): \"In her spirit, let us remain united for the good of Mankind\".[\"Mission is Fulfilled: Spirit of Joan of Arc Unites Britain and France\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=Fr8DH2VBP9sC&dat=19200517&printsec=frontpage&hl=en) [Edwin L. James](/wiki/Edwin_Leland_James \"Edwin Leland James\") *[Montreal Gazette](/wiki/Montreal_Gazette \"Montreal Gazette\")* (17 May 1920\\), p. 1 [Google News Archive](/wiki/Google_News_Archive \"Google News Archive\") 22 May 2016\n\n",
"Popularity\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|The [St. Joan of Arc Chapel](/wiki/St._Joan_of_Arc_Chapel \"St. Joan of Arc Chapel\") at the Marquette University campus, moved from its original location in France.](/wiki/Image:St_Joan_of_Arc_Chapel.jpg \"St Joan of Arc Chapel.jpg\")\nJoan of Arc's feast day is 30 May. Although reforms in 1968 moved many medieval European saints' days off the general calendar in order to make room for more non\\-Europeans, her feast day is still celebrated on many local and regional Church calendars, especially in France. Many Catholic churches around the globe have been named after her in the decades since her canonization.\n\nShe has become especially popular among [Traditional Catholics](/wiki/Traditionalist_catholics \"Traditionalist catholics\"), particularly in France—both because of her obvious connection to this country as well as the fact that the Traditional Catholic movement is strongest there. This movement within the church, which includes those few orders and societies which refused to accept the changes made by the [Second Vatican Council](/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council \"Second Vatican Council\"), has compared the 1988 excommunication of Archbishop [Marcel Lefebvre](/wiki/Marcel_Lefebvre \"Marcel Lefebvre\") (one of the founders of the [Society of Saint Pius X](/wiki/Society_of_Saint_Pius_X \"Society of Saint Pius X\")) to Joan of Arc's excommunication by a corrupt pro\\-English bishop in 1431\\.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\nAdditional sources\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Catholic Encyclopedia](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08409c.htm) entry for St. Joan of Arc.\n* [Médailles Jeanne d’Arc](http://medailles.jeannedarc.free.fr).French site containing pictures and descriptions of Medallions devoted to Joan of Arc.\n\n[Joan of Arc](/wiki/Category:Roman_Catholic_canonizations_by_person \"Roman Catholic canonizations by person\")\n[Category:Joan of Arc](/wiki/Category:Joan_of_Arc \"Joan of Arc\")\n[Category:1920 in Christianity](/wiki/Category:1920_in_Christianity \"1920 in Christianity\")\n\n"
]
}
|
President of Namibia
|
{
"id": [
47624500
],
"name": [
"JoshuaJ28"
]
}
|
sgl0qhufx1lnca3ek7vi6po1qj5a9nt
|
2024-10-07T16:17:07Z
| 1,249,935,513 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Term limits",
"Succession",
"List of officeholders",
"Timeline",
"Latest election",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - \n\t\t\n\nThe **president of the Republic of Namibia** is the [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\") and the [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government \"Head of government\") of [Namibia](/wiki/Namibia \"Namibia\"). The president directs the executive branch of the [Government of Namibia](/wiki/Government_of_Namibia \"Government of Namibia\"), as chair of the [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Namibia \"Cabinet of Namibia\") and is the [commander\\-in\\-chief](/wiki/Commander-in-chief \"Commander-in-chief\") of the [armed forces](/wiki/Namibian_Defence_Force \"Namibian Defence Force\"), according to the [Constitution of Namibia](/wiki/Constitution_of_Namibia \"Constitution of Namibia\").\n\n",
"Term limits\n-----------\n\nAs of 2021, there is a two\\-term limit for the president in the [Constitution of Namibia](/wiki/Constitution_of_Namibia \"Constitution of Namibia\"). The first president for whom the term limits applied was [Hifikepunye Pohamba](/wiki/Hifikepunye_Pohamba \"Hifikepunye Pohamba\") in 2015\\.\n\n",
"Succession\n----------\n\nIf the presidency falls vacant and the president is unable to perform the duties, then the following officials are in line for succession for the remaining presidential term:[2014 amended Constitution](https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Namibia_2014), Elkins, Zachary, Tom Ginsburg, James Melton. Constitute: The World's Constitutions to Read, Search, and Compare, constituteproject.org, accessed February 3, 2024\n1. [Vice President of Namibia](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Namibia \"Vice President of Namibia\")\n2. [Prime Minister of Namibia](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Namibia \"Prime Minister of Namibia\")\n3. [Deputy\\-Prime Minister of Namibia](/wiki/Deputy-Prime_Minister_of_Namibia \"Deputy-Prime Minister of Namibia\")\n4. a person appointed by the Cabinet.\n\nBefore the constitution was amended in 2014 to add the office of vice president, the prime minister was first in the line of succession.\n\n",
"List of officeholders\n---------------------\n\nPolitical parties\n\nStatus\n\n**Symbol**\n\n Died in office\n\n| | Portrait | Name | Elected | Term of office | | | Political party |\n| Took office | Left office | Time in office |\n| 1 | [Sam\\_Nujoma\\_(2004\\)\\_cropped \\|136x136px](/wiki/File:Sam_Nujoma_%282004%29_cropped.jpg \"Sam Nujoma (2004) cropped.jpg\") | [Sam Nujoma](/wiki/Sam_Nujoma \"Sam Nujoma\") | [1989](/wiki/1989_Namibian_parliamentary_election \"1989 Namibian parliamentary election\")[1994](/wiki/1994_Namibian_general_election \"1994 Namibian general election\")[1999](/wiki/1999_Namibian_general_election \"1999 Namibian general election\") | 21 March 1990 | 21 March 2005 | years | [SWAPO](/wiki/SWAPO \"SWAPO\") |\n| 2 | [140x140px](/wiki/File:Hifikepunye_Pohamba.jpg \"Hifikepunye Pohamba.jpg\") | [Hifikepunye Pohamba](/wiki/Hifikepunye_Pohamba \"Hifikepunye Pohamba\") | [2004](/wiki/2004_Namibian_general_election \"2004 Namibian general election\")[2009](/wiki/2009_Namibian_general_election \"2009 Namibian general election\") | 21 March 2005 | 21 March 2015 | years | [SWAPO](/wiki/SWAPO \"SWAPO\") |\n| 3 | [Hage\\_Geingob\\_(cropped)\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Hage_Geingob_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Hage Geingob (cropped).jpg\") | [Hage Geingob](/wiki/Hage_Geingob \"Hage Geingob\") | [2014](/wiki/2014_Namibian_general_election \"2014 Namibian general election\")[2019](/wiki/2019_Namibian_general_election \"2019 Namibian general election\") | [21 March 2015](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Hage_Geingob \"Inauguration of Hage Geingob\") | [4 February 2024](/wiki/Hage_Geingob%23Illness%2C_death_and_funeral \"Hage Geingob#Illness, death and funeral\") | | [SWAPO](/wiki/SWAPO \"SWAPO\") |\n| — | [115x115px](/wiki/File:Nangolo_Mbumba_in_2024.jpg \"Nangolo Mbumba in 2024.jpg\") | [Nangolo Mbumba](/wiki/Nangolo_Mbumba \"Nangolo Mbumba\") | — | 25 January 2024 | 4 February 2024 | | [SWAPO](/wiki/SWAPO \"SWAPO\") |\n| 4 | 4 February 2024 | Incumbent | |\n\n### Timeline\n\n",
"### Timeline\n\n",
"Latest election\n---------------\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Politics of Namibia](/wiki/Politics_of_Namibia \"Politics of Namibia\")\n* [List of colonial governors of South West Africa](/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_South_West_Africa \"List of colonial governors of South West Africa\")\n* [Vice\\-President of Namibia](/wiki/Vice-President_of_Namibia \"Vice-President of Namibia\")\n* [Prime Minister of Namibia](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Namibia \"Prime Minister of Namibia\")\n* [Deputy\\-Prime Minister of Namibia](/wiki/Deputy-Prime_Minister_of_Namibia \"Deputy-Prime Minister of Namibia\")\n* [Cabinet of Namibia](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Namibia \"Cabinet of Namibia\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [World Statesmen – Namibia](http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Namibia.htm)\n\n[Category:Government of Namibia](/wiki/Category:Government_of_Namibia \"Government of Namibia\")\n[Namibia](/wiki/Category:Presidents_by_country \"Presidents by country\")\n\n[Presidents](/wiki/Category:Political_office-holders_in_Namibia \"Political office-holders in Namibia\")\n[Category:1990 establishments in Namibia](/wiki/Category:1990_establishments_in_Namibia \"1990 establishments in Namibia\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Schütz
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"72.80.249.241"
]
}
|
278s6sc9ifxfradfpjqhe5qcgbzjbxu
|
2023-07-01T00:20:56Z
| 1,159,113,794 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Schütz",
"People",
"Other",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"**Schütz** (also spelled *Schuetz* without Umlaut [ü](/wiki/%C3%9C \"Ü\")) is a [German surname](/wiki/German_surname \"German surname\"), deriving from *Schütze* (shooter/marksman). Notable people with the surname include:\n\n",
"People\n------\n\n* [Alfred Schütz](/wiki/Alfred_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Alfred Schütz\") (1899–1959\\), sociologist and philosopher\n* [Antal Schütz](/wiki/Antal_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Antal Schütz\") (1880\\-1953\\), Hungarian Piarist friar and prominent theologian\n* [Caspar Schütz](/wiki/Caspar_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Caspar Schütz\") (1540–1594\\), German historian\n* [Christian Gottfried Schütz](/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Christian Gottfried Schütz\") (1747–1832\\), German humanist scholar\n* [Christoph Schütz](/wiki/Christoph_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Christoph Schütz\") (1689–1750\\), German pietist writer and songbook publisher\n* [David Schütz](/wiki/David_Sch%C3%BCtz \"David Schütz\") (1941–2017\\), Israeli writer\n* [Felix Schütz](/wiki/Felix_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Felix Schütz\") (born 1987\\), German ice hockey player\n* [Franz Schütz](/wiki/Franz_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Franz Schütz\") (1900–1955\\), German footballer\n* [Friedrich Schütz](/wiki/Friedrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Friedrich Schütz\") (1844–1908\\), Austrian journalist\n* [Günther Schütz](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Günther Schütz\") (1912–1991\\), German military intelligence (*Abwehr*) agent during World War II\n* [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\") (1585–1672\\), German composer and organist\n* [Ignaz Schütz](/wiki/Ignaz_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Ignaz Schütz\") (1867–1927\\), Czech–German mathematician and physicist\n* [Johan Christher Schütz](/wiki/Johan_Christher_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Johan Christher Schütz\"), Swedish songwriter and music producer\n* [Josef Schütz](/wiki/Josef_Schuetz \"Josef Schuetz\"), or Schuetz, (1921–2023\\), Lithuanian\\-German Nazi concentration camp guard\n* [Katharina Schütz](/wiki/Katharina_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Katharina Schütz\") (later Katharina Zell; 1497–1562\\), German Protestant apologist\n* [Klaus Schütz](/wiki/Klaus_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Klaus Schütz\") (1926\\-2012\\), German Social Democratic Party (SPD) politician\n* [Michael Schütz (musician)](/wiki/Michael_Sch%C3%BCtz_%28musician%29 \"Michael Schütz (musician)\") (born 1963\\), German church musician\n* [Morgan Schuetz](/wiki/Morgan_Schuetz \"Morgan Schuetz\") (born 1994\\), All\\-American [middle\\-distance runner](/wiki/Middle-distance_runner \"Middle-distance runner\")\n* [Tales Schütz](/wiki/Tales_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Tales Schütz\") (born 1981\\), Polish football striker of German and Brazilian descent\n* [Tom Schütz](/wiki/Tom_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Tom Schütz\") (born 1988\\), German footballer\n* [Udo Schütz](/wiki/Udo_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Udo Schütz\") (born 1937\\), German entrepreneur and former race car driver\n* [Guillermo Schütz](/wiki/Guillermo_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Guillermo Schütz\") (born 1980\\), Mexican sports announcer\n",
"Other\n-----\n\n* [4134 Schütz](/wiki/4134_Sch%C3%BCtz \"4134 Schütz\"), a main\\-belt asteroid named after Heinrich Schütz\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Schütze](/wiki/Sch%C3%BCtze \"Schütze\")\n* [Schutz](/wiki/Schutz \"Schutz\")\n* [Šics](/wiki/%C5%A0ics \"Šics\")\n\n[Category:German\\-language surnames](/wiki/Category:German-language_surnames \"German-language surnames\")\n[Category:Occupational surnames](/wiki/Category:Occupational_surnames \"Occupational surnames\")\n\n"
]
}
|
The Mark Steel Lectures
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"80.168.88.248"
]
}
|
5hsz077iznftuf06oq1exmp5xh1f9h3
|
2024-03-15T20:34:49Z
| 1,199,748,999 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Radio episode list",
"Series 1 – Englishmen who changed the course of history",
"Series 2 – People with a passion",
"Series 3 – People with a passion",
"Television episode list",
"Series 1",
"Series 2",
"Series 3",
"Audio releases",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
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2,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2
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"content": [
"\n\n***The Mark Steel Lectures*** are a series of [radio](/wiki/Radio \"Radio\") and [television](/wiki/Television \"Television\") programmes. Written and delivered by [Mark Steel](/wiki/Mark_Steel \"Mark Steel\"), each scripted lecture presents arguments for the importance of a historical figure.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe lectures were originally broadcast on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 \"BBC Radio 4\") over three series between 1999 and 2002\\. Many of the arguments were illustrated by miniature sketches. These sketches featured Mark Steel, [Martin Hyder](/wiki/Martin_Hyder \"Martin Hyder\"), [Mel Hudson](/wiki/Mel_Hudson \"Mel Hudson\"), [Carla Mendonça](/wiki/Carla_Mendon%C3%A7a \"Carla Mendonça\"), [Femi Elufowoju Junior](/wiki/Femi_Elufowoju_Junior \"Femi Elufowoju Junior\") and [Debbie Isitt](/wiki/Debbie_Isitt \"Debbie Isitt\"). The first series was subtitled \"A series of lectures about Englishmen who changed the course of history\", with the remaining two changing this to \"A series of lectures about people with a passion\". The first series was produced by Phil Clark; the others by Lucy Armitage. The lecture on Ludwig van Beethoven (2003\\) was nominated for a Sony Radio Comedy Award.\n\nThe programme transferred to television in 2003, with an [Open University](/wiki/Open_University \"Open University\") series on [BBC Four](/wiki/BBC_Four \"BBC Four\"), which was later repeated on [BBC Two](/wiki/BBC_Two \"BBC Two\"). This variously featured:\n\n* [Gerard Logan](/wiki/Gerard_Logan \"Gerard Logan\") as [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron \"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron\")\n* [Martin Hyder](/wiki/Martin_Hyder \"Martin Hyder\") as [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\"), [Sigmund Freud](/wiki/Sigmund_Freud \"Sigmund Freud\"), [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\"), [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\"), [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\"), [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") and [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\")\n* [Ainsley Harriott](/wiki/Ainsley_Harriott \"Ainsley Harriott\") as [Robert Boyle](/wiki/Robert_Boyle \"Robert Boyle\")\n* [Linda Smith](/wiki/Linda_Smith_%28comedian%29 \"Linda Smith (comedian)\") as [Martha Freud](/wiki/Martha_Freud \"Martha Freud\")\n* [Emma Kennedy](/wiki/Emma_Kennedy \"Emma Kennedy\") as [Mary Shelley](/wiki/Mary_Shelley \"Mary Shelley\") and [Sylvia Pankhurst](/wiki/Sylvia_Pankhurst \"Sylvia Pankhurst\")\n* Various celebrities, including [Mark Lamarr](/wiki/Mark_Lamarr \"Mark Lamarr\"), [Bob Monkhouse](/wiki/Bob_Monkhouse \"Bob Monkhouse\") and [Paul Merton](/wiki/Paul_Merton \"Paul Merton\"), as themselves.\n\nLike the radio version, the television series was written by Mark Steel, and features a series of sketches, often setting historical events in the modern day, and making numerous [pop culture](/wiki/Pop_culture \"Pop culture\") references. This version saw Steel deliver his lectures on location, with different sections of each programme coming from locations relevant to that part of the story. Unlike the radio version, there were no audience sounds, which some critics suggested made the comedy sections feel out of place <http://offthetelly.co.uk/reviews/2006/marksteel.htm>. The television series was directed by [Michael Cumming](/wiki/Michael_Cumming \"Michael Cumming\"), and produced by Jon Rolph. The executive producers were Emma De'Ath and Graham Smith.\n\nThe programme was nominated for a [BAFTA](/wiki/BAFTA \"BAFTA\") award in 2004 for best television comedy. Although the radio series has been released on [CD](/wiki/Compact_disc \"Compact disc\"), there are no plans to release [DVDs](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") of the television series.\n\n",
"Radio episode list\n------------------\n\n### Series 1 – Englishmen who changed the course of history\n\n* S01 E01 – [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\") (9 August 1999\\)\n* S01 E02 – [W. G. Grace](/wiki/W._G._Grace \"W. G. Grace\") (16 August 1999\\)\n* S01 E03 – [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\") (23 August 1999\\)\n* S01 E04 – [Thomas Paine](/wiki/Thomas_Paine \"Thomas Paine\") (30 August 1999\\)\n\n### Series 2 – People with a passion\n\n* S02 E01 – [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron \"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron\") (13 February 2001\\)\n* S02 E02 – [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (20 March 2001\\)\n* S02 E03 – [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\") (27 March 2001\\)\n* S02 E04 – [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\") (3 April 2001\\)\n* S02 E05 – [Billie Holiday](/wiki/Billie_Holiday \"Billie Holiday\") (10 April 2001\\)\n* S02 E06 – [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") (17 April 2001\\)\n\n### Series 3 – People with a passion\n\n* S03 E01 – [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") (18 September 2002\\)\n* S03 E02 – [Hannibal](/wiki/Hannibal \"Hannibal\") (25 September 2002\\)\n* S03 E03 – [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") (2 October 2002\\)\n* S03 E04 – [Mary Shelley](/wiki/Mary_Shelley \"Mary Shelley\") (9 October 2002\\)\n* S03 E05 – [Muhammad Ali](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali \"Muhammad Ali\") (16 October 2002\\)\n* S03 E06 – [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") (23 October 2002\\)\n",
"### Series 1 – Englishmen who changed the course of history\n\n* S01 E01 – [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\") (9 August 1999\\)\n* S01 E02 – [W. G. Grace](/wiki/W._G._Grace \"W. G. Grace\") (16 August 1999\\)\n* S01 E03 – [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\") (23 August 1999\\)\n* S01 E04 – [Thomas Paine](/wiki/Thomas_Paine \"Thomas Paine\") (30 August 1999\\)\n",
"### Series 2 – People with a passion\n\n* S02 E01 – [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron \"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron\") (13 February 2001\\)\n* S02 E02 – [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (20 March 2001\\)\n* S02 E03 – [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\") (27 March 2001\\)\n* S02 E04 – [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\") (3 April 2001\\)\n* S02 E05 – [Billie Holiday](/wiki/Billie_Holiday \"Billie Holiday\") (10 April 2001\\)\n* S02 E06 – [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") (17 April 2001\\)\n",
"### Series 3 – People with a passion\n\n* S03 E01 – [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") (18 September 2002\\)\n* S03 E02 – [Hannibal](/wiki/Hannibal \"Hannibal\") (25 September 2002\\)\n* S03 E03 – [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") (2 October 2002\\)\n* S03 E04 – [Mary Shelley](/wiki/Mary_Shelley \"Mary Shelley\") (9 October 2002\\)\n* S03 E05 – [Muhammad Ali](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali \"Muhammad Ali\") (16 October 2002\\)\n* S03 E06 – [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") (23 October 2002\\)\n",
"Television episode list\n-----------------------\n\n### Series 1\n\n* S01 E01 – [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron \"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron\") (7 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E02 – [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") (14 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E03 – [Sigmund Freud](/wiki/Sigmund_Freud \"Sigmund Freud\") (21 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E04 – [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (28 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E05 – [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\") (4 November 2003\\)\n* S01 E06 – [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") (11 November 2003\\)\n\n### Series 2\n\n* S02 E01 – [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") (5 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E02 – [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\") (12 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E03 – [Mary Shelley](/wiki/Mary_Shelley \"Mary Shelley\") (19 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E04 – [Thomas Paine](/wiki/Thomas_Paine \"Thomas Paine\") (26 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E05 – [Sylvia Pankhurst](/wiki/Sylvia_Pankhurst \"Sylvia Pankhurst\") (3 December 2004\\)\n* S02 E06 – [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\") (10 December 2004\\)\n\n### Series 3\n\n* S03 E01 [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\") (23 February 2006\\)\n* S03 E02 [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\") (2 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E03 [René Descartes](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes \"René Descartes\") (9 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E04 [Geoffrey Chaucer](/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer \"Geoffrey Chaucer\") (16 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E05 [Harriet Tubman](/wiki/Harriet_Tubman \"Harriet Tubman\") (23 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E06 [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\") (30 March 2006\\)\n",
"### Series 1\n\n* S01 E01 – [Lord Byron](/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron \"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron\") (7 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E02 – [Isaac Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") (14 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E03 – [Sigmund Freud](/wiki/Sigmund_Freud \"Sigmund Freud\") (21 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E04 – [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (28 October 2003\\)\n* S01 E05 – [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\") (4 November 2003\\)\n* S01 E06 – [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") (11 November 2003\\)\n",
"### Series 2\n\n* S02 E01 – [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") (5 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E02 – [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\") (12 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E03 – [Mary Shelley](/wiki/Mary_Shelley \"Mary Shelley\") (19 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E04 – [Thomas Paine](/wiki/Thomas_Paine \"Thomas Paine\") (26 November 2004\\)\n* S02 E05 – [Sylvia Pankhurst](/wiki/Sylvia_Pankhurst \"Sylvia Pankhurst\") (3 December 2004\\)\n* S02 E06 – [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\") (10 December 2004\\)\n",
"### Series 3\n\n* S03 E01 [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\") (23 February 2006\\)\n* S03 E02 [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\") (2 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E03 [René Descartes](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes \"René Descartes\") (9 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E04 [Geoffrey Chaucer](/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer \"Geoffrey Chaucer\") (16 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E05 [Harriet Tubman](/wiki/Harriet_Tubman \"Harriet Tubman\") (23 March 2006\\)\n* S03 E06 [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\") (30 March 2006\\)\n",
"Audio releases\n--------------\n\nThere are two CDs currently out, featuring episodes of the second radio series.\n\n* **Volume 1**: Leonardo da Vinci and Karl Marx\n* **Volume 2**: Aristotle, Lord Byron, Che Guevara and Billie Holiday\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official site for the television series](http://www.open2.net/marksteel/) from the [Open University](/wiki/Open_University \"Open University\")\n[Category:BBC Four original programming](/wiki/Category:BBC_Four_original_programming \"BBC Four original programming\")\n[Category:BBC Radio 4 programmes](/wiki/Category:BBC_Radio_4_programmes \"BBC Radio 4 programmes\")\n[Category:1999 radio programme debuts](/wiki/Category:1999_radio_programme_debuts \"1999 radio programme debuts\")\n[Category:2002 radio programme endings](/wiki/Category:2002_radio_programme_endings \"2002 radio programme endings\")\n[Category:2003 British television series debuts](/wiki/Category:2003_British_television_series_debuts \"2003 British television series debuts\")\n[Category:2006 British television series endings](/wiki/Category:2006_British_television_series_endings \"2006 British television series endings\")\n[Category:British lecture series](/wiki/Category:British_lecture_series \"British lecture series\")\n[Category:British English\\-language television shows](/wiki/Category:British_English-language_television_shows \"British English-language television shows\")\n\n"
]
}
|
USS Blue Ridge
|
{
"id": [
21878292
],
"name": [
"Llammakey"
]
}
|
iw6y8uvj54egjyyhw78dl6ctff141tu
|
2021-10-20T12:56:28Z
| 1,050,774,149 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction"
],
"level": [
1
],
"content": [
"\n**USS *Blue Ridge*** may refer to the following ships of the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"):\n\n* , was originally constructed as the Great Lakes passenger steamer *Virginia* and was in service for less than a year during 1918\n* , was an amphibious force flagship, and served from 1943 to 1947\n* , is a command and control ship, serving as the Seventh Fleet command ship\n\n[Category:United States Navy ship names](/wiki/Category:United_States_Navy_ship_names \"United States Navy ship names\")\n\n"
]
}
|
List of political parties in Portugal
|
{
"id": [
27823944
],
"name": [
"GreenC bot"
]
}
|
cd3qcxfip4p2nqjqc24hyp67siprnyj
|
2024-09-12T21:48:25Z
| 1,243,655,366 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"General overview",
"National political parties",
"Parties represented in the Assembly of the Republic and/or the European Parliament",
"Parties without representation in the Assembly of the Republic or the European Parliament",
"Extinct parties",
"Far-left",
"Left-wing to far-left",
"Left-wing",
"Centre-left",
"Centre",
"Centre-right",
"Right-wing",
"Far-right",
"Historical parties",
"[[History of Portugal (1834–1910)|Constitutional Monarchy]] (1834–1910)",
"[[First Portuguese Republic|First Republic]] (1910–1926)",
"[[Ditadura Nacional]] (1926–1933)",
"[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] (1933–1974)",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\nThis article lists [political parties](/wiki/Political_parties \"Political parties\") in [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\"). The Portuguese political scene has been dominated by the [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Socialist Party (Portugal)\") and the [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Social Democratic Party (Portugal)\") since the 1974 [Carnation Revolution](/wiki/Carnation_Revolution \"Carnation Revolution\") although there are several important minor parties (discussed below).\n\nAs of 2024, the parties represented in the [Assembly of the Republic](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_%28Portugal%29 \"Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)\") are the [Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Democratic_Alliance_%28Portugal%2C_2024%29 \"Democratic Alliance (Portugal, 2024)\") (80 [MPs](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\")), [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Socialist Party (Portugal)\") (78 MPs), the [Chega party](/wiki/Chega_%28political_party%29 \"Chega (political party)\") (50 MPs), the [Liberal Initiative](/wiki/Liberal_Initiative \"Liberal Initiative\") (8 MPs), the [Left Bloc](/wiki/Left_Bloc_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Bloc (Portugal)\") (5 MPs), the [Unitary Democratic Coalition](/wiki/Unitary_Democratic_Coalition \"Unitary Democratic Coalition\") (4 MPs), the [FREE](/wiki/LIVRE \"LIVRE\") party (4 MPs), and the [People\\-Animals\\-Nature](/wiki/People-Animals-Nature \"People-Animals-Nature\") party (1 MP). Several other parties are represented in the legislatures of the [autonomous regions](/wiki/Autonomous_regions_of_Portugal \"Autonomous regions of Portugal\"), the [Legislative Assembly of the Azores](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_the_Azores \"Legislative Assembly of the Azores\") and the [Legislative Assembly of Madeira](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Madeira \"Legislative Assembly of Madeira\").\n\n",
"General overview\n----------------\n\n[262px\\|thumb\\|Political posters in 1975\\.](/wiki/File:Portugal%2C_politiek%2C_straatbeelden_etc_leuzen_van_politieke_partijen_op_straat_%2C_Bestanddeelnr_927-7487.jpg \"Portugal, politiek, straatbeelden etc leuzen van politieke partijen op straat , Bestanddeelnr 927-7487.jpg\")\n[262px\\|thumb\\|[Livre](/wiki/LIVRE \"LIVRE\") campaign poster for the [2015 elections](/wiki/2015_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2015 Portuguese legislative election\").](/wiki/File:Cartel_campa%C3%B1a_2015_Portugal_-_Livre.jpg \"Cartel campaña 2015 Portugal - Livre.jpg\")\n[262px\\|thumb\\|[Left Bloc](/wiki/Left_Bloc_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Bloc (Portugal)\") campaign poster for the [2015 elections](/wiki/2015_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2015 Portuguese legislative election\").](/wiki/File:Cartel_campa%C3%B1a_2015_Portugal_-_Bloque_Izquierda.jpg \"Cartel campaña 2015 Portugal - Bloque Izquierda.jpg\")\n[262px\\|thumb\\|[Liberal Initiative](/wiki/Liberal_Initiative \"Liberal Initiative\") campaign poster for the [2019 elections](/wiki/2019_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2019 Portuguese legislative election\").](/wiki/File:N%C3%A3o_votes_Iniciativa_Liberal%2C_Porto_2019.jpg \"Não votes Iniciativa Liberal, Porto 2019.jpg\")\n[262px\\|thumb\\|[PCTP/MRPP](/wiki/Portuguese_Workers%27_Communist_Party \"Portuguese Workers' Communist Party\") campaign poster in 2014\\.](/wiki/File:PCTP-MRPP-FigFoz.JPG \"PCTP-MRPP-FigFoz.JPG\")\nThis list presents all the existing parties recognized by the [Portuguese Constitutional Court](/wiki/Portuguese_Constitutional_Court \"Portuguese Constitutional Court\").[Tribunal Constitucional – Partidos registados e suas denominações, siglas e símbolos](http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/partidos.html?pesquisa=MRPP#PESQ001)\n\n* The **[Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Social Democratic Party (Portugal)\") (PPD/PSD)**, despite the name, is not a traditional [social democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") party, being much closer to the [centre\\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_politics \"Centre-right politics\"). A [big tent party](/wiki/Big_tent \"Big tent\"), it is the equivalent of any other [liberal conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism \"Liberal conservatism\") party in Europe such as the French [Republicans](/wiki/The_Republicans_%28France%29 \"The Republicans (France)\") or the German [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany \"Christian Democratic Union of Germany\"). The PSD was founded right after the [1974 Revolution](/wiki/Carnation_Revolution \"Carnation Revolution\") as *Partido Popular Democrático* (Democratic People's Party) by many personalities of the so\\-called \"liberal wing\" of the fascist regime, like [Francisco Sá Carneiro](/wiki/Francisco_S%C3%A1_Carneiro \"Francisco Sá Carneiro\") (the PSD historical leader), [Francisco Pinto Balsemão](/wiki/Francisco_Pinto_Balsem%C3%A3o \"Francisco Pinto Balsemão\"), and [Joaquim Magalhães Mota](/wiki/Joaquim_Magalh%C3%A3es_Mota \"Joaquim Magalhães Mota\"). Its leader, [Luís Montenegro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Montenegro \"Luís Montenegro\"), is the current [Prime Minister of Portugal](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Portugal \"Prime Minister of Portugal\") and the current [President of Portugal](/wiki/President_of_Portugal \"President of Portugal\"), [Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa](/wiki/Marcelo_Rebelo_de_Sousa \"Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa\"), is a former leader.\n* The **[Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Socialist Party (Portugal)\") (PS)**, a [social democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") party, is a major party in Portugal, resembling the British [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\"), the German [SPD](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany \"Social Democratic Party of Germany\") or the Spanish [PSOE](/wiki/Spanish_Socialist_Workers%27_Party \"Spanish Socialist Workers' Party\"). The party was founded before the [1974 Revolution](/wiki/Carnation_Revolution \"Carnation Revolution\") by (among others) [Mário Soares](/wiki/M%C3%A1rio_Soares \"Mário Soares\"), its historical leader and one of the main opponents of the dictatorial regime. The current [Secretary\\-General of the United Nations](/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations \"Secretary-General of the United Nations\") [António Guterres](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres \"António Guterres\") is a former leader and Prime Minister.\n* **[Chega](/wiki/Chega_%28political_party%29 \"Chega (political party)\") (CH)** is a Portuguese a [national conservative](/wiki/National_conservatism \"National conservatism\"), [right\\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populism \"Right-wing populism\") party founded by PSD dissident [André Ventura](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ventura \"André Ventura\"), similar to the French [National Rally](/wiki/National_Rally \"National Rally\"), the Spanish [Vox](/wiki/Vox_%28political_party%29 \"Vox (political party)\") or the Italian [Brothers of Italy](/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy \"Brothers of Italy\").\n* The **[Liberal Initiative](/wiki/Liberal_Initiative \"Liberal Initiative\") (IL)** is a [classical liberal](/wiki/Classical_liberalism \"Classical liberalism\") and [right\\-libertarian](/wiki/Right-libertarianism \"Right-libertarianism\") party.\n* The **[Left Bloc](/wiki/Left_Bloc_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Bloc (Portugal)\") (BE)**, formed as a result of the merger of three left\\-wing parties (the [Popular Democratic Union](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"Popular Democratic Union (Portugal)\"), the [Revolutionary Socialist Party](/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Revolutionary Socialist Party (Portugal)\"), and the [Politics XXI](/wiki/Politics_XXI \"Politics XXI\")), is an overwhelmingly urban party, adopting a wide range of left\\-wing policies and portrays itself as the modern, progressive alternative to the Portuguese Communist Party.\n* The **[Portuguese Communist Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Communist_Party \"Portuguese Communist Party\") (PCP)**, founded in 1921 as the Portuguese Section of the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\"), has its major influence among the working class and played a major role in the opposition to the [Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 \"Estado Novo (Portugal)\") regime, being brutally repressed in the process. After being one of the most influential parties in the [years that followed](/wiki/Processo_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_Em_Curso \"Processo Revolucionário Em Curso\") the [Carnation Revolution](/wiki/Carnation_Revolution \"Carnation Revolution\"), it lost most of its power base after the fall of the [Eastern Bloc](/wiki/Eastern_Bloc \"Eastern Bloc\"), but still enjoys popularity in some sectors of Portuguese society. It also has a major influence among the biggest Portuguese labour union – [General Confederation of the Portuguese Workers](/wiki/General_Confederation_of_the_Portuguese_Workers \"General Confederation of the Portuguese Workers\") (CGTP). Its historical leader was [Álvaro Cunhal](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Cunhal \"Álvaro Cunhal\").\n* **[FREE](/wiki/LIVRE \"LIVRE\") (L)** is a [green political](/wiki/Green_politics \"Green politics\"), social democratic, and pro\\-European party.\n* The **[CDS – People's Party](/wiki/CDS_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party \"CDS – People's Party\") (CDS–PP)** is a traditional [Christian Democrat](/wiki/Christian_Democrat \"Christian Democrat\") and [conservative](/wiki/Conservatism \"Conservatism\") party, similar to the German [CSU](/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria \"Christian Social Union in Bavaria\") or the Spanish [PP](/wiki/People%27s_Party_%28Spain%29 \"People's Party (Spain)\"). Founded after the revolution, its historical leaders were [Diogo Freitas do Amaral](/wiki/Diogo_Freitas_do_Amaral \"Diogo Freitas do Amaral\") and [Adelino Amaro da Costa](/wiki/Adelino_Amaro_da_Costa \"Adelino Amaro da Costa\"). In 1976 it was the only party that voted against approval of a [socialist constitution](/wiki/Portuguese_Constitution_of_1976 \"Portuguese Constitution of 1976\"). Later, it was part of several governments in coalition with the PSD. The CDS congregates several right\\-wing tendencies ranging from christian democrats to neoliberals and more conservative elements.\n* **[People\\-Animals\\-Nature](/wiki/People-Animals-Nature \"People-Animals-Nature\") (PAN)** is a party inspired by environmentalism and strongly focused on [the rights of animals](/wiki/Animal_rights \"Animal rights\") and [animal welfare](/wiki/Animal_welfare \"Animal welfare\") and which considers itself to be socially progressive, defending [LGBT rights](/wiki/LGBT_rights \"LGBT rights\") and [women's rights](/wiki/Women%27s_rights \"Women's rights\").\n* The **[Ecologist Party \"The Greens\"](/wiki/Ecologist_Party_%22The_Greens%22 \"Ecologist Party \") (PEV)** is the first Portuguese [green party](/wiki/Green_party \"Green party\"), traditionally allied with the Communist Party in the [Unitary Democratic Coalition](/wiki/Unitary_Democratic_Coalition \"Unitary Democratic Coalition\").\n* The **[National Democratic Alternative](/wiki/National_Democratic_Alternative_%28Portugal%29 \"National Democratic Alternative (Portugal)\") (ADN)** was founded by the former leader of the [Portuguese Bar Association](/wiki/Portuguese_Bar_Association \"Portuguese Bar Association\"), [António Marinho e Pinto](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Marinho_e_Pinto \"António Marinho e Pinto\"). He ran as the Earth Party candidate for the 2014 European elections but left the party soon after to form his own party. A populist party, it became [COVID\\-19 denialist](/wiki/COVID-19_denialist \"COVID-19 denialist\") and [anti\\-environmentalist](/wiki/Anti-environmentalism \"Anti-environmentalism\"), defending a reform of the electoral system and reform of justice system.\n* **[React, Include, Recycle](/wiki/React%2C_Include%2C_Recycle \"React, Include, Recycle\") (RIR)** is a [humanist](/wiki/Humanism \"Humanism\"), [pacifist](/wiki/Pacifism \"Pacifism\") and [universalist](/wiki/Universalism \"Universalism\") party (\"Rir\" in Portuguese means \"laughing\").\n* **[Together for the People](/wiki/Together_for_the_People \"Together for the People\") (JPP)** was formed as an independent movement for the local elections of 2013 in the municipally of [Santa Cruz](/wiki/Santa_Cruz%2C_Madeira \"Santa Cruz, Madeira\") in [Madeira](/wiki/Madeira \"Madeira\"). Transformed into a political party in 2015 in order to contest the regional elections in Madeira.\n* The **[New Right](/wiki/Nova_Direita \"Nova Direita\") (ND)** is a party created by [Ossanda Liber](/wiki/Ossanda_Liber \"Ossanda Liber\"), a former candidate for mayor of [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") and a former member of Alliance that created a [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") [conservative](/wiki/Conservatism \"Conservatism\") party that is looking to occupy the place of CDS–PP in national politics after they left parliament following the [2022 legislative elections](/wiki/2022_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2022 Portuguese legislative election\").\n* The **[Portuguese Workers' Communist Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Workers%27_Communist_Party \"Portuguese Workers' Communist Party\") (PCTP/MRPP)** is a [Maoist](/wiki/Maoist \"Maoist\") party. It had a high\\-profile during the [Carnation Revolution](/wiki/Carnation_Revolution \"Carnation Revolution\"), mostly due to its influence among some [groups of students](/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Students%27_Federation \"Marxist–Leninist Students' Federation\"), although it never reached 2% of the votes or elected a single MP.\n* **[Volt Portugal](/wiki/Volt_Europa%23Portugal \"Volt Europa#Portugal\") (VP)**, portuguese chapter of [Volt Europa](/wiki/Volt_Europa \"Volt Europa\"), is a [pro\\-European](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\") and [European federalist](/wiki/European_federalism \"European federalism\") political movement. The organisation follows a \"pan\\-European approach\" in many policy fields such as climate change, migration, economic inequality, international conflict, terrorism and the impact of the technological revolution on the labour market. It identifies itself as a pan\\-European, [progressive](/wiki/Progressivism \"Progressivism\"), [social\\-liberal](/wiki/Social_liberalism \"Social liberalism\") and [environmentalist](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") political party.\n* **[Rise Up!](/wiki/Ergue-te_%28Portuguese_political_party%29 \"Ergue-te (Portuguese political party)\") (E)** is a far\\-right [nationalist](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") party with little political expression.\n* The **[Earth Party](/wiki/Earth_Party \"Earth Party\") (MPT)** is a centre\\-right [green conservative](/wiki/Green_conservatism \"Green conservatism\") party, founded in 1993 by a faction of the People's Monarchist Party.\n* **[Alliance](/wiki/Alliance_%28Portugal%29 \"Alliance (Portugal)\") (A)** is a party formed by former Social Democratic leader and former Prime Minister [Pedro Santana Lopes](/wiki/Pedro_Santana_Lopes \"Pedro Santana Lopes\").\n* The **[Portuguese Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Labour Party\") (PTP)** is a minor party of the centre\\-left.\n* **[We, the Citizens!](/wiki/We%2C_the_Citizens%21 \"We, the Citizens!\") (NC)** is a minor centre\\-right party founded as a result of the [anti\\-austerity movement](/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement_in_Portugal \"Anti-austerity movement in Portugal\").\n* The **[People's Monarchist Party](/wiki/People%27s_Monarchist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"People's Monarchist Party (Portugal)\") (PPM)** is a small monarchist party with little political expression. It is known that the pretender heir to the [Portuguese throne](/wiki/Portuguese_monarchy \"Portuguese monarchy\"), [Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza](/wiki/Duarte_Pio%2C_Duke_of_Braganza \"Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza\"), does not support this party, since the question of monarchical regime is considered to be above partisanship.\n* The **[Socialist Alternative Movement](/wiki/Socialist_Alternative_Movement \"Socialist Alternative Movement\") (MAS)** was formed in 2000 as a Portuguese Trotskyist political organization and it is the result of a merger between the Left Revolutionary Front (FER \\- *Frente da Esquerda Revolucionária*), and the young activists of the student movement *Ruptura*. The *Ruptura*/FER activists integrated the Left Bloc since its formation. In 2011, the movement split from the Left Bloc and formed a new party called *Socialist Alternative Movement* that was approved by the Constitutional Court in July 2013\\.\n* The **[(A)TUA](/wiki/%28A%29TUA \"(A)TUA\") A)T** is a small party with the goal to defend the rights of retirees and pensioners, aiming to position itself as the political voice of the members of this age group. Originally called *United Party of Retirees and Pensioners (PURP)*, the current name, (A)TUA, was approved in 2024, it was founded as a result of the [anti\\-austerity movement](/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement_in_Portugal \"Anti-austerity movement in Portugal\").\n",
"National political parties\n--------------------------\n\n### Parties represented in the Assembly of the Republic and/or the European Parliament\n\n|[Party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\")\n\n [Main ideology](/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies \"List of political ideologies\") |\n [Position](/wiki/Political_spectrum \"Political spectrum\") |\n [Leader](/wiki/Party_leader \"Party leader\") |\n [MPs](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_%28Portugal%29 \"Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)\") |\n [MEPs](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament \"Member of the European Parliament\") |\n |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | **PPD/PSD** | [50px](/wiki/File:Partido_Social_Democrata_Logo.svg \"Partido Social Democrata Logo.svg\") | [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Social Democratic Party (Portugal)\") | | | [Luís Montenegro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Montenegro \"Luís Montenegro\") | | | |\n| | **PS** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:PS_Logo_%28Text_version%29.png \"PS Logo (Text version).png\") | [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Socialist Party (Portugal)\") | [Social democracy](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") | [Centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_politics \"Centre-left politics\") | [Pedro Nuno Santos](/wiki/Pedro_Nuno_Santos \"Pedro Nuno Santos\") | | | [\"Partidos registados e suas denominações, siglas e símbolos\"](http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/partidos.html) [Tribunal Constitucional](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Portugal \"Constitutional Court of Portugal\"). |\n| | **CH** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:Logo_Chega%21.svg \"Logo Chega!.svg\") | [ENOUGH](/wiki/Chega_%28political_party%29 \"Chega (political party)\") | [Right\\-wing populism](/wiki/Right-wing_populism \"Right-wing populism\") | [Right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\")to [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") | [André Ventura](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ventura \"André Ventura\") | | | |\n| | **IL** | [40x40px](/wiki/File:Iniciativa_Liberal_Icon.png \"Iniciativa Liberal Icon.png\") | [Liberal Initiative](/wiki/Liberal_Initiative \"Liberal Initiative\") | [Classical liberalism](/wiki/Classical_liberalism \"Classical liberalism\") | | [Rui Rocha](/wiki/Rui_Rocha \"Rui Rocha\") | | | |\n| | **B.E.** | [40px](/wiki/File:LeftBloc.svg \"LeftBloc.svg\") | [Left Bloc](/wiki/Left_Bloc_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Bloc (Portugal)\") | [Democratic Socialism](/wiki/Democratic_Socialism \"Democratic Socialism\") | [Left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\")to [far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | [Mariana Mortágua](/wiki/Mariana_Mort%C3%A1gua \"Mariana Mortágua\") | | | [Radical left parties in Europe](https://books.google.com/books?id=xF3FBQAAQBAJ&dq=democratic+socialist+Left+Bloc&pg=PA1801). p.1801\\. Author \\- Luke March. Published by Routledge. Published December 2011\\. |\n| | **PCP** | [50px](/wiki/File:Portuguese_Communist_Party_logo.svg \"Portuguese Communist Party logo.svg\") | | [Marxism–Leninism](/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism \"Marxism–Leninism\") | [Left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\")to [far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | [Paulo Raimundo](/wiki/Paulo_Raimundo \"Paulo Raimundo\") | | | |\n| | **L** | [40px](/wiki/File:Partido_LIVRE_logo.png \"Partido LIVRE logo.png\") | [FREE](/wiki/LIVRE \"LIVRE\") | [Green politics](/wiki/Green_politics \"Green politics\") | [Centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_politics \"Centre-left politics\")to [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") | [Rui Tavares](/wiki/Rui_Tavares \"Rui Tavares\") | | | [European Spring Webpage](https://europeanspring.net/) (retrieved on 17 October 2018\\) |\n| | **CDS–PP** | [35px](/wiki/File:CDS_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party_logo.svg \"CDS – People's Party logo.svg\") | [CDS – People's Party](/wiki/CDS_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party \"CDS – People's Party\") | [Christian democracy](/wiki/Christian_democracy \"Christian democracy\") | | [Nuno Melo](/wiki/Nuno_Melo_%28politician%29 \"Nuno Melo (politician)\") | | | |\n| | **PAN** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:Logo_Pessoas-Animais-Natureza_%28text_only%29.png \"Logo Pessoas-Animais-Natureza (text only).png\") | [People Animals Nature](/wiki/People_Animals_Nature \"People Animals Nature\") | [Environmentalism](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") | | [Inês Sousa Real](/wiki/In%C3%AAs_Sousa_Real \"Inês Sousa Real\") | | | |\n\n### Parties without representation in the Assembly of the Republic or the European Parliament\n\n| [Party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\") | | | | [Main ideology](/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies \"List of political ideologies\") | [Position](/wiki/Political_spectrum \"Political spectrum\") | [Leader](/wiki/Party_leader \"Party leader\") | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | **PEV** | | [Ecologist Party \"The Greens\"](/wiki/Ecologist_Party_%22The_Greens%22 \"Ecologist Party \") | [Eco\\-socialism](/wiki/Eco-socialism \"Eco-socialism\") | [Left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") | *Collective leadership* | |\n| | **ADN** | [50px](/wiki/File:AlternativaDN_OutroLogo.png \"AlternativaDN OutroLogo.png\") | [National Democratic Alternative](/wiki/National_Democratic_Alternative_%28Portugal%29 \"National Democratic Alternative (Portugal)\") | | [Far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") | Bruno Fialho | |\n| | **RIR** | [50px](/wiki/File:Reagir_Incluir_Reciclar_logo.png \"Reagir Incluir Reciclar logo.png\") | [React, Include, Recycle](/wiki/React%2C_Include%2C_Recycle \"React, Include, Recycle\") | [Universalism](/wiki/Universalism \"Universalism\") | [Syncretic](/wiki/Syncretic_politics \"Syncretic politics\") | Márcia Henriques | In portuguese:\"O R.I.R. é um partido político que nasceu com o propósito integrador de aproximar os cidadãos da política e vice\\-versa(...)Incluir os cidadãos nas decisões do bem comum, incluir o bem\\-estar e o equilíbrio nos objectivos económicos, incluir todas as raças e culturas nos espaços habitáveis e incluir toda a população nos privilégios do Século XXI\" in [http://partido\\-rir.pt/](http://partido-rir.pt/)In portuguese: \"O R.I.R adopta corno método de participação e actuação política “ouvir, aprender e propor” soluções participadas pelos vários saberes, por quem está directamente envolvido em diversas áreas fundamentais da sociedade desde a Academia, a Arte, o Engenho à vivência prática dos agentes económicos ( empreendedores, investidores e assalariados).\" in [https://partido\\-rir.pt/sobre\\-o\\-r\\-i\\-r/](https://partido-rir.pt/sobre-o-r-i-r/)In portuguese: \"Questionado na altura se o partido se identifica com a direita ou com a esquerda, Vitorino Silva defendeu que o RIR “é um partido 360 graus, porque o próprio nome diz incluir. \" in [https://tvi24\\.iol.pt/politica/partidos/constitucional\\-aceita\\-partido\\-rir\\-de\\-tino\\-de\\-rans](https://tvi24.iol.pt/politica/partidos/constitucional-aceita-partido-rir-de-tino-de-rans) |\n| | **JPP** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:Logo_Juntos_pelo_Povo.png \"Logo Juntos pelo Povo.png\") | [Together for the People](/wiki/Together_for_the_People \"Together for the People\") | [Regionalism](/wiki/Regionalism_%28politics%29 \"Regionalism (politics)\") | [Centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") | Lina Pereira | |\n| | **ND** | [40px](/wiki/File:Nova_Direita_circle_logo.png \"Nova Direita circle logo.png\") | [New Right](/wiki/Nova_Direita \"Nova Direita\") | [National conservatism](/wiki/National_conservatism \"National conservatism\") | [Right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") | [Ossanda Liber](/wiki/Ossanda_Liber \"Ossanda Liber\") | |\n| | **PCTP/MRPP** | [30px](/wiki/File:PCTP-MRPP_logo.png \"PCTP-MRPP logo.png\") | | [Anti\\-revisionism](/wiki/Anti-revisionism \"Anti-revisionism\") | [Far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | Maria Cidália Guerreiro | |\n| | **VP** | [40px](/wiki/File:Logo_Volt_Europa.svg \"Logo Volt Europa.svg\") | [Volt Portugal](/wiki/Volt_Portugal \"Volt Portugal\") | [Pro\\-Europeanism](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\") | [Centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") to[centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") | [Ana Carvalho](/wiki/Ana_Carvalho \"Ana Carvalho\")[Duarte Costa](/wiki/Duarte_Costa \"Duarte Costa\") | |\n| | **E** | [50px](/wiki/File:Ergue-te_logo.png \"Ergue-te logo.png\") | [Rise Up!](/wiki/Ergue-te_%28Portuguese_political_party%29 \"Ergue-te (Portuguese political party)\") | [Portuguese](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") [nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") | [Far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") | [José Pinto Coelho](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Pinto_Coelho \"José Pinto Coelho\") | |\n| | **MPT** | [50px](/wiki/File:Partido_da_Terra.png \"Partido da Terra.png\") | [Earth Party](/wiki/Earth_Party \"Earth Party\") | [Green conservatism](/wiki/Green_conservatism \"Green conservatism\") | | Pedro Soares Pimenta | |\n| | **A** | [50px](/wiki/File:Logo_da_Alian%C3%A7a.svg \"Logo da Aliança.svg\") | [Alliance](/wiki/Alliance_%28Portugal%29 \"Alliance (Portugal)\") | [Personalism](/wiki/Personalism \"Personalism\") | | [Jorge Nuno Sá](/wiki/Jorge_Nuno_de_S%C3%A1 \"Jorge Nuno de Sá\") | |\n| | **PTP** | [50px](/wiki/File:Partido_Trabalhista_Portugu%C3%AAs.png \"Partido Trabalhista Português.png\") | [Portuguese Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Labour Party\") | [Democratic socialism](/wiki/Democratic_socialism \"Democratic socialism\") | [Centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_politics \"Centre-left politics\") | Amândio Madaleno | |\n| | **NC** | [50px](/wiki/File:Logotipo_n%C3%B3s_cidad%C3%A3os.png \"Logotipo nós cidadãos.png\") | [We, the Citizens!](/wiki/We%2C_the_Citizens%21 \"We, the Citizens!\") | [Liberalism](/wiki/Liberalism \"Liberalism\") | | Joaquim Rocha Afonso | [Nós, Cidadãos é o novo partido de centro\\-direita em formação](http://www.publico.pt/politica/noticia/nos-cidadaos-novo-partido-em-formacao-1624559), Publico.pt, retrieved 17 September 2015 (Portuguese) |\n| | **PPM** | [40px](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_do_PPM.png \"Símbolo do PPM.png\") | [People's Monarchist Party](/wiki/People%27s_Monarchist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"People's Monarchist Party (Portugal)\") | [Monarchism](/wiki/House_of_Braganza \"House of Braganza\") | [Right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") | [Gonçalo da Câmara Pereira](/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alo_da_C%C3%A2mara_Pereira \"Gonçalo da Câmara Pereira\") | |\n| | **MAS** | | [Socialist Alternative Movement](/wiki/Socialist_Alternative_Movement \"Socialist Alternative Movement\") | [Trotskyism](/wiki/Trotskyism \"Trotskyism\") | [Far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | *Disputed* | |\n| | **A)T** | [50px](/wiki/File:A_tua.png \"A tua.png\") | [(A)TUA](/wiki/%28A%29TUA \"(A)TUA\") | [Pensioners' rights](/wiki/List_of_pensioners%27_parties \"List of pensioners' parties\") | [Syncretic](/wiki/Syncretic_politics \"Syncretic politics\") | Rui Lima | |\n\n",
"### Parties represented in the Assembly of the Republic and/or the European Parliament\n\n|[Party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\")\n\n [Main ideology](/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies \"List of political ideologies\") |\n [Position](/wiki/Political_spectrum \"Political spectrum\") |\n [Leader](/wiki/Party_leader \"Party leader\") |\n [MPs](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_%28Portugal%29 \"Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)\") |\n [MEPs](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament \"Member of the European Parliament\") |\n |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | **PPD/PSD** | [50px](/wiki/File:Partido_Social_Democrata_Logo.svg \"Partido Social Democrata Logo.svg\") | [Social Democratic Party](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Social Democratic Party (Portugal)\") | | | [Luís Montenegro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Montenegro \"Luís Montenegro\") | | | |\n| | **PS** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:PS_Logo_%28Text_version%29.png \"PS Logo (Text version).png\") | [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Socialist Party (Portugal)\") | [Social democracy](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") | [Centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_politics \"Centre-left politics\") | [Pedro Nuno Santos](/wiki/Pedro_Nuno_Santos \"Pedro Nuno Santos\") | | | [\"Partidos registados e suas denominações, siglas e símbolos\"](http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/partidos.html) [Tribunal Constitucional](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Portugal \"Constitutional Court of Portugal\"). |\n| | **CH** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:Logo_Chega%21.svg \"Logo Chega!.svg\") | [ENOUGH](/wiki/Chega_%28political_party%29 \"Chega (political party)\") | [Right\\-wing populism](/wiki/Right-wing_populism \"Right-wing populism\") | [Right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\")to [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") | [André Ventura](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ventura \"André Ventura\") | | | |\n| | **IL** | [40x40px](/wiki/File:Iniciativa_Liberal_Icon.png \"Iniciativa Liberal Icon.png\") | [Liberal Initiative](/wiki/Liberal_Initiative \"Liberal Initiative\") | [Classical liberalism](/wiki/Classical_liberalism \"Classical liberalism\") | | [Rui Rocha](/wiki/Rui_Rocha \"Rui Rocha\") | | | |\n| | **B.E.** | [40px](/wiki/File:LeftBloc.svg \"LeftBloc.svg\") | [Left Bloc](/wiki/Left_Bloc_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Bloc (Portugal)\") | [Democratic Socialism](/wiki/Democratic_Socialism \"Democratic Socialism\") | [Left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\")to [far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | [Mariana Mortágua](/wiki/Mariana_Mort%C3%A1gua \"Mariana Mortágua\") | | | [Radical left parties in Europe](https://books.google.com/books?id=xF3FBQAAQBAJ&dq=democratic+socialist+Left+Bloc&pg=PA1801). p.1801\\. Author \\- Luke March. Published by Routledge. Published December 2011\\. |\n| | **PCP** | [50px](/wiki/File:Portuguese_Communist_Party_logo.svg \"Portuguese Communist Party logo.svg\") | | [Marxism–Leninism](/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism \"Marxism–Leninism\") | [Left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\")to [far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | [Paulo Raimundo](/wiki/Paulo_Raimundo \"Paulo Raimundo\") | | | |\n| | **L** | [40px](/wiki/File:Partido_LIVRE_logo.png \"Partido LIVRE logo.png\") | [FREE](/wiki/LIVRE \"LIVRE\") | [Green politics](/wiki/Green_politics \"Green politics\") | [Centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_politics \"Centre-left politics\")to [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") | [Rui Tavares](/wiki/Rui_Tavares \"Rui Tavares\") | | | [European Spring Webpage](https://europeanspring.net/) (retrieved on 17 October 2018\\) |\n| | **CDS–PP** | [35px](/wiki/File:CDS_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party_logo.svg \"CDS – People's Party logo.svg\") | [CDS – People's Party](/wiki/CDS_%E2%80%93_People%27s_Party \"CDS – People's Party\") | [Christian democracy](/wiki/Christian_democracy \"Christian democracy\") | | [Nuno Melo](/wiki/Nuno_Melo_%28politician%29 \"Nuno Melo (politician)\") | | | |\n| | **PAN** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:Logo_Pessoas-Animais-Natureza_%28text_only%29.png \"Logo Pessoas-Animais-Natureza (text only).png\") | [People Animals Nature](/wiki/People_Animals_Nature \"People Animals Nature\") | [Environmentalism](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") | | [Inês Sousa Real](/wiki/In%C3%AAs_Sousa_Real \"Inês Sousa Real\") | | | |\n\n",
"### Parties without representation in the Assembly of the Republic or the European Parliament\n\n| [Party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\") | | | | [Main ideology](/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies \"List of political ideologies\") | [Position](/wiki/Political_spectrum \"Political spectrum\") | [Leader](/wiki/Party_leader \"Party leader\") | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | **PEV** | | [Ecologist Party \"The Greens\"](/wiki/Ecologist_Party_%22The_Greens%22 \"Ecologist Party \") | [Eco\\-socialism](/wiki/Eco-socialism \"Eco-socialism\") | [Left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") | *Collective leadership* | |\n| | **ADN** | [50px](/wiki/File:AlternativaDN_OutroLogo.png \"AlternativaDN OutroLogo.png\") | [National Democratic Alternative](/wiki/National_Democratic_Alternative_%28Portugal%29 \"National Democratic Alternative (Portugal)\") | | [Far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") | Bruno Fialho | |\n| | **RIR** | [50px](/wiki/File:Reagir_Incluir_Reciclar_logo.png \"Reagir Incluir Reciclar logo.png\") | [React, Include, Recycle](/wiki/React%2C_Include%2C_Recycle \"React, Include, Recycle\") | [Universalism](/wiki/Universalism \"Universalism\") | [Syncretic](/wiki/Syncretic_politics \"Syncretic politics\") | Márcia Henriques | In portuguese:\"O R.I.R. é um partido político que nasceu com o propósito integrador de aproximar os cidadãos da política e vice\\-versa(...)Incluir os cidadãos nas decisões do bem comum, incluir o bem\\-estar e o equilíbrio nos objectivos económicos, incluir todas as raças e culturas nos espaços habitáveis e incluir toda a população nos privilégios do Século XXI\" in [http://partido\\-rir.pt/](http://partido-rir.pt/)In portuguese: \"O R.I.R adopta corno método de participação e actuação política “ouvir, aprender e propor” soluções participadas pelos vários saberes, por quem está directamente envolvido em diversas áreas fundamentais da sociedade desde a Academia, a Arte, o Engenho à vivência prática dos agentes económicos ( empreendedores, investidores e assalariados).\" in [https://partido\\-rir.pt/sobre\\-o\\-r\\-i\\-r/](https://partido-rir.pt/sobre-o-r-i-r/)In portuguese: \"Questionado na altura se o partido se identifica com a direita ou com a esquerda, Vitorino Silva defendeu que o RIR “é um partido 360 graus, porque o próprio nome diz incluir. \" in [https://tvi24\\.iol.pt/politica/partidos/constitucional\\-aceita\\-partido\\-rir\\-de\\-tino\\-de\\-rans](https://tvi24.iol.pt/politica/partidos/constitucional-aceita-partido-rir-de-tino-de-rans) |\n| | **JPP** | [50x50px](/wiki/File:Logo_Juntos_pelo_Povo.png \"Logo Juntos pelo Povo.png\") | [Together for the People](/wiki/Together_for_the_People \"Together for the People\") | [Regionalism](/wiki/Regionalism_%28politics%29 \"Regionalism (politics)\") | [Centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") | Lina Pereira | |\n| | **ND** | [40px](/wiki/File:Nova_Direita_circle_logo.png \"Nova Direita circle logo.png\") | [New Right](/wiki/Nova_Direita \"Nova Direita\") | [National conservatism](/wiki/National_conservatism \"National conservatism\") | [Right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") | [Ossanda Liber](/wiki/Ossanda_Liber \"Ossanda Liber\") | |\n| | **PCTP/MRPP** | [30px](/wiki/File:PCTP-MRPP_logo.png \"PCTP-MRPP logo.png\") | | [Anti\\-revisionism](/wiki/Anti-revisionism \"Anti-revisionism\") | [Far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | Maria Cidália Guerreiro | |\n| | **VP** | [40px](/wiki/File:Logo_Volt_Europa.svg \"Logo Volt Europa.svg\") | [Volt Portugal](/wiki/Volt_Portugal \"Volt Portugal\") | [Pro\\-Europeanism](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\") | [Centre](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") to[centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left \"Centre-left\") | [Ana Carvalho](/wiki/Ana_Carvalho \"Ana Carvalho\")[Duarte Costa](/wiki/Duarte_Costa \"Duarte Costa\") | |\n| | **E** | [50px](/wiki/File:Ergue-te_logo.png \"Ergue-te logo.png\") | [Rise Up!](/wiki/Ergue-te_%28Portuguese_political_party%29 \"Ergue-te (Portuguese political party)\") | [Portuguese](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") [nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") | [Far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") | [José Pinto Coelho](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Pinto_Coelho \"José Pinto Coelho\") | |\n| | **MPT** | [50px](/wiki/File:Partido_da_Terra.png \"Partido da Terra.png\") | [Earth Party](/wiki/Earth_Party \"Earth Party\") | [Green conservatism](/wiki/Green_conservatism \"Green conservatism\") | | Pedro Soares Pimenta | |\n| | **A** | [50px](/wiki/File:Logo_da_Alian%C3%A7a.svg \"Logo da Aliança.svg\") | [Alliance](/wiki/Alliance_%28Portugal%29 \"Alliance (Portugal)\") | [Personalism](/wiki/Personalism \"Personalism\") | | [Jorge Nuno Sá](/wiki/Jorge_Nuno_de_S%C3%A1 \"Jorge Nuno de Sá\") | |\n| | **PTP** | [50px](/wiki/File:Partido_Trabalhista_Portugu%C3%AAs.png \"Partido Trabalhista Português.png\") | [Portuguese Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Labour Party\") | [Democratic socialism](/wiki/Democratic_socialism \"Democratic socialism\") | [Centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_politics \"Centre-left politics\") | Amândio Madaleno | |\n| | **NC** | [50px](/wiki/File:Logotipo_n%C3%B3s_cidad%C3%A3os.png \"Logotipo nós cidadãos.png\") | [We, the Citizens!](/wiki/We%2C_the_Citizens%21 \"We, the Citizens!\") | [Liberalism](/wiki/Liberalism \"Liberalism\") | | Joaquim Rocha Afonso | [Nós, Cidadãos é o novo partido de centro\\-direita em formação](http://www.publico.pt/politica/noticia/nos-cidadaos-novo-partido-em-formacao-1624559), Publico.pt, retrieved 17 September 2015 (Portuguese) |\n| | **PPM** | [40px](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_do_PPM.png \"Símbolo do PPM.png\") | [People's Monarchist Party](/wiki/People%27s_Monarchist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"People's Monarchist Party (Portugal)\") | [Monarchism](/wiki/House_of_Braganza \"House of Braganza\") | [Right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") | [Gonçalo da Câmara Pereira](/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alo_da_C%C3%A2mara_Pereira \"Gonçalo da Câmara Pereira\") | |\n| | **MAS** | | [Socialist Alternative Movement](/wiki/Socialist_Alternative_Movement \"Socialist Alternative Movement\") | [Trotskyism](/wiki/Trotskyism \"Trotskyism\") | [Far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") | *Disputed* | |\n| | **A)T** | [50px](/wiki/File:A_tua.png \"A tua.png\") | [(A)TUA](/wiki/%28A%29TUA \"(A)TUA\") | [Pensioners' rights](/wiki/List_of_pensioners%27_parties \"List of pensioners' parties\") | [Syncretic](/wiki/Syncretic_politics \"Syncretic politics\") | Rui Lima | |\n\n",
"Extinct parties\n---------------\n\nThis list presents the parties and coalitions of the current [Third Republic](/wiki/Third_Portuguese_Republic \"Third Portuguese Republic\") that were once recognized by the [Portuguese Constitutional Court](/wiki/Portuguese_Constitutional_Court \"Portuguese Constitutional Court\") but ceased to exist. It is organized by political spectrum and alphabetical order (in Portuguese).\n\n### Far\\-left\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Communist Electoral Front (Marxist\\-Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Electoral_Front_%28Marxist-Leninist%29 \"Communist Electoral Front (Marxist-Leninist)\"), FEC(ML).](/wiki/File:Frente_Eleitoral_dos_Comunistas_%28marxistas-leninistas%29_logo.png \"Frente Eleitoral dos Comunistas (marxistas-leninistas) logo.png\")\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Portuguese Marxist\\-Leninist Communist Organization](/wiki/Portuguese_Marxist-Leninist_Communist_Organization \"Portuguese Marxist-Leninist Communist Organization\"), OCMLP.](/wiki/File:OCMLP_Logo.png \"OCMLP Logo.png\")\n* [Worker\\-Peasant Alliance](/wiki/Worker-Peasant_Alliance \"Worker-Peasant Alliance\") \\- AOC (*Aliança Operário\\-Camponesa*)\n* [Portuguese Marxist–Leninist Committee](/wiki/Portuguese_Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Committee \"Portuguese Marxist–Leninist Committee\") \\- CM\\-LP (*Comité Marxista\\-Leninista Português*)\n* [Marxist–Leninist Committee of Portugal](/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Committee_of_Portugal \"Marxist–Leninist Committee of Portugal\") \\- CMLP (*Comité Marxista\\-Leninista de Portugal*)\n* [Communist Electoral Front (Marxist\\-Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Electoral_Front_%28Marxist-Leninist%29 \"Communist Electoral Front (Marxist-Leninist)\") \\- FEC(ML) (*Frente Eleitoral Comunista (Marxista–Leninista)*)\n* [Left Revolutionary Front](/wiki/Left_Revolutionary_Front_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Revolutionary Front (Portugal)\") \\- FER (*Frente de Esquerda Revolucionária*)\n* [Popular Unity Force](/wiki/For%C3%A7a_de_Unidade_Popular \"Força de Unidade Popular\") \\- FUP (*Força de Unidade Popular*)\n* [Internationalist Communist League](/wiki/Internationalist_Communist_League_%28Portugal%29 \"Internationalist Communist League (Portugal)\") \\- LCI (*Liga Comunista Internacionalista*)\n* [Portuguese Marxist\\-Leninist Communist Organization](/wiki/Portuguese_Marxist-Leninist_Communist_Organization \"Portuguese Marxist-Leninist Communist Organization\") \\- OCMLP (*Organização Comunista Marxista Leninista Portuguesa*)\n* [Workers Politics Communist Organisation](/wiki/Workers_Politics_Communist_Organisation \"Workers Politics Communist Organisation\") \\- OCPO (*Organização Comunista Política Operária*)\n* [Organization for the Reconstruction of the Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Organization_for_the_Reconstruction_of_the_Communist_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29 \"Organization for the Reconstruction of the Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)\") \\- ORPC(ML) (*Organização para a Reconstrução do Partido Comunista (Marxista\\-Leninista)*)\n* [Communist Party of Portugal (Marxist\\-Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Portugal_%28Marxist-Leninist%29 \"Communist Party of Portugal (Marxist-Leninist)\") \\- PCP(ML) (*Partido Comunista de Portugal (Marxista\\-Leninista)*)\n* [Communist Party (Reconstructed)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Reconstructed%29 \"Communist Party (Reconstructed)\") \\- PC(R) (*Partido Comunista (Reconstruído)*)\n* [Workers' Party of Socialist Unity](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Socialist_Unity \"Workers' Party of Socialist Unity\") \\- POUS (*Partido Operário de Unidade Socialista*)\n* [Revolutionary Party of the Proletariat – Revolutionary Brigades](/wiki/Partido_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_do_Proletariado_-_Brigadas_Revolucion%C3%A1rias \"Partido Revolucionário do Proletariado - Brigadas Revolucionárias\") \\- PRP\\-BR (*Partido Revolucionário do Proletariado \\- Brigadas Revolucionárias*)\n* [Workers' Revolutionary Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Revolutionary_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Workers' Revolutionary Party (Portugal)\") \\- PRT (*Partido Revolucionário dos Trabalhadores*)\n* [Workers' Socialist Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Workers' Socialist Party (Portugal)\") \\- PST (*Partido Socialista dos Trabalhadores*)\n* [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Labour Party (Portugal)\") \\- PT (*Partido Trabalhista*, not to be confused with the [Portuguese Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Labour Party\") \\- PTP)\n* [Popular Unity Party](/wiki/Popular_Unity_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Popular Unity Party (Portugal)\") \\- PUP (*Partido de Unidade Popular*)\n* [Communist Union for the Reconstruction of the Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Union_for_the_Reconstruction_of_the_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29 \"Communist Union for the Reconstruction of the Party (Marxist–Leninist)\") \\- UCRP(ML) (*União Comunista para a Reconstituição do Partido (Marxista\\-Leninista)*)\n\n### Left\\-wing to far\\-left\n\n* [United People Alliance](/wiki/United_People_Alliance \"United People Alliance\") \\- APU (*Aliança Povo Unido*)\n* [Electoral Front United People](/wiki/Electoral_Front_United_People \"Electoral Front United People\") \\- FEPU (*Frente Eleitoral Povo Unido*)\n\n### Left\\-wing\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Politics XXI](/wiki/Politics_XXI \"Politics XXI\"), PXXI.](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_Pol%C3%ADtica_XXI.png \"Símbolo Política XXI.png\")\n* [People's Socialist Front](/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Front \"People's Socialist Front\") \\- FSP (*Frente Socialista Popular*)\n* [Popular Unity Dynamization Groups](/wiki/Popular_Unity_Dynamization_Groups \"Popular Unity Dynamization Groups\") \\- GDUPs (*Grupos Dinamizadores da Unidade Popular*)\n* [Socialist League of the Workers](/wiki/Socialist_League_of_the_Workers \"Socialist League of the Workers\") \\- LST (*Liga Socialista dos Trabalhadores*)\n* [Portuguese Democratic Movement](/wiki/Portuguese_Democratic_Movement \"Portuguese Democratic Movement\") \\- MDP (*Movimento Democrático Português*)\n* [Movement of Socialist Left](/wiki/Movement_of_Socialist_Left \"Movement of Socialist Left\") \\- MES (*Movimento de Esquerda Socialista*)\n* [Revolutionary Socialist Party](/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Revolutionary Socialist Party (Portugal)\") \\- PSR (*Partido Socialista Revolucionário*)\n* [Popular Democratic Union](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"Popular Democratic Union (Portugal)\") \\- UDP (*União Democrática Popular*)\n* [Politics XXI](/wiki/Politics_XXI \"Politics XXI\") \\- PXXI (*Política XXI*)\n* [Left\\-wing Union for the Socialist Democracy](/wiki/Left-wing_Union_for_the_Socialist_Democracy \"Left-wing Union for the Socialist Democracy\") \\- UEDS (*União da Esquerda para a Democracia Socialista*)\n\n### Centre\\-left\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Democratic Renewal Party](/wiki/Democratic_Renewal_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Democratic Renewal Party (Portugal)\"), PRD.](/wiki/File:Logotipo_do_PRD.png \"Logotipo do PRD.png\")\n* [Independent Social Democratic Action](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Action \"Independent Social Democratic Action\") \\- ASDI (*Acção Social Democrata Independente*)\n* [Democratic Center of Macau](/wiki/Democratic_Center_of_Macau \"Democratic Center of Macau\") \\- CDM (*Centro Democrático de Macau*)\n* [Republican and Socialist Front](/wiki/Republican_and_Socialist_Front \"Republican and Socialist Front\") \\- FRS (*Frente Republicana e Socialista*)\n* [Party of the Folk](/wiki/Party_of_the_Folk_%28Portugal%29 \"Party of the Folk (Portugal)\") \\- PG (*Partido da Gente*)\n* [Humanist Party](/wiki/Humanist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Humanist Party (Portugal)\") \\- PH (*Partido Humanista*)\n* [Democratic Renewal Party](/wiki/Democratic_Renewal_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Democratic Renewal Party (Portugal)\") \\- PRD (*Partido Renovador Democrático*)\n* [Portuguese Democratic Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Democratic_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Democratic Labour Party\") \\- PTDP (*Partido Trabalhista Democrático Português*)\n\n### Centre\n\n* [Movement for the Sick](/wiki/Movement_for_the_Sick \"Movement for the Sick\") \\- MD (*Movimento pelo Doente*)\n* [Hope for Portugal Movement](/wiki/Hope_for_Portugal_Movement \"Hope for Portugal Movement\") \\- MEP (*Movimento Esperança Portugal*)\n* [National Solidarity Party](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"National Solidarity Party (Portugal)\") \\- PSN (*Partido da Solidariedade Nacional*)\n* [New Democracy Party](/wiki/New_Democracy_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"New Democracy Party (Portugal)\") \\- PND (*Partido da Nova Democracia*)\n* [Liberal Democratic Party](/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Liberal Democratic Party (Portugal)\") \\- PLD (*Partido Liberal Democrata*)\n\n### Centre\\-right\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Party of the Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Christian Democratic Party (Portugal)\"), PDC.](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_do_Partido_da_Democracia_Crist%C3%A3.png \"Símbolo do Partido da Democracia Cristã.png\")\n* [Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Democratic_Alliance_%28Portugal%2C_1979%29 \"Democratic Alliance (Portugal, 1979)\") \\- AD (*Aliança Democrática*)\n* [Association for the Defense of the Interests of Macau](/wiki/Association_for_the_Defense_of_the_Interests_of_Macau \"Association for the Defense of the Interests of Macau\") \\- ADIM (*Associação para a Defesa dos Interesses de Macau*)\n* [Portuguese Party of the Regions](/wiki/Portuguese_Party_of_the_Regions \"Portuguese Party of the Regions\") \\- PPR (*Partido Português das Regiões*)\n\n### Right\\-wing\n\n* [Democratic Party of the Atlantic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Atlantic \"Democratic Party of the Atlantic\") \\- PDA (*Partido Democrático do Atlântico*)\n* [Party of the Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Christian Democratic Party (Portugal)\") \\- PDC (*Partido da Democracia Cristã*)\n* [Citizenship and Christian Democracy](/wiki/Citizenship_and_Christian_Democracy \"Citizenship and Christian Democracy\") \\- PPV/CDC (*Cidadania e Democracia Cristã*)\n\n### Far\\-right\n\n* [Democratic Movement of the Liberation of Portugal](/wiki/Democratic_Movement_of_the_Liberation_of_Portugal \"Democratic Movement of the Liberation of Portugal\") \\- MDLP (*Movimento Democrático de Libertação de Portugal*)\n* [Independent Movement for the National Reconstruction / Party of the Portuguese Right](/wiki/Independent_Movement_for_the_National_Reconstruction_/_Party_of_the_Portuguese_Right \"Independent Movement for the National Reconstruction / Party of the Portuguese Right\") \\- MIRN/PDP (*Movimento Independente para a Reconstrução Nacional / Partido da Direita Portuguesa*)\n",
"### Far\\-left\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Communist Electoral Front (Marxist\\-Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Electoral_Front_%28Marxist-Leninist%29 \"Communist Electoral Front (Marxist-Leninist)\"), FEC(ML).](/wiki/File:Frente_Eleitoral_dos_Comunistas_%28marxistas-leninistas%29_logo.png \"Frente Eleitoral dos Comunistas (marxistas-leninistas) logo.png\")\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Portuguese Marxist\\-Leninist Communist Organization](/wiki/Portuguese_Marxist-Leninist_Communist_Organization \"Portuguese Marxist-Leninist Communist Organization\"), OCMLP.](/wiki/File:OCMLP_Logo.png \"OCMLP Logo.png\")\n* [Worker\\-Peasant Alliance](/wiki/Worker-Peasant_Alliance \"Worker-Peasant Alliance\") \\- AOC (*Aliança Operário\\-Camponesa*)\n* [Portuguese Marxist–Leninist Committee](/wiki/Portuguese_Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Committee \"Portuguese Marxist–Leninist Committee\") \\- CM\\-LP (*Comité Marxista\\-Leninista Português*)\n* [Marxist–Leninist Committee of Portugal](/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Committee_of_Portugal \"Marxist–Leninist Committee of Portugal\") \\- CMLP (*Comité Marxista\\-Leninista de Portugal*)\n* [Communist Electoral Front (Marxist\\-Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Electoral_Front_%28Marxist-Leninist%29 \"Communist Electoral Front (Marxist-Leninist)\") \\- FEC(ML) (*Frente Eleitoral Comunista (Marxista–Leninista)*)\n* [Left Revolutionary Front](/wiki/Left_Revolutionary_Front_%28Portugal%29 \"Left Revolutionary Front (Portugal)\") \\- FER (*Frente de Esquerda Revolucionária*)\n* [Popular Unity Force](/wiki/For%C3%A7a_de_Unidade_Popular \"Força de Unidade Popular\") \\- FUP (*Força de Unidade Popular*)\n* [Internationalist Communist League](/wiki/Internationalist_Communist_League_%28Portugal%29 \"Internationalist Communist League (Portugal)\") \\- LCI (*Liga Comunista Internacionalista*)\n* [Portuguese Marxist\\-Leninist Communist Organization](/wiki/Portuguese_Marxist-Leninist_Communist_Organization \"Portuguese Marxist-Leninist Communist Organization\") \\- OCMLP (*Organização Comunista Marxista Leninista Portuguesa*)\n* [Workers Politics Communist Organisation](/wiki/Workers_Politics_Communist_Organisation \"Workers Politics Communist Organisation\") \\- OCPO (*Organização Comunista Política Operária*)\n* [Organization for the Reconstruction of the Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Organization_for_the_Reconstruction_of_the_Communist_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29 \"Organization for the Reconstruction of the Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)\") \\- ORPC(ML) (*Organização para a Reconstrução do Partido Comunista (Marxista\\-Leninista)*)\n* [Communist Party of Portugal (Marxist\\-Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Portugal_%28Marxist-Leninist%29 \"Communist Party of Portugal (Marxist-Leninist)\") \\- PCP(ML) (*Partido Comunista de Portugal (Marxista\\-Leninista)*)\n* [Communist Party (Reconstructed)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Reconstructed%29 \"Communist Party (Reconstructed)\") \\- PC(R) (*Partido Comunista (Reconstruído)*)\n* [Workers' Party of Socialist Unity](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Socialist_Unity \"Workers' Party of Socialist Unity\") \\- POUS (*Partido Operário de Unidade Socialista*)\n* [Revolutionary Party of the Proletariat – Revolutionary Brigades](/wiki/Partido_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_do_Proletariado_-_Brigadas_Revolucion%C3%A1rias \"Partido Revolucionário do Proletariado - Brigadas Revolucionárias\") \\- PRP\\-BR (*Partido Revolucionário do Proletariado \\- Brigadas Revolucionárias*)\n* [Workers' Revolutionary Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Revolutionary_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Workers' Revolutionary Party (Portugal)\") \\- PRT (*Partido Revolucionário dos Trabalhadores*)\n* [Workers' Socialist Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Workers' Socialist Party (Portugal)\") \\- PST (*Partido Socialista dos Trabalhadores*)\n* [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Labour Party (Portugal)\") \\- PT (*Partido Trabalhista*, not to be confused with the [Portuguese Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Labour Party\") \\- PTP)\n* [Popular Unity Party](/wiki/Popular_Unity_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Popular Unity Party (Portugal)\") \\- PUP (*Partido de Unidade Popular*)\n* [Communist Union for the Reconstruction of the Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Union_for_the_Reconstruction_of_the_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29 \"Communist Union for the Reconstruction of the Party (Marxist–Leninist)\") \\- UCRP(ML) (*União Comunista para a Reconstituição do Partido (Marxista\\-Leninista)*)\n\n",
"### Left\\-wing to far\\-left\n\n* [United People Alliance](/wiki/United_People_Alliance \"United People Alliance\") \\- APU (*Aliança Povo Unido*)\n* [Electoral Front United People](/wiki/Electoral_Front_United_People \"Electoral Front United People\") \\- FEPU (*Frente Eleitoral Povo Unido*)\n",
"### Left\\-wing\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Politics XXI](/wiki/Politics_XXI \"Politics XXI\"), PXXI.](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_Pol%C3%ADtica_XXI.png \"Símbolo Política XXI.png\")\n* [People's Socialist Front](/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Front \"People's Socialist Front\") \\- FSP (*Frente Socialista Popular*)\n* [Popular Unity Dynamization Groups](/wiki/Popular_Unity_Dynamization_Groups \"Popular Unity Dynamization Groups\") \\- GDUPs (*Grupos Dinamizadores da Unidade Popular*)\n* [Socialist League of the Workers](/wiki/Socialist_League_of_the_Workers \"Socialist League of the Workers\") \\- LST (*Liga Socialista dos Trabalhadores*)\n* [Portuguese Democratic Movement](/wiki/Portuguese_Democratic_Movement \"Portuguese Democratic Movement\") \\- MDP (*Movimento Democrático Português*)\n* [Movement of Socialist Left](/wiki/Movement_of_Socialist_Left \"Movement of Socialist Left\") \\- MES (*Movimento de Esquerda Socialista*)\n* [Revolutionary Socialist Party](/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Revolutionary Socialist Party (Portugal)\") \\- PSR (*Partido Socialista Revolucionário*)\n* [Popular Democratic Union](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"Popular Democratic Union (Portugal)\") \\- UDP (*União Democrática Popular*)\n* [Politics XXI](/wiki/Politics_XXI \"Politics XXI\") \\- PXXI (*Política XXI*)\n* [Left\\-wing Union for the Socialist Democracy](/wiki/Left-wing_Union_for_the_Socialist_Democracy \"Left-wing Union for the Socialist Democracy\") \\- UEDS (*União da Esquerda para a Democracia Socialista*)\n\n",
"### Centre\\-left\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Democratic Renewal Party](/wiki/Democratic_Renewal_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Democratic Renewal Party (Portugal)\"), PRD.](/wiki/File:Logotipo_do_PRD.png \"Logotipo do PRD.png\")\n* [Independent Social Democratic Action](/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Action \"Independent Social Democratic Action\") \\- ASDI (*Acção Social Democrata Independente*)\n* [Democratic Center of Macau](/wiki/Democratic_Center_of_Macau \"Democratic Center of Macau\") \\- CDM (*Centro Democrático de Macau*)\n* [Republican and Socialist Front](/wiki/Republican_and_Socialist_Front \"Republican and Socialist Front\") \\- FRS (*Frente Republicana e Socialista*)\n* [Party of the Folk](/wiki/Party_of_the_Folk_%28Portugal%29 \"Party of the Folk (Portugal)\") \\- PG (*Partido da Gente*)\n* [Humanist Party](/wiki/Humanist_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Humanist Party (Portugal)\") \\- PH (*Partido Humanista*)\n* [Democratic Renewal Party](/wiki/Democratic_Renewal_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Democratic Renewal Party (Portugal)\") \\- PRD (*Partido Renovador Democrático*)\n* [Portuguese Democratic Labour Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Democratic_Labour_Party \"Portuguese Democratic Labour Party\") \\- PTDP (*Partido Trabalhista Democrático Português*)\n\n",
"### Centre\n\n* [Movement for the Sick](/wiki/Movement_for_the_Sick \"Movement for the Sick\") \\- MD (*Movimento pelo Doente*)\n* [Hope for Portugal Movement](/wiki/Hope_for_Portugal_Movement \"Hope for Portugal Movement\") \\- MEP (*Movimento Esperança Portugal*)\n* [National Solidarity Party](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"National Solidarity Party (Portugal)\") \\- PSN (*Partido da Solidariedade Nacional*)\n* [New Democracy Party](/wiki/New_Democracy_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"New Democracy Party (Portugal)\") \\- PND (*Partido da Nova Democracia*)\n* [Liberal Democratic Party](/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Liberal Democratic Party (Portugal)\") \\- PLD (*Partido Liberal Democrata*)\n",
"### Centre\\-right\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Party of the Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Christian Democratic Party (Portugal)\"), PDC.](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_do_Partido_da_Democracia_Crist%C3%A3.png \"Símbolo do Partido da Democracia Cristã.png\")\n* [Democratic Alliance](/wiki/Democratic_Alliance_%28Portugal%2C_1979%29 \"Democratic Alliance (Portugal, 1979)\") \\- AD (*Aliança Democrática*)\n* [Association for the Defense of the Interests of Macau](/wiki/Association_for_the_Defense_of_the_Interests_of_Macau \"Association for the Defense of the Interests of Macau\") \\- ADIM (*Associação para a Defesa dos Interesses de Macau*)\n* [Portuguese Party of the Regions](/wiki/Portuguese_Party_of_the_Regions \"Portuguese Party of the Regions\") \\- PPR (*Partido Português das Regiões*)\n\n",
"### Right\\-wing\n\n* [Democratic Party of the Atlantic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Atlantic \"Democratic Party of the Atlantic\") \\- PDA (*Partido Democrático do Atlântico*)\n* [Party of the Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Christian Democratic Party (Portugal)\") \\- PDC (*Partido da Democracia Cristã*)\n* [Citizenship and Christian Democracy](/wiki/Citizenship_and_Christian_Democracy \"Citizenship and Christian Democracy\") \\- PPV/CDC (*Cidadania e Democracia Cristã*)\n",
"### Far\\-right\n\n* [Democratic Movement of the Liberation of Portugal](/wiki/Democratic_Movement_of_the_Liberation_of_Portugal \"Democratic Movement of the Liberation of Portugal\") \\- MDLP (*Movimento Democrático de Libertação de Portugal*)\n* [Independent Movement for the National Reconstruction / Party of the Portuguese Right](/wiki/Independent_Movement_for_the_National_Reconstruction_/_Party_of_the_Portuguese_Right \"Independent Movement for the National Reconstruction / Party of the Portuguese Right\") \\- MIRN/PDP (*Movimento Independente para a Reconstrução Nacional / Partido da Direita Portuguesa*)\n",
"Historical parties\n------------------\n\nThis list includes the defunct political parties that never reached the Third Republic, in chronological order.\n\n### [Constitutional Monarchy](/wiki/History_of_Portugal_%281834%E2%80%931910%29 \"History of Portugal (1834–1910)\") (1834–1910\\)\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Portuguese Socialist Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Socialist_Party \"Portuguese Socialist Party\"), PSP.](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_do_Partido_Socialista_Portugu%C3%AAs.png \"Símbolo do Partido Socialista Português.png\")\n* [Chartism](/wiki/Cartista \"Cartista\") (*Cartismo*)\n* [Septemberism](/wiki/Setembrismo \"Setembrismo\") (*Setembrismo*)\n* [Regenerator Party](/wiki/Regenerator_Party \"Regenerator Party\") \\- PR (*Partido Regenerador*)\n* [Historic Party](/wiki/Historic_Party \"Historic Party\") \\- PH (*Partido Histórico*)\n* [Reformist Party](/wiki/Reformist_Party_%28Portugal%2C_1868%29 \"Reformist Party (Portugal, 1868)\") \\- PR (*Partido Reformista*)\n* [Constituent Party](/wiki/Constituent_Party \"Constituent Party\") \\- PC (*Partido Constituinte*)\n* [Progressive Party](/wiki/Progressive_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Progressive Party (Portugal)\") \\- PP (*Partido Progressista*)\n* [Portuguese Socialist Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Socialist_Party \"Portuguese Socialist Party\") \\- PSP (*Partido Socialista Português*)\n* [Portuguese Republican Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Republican_Party \"Portuguese Republican Party\") \\- PRP (*Partido Republicano Português*)\n* [Liberal Regenerator Party](/wiki/Liberal_Regenerator_Party \"Liberal Regenerator Party\") \\- PRL (*Partido Regenerador Liberal*)\n* [Progressive Dissidence](/wiki/Progressive_Dissidence \"Progressive Dissidence\") \\- DP (*Dissidência Progressista*)\n\n### [First Republic](/wiki/First_Portuguese_Republic \"First Portuguese Republic\") (1910–1926\\)\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Monarchist Cause](/wiki/Monarchist_Cause \"Monarchist Cause\"), CM.](/wiki/File:Causa_Mon%C3%A1rquica.svg \"Causa Monárquica.svg\")\n* [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Democratic Party (Portugal)\") (*Partido Democrático*)\n* [Evolutionist Party](/wiki/Evolutionist_Party \"Evolutionist Party\") \\- PRE (*Partido Republicano Evolucionista*)\n* [Republican Union](/wiki/Republican_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"Republican Union (Portugal)\") \\- PUR (*Partido da União Republicana*)\n* [Lusitanian Integralism](/wiki/Integralismo_Lusitano \"Integralismo Lusitano\") \\- IL (*Integralismo Lusitano*)\n* [Monarchist Cause](/wiki/Monarchist_Cause \"Monarchist Cause\") \\- CM (*Causa Monárquica*)\n* [Catholic Centre Party](/wiki/Catholic_Centre_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Catholic Centre Party (Portugal)\") \\- PCC (*Partido do Centro Católico*)\n* [National Republican Party](/wiki/National_Republican_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"National Republican Party (Portugal)\") \\- PNR (*Partido Nacional Republicano*)\n* [Republican Liberal Party](/wiki/Republican_Liberal_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Republican Liberal Party (Portugal)\") \\- PLR (*Partido Liberal Republicano*)\n* [Reconstitution Party](/wiki/Reconstitution_Party \"Reconstitution Party\") \\- PRRN (*Partido Republicano da Reconstituição Nacional*)\n* [Regionalist Party](/wiki/Regionalist_Party \"Regionalist Party\") \\- PR (*Partido Regionalista*)\n* [Nationalist Republican Party](/wiki/Nationalist_Republican_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Nationalist Republican Party (Portugal)\") \\- PRN (*Partido Republicano Nacionalista*)\n* [Democratic Leftwing Republican Party](/wiki/Democratic_Leftwing_Republican_Party \"Democratic Leftwing Republican Party\") \\- PRED (*Partido Republicano Esquerdista Democrático*)\n* [Union of Economic Interests](/wiki/Union_of_Economic_Interests \"Union of Economic Interests\") \\- UIE (*União dos Interesses Económicos*)\n\n### [Ditadura Nacional](/wiki/Ditadura_Nacional \"Ditadura Nacional\") (1926–1933\\)\n\n* [National Syndicalists](/wiki/National_Syndicalists_%28Portugal%29 \"National Syndicalists (Portugal)\") \\- MNS (*Movimento Nacional\\-Sindicalista*)\n\n### [Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 \"Estado Novo (Portugal)\") (1933–1974\\)\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [National Union](/wiki/National_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"National Union (Portugal)\"), UN.](/wiki/File:Uni%C3%A3o_Nacional_logo%2C_1938_version.svg \"União Nacional logo, 1938 version.svg\")\nAlthough the *Estado Novo* was a dictatorship, with the National Union being legally [the only party](/wiki/One-party_state \"One-party state\"), the opposition was sometimes allowed to compete in (sham) elections; other parties were constituted underground or in exile. \n* [National Union](/wiki/National_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"National Union (Portugal)\") \\- UN (*União Nacional*)\n* [Movement of National Antifascist Unity](/wiki/Movement_of_National_Antifascist_Unity \"Movement of National Antifascist Unity\") \\- MUNAF (*Movimento de Unidade Nacional Antifascista*)\n* [Movement of Democratic Unity](/wiki/Movement_of_Democratic_Unity \"Movement of Democratic Unity\") \\- MUD (*Movimento de Unidade Democrática*)\n* [Portuguese National Liberation Front](/wiki/Portuguese_National_Liberation_Front \"Portuguese National Liberation Front\") \\- FPLP (*Frente Portuguesa de Libertação Nacional*)\n* [Portuguese Socialist Action](/wiki/Portuguese_Socialist_Action \"Portuguese Socialist Action\") \\- ASP (*Acção Socialista Portuguesa*)\n\n",
"### [Constitutional Monarchy](/wiki/History_of_Portugal_%281834%E2%80%931910%29 \"History of Portugal (1834–1910)\") (1834–1910\\)\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Portuguese Socialist Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Socialist_Party \"Portuguese Socialist Party\"), PSP.](/wiki/File:S%C3%ADmbolo_do_Partido_Socialista_Portugu%C3%AAs.png \"Símbolo do Partido Socialista Português.png\")\n* [Chartism](/wiki/Cartista \"Cartista\") (*Cartismo*)\n* [Septemberism](/wiki/Setembrismo \"Setembrismo\") (*Setembrismo*)\n* [Regenerator Party](/wiki/Regenerator_Party \"Regenerator Party\") \\- PR (*Partido Regenerador*)\n* [Historic Party](/wiki/Historic_Party \"Historic Party\") \\- PH (*Partido Histórico*)\n* [Reformist Party](/wiki/Reformist_Party_%28Portugal%2C_1868%29 \"Reformist Party (Portugal, 1868)\") \\- PR (*Partido Reformista*)\n* [Constituent Party](/wiki/Constituent_Party \"Constituent Party\") \\- PC (*Partido Constituinte*)\n* [Progressive Party](/wiki/Progressive_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Progressive Party (Portugal)\") \\- PP (*Partido Progressista*)\n* [Portuguese Socialist Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Socialist_Party \"Portuguese Socialist Party\") \\- PSP (*Partido Socialista Português*)\n* [Portuguese Republican Party](/wiki/Portuguese_Republican_Party \"Portuguese Republican Party\") \\- PRP (*Partido Republicano Português*)\n* [Liberal Regenerator Party](/wiki/Liberal_Regenerator_Party \"Liberal Regenerator Party\") \\- PRL (*Partido Regenerador Liberal*)\n* [Progressive Dissidence](/wiki/Progressive_Dissidence \"Progressive Dissidence\") \\- DP (*Dissidência Progressista*)\n\n",
"### [First Republic](/wiki/First_Portuguese_Republic \"First Portuguese Republic\") (1910–1926\\)\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [Monarchist Cause](/wiki/Monarchist_Cause \"Monarchist Cause\"), CM.](/wiki/File:Causa_Mon%C3%A1rquica.svg \"Causa Monárquica.svg\")\n* [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Democratic Party (Portugal)\") (*Partido Democrático*)\n* [Evolutionist Party](/wiki/Evolutionist_Party \"Evolutionist Party\") \\- PRE (*Partido Republicano Evolucionista*)\n* [Republican Union](/wiki/Republican_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"Republican Union (Portugal)\") \\- PUR (*Partido da União Republicana*)\n* [Lusitanian Integralism](/wiki/Integralismo_Lusitano \"Integralismo Lusitano\") \\- IL (*Integralismo Lusitano*)\n* [Monarchist Cause](/wiki/Monarchist_Cause \"Monarchist Cause\") \\- CM (*Causa Monárquica*)\n* [Catholic Centre Party](/wiki/Catholic_Centre_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Catholic Centre Party (Portugal)\") \\- PCC (*Partido do Centro Católico*)\n* [National Republican Party](/wiki/National_Republican_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"National Republican Party (Portugal)\") \\- PNR (*Partido Nacional Republicano*)\n* [Republican Liberal Party](/wiki/Republican_Liberal_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Republican Liberal Party (Portugal)\") \\- PLR (*Partido Liberal Republicano*)\n* [Reconstitution Party](/wiki/Reconstitution_Party \"Reconstitution Party\") \\- PRRN (*Partido Republicano da Reconstituição Nacional*)\n* [Regionalist Party](/wiki/Regionalist_Party \"Regionalist Party\") \\- PR (*Partido Regionalista*)\n* [Nationalist Republican Party](/wiki/Nationalist_Republican_Party_%28Portugal%29 \"Nationalist Republican Party (Portugal)\") \\- PRN (*Partido Republicano Nacionalista*)\n* [Democratic Leftwing Republican Party](/wiki/Democratic_Leftwing_Republican_Party \"Democratic Leftwing Republican Party\") \\- PRED (*Partido Republicano Esquerdista Democrático*)\n* [Union of Economic Interests](/wiki/Union_of_Economic_Interests \"Union of Economic Interests\") \\- UIE (*União dos Interesses Económicos*)\n\n",
"### [Ditadura Nacional](/wiki/Ditadura_Nacional \"Ditadura Nacional\") (1926–1933\\)\n\n* [National Syndicalists](/wiki/National_Syndicalists_%28Portugal%29 \"National Syndicalists (Portugal)\") \\- MNS (*Movimento Nacional\\-Sindicalista*)\n",
"### [Estado Novo](/wiki/Estado_Novo_%28Portugal%29 \"Estado Novo (Portugal)\") (1933–1974\\)\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Logo of [National Union](/wiki/National_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"National Union (Portugal)\"), UN.](/wiki/File:Uni%C3%A3o_Nacional_logo%2C_1938_version.svg \"União Nacional logo, 1938 version.svg\")\nAlthough the *Estado Novo* was a dictatorship, with the National Union being legally [the only party](/wiki/One-party_state \"One-party state\"), the opposition was sometimes allowed to compete in (sham) elections; other parties were constituted underground or in exile. \n* [National Union](/wiki/National_Union_%28Portugal%29 \"National Union (Portugal)\") \\- UN (*União Nacional*)\n* [Movement of National Antifascist Unity](/wiki/Movement_of_National_Antifascist_Unity \"Movement of National Antifascist Unity\") \\- MUNAF (*Movimento de Unidade Nacional Antifascista*)\n* [Movement of Democratic Unity](/wiki/Movement_of_Democratic_Unity \"Movement of Democratic Unity\") \\- MUD (*Movimento de Unidade Democrática*)\n* [Portuguese National Liberation Front](/wiki/Portuguese_National_Liberation_Front \"Portuguese National Liberation Front\") \\- FPLP (*Frente Portuguesa de Libertação Nacional*)\n* [Portuguese Socialist Action](/wiki/Portuguese_Socialist_Action \"Portuguese Socialist Action\") \\- ASP (*Acção Socialista Portuguesa*)\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Politics of Portugal](/wiki/Politics_of_Portugal \"Politics of Portugal\")\n* [List of political parties by country](/wiki/List_of_political_parties_by_country \"List of political parties by country\")\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Portuguese Constitutional Court \\- current parties](https://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/partidos.html) (in Portuguese)\n[Portugal](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_political_parties_by_country \"Lists of political parties by country\")\n\n[Political parties](/wiki/Category:Portugal_politics-related_lists \"Portugal politics-related lists\")\n[Political parties](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_organisations_based_in_Portugal \"Lists of organisations based in Portugal\")\n[Portugal](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_political_parties_in_Europe \"Lists of political parties in Europe\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Rotations and reflections in two dimensions
|
{
"id": [
12897086
],
"name": [
"IznoRepeat"
]
}
|
4rrjtwe46bai5fzbxgiiwoxjc79blvf
|
2024-03-27T22:32:30Z
| 1,184,409,653 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Process",
"Mathematical expression",
"Proof",
"Rotation of axes",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\nIn [Euclidean geometry](/wiki/Euclidean_geometry \"Euclidean geometry\"), two\\-dimensional [rotations](/wiki/Rotation_%28mathematics%29 \"Rotation (mathematics)\") and [reflections](/wiki/Reflection_%28mathematics%29 \"Reflection (mathematics)\") are two kinds of [Euclidean plane isometries](/wiki/Euclidean_plane_isometry \"Euclidean plane isometry\") which are related to one another.\n\n",
"Process\n-------\n\nA rotation in the plane can be formed by composing a pair of reflections. First reflect a point to its image on the other side of line . Then reflect to its image on the other side of line . If lines and make an angle with one another, then points and will make an angle around point , the intersection of and . I.e., angle will measure .\n\nA pair of rotations about the same point will be equivalent to another rotation about point . On the other hand, the composition of a reflection and a rotation, or of a rotation and a reflection (composition is not [commutative](/wiki/Commutative \"Commutative\")), will be equivalent to a reflection.\n\n",
"Mathematical expression\n-----------------------\n\nThe statements above can be expressed more mathematically. Let a rotation about the [origin](/wiki/Origin_%28mathematics%29 \"Origin (mathematics)\") by an angle be denoted as . Let a reflection about a line through the origin which makes an angle with the \\-axis be denoted as . Let these rotations and reflections operate on all points on the plane, and let these points be represented by position [vectors](/wiki/Vector_%28geometric%29 \"Vector (geometric)\"). Then a rotation can be represented as a [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 \"Matrix (mathematics)\"),\n \\\\operatorname{Rot}(\\\\theta) \\= \\\\begin{bmatrix}\n\n```\n \\cos \\theta & -\\sin \\theta \\\\\n \\sin \\theta & \\cos \\theta\n\n```\n\\\\end{bmatrix}, \n\nand likewise for a reflection,\n \\\\operatorname{Ref}(\\\\theta) \\= \\\\begin{bmatrix}\n\n```\n \\cos 2 \\theta & \\sin 2 \\theta \\\\\n \\sin 2 \\theta & -\\cos 2 \\theta\n\n```\n\\\\end{bmatrix}. \n\nWith these definitions of coordinate rotation and reflection, the following four [identities](/wiki/Identity_%28mathematics%29 \"Identity (mathematics)\") hold:\n\\\\begin{align}\n\n```\n \\operatorname{Rot}(\\theta) \\, \\operatorname{Rot}(\\phi) &= \\operatorname{Rot}(\\theta + \\phi), \\\\[4pt]\n \\operatorname{Ref}(\\theta) \\, \\operatorname{Ref}(\\phi) &= \\operatorname{Rot}(2\\theta - 2\\phi), \\\\[2pt]\n \\operatorname{Rot}(\\theta) \\, \\operatorname{Ref}(\\phi) &= \\operatorname{Ref}(\\phi + \\tfrac{1}{2}\\theta), \\\\[2pt]\n \\operatorname{Ref}(\\phi) \\, \\operatorname{Rot}(\\theta) &= \\operatorname{Ref}(\\phi - \\tfrac{1}{2}\\theta).\n\n```\n\\\\end{align}\n\n",
"Proof\n-----\n\nThese equations can be proved through straightforward [matrix multiplication](/wiki/Matrix_multiplication \"Matrix multiplication\") and application of [trigonometric identities](/wiki/Trigonometric_identities \"Trigonometric identities\"), specifically the sum and difference identities.\n\nThe set of all reflections in lines through the origin and rotations about the origin, together with the operation of composition of reflections and rotations, forms a [group](/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29 \"Group (mathematics)\"). The group has an identity: . Every rotation has an inverse . Every reflection is its own inverse. Composition has closure and is associative, since matrix multiplication is associative.\n\nNotice that both and have been represented with [orthogonal matrices](/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix \"Orthogonal matrix\"). These matrices all have a [determinant](/wiki/Determinant \"Determinant\") whose [absolute value](/wiki/Absolute_value \"Absolute value\") is unity. Rotation matrices have a determinant of \\+1, and reflection matrices have a determinant of −1\\.\n\nThe set of all orthogonal two\\-dimensional matrices together with matrix multiplication form the [orthogonal group](/wiki/Orthogonal_group \"Orthogonal group\"): .\n\nThe following table gives examples of rotation and reflection matrix :\n\n| Type | angle *θ* | matrix |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Rotation | 0° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}1 \\& 0 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\& 1\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Rotation | \\\\pm45° | \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt2}\\\\begin{pmatrix}1 \\& \\\\mp1 \\\\\\\\ \\\\pm1 \\& 1\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Rotation | 90° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}0 \\& \\-1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Rotation | 180° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}\\-1 \\& 0 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\& \\-1\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Reflection | 0° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}1 \\& 0 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\& \\-1\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Reflection | 45° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}0 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\ 1 \\& 0\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Reflection | 90° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}\\-1 \\& 0 \\\\\\\\ 0 \\& 1\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n| Reflection | \\-45° | \\\\begin{pmatrix}0 \\& \\-1 \\\\\\\\ \\-1 \\& 0\\\\end{pmatrix} |\n\n",
"Rotation of axes\n----------------\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [2D computer graphics\\#Rotation](/wiki/2D_computer_graphics%23Rotation \"2D computer graphics#Rotation\")\n* [Cartan–Dieudonné theorem](/wiki/Cartan%E2%80%93Dieudonn%C3%A9_theorem \"Cartan–Dieudonné theorem\")\n* [Clockwise](/wiki/Clockwise \"Clockwise\")\n* [Dihedral group](/wiki/Dihedral_group \"Dihedral group\")\n* [Euclidean plane isometry](/wiki/Euclidean_plane_isometry \"Euclidean plane isometry\")\n* [Euclidean symmetries](/wiki/Euclidean_symmetries \"Euclidean symmetries\")\n* [Instant centre of rotation](/wiki/Instant_centre_of_rotation \"Instant centre of rotation\")\n* [Orthogonal group](/wiki/Orthogonal_group \"Orthogonal group\")\n* [Rotation group SO(3\\)](/wiki/Rotation_group_SO%283%29 \"Rotation group SO(3)\") – 3 dimensions\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Sources\n-------\n\n[Category:Euclidean symmetries](/wiki/Category:Euclidean_symmetries \"Euclidean symmetries\")\n[Category:Euclidean plane geometry](/wiki/Category:Euclidean_plane_geometry \"Euclidean plane geometry\")\n[Category:Rotation](/wiki/Category:Rotation \"Rotation\")\n\n"
]
}
|
WABI
|
{
"id": [
5875630
],
"name": [
"Mlaffs"
]
}
|
t5v6cbyqnmi7fipa8halmcr5rfutagn
|
2023-10-23T00:46:10Z
| 1,181,323,780 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction"
],
"level": [
1
],
"content": [
"\n**WABI** or **wabi** may refer to:\n\n* [Douw Aturure Airport](/wiki/Douw_Aturure_Airport \"Douw Aturure Airport\") (ICAO code WABI)\n* [Wabi (software)](/wiki/Wabi_%28software%29 \"Wabi (software)\"), a product from Sun Microsystems that implements the Microsoft Windows API specifications\n* Wabi people, another name for the [Huave people](/wiki/Huave_people \"Huave people\") of Oaxaca\n* [WABI\\-TV](/wiki/WABI-TV \"WABI-TV\"), a television station licensed to Bangor, Maine, United States\n* [WTOS (AM)](/wiki/WTOS_%28AM%29 \"WTOS (AM)\"), a radio station licensed to Bangor, Maine, United States, which held the call sign WABI from 1924 to 2009\n* [WBFB](/wiki/WBFB \"WBFB\"), a radio station licensed to Bangor, Maine, United States, which held the call sign WABI\\-FM from 1961 to 1973\n* Wabi, a component of the [Wabi\\-sabi](/wiki/Wabi-sabi \"Wabi-sabi\") Japanese aesthetic\n* The [Workshop on Algorithms in Bioinformatics](/wiki/Workshop_on_Algorithms_in_Bioinformatics \"Workshop on Algorithms in Bioinformatics\")\n\n"
]
}
|
1972 in science
|
{
"id": [
11487766
],
"name": [
"LucasBrown"
]
}
|
buyugitgg5a52bigk0v0i7bzf8gq3r6
|
2024-06-16T17:06:29Z
| 1,163,877,514 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Astronomy and space exploration",
"Biology",
"Computer science",
"Earth sciences",
"Ecology",
"Mathematics",
"Medicine",
"Metrology",
"Paleontology",
"Psychology",
"Technology",
"Awards",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
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2,
2,
2,
2,
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2
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"content": [
" \n\nThe year **1972 in science** and [technology](/wiki/Technology \"Technology\") involved some significant events, listed below.\n\n",
"Astronomy and space exploration\n-------------------------------\n\n* January 5 – [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon \"Richard Nixon\") orders the development of a [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\") program.\n* February 4 – [Mariner 9](/wiki/Mariner_9 \"Mariner 9\") sends pictures from Mars.\n* February 21 – The [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") uncrewed [spacecraft](/wiki/Spacecraft \"Spacecraft\") [Luna 20](/wiki/Luna_20 \"Luna 20\") lands on the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\").\n* March 2 – Launch of [Pioneer 10](/wiki/Pioneer_10 \"Pioneer 10\") spacecraft.\n* April 16 – [Apollo 16](/wiki/Apollo_16 \"Apollo 16\") launched.\n* June 30 – The [International Time Bureau](/wiki/International_Time_Bureau \"International Time Bureau\") adds the first [leap second](/wiki/Leap_second \"Leap second\") to [Coordinated Universal Time](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time \"Coordinated Universal Time\") (UTC).\n* July 23 – The [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") launches [Landsat 1](/wiki/Landsat_1 \"Landsat 1\"), the first Earth\\-resources [satellite](/wiki/Satellite \"Satellite\").\n* December 7 – [Apollo 17](/wiki/Apollo_17 \"Apollo 17\") launched with three astronauts and [five mice](/wiki/Fe%2C_Fi%2C_Fo%2C_Fum%2C_and_Phooey \"Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey\"), and *[The Blue Marble](/wiki/The_Blue_Marble \"The Blue Marble\")* photograph of the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") is taken.\n* December 11 – NASA astronauts [Eugene Cernan](/wiki/Eugene_Cernan \"Eugene Cernan\") and [Harrison Schmitt](/wiki/Harrison_Schmitt \"Harrison Schmitt\") land on the Moon and begin a three\\-day exploration.\n",
"Biology\n-------\n\n* February – [S. J. Singer](/wiki/S._J._Singer \"S. J. Singer\") and [Garth L. Nicolson](/wiki/Garth_L._Nicolson \"Garth L. Nicolson\") describe the [fluid mosaic model](/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model \"Fluid mosaic model\") of the functional [cell membrane](/wiki/Cell_membrane \"Cell membrane\").\n* September – [Geoffrey Burnstock](/wiki/Geoffrey_Burnstock \"Geoffrey Burnstock\") proposes the existence of a non\\-adrenergic, non\\-cholinergic ([NANC](/wiki/NANC \"NANC\")) neurotransmitter, which he identifies as [adenosine triphosphate](/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate \"Adenosine triphosphate\") (ATP), originating the term '[purinergic signalling](/wiki/Purinergic_signalling \"Purinergic signalling\")'.\n* October 1 – The first publication reporting the production of a recombinant [DNA](/wiki/DNA \"DNA\") molecule, by [Paul Berg](/wiki/Paul_Berg \"Paul Berg\") and colleagues, marks the birth of modern [molecular biology](/wiki/Molecular_biology \"Molecular biology\") methodology.\n* [Niles Eldredge](/wiki/Niles_Eldredge \"Niles Eldredge\") and [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould \"Stephen Jay Gould\") publish their landmark paper on [punctuated equilibrium](/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium \"Punctuated equilibrium\").\n* [Socorro doves](/wiki/Socorro_dove \"Socorro dove\") (*Zenaida graysoni*) last seen in the wild. The species precariously survives in captivity. A reintroduction program is being prepared.\n",
"Computer science\n----------------\n\n* April 6 – [Cray Research](/wiki/Cray_Research \"Cray Research\") founded.\n* May – [Magnavox](/wiki/Magnavox \"Magnavox\") release the first home [video game console](/wiki/Video_game_console \"Video game console\") which can be connected to a television set – the [Magnavox Odyssey](/wiki/Magnavox_Odyssey \"Magnavox Odyssey\"), invented by [Ralph H. Baer](/wiki/Ralph_H._Baer \"Ralph H. Baer\").\n* July 12 – First [C compiler](/wiki/C_compiler \"C compiler\") released.\n* October – The First [International Conference on Computer Communications](/wiki/International_Conference_on_Computer_Communications \"International Conference on Computer Communications\") is held in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), and hosts the first public demonstration of [ARPAnet](/wiki/ARPAnet \"ARPAnet\"), a precursor of the [Internet](/wiki/Internet \"Internet\").\n* November 29 – [Atari](/wiki/Atari%2C_Inc. \"Atari, Inc.\") release the production version of *[Pong](/wiki/Pong \"Pong\")*, one of the [first video games](/wiki/First_video_game \"First video game\"), devised by [Nolan Bushnell](/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell \"Nolan Bushnell\") and [Allan Alcorn](/wiki/Allan_Alcorn \"Allan Alcorn\").\n* [Karen Spärck Jones](/wiki/Karen_Sp%C3%A4rck_Jones \"Karen Spärck Jones\") introduces the concept of [inverse document frequency](/wiki/Inverse_document_frequency \"Inverse document frequency\") (idf) weighting in information retrieval.\n* [Write\\-only memory](/wiki/Write-only_memory_%28engineering%29 \"Write-only memory (engineering)\") is devised as a [joke](/wiki/Write-only_memory_%28joke%29 \"Write-only memory (joke)\") in [Signetics](/wiki/Signetics \"Signetics\").\n",
"Earth sciences\n--------------\n\n* February 8 – First [Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point](/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point \"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point\") (GSSP) defined at the [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian \"Silurian\")\\-[Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\") boundary at [Klonk](/wiki/Klonk \"Klonk\") in the Czech Republic.\n",
"Ecology\n-------\n\n* January – *[A Blueprint for Survival](/wiki/A_Blueprint_for_Survival \"A Blueprint for Survival\")* first published as a special edition of *[The Ecologist](/wiki/The_Ecologist \"The Ecologist\")* magazine in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\").\n* [James Lovelock](/wiki/James_Lovelock \"James Lovelock\") first refers to the [Gaia hypothesis](/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis \"Gaia hypothesis\") in print.\n* The [Climatic Research Unit](/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit \"Climatic Research Unit\") is founded by climatologist [Hubert Lamb](/wiki/Hubert_Lamb \"Hubert Lamb\") at the [University of East Anglia](/wiki/University_of_East_Anglia \"University of East Anglia\") in the UK.\n",
"Mathematics\n-----------\n\n* [Daniel Quillen](/wiki/Daniel_Quillen \"Daniel Quillen\") formulates higher [algebraic K\\-theory](/wiki/Algebraic_K-theory \"Algebraic K-theory\").\n* [Daniel Gorenstein](/wiki/Daniel_Gorenstein \"Daniel Gorenstein\") announces a 16\\-step program for completing the [classification of finite simple groups](/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups \"Classification of finite simple groups\"). Appendix.\n* [Richard M. Karp](/wiki/Richard_M._Karp \"Richard M. Karp\") shows that the [Hamiltonian cycle](/wiki/Hamiltonian_cycle \"Hamiltonian cycle\") problem is [NP\\-complete](/wiki/NP-complete \"NP-complete\").\n",
"Medicine\n--------\n\n* January 31 – [Immunosuppressive](/wiki/Immunosuppressant \"Immunosuppressant\") effect of [ciclosporin](/wiki/Ciclosporin \"Ciclosporin\") discovered by a team at [Sandoz](/wiki/Sandoz \"Sandoz\"), [Basel](/wiki/Basel \"Basel\"), under [Hartmann F. Stähelin](/wiki/Hartmann_F._St%C3%A4helin \"Hartmann F. Stähelin\").\n* [Harvey J. Alter](/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter \"Harvey J. Alter\") identifies the presence of [hepatitis C virus](/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus \"Hepatitis C virus\").\n* [Tu Youyou](/wiki/Tu_Youyou \"Tu Youyou\") and collaborators obtain a pure extract of the [antiplasmodial](/wiki/Antiplasmodial \"Antiplasmodial\") drug [artemisinin](/wiki/Artemisinin \"Artemisinin\").\n* [Archie Cochrane](/wiki/Archie_Cochrane \"Archie Cochrane\") publishes *Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services* in the U.K.\n* [John Yudkin](/wiki/John_Yudkin \"John Yudkin\") publishes *[Pure, White and Deadly](/wiki/Pure%2C_White_and_Deadly \"Pure, White and Deadly\")* in the U.K., warning of the dangers of [sucrose](/wiki/Sucrose \"Sucrose\") in diet.\n* The [last major epidemic of smallpox in Europe](/wiki/1972_Yugoslav_smallpox_outbreak \"1972 Yugoslav smallpox outbreak\") breaks out in [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\").\n",
"Metrology\n---------\n\n* 00:00:00 [UTC](/wiki/UTC \"UTC\") matches 00:00:10 [TAI](/wiki/International_Atomic_Time \"International Atomic Time\") exactly and the tick rate of UTC is changed to match TAI exactly.\n",
"Paleontology\n------------\n\n* Kielan\\-Jawarowska and [Rinchen Barsbold](/wiki/Rinchen_Barsbold \"Rinchen Barsbold\") report the associated remains of a *[Velociraptor](/wiki/Velociraptor \"Velociraptor\")* and *[Protoceratops](/wiki/Protoceratops \"Protoceratops\")* apparently killed and preserved while fighting.\n",
"Psychology\n----------\n\n* [Daniel Kahneman](/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman \"Daniel Kahneman\") and [Amos Tversky](/wiki/Amos_Tversky \"Amos Tversky\") begin to publish together on [cognitive bias](/wiki/Cognitive_bias \"Cognitive bias\") and [heuristics in judgment and decision\\-making](/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision-making \"Heuristics in judgment and decision-making\").\n",
"Technology\n----------\n\n* February 1 – The first scientific hand\\-held [calculator](/wiki/Calculator \"Calculator\") (labeled [Hewlett\\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard \"Hewlett-Packard\"), later designated the [HP\\-35](/wiki/HP-35 \"HP-35\")) is introduced, at a price of $395\\.00\\.\n* July 10 – [Jack Cover](/wiki/Jack_Cover \"Jack Cover\") files for the original form of [Taser](/wiki/Taser \"Taser\") [electroshock weapon](/wiki/Electroshock_weapon \"Electroshock weapon\").\n* English inventor [Peter Powell](/wiki/Peter_Powell_%28kite%29 \"Peter Powell (kite)\") develops a steerable dual\\-line [kite](/wiki/Kite \"Kite\").\n",
"Awards\n------\n\n* [Nobel Prizes](/wiki/Nobel_Prize \"Nobel Prize\")\n\t+ [Physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics \"Nobel Prize in Physics\") – [John Bardeen](/wiki/John_Bardeen \"John Bardeen\"), [Leon Neil Cooper](/wiki/Leon_Neil_Cooper \"Leon Neil Cooper\"), [John Robert Schrieffer](/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer \"John Robert Schrieffer\")\n\t+ [Chemistry](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry \"Nobel Prize in Chemistry\") – [Christian B. Anfinsen](/wiki/Christian_B._Anfinsen \"Christian B. Anfinsen\"), [Stanford Moore](/wiki/Stanford_Moore \"Stanford Moore\"), [William H. Stein](/wiki/William_H._Stein \"William H. Stein\")\n\t+ [Medicine](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine \"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\") – [Gerald Edelman](/wiki/Gerald_Edelman \"Gerald Edelman\"), [Rodney R Porter](/wiki/Rodney_R_Porter \"Rodney R Porter\")\n* [Turing Award](/wiki/Turing_Award \"Turing Award\") – [Edsger Dijkstra](/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstra \"Edsger Dijkstra\")\n",
"Births\n------\n\n* March 31 – [Evan Williams](/wiki/Evan_Williams_%28Internet_entrepreneur%29 \"Evan Williams (Internet entrepreneur)\"), [American](/wiki/Americans \"Americans\") [Internet entrepreneur](/wiki/Internet_entrepreneur \"Internet entrepreneur\").\n* April 5 – [Nima Arkani\\-Hamed](/wiki/Nima_Arkani-Hamed \"Nima Arkani-Hamed\"), Canadian\\-American theoretical [physicist](/wiki/Physicist \"Physicist\").\n* June 21 – [Warren Lyford DeLano](/wiki/Warren_Lyford_DeLano \"Warren Lyford DeLano\"), American [bioinformatician](/wiki/Bioinformatician \"Bioinformatician\") and [open source](/wiki/Open-source_software \"Open-source software\") advocate (d. [2009](/wiki/2009_in_science \"2009 in science\")).\n* *unknown date* – [Kathy Vivas](/wiki/Kathy_Vivas \"Kathy Vivas\"), Venezuelan astrophysicist\n",
"Deaths\n------\n\n* February 20 – [Maria Goeppert Mayer](/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer \"Maria Goeppert Mayer\") (b. [1906](/wiki/1906_in_science \"1906 in science\")), German\\-American theoretical physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics.\n* May 4 – [Edward Calvin Kendall](/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall \"Edward Calvin Kendall\") (b. [1886](/wiki/1886_in_science \"1886 in science\")), American chemist, recipient of the [Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine \"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\").\n* May 8 – [Beatrice Helen Worsley](/wiki/Beatrice_Helen_Worsley \"Beatrice Helen Worsley\") (b. [1921](/wiki/1921_in_science \"1921 in science\")), Canadian [computer scientist](/wiki/Computer_scientist \"Computer scientist\").\n* August 11 – [Max Theiler](/wiki/Max_Theiler \"Max Theiler\") (b. [1899](/wiki/1899_in_science \"1899 in science\")), South African\\-born American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.\n* August 22 – [Ștefan Procopiu](/wiki/%C8%98tefan_Procopiu \"Ștefan Procopiu\") (b. [18990](/wiki/1890_in_science \"1890 in science\")), Romanian physicist.\n* August 25 – [Lucien Bull](/wiki/Lucien_Bull \"Lucien Bull\") (b. [1876](/wiki/1876_in_science \"1876 in science\")), Irish\\-born French pioneer in [chronophotography](/wiki/Chronophotography \"Chronophotography\").\n* October 1 – [Louis Leakey](/wiki/Louis_Leakey \"Louis Leakey\") (b. [1903](/wiki/1903_in_science \"1903 in science\")), British [paleoanthropologist](/wiki/Paleoanthropologist \"Paleoanthropologist\").\n* November 25 – [Henri Coandă](/wiki/Henri_Coand%C4%83 \"Henri Coandă\") (b. 1886\\), Romanian [aeronautical engineer](/wiki/Aeronautical_engineer \"Aeronautical engineer\").\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:20th century in science](/wiki/Category:20th_century_in_science \"20th century in science\")\n[Category:1970s in science](/wiki/Category:1970s_in_science \"1970s in science\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Werfen
|
{
"id": [
40330219
],
"name": [
"RodRabelo7"
]
}
|
ard3hqqbmo88wh3vwwsyej64rzdzp4k
|
2024-08-20T09:32:38Z
| 1,185,179,065 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"History",
"Politics",
"Gallery",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Werfen** () is a [market town](/wiki/Market_town \"Market town\") in the district of [St. Johann im Pongau](/wiki/St._Johann_im_Pongau_District \"St. Johann im Pongau District\"), in the [Austrian](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") state of [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg_%28state%29 \"Salzburg (state)\"). It is mainly known for medieval [Hohenwerfen Castle](/wiki/Hohenwerfen_Castle \"Hohenwerfen Castle\") and the [Eisriesenwelt](/wiki/Eisriesenwelt \"Eisriesenwelt\") ice cave, the largest in the world.\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Aerial view of the Salzach valley](/wiki/File:Werfen_aerial.jpg \"Werfen aerial.jpg\")\nWerfen is located in the northwest of the historic Pongau region, about south of the city of [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg \"Salzburg\"). The settlement is situated in the [Salzach](/wiki/Salzach \"Salzach\") valley south of the [Lueg Pass](/wiki/Lueg_Pass \"Lueg Pass\"), between the [Berchtesgaden Alps](/wiki/Berchtesgaden_Alps \"Berchtesgaden Alps\") ([Hagen Mountains](/wiki/Hagen_Mountains \"Hagen Mountains\") and the [Hochkönig](/wiki/Hochk%C3%B6nig \"Hochkönig\") massif) in the west and the [Tennen Mountains](/wiki/Tennen_Mountains \"Tennen Mountains\") in the east. The [Salzburg\\-Tyrol Railway](/wiki/Salzburg-Tyrol_Railway \"Salzburg-Tyrol Railway\") line (*Giselabahn*) and the [Tauern Autobahn](/wiki/Tauern_Autobahn \"Tauern Autobahn\") run parallel to the river. The region is known as the [type locality](/wiki/Type_locality_%28geology%29 \"Type locality (geology)\") of the geologic [Werfen Formation](/wiki/Werfen_Formation \"Werfen Formation\"), a [Triassic](/wiki/Triassic \"Triassic\") stone layer of the [Limestone Alps](/wiki/Limestone_Alps \"Limestone Alps\").\n\nThe municipality comprises the [cadastral communities](/wiki/Cadastral_community \"Cadastral community\") (*Katastralgemeinden*) of Reitsam, Scharten, Sulzau, Werfen Markt, and Wimm.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nImportant trade routes passed through the Salzach valley since ancient times, when the area was part of the Roman [Noricum](/wiki/Noricum \"Noricum\") province. *Werven* was first mentioned about 1140 AD. The settlement arose south of Hohenwerfen Castle, erected from 1075 at the behest of the Archbishop [Gebhard of Salzburg](/wiki/Gebhard_of_Salzburg \"Gebhard of Salzburg\") during the [Investiture Controversy](/wiki/Investiture_Controversy \"Investiture Controversy\") with King [Henry IV of Germany](/wiki/Henry_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor\"). It is one of the oldest markets in the former [Archbishopric of Salzburg](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Salzburg \"Archbishopric of Salzburg\"), with market privileges documented since 1425\\. At about the same time, the nearby parish of [Pfarrwerfen](/wiki/Pfarrwerfen \"Pfarrwerfen\") was established, like the neighbouring settlement of [Werfenweng](/wiki/Werfenweng \"Werfenweng\") in the east.\n[thumb\\|left\\|Parish church](/wiki/File:AT-25241_Pfarrkirche_hl._Jakobus_in_Werfen_01.jpg \"AT-25241 Pfarrkirche hl. Jakobus in Werfen 01.jpg\")\nAs the seat of the local administration, Werfen and the castle were heavily attacked during the [German Peasants' War](/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War \"German Peasants' War\") in 1525/26\\. From 1675 onwards, numerous people in the environment of the local knacker Barbara Koller and her son Jakob were sentenced and executed in the [Zaubererjackl witch trials](/wiki/Zaubererjackl_witch_trials \"Zaubererjackl witch trials\"). Werfen was also a centre of the expulsion of [Salzburg Protestants](/wiki/Salzburg_Protestants \"Salzburg Protestants\") under the rule of Prince\\-Archbishop [Count Leopold Anton von Firmian](/wiki/Count_Leopold_Anton_von_Firmian \"Count Leopold Anton von Firmian\") in 1731\\. In the late 18th century, a large [limonite](/wiki/Limonite \"Limonite\") deposit was developed in Sulzau, which from 1770 became the most important ironworks (*Konkordiahütte*) in the Salzburg archbishopric.\n\nWith the lands of the [secularised](/wiki/German_mediatization \"German mediatization\") prince\\-archbishopric, Werfen finally fell to the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\") by resolution of the [Vienna Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") in 1816\\. The Salzburg\\-Tyrol Railway line from Salzburg to [Wörgl](/wiki/W%C3%B6rgl \"Wörgl\") opened in 1875, with stations in Sulzau, Tenneck, and Werfen.\n\nThe secluded above the village of Tenneck is the site of the [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_architecture \"Baroque architecture\") [Schloss Blühnbach](/wiki/Schloss_Bl%C3%BChnbach \"Schloss Blühnbach\"), a former hunting lodge of Archbishop [Wolf Dietrich Raitenau](/wiki/Wolf_Dietrich_Raitenau \"Wolf Dietrich Raitenau\"), which in 1908 was acquired by [Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria](/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria \"Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria\"). After the archduke's assassination in 1914, the [Habsburg\\-Lorraine dynasty](/wiki/House_of_Lorraine \"House of Lorraine\") sold the castle to the German [Krupp](/wiki/Krupp \"Krupp\") industrial magnates. The Krupp dynasty held the premises until the death of [Arndt von Bohlen und Halbach](/wiki/Arndt_von_Bohlen_und_Halbach \"Arndt von Bohlen und Halbach\") in 1986, today the estates are privately owned by [Frederick R. Koch](/wiki/Frederick_R._Koch \"Frederick R. Koch\").\n\nA small portion of a picnic scene from *[The Sound of Music](/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music_%28film%29 \"The Sound of Music (film)\")* was filmed on a hillside of the village of Werfen. [Julie Andrews](/wiki/Julie_Andrews \"Julie Andrews\") and crew filmed the opening shots of the \"[Do\\-Re\\-Mi](/wiki/Do-Re-Mi \"Do-Re-Mi\")\" sequence with Hohenwerfen Castle in the background.See \"*The Sound of Music* Filming Locations\" at *The Worldwide Guide to Movie Locations*. [http://www.movie\\-locations.com/intromovies/soundmusic.html](http://www.movie-locations.com/intromovies/soundmusic.html). Accessed 27 March 2007\\. Hohenwerfen was also the location for some filming of *[Where Eagles Dare](/wiki/Where_Eagles_Dare \"Where Eagles Dare\")*.\n\n",
"Politics\n--------\n\nSeats in the municipal council (*Gemeinderat*) as of 2019 local elections:\n* [Austrian People's Party](/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party \"Austrian People's Party\") (ÖVP): 10\n* [Social Democratic Party of Austria](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria \"Social Democratic Party of Austria\") (SPÖ): 6\n* [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria \"Freedom Party of Austria\") (FPÖ): 3\n\n",
"Gallery\n-------\n\nFile:Werfen, straatzicht foto3 2011\\-07\\-17 15\\.06\\.JPG\\|Main square\nFile:Eisriesenwelt Werfen Austria 02\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Eisriesenwelt]] Cave\nFile:Werfen \\- Burg Hohenwerfen (1\\).JPG\\|\\[\\[Hohenwerfen Castle]]\nFile:Werfen 5\\.jpg\\|View from above\nFile:Schloss bluenbach.jpg\\|\\[\\[Schloss Blühnbach]]\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Werfen official website](http://www.gemeindewerfen.at/)\n* [Werfen info website](http://www.werfen.at)\n\n[Category:Cities and towns in St. Johann im Pongau District](/wiki/Category:Cities_and_towns_in_St._Johann_im_Pongau_District \"Cities and towns in St. Johann im Pongau District\")\n[Category:Tennen Mountains](/wiki/Category:Tennen_Mountains \"Tennen Mountains\")\n[Category:Berchtesgaden Alps](/wiki/Category:Berchtesgaden_Alps \"Berchtesgaden Alps\")\n[Category:Geological type localities](/wiki/Category:Geological_type_localities \"Geological type localities\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Dan Neil (journalist)
|
{
"id": [
37991216
],
"name": [
"1ctinus"
]
}
|
8f6gimmap5t3ta1lqdvgv7fqnwtoepx
|
2024-10-14T23:42:50Z
| 1,220,057,337 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Early career",
"Firing from the ''News & Observer''"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3
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"content": [
"\n\n**Dan Neil** is an American journalist who is an automotive columnist for *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")* and a former staff writer at the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, *[AutoWeek](/wiki/AutoWeek \"AutoWeek\")* and *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver \"Car and Driver\").* He was a panelist on 2011's *The Car Show* with [Adam Carolla](/wiki/Adam_Carolla \"Adam Carolla\") on [Speed Channel](/wiki/Speed_Channel \"Speed Channel\").\n\nIn 1999, Neil received the [International Motor Press Association](/wiki/International_Motor_Press_Association \"International Motor Press Association\")'s *Ken Purdy Award* for automotive journalism, and in 2004 Neil won the [Pulitzer Prize for Criticism](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Criticism \"Pulitzer Prize for Criticism\"), presented annually to a newspaper writer who has demonstrated 'distinguished criticism.' Awarded for his *LA Times* column *Rumble Seat,* the Pulitzer board noted Neil's *\"one\\-of\\-a\\-kind reviews of automobiles, blending technical expertise with offbeat humor and astute cultural criticism.\"*\n\nJournalist [Brooke Gladstone](/wiki/Brooke_Gladstone \"Brooke Gladstone\") called Neil \"the [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde \"Oscar Wilde\") of auto reviewers.\" Freelance automotive journalist Thomas Bey called Neil \"the thinking man's smart ass.\"\n\n",
"Background\n----------\n\nNeil was born in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, on January 12, 1960, and moved to [New Bern, North Carolina](/wiki/New_Bern%2C_North_Carolina \"New Bern, North Carolina\"), at age 4\\. His father was an engineer with [Stanley Powertools](/wiki/Stanley_Black_%26_Decker \"Stanley Black & Decker\") and his mother was a private investigator. He received a B.A. degree in Creative Writing from [East Carolina University](/wiki/East_Carolina_University \"East Carolina University\") and an M.A. degree in [English Literature](/wiki/English_Literature \"English Literature\") from [North Carolina State University](/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University \"North Carolina State University\").\n\nNeil is married to Tina Larsen Neil and has twin daughters, Rosalind and Vivienne — as well as a son, Henry (Hank) Neil, from his first marriage. After four years of trying to get pregnant and several in\\-vitro fertilization procedures, Neil's wife conceived four embryos in a high risk, \"white knuckle pregnancy.\" Facing further complications, he and his wife chose to abort two of the fetuses. Neil wrote about the experience for the [LA Times](/wiki/LA_Times \"LA Times\").\n\nNeil lived in Los Angeles before moving again to North Carolina, when he left the L.A. Times and began writing for *The Wall Street Journal*.\n\n",
"Early career\n------------\n\nNeil began his professional writing career with the *[Spectator](/wiki/Independent_Weekly \"Independent Weekly\")*, a local free weekly, and began working for *[The News \\& Observer](/wiki/The_News_%26_Observer \"The News & Observer\")* of [Raleigh, North Carolina](/wiki/Raleigh%2C_North_Carolina \"Raleigh, North Carolina\") as an obituary writer in 1985\\.\n\nIn interviews he has said his goals at the time were to \"learn to write and see the world.\" Neil was recruited by *[AutoWeek](/wiki/AutoWeek \"AutoWeek\")* magazine in 1994 as a senior contributing editor. In 1995, he began contributing reviews to *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\"),* which he continued until 2003\\.\n\nBeginning with his work at *The News \\& Observer,* Neil developed his writing style, combining humor with pragmatic insight, [literary](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\") analogies and personal experience. Neil worked with the Raleigh paper until 1996, when he was fired. He subsequently worked as a free\\-lance journalist, including five years as contributing editor to *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver \"Car and Driver\")*. In 1999 Neil was named senior contributing editor for travel magazine *Expedia Travels,* a post he held through 2001\\.\n\nIn 1999, Neil won the Ken Purdy Award for Excellence in Automotive Journalism, from the International Motor Press Association. In 2002, his work was selected for Houghton Mifflin's Best American Sports Writing.\n\n### Firing from the *News \\& Observer*\n\nIn 1991, Dan Neil had been moved from the newsroom of the *News \\& Observer* to the classified advertising department with the expectation \"that he would write dealer\\-friendly pieces to attract readers to the newspaper's automobile classified section.\" In contrast to the newsroom, where Neil had worked with editors, he noticed his copy was no longer edited. \"For seven years, I had unfettered access to 200,000 readers.\" Neil's writing eventually reflected the lack of constraint.\n\nNeil's January 1996 review of the [Ford Expedition](/wiki/Ford_Expedition \"Ford Expedition\") described a back\\-seat encounter with his girlfriend, writing \"this was loving, consensual and — given the Expedition's dual airbags, side impact beams and standard four\\-wheel anti\\-lock brakes — safe sex.\" The News and Observer reported Neil's recollection of the column in an interview years later:\n> *\"I wrote at some point about the kids getting into the Ford Expedition and commenting on the 'footprints' on the windshield. Well, that was just it! People went crazy! It was kind of like [Janet Jackson](/wiki/Janet_Jackson \"Janet Jackson\")'s [costume malfunction](/wiki/Wardrobe_malfunction \"Wardrobe malfunction\") \\-\\- a none too daring transgression, overall, but the thing that finally sent people over the edge.\"*\n\nPut on probation for the article, Neil was instructed to have his articles reviewed by an editor as well as the director of classified auto advertising. Refusing, he was subsequently fired, and wrote in a later *Independent Weekly* article that he was fired \"for refusing to have my column vetted by the classified advertising department.\"\n\nEditors from *The News \\& Observer* contended that it was disingenuous to suggest that advertisers pressured the paper into firing Neil, since Neil worked for an [advertorial](/wiki/Advertorial \"Advertorial\") section of the advertising department at the time.\n\nThe incident highlighted the growing issue that newspapers, [under economic pressure](/wiki/Decline_of_newspapers \"Decline of newspapers\"), have in maintaining the virtual wall between the \"church\" of news gathering and the \"state\" of advertising sales, sometimes known as a [Chinese wall](/wiki/Chinese_wall \"Chinese wall\"). Notably, [Keith Bradsher](/wiki/Keith_Bradsher \"Keith Bradsher\") — author of a book about [SUV](/wiki/SUV \"SUV\")'s called *[High and Mighty](/wiki/High_and_Mighty_%28book%29 \"High and Mighty (book)\")* — indicated that among critics, \"auto reviewers are the most likely to be compromised by the industry they cover.\" Speaking in a 2005 radio interview with [Brooke Gladstone](/wiki/Brooke_Gladstone \"Brooke Gladstone\"), after receiving the Pulitzer Prize, Neil described the symbiotic relationship between the automobile industry and its critics:\n*\"The entire environment is incestuous. They introduce new cars. They fly journalists in and put them up at really nice hotels and, you know, treat them to experiences that they would never possibly in a million years — they wouldn't even be allowed in these hotels ordinarily. You know, and that's not supposed to affect their judgment. But it is a compromised business, and it is also true that newspapers are under a great deal of revenue pressure on this score, and so yeah, a favorable editorial/advertorial content is often created to satisfy that need.\"*\n\nLA Times\n--------\n\nIn September 2003, Neil became a full\\-time columnist for the Los Angeles Times *and gained a following for his approach to automotive writing, which routinely included industry criticism — including criticism of automakers themselves and government emissions and safety policies.*\n\nIn February 2005, he began writing 800 Words*, a column about pop culture, for the* Los Angeles Times Magazine*. The column was syndicated by Tribune Media in 2006\\. Neil won the American Association of Sunday and Feature Editors award for best general commentary column in 2007\\.*\n\n800 Words *was discontinued in 2008 after the* Los Angeles Times Magazine *was transferred from the editorial department to the paper's business division — and advertiser control.*\n\nIn February 2010, Neil left the L.A. Times and accepted a position at [The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")*.*\n\n### 2008 Zell lawsuit\n\nIn 2008, Neil participated in a federal class action suit against [Sam Zell](/wiki/Sam_Zell \"Sam Zell\"), who in 2007 purchased the [Tribune Company](/wiki/Tribune_Company \"Tribune Company\"), owner of the [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\").\nAfter the takeover, Zell rated reporters by how many [column inches](/wiki/Column_inches \"Column inches\") they produced, relinquished the Los Angeles Times Magazine *and other editorial publications to advertiser control — and laid off at least 1,000 employees.*\n\nNeil called Zell \"a corporate raider,\" adding \"he's not a publisher. Newspapers are too important to the public to be treated as just pieces on a financial chessboard.\" Neil and a group of Times employees claimed violations of the [Employee Retirement Income Security Act](/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act \"Employee Retirement Income Security Act\") (ERISA) and alleged that Zell breached his duty of loyalty to Tribune's employees.\n[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\") described the suit as putting \"the [fast\\-changing newspaper business](/wiki/History_of_newspaper_publishing \"History of newspaper publishing\") on trial,\" noting \"newspapers have been under siege since the technology bubble popped in the late 1990s, with problems ranging from [declining circulation](/wiki/Decline_of_newspapers \"Decline of newspapers\"), advertiser consolidation, classified ads migrating online, rising newsprint costs, bloated debt structures and, yes, over\\-staffing. Not to mention the rise of Internet news.\"\nReferences\n----------\n\nExternal links\n--------------\n\n[Rumble Seat](https://archive.today/20130217022148/http://topics.wsj.com/person/N/dan-neil/6135) at * [The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")''.\n\n[Category:1960 births](/wiki/Category:1960_births \"1960 births\")\n[Category:Motoring journalists](/wiki/Category:Motoring_journalists \"Motoring journalists\")\n[Category:American columnists](/wiki/Category:American_columnists \"American columnists\")\n[Category:Los Angeles Times people](/wiki/Category:Los_Angeles_Times_people \"Los Angeles Times people\")\n[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Criticism winners](/wiki/Category:Pulitzer_Prize_for_Criticism_winners \"Pulitzer Prize for Criticism winners\")\n[Category:East Carolina University alumni](/wiki/Category:East_Carolina_University_alumni \"East Carolina University alumni\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:People from New Bern, North Carolina](/wiki/Category:People_from_New_Bern%2C_North_Carolina \"People from New Bern, North Carolina\")\n[Category:The Wall Street Journal people](/wiki/Category:The_Wall_Street_Journal_people \"The Wall Street Journal people\")\n\n",
"### Firing from the *News \\& Observer*\n\nIn 1991, Dan Neil had been moved from the newsroom of the *News \\& Observer* to the classified advertising department with the expectation \"that he would write dealer\\-friendly pieces to attract readers to the newspaper's automobile classified section.\" In contrast to the newsroom, where Neil had worked with editors, he noticed his copy was no longer edited. \"For seven years, I had unfettered access to 200,000 readers.\" Neil's writing eventually reflected the lack of constraint.\n\nNeil's January 1996 review of the [Ford Expedition](/wiki/Ford_Expedition \"Ford Expedition\") described a back\\-seat encounter with his girlfriend, writing \"this was loving, consensual and — given the Expedition's dual airbags, side impact beams and standard four\\-wheel anti\\-lock brakes — safe sex.\" The News and Observer reported Neil's recollection of the column in an interview years later:\n> *\"I wrote at some point about the kids getting into the Ford Expedition and commenting on the 'footprints' on the windshield. Well, that was just it! People went crazy! It was kind of like [Janet Jackson](/wiki/Janet_Jackson \"Janet Jackson\")'s [costume malfunction](/wiki/Wardrobe_malfunction \"Wardrobe malfunction\") \\-\\- a none too daring transgression, overall, but the thing that finally sent people over the edge.\"*\n\nPut on probation for the article, Neil was instructed to have his articles reviewed by an editor as well as the director of classified auto advertising. Refusing, he was subsequently fired, and wrote in a later *Independent Weekly* article that he was fired \"for refusing to have my column vetted by the classified advertising department.\"\n\nEditors from *The News \\& Observer* contended that it was disingenuous to suggest that advertisers pressured the paper into firing Neil, since Neil worked for an [advertorial](/wiki/Advertorial \"Advertorial\") section of the advertising department at the time.\n\nThe incident highlighted the growing issue that newspapers, [under economic pressure](/wiki/Decline_of_newspapers \"Decline of newspapers\"), have in maintaining the virtual wall between the \"church\" of news gathering and the \"state\" of advertising sales, sometimes known as a [Chinese wall](/wiki/Chinese_wall \"Chinese wall\"). Notably, [Keith Bradsher](/wiki/Keith_Bradsher \"Keith Bradsher\") — author of a book about [SUV](/wiki/SUV \"SUV\")'s called *[High and Mighty](/wiki/High_and_Mighty_%28book%29 \"High and Mighty (book)\")* — indicated that among critics, \"auto reviewers are the most likely to be compromised by the industry they cover.\" Speaking in a 2005 radio interview with [Brooke Gladstone](/wiki/Brooke_Gladstone \"Brooke Gladstone\"), after receiving the Pulitzer Prize, Neil described the symbiotic relationship between the automobile industry and its critics:\n*\"The entire environment is incestuous. They introduce new cars. They fly journalists in and put them up at really nice hotels and, you know, treat them to experiences that they would never possibly in a million years — they wouldn't even be allowed in these hotels ordinarily. You know, and that's not supposed to affect their judgment. But it is a compromised business, and it is also true that newspapers are under a great deal of revenue pressure on this score, and so yeah, a favorable editorial/advertorial content is often created to satisfy that need.\"*\n\nLA Times\n--------\n\nIn September 2003, Neil became a full\\-time columnist for the Los Angeles Times *and gained a following for his approach to automotive writing, which routinely included industry criticism — including criticism of automakers themselves and government emissions and safety policies.*\n\nIn February 2005, he began writing 800 Words*, a column about pop culture, for the* Los Angeles Times Magazine*. The column was syndicated by Tribune Media in 2006\\. Neil won the American Association of Sunday and Feature Editors award for best general commentary column in 2007\\.*\n\n800 Words *was discontinued in 2008 after the* Los Angeles Times Magazine *was transferred from the editorial department to the paper's business division — and advertiser control.*\n\nIn February 2010, Neil left the L.A. Times and accepted a position at [The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")*.*\n\n### 2008 Zell lawsuit\n\nIn 2008, Neil participated in a federal class action suit against [Sam Zell](/wiki/Sam_Zell \"Sam Zell\"), who in 2007 purchased the [Tribune Company](/wiki/Tribune_Company \"Tribune Company\"), owner of the [Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\").\nAfter the takeover, Zell rated reporters by how many [column inches](/wiki/Column_inches \"Column inches\") they produced, relinquished the Los Angeles Times Magazine *and other editorial publications to advertiser control — and laid off at least 1,000 employees.*\n\nNeil called Zell \"a corporate raider,\" adding \"he's not a publisher. Newspapers are too important to the public to be treated as just pieces on a financial chessboard.\" Neil and a group of Times employees claimed violations of the [Employee Retirement Income Security Act](/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act \"Employee Retirement Income Security Act\") (ERISA) and alleged that Zell breached his duty of loyalty to Tribune's employees.\n[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\") described the suit as putting \"the [fast\\-changing newspaper business](/wiki/History_of_newspaper_publishing \"History of newspaper publishing\") on trial,\" noting \"newspapers have been under siege since the technology bubble popped in the late 1990s, with problems ranging from [declining circulation](/wiki/Decline_of_newspapers \"Decline of newspapers\"), advertiser consolidation, classified ads migrating online, rising newsprint costs, bloated debt structures and, yes, over\\-staffing. Not to mention the rise of Internet news.\"\nReferences\n----------\n\nExternal links\n--------------\n\n[Rumble Seat](https://archive.today/20130217022148/http://topics.wsj.com/person/N/dan-neil/6135) at * [The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")''.\n\n[Category:1960 births](/wiki/Category:1960_births \"1960 births\")\n[Category:Motoring journalists](/wiki/Category:Motoring_journalists \"Motoring journalists\")\n[Category:American columnists](/wiki/Category:American_columnists \"American columnists\")\n[Category:Los Angeles Times people](/wiki/Category:Los_Angeles_Times_people \"Los Angeles Times people\")\n[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Criticism winners](/wiki/Category:Pulitzer_Prize_for_Criticism_winners \"Pulitzer Prize for Criticism winners\")\n[Category:East Carolina University alumni](/wiki/Category:East_Carolina_University_alumni \"East Carolina University alumni\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:People from New Bern, North Carolina](/wiki/Category:People_from_New_Bern%2C_North_Carolina \"People from New Bern, North Carolina\")\n[Category:The Wall Street Journal people](/wiki/Category:The_Wall_Street_Journal_people \"The Wall Street Journal people\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Menominee River
|
{
"id": [
4788944
],
"name": [
"Finetooth"
]
}
|
ssfhdxj9zlqkypv5ojr4my9rsdeb8lu
|
2023-01-13T01:01:32Z
| 1,114,919,258 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Menominee River watershed](/wiki/Image:Menomineerivermap.png \"Menomineerivermap.png\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|White Rapids Hydroelectric dam](/wiki/Image:WhiteRapidsHydroelectricDamMenomineeRiver.jpg \"WhiteRapidsHydroelectricDamMenomineeRiver.jpg\")\nThe **Menominee River** is a river in northwestern [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\") and northeastern [Wisconsin](/wiki/Wisconsin \"Wisconsin\") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). It is approximately long,U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high\\-resolution flowline data. [The National Map](http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/) , accessed December 19, 2011 draining a rural forested area of northern Wisconsin and the [Upper Peninsula of Michigan](/wiki/Upper_Peninsula_of_Michigan \"Upper Peninsula of Michigan\") into [Lake Michigan](/wiki/Lake_Michigan \"Lake Michigan\"). Its entire course, with that of its tributary, the [Brule River](/wiki/Brule_River \"Brule River\"), forms part of the boundary between the two states.[Menominee River/Piers Gorge \\- Norway Nature \\& Parks \\- Pure Michigan Travel](http://www.michigan.org/Property/Detail.aspx?m=4&p=G21753)[WDNR – Menominee River Natural Resources Area](http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/facilities/menominee/index.html) \n\n",
"Description\n-----------\n\nIt is formed approximately northwest of [Iron Mountain, Michigan](/wiki/Iron_Mountain%2C_Michigan \"Iron Mountain, Michigan\"), by the confluence of the [Brule](/wiki/Brule_River \"Brule River\") and [Michigamme](/wiki/Michigamme_River \"Michigamme River\") rivers. As the Menominee flows southeast it picks up the [Pine River](/wiki/Pine_River_%28Florence_County%29 \"Pine River (Florence County)\") and travels past [Kingsford, Michigan](/wiki/Kingsford%2C_Michigan \"Kingsford, Michigan\") and [Niagara, Wisconsin](/wiki/Niagara%2C_Wisconsin \"Niagara, Wisconsin\"). It then flows generally south, making broad [meanders](/wiki/Meander \"Meander\") collecting the [Sturgeon](/wiki/Sturgeon_River_%28Dickinson_County%2C_Michigan%29 \"Sturgeon River (Dickinson County, Michigan)\"), [Pemebonwon](/wiki/Pemebonwon_River \"Pemebonwon River\") and [Pike](/wiki/Pike_River_%28Menominee_River%29 \"Pike River (Menominee River)\") rivers. It enters [Green Bay](/wiki/Green_Bay_%28Lake_Michigan%29 \"Green Bay (Lake Michigan)\") on Lake Michigan from the north between [Marinette, Wisconsin](/wiki/Marinette%2C_Wisconsin \"Marinette, Wisconsin\") and [Menominee, Michigan](/wiki/Menominee%2C_Michigan \"Menominee, Michigan\").\n\nAlong its course the Menominee River has been converted into a series of large [reservoirs](/wiki/Reservoir \"Reservoir\"). The waters contained in these reservoirs are some of the area's deepest and cleanest [lakes](/wiki/Lake \"Lake\"). Many of the lands around those waters are managed for recreational use, which ensures conservation and restricts shoreline development of rows of [cottages](/wiki/Cottage \"Cottage\") and [docks](/wiki/Dock_%28maritime%29 \"Dock (maritime)\"). The lakes are pristine, with wild shores of forest lands.[Menominee River Natural Resource Area, Menominee River](http://www.wnrmag.com/stories/1997/oct97/mellon.htm)\n\nThe name of the river comes from an [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\") [Algonquian](/wiki/Algonquin_language \"Algonquin language\") term meaning \"[wild rice](/wiki/Wild_rice \"Wild rice\")\", or \"in the place of wild rice\". They used the same name for the river as for the historic [Menominee](/wiki/Menominee \"Menominee\") tribe who lived in the area and used the plant as a staple. The Menominee are the only Native American tribe living in Wisconsin today whose origin was in the present\\-day state. The federally recognized [Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin](/wiki/Menominee_Indian_Tribe_of_Wisconsin \"Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin\") have a reservation on the [Wolf River (Fox River tributary)](/wiki/Wolf_River_%28Fox_River_tributary%29 \"Wolf River (Fox River tributary)\"). The Menominee believe that they were created at the mouth of the Menominee River when the Ancestral Bear emerged from the river mouth and was transformed into the first Menominee by the Creator.\n\nThe [Chippewa](/wiki/Chippewa \"Chippewa\") lived in the upper portion of the river basin and referred to the river as *Me\\-ne\\-cane Sepe* or \"Many Little Islands River\". In the *[Jesuit Relations](/wiki/Jesuit_Relations \"Jesuit Relations\"),* the French [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") priests referred to the river as *Rivière de la Folle Avoine* or \"Wild Oats River\", again a reference to the wild rice.\n\nThe region through which the river flows was formerly a center of [iron ore](/wiki/Iron_ore \"Iron ore\") mining. [Menominee River sediments are contaminated with arsenic](/wiki/Ansul%23Arsenic_contamination \"Ansul#Arsenic contamination\") at Marinette, Wisconsin, from industry. The [Back Forty Mine](/wiki/Back_Forty_Mine \"Back Forty Mine\") is a proposed gold and zinc [open\\-pit](/wiki/Open-pit \"Open-pit\") near Stephenson, Michigan to be constructed within of the river.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Ansul Islands](/wiki/Ansul_Islands \"Ansul Islands\")\n* [List of rivers of Michigan](/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Michigan \"List of rivers of Michigan\")\n* [List of rivers of Wisconsin](/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Wisconsin \"List of rivers of Wisconsin\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n* [Environmental Protection Agency](http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/aoc/menominee.html)\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Friends of the Menominee River](http://www.menomineeriver.com)\n* [Menominee Indians](http://www.nativeamericans.com/Menominee.htm), Native Americans website\n\n[Category:Rivers of Michigan](/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Michigan \"Rivers of Michigan\")\n[Category:Rivers of Wisconsin](/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Wisconsin \"Rivers of Wisconsin\")\n[Category:Borders of Michigan](/wiki/Category:Borders_of_Michigan \"Borders of Michigan\")\n[Category:Borders of Wisconsin](/wiki/Category:Borders_of_Wisconsin \"Borders of Wisconsin\")\n[Category:Tributaries of Lake Michigan](/wiki/Category:Tributaries_of_Lake_Michigan \"Tributaries of Lake Michigan\")\n[Category:Rivers of Iron County, Michigan](/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Iron_County%2C_Michigan \"Rivers of Iron County, Michigan\")\n[Category:Rivers of Dickinson County, Michigan](/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Dickinson_County%2C_Michigan \"Rivers of Dickinson County, Michigan\")\n[Category:Rivers of Menominee County, Michigan](/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Menominee_County%2C_Michigan \"Rivers of Menominee County, Michigan\")\n[Category:Rivers of Marinette County, Wisconsin](/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Marinette_County%2C_Wisconsin \"Rivers of Marinette County, Wisconsin\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Union for Reform Judaism
|
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"id": [
1783871
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"name": [
"Albany NY"
]
}
|
6okjx18bcmf24zorldm235ok80h1b39
|
2024-10-07T16:59:52Z
| 1,231,967,354 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Belief and practice",
"Organizational structure",
"Youth group and summer camps",
"History",
"19th century",
"20th century",
"KESHER",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
3,
3,
4,
2,
2,
2
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"content": [
"\n\nThe **Union for Reform Judaism** (**URJ**), formerly known as the **Union of American Hebrew Congregations** (**UAHC**) until 2003, founded in 1873 by Rabbi [Isaac Mayer Wise](/wiki/Isaac_Mayer_Wise \"Isaac Mayer Wise\"), is the congregational arm of [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\") in [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\"). The other two arms established by Rabbi Wise are the [Hebrew Union College\\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion\") and the [Central Conference of American Rabbis](/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis \"Central Conference of American Rabbis\"). The current president of the URJ is Rabbi [Rick Jacobs](/wiki/Richard_Jacobs_%28rabbi%29 \"Richard Jacobs (rabbi)\").\n\nThe URJ has an estimated constituency of some 880,000 registered adults in 819 congregations. It claims to represent 2\\.2 million, as over a third of adult [American Jews](/wiki/American_Jews \"American Jews\"), including many who are not synagogue members, state affinity with Reform, making it the largest Jewish denomination. The UAHC was a founding member of the [World Union for Progressive Judaism](/wiki/World_Union_for_Progressive_Judaism \"World Union for Progressive Judaism\"), of which the URJ is the largest constituent by far.\n\n",
"Belief and practice\n-------------------\n\n[Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\"), also known as Liberal or Progressive Judaism, embraces several basic tenets, including a belief in a [theistic](/wiki/Theistic \"Theistic\"), [personal God](/wiki/Personal_God \"Personal God\"); continuous revelation, with the view that scripture was written by divinely inspired humans. The Reform movement upholds the autonomy of the individual to form their own Jewish beliefs, and to be the final arbiter of their own spiritual practices. At the same time, Reform Judaism stresses Jewish learning in order to gain insights into the tradition and make informed choices. The Reform movement also encourages its members to participate in synagogue and communal Jewish life. Reform Judaism draws a distinction between the moral and ethical imperatives of Judaism and traditional ritual requirements and practices, which, it believes may be altered or renewed to better fulfill Judaism's higher function. Another central tenet of Reform Judaism is the belief that it is the universal mission of Jews to spread God's message, to be a light unto the nations. Reform Judaism foresees a future Messianic Age of peace, but without the coming of an individual Messiah or the restoration of the Third Temple and sacrificial cult in Jerusalem. Reform Judaism rejects the notion of bodily resurrection of the dead at the end of days, while affirming, at most, immortality of the soul.\n\nDuring its \"Classical\" era, roughly between the Civil War and the 1930s, American Reform rejected many ceremonial aspects of Judaism and the authority of traditional jurisprudence (*[halakhah](/wiki/Halakhah \"Halakhah\")*), favoring a more rationalistic, universalist view of religious life. \"New Reform\", from the 1937 Columbus Declaration of Principles and onwards, sought to reincorporate such elements and emphasize Jewish particularism, though still subject to personal autonomy. Concurrently, the denomination prioritized inclusiveness and diversification. This became especially pronounced after the adoption of \"Big Tent Judaism\" policy in the 1970s. Old ritual items became fashionable again, as were ceremonies, such as [ablution](/wiki/Ablution_in_Judaism \"Ablution in Judaism\"). The liturgy, once abridged and containing much English, had more Hebrew and traditional formulae restored, though not due to theological concerns. In contrast with \"Classical\", \"New Reform\" abandoned the drive to equate religious expression with one's actual belief. Confirmation ceremonies in which the young were examined to prove knowledge in the faith, once ubiquitous, were mostly replaced by [Bar and Bat Mitzvah](/wiki/Bar_and_Bat_Mitzvah \"Bar and Bat Mitzvah\"), yet many adolescents still undergo Confirmation (often at [Shavuot](/wiki/Shavuot \"Shavuot\")) between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. A unique aspect of Reform was its interpretation to the old rabbinic concept of *[Tikkun Olam](/wiki/Tikkun_Olam \"Tikkun Olam\")* (Repair of the World); it became a rallying cry for participation in various initiatives pursuing social justice and other progressive agendas, like the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement \"Civil Rights Movement\"), women's equality and gay rights.\n\nAnother key aspect of American Reform, which it shares with sister movements in the WUPJ, is its approach to Jewish identity. Interfaith marriage, once a taboo – the CCAR penalized any involvement by its clergy in such ceremonies by ordinances passed in 1909, 1947 and 1962 – were becoming more prevalent toward the end of the 20th Century. In 1979, the URJ adopted a policy of embracing the intermarried and their spouses, in the hope the latter would convert. In 1983, in the United States, it recognized Judaism based on patrilineal descent, affirming that offspring of a single Jewish parent (whether father or mother) would be accepted as inheriting his status if they would demonstrate affinity to the faith. Children of a Jewish mother who will not commit to Judaism were not to be considered Jewish. These measures made Reform the most hospitable to non\\-Jewish family members among major American denominations: in 2006, 17% of synagogue\\-member households had a converted spouse, and 26% an unconverted one. These policies also raised great tensions with the more traditional movements. Orthodox and Conservatives rejected the validity of Reform conversions already before that, though among the latter, the greater proclivity of CCAR rabbis to perform the process under *halachic* standards allowed for many such to be approved. Patrilineal descent caused a growing percentage of Reform constituency to be regarded as non\\-Jewish by the two other denominations.\n\n",
"Organizational structure\n------------------------\n\nThe URJ incorporates 846 congregations in the United States and 27 in Canada. The Union consists of four administrative districts, West, East, South and Central, which in turn are divided into a total of 35 regional communities, comprising groups of local congregations; 34 are in the United States and one represents all those affiliated with the Canadian Council for Reform Judaism. The URJ is led by a board of trustees, consisting 253 lay members. This board is overseen by the 5,000\\-member General Assembly, which convenes biennially. It was first assembled in Cleveland on 14 July 1874, and the most recent biennial was held in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") on 11–15 December 2019\\. The board directs the Senior Leadership Team, headed by the URJ President. Spiritual guidance is provided by the [Central Conference of American Rabbis](/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis \"Central Conference of American Rabbis\"), which has some 2,300 clergy members who convene annually. Most CCAR members have been trained at [Hebrew Union College\\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion\"), the Reform movement's seminary. The CCAR has a publishing arm and oversees various committees, such as those focusing on Ritual, Responsa, and Prayerbooks. Synagogue prayers are conducted mainly by members of the CCAR and of the American Conference of Cantors. The political and legislative outreach of the URJ is performed by the [Religious Action Center](/wiki/Religious_Action_Center \"Religious Action Center\") based in Washington D.C. The RAC advocates policy positions based upon religious values, and is associated with [political progressivism](/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States \"Progressivism in the United States\"), as part of the vision for *Tikkun Olam*. Tikkun Olam in Hebrew means “repairing the world.” The denomination is also supported by the [Women of Reform Judaism](/wiki/Women_of_Reform_Judaism \"Women of Reform Judaism\") (formerly, the National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods).\n\nThe URJ has an estimated constituency of 850,000 in the United States, 760,000 Jews and further 90,000 non\\-converted gentile spouses. A greater number identifies with Reform Judaism without affiliating with a synagogue. The 2013 Pew survey assessed that 35% of Jews in the United States consider themselves Reform (the 2001 [AJC](/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee \"American Jewish Committee\") poll cited 38%); based on these figures, [Steven M. Cohen](/wiki/Steven_M._Cohen \"Steven M. Cohen\") estimated there were 1,154,000 identifying non\\-member adults in addition to those registered, not including children.[Steven M. Cohen](/wiki/Steven_M._Cohen \"Steven M. Cohen\"), *[Members and Motives: Who Joins American Jewish Congregations and Why](http://synagoguestudies.org/files/S3KReportFall2006_MembersAndMotives.pdf) *, S3K Report, Fall 2006; *[As Reform Jews Gather, Some Good News in the Numbers](http://forward.com/news/national/324227/)*, [Jewish Daily Forward](/wiki/Jewish_Daily_Forward \"Jewish Daily Forward\"), 5 November 2015\\. There are further 30,000 affiliated congregants in Canada. Citing those findings, the URJ claims to represent a total of 2\\.2 million individuals.[\"Nearly 2\\.2 million Americans and Canadians identify as Reform Jews\": The Reform Movement](http://www.urj.org/who-we-are/reform-movement), urj.org.\n\n",
"Youth group and summer camps\n----------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=A photo of the entrance sign for Camp Swig in Saratoga, California.\\|Entrance sign for Camp Swig in Saratoga, California](/wiki/File:Camp_swig_sign.jpg \"Camp swig sign.jpg\")\n[NFTY](/wiki/NFTY \"NFTY\") exists to supplement and support Reform youth groups at the synagogue level. About 750 local youth groups affiliate themselves with the organization, comprising over 8,500 youth members.\n\nThe URJ Camp \\& Israel Programs is the largest Jewish camping system in the world, comprising 14 summer camps across North America, including specialty camps in science \\& technology, creative arts, and sports, and programs for youth with special needs. Many of the camps have long provided the opportunity for high school pupils to travel to [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\") through the program Yallah! Israel during the summer. The Union offers various Israel programs for seminarians and students. Including a youth convention every other year.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n### 19th century\n\nReform\\-like ideas in the United States were first expressed by the Reformed Society of Israelites, founded in [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\"), on 21 November 1824\\. It was led by [Isaac Harby](/wiki/Isaac_Harby \"Isaac Harby\"), Abraham Moise, and David Nunes Carvalho, who represented the younger, Americanized, and religiously lax generation in the [Congregation Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim](/wiki/Congregation_Kahal_Kadosh_Beth_Elohim \"Congregation Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim\"). Standing in opposition to a more stringent establishment, formed from English\\-born immigrants, Harby and his followers were mainly concerned with decorum. They demanded English\\-language sermons, synagogue affairs handled in English rather than [Early Modern Spanish](/wiki/Early_Modern_Spanish \"Early Modern Spanish\") (as was prevalent among [Western Sephardim](/wiki/Western_Sephardim \"Western Sephardim\")), and so forth. However, they also arrived at more principled issues. On their first anniversary, Harby delivered an oratory in which he declared [Rabbinic Judaism](/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism \"Rabbinic Judaism\") a demented faith, no longer relevant, and that America was \"the Promised Land of Scripture.\" They fully seceded by their second anniversary, after continued rebuffs on the part of the wardens, forming their own prayer group. The three leaders authored a prayerbook in which they completely excised any mention of the Messiah, restoration of sacrifices, and return to [Zion](/wiki/Zion \"Zion\"). It was published in 1830\\. Far more moderate alterations along these lines, in the first liturgy considered Reformed, [caused an uproar at Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg_Temple_disputes \"Hamburg Temple disputes\") in 1818\\.\n\nThe Society, numbering several dozens, dissipated and merged back into Beth Elohim during 1833, but they did not cease being a factor. In 1836, the reunified congregation hired [Gustavus Poznanski](/wiki/Gustavus_Poznanski \"Gustavus Poznanski\") as [cantor](/wiki/Cantor \"Cantor\"). He spent time in Hamburg and knew the rite of the [Hamburg Temple](/wiki/Hamburg_Temple \"Hamburg Temple\"). Traditional at first, Poznanski soon followed a different course. In 1843 he attempted to abolish the Second Day of Festivals and later published his own version of the [Maimonides' Creed](/wiki/13_principles_of_faith \"13 principles of faith\"), which lacked reference to Resurrection of the Dead and the Messiah. He also instituted various ritual reforms. Supported by many of the former secessionists, he eventually resigned in 1847\\.\n\nA year before that, [Isaac Mayer Wise](/wiki/Isaac_Mayer_Wise \"Isaac Mayer Wise\") arrived from Europe. In a country where Jewish immigrants lacked an organized and established religious leadership, Wise quickly rose to prominence. While far from traditional belief, he was disinterested in offering a comprehensive new approach, focusing on pragmatic compromises. Wise introduced family pews for the first time in known synagogue history (by random, when his congregation bought a church) in Albany on [Shabbat Shuvah](/wiki/Shabbat_Shuvah \"Shabbat Shuvah\"), 3 October 1851\\. His attempts to forge a single American Judaism motivated him to seek agreement with the conservative [Isaac Leeser](/wiki/Isaac_Leeser \"Isaac Leeser\"). Relations between them, wrought with suspicion from the beginning, were terminated after Wise agreed to Leeser's demands in the [1855 Cleveland Synod](/wiki/1855_Cleveland_Synod \"1855 Cleveland Synod\") and then retracted when the latter left. Wise was soon outflanked by the radical Reform rabbi [David Einhorn](/wiki/David_Einhorn_%28rabbi%29 \"David Einhorn (rabbi)\"), who espoused a dogmatic, rigid line demanding conformity with the principles of [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\") then formulated in Germany. Many other German rabbis crossed the ocean to the land where their religious outlook, free from state intervention or communal pressures, could be expressed purely.\n\nEinhorn gradually gained the upper hand, though the conflict\\-laden synergy between him and Wise would lay the foundation of American Reform. The [Philadelphia Conference of 3–6 November 1869](/wiki/Philadelphia_Conference_of_3%E2%80%936_November_1869 \"Philadelphia Conference of 3–6 November 1869\") saw the radicals' victory, and the adoption of a platform which summarized the theory concocted in Germany in the previous decades. [Priestly privileges](/wiki/Kohen \"Kohen\") were abolished, as the rebuilding of the Temple was no longer anticipated; belief in the Messiah and Resurrection was denied. Michael Meyer regarded the document as the denominational \"declaration of independence.\" The need for religious divorce (*[get](/wiki/Get_%28divorce_document%29 \"Get (divorce document)\")*) was also annulled, and civil divorce confirmed as sufficient, one of the first steps towards abandonment of most ritual traditions. While American Jews, even the nominally Orthodox, were scarcely observant, Reform began to officially dispose of practices still upheld. Its doctrine was well received by the immigrants and especially their assimilated children. Of 200 synagogues in the United States in 1860, there were a handful of Reform ones. Twenty years later, almost all of the existing 275 were part of the movement. On 8 July 1873, representatives from 34 congregations met in Melodeon Hall, [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Cincinnati, Ohio\"), and formed the [Union of American Hebrew Congregations](/wiki/Union_of_American_Hebrew_Congregations \"Union of American Hebrew Congregations\") (UAHC) under Wise's auspices. The name reflected his hope to unite all Jews under a single roof. In 1875, Wise also founded [Hebrew Union College](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College \"Hebrew Union College\"). Yet his attempts to maintain a moderate façade failed. In a famous incident, on 11 July 1883, during the banquet celebrating the first graduation from HUC, non\\-kosher food such as shrimps and crabs was served. The so\\-called *[trefa banquet](/wiki/Trefa_banquet \"Trefa banquet\")*, while apparently the decision of the Jewish caterer and not of Wise himself (who observed dietary laws), prompted protests from the few American traditionalists, like [Sabato Morais](/wiki/Sabato_Morais \"Sabato Morais\"), who remained outside the UAHC. Several conservative members later claimed to have exited the room with repulsion, though little is factually known about the incident.\n\nIt was the arrival of Rabbi [Alexander Kohut](/wiki/Alexander_Kohut \"Alexander Kohut\") in 1885 which forced an unambiguous stance. Kohut, a follower of [Zecharias Frankel](/wiki/Zecharias_Frankel \"Zecharias Frankel\") and his [Positive\\-Historical School](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism%23Positive-Historical_School \"Conservative Judaism#Positive-Historical School\"), attacked the UAHC for abandoning traditional Judaism. A series of heated exchanges between him and Reform's chief ideologue, Rabbi [Kaufmann Kohler](/wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler \"Kaufmann Kohler\"), encouraged the latter to convene an assembly which accepted the [Pittsburgh Platform](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Platform \"Pittsburgh Platform\") on 19 November. Embodying the spirit of \"Classical Reform\", it added virtually nothing to the theoretical foundation of the movement but elucidated it clearly. It was declared that \"to\\-day we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives.\" A small group of conservatives withdrew from the UAHC in protest, joining Kohut, Morais, and their supporters in founding the [Jewish Theological Seminary](/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America \"Jewish Theological Seminary of America\"). At first unifying almost all non\\-Reform currents, it developed into the center of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\"). In 1889, Wise founded the [Central Conference of American Rabbis](/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis \"Central Conference of American Rabbis\").\n\n### 20th century\n\n\"Classical Reform\" soon faced a more pressing challenge. The massive immigration from Eastern Europe, bringing over two million Jews who had strong traditional sentiments in matters of religion even when personally lax, dwarfed the UAHC constituency within a generation. In the 1910s and 1920s, the CCAR rabbis gradually reintroduced many elements once discarded in an effort to appeal to the newcomers. The influx, and the growth of interwar antisemitism, also brought a renewed stress on Jewish particularism and [peoplehood](/wiki/Jewish_peoplehood \"Jewish peoplehood\"), ritual, and tradition.\n\nIn contrast with the coolness toward [Zionism](/wiki/Zionism \"Zionism\") expressed by Classicists – emanating both from their rejection of old Messianic belief, involving a restoration of the sacrificial cult in Jerusalem, and commitment to emancipation – many new clergymen, like [Abba Hillel Silver](/wiki/Abba_Hillel_Silver \"Abba Hillel Silver\") and [Stephen Wise](/wiki/Stephen_Samuel_Wise \"Stephen Samuel Wise\"), were enthusiastic and influential Zionists. These tendencies were codified in the 1937 Columbus Declaration of Principles, influenced by rabbis [Samuel S. Cohon](/wiki/Samuel_S._Cohon \"Samuel S. Cohon\"), [Solomon Freehof](/wiki/Solomon_Freehof \"Solomon Freehof\") and others from Eastern Europe. Anti\\-Zionist Reform rabbis broke away during WWII to found the [American Council for Judaism](/wiki/American_Council_for_Judaism \"American Council for Judaism\"),[Wertheimer, J. \"What Does Reform Judaism Stand For?\", *Commentary Magazine*, June 2008](http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/what-does-reform-judaism-stand-for--11393) , (accessed February 2, 2009\\) which declined in activity following the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\").\n\nIn 1950, HUC merged with the [Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Jewish Institute of Religion\"), a Reform rabbinical college founded in 1922 by Rabbi Stephen Wise. The selective \"return to tradition\" encouraged many Americanized Eastern\\-European\\-descended Jews to flock to Reform congregations in the postwar years, rapidly swelling the membership ranks of the UAHC. This factor, along with the URJ's commitment to Outreach, diversity (\"big tent Judaism\"), and a welcoming attitude labeled \"Audacious Hospitality\" by URJ president, Rabbi Richard Jacobs, have all contributed to the Reform Movement's emergence as the largest Jewish religious denomination in North America.\n\nThe HUC, as a member of the [National Community Relations Advisory Council](/wiki/National_Community_Relations_Advisory_Council \"National Community Relations Advisory Council\"), opposed the [Rosenberg Committee](/wiki/National_Committee_to_Secure_Justice_in_the_Rosenberg_Case \"National Committee to Secure Justice in the Rosenberg Case\"), believing them to be a Communist group. In 1953, the council issued a statement that the Rosenberg Committee's accusation that the [Rosenberg trial](/wiki/Rosenberg_trial \"Rosenberg trial\") was motivated by antisemitism was causing public panic within the Jewish community.\n\nIn 1990, the Union of American Hebrew Congregations and other major Jewish\\-American organizations asked that [Nelson Mandela](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela \"Nelson Mandela\") clarify his pro\\-Palestinian views prior to his visit to New York City. The UAHC's senior vice president [Albert Vorspan](/wiki/Albert_Vorspan \"Albert Vorspan\") said that \"We are hoping to clear the air and defuse the situation so that Mandela's visit...is what it ought to be: a great welcome for a liberation hero without a lot of marginal controversy.\" In a meeting in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") that included representatives from the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, the [Anti\\-Defamation League](/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League \"Anti-Defamation League\"), the [American Jewish Committee](/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee \"American Jewish Committee\"), the [American Jewish Congress](/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress \"American Jewish Congress\"), and other organizations, Mandela apologized for offending the Jewish\\-American establishment, expressed appreciation for South African Jews who opposed apartheid, praised certain Israeli leaders, and agreed that the State of Israel had a right to exist. \n\n#### KESHER\n\n*KESHER should not be confused with various U.S. synagogues incorporating the word Kesher into their names.*\n**KESHER** (from [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") 'linkage', 'connection') is the now\\-defunct college [outreach](/wiki/Outreach \"Outreach\") arm and campus student organization for [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\"). It was formally disbanded in 2009, though it continued to operate [Taglit Birthright](/wiki/Taglit-Birthright_Israel \"Taglit-Birthright Israel\") Israel trips, under the brand \"URJ Kesher\" for several more years. There are no longer any official college programs run by the URJ.\n\nIts directors included Paul Reichenbach (–1995\\), David Terdiman (1995–1997\\), Rabbi Jonathan Klein (1997–2000\\), Rabbi Andrew Davids, Rabbi Marc Israel, Lisa David (–2006\\); Nicole Rand was the latest acting director. There had been two program associates and an Israeli *shaliach*.\n\nKESHER worked with organizations like [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_International \"Hillel International\") to create Reform Jewish programs on campuses across North America. They were a member of the [Israel Campus Coalition](/wiki/Israel_on_Campus_Coalition \"Israel on Campus Coalition\") and sponsored the Argentina Ambassadors trip. KESHER also hosted a Leadership Training Seminar during the spring semester, coordinated by members of the KESHER Student Leadership Council. This council was made of 6\\-7 junior and senior students who applied each year for one or two terms (a school year). Through its website, the group disseminated many documents describing the connection between Reform Judaism and North [American Jewish](/wiki/American_Jew \"American Jew\") youth.\n\n",
"### 19th century\n\nReform\\-like ideas in the United States were first expressed by the Reformed Society of Israelites, founded in [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\"), on 21 November 1824\\. It was led by [Isaac Harby](/wiki/Isaac_Harby \"Isaac Harby\"), Abraham Moise, and David Nunes Carvalho, who represented the younger, Americanized, and religiously lax generation in the [Congregation Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim](/wiki/Congregation_Kahal_Kadosh_Beth_Elohim \"Congregation Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim\"). Standing in opposition to a more stringent establishment, formed from English\\-born immigrants, Harby and his followers were mainly concerned with decorum. They demanded English\\-language sermons, synagogue affairs handled in English rather than [Early Modern Spanish](/wiki/Early_Modern_Spanish \"Early Modern Spanish\") (as was prevalent among [Western Sephardim](/wiki/Western_Sephardim \"Western Sephardim\")), and so forth. However, they also arrived at more principled issues. On their first anniversary, Harby delivered an oratory in which he declared [Rabbinic Judaism](/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism \"Rabbinic Judaism\") a demented faith, no longer relevant, and that America was \"the Promised Land of Scripture.\" They fully seceded by their second anniversary, after continued rebuffs on the part of the wardens, forming their own prayer group. The three leaders authored a prayerbook in which they completely excised any mention of the Messiah, restoration of sacrifices, and return to [Zion](/wiki/Zion \"Zion\"). It was published in 1830\\. Far more moderate alterations along these lines, in the first liturgy considered Reformed, [caused an uproar at Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg_Temple_disputes \"Hamburg Temple disputes\") in 1818\\.\n\nThe Society, numbering several dozens, dissipated and merged back into Beth Elohim during 1833, but they did not cease being a factor. In 1836, the reunified congregation hired [Gustavus Poznanski](/wiki/Gustavus_Poznanski \"Gustavus Poznanski\") as [cantor](/wiki/Cantor \"Cantor\"). He spent time in Hamburg and knew the rite of the [Hamburg Temple](/wiki/Hamburg_Temple \"Hamburg Temple\"). Traditional at first, Poznanski soon followed a different course. In 1843 he attempted to abolish the Second Day of Festivals and later published his own version of the [Maimonides' Creed](/wiki/13_principles_of_faith \"13 principles of faith\"), which lacked reference to Resurrection of the Dead and the Messiah. He also instituted various ritual reforms. Supported by many of the former secessionists, he eventually resigned in 1847\\.\n\nA year before that, [Isaac Mayer Wise](/wiki/Isaac_Mayer_Wise \"Isaac Mayer Wise\") arrived from Europe. In a country where Jewish immigrants lacked an organized and established religious leadership, Wise quickly rose to prominence. While far from traditional belief, he was disinterested in offering a comprehensive new approach, focusing on pragmatic compromises. Wise introduced family pews for the first time in known synagogue history (by random, when his congregation bought a church) in Albany on [Shabbat Shuvah](/wiki/Shabbat_Shuvah \"Shabbat Shuvah\"), 3 October 1851\\. His attempts to forge a single American Judaism motivated him to seek agreement with the conservative [Isaac Leeser](/wiki/Isaac_Leeser \"Isaac Leeser\"). Relations between them, wrought with suspicion from the beginning, were terminated after Wise agreed to Leeser's demands in the [1855 Cleveland Synod](/wiki/1855_Cleveland_Synod \"1855 Cleveland Synod\") and then retracted when the latter left. Wise was soon outflanked by the radical Reform rabbi [David Einhorn](/wiki/David_Einhorn_%28rabbi%29 \"David Einhorn (rabbi)\"), who espoused a dogmatic, rigid line demanding conformity with the principles of [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\") then formulated in Germany. Many other German rabbis crossed the ocean to the land where their religious outlook, free from state intervention or communal pressures, could be expressed purely.\n\nEinhorn gradually gained the upper hand, though the conflict\\-laden synergy between him and Wise would lay the foundation of American Reform. The [Philadelphia Conference of 3–6 November 1869](/wiki/Philadelphia_Conference_of_3%E2%80%936_November_1869 \"Philadelphia Conference of 3–6 November 1869\") saw the radicals' victory, and the adoption of a platform which summarized the theory concocted in Germany in the previous decades. [Priestly privileges](/wiki/Kohen \"Kohen\") were abolished, as the rebuilding of the Temple was no longer anticipated; belief in the Messiah and Resurrection was denied. Michael Meyer regarded the document as the denominational \"declaration of independence.\" The need for religious divorce (*[get](/wiki/Get_%28divorce_document%29 \"Get (divorce document)\")*) was also annulled, and civil divorce confirmed as sufficient, one of the first steps towards abandonment of most ritual traditions. While American Jews, even the nominally Orthodox, were scarcely observant, Reform began to officially dispose of practices still upheld. Its doctrine was well received by the immigrants and especially their assimilated children. Of 200 synagogues in the United States in 1860, there were a handful of Reform ones. Twenty years later, almost all of the existing 275 were part of the movement. On 8 July 1873, representatives from 34 congregations met in Melodeon Hall, [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati%2C_Ohio \"Cincinnati, Ohio\"), and formed the [Union of American Hebrew Congregations](/wiki/Union_of_American_Hebrew_Congregations \"Union of American Hebrew Congregations\") (UAHC) under Wise's auspices. The name reflected his hope to unite all Jews under a single roof. In 1875, Wise also founded [Hebrew Union College](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College \"Hebrew Union College\"). Yet his attempts to maintain a moderate façade failed. In a famous incident, on 11 July 1883, during the banquet celebrating the first graduation from HUC, non\\-kosher food such as shrimps and crabs was served. The so\\-called *[trefa banquet](/wiki/Trefa_banquet \"Trefa banquet\")*, while apparently the decision of the Jewish caterer and not of Wise himself (who observed dietary laws), prompted protests from the few American traditionalists, like [Sabato Morais](/wiki/Sabato_Morais \"Sabato Morais\"), who remained outside the UAHC. Several conservative members later claimed to have exited the room with repulsion, though little is factually known about the incident.\n\nIt was the arrival of Rabbi [Alexander Kohut](/wiki/Alexander_Kohut \"Alexander Kohut\") in 1885 which forced an unambiguous stance. Kohut, a follower of [Zecharias Frankel](/wiki/Zecharias_Frankel \"Zecharias Frankel\") and his [Positive\\-Historical School](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism%23Positive-Historical_School \"Conservative Judaism#Positive-Historical School\"), attacked the UAHC for abandoning traditional Judaism. A series of heated exchanges between him and Reform's chief ideologue, Rabbi [Kaufmann Kohler](/wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler \"Kaufmann Kohler\"), encouraged the latter to convene an assembly which accepted the [Pittsburgh Platform](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Platform \"Pittsburgh Platform\") on 19 November. Embodying the spirit of \"Classical Reform\", it added virtually nothing to the theoretical foundation of the movement but elucidated it clearly. It was declared that \"to\\-day we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives.\" A small group of conservatives withdrew from the UAHC in protest, joining Kohut, Morais, and their supporters in founding the [Jewish Theological Seminary](/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America \"Jewish Theological Seminary of America\"). At first unifying almost all non\\-Reform currents, it developed into the center of [Conservative Judaism](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\"). In 1889, Wise founded the [Central Conference of American Rabbis](/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis \"Central Conference of American Rabbis\").\n\n",
"### 20th century\n\n\"Classical Reform\" soon faced a more pressing challenge. The massive immigration from Eastern Europe, bringing over two million Jews who had strong traditional sentiments in matters of religion even when personally lax, dwarfed the UAHC constituency within a generation. In the 1910s and 1920s, the CCAR rabbis gradually reintroduced many elements once discarded in an effort to appeal to the newcomers. The influx, and the growth of interwar antisemitism, also brought a renewed stress on Jewish particularism and [peoplehood](/wiki/Jewish_peoplehood \"Jewish peoplehood\"), ritual, and tradition.\n\nIn contrast with the coolness toward [Zionism](/wiki/Zionism \"Zionism\") expressed by Classicists – emanating both from their rejection of old Messianic belief, involving a restoration of the sacrificial cult in Jerusalem, and commitment to emancipation – many new clergymen, like [Abba Hillel Silver](/wiki/Abba_Hillel_Silver \"Abba Hillel Silver\") and [Stephen Wise](/wiki/Stephen_Samuel_Wise \"Stephen Samuel Wise\"), were enthusiastic and influential Zionists. These tendencies were codified in the 1937 Columbus Declaration of Principles, influenced by rabbis [Samuel S. Cohon](/wiki/Samuel_S._Cohon \"Samuel S. Cohon\"), [Solomon Freehof](/wiki/Solomon_Freehof \"Solomon Freehof\") and others from Eastern Europe. Anti\\-Zionist Reform rabbis broke away during WWII to found the [American Council for Judaism](/wiki/American_Council_for_Judaism \"American Council for Judaism\"),[Wertheimer, J. \"What Does Reform Judaism Stand For?\", *Commentary Magazine*, June 2008](http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/what-does-reform-judaism-stand-for--11393) , (accessed February 2, 2009\\) which declined in activity following the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\").\n\nIn 1950, HUC merged with the [Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Jewish Institute of Religion\"), a Reform rabbinical college founded in 1922 by Rabbi Stephen Wise. The selective \"return to tradition\" encouraged many Americanized Eastern\\-European\\-descended Jews to flock to Reform congregations in the postwar years, rapidly swelling the membership ranks of the UAHC. This factor, along with the URJ's commitment to Outreach, diversity (\"big tent Judaism\"), and a welcoming attitude labeled \"Audacious Hospitality\" by URJ president, Rabbi Richard Jacobs, have all contributed to the Reform Movement's emergence as the largest Jewish religious denomination in North America.\n\nThe HUC, as a member of the [National Community Relations Advisory Council](/wiki/National_Community_Relations_Advisory_Council \"National Community Relations Advisory Council\"), opposed the [Rosenberg Committee](/wiki/National_Committee_to_Secure_Justice_in_the_Rosenberg_Case \"National Committee to Secure Justice in the Rosenberg Case\"), believing them to be a Communist group. In 1953, the council issued a statement that the Rosenberg Committee's accusation that the [Rosenberg trial](/wiki/Rosenberg_trial \"Rosenberg trial\") was motivated by antisemitism was causing public panic within the Jewish community.\n\nIn 1990, the Union of American Hebrew Congregations and other major Jewish\\-American organizations asked that [Nelson Mandela](/wiki/Nelson_Mandela \"Nelson Mandela\") clarify his pro\\-Palestinian views prior to his visit to New York City. The UAHC's senior vice president [Albert Vorspan](/wiki/Albert_Vorspan \"Albert Vorspan\") said that \"We are hoping to clear the air and defuse the situation so that Mandela's visit...is what it ought to be: a great welcome for a liberation hero without a lot of marginal controversy.\" In a meeting in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") that included representatives from the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, the [Anti\\-Defamation League](/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League \"Anti-Defamation League\"), the [American Jewish Committee](/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee \"American Jewish Committee\"), the [American Jewish Congress](/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress \"American Jewish Congress\"), and other organizations, Mandela apologized for offending the Jewish\\-American establishment, expressed appreciation for South African Jews who opposed apartheid, praised certain Israeli leaders, and agreed that the State of Israel had a right to exist. \n\n#### KESHER\n\n*KESHER should not be confused with various U.S. synagogues incorporating the word Kesher into their names.*\n**KESHER** (from [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") 'linkage', 'connection') is the now\\-defunct college [outreach](/wiki/Outreach \"Outreach\") arm and campus student organization for [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\"). It was formally disbanded in 2009, though it continued to operate [Taglit Birthright](/wiki/Taglit-Birthright_Israel \"Taglit-Birthright Israel\") Israel trips, under the brand \"URJ Kesher\" for several more years. There are no longer any official college programs run by the URJ.\n\nIts directors included Paul Reichenbach (–1995\\), David Terdiman (1995–1997\\), Rabbi Jonathan Klein (1997–2000\\), Rabbi Andrew Davids, Rabbi Marc Israel, Lisa David (–2006\\); Nicole Rand was the latest acting director. There had been two program associates and an Israeli *shaliach*.\n\nKESHER worked with organizations like [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_International \"Hillel International\") to create Reform Jewish programs on campuses across North America. They were a member of the [Israel Campus Coalition](/wiki/Israel_on_Campus_Coalition \"Israel on Campus Coalition\") and sponsored the Argentina Ambassadors trip. KESHER also hosted a Leadership Training Seminar during the spring semester, coordinated by members of the KESHER Student Leadership Council. This council was made of 6\\-7 junior and senior students who applied each year for one or two terms (a school year). Through its website, the group disseminated many documents describing the connection between Reform Judaism and North [American Jewish](/wiki/American_Jew \"American Jew\") youth.\n\n",
"#### KESHER\n\n*KESHER should not be confused with various U.S. synagogues incorporating the word Kesher into their names.*\n**KESHER** (from [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") 'linkage', 'connection') is the now\\-defunct college [outreach](/wiki/Outreach \"Outreach\") arm and campus student organization for [Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\"). It was formally disbanded in 2009, though it continued to operate [Taglit Birthright](/wiki/Taglit-Birthright_Israel \"Taglit-Birthright Israel\") Israel trips, under the brand \"URJ Kesher\" for several more years. There are no longer any official college programs run by the URJ.\n\nIts directors included Paul Reichenbach (–1995\\), David Terdiman (1995–1997\\), Rabbi Jonathan Klein (1997–2000\\), Rabbi Andrew Davids, Rabbi Marc Israel, Lisa David (–2006\\); Nicole Rand was the latest acting director. There had been two program associates and an Israeli *shaliach*.\n\nKESHER worked with organizations like [Hillel](/wiki/Hillel_International \"Hillel International\") to create Reform Jewish programs on campuses across North America. They were a member of the [Israel Campus Coalition](/wiki/Israel_on_Campus_Coalition \"Israel on Campus Coalition\") and sponsored the Argentina Ambassadors trip. KESHER also hosted a Leadership Training Seminar during the spring semester, coordinated by members of the KESHER Student Leadership Council. This council was made of 6\\-7 junior and senior students who applied each year for one or two terms (a school year). Through its website, the group disseminated many documents describing the connection between Reform Judaism and North [American Jewish](/wiki/American_Jew \"American Jew\") youth.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [*Reform Judaism* (magazine)](/wiki/Reform_Judaism_%28magazine%29 \"Reform Judaism (magazine)\") – the Union's former official magazine\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Union for Reform Judaism Official Website](http://www.urj.org/)\n* [ReformJudaism.org](http://www.reformjudaism.org/)—Comprehensive information about Reform Judaism\n* [RJ.org±—The Blog of the Reform Movement](http://www.rj.org/) \n* [Central Conference of American Rabbis](http://ccarnet.org/)\n* [American Conference of Cantors](http://www.accantors.org/)\n* [Hebrew Union College Jewish Institute of Religion](http://huc.edu/)\n* [URJ Camps](https://reformjudaism.org/youth-programs?f%5B0%5D=program_type%3Asummer%20camp)\n* [NFTY: The Reform Jewish Youth Movement](http://www.nfty.org/) (formerly the North American Federation of Temple Youth)\n* [Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism](http://www.rac.org/)\n* [URJ Youth: Go Kesher Official Website](http://www.urjyouth.org/go-kesher/) \n* 2011 archive of KesherCollege.org\n* 2018 archive of Union of Reform Judaism college life page\n\n[Category:Jews and Judaism in Cincinnati](/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Cincinnati \"Jews and Judaism in Cincinnati\")\n[Category:Reform Judaism in Ohio](/wiki/Category:Reform_Judaism_in_Ohio \"Reform Judaism in Ohio\")\n[Category:Religious organizations established in 1873](/wiki/Category:Religious_organizations_established_in_1873 \"Religious organizations established in 1873\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Foil bearing
|
{
"id": [
27015025
],
"name": [
"InternetArchiveBot"
]
}
|
jhw3nuuy8mj7km8co3axp2afbtuhch8
|
2024-04-20T07:37:39Z
| 1,175,425,691 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Development",
"Applications",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n[thumb\\|A foil\\-air bearing for the core rotor shaft of an aircraft turbine engine.\\| alt\\= Foil\\-air bearing](/wiki/Image:Foilbearing.jpg \"Foilbearing.jpg\") \n\nA **foil bearing**, also known as a **foil\\-air bearing**, is a type of [air bearing](/wiki/Fluid_bearing%23Air_bearings \"Fluid bearing#Air bearings\"). A shaft is supported by a compliant, spring\\-loaded [foil](/wiki/Foil_%28metal%29 \"Foil (metal)\") journal lining. Once the shaft is spinning fast enough, the working [fluid](/wiki/Fluid \"Fluid\") (usually [air](/wiki/Air \"Air\")) pushes the foil away from the shaft so that no contact occurs. The shaft and foil are separated by the air's high pressure, which is generated by the rotation that pulls gas into the bearing via viscosity effects. The high speed of the shaft with respect to the foil is required to initiate the air gap, and once this has been achieved, no wear occurs. Unlike aerostatic or [hydrostatic bearings](/wiki/Hydrostatic_bearings \"Hydrostatic bearings\"), foil bearings require no external pressurisation system for the working fluid, so the hydrodynamic bearing is self\\-starting.\n\n",
"Development\n-----------\n\n[right\\|thumb\\|Foil Bearing \\| alt\\= Sectional diagram of a foil bearing, showing the component parts (inner, moving outwards) of the shaft journal, a smooth top foil, the bump foil (both foils joined) and finally the bearing housing](/wiki/Image:FoilBearing.png \"FoilBearing.png\") \n[thumb\\| Load capacity against rotation speed, for Gen I and Gen III bearings \\| alt\\= Graph of load capacity against speed for first and third generation bearings: The load is proportional to rotation speed, bearing length, and the square of shaft diameter. Third\\-generation bearings carry about three times as much load as first\\-generation ones.](/wiki/Image:Foil_Bearing_Capacity.png \"Foil Bearing Capacity.png\") \n\nFoil bearings were first developed in the late 1950s by AiResearch Mfg. Co. of the [Garrett Corporation](/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch \"Garrett AiResearch\") using independent [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\") funds to serve military and space applications. They were first tested for commercial use in [United Airlines](/wiki/United_Airlines \"United Airlines\") [Boeing 727](/wiki/Boeing_727 \"Boeing 727\") and [Boeing 737](/wiki/Boeing_737 \"Boeing 737\") cooling turbines in the early and mid\\-1960s. Garrett AiResearch [air cycle machine](/wiki/Air_cycle_machine \"Air cycle machine\") foil bearings were first installed as original equipment in 1969 in the [DC\\-10](/wiki/DC-10 \"DC-10\")'s [environmental control systems](/wiki/Environmental_Control_System \"Environmental Control System\"). Garrett AiResearch foil bearings were installed on all US military aircraft to replace existing oil\\-lubricated rolling\\-contact bearings. The ability to operate at [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenic \"Cryogenic\") gas temperatures and at very high temperatures gave foil bearings many other potential applications.\n\nCurrent\\-generation foil bearings with advanced coatings have greatly exceeded the limitations of earlier designs. Antiwear coatings exist that allow over 100,000 start/stop cycles for typical applications.\n\n",
"Applications\n------------\n\n[Turbomachinery](/wiki/Turbomachinery \"Turbomachinery\") is the most common application because foil bearings operate at high speed. \nCommercial applications in production include microturbines, fuel cell blowers, and air cycle machines. The main advantage of foil bearings is the elimination of the [oil](/wiki/Oil \"Oil\") systems required by traditional bearing designs. Other advantages are:\n* Higher efficiency, due to a lower heat loss to friction; instead of [fluid friction](/wiki/Friction \"Friction\"), the main source of heat is [parasitic drag](/wiki/Parasitic_drag \"Parasitic drag\")\n* Increased reliability\n* Higher speed capability\n* Quieter operation\n* Wider [operating temperature](/wiki/Operating_temperature \"Operating temperature\") range (40–2,500 [K](/wiki/Kelvin \"Kelvin\"))\n* High vibration and shock load capacity\n* No scheduled maintenance\n* No external support system\n* Truly oil free where contamination is an issue\n* Capable of operating above [critical speed](/wiki/Critical_speed \"Critical speed\")\n\nAreas of current research are:\n* Higher load capacity\n* Improved damping\n* Improved coatings\n\nThe main disadvantages are:\n* Lower capacity than roller or oil bearings\n* Wear during start\\-up and stopping\n* High speed required for operation\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [NASA Glenn Research Center \"Creating a Turbomachinery Revolution\"](http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs14grc.html) \n* [NASA Tribology \\& Mechanical Components Branch](https://web.archive.org/web/20090413134503/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/StructuresMaterials/TribMech/)\n* [R\\&D Dynamics Corporation Foil bearing supported high speed turbomachinery](http://www.rddynamics.com)\n* [Turbomachinery and Energy System Laboratory at UTA](http://www.uta.edu/mae/turboenergy/research.html) \n* [Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc.](http://www.mohawkinnovative.com/products/compliant-foil-bearings/)\n* [Tribology Group at Texas A\\&M](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720055621/http://rotorlab.tamu.edu/Tribgroup/)\n* [Korean Institute for Science and Technology KIST](https://web.archive.org/web/20080726082137/http://ubisa.kist.re.kr/Teams/ubisa/afb.htm)\n* [Center for Rotating Machinery at LSU](https://web.archive.org/web/20100707181721/http://www.cerom.lsu.edu/projects_foil.htm)\n* [Oil\\-Free Machinery, LLC](https://oilfreemachinery.com/bearing-tech)\n\n \n\n[Category:Bearings (mechanical)](/wiki/Category:Bearings_%28mechanical%29 \"Bearings (mechanical)\")\n[Category:Gas turbine technology](/wiki/Category:Gas_turbine_technology \"Gas turbine technology\")\n\n"
]
}
|
President of Paraguay
|
{
"id": [
11308236
],
"name": [
"John of Reading"
]
}
|
6v7kaqyc4nlsanbr965t0uovh6meveq
|
2024-08-29T07:09:13Z
| 1,242,789,810 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Features of the office",
"Requirements",
"Election",
"Powers and duties",
"Succession",
"Residence",
"Latest election",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
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"content": [
"\n\n",
"Features of the office\n----------------------\n\n### Requirements\n\nArticle 228 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Paraguay \"Constitution of Paraguay\") establishes that the president must be a naturalized citizen, be at least 35 years old, and have full political and civil rights.\n\n### Election\n\nArticle 230 of the Constitution establishes that the president and the [vice president](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Paraguay \"Vice President of Paraguay\") must be elected in a joint [ticket](/wiki/Ticket_%28election%29 \"Ticket (election)\") by a single round of direct vote, in an election taking place between 90 and 120 days before the expiration of the previous presidential term (per Article 229, August 15\\). Article 229 also establishes that the president serves a single term of 5 years and is forbidden to be re\\-elected under any circumstances, and that the vice president must resign from their role 6 months before the election, if they decide to run for the presidency.\n\nThe re\\-election ban dates back to the aftermath of the [Alfredo Stroessner dictatorship](/wiki/El_Stronato \"El Stronato\"), in which [Stroessner](/wiki/Alfredo_Stroessner \"Alfredo Stroessner\") was re\\-elected without term limits. An attempt by the Senate to abolish term limits on 1 April 2017 resulted in [protests](/wiki/2017_Paraguayan_crisis \"2017 Paraguayan crisis\"); it was ultimately rejected.\n\n",
"### Requirements\n\nArticle 228 of the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Paraguay \"Constitution of Paraguay\") establishes that the president must be a naturalized citizen, be at least 35 years old, and have full political and civil rights.\n\n",
"### Election\n\nArticle 230 of the Constitution establishes that the president and the [vice president](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Paraguay \"Vice President of Paraguay\") must be elected in a joint [ticket](/wiki/Ticket_%28election%29 \"Ticket (election)\") by a single round of direct vote, in an election taking place between 90 and 120 days before the expiration of the previous presidential term (per Article 229, August 15\\). Article 229 also establishes that the president serves a single term of 5 years and is forbidden to be re\\-elected under any circumstances, and that the vice president must resign from their role 6 months before the election, if they decide to run for the presidency.\n\nThe re\\-election ban dates back to the aftermath of the [Alfredo Stroessner dictatorship](/wiki/El_Stronato \"El Stronato\"), in which [Stroessner](/wiki/Alfredo_Stroessner \"Alfredo Stroessner\") was re\\-elected without term limits. An attempt by the Senate to abolish term limits on 1 April 2017 resulted in [protests](/wiki/2017_Paraguayan_crisis \"2017 Paraguayan crisis\"); it was ultimately rejected.\n\n",
"Powers and duties\n-----------------\n\nAccording to Article 238 of the Constitution, the president's duties are:\n\n1. Representing the State and direct the general administration of the country.\n2. Comply with and enforce the Constitution and its laws.\n3. Participating in the formation of laws.\n4. Veto laws passed by Congress.\n5. Issue decrees that require the endorsement of the Minister of the branch.\n6. Appoint and remove by itself the ministers of the Executive Branch, the Attorney General of the Republic and the officials of the Public Administration.\n7. The management of the foreign relations of the Republic.\n8. Report to Congress of the efforts carried out by the Executive Branch, as well as report on the general situation of the Republic and plans for the future.\n9. Being the Commander in Chief of the Nation's [Armed Forces](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Paraguay \"Armed Forces of Paraguay\").\n10. Pardon or commute sentences imposed by the judges and courts of the Republic, and with a report from the Supreme Court of Justice.\n11. Convene extraordinary sessions of Congress.\n12. Proposing bills to Congress.\n13. Prepare and present the annual project of the General Budget of the Nation\n",
"Succession\n----------\n\nArticle 234 of the Constitution establishes that in the event of impediment or absence of the offices of the President and Vice President, the Presidency of the Republic shall be assumed by, in order of succession, the [President of the Senate](/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Senate_of_Paraguay \"List of presidents of the Senate of Paraguay\"), the [President of the Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Chamber_of_Deputies_of_Paraguay \"List of presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Paraguay\"), and the President of the Supreme Court of Justice.\n\n",
"Residence\n---------\n\nThe [Mburuvicha Róga](/wiki/Mburuvicha_R%C3%B3ga \"Mburuvicha Róga\") in [Asunción](/wiki/Asunci%C3%B3n \"Asunción\") is the [official residence](/wiki/Official_residence \"Official residence\") of the president. It was first built in 1930\\.\n\nThe [Palacio de los López](/wiki/Palacio_de_los_L%C3%B3pez \"Palacio de los López\") is the president's workplace, located in the center of Asunción. It was first built in orders of Paraguay's first president [Carlos Antonio López](/wiki/Carlos_Antonio_L%C3%B3pez \"Carlos Antonio López\") in 1844, and was planned to be handed to his son and designated successor, [Francisco Solano López](/wiki/Francisco_Solano_L%C3%B3pez \"Francisco Solano López\"). It was completed in 1867, in the midst of the [Paraguayan War](/wiki/Paraguayan_War \"Paraguayan War\"), and thus it was never used by Solano López. The Palace was heavily damaged in the war, and it was not until 1894 that it was finally restored and repaired by [Juan Bautista Egusquiza](/wiki/Juan_Bautista_Egusquiza \"Juan Bautista Egusquiza\"), who was the first president to establish the Palace as his official workplace.\n\nFile:Mburuvicha Róga Asunción Paraguay.jpg\\|\\[\\[Mburuvicha Róga]], the official residence\nFile:Palacio de López 2023\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Palacio de los López]], the official workplace\n\n",
"Latest election\n---------------\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [First Lady of Paraguay](/wiki/First_Lady_of_Paraguay \"First Lady of Paraguay\")\n* [List of presidents of Paraguay](/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Paraguay \"List of heads of state of Paraguay\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Presidency of the Republic of Paraguay](http://www.presidencia.gov.py)\n\n[Paraguay, President of](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_national_presidents \"Lists of national presidents\")\n[Category:Presidents of Paraguay](/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_Paraguay \"Presidents of Paraguay\")\n[Presidents](/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Paraguay \"Politics of Paraguay\")\n[Presidents](/wiki/Category:Paraguay_politics-related_lists \"Paraguay politics-related lists\")\n[Category:1844 establishments in Paraguay](/wiki/Category:1844_establishments_in_Paraguay \"1844 establishments in Paraguay\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Dead Calm (film)
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2024-10-08T22:45:17Z
| 1,249,849,765 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Plot",
"Unfinished previous adaptation",
"Production",
"Filming",
"Music",
"Reception",
"Box office",
"Critical reception",
"Awards and nominations",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
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"\n\n* + - * + - \n\n***Dead Calm*** is a 1989 Australian [psychological thriller](/wiki/Psychological_thriller \"Psychological thriller\") film directed by [Phillip Noyce](/wiki/Phillip_Noyce \"Phillip Noyce\"), produced by [George Miller](/wiki/George_Miller_%28filmmaker%29 \"George Miller (filmmaker)\"), and starring [Sam Neill](/wiki/Sam_Neill \"Sam Neill\"), [Nicole Kidman](/wiki/Nicole_Kidman \"Nicole Kidman\") and [Billy Zane](/wiki/Billy_Zane \"Billy Zane\"). The screenplay by [Terry Hayes](/wiki/Terry_Hayes \"Terry Hayes\") was based on the 1963 [novel of the same name](/wiki/Dead_Calm_%28novel%29 \"Dead Calm (novel)\") by [Charles Williams](/wiki/Charles_Williams_%28U.S._author%29 \"Charles Williams (U.S. author)\").\n\nFilmed around the [Great Barrier Reef](/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef \"Great Barrier Reef\"), the plot focuses on a married couple, who, after tragically losing their son, are spending some time isolated at sea, when they come across a stranger who has abandoned a sinking ship.\n\nNotably, the movie is the first successful film adaptation of the novel, after [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\") worked for a number of years to complete his own film based on it titled *[The Deep](/wiki/The_Deep_%28unfinished_film%29 \"The Deep (unfinished film)\")*, though it ultimately went unreleased and uncompleted.\n\n*Dead Calm* was generally well received, with critics praising Neill, Kidman, and Zane's performances and the oceanic cinematography. It was nominated in eight categories at the [1989 Australian Film Institute Awards](/wiki/1989_Australian_Film_Institute_Awards \"1989 Australian Film Institute Awards\"), including [Best Film](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Film \"AACTA Award for Best Film\"), and won four. Modern retrospective analyses have been favorable, with *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* naming it one of the 1000 [best films ever made](/wiki/List_of_films_voted_the_best \"List of films voted the best\").\n\n",
"Plot\n----\n\nRae Ingram is involved in a car crash which results in the death of her son. Her older husband, [Royal Australian Navy](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy \"Royal Australian Navy\") officer Captain John Ingram, suggests that they help deal with their grief by heading out for a vacation alone on their yacht. In the middle of the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"), they encounter a drifting schooner that seems to be taking on water. A man, Hughie Warriner, rows over to the Ingrams' yacht for help. He claims that his ship is sinking and that his companions have all died of food poisoning.\n\nSuspicious of Hughie's story, John rows over to the other ship, instructing Rae to assemble and load the ship's shotgun, though she ignores this. Inside, John discovers the mangled corpses of the other passengers and video footage indicating that Hughie may have murdered them in a feat of extraordinary violence. John rushes back to his own boat, but he's too late as Hughie awakes, knocks out Rae and sails their yacht away, leaving John behind.\n\nAs John attempts to keep Hughie's ship from sinking and catch up with them, Rae awakens and tries to convince Hughie to go back for her husband. Hughie denies her request and keeps on sailing, alternating between kindness and bouts of rage. John manages to get through to his wife on the radio, but the water damage makes him unable to reply save for clicks on his ship's radio receiver. He can respond only yes or no to her questions. John assures her that he is following close by. Rae tries to stall the yacht by turning off the engine and tossing the keys overboard. Her dog jumps in to retrieve the keys and brings them back as he had done earlier with his fetch ball. Hughie starts the yacht back up and tries to convince Rae to be friends with him. Rae accepts, attempting to earn his trust. After a while, she goes back to the radar room to contact John. A blip appears on the edge of the radar's range, signifying the damaged boat. She soon learns that it is too far gone and will sink in the next several hours. With John unable to come to her rescue, Rae assures her husband that she will come back for him. John's radio shorts before Rae has a chance to tell him that she loves him. Unable to make further contact with him, Rae breaks down and cries.\n\nHughie comes down to see Rae sobbing, and heads over to soothe her. Rae formulates a plan to seduce Hughie and gain his trust long enough for her to get to the shotgun on deck. She and Hughie start to kiss and undress on the floor, before Rae stalls for time by telling him that she has to go to the bathroom. She runs on deck to assemble the shotgun, but Ben the dog follows her. Before she has a chance to load the gun, the dog starts barking causing Hughie to go investigate. In a panic, Rae leaves the gun behind and takes cigarettes down with her as an excuse for being on deck. She eases his suspicion by taking him to the bedroom where she buys herself more time by allowing Hughie to have sex with her. Later, Rae fixes some [lemonade](/wiki/Lemonade \"Lemonade\"), and places a heavy dose of her prescription sedatives into her drink after noticing the bottle on the counter, correctly anticipating she could trick Hughie into drinking it. Claiming to go get dressed, Rae heads back for the shotgun, and is discovered soon after. As a fierce storm approaches, Rae and Hughie come to blows. Hughie takes hold of the shotgun, but the effects of the sedative cause him to aim poorly and shoot the radio by mistake. Rae eventually takes hold of a harpoon gun and locks herself in the bedroom. As the door opens she fires off a harpoon. Seeing blood she pushes it open, only to discover she killed her dog. Hughie comes out of hiding to strangle her, but passes out from the drugs. Rae ties him up and sails back to rescue John. Hughie recovers consciousness and cuts himself free with a shard of broken mirror, but after making his way to Rae, she shoots him in the shoulder with a harpoon and knocks him unconscious. She then sets him adrift in the yacht's life raft and continues to look for her husband.\n\nMeanwhile, the damage and the storm have caused the schooner to sink almost completely. The storm intensifies and breaks the ship's main mast, trapping John below deck. The water rises and eventually he is submerged over his head, able to breathe only through a piece of pipe leading to the deck. The only way he can go is down into the schooner's hull, he notices a sizable fish indicating a significant hole. He takes one last breath from the pipe and dives. Through a gaping hole in the bottom of the hull, John emerges back on the surface. He sets the wreck on fire to signal his location to Rae, who is now desperate to find him. Dusk sets in as Rae notices the flames and sets course to the faint fire on the horizon. Without any means to signal his wife, all John can do is wait on a piece of floating debris. After night falls, the pair reunite when Rae arrives and pulls John aboard.\n\nLater they find the life raft and Rae shoots it with a flare, setting it on fire. The next day they are relaxing on deck when John takes a break from washing Rae's hair to prepare breakfast for her. Her eyes closed, Rae feels a pair of hands begin massaging her scalp and assumes it is John, but when she opens her eyes she sees a bloody Hughie, who begins to strangle her. While Rae struggles, John arrives from below deck. Seeing Rae being attacked, John shoots Hughie in the mouth with a flare, killing him instantly.\n\n",
"Unfinished previous adaptation\n------------------------------\n\nThe film is based on the novel *[Dead Calm](/wiki/Dead_Calm_%28novel%29 \"Dead Calm (novel)\")* by American author [Charles Williams](/wiki/Charles_Williams_%28U.S._author%29 \"Charles Williams (U.S. author)\"). [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\") had optioned the film rights in the mid\\-1960's. Under the title *The Deep*, Welles shot the film between 1966 and 1969 off the coast of [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"). The prospective film starred [Laurence Harvey](/wiki/Laurence_Harvey \"Laurence Harvey\") as Hughie, [Michael Bryant](/wiki/Michael_Bryant_%28actor%29 \"Michael Bryant (actor)\") as Ingram, [Oja Kodar](/wiki/Oja_Kodar \"Oja Kodar\") as Rae, and Welles himself played Russ Bellowes. [Jeanne Moreau](/wiki/Jeanne_Moreau \"Jeanne Moreau\") played Hughie's wife Ruth, a character present in the original novel but cut out of Noyce's film.\n\nWelles' production was plagued by financial and technical problems, and effectively halted at the end of 1969\\. Principal photography remained incomplete, and Laurence Harvey's death in 1973 effectively ended any hope of completing the film. The original film negative is considered [lost](/wiki/Lost_film \"Lost film\"), though two [workprints](/wiki/Workprint \"Workprint\") survive, and footage from the film has been displayed since.\n\n",
"Production\n----------\n\n| Actor | | Role |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| | | |\n| | | |\n| | | |\n| | | |\n| | | |\n\nProducer [Tony Bill](/wiki/Tony_Bill \"Tony Bill\") had tried to buy the rights from Welles but was never successful. He mentioned this to Phil Noyce, giving him a copy of the book in 1984\\. Noyce enjoyed the book and showed it to [George Miller](/wiki/George_Miller_%28filmmaker%29 \"George Miller (filmmaker)\") and [Terry Hayes](/wiki/Terry_Hayes \"Terry Hayes\"), who were enthusiastic. Miller managed to persuade Oja Kodar, Welles' companion who controlled the rights to the novel, to sell the book to [Kennedy Miller](/wiki/Kennedy_Miller_Mitchell \"Kennedy Miller Mitchell\").[David Stratton](/wiki/David_Stratton \"David Stratton\"), *The Avocado Plantation: Boom and Bust in the Australian Film Industry*, Pan MacMillan, 1990 p263–265Brian McFarlane, \"Phil Noyce: Dead Calm\", *Cinema Papers*, May 1989 p6–11\n\nThe book features several other main characters (including Hughie's wife and survivors John finds on the Orpheus), and presented Hughie as a nominally [asexual](/wiki/Asexuality \"Asexuality\") manchild. It also goes into further detail about what caused Hughie's psychotic break.\n\n### Filming\n\nThe film was shot over a 6\\-month span in [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\")'s [Whitsunday Islands](/wiki/Whitsunday_Islands \"Whitsunday Islands\") beginning in May 1987\\. [George Miller](/wiki/George_Miller_%28filmmaker%29 \"George Miller (filmmaker)\") directed some sequences himself, including one where Sam Neill's character is tormented in the boat by a shark. This scene ended up being dropped from the final film.\n\nThe sequence in which John kills Hughie with a flare was filmed at the request of Warner Bros seven months after principal photography finished. As written, the film originally ended with Rae setting Hughie adrift on a [life raft](/wiki/Life_raft \"Life raft\") to ostensibly die at sea; the studio was unhappy with this ambiguity and wanted a definite fate for the film's antagonist.\n\n[Sam Neill](/wiki/Sam_Neill \"Sam Neill\") met his future wife Noriko Watanabe during filming.\n\n### Music\n\nThe synthesizer\\-driven film score was composed and performed by New Zealand musician [Graeme Revell](/wiki/Graeme_Revell \"Graeme Revell\"), of the industrial group [SPK](/wiki/SPK_%28band%29 \"SPK (band)\"). *Dead Calm* was Revell's first ever film score, and earned him an [AFI Award for Best Original Music Score](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Original_Music_Score \"AACTA Award for Best Original Music Score\").\n\n",
"### Filming\n\nThe film was shot over a 6\\-month span in [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\")'s [Whitsunday Islands](/wiki/Whitsunday_Islands \"Whitsunday Islands\") beginning in May 1987\\. [George Miller](/wiki/George_Miller_%28filmmaker%29 \"George Miller (filmmaker)\") directed some sequences himself, including one where Sam Neill's character is tormented in the boat by a shark. This scene ended up being dropped from the final film.\n\nThe sequence in which John kills Hughie with a flare was filmed at the request of Warner Bros seven months after principal photography finished. As written, the film originally ended with Rae setting Hughie adrift on a [life raft](/wiki/Life_raft \"Life raft\") to ostensibly die at sea; the studio was unhappy with this ambiguity and wanted a definite fate for the film's antagonist.\n\n[Sam Neill](/wiki/Sam_Neill \"Sam Neill\") met his future wife Noriko Watanabe during filming.\n\n",
"### Music\n\nThe synthesizer\\-driven film score was composed and performed by New Zealand musician [Graeme Revell](/wiki/Graeme_Revell \"Graeme Revell\"), of the industrial group [SPK](/wiki/SPK_%28band%29 \"SPK (band)\"). *Dead Calm* was Revell's first ever film score, and earned him an [AFI Award for Best Original Music Score](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Original_Music_Score \"AACTA Award for Best Original Music Score\").\n\n",
"Reception\n---------\n\n### Box office\n\n*Dead Calm* grossed $2,444,407 at the box office in Australia, which is equivalent to $4,253,268 in 2009 dollars. It grossed $7,825,009 in the U.S.\n\n### Critical reception\n\n*Dead Calm* has an 84% \"fresh\" rating at [Rotten Tomatoes](/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes \"Rotten Tomatoes\") based on 31 reviews, albeit significantly lower with audiences, culminating in a score of 63% \"fresh\" and a critical rating of 7\\.5/10\\. The site's consensus states that \"Nicole Kidman's coiled intensity and muscular direction by Phillip Noyce give this nautical thriller a disquieting sense of dread\".. On [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic \"Metacritic\"), the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](/wiki/CinemaScore \"CinemaScore\") gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A\\+ to F scale.\n\nAccording to [David Stratton](/wiki/David_Stratton \"David Stratton\") of *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 \"Variety (magazine)\")*, \"throughout the film, Nicole Kidman is excellent\" and \"she gives the character of Rae real tenacity and energy\" and \"though not always entirely credible\" the picture \"is a nail\\-biting suspense pic, handsomely produced and inventively directed.\" [Roger Ebert](/wiki/Roger_Ebert \"Roger Ebert\") of the *[Chicago Sun\\-Times](/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times \"Chicago Sun-Times\")* wrote that the film \"generates genuine tension.\"[Dead Calm](https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/dead-calm-1989) *Chicago Sun\\-Times*. 7 April 1989 [Desson Howe](/wiki/Desson_Howe \"Desson Howe\") of *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* praised the film's creators: \"Noyce's direction moves impressively from sensual tenderness (between husband and wife) to edge\\-of\\-the\\-seat horror. With accomplished editing by [Richard Francis\\-Bruce](/wiki/Richard_Francis-Bruce \"Richard Francis-Bruce\") and scoring by [Graeme Revell](/wiki/Graeme_Revell \"Graeme Revell\"), he finds lurking dangers in quiet, peaceful waters.\"Howe, Desson. ['Dead Calm'](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/deadcalmrhowe_a0b1f4.htm) *The Washington Post* (7 April 1989\\)\n\nOn the other hand, Caryn James of *The New York Times* felt that the film was \"an unsettling hybrid of escapist suspense and the kind of pure trash that depends on dead babies and murdered dogs for effect,\" and that *Dead Calm* \"becomes disturbing for all the wrong reasons.\"James, Caryn. [\"Critics' Pick: Reviews/Film; A Psychological Drama Of Nightmares and Death\"](https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=950DE7D81539F934A35757C0A96F948260), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* (7 April 1989\\). A number of critics faulted the film's ending as being over\\-the\\-top, with the *Post*s Howe writing, \"... while it's afloat, 'Dead Calm' is a majestic horror cruise. ... For much of the movie, you're enthralled. By the end, you're laughing.\"\n\nThe acting was generally considered excellent, with Zane being cited for injecting \"unforgettable humanity and evil puckishness into his role\" and being \"suitably manic and evil.\" And while Rita Kempley of *The Washington Post* wrote \"what's most fascinating about it is Rae's place in the pantheon of heroines, an [Amazon](/wiki/Amazons \"Amazons\") for the '90s,\"Kempley, Rita. [\"'Dead Calm',\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/deadcalmrkempley_a09fb4.htm) *The Washington Post* (7 April 1989\\). the *Times''' James called Kidman's character \"tough but stupid.\"*\n\nThe film is listed on The New York Times *Top 1000 Movies list,[Top 1000 Movies List](https://www.nytimes.com/ref/movies/1000best.html) *The New York Times*. derived from editor Peter M. Nichols'* The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made *(St. Martin's Griffin, 2004\\). The film was partly the inspiration for 1993 Hindi\\-language film* [Darr](/wiki/Darr \"Darr\")''.\n\n### Awards and nominations\n\n| Award | Year | Category | Nominee(s) | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Australian Film Institute Awards](/wiki/AACTA_Awards \"AACTA Awards\") | [1989](/wiki/1989_Australian_Film_Institute_Awards \"1989 Australian Film Institute Awards\") | [Best Film](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Film \"AACTA Award for Best Film\") | [George Miller](/wiki/George_Miller_%28filmmaker%29 \"George Miller (filmmaker)\") | |\n| [Best Direction](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Direction \"AACTA Award for Best Direction\") | [Phillip Noyce](/wiki/Phillip_Noyce \"Phillip Noyce\") | |\n| [Best Screenplay, Adapted](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Screenplay%2C_Original_or_Adapted \"AACTA Award for Best Screenplay, Original or Adapted\") | [Terry Hayes](/wiki/Terry_Hayes \"Terry Hayes\") | |\n| [Best Original Music Score](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Original_Music_Score \"AACTA Award for Best Original Music Score\") | [Graeme Revell](/wiki/Graeme_Revell \"Graeme Revell\") | |\n| [Best Cinematography](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Cinematography \"AACTA Award for Best Cinematography\") | [Dean Semler](/wiki/Dean_Semler \"Dean Semler\") | |\n| [Best Editing](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Editing \"AACTA Award for Best Editing\") | [Richard Francis\\-Bruce](/wiki/Richard_Francis-Bruce \"Richard Francis-Bruce\") | |\n| [Best Sound](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Sound \"AACTA Award for Best Sound\") | [Ben Osmo](/wiki/Ben_Osmo \"Ben Osmo\"), [Lee Smith](/wiki/Lee_Smith_%28film_editor%29 \"Lee Smith (film editor)\"), [Roger Savage](/wiki/Roger_Savage \"Roger Savage\") | |\n| [Best Production Design](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Production_Design \"AACTA Award for Best Production Design\") | Graham Grace Walker | |\n| [Chicago Film Critics Association Award](/wiki/Chicago_Film_Critics_Association \"Chicago Film Critics Association\") | 1990 | Most Promising Actor | [Billy Zane](/wiki/Billy_Zane \"Billy Zane\") | |\n| [Motion Picture Sound Editors Award](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Sound_Editors \"Motion Picture Sound Editors\") | 1990 | Best Sound Editing \\- Foreign Feature | Ben Osmo, Lee Smith, Roger Savage | |\n| [Saturn Award](/wiki/Saturn_Awards \"Saturn Awards\") | [1991](/wiki/17th_Saturn_Awards \"17th Saturn Awards\") | [Best Actress](/wiki/Saturn_Award_for_Best_Actress \"Saturn Award for Best Actress\") | [Nicole Kidman](/wiki/Nicole_Kidman \"Nicole Kidman\") | |\n\n",
"### Box office\n\n*Dead Calm* grossed $2,444,407 at the box office in Australia, which is equivalent to $4,253,268 in 2009 dollars. It grossed $7,825,009 in the U.S.\n\n",
"### Critical reception\n\n*Dead Calm* has an 84% \"fresh\" rating at [Rotten Tomatoes](/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes \"Rotten Tomatoes\") based on 31 reviews, albeit significantly lower with audiences, culminating in a score of 63% \"fresh\" and a critical rating of 7\\.5/10\\. The site's consensus states that \"Nicole Kidman's coiled intensity and muscular direction by Phillip Noyce give this nautical thriller a disquieting sense of dread\".. On [Metacritic](/wiki/Metacritic \"Metacritic\"), the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](/wiki/CinemaScore \"CinemaScore\") gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A\\+ to F scale.\n\nAccording to [David Stratton](/wiki/David_Stratton \"David Stratton\") of *[Variety](/wiki/Variety_%28magazine%29 \"Variety (magazine)\")*, \"throughout the film, Nicole Kidman is excellent\" and \"she gives the character of Rae real tenacity and energy\" and \"though not always entirely credible\" the picture \"is a nail\\-biting suspense pic, handsomely produced and inventively directed.\" [Roger Ebert](/wiki/Roger_Ebert \"Roger Ebert\") of the *[Chicago Sun\\-Times](/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times \"Chicago Sun-Times\")* wrote that the film \"generates genuine tension.\"[Dead Calm](https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/dead-calm-1989) *Chicago Sun\\-Times*. 7 April 1989 [Desson Howe](/wiki/Desson_Howe \"Desson Howe\") of *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* praised the film's creators: \"Noyce's direction moves impressively from sensual tenderness (between husband and wife) to edge\\-of\\-the\\-seat horror. With accomplished editing by [Richard Francis\\-Bruce](/wiki/Richard_Francis-Bruce \"Richard Francis-Bruce\") and scoring by [Graeme Revell](/wiki/Graeme_Revell \"Graeme Revell\"), he finds lurking dangers in quiet, peaceful waters.\"Howe, Desson. ['Dead Calm'](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/deadcalmrhowe_a0b1f4.htm) *The Washington Post* (7 April 1989\\)\n\nOn the other hand, Caryn James of *The New York Times* felt that the film was \"an unsettling hybrid of escapist suspense and the kind of pure trash that depends on dead babies and murdered dogs for effect,\" and that *Dead Calm* \"becomes disturbing for all the wrong reasons.\"James, Caryn. [\"Critics' Pick: Reviews/Film; A Psychological Drama Of Nightmares and Death\"](https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=950DE7D81539F934A35757C0A96F948260), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* (7 April 1989\\). A number of critics faulted the film's ending as being over\\-the\\-top, with the *Post*s Howe writing, \"... while it's afloat, 'Dead Calm' is a majestic horror cruise. ... For much of the movie, you're enthralled. By the end, you're laughing.\"\n\nThe acting was generally considered excellent, with Zane being cited for injecting \"unforgettable humanity and evil puckishness into his role\" and being \"suitably manic and evil.\" And while Rita Kempley of *The Washington Post* wrote \"what's most fascinating about it is Rae's place in the pantheon of heroines, an [Amazon](/wiki/Amazons \"Amazons\") for the '90s,\"Kempley, Rita. [\"'Dead Calm',\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/deadcalmrkempley_a09fb4.htm) *The Washington Post* (7 April 1989\\). the *Times''' James called Kidman's character \"tough but stupid.\"*\n\nThe film is listed on The New York Times *Top 1000 Movies list,[Top 1000 Movies List](https://www.nytimes.com/ref/movies/1000best.html) *The New York Times*. derived from editor Peter M. Nichols'* The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made *(St. Martin's Griffin, 2004\\). The film was partly the inspiration for 1993 Hindi\\-language film* [Darr](/wiki/Darr \"Darr\")''.\n\n",
"### Awards and nominations\n\n| Award | Year | Category | Nominee(s) | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Australian Film Institute Awards](/wiki/AACTA_Awards \"AACTA Awards\") | [1989](/wiki/1989_Australian_Film_Institute_Awards \"1989 Australian Film Institute Awards\") | [Best Film](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Film \"AACTA Award for Best Film\") | [George Miller](/wiki/George_Miller_%28filmmaker%29 \"George Miller (filmmaker)\") | |\n| [Best Direction](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Direction \"AACTA Award for Best Direction\") | [Phillip Noyce](/wiki/Phillip_Noyce \"Phillip Noyce\") | |\n| [Best Screenplay, Adapted](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Screenplay%2C_Original_or_Adapted \"AACTA Award for Best Screenplay, Original or Adapted\") | [Terry Hayes](/wiki/Terry_Hayes \"Terry Hayes\") | |\n| [Best Original Music Score](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Original_Music_Score \"AACTA Award for Best Original Music Score\") | [Graeme Revell](/wiki/Graeme_Revell \"Graeme Revell\") | |\n| [Best Cinematography](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Cinematography \"AACTA Award for Best Cinematography\") | [Dean Semler](/wiki/Dean_Semler \"Dean Semler\") | |\n| [Best Editing](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Editing \"AACTA Award for Best Editing\") | [Richard Francis\\-Bruce](/wiki/Richard_Francis-Bruce \"Richard Francis-Bruce\") | |\n| [Best Sound](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Sound \"AACTA Award for Best Sound\") | [Ben Osmo](/wiki/Ben_Osmo \"Ben Osmo\"), [Lee Smith](/wiki/Lee_Smith_%28film_editor%29 \"Lee Smith (film editor)\"), [Roger Savage](/wiki/Roger_Savage \"Roger Savage\") | |\n| [Best Production Design](/wiki/AACTA_Award_for_Best_Production_Design \"AACTA Award for Best Production Design\") | Graham Grace Walker | |\n| [Chicago Film Critics Association Award](/wiki/Chicago_Film_Critics_Association \"Chicago Film Critics Association\") | 1990 | Most Promising Actor | [Billy Zane](/wiki/Billy_Zane \"Billy Zane\") | |\n| [Motion Picture Sound Editors Award](/wiki/Motion_Picture_Sound_Editors \"Motion Picture Sound Editors\") | 1990 | Best Sound Editing \\- Foreign Feature | Ben Osmo, Lee Smith, Roger Savage | |\n| [Saturn Award](/wiki/Saturn_Awards \"Saturn Awards\") | [1991](/wiki/17th_Saturn_Awards \"17th Saturn Awards\") | [Best Actress](/wiki/Saturn_Award_for_Best_Actress \"Saturn Award for Best Actress\") | [Nicole Kidman](/wiki/Nicole_Kidman \"Nicole Kidman\") | |\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [*The Deep* (unfinished film)](/wiki/The_Deep_%28unfinished_film%29 \"The Deep (unfinished film)\")\n* [Cinema of Australia](/wiki/Cinema_of_Australia \"Cinema of Australia\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [*Dead Calm*](http://www.ozmovies.com.au/movie/dead-calm) at Oz Movies\n* [Dead Calm at the National Film and Sound Archive](https://archive.today/20120715043755/http://colsearch.nfsa.afc.gov.au/nfsa/search/display/display.w3p;adv=yes;group=;groupequals=;holdingType=;page=0;parentid=;query=143083;querytype=;rec=0;resCount=10)\n\n \n\n[Category:1989 films](/wiki/Category:1989_films \"1989 films\")\n[Category:1980s psychological thriller films](/wiki/Category:1980s_psychological_thriller_films \"1980s psychological thriller films\")\n[Category:1989 thriller films](/wiki/Category:1989_thriller_films \"1989 thriller films\")\n[Category:Australian thriller films](/wiki/Category:Australian_thriller_films \"Australian thriller films\")\n[Category:CinemaScope films](/wiki/Category:CinemaScope_films \"CinemaScope films\")\n[Category:Films scored by Graeme Revell](/wiki/Category:Films_scored_by_Graeme_Revell \"Films scored by Graeme Revell\")\n[Category:Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or incidents](/wiki/Category:Films_about_survivors_of_seafaring_accidents_or_incidents \"Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or incidents\")\n[Category:Films based on American novels](/wiki/Category:Films_based_on_American_novels \"Films based on American novels\")\n[Category:Films based on thriller novels](/wiki/Category:Films_based_on_thriller_novels \"Films based on thriller novels\")\n[Category:Films directed by Phillip Noyce](/wiki/Category:Films_directed_by_Phillip_Noyce \"Films directed by Phillip Noyce\")\n[Category:Films set in Australia](/wiki/Category:Films_set_in_Australia \"Films set in Australia\")\n[Category:Films set in the Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Category:Films_set_in_the_Pacific_Ocean \"Films set in the Pacific Ocean\")\n[Category:Films shot in Queensland](/wiki/Category:Films_shot_in_Queensland \"Films shot in Queensland\")\n[Category:Seafaring films](/wiki/Category:Seafaring_films \"Seafaring films\")\n[Category:Warner Bros. films](/wiki/Category:Warner_Bros._films \"Warner Bros. films\")\n[Category:Kennedy Miller Mitchell films](/wiki/Category:Kennedy_Miller_Mitchell_films \"Kennedy Miller Mitchell films\")\n[Category:Films produced by Doug Mitchell](/wiki/Category:Films_produced_by_Doug_Mitchell \"Films produced by Doug Mitchell\")\n[Category:Films produced by George Miller](/wiki/Category:Films_produced_by_George_Miller \"Films produced by George Miller\")\n[Category:Films set on boats](/wiki/Category:Films_set_on_boats \"Films set on boats\")\n[Category:1980s English\\-language films](/wiki/Category:1980s_English-language_films \"1980s English-language films\")\n[Category:1989 in Australian cinema](/wiki/Category:1989_in_Australian_cinema \"1989 in Australian cinema\")\n[Category:English\\-language thriller films](/wiki/Category:English-language_thriller_films \"English-language thriller films\")\n[Category:Films based on works by Charles Williams (American author)](/wiki/Category:Films_based_on_works_by_Charles_Williams_%28American_author%29 \"Films based on works by Charles Williams (American author)\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Saturate
|
{
"id": [
22041646
],
"name": [
"Narky Blert"
]
}
|
q6earuud7p492nanzb9k9zz7yv2hgef
|
2017-04-11T15:01:36Z
| 772,217,661 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Saturate** may refer to:\n\n* [*Saturate* (Breaking Benjamin album)](/wiki/Saturate_%28Breaking_Benjamin_album%29 \"Saturate (Breaking Benjamin album)\"), 2002\n* [*Saturate* (Gojira album)](/wiki/Saturate_%28Gojira_album%29 \"Saturate (Gojira album)\"), 1999\n* [*Saturate* (Jeff Deyo album)](/wiki/Saturate_%28Jeff_Deyo_album%29 \"Saturate (Jeff Deyo album)\"), 2002\n* \"[Electronic Battle Weapon 8](/wiki/Electronic_Battle_Weapon_8 \"Electronic Battle Weapon 8\")\", a song by The Chemical Brothers, a shorter version of which was released under the name \"Saturate\"\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* \"Saturated\", a song by Opshop, from the album *[You Are Here](/wiki/You_Are_Here_%28Opshop_album%29 \"You Are Here (Opshop album)\")*\n* [Saturation (disambiguation)](/wiki/Saturation_%28disambiguation%29 \"Saturation (disambiguation)\")\n\n"
]
}
|
ATC code B02
|
{
"id": [
11291818
],
"name": [
"Whywhenwhohow"
]
}
|
7vnpmslfnn3wbadzg13erji4eeubn44
|
2023-12-18T04:12:58Z
| 1,190,473,583 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"{{anchor|B02A}}B02A Antifibrinolytics",
"{{anchor|B02AA}}B02AA Amino acids",
"{{anchor|B02AB}}B02AB Proteinase inhibitors",
"{{anchor|B02B}}B02B Vitamin K and other hemostatics",
"{{anchor|B02BA}}B02BA Vitamin K",
"{{anchor|B02BB}}B02BB Fibrinogen",
"{{anchor|B02BC}}B02BC Local hemostatics",
"{{anchor|B02BD}}B02BD Blood coagulation factors",
"{{anchor|B02BX}}B02BX Other systemic hemostatics",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n",
"B02A Antifibrinolytics\n--------------------------------------\n\n### B02AA Amino acids\n\nB02AA01 [Aminocaproic acid](/wiki/Aminocaproic_acid \"Aminocaproic acid\")\nB02AA02 [Tranexamic acid](/wiki/Tranexamic_acid \"Tranexamic acid\")\nB02AA03 [Aminomethylbenzoic acid](/wiki/Aminomethylbenzoic_acid \"Aminomethylbenzoic acid\")\n### B02AB Proteinase inhibitors\n\nB02AB01 [Aprotinin](/wiki/Aprotinin \"Aprotinin\")\nB02AB02 [Alfa1 antitrypsin](/wiki/Alfa1_antitrypsin \"Alfa1 antitrypsin\")\nB02AB04 [Camostat](/wiki/Camostat \"Camostat\")\nB02AB05 [Ulinastatin](/wiki/Ulinastatin \"Ulinastatin\")\n",
"### B02AA Amino acids\n\nB02AA01 [Aminocaproic acid](/wiki/Aminocaproic_acid \"Aminocaproic acid\")\nB02AA02 [Tranexamic acid](/wiki/Tranexamic_acid \"Tranexamic acid\")\nB02AA03 [Aminomethylbenzoic acid](/wiki/Aminomethylbenzoic_acid \"Aminomethylbenzoic acid\")\n",
"### B02AB Proteinase inhibitors\n\nB02AB01 [Aprotinin](/wiki/Aprotinin \"Aprotinin\")\nB02AB02 [Alfa1 antitrypsin](/wiki/Alfa1_antitrypsin \"Alfa1 antitrypsin\")\nB02AB04 [Camostat](/wiki/Camostat \"Camostat\")\nB02AB05 [Ulinastatin](/wiki/Ulinastatin \"Ulinastatin\")\n",
"B02B Vitamin K and other hemostatics\n----------------------------------------------------\n\n### B02BA Vitamin K\n\nB02BA01 [Phytomenadione](/wiki/Phytomenadione \"Phytomenadione\")\nB02BA02 [Menadione](/wiki/Menadione \"Menadione\")\n### B02BB Fibrinogen\n\nB02BB01 Human [fibrinogen](/wiki/Fibrinogen \"Fibrinogen\")\n### B02BC Local hemostatics\n\nB02BC01 [Absorbable gelatin sponge](/wiki/Absorbable_gelatin_sponge \"Absorbable gelatin sponge\")\nB02BC02 [Oxidized cellulose](/wiki/Oxidized_cellulose \"Oxidized cellulose\")\nB02BC03 [Tetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester](/wiki/Tetragalacturonic_acid_hydroxymethylester \"Tetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester\")\nB02BC05 [Adrenalone](/wiki/Adrenalone \"Adrenalone\")\nB02BC06 [Thrombin](/wiki/Thrombin \"Thrombin\")\nB02BC07 [Collagen](/wiki/Collagen \"Collagen\")\nB02BC08 [Calcium alginate](/wiki/Calcium_alginate \"Calcium alginate\")\nB02BC09 [Epinephrine](/wiki/Epinephrine \"Epinephrine\")\nB02BC30 Combinations\n### B02BD Blood coagulation factors\n\nB02BD01 [Coagulation factor IX](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_IX \"Coagulation factor IX\"), [II](/wiki/Factor_II \"Factor II\"), [VII](/wiki/Factor_VII \"Factor VII\") and [X](/wiki/Factor_X \"Factor X\") in combination ([Prothrombin complex concentrate](/wiki/Prothrombin_complex_concentrate \"Prothrombin complex concentrate\"))\nB02BD02 [Coagulation factor VIII](/wiki/Factor_VIII_%28medication%29 \"Factor VIII (medication)\")\nB02BD03 Factor VIII inhibitor bypassing activity\nB02BD04 [Coagulation factor IX](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_IX \"Coagulation factor IX\")\nB02BD05 [Coagulation factor VII](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_VII \"Coagulation factor VII\")\nB02BD06 [von Willebrand factor](/wiki/Von_Willebrand_factor \"Von Willebrand factor\") and coagulation factor VIII in combination\nB02BD07 [Coagulation factor XIII](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_XIII \"Coagulation factor XIII\")\nB02BD08 [Coagulation factor VIIa](/wiki/Factor_VIIa_%28medication%29 \"Factor VIIa (medication)\")\nB02BD10 von Willebrand factor\nB02BD11 [Catridecacog](/wiki/Catridecacog \"Catridecacog\")\nB02BD13 [Coagulation factor X](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_X \"Coagulation factor X\")\nB02BD14 [Susoctocog alfa](/wiki/Susoctocog_alfa \"Susoctocog alfa\")\nB02BD15 [Valoctocogene roxaparvovec](/wiki/Valoctocogene_roxaparvovec \"Valoctocogene roxaparvovec\")\nB02BD16 [Etranacogene dezaparvovec](/wiki/Etranacogene_dezaparvovec \"Etranacogene dezaparvovec\")\nB02BD30 [Thrombin](/wiki/Thrombin \"Thrombin\")\n### B02BX Other systemic hemostatics\n\nB02BX01 [Etamsylate](/wiki/Etamsylate \"Etamsylate\")\nB02BX02 [Carbazochrome](/wiki/Carbazochrome \"Carbazochrome\")\nB02BX03 [Batroxobin](/wiki/Batroxobin \"Batroxobin\")\nB02BX04 [Romiplostim](/wiki/Romiplostim \"Romiplostim\")\nB02BX05 [Eltrombopag](/wiki/Eltrombopag \"Eltrombopag\")\nB02BX06 [Emicizumab](/wiki/Emicizumab \"Emicizumab\")\nB02BX07 [Lusutrombopag](/wiki/Lusutrombopag \"Lusutrombopag\")\nB02BX08 [Avatrombopag](/wiki/Avatrombopag \"Avatrombopag\")\nB02BX09 [Fostamatinib](/wiki/Fostamatinib \"Fostamatinib\")\nB02BX10 [Concizumab](/wiki/Concizumab \"Concizumab\")\n",
"### B02BA Vitamin K\n\nB02BA01 [Phytomenadione](/wiki/Phytomenadione \"Phytomenadione\")\nB02BA02 [Menadione](/wiki/Menadione \"Menadione\")\n",
"### B02BB Fibrinogen\n\nB02BB01 Human [fibrinogen](/wiki/Fibrinogen \"Fibrinogen\")\n",
"### B02BC Local hemostatics\n\nB02BC01 [Absorbable gelatin sponge](/wiki/Absorbable_gelatin_sponge \"Absorbable gelatin sponge\")\nB02BC02 [Oxidized cellulose](/wiki/Oxidized_cellulose \"Oxidized cellulose\")\nB02BC03 [Tetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester](/wiki/Tetragalacturonic_acid_hydroxymethylester \"Tetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester\")\nB02BC05 [Adrenalone](/wiki/Adrenalone \"Adrenalone\")\nB02BC06 [Thrombin](/wiki/Thrombin \"Thrombin\")\nB02BC07 [Collagen](/wiki/Collagen \"Collagen\")\nB02BC08 [Calcium alginate](/wiki/Calcium_alginate \"Calcium alginate\")\nB02BC09 [Epinephrine](/wiki/Epinephrine \"Epinephrine\")\nB02BC30 Combinations\n",
"### B02BD Blood coagulation factors\n\nB02BD01 [Coagulation factor IX](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_IX \"Coagulation factor IX\"), [II](/wiki/Factor_II \"Factor II\"), [VII](/wiki/Factor_VII \"Factor VII\") and [X](/wiki/Factor_X \"Factor X\") in combination ([Prothrombin complex concentrate](/wiki/Prothrombin_complex_concentrate \"Prothrombin complex concentrate\"))\nB02BD02 [Coagulation factor VIII](/wiki/Factor_VIII_%28medication%29 \"Factor VIII (medication)\")\nB02BD03 Factor VIII inhibitor bypassing activity\nB02BD04 [Coagulation factor IX](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_IX \"Coagulation factor IX\")\nB02BD05 [Coagulation factor VII](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_VII \"Coagulation factor VII\")\nB02BD06 [von Willebrand factor](/wiki/Von_Willebrand_factor \"Von Willebrand factor\") and coagulation factor VIII in combination\nB02BD07 [Coagulation factor XIII](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_XIII \"Coagulation factor XIII\")\nB02BD08 [Coagulation factor VIIa](/wiki/Factor_VIIa_%28medication%29 \"Factor VIIa (medication)\")\nB02BD10 von Willebrand factor\nB02BD11 [Catridecacog](/wiki/Catridecacog \"Catridecacog\")\nB02BD13 [Coagulation factor X](/wiki/Coagulation_factor_X \"Coagulation factor X\")\nB02BD14 [Susoctocog alfa](/wiki/Susoctocog_alfa \"Susoctocog alfa\")\nB02BD15 [Valoctocogene roxaparvovec](/wiki/Valoctocogene_roxaparvovec \"Valoctocogene roxaparvovec\")\nB02BD16 [Etranacogene dezaparvovec](/wiki/Etranacogene_dezaparvovec \"Etranacogene dezaparvovec\")\nB02BD30 [Thrombin](/wiki/Thrombin \"Thrombin\")\n",
"### B02BX Other systemic hemostatics\n\nB02BX01 [Etamsylate](/wiki/Etamsylate \"Etamsylate\")\nB02BX02 [Carbazochrome](/wiki/Carbazochrome \"Carbazochrome\")\nB02BX03 [Batroxobin](/wiki/Batroxobin \"Batroxobin\")\nB02BX04 [Romiplostim](/wiki/Romiplostim \"Romiplostim\")\nB02BX05 [Eltrombopag](/wiki/Eltrombopag \"Eltrombopag\")\nB02BX06 [Emicizumab](/wiki/Emicizumab \"Emicizumab\")\nB02BX07 [Lusutrombopag](/wiki/Lusutrombopag \"Lusutrombopag\")\nB02BX08 [Avatrombopag](/wiki/Avatrombopag \"Avatrombopag\")\nB02BX09 [Fostamatinib](/wiki/Fostamatinib \"Fostamatinib\")\nB02BX10 [Concizumab](/wiki/Concizumab \"Concizumab\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[B02](/wiki/Category:ATC_codes \"ATC codes\")\n\n"
]
}
|
List of administrative divisions of Taiwan
|
{
"id": [
31876559
],
"name": [
"Sumanuil"
]
}
|
6i7hgjggkak6vxhtjp6t4bmh3fylf2o
|
2024-09-18T05:25:57Z
| 1,246,312,903 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"List",
"Map",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\nThe following is a list of **administrative divisions of the Republic of China (Taiwan)**, including 6 [special municipalities](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") and 2 nominal provinces as the *de jure* first\\-level [administrative divisions](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan \"Administrative divisions of Taiwan\"). 11 [counties](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") and 3 [cities](/wiki/Provincial_city_%28Taiwan%29 \"Provincial city (Taiwan)\") were nominally under the jurisdiction of the [Taiwan Province](/wiki/Taiwan_Province \"Taiwan Province\"), and 2 additional counties being part of the [ROC's Fujian Province](/wiki/Fujian_Province%2C_Republic_of_China \"Fujian Province, Republic of China\").\n\nWith provinces non\\-functional in practice, [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") is divided into 22 subnational divisions, among which counties and cities are the *de facto* principal constituent divisions, along with special municipalities, directly under the [Central Government](/wiki/Executive_Yuan \"Executive Yuan\"). Each has a local government led by an elected head and a local council.\n\n",
"List\n----\n\n| [ISO](/wiki/ISO_3166-2:TW \"TW\") | HRCIS |Flag English name | Chinese name | Type | Population 2020 | Area (km2) | Population density (/km2) | Population 2010 |\n Population change |\n Subdivision count | Capital |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|Special Municipalities\n\n| | 65000 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_New_Taipei_City.svg \"Flag of New Taipei City.svg\") | [New Taipei City](/wiki/New_Taipei_City \"New Taipei City\") | | [Special municipality](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") | 4,023,620 | 2,052\\.57 | 1,960\\.29 | 3,897,367 | \\+126,253 | 29 | [Banqiao District](/wiki/Banqiao_District \"Banqiao District\") |\n| | 63000 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Taipei_City.svg \"Flag of Taipei City.svg\") | [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei \"Taipei\") | | [Special municipality](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") | 2,635,286 | 271\\.80 | 9,695\\.69 | 2,618,772 | \\+16,514 | 12 | [Xinyi District](/wiki/Xinyi_District%2C_Taipei \"Xinyi District, Taipei\") |\n| | 68000 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Taoyuan_County.svg \"Flag of Taoyuan County.svg\") | [Taoyuan City](/wiki/Taoyuan%2C_Taiwan \"Taoyuan, Taiwan\") | | [Special municipality](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") | 2,254,363 | 1,220\\.95 | 1,846\\.39 | 2,002,060 | \\+252,303 | 13 | [Taoyuan District](/wiki/Taoyuan_District \"Taoyuan District\") |\n| | 66000 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Taichung_City_flag.svg \"Taichung City flag.svg\") | [Taichung City](/wiki/Taichung \"Taichung\") | | [Special municipality](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") | 2,816,667 | 2,214\\.90 | 1,271\\.69 | 2,648,419 | \\+168,248 | 29 | [Xitun District](/wiki/Xitun_District \"Xitun District\") |\n| | 67000 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Tainan_City.svg \"Flag of Tainan City.svg\") | [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan \"Tainan\") | | [Special municipality](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") | 1,879,115 | 2,191\\.65 | 857\\.40 | 1,873,794 | \\+5,321 | 37 | [Anping District](/wiki/Anping_District \"Anping District\"), [Sinying District](/wiki/Xinying_District \"Xinying District\") |\n| | 64000 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Kaohsiung_flag.svg \"Kaohsiung flag.svg\") | [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\") | | [Special municipality](/wiki/Special_municipality_%28Taiwan%29 \"Special municipality (Taiwan)\") | 2,773,984 | 2,951\\.85 | 939\\.74 | 2,773,483 | \\+501 | 38 | [Lingya District](/wiki/Lingya_District \"Lingya District\"), [Fongshan District](/wiki/Fongshan_District \"Fongshan District\") |\n|[22x22px](/wiki/File:Taiwan_Province_Government_emblem.svg \"Taiwan Province Government emblem.svg\") [Taiwan Province](/wiki/Taiwan_Province \"Taiwan Province\") (nominal)\n\n| | 10002 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Yilan_County_flag.svg \"Yilan County flag.svg\") | [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan \"Yilan County, Taiwan\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 453,951 | 2,143\\.63 | 211\\.77 | 460,486 | \\-6,535 | 12 | [Yilan City](/wiki/Yilan_City \"Yilan City\") |\n| | 10004 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Hsinchu_County_flag.svg \"Hsinchu County flag.svg\") | [Hsinchu County](/wiki/Hsinchu_County \"Hsinchu County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 565,272 | 1,427\\.54 | 395\\.98 | 513,015 | \\+52,257 | 13 | [Zhubei City](/wiki/Zhubei_City \"Zhubei City\") |\n| | 10005 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Miaoli_County_flag.svg \"Miaoli County flag.svg\") | [Miaoli County](/wiki/Miaoli_County \"Miaoli County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 544,762 | 1,820\\.31 | 299\\.27 | 560,968 | \\-16,206 | 18 | [Miaoli City](/wiki/Miaoli \"Miaoli\") |\n| | 10007 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Changhua_County.svg \"Flag of Changhua County.svg\") | [Changhua County](/wiki/Changhua_County \"Changhua County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 1,271,015 | 1,074\\.40 | 1,183\\.00 | 1,307,286 | \\-36,271 | 26 | [Changhua City](/wiki/Changhua_City \"Changhua City\") |\n| | 10008 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Nantou_County.svg \"Flag of Nantou County.svg\") | [Nantou County](/wiki/Nantou_County \"Nantou County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 493,403 | 4,106\\.44 | 120\\.15 | 526,491 | \\-33,088 | 13 | [Nantou City](/wiki/Nantou_City \"Nantou City\") |\n| | 10009 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Yunlin_County_flag.svg \"Yunlin County flag.svg\") | [Yunlin County](/wiki/Yunlin_County \"Yunlin County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 680,050 | 1,290\\.83 | 526\\.83 | 717,653 | \\-37,603 | 20 | [Douliu City](/wiki/Douliu_City \"Douliu City\") |\n| | 10010 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Chiayi_County_flag.svg \"Chiayi County flag.svg\") | [Chiayi County](/wiki/Chiayi_County \"Chiayi County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 502,007 | 1,903\\.64 | 263\\.71 | 543,248 | \\-41,241 | 18 | [Taibao City](/wiki/Taibao \"Taibao\") |\n| | 10013 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Pingtung_County_flag.svg \"Pingtung County flag.svg\") | [Pingtung County](/wiki/Pingtung_County \"Pingtung County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 817,193 | 2,775\\.60 | 294\\.42 | 873,509 | \\-56,316 | 33 | [Pingtung City](/wiki/Pingtung_City \"Pingtung City\") |\n| | 10014 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Taitung_County_%282%29.svg \"Flag of Taitung County (2).svg\") | [Taitung County](/wiki/Taitung_County \"Taitung County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 216,308 | 3,515\\.25 | 61\\.53 | 230,673 | \\-14,365 | 16 | [Taitung City](/wiki/Taitung_City \"Taitung City\") |\n| | 10015 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hualien_County.svg \"Flag of Hualien County.svg\") | [Hualien County](/wiki/Hualien_County \"Hualien County\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 325,706 | 4,628\\.57 | 70\\.37 | 338,805 | \\-13,099 | 13 | [Hualien City](/wiki/Hualien_City \"Hualien City\") |\n| | 10016 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Penghu_County.svg \"Flag of Penghu County.svg\") | [Penghu County](/wiki/Penghu \"Penghu\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 105,117 | 126\\.86 | 828\\.58 | 96,918 | \\+8,199 | 6 | [Magong City](/wiki/Magong \"Magong\") |\n| | 10017 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Keelung_City.svg \"Flag of Keelung City.svg\") | [Keelung City](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") | | [City](/wiki/Provincial_city_%28Taiwan%29 \"Provincial city (Taiwan)\") | 371,878 | 60\\.03 | 4,455\\.97 | 384,134 | \\-12,256 | 7 | [Anle District](/wiki/Anle_District \"Anle District\") |\n| | 10018 | | [Hsinchu City](/wiki/Hsinchu \"Hsinchu\") | | [City](/wiki/Provincial_city_%28Taiwan%29 \"Provincial city (Taiwan)\") | 448,207 | 151\\.66 | 922\\.82 | 415,344 | \\+32,863 | 3 | [East District](/wiki/East_District%2C_Hsinchu \"East District, Hsinchu\") |\n| | 10020 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Chiayi_City.svg \"Flag of Chiayi City.svg\") | [Chiayi City](/wiki/Chiayi \"Chiayi\") | | [City](/wiki/Provincial_city_%28Taiwan%29 \"Provincial city (Taiwan)\") | 270,254 | 28\\.80 | 452\\.57 | 272,390 | \\-2,136 | 2 | [West District](/wiki/West_District%2C_Chiayi \"West District, Chiayi\") |\n|[22x22px](/wiki/File:FukienSeal.png \"FukienSeal.png\") [Fujian Province](/wiki/Fujian_Province%2C_Republic_of_China \"Fujian Province, Republic of China\") (nominal)\n\n| | 09020 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Kinmen_County_flag.svg \"Kinmen County flag.svg\") | [Kinmen County](/wiki/Kinmen \"Kinmen\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 127,723 | 132\\.76 | 2,777\\.91 | 97,364 | \\+30,359 | 6 | [Jincheng Township](/wiki/Jincheng%2C_Kinmen \"Jincheng, Kinmen\") |\n| | 09007 | [50px\\|border](/wiki/File:Lienchiang_County_flag.svg \"Lienchiang County flag.svg\") | [Lienchiang County](/wiki/Matsu_Islands \"Matsu Islands\") | | [County](/wiki/County_%28Taiwan%29 \"County (Taiwan)\") | 12,716 | 104\\.15 | 4,315\\.06 | 9,944 | \\+2,772 | 4 | [Nangan Township](/wiki/Nangan%2C_Lienchiang \"Nangan, Lienchiang\") |\n\n",
"Map\n---\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Administrative divisions of Taiwan](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan \"Administrative divisions of Taiwan\")\n* [List of magistrates and mayors in Taiwan](/wiki/List_of_magistrates_and_mayors_in_Taiwan \"List of magistrates and mayors in Taiwan\")\n* [List of townships/cities and districts in Taiwan](/wiki/List_of_townships/cities_and_districts_in_Taiwan \"List of townships/cities and districts in Taiwan\")\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Taiwanese national bureau of statistics](http://www.stat.gov.tw/)\n* [MOI Statistical information service](https://web.archive.org/web/20040603195021/http://www.moi.gov.tw/W3/stat/english/index.htm)\n\n[Category:Subdivisions of Taiwan](/wiki/Category:Subdivisions_of_Taiwan \"Subdivisions of Taiwan\")\n[Taiwan](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_administrative_divisions \"Lists of administrative divisions\")\n[Administrative divisions](/wiki/Category:Taiwan_geography-related_lists \"Taiwan geography-related lists\")\n[Taiwan](/wiki/Category:Lists_by_population_density \"Lists by population density\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Ernest Kaʻai
|
{
"id": [
7903804
],
"name": [
"Citation bot"
]
}
|
gc0cr9dfes93dwowcd1tcmz67iwu4m4
|
2024-10-01T06:03:12Z
| 1,244,143,432 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Career",
"Death",
"Sheet music and instructional books published by Ernest Kaʻai",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Ernest Kaʻai** (1881–1962\\) was considered by many to have been the The Ukulele Hall of Fame Museum foremost ukulele authority of his time and is noted by some as being \"Hawaii's Greatest Ukulele Player\". Kaʻai, who was born in [Honolulu](/wiki/Honolulu \"Honolulu\"), [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), was said to have been the first musician to play a complete melody with chords. He was the son of [Simon Kaloa Kaʻai](/wiki/Simon_Kaloa_Ka%CA%BBai \"Simon Kaloa Kaʻai\"), a prominent politician during the [Kingdom of Hawaii](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hawaii \"Kingdom of Hawaii\").\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\nA musical director at many Honolulu hotels, Kaʻai hired [Johnny Noble](/wiki/Johnny_Noble \"Johnny Noble\") in 1917\\. Square One\n\nHe was a multi\\-talented empresario who was also a live performer and teacher, as well as a talent organizer and booking agent, composer and music publisher, and author of instructional manuals. He was the first Hawaiian to copyright his music. At one point Ka'ai had as many as 12 different bands performing on the islands. He even toured as far as New Zealand, where a 1911 performance in [Dunedin](/wiki/Dunedin \"Dunedin\") attracted a large \"most enthusiatic\" and \"animated\" [Māori](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people \"Māori people\") audience.\n\nFrom 1927 to 1937, Ka'ia toured extensively through Asia introducing his teaching methods and making recordings while in Japan.\n\nKaʻai ran the Kaʻai Ukulele Manufacturing Company, NALU Music which he sold in 1917 and bought shares in the Aloha Ukulele Manufacturing Co.\n\nIn 1923, Kaʻai toured the Far East and [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), moving to [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"). He planned to open a \"Hawaiian Village\" in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), but the [Second Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\") changed his plans and he returned to Hawaii in 1937\\.\n\nBy 1941, Kaʻai was living in [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\"), [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\") where he opened a music store, taught and performed occasionally. The National Guitar Convention in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\") on August 13–15, 1944, was entertained with a benefit concert by a Miami girl quartet with Kaʻai as the quartet's director. Kaʻai opened the Kaʻai Music Studios, which in 1946 provided a string ensemble for a December 27–28 [Orange Bowl](/wiki/Orange_Bowl \"Orange Bowl\") Celebration. The *Miami News* of May 29, 1949, reported Kaʻai would be accompanying vocalist Lucile Keyes for her June 4 performance at a fashion show during Fiesta. June 1950 found Kaʻai one among 200 volunteers in rehearsals for the 10 Youth Roundup Goodwill Units.\n\n",
"Death\n-----\n\nErnest Kaleihoku Kaʻai died in Miami on September 26, 1962\\.\n\n",
"Sheet music and instructional books published by Ernest Kaʻai\n-------------------------------------------------------------\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Native Hawaiian musicians](/wiki/Category:Native_Hawaiian_musicians \"Native Hawaiian musicians\")\n[Category:Ukulele players from Hawaii](/wiki/Category:Ukulele_players_from_Hawaii \"Ukulele players from Hawaii\")\n[Category:American mandolinists](/wiki/Category:American_mandolinists \"American mandolinists\")\n[Category:1881 births](/wiki/Category:1881_births \"1881 births\")\n[Category:1961 deaths](/wiki/Category:1961_deaths \"1961 deaths\")\n[Category:Guitarists from Hawaii](/wiki/Category:Guitarists_from_Hawaii \"Guitarists from Hawaii\")\n[Category:American male guitarists](/wiki/Category:American_male_guitarists \"American male guitarists\")\n[Category:20th\\-century guitarists](/wiki/Category:20th-century_guitarists \"20th-century guitarists\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American male musicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_musicians \"20th-century American male musicians\")\n[Category:Musicians from the Kingdom of Hawaii](/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii \"Musicians from the Kingdom of Hawaii\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Democratic Bahujan Samaj Morcha
|
{
"id": [
16490385
],
"name": [
"Egeymi"
]
}
|
6d69go3hbma2tk665i99ee7lu6mnaes
|
2024-02-23T10:49:49Z
| 1,209,745,591 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Democratic Bahujan Samaj Morcha** (Democratic Majority Society Front) was a political party in [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), based in the state of [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab%2C_India \"Punjab, India\"). DBSM was formed in 1999 as a break\\-away from [Bahujan Samaj Party](/wiki/Bahujan_Samaj_Party \"Bahujan Samaj Party\") (BSP) in protest to the alliance of BSP with the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") in the state. DBSM was led by Satnam Singh Kainth. DBSM allied themselves with [Shiromani Akali Dal](/wiki/Shiromani_Akali_Dal \"Shiromani Akali Dal\") and [Bharatiya Janata Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") (BJP). \n\nIn the [Lok Sabha](/wiki/Lok_Sabha \"Lok Sabha\") elections in 1999 DBSM put up Satnam Singh Kainth as a candidate in Phillaur in Punjab, backed by SAD\\-BJP. Kainth came second with 236 962 votes (38,61%).\n\nIn the state elections in Punjab in 2002 DBSM launched two candidates, backed by SAD\\-BJP, who got 23 664 (29,86%) and 10 372 votes (13,25%).\n\nDBSM was reunified with BSP in 2004, but important sectors opposed the merger. Those broke away and formed [Bharti Lok Lehar Party](/wiki/Bharti_Lok_Lehar_Party \"Bharti Lok Lehar Party\").\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n \n\n[Category:Defunct political parties in Punjab, India](/wiki/Category:Defunct_political_parties_in_Punjab%2C_India \"Defunct political parties in Punjab, India\")\n[Category:Political parties established in 1999](/wiki/Category:Political_parties_established_in_1999 \"Political parties established in 1999\")\n[Category:1999 establishments in Punjab, India](/wiki/Category:1999_establishments_in_Punjab%2C_India \"1999 establishments in Punjab, India\")\n\n \n\n"
]
}
|
El Palo Alto
|
{
"id": [
928481
],
"name": [
"Chris319"
]
}
|
cda7zpud6lmuoj68ninphscvykl30a8
|
2024-09-13T01:17:37Z
| 1,174,408,403 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Name and background",
"History",
"Portolá's expedition",
"Early landmark",
"Land transfers and the Stanfords",
"One trunk falls",
"Declining health",
"Recovery",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"References",
"Notes",
"Sources",
"Citations",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[alt\\=A tree with slightly bare top in the background, blue sky, large worn\\-out railroad trestle in front\\|thumb\\|El Palo Alto, circa 2004](/wiki/File:El_Palo_Alto_Tree_August_2004.jpg \"El Palo Alto Tree August 2004.jpg\")\n\n**El Palo Alto** ([Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\"): 'the tall stick') is a [coast redwood](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens \"Sequoia sempervirens\") (*Sequoia sempervirens*) located on the banks of the [San Francisquito Creek](/wiki/San_Francisquito_Creek \"San Francisquito Creek\") in [Palo Alto, California](/wiki/Palo_Alto%2C_California \"Palo Alto, California\"), a city in the [San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"San Francisco Bay Area\"). The namesake of the city and a historical landmark, El Palo Alto is years old and stands tall.\n\nBefore European arrival, the land around El Palo Alto was home to the [Ohlone](/wiki/Ohlone \"Ohlone\") Native Americans. Local folklore holds that El Palo Alto was a rest stop for the first European expedition that discovered [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay \"San Francisco Bay\"), led by Spanish explorer [Gaspar de Portolá](/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A1 \"Gaspar de Portolá\") in 1769\\. The tree became widely known with the early\\-1850s establishment of a highway between [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") and [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), and as a landmark along the [San Francisco–San Jose railroad](/wiki/San_Francisco_and_San_Jose_Railroad \"San Francisco and San Jose Railroad\"), construction of which passed the tree in 1863\\. In 1876, [Leland Stanford](/wiki/Leland_Stanford \"Leland Stanford\"), co\\-founder of [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") along with his wife [Jane Lathrop Stanford](/wiki/Jane_Lathrop_Stanford \"Jane Lathrop Stanford\"), purchased land near El Palo Alto.\n\nEarly images and accounts indicate that El Palo Alto once had two trunks. It lost one trunk before 1883—the exact date is unknown—perhaps due to heavy rainfall and erosion of the riverbank. Fearing the tree's total loss, Leland Stanford directed that the riverbank be reinforced with a wooden bulkhead, which was replaced with concrete abutments in 1904 and again in 1911\\. Coal soot from steam locomotives passing below the tree suffocated the leaves of the tree's upper limbs; nearby wells lowered the [water table](/wiki/Water_table \"Water table\"), and by the late 1920s the tree was declared moribund. Although it has decreased in stature by some since the late 1800s, El Palo Alto was ultimately saved by the continuous preservation efforts of the city, local arborists, Stanford University, and [Southern Pacific](/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Transportation_Company \"Southern Pacific Transportation Company\") (the owner of the adjacent railroad); a 1997 appraisal concluded that the tree would \"persevere and grow for centuries to come\". El Palo Alto is featured prominently on the City of Palo Alto logo and the Stanford University seal, and is recognized by the National Arborist Association and International Society of Arboriculture as a tree of historical importance.\n\n",
"Name and background\n-------------------\n\nEl Palo Alto is a [coast redwood](/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens \"Sequoia sempervirens\") (*Sequoia sempervirens*), a giant and long\\-lived tree species only found near the North American Pacific coast. The redwood has been California's official state tree since 1937\\. The world's [tallest trees](/wiki/List_of_tallest_trees \"List of tallest trees\") are coast redwoods, with the record holder, [Hyperion](/wiki/Hyperion_%28tree%29 \"Hyperion (tree)\"), reaching . El Palo Alto is not so tall, at about , down from in the 19th century. At years, The age was determined accurately in 1955 with an [increment borer](/wiki/Increment_borer \"Increment borer\"). nor is El Palo Alto particularly old; the longest\\-lived redwoods may approach 2,500 years in age. Although today there are thousands of redwoods in the city of [Palo Alto](/wiki/Palo_Alto%2C_California \"Palo Alto, California\"), El Palo Alto is one of only a few not planted by humans. Redwoods generally require wet climates like those found close to the coast, but El Palo Alto is much further inland, close to Palo Alto's northern border with [Menlo Park](/wiki/Menlo_Park%2C_California \"Menlo Park, California\"). The tree's location next to [San Francisquito Creek](/wiki/San_Francisquito_Creek \"San Francisquito Creek\") provided it the necessary water to survive.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nEl Palo Alto [germinated](/wiki/Germinate \"Germinate\") around AD 940, when the [San Francisco Peninsula](/wiki/San_Francisco_Peninsula \"San Francisco Peninsula\") was populated by the [Ohlone](/wiki/Ohlone \"Ohlone\") people, one of the [indigenous peoples of California](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California \"Indigenous peoples of California\"). The tree is thus contemporaneous with the [Viking Age](/wiki/Viking_Age \"Viking Age\"), the [Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period](/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period \"Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period\") in China, or the [Fatimid Caliphate](/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate \"Fatimid Caliphate\") in the Islamic world.\n\nPrior to European contact, the [Ramaytush](/wiki/Ramaytush \"Ramaytush\") speaking subgroup of the Ohlone people lived near to the tree, in the village of Puichon.\n### Portolá's expedition\n\nBefore conquest by Spanish missionaries in the 18th century, the land around El Palo Alto was home to the Ohlone. According to traditional history, El Palo Alto was the campsite of Spanish explorer [Gaspar de Portolá](/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portola \"Gaspar de Portola\")'s men between November 6 and 11, 1769\\. Portolá was traveling north up the California coast from Mexico in search of [Monterey Bay](/wiki/Monterey_Bay \"Monterey Bay\"), but failed to identify it. Nourished by Ohlone natives, the expedition continued north and on November 1 were greeted with the expanse of the [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay \"San Francisco Bay\"). They traveled southwest and arrived at [San Francisquito Creek](/wiki/San_Francisquito_Creek \"San Francisquito Creek\") on November 6, 1769, where they camped until November 11\\.\n\nVisiting the bay in 1774, Father [Francisco Palóu](/wiki/Francisco_Pal%C3%B3u \"Francisco Palóu\") came upon a large tree on the creek, considered its location suitable for a new mission, and erected a wooden cross near it. His diary entry indicated the location of Portolá's camp as nearby and is the tree's first appearance in writing. Font's map reproduced therein is also reproduced at [https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title\\=File:P\\-7\\-Father\\-Pedro\\-Fonts\\-map\\-of\\-1777\\-full\\-brk00012360\\_24a.jpg](https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=File:P-7-Father-Pedro-Fonts-map-of-1777-full-brk00012360_24a.jpg) In 1776, [Juan Bautista de Anza](/wiki/Juan_Bautista_de_Anza \"Juan Bautista de Anza\") and Father [Pedro Font](/wiki/Pedro_Font \"Pedro Font\") visited the tree and concluded the creek's flow was too unreliable, instead founding the [Mission Santa Clara de Asís](/wiki/Mission_Santa_Clara_de_As%C3%ADs \"Mission Santa Clara de Asís\")—modern day [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara%2C_California \"Santa Clara, California\")— to the southeast. Font measured the tree with a [graphometer](/wiki/Graphometer \"Graphometer\"): fifty [varas](/wiki/Vara_%28unit%29 \"Vara (unit)\") (137 feet; 42 m) high and 5\\.5 varas (15 feet; 3 m) around at the base, noting that soldiers had told him there were larger ones in the mountains. A 1777 map of the bay by Font indicated a large tree on San Francisquito Creek.\n\nMost evidence suggests that El Palo Alto is not the actual tree in Font's map or referenced by early Spanish diarists, who recorded their travels in detail but made no mention of a tree with twin trunks. Local historian Steve Staiger says Portolá's camp may have been under a tree further downstream, later felled by a Spanish military engineer to make a bridge. Two candidates for the true landmark tree, elsewhere along the creek, fell in 1852 and 1911\\.\n\n \n\n### Early landmark\n\n[alt\\=Black\\-and\\-white land survey with a small label of \"Palo Alto Redwoods\"\\|thumb\\|November 1856 land survey of [Rancho de las Pulgas](/wiki/Rancho_de_las_Pulgas \"Rancho de las Pulgas\")—bounded below by San Francisquito Creek—indicating the \"Palo Alto Redwoods\" (above \"Robles Rancho\")](/wiki/File:18-RSM-PG009A-PULGAS_RANCHO.jpg \"18-RSM-PG009A-PULGAS RANCHO.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1860s drawing of El Palo Alto by [Edward Vischer](/wiki/Edward_Vischer \"Edward Vischer\") at \"Big Tree Station\"\\|alt\\=Intricate pencil sketch of a twin\\-trunked tree on the right, with a passenger train passing behind it, facing left, and a few equestrians in the foreground](/wiki/File:Evening_passenger_train_on_the_San_Francisco-San_Jose_railroad%2C_crossing_south_San_Francisquito_Creek.png \"Evening passenger train on the San Francisco-San Jose railroad, crossing south San Francisquito Creek.png\")\n\nIn July 1850, a highway from [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") in the north to [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\") to the south was ordered to be built. Previous travelers took narrow trails on horseback or slightly wider tracks on [oxcart](/wiki/Bullock_cart \"Bullock cart\"); it was joked that the road between the two cities was \"three miles wide\". The highway passed close to El Palo Alto and likely brought it to prominence. The tree was nearly cut down in 1850, but was saved by a timely shipment of lumber. \"In 1849 it quickened the pulse and brought a sparkle to the eyes to stand at Porto Suelo and look from ocean to bay; or on Rincon hill on a clear day, when the Palos Colorados, the red trees of the valley, could be seen thirty\\-three miles off on the road to San Jose ... Several times the lumber men were about to cut down the Palos Colorados, the lone redwood trees from which the famous Palo Alto ranch has derived its name, but one thing and another hindered. The trees, however, would surely have been cut to save hauling had not the argonaut fleet arrived from New England early in the 1850 with lumber brought around the Horn ... In the winter of 1879 the sister tree, as if nature was conscious that its day of usefulness as a landmark had passed, was prostrated by a freshet.\"\n\nEl Palo Alto was first known as the Palos Colorados, roughly meaning 'red trees'. The earliest known reference to the name \"Palo Alto\" dates to 1853, and an 1856 official land survey labeled it the \"Palo Alto Redwoods\"; the name \"Rancho of Palo Alto\" was used as a disambiguation in 1857\\. Construction of a railroad by the [San Francisco \\& San Jose Railroad Company](/wiki/San_Francisco_and_San_Jose_Railroad \"San Francisco and San Jose Railroad\"), connecting [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") to [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), passed the tree in 1863, making it an obvious landmark for travelers. The section from San Francisco to \"Big Tree Station\" at the creek was inaugurated on October 7 that year. The [Southern Pacific Transportation Company](/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Transportation_Company \"Southern Pacific Transportation Company\") purchased the company in March 1868; the tree was featured in Southern Pacific advertising. [Edward Vischer](/wiki/Edward_Vischer \"Edward Vischer\")'s *Pictorial of California* (1870\\) contains a drawing of the tree with two trunks, noting it to be \"one of the very few instances of that mountain monarch \\[the redwood] being found in the open level country\", and suggests that the tree originally had three trunks, describing it as \"\\[t]wins, once a trio\". Drawing itself is on [page 185](https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/vdp/id/1259) ([archived](https://archive.today/20220917004443/https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/vdp/id/1259)), titled \"Evening passenger train on the San Francisco–San Jose railroad, crossing south San Francisquito Creek\", dated 1864 to 1867\\.\n\n### Land transfers and the Stanfords\n\n[thumb\\|1894 view in University Park, facing northeast toward El Palo Alto in the distance](/wiki/File:University_Avenue%2C_facing_El_Palo_Alto%2C_1894.png \"University Avenue, facing El Palo Alto, 1894.png\")\n\nThe land beneath and nearby the tree passed through various owners before becoming part of the city of Palo Alto, which did not yet exist. First, the tree lay at the northwest corner of a [Mexican land grant](/wiki/Ranchos_of_California \"Ranchos of California\") called [Rancho Rinconada del Arroyo de San Francisquito](/wiki/Rancho_Rinconada_del_Arroyo_de_San_Francisquito \"Rancho Rinconada del Arroyo de San Francisquito\"), which spanned of [oak trees](/wiki/Oak \"Oak\") and brush. This corner abutted [Rancho San Francisquito](/wiki/Rancho_San_Francisquito \"Rancho San Francisquito\") to the west and [Rancho de las Pulgas](/wiki/Rancho_de_las_Pulgas \"Rancho de las Pulgas\") to the north. In 1835, the Rinconada grant was first given to Don Rafael Soto, whose father had settled in the de Anza expedition of 1775–76\\. Soto's widow inherited the grant in 1841\\. She entered a dispute with the US government—which [acquired California as a state](/wiki/An_Act_for_the_Admission_of_the_State_of_California \"An Act for the Admission of the State of California\") in 1850, after the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War \"Mexican–American War\")—over whether her claim was valid. Soto's heirs were finally declared the rightful owners in 1872, and gave the contractors who had represented them about of land as compensation; the heirs kept the other, northern part.\n\nIn 1876, Rancho San Francisquito was purchased by [Leland Stanford](/wiki/Leland_Stanford \"Leland Stanford\")—who later founded [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") with his wife [Jane Stanford](/wiki/Jane_Stanford \"Jane Stanford\")—for his Palo Alto Stock Farm, a place for breeding and training horses. It would eventually grow to about . Following the death of [their son](/wiki/Leland_Stanford_Jr. \"Leland Stanford Jr.\") in 1884, the Stanfords established a university in his honor on their land. In 1887, Soto's heirs sold their land to a good friend of Leland Stanford, [Timothy Hopkins](/wiki/Timothy_Hopkins \"Timothy Hopkins\"), who used it to develop the nearby town of University Park (see 1894 view). In particular, Hopkins acquired land near El Palo Alto, adjacent to Southern Pacific–owned land, that eventually became the city\\-owned El Palo Alto Park. Stanford University opened on October 1, 1891, with 440 students in attendance, and prompted the rapid growth of University Park. In 1894 it incorporated as the city of Palo Alto, a new name for which Stanford had a \"great fondness\". The first university seal, adopted in 1908, featured El Palo Alto prominently (although its artist [Arthur Bridgman Clark](/wiki/Arthur_Bridgman_Clark \"Arthur Bridgman Clark\") drew a more \"vigorous\" tree, how El Palo Alto might have looked centuries earlier), adorned with to its left and to its right as a motto.\n\n### One trunk falls\n\nEl Palo Alto had two trunks until some time between 1875 and 1882, when the north, more\\-curved trunk fell. The stump's rings were counted and gave an age of 967 years.\n\nThe exact date and cause of the trunk's falling is unknown. A 1900 article in *Palo Alto Live Oak* dates the falling to the winter of 1879, blaming a [freshet](/wiki/Freshet \"Freshet\"). A December 1882 article in *[The Sacramento Bee](/wiki/The_Sacramento_Bee \"The Sacramento Bee\")* states: \"Some years ago it had a companion tree, but the latter was undermined by a subterranean stream and fell to the ground.\" Local historian Guy Miller studied the matter for over two decades and estimated a date of 1885\\. Miller suggested that railroad records likely to contain definitive information were destroyed in the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake \"1906 San Francisco earthquake\") and subsequent fire. Letter is on page 345 of the compilation.\n\nThe San Francisquito Creek's eroding banks further threatened El Palo Alto. Fearing its loss, after the first trunk fell, Leland Stanford directed a wooden bulkhead to be built reinforcing the tree's side of the creek. In 1904 Jane Stanford ordered the building of a cement wall, which was further reinforced around 1909 by Southern Pacific.\n\nEarly Stanford students had a tradition of climbing the tree and placing a flag as high as possible. The day before admissions day of 1909, a Stanford student (or possibly an employee) was marooned and had to be rescued by other students at night time, marking the last known climb.\n\n### Declining health\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Grainy image of train crossing trestle, belching black smoke onto the tall tree\\|Train passes El Palo Alto in 1929](/wiki/File:Train_locomotive_passes_El_Palo_Alto%2C_1929.png \"Train locomotive passes El Palo Alto, 1929.png\")\n\nSmog and disruption of roots from the railroad placed El Palo Alto under existential threat; the adjacent railroad was doubled to two tracks in 1902 and by the 1920s the tree was passed by some 70 trains per day. Nearby wells and water being taken from San Francisquito Creek lowered the [water table](/wiki/Water_table \"Water table\"), depriving the tree of needed water. Stanford botany professor [George James Peirce](/wiki/George_James_Peirce \"George James Peirce\") already found in 1901 that the tree's crown was seriously injured, that the railway had caused changes in the nearby soil's drainage, and that a \"thicket of [suckers](/wiki/Sucker_%28botany%29 \"Sucker (botany)\")\" was present around the tree, akin to those seen \"around the stump of a felled or fallen redwood of advanced age.\" [Reprinted](https://books.google.com/books?id=cKIsAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA87) (April 4, 1901\\) in *Contributions to Biology from the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory of the Leland Stanford Jr. University*. **23**: 87\\. Retrieved September 21, 2022\\. In 1915 Peirce planted seven redwoods on university grounds so that one of them could succeed El Palo Alto following its death. Six remain—one was crushed as a sapling by a lawnmower.\n\nThe [Native Sons of the Golden West](/wiki/Native_Sons_of_the_Golden_West \"Native Sons of the Golden West\"), an organization dedicated to the preservation of California landmarks, took stewardship of the tree in 1920\\. Southern Pacific leased the tree to the Native Sons in 1922 and in 1925 the surrounding land was converted into a park, now El Palo Alto Park. The park spans and has a pedestrian\\-bike pathway connecting Palo Alto to Menlo Park. University tree surgeons filled decayed cavities with cement and the tree's base was irrigated using six\\-inch pipes, sunk eight feet into the earth at regular intervals. Southern Pacific hooked up guy wires to stabilize the tree.\n\nFearing the tree's death, the Native Sons placed a plaque set in a granite boulder under the tree in 1926, in a ceremony attended by more than a thousand people and featuring speeches from the mayor, a Stanford professor, a Southern Pacific representative, and several Native Sons. Despite continuous preservation efforts, by the late 1920s newspapers declared the tree moribund. \"The death of the tree within a few years is declared inevitable. A few feet to one side of the old patriarch modern trains roar past every few minutes, and smoke and fumes from the locomotives are killing the foliage.\" The top of the tree continued to die and measurements in 1950 found a height of , compared to in 1930\\.\n\n### Recovery\n\n[thumb\\|Irrigation system for El Palo Alto\\|alt\\=Facing upward from right next to the tree trunk, showing a small gray pipe going all the way up to the leaves](/wiki/File:El_palo_alto_irrigation_system.jpg \"El palo alto irrigation system.jpg\")\nA watering system—dubbed the \"Fool the Redwood Plan\" by a caretaker—was installed in 1955 to simulate the moisture that redwoods get in their typical habitat, and to wash soot off the foliage; dead branches were removed during installation. A Jeep\\-mounted pump was used twice a month to pump water for two hours up the line, which reached above the tree. It soon became clogged and bent out of shape by high winds, but was fixed in 1958 in a collaboration with the city fire department. Article contains images of the pump and watering system. In 1961 six local arborists together deemed the tree to be in fair condition, but suffering from smog, insufficient water, termites, and a deteriorating root system. Smaller, \"nurse\" trees were planted to protect El Palo Alto's root system from compacted soil. Dead wood and termite infestations were progressively removed, mulch was added at the tree's base, and the tree's top was cut off as it died.\n\nEl Palo Alto Park was officially named and made a city park in June 1971\\. With their disbandment in 1974, the Native Sons' lease of the land immediately around the tree from Southern Pacific expired. The city of Palo Alto, who had long cared for the tree, had incorrectly assumed they were part of the lease. The city sent Southern Pacific a new lease in 1978\\.\n\nThe switching of nearby cities to the [Hetch Hetchy](/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy \"Hetch Hetchy\") water system incidentally let the water table return. Together with watering and fertilization efforts the tree was finally adorned with new growth. A 1999 appraisal concluded that \"notwithstanding a catastrophic event ... it is expected that the El Palo Alto redwood will persevere and grow for centuries to come.\"\n\n",
"### Portolá's expedition\n\nBefore conquest by Spanish missionaries in the 18th century, the land around El Palo Alto was home to the Ohlone. According to traditional history, El Palo Alto was the campsite of Spanish explorer [Gaspar de Portolá](/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portola \"Gaspar de Portola\")'s men between November 6 and 11, 1769\\. Portolá was traveling north up the California coast from Mexico in search of [Monterey Bay](/wiki/Monterey_Bay \"Monterey Bay\"), but failed to identify it. Nourished by Ohlone natives, the expedition continued north and on November 1 were greeted with the expanse of the [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay \"San Francisco Bay\"). They traveled southwest and arrived at [San Francisquito Creek](/wiki/San_Francisquito_Creek \"San Francisquito Creek\") on November 6, 1769, where they camped until November 11\\.\n\nVisiting the bay in 1774, Father [Francisco Palóu](/wiki/Francisco_Pal%C3%B3u \"Francisco Palóu\") came upon a large tree on the creek, considered its location suitable for a new mission, and erected a wooden cross near it. His diary entry indicated the location of Portolá's camp as nearby and is the tree's first appearance in writing. Font's map reproduced therein is also reproduced at [https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title\\=File:P\\-7\\-Father\\-Pedro\\-Fonts\\-map\\-of\\-1777\\-full\\-brk00012360\\_24a.jpg](https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=File:P-7-Father-Pedro-Fonts-map-of-1777-full-brk00012360_24a.jpg) In 1776, [Juan Bautista de Anza](/wiki/Juan_Bautista_de_Anza \"Juan Bautista de Anza\") and Father [Pedro Font](/wiki/Pedro_Font \"Pedro Font\") visited the tree and concluded the creek's flow was too unreliable, instead founding the [Mission Santa Clara de Asís](/wiki/Mission_Santa_Clara_de_As%C3%ADs \"Mission Santa Clara de Asís\")—modern day [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara%2C_California \"Santa Clara, California\")— to the southeast. Font measured the tree with a [graphometer](/wiki/Graphometer \"Graphometer\"): fifty [varas](/wiki/Vara_%28unit%29 \"Vara (unit)\") (137 feet; 42 m) high and 5\\.5 varas (15 feet; 3 m) around at the base, noting that soldiers had told him there were larger ones in the mountains. A 1777 map of the bay by Font indicated a large tree on San Francisquito Creek.\n\nMost evidence suggests that El Palo Alto is not the actual tree in Font's map or referenced by early Spanish diarists, who recorded their travels in detail but made no mention of a tree with twin trunks. Local historian Steve Staiger says Portolá's camp may have been under a tree further downstream, later felled by a Spanish military engineer to make a bridge. Two candidates for the true landmark tree, elsewhere along the creek, fell in 1852 and 1911\\.\n\n \n\n",
"### Early landmark\n\n[alt\\=Black\\-and\\-white land survey with a small label of \"Palo Alto Redwoods\"\\|thumb\\|November 1856 land survey of [Rancho de las Pulgas](/wiki/Rancho_de_las_Pulgas \"Rancho de las Pulgas\")—bounded below by San Francisquito Creek—indicating the \"Palo Alto Redwoods\" (above \"Robles Rancho\")](/wiki/File:18-RSM-PG009A-PULGAS_RANCHO.jpg \"18-RSM-PG009A-PULGAS RANCHO.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1860s drawing of El Palo Alto by [Edward Vischer](/wiki/Edward_Vischer \"Edward Vischer\") at \"Big Tree Station\"\\|alt\\=Intricate pencil sketch of a twin\\-trunked tree on the right, with a passenger train passing behind it, facing left, and a few equestrians in the foreground](/wiki/File:Evening_passenger_train_on_the_San_Francisco-San_Jose_railroad%2C_crossing_south_San_Francisquito_Creek.png \"Evening passenger train on the San Francisco-San Jose railroad, crossing south San Francisquito Creek.png\")\n\nIn July 1850, a highway from [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") in the north to [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\") to the south was ordered to be built. Previous travelers took narrow trails on horseback or slightly wider tracks on [oxcart](/wiki/Bullock_cart \"Bullock cart\"); it was joked that the road between the two cities was \"three miles wide\". The highway passed close to El Palo Alto and likely brought it to prominence. The tree was nearly cut down in 1850, but was saved by a timely shipment of lumber. \"In 1849 it quickened the pulse and brought a sparkle to the eyes to stand at Porto Suelo and look from ocean to bay; or on Rincon hill on a clear day, when the Palos Colorados, the red trees of the valley, could be seen thirty\\-three miles off on the road to San Jose ... Several times the lumber men were about to cut down the Palos Colorados, the lone redwood trees from which the famous Palo Alto ranch has derived its name, but one thing and another hindered. The trees, however, would surely have been cut to save hauling had not the argonaut fleet arrived from New England early in the 1850 with lumber brought around the Horn ... In the winter of 1879 the sister tree, as if nature was conscious that its day of usefulness as a landmark had passed, was prostrated by a freshet.\"\n\nEl Palo Alto was first known as the Palos Colorados, roughly meaning 'red trees'. The earliest known reference to the name \"Palo Alto\" dates to 1853, and an 1856 official land survey labeled it the \"Palo Alto Redwoods\"; the name \"Rancho of Palo Alto\" was used as a disambiguation in 1857\\. Construction of a railroad by the [San Francisco \\& San Jose Railroad Company](/wiki/San_Francisco_and_San_Jose_Railroad \"San Francisco and San Jose Railroad\"), connecting [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") to [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), passed the tree in 1863, making it an obvious landmark for travelers. The section from San Francisco to \"Big Tree Station\" at the creek was inaugurated on October 7 that year. The [Southern Pacific Transportation Company](/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Transportation_Company \"Southern Pacific Transportation Company\") purchased the company in March 1868; the tree was featured in Southern Pacific advertising. [Edward Vischer](/wiki/Edward_Vischer \"Edward Vischer\")'s *Pictorial of California* (1870\\) contains a drawing of the tree with two trunks, noting it to be \"one of the very few instances of that mountain monarch \\[the redwood] being found in the open level country\", and suggests that the tree originally had three trunks, describing it as \"\\[t]wins, once a trio\". Drawing itself is on [page 185](https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/vdp/id/1259) ([archived](https://archive.today/20220917004443/https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/vdp/id/1259)), titled \"Evening passenger train on the San Francisco–San Jose railroad, crossing south San Francisquito Creek\", dated 1864 to 1867\\.\n\n",
"### Land transfers and the Stanfords\n\n[thumb\\|1894 view in University Park, facing northeast toward El Palo Alto in the distance](/wiki/File:University_Avenue%2C_facing_El_Palo_Alto%2C_1894.png \"University Avenue, facing El Palo Alto, 1894.png\")\n\nThe land beneath and nearby the tree passed through various owners before becoming part of the city of Palo Alto, which did not yet exist. First, the tree lay at the northwest corner of a [Mexican land grant](/wiki/Ranchos_of_California \"Ranchos of California\") called [Rancho Rinconada del Arroyo de San Francisquito](/wiki/Rancho_Rinconada_del_Arroyo_de_San_Francisquito \"Rancho Rinconada del Arroyo de San Francisquito\"), which spanned of [oak trees](/wiki/Oak \"Oak\") and brush. This corner abutted [Rancho San Francisquito](/wiki/Rancho_San_Francisquito \"Rancho San Francisquito\") to the west and [Rancho de las Pulgas](/wiki/Rancho_de_las_Pulgas \"Rancho de las Pulgas\") to the north. In 1835, the Rinconada grant was first given to Don Rafael Soto, whose father had settled in the de Anza expedition of 1775–76\\. Soto's widow inherited the grant in 1841\\. She entered a dispute with the US government—which [acquired California as a state](/wiki/An_Act_for_the_Admission_of_the_State_of_California \"An Act for the Admission of the State of California\") in 1850, after the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War \"Mexican–American War\")—over whether her claim was valid. Soto's heirs were finally declared the rightful owners in 1872, and gave the contractors who had represented them about of land as compensation; the heirs kept the other, northern part.\n\nIn 1876, Rancho San Francisquito was purchased by [Leland Stanford](/wiki/Leland_Stanford \"Leland Stanford\")—who later founded [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") with his wife [Jane Stanford](/wiki/Jane_Stanford \"Jane Stanford\")—for his Palo Alto Stock Farm, a place for breeding and training horses. It would eventually grow to about . Following the death of [their son](/wiki/Leland_Stanford_Jr. \"Leland Stanford Jr.\") in 1884, the Stanfords established a university in his honor on their land. In 1887, Soto's heirs sold their land to a good friend of Leland Stanford, [Timothy Hopkins](/wiki/Timothy_Hopkins \"Timothy Hopkins\"), who used it to develop the nearby town of University Park (see 1894 view). In particular, Hopkins acquired land near El Palo Alto, adjacent to Southern Pacific–owned land, that eventually became the city\\-owned El Palo Alto Park. Stanford University opened on October 1, 1891, with 440 students in attendance, and prompted the rapid growth of University Park. In 1894 it incorporated as the city of Palo Alto, a new name for which Stanford had a \"great fondness\". The first university seal, adopted in 1908, featured El Palo Alto prominently (although its artist [Arthur Bridgman Clark](/wiki/Arthur_Bridgman_Clark \"Arthur Bridgman Clark\") drew a more \"vigorous\" tree, how El Palo Alto might have looked centuries earlier), adorned with to its left and to its right as a motto.\n\n",
"### One trunk falls\n\nEl Palo Alto had two trunks until some time between 1875 and 1882, when the north, more\\-curved trunk fell. The stump's rings were counted and gave an age of 967 years.\n\nThe exact date and cause of the trunk's falling is unknown. A 1900 article in *Palo Alto Live Oak* dates the falling to the winter of 1879, blaming a [freshet](/wiki/Freshet \"Freshet\"). A December 1882 article in *[The Sacramento Bee](/wiki/The_Sacramento_Bee \"The Sacramento Bee\")* states: \"Some years ago it had a companion tree, but the latter was undermined by a subterranean stream and fell to the ground.\" Local historian Guy Miller studied the matter for over two decades and estimated a date of 1885\\. Miller suggested that railroad records likely to contain definitive information were destroyed in the [1906 San Francisco earthquake](/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake \"1906 San Francisco earthquake\") and subsequent fire. Letter is on page 345 of the compilation.\n\nThe San Francisquito Creek's eroding banks further threatened El Palo Alto. Fearing its loss, after the first trunk fell, Leland Stanford directed a wooden bulkhead to be built reinforcing the tree's side of the creek. In 1904 Jane Stanford ordered the building of a cement wall, which was further reinforced around 1909 by Southern Pacific.\n\nEarly Stanford students had a tradition of climbing the tree and placing a flag as high as possible. The day before admissions day of 1909, a Stanford student (or possibly an employee) was marooned and had to be rescued by other students at night time, marking the last known climb.\n\n",
"### Declining health\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Grainy image of train crossing trestle, belching black smoke onto the tall tree\\|Train passes El Palo Alto in 1929](/wiki/File:Train_locomotive_passes_El_Palo_Alto%2C_1929.png \"Train locomotive passes El Palo Alto, 1929.png\")\n\nSmog and disruption of roots from the railroad placed El Palo Alto under existential threat; the adjacent railroad was doubled to two tracks in 1902 and by the 1920s the tree was passed by some 70 trains per day. Nearby wells and water being taken from San Francisquito Creek lowered the [water table](/wiki/Water_table \"Water table\"), depriving the tree of needed water. Stanford botany professor [George James Peirce](/wiki/George_James_Peirce \"George James Peirce\") already found in 1901 that the tree's crown was seriously injured, that the railway had caused changes in the nearby soil's drainage, and that a \"thicket of [suckers](/wiki/Sucker_%28botany%29 \"Sucker (botany)\")\" was present around the tree, akin to those seen \"around the stump of a felled or fallen redwood of advanced age.\" [Reprinted](https://books.google.com/books?id=cKIsAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA87) (April 4, 1901\\) in *Contributions to Biology from the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory of the Leland Stanford Jr. University*. **23**: 87\\. Retrieved September 21, 2022\\. In 1915 Peirce planted seven redwoods on university grounds so that one of them could succeed El Palo Alto following its death. Six remain—one was crushed as a sapling by a lawnmower.\n\nThe [Native Sons of the Golden West](/wiki/Native_Sons_of_the_Golden_West \"Native Sons of the Golden West\"), an organization dedicated to the preservation of California landmarks, took stewardship of the tree in 1920\\. Southern Pacific leased the tree to the Native Sons in 1922 and in 1925 the surrounding land was converted into a park, now El Palo Alto Park. The park spans and has a pedestrian\\-bike pathway connecting Palo Alto to Menlo Park. University tree surgeons filled decayed cavities with cement and the tree's base was irrigated using six\\-inch pipes, sunk eight feet into the earth at regular intervals. Southern Pacific hooked up guy wires to stabilize the tree.\n\nFearing the tree's death, the Native Sons placed a plaque set in a granite boulder under the tree in 1926, in a ceremony attended by more than a thousand people and featuring speeches from the mayor, a Stanford professor, a Southern Pacific representative, and several Native Sons. Despite continuous preservation efforts, by the late 1920s newspapers declared the tree moribund. \"The death of the tree within a few years is declared inevitable. A few feet to one side of the old patriarch modern trains roar past every few minutes, and smoke and fumes from the locomotives are killing the foliage.\" The top of the tree continued to die and measurements in 1950 found a height of , compared to in 1930\\.\n\n",
"### Recovery\n\n[thumb\\|Irrigation system for El Palo Alto\\|alt\\=Facing upward from right next to the tree trunk, showing a small gray pipe going all the way up to the leaves](/wiki/File:El_palo_alto_irrigation_system.jpg \"El palo alto irrigation system.jpg\")\nA watering system—dubbed the \"Fool the Redwood Plan\" by a caretaker—was installed in 1955 to simulate the moisture that redwoods get in their typical habitat, and to wash soot off the foliage; dead branches were removed during installation. A Jeep\\-mounted pump was used twice a month to pump water for two hours up the line, which reached above the tree. It soon became clogged and bent out of shape by high winds, but was fixed in 1958 in a collaboration with the city fire department. Article contains images of the pump and watering system. In 1961 six local arborists together deemed the tree to be in fair condition, but suffering from smog, insufficient water, termites, and a deteriorating root system. Smaller, \"nurse\" trees were planted to protect El Palo Alto's root system from compacted soil. Dead wood and termite infestations were progressively removed, mulch was added at the tree's base, and the tree's top was cut off as it died.\n\nEl Palo Alto Park was officially named and made a city park in June 1971\\. With their disbandment in 1974, the Native Sons' lease of the land immediately around the tree from Southern Pacific expired. The city of Palo Alto, who had long cared for the tree, had incorrectly assumed they were part of the lease. The city sent Southern Pacific a new lease in 1978\\.\n\nThe switching of nearby cities to the [Hetch Hetchy](/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy \"Hetch Hetchy\") water system incidentally let the water table return. Together with watering and fertilization efforts the tree was finally adorned with new growth. A 1999 appraisal concluded that \"notwithstanding a catastrophic event ... it is expected that the El Palo Alto redwood will persevere and grow for centuries to come.\"\n\n",
"Legacy\n------\n\nOnce a lone tall tree visible for miles, the tree's decline and the growth of nearby planted trees, such as [eucalyptus](/wiki/Eucalyptus \"Eucalyptus\"), have made El Palo Alto much less visible from afar. El Palo Alto stands at about in height, with a diameter and crown spread of , and enjoys much greater health than it did a century ago. Preservation efforts continue, including with ground\\-penetrating radar, \"air\\-spade excavation\", drone monitoring of the tree's crown, and a prism attached to its top to track movement. [Caltrain](/wiki/Caltrain \"Caltrain\") plans [to make the railroad electric](/wiki/Caltrain_Modernization_Program \"Caltrain Modernization Program\") by 2024, which would eliminate the impact of smoke, and will replace the 1902 trestle.\n\nThe tree remains prominent on the City of Palo Alto seal, in the Stanford University seal, and [as a mascot](/wiki/Stanford_Tree \"Stanford Tree\") in [the university's marching band](/wiki/Stanford_Band \"Stanford Band\"). The State of California designated the nearby \"Portolá Journey's End\" as the second [California Historical Landmark](/wiki/California_Historical_Landmark \"California Historical Landmark\") in 1932; in 1974 the tree itself was registered with the state as a Point of Historical Interest. In 1987 the National Arborist Association and the International Society of Arboriculture recognized the tree for its historical importance. In 2004, seedlings from El Palo Alto were planted in the [American Forests](/wiki/American_Forests \"American Forests\") Historic Tree Nursery in [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida \"Jacksonville, Florida\").\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of individual trees](/wiki/List_of_individual_trees \"List of individual trees\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n### Notes\n\n### Sources\n\n### Citations\n\n",
"### Notes\n\n",
"### Sources\n\n",
"### Citations\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [El Palo Alto at paloaltohistory.org](http://www.paloaltohistory.org/el-palo-alto.php)\n* [Stanford University History: Prologue](https://web.archive.org/web/20080129093210/http://www.stanford.edu/home/stanford/history/begin.html#Found)\n* [Historical photographs of San Francisquito Creek, including El Palo Alto](http://wgsc.wr.usgs.gov/sfcreek/historic_photo.html)\n* [Old illustrated view of Palo Alto, including El Palo Alto](https://exhibits.stanford.edu/ua-maps-drawings/catalog/dd012wb2058)\n\n[Category:Individual coast redwood trees](/wiki/Category:Individual_coast_redwood_trees \"Individual coast redwood trees\")\n[Category:Palo Alto, California](/wiki/Category:Palo_Alto%2C_California \"Palo Alto, California\")\n[Category:History of Santa Clara County, California](/wiki/Category:History_of_Santa_Clara_County%2C_California \"History of Santa Clara County, California\")\n[Category:History of the San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/Category:History_of_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"History of the San Francisco Bay Area\")\n[Category:Native American history of California](/wiki/Category:Native_American_history_of_California \"Native American history of California\")\n[Category:Natural history of the California Coast Ranges](/wiki/Category:Natural_history_of_the_California_Coast_Ranges \"Natural history of the California Coast Ranges\")\n[Category:Geography of Santa Clara County, California](/wiki/Category:Geography_of_Santa_Clara_County%2C_California \"Geography of Santa Clara County, California\")\n[Category:Tourist attractions in Santa Clara County, California](/wiki/Category:Tourist_attractions_in_Santa_Clara_County%2C_California \"Tourist attractions in Santa Clara County, California\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Watson
|
{
"id": [
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"name": [
"1AmNobody24"
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|
tlzzbvdycwemygc6z3cwvh1lvoodbx4
|
2024-10-09T06:42:58Z
| 1,240,912,236 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"People",
"Fictional characters",
"Computing",
"Companies",
"Places",
"Other",
"See also"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
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"content": [
"\n**Watson** may refer to:\n\n",
"People\n------\n\n* [Watson (surname)](/wiki/Watson_%28surname%29 \"Watson (surname)\")\n* [Watson (given name)](/wiki/Watson_%28given_name%29 \"Watson (given name)\")\n",
"Fictional characters\n--------------------\n\n* [Dr. Watson](/wiki/Dr._Watson \"Dr. Watson\"), a character in *Sherlock Holmes* stories\n* [Mary Jane Watson](/wiki/Mary_Jane_Watson \"Mary Jane Watson\"), a Spider\\-Man character\n* Esme Watson, a character in Australian television program *[A Country Practice](/wiki/A_Country_Practice \"A Country Practice\")*\n",
"Computing\n---------\n\n* [Watson (computer)](/wiki/Watson_%28computer%29 \"Watson (computer)\"), an IBM supercomputer which won the game show *Jeopardy!*\n* [Dr. Watson (debugger)](/wiki/Dr._Watson_%28debugger%29 \"Dr. Watson (debugger)\"), the internal debugger for the Windows platform\n* [Intellext Watson](/wiki/Intellext_Watson \"Intellext Watson\"), an application for the Windows platform\n* [Karelia Watson](/wiki/Karelia_Watson \"Karelia Watson\"), an application for the Macintosh platform\n",
"Companies\n---------\n\n* [Watson Pharmaceuticals](/wiki/Watson_Pharmaceuticals \"Watson Pharmaceuticals\"), former name of the pharmaceutical company Actavis\n* [A.S. Watson Group](/wiki/A.S._Watson_Group \"A.S. Watson Group\"), retail division of Hutchison Whampoa\n* [Thomas J. Watson Research Center](/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center \"Thomas J. Watson Research Center\"), IBM research center\n* [Watson Systems](/wiki/Watson_Systems \"Watson Systems\"), maker of shopping trolleys\n* [A. J. Watson](/wiki/A._J._Watson \"A. J. Watson\"), IndyCar roadster chassis constructor\n* [Watsons Water](/wiki/Watsons_Water \"Watsons Water\"), a bottled water company in Hong Kong\n",
"Places\n------\n\n**Antarctica**\n* [Watson Peninsula](/wiki/Watson_Peninsula \"Watson Peninsula\"), South Orkney Islands\n\n**Australia**\n* [Watson, Australian Capital Territory](/wiki/Watson%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Watson, Australian Capital Territory\")\n\t+ [Division of Watson](/wiki/Division_of_Watson \"Division of Watson\"), an electoral district of the Australian House of Representatives\n* [Watson, South Australia](/wiki/Watson%2C_South_Australia \"Watson, South Australia\"), a stop on the Trans\\-Australian Railway\n* [Watson Island (Queensland)](/wiki/Watson_Island_%28Queensland%29 \"Watson Island (Queensland)\"), an island in Howick Group National Park, Queensland, Australia\n\n**Canada**\n* [Watson, Saskatchewan](/wiki/Watson%2C_Saskatchewan \"Watson, Saskatchewan\")\n* [Watson Island (British Columbia)](/wiki/Watson_Island_%28British_Columbia%29 \"Watson Island (British Columbia)\"), an island in the Queen Charlotte Strait in British Columbia, Canada\n* [Watson Lake, Yukon](/wiki/Watson_Lake%2C_Yukon \"Watson Lake, Yukon\")\n\n**United States**\n* [Watson, Alabama](/wiki/Watson%2C_Alabama \"Watson, Alabama\")\n* [Watson, Arkansas](/wiki/Watson%2C_Arkansas \"Watson, Arkansas\")\n* [Watson Island](/wiki/Watson_Island \"Watson Island\"), a neighborhood in Miami, Florida\n* [Watson, Illinois](/wiki/Watson%2C_Illinois \"Watson, Illinois\")\n* [Watson, Indiana](/wiki/Watson%2C_Indiana \"Watson, Indiana\")\n* [Watson, Iowa](/wiki/Watson%2C_Iowa \"Watson, Iowa\")\n* [Watson, Louisiana](/wiki/Watson%2C_Louisiana \"Watson, Louisiana\")\n* [Watson, Minnesota](/wiki/Watson%2C_Minnesota \"Watson, Minnesota\")\n* [Watson, Missouri](/wiki/Watson%2C_Missouri \"Watson, Missouri\")\n* [Watson, New York](/wiki/Watson%2C_New_York \"Watson, New York\")\n* [Watson, Ohio](/wiki/Watson%2C_Ohio \"Watson, Ohio\")\n* [Watson, Oklahoma](/wiki/Watson%2C_Oklahoma \"Watson, Oklahoma\")\n* [Watson, Virginia](/wiki/Watson%2C_Virginia \"Watson, Virginia\")\n* [Watson, West Virginia](/wiki/Watson%2C_West_Virginia \"Watson, West Virginia\")\n* [Watson House (Chincoteague Island, Virginia)](/wiki/Watson_House_%28Chincoteague_Island%2C_Virginia%29 \"Watson House (Chincoteague Island, Virginia)\")\n* [Watson Township (disambiguation)](/wiki/Watson_Township_%28disambiguation%29 \"Watson Township (disambiguation)\")\n\n",
"Other\n-----\n\n* [Watson (musician)](/wiki/Watson_%28musician%29 \"Watson (musician)\"), an American singer and songwriter\n* [Clan Watson](/wiki/Clan_Watson \"Clan Watson\"), a Scottish clan\n* [Jeannette K. Watson Fellowship](/wiki/Jeannette_K._Watson_Fellowship \"Jeannette K. Watson Fellowship\"), internship grant\n* [Thomas J. Watson Fellowship](/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Fellowship \"Thomas J. Watson Fellowship\"), travel grant\n* [The Watson Twins](/wiki/The_Watson_Twins \"The Watson Twins\"), an indie country\\-rock group\n* [George Watson's College](/wiki/George_Watson%27s_College \"George Watson's College\"), a school in Edinburgh, Scotland\n* [USS *Watson* (DD\\-482\\)](/wiki/USS_Watson_%28DD-482%29 \"USS Watson (DD-482)\"), a proposed United States Navy destroyer canceled in 1946\n* [Watson (crater)](/wiki/Watson_%28crater%29 \"Watson (crater)\"), a lunar impact crater on the far side of the Moon\n* [*Watson* (film)](/wiki/Watson_%28film%29 \"Watson (film)\"), a 2019 documentary film\n* [*Watson* (newspaper)](/wiki/Watson_%28newspaper%29 \"Watson (newspaper)\"), a Swiss online newspaper\n* [*Watson* (TV series)](/wiki/Watson_%28TV_series%29 \"Watson (TV series)\"), an upcoming American TV series\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Justice Watson (disambiguation)](/wiki/Justice_Watson_%28disambiguation%29 \"Justice Watson (disambiguation)\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Koji Suzuki
|
{
"id": [
null
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"name": [
"2A02:A313:43D8:5700:86B4:9372:7EB5:54B7"
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|
12y93bbtwotavljkihp0jfsnmpaxxyy
|
2024-09-28T12:29:04Z
| 1,236,540,598 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Bibliography",
"''Ring'' series",
"Standalone novels",
"Short story collections",
"Short story",
"Films adapted from his works",
"Awards and nominations",
"Japanese awards",
"U.S. award",
"International award",
"References",
"External links"
],
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"content": [
"\n\n* + - \n\n is a Japanese writer, who was born in [Hamamatsu](/wiki/Hamamatsu \"Hamamatsu\") and lives in Tokyo. Suzuki is the author of the [*Ring* novels](/wiki/Ring_%28novel_series%29 \"Ring (novel series)\"), which have been adapted into other formats, including films, [manga](/wiki/Manga \"Manga\"),[Ring Volume 1 TPB](http://www.darkhorse.com/Books/12-869/Ring-Volume-1-TPB) TV series and video games. He has written several books on the subject of fatherhood. His hobbies include traveling and [motorcycling](/wiki/Motorcycling \"Motorcycling\").Hobbies found on the back of *The Ring*, 2002, Koji Suzuki\n\n",
"Bibliography\n------------\n\nSome of the books listed here are published in the US by [Vertical Inc.](/wiki/Vertical_%28company%29 \"Vertical (company)\"), owned by [Kodansha](/wiki/Kodansha \"Kodansha\") and [Dai Nippon Printing](/wiki/Dai_Nippon_Printing \"Dai Nippon Printing\").\n\n### *Ring* series\n\n* [*Ring* trilogy](/wiki/The_Ring_%28franchise%29 \"The Ring (franchise)\") and extended series\n\t+ *[Ring](/wiki/Ring_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Ring (Suzuki novel)\")* (*Ringu*) (1991\\)\n\t+ *[Spiral](/wiki/Spiral_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Spiral (Suzuki novel)\")* (*Rasen*) (1995\\)\n\t+ *[Loop](/wiki/Loop_%28novel%29 \"Loop (novel)\")* (*Rupu*) (1998\\)\n\t+ *[Birthday](/wiki/Birthday_%28short_story_collection%29 \"Birthday (short story collection)\")* (1999\\) (Short story collection)\n\t\t- \"Coffin in the Sky\" \\[details what happened to Mai Takano in *Spiral*]\n\t\t- \"Lemon Heart\" \\[prequel to *Ring*]\n\t\t- \"Happy Birthday\" \\[a direct epilogue to *Loop*]\n\t+ *[S](/wiki/S_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"S (Suzuki novel)\")* (2012\\)\n\t+ *[Tide](/wiki/Tide_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Tide (Suzuki novel)\")* (2013\\)\n* Manga series\n\t+ *Sadako\\-san and Sadako\\-chan* (2019\\)\n\t+ *Sadako at the End of the World* (2020\\)\n\n### Standalone novels\n\n* *Paradise* (*Rakuen*) (1990\\)\n* *The Shining Sea* (*Hikari sasu umi*) (1993\\)\n\t+ republished – *The Shining Sea* (2022 [Vertical Publishing](/wiki/Vertical_%28publisher%29 \"Vertical (publisher)\")) – \n* *Promenade of the Gods* (*Kamigami no Promenade*) (2003\\)\n* *Edge* (2008\\)\n\n### Short story collections\n\n* *Death and the Flower* (1995\\)\n\t+ \"Disposable Diapers and a Race Replica\"\n\t+ \"Irregular Breathing\"\n\t+ \"Key West\"\n\t+ \"Beyond the Darkness\"\n\t+ \"Embrace\"\n\t+ \"Avidya\"\n* *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%28book%29 \"Dark Water (book)\")* (*Honogurai mizu no soko kara*) (1996\\) (includes an original framing story)\n\t+ \"Floating Water\"\n\t+ \"Solitary Isle\"\n\t+ \"The Hold\"\n\t+ \"Dream Cruise\"\n\t+ \"Adrift\"\n\t+ \"Watercolors\"\n\t+ \"Forest Under the Sea\"\n\n### Short story\n\n* \"Drop\" (2009\\) – Printed on three rolls of toilet paper in Japan in Japanese and [in English](https://www.wattpad.com/149616357-the-drop-koji-suzuki-the-drop-1) in 2012\\.\n",
"### *Ring* series\n\n* [*Ring* trilogy](/wiki/The_Ring_%28franchise%29 \"The Ring (franchise)\") and extended series\n\t+ *[Ring](/wiki/Ring_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Ring (Suzuki novel)\")* (*Ringu*) (1991\\)\n\t+ *[Spiral](/wiki/Spiral_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Spiral (Suzuki novel)\")* (*Rasen*) (1995\\)\n\t+ *[Loop](/wiki/Loop_%28novel%29 \"Loop (novel)\")* (*Rupu*) (1998\\)\n\t+ *[Birthday](/wiki/Birthday_%28short_story_collection%29 \"Birthday (short story collection)\")* (1999\\) (Short story collection)\n\t\t- \"Coffin in the Sky\" \\[details what happened to Mai Takano in *Spiral*]\n\t\t- \"Lemon Heart\" \\[prequel to *Ring*]\n\t\t- \"Happy Birthday\" \\[a direct epilogue to *Loop*]\n\t+ *[S](/wiki/S_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"S (Suzuki novel)\")* (2012\\)\n\t+ *[Tide](/wiki/Tide_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Tide (Suzuki novel)\")* (2013\\)\n* Manga series\n\t+ *Sadako\\-san and Sadako\\-chan* (2019\\)\n\t+ *Sadako at the End of the World* (2020\\)\n",
"### Standalone novels\n\n* *Paradise* (*Rakuen*) (1990\\)\n* *The Shining Sea* (*Hikari sasu umi*) (1993\\)\n\t+ republished – *The Shining Sea* (2022 [Vertical Publishing](/wiki/Vertical_%28publisher%29 \"Vertical (publisher)\")) – \n* *Promenade of the Gods* (*Kamigami no Promenade*) (2003\\)\n* *Edge* (2008\\)\n",
"### Short story collections\n\n* *Death and the Flower* (1995\\)\n\t+ \"Disposable Diapers and a Race Replica\"\n\t+ \"Irregular Breathing\"\n\t+ \"Key West\"\n\t+ \"Beyond the Darkness\"\n\t+ \"Embrace\"\n\t+ \"Avidya\"\n* *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%28book%29 \"Dark Water (book)\")* (*Honogurai mizu no soko kara*) (1996\\) (includes an original framing story)\n\t+ \"Floating Water\"\n\t+ \"Solitary Isle\"\n\t+ \"The Hold\"\n\t+ \"Dream Cruise\"\n\t+ \"Adrift\"\n\t+ \"Watercolors\"\n\t+ \"Forest Under the Sea\"\n",
"### Short story\n\n* \"Drop\" (2009\\) – Printed on three rolls of toilet paper in Japan in Japanese and [in English](https://www.wattpad.com/149616357-the-drop-koji-suzuki-the-drop-1) in 2012\\.\n",
"Films adapted from his works\n----------------------------\n\n* *[Ring](/wiki/Ring_%281995_film%29 \"Ring (1995 film)\")* (*Ringu, a.k.a. Ringu: Kanzenban*) (1995\\)\n* *[Ring](/wiki/Ring_%28film%29 \"Ring (film)\")* (*Ringu*) (1998\\)\n* *[Rasen](/wiki/Spiral_%281998_film%29 \"Spiral (1998 film)\")* (*Spiral*) (1998\\)\n* *[The Ring Virus](/wiki/The_Ring_Virus \"The Ring Virus\")* (1999\\)\n* *[Ring 2](/wiki/Ring_2 \"Ring 2\")* (*Ringu 2*) (1999\\)\n* *[Ring 0: Birthday](/wiki/Ring_0:Birthday \"Birthday\")* (2000\\)\n* *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%282002_film%29 \"Dark Water (2002 film)\")* (2002\\)\n* *[The Ring](/wiki/The_Ring_%282002_film%29 \"The Ring (2002 film)\")* (2002\\)\n* *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%282005_film%29 \"Dark Water (2005 film)\")* (2005\\)\n* *[Rings](/wiki/Rings_%282005_film%29 \"Rings (2005 film)\")* (short film) (2005\\)\n* *[The Ring Two](/wiki/The_Ring_Two \"The Ring Two\")* (2005\\)\n* *[Open Water 2: Adrift](/wiki/Open_Water_2:Adrift \"Adrift\")* (2006\\)\n* *[Masters of Horror](/wiki/Masters_of_Horror \"Masters of Horror\")* (TV, episode 2\\.13 *[Dream Cruise](/wiki/Dream_Cruise \"Dream Cruise\")*) (2007\\)\n* *[Sadako 3D](/wiki/Sadako_3D \"Sadako 3D\")* (2012\\)\n* *[Sadako 3D 2](/wiki/Sadako_3D_2 \"Sadako 3D 2\")* (2013\\)\n* *[Sadako vs. Kayako](/wiki/Sadako_vs._Kayako \"Sadako vs. Kayako\")* (2016\\)\n* *[Rings](/wiki/Rings_%282017_film%29 \"Rings (2017 film)\")* (2017\\)\n* *[Sadako](/wiki/Sadako_%282019_film%29 \"Sadako (2019 film)\")* aka *[Sadako KOL](https://images.static-bluray.com/movies/dvdcovers/204459_large.jpg?t=1582603451)* (2019\\)\n* *[Sadako DX](/wiki/Sadako_DX \"Sadako DX\")* (2022\\) [DX](https://www.workersresort.com/en/culture/japan-dx-2025-digital-cliff/) is an acronym of sorts for [digital transformation](/wiki/Digital_transformation \"Digital transformation\")\n",
"Awards and nominations\n----------------------\n\n### Japanese awards\n\n* **1990** [Japan Fantasy Novel Award](/wiki/Japan_Fantasy_Novel_Award \"Japan Fantasy Novel Award\"): *Paradise*\n* **1996** [Yoshikawa Eiji](/wiki/Eiji_Yoshikawa \"Eiji Yoshikawa\") Prize for New Writers: *[Spiral](/wiki/Spiral_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Spiral (Suzuki novel)\")*\n* **1996** Nominee for [Naoki Prize](/wiki/Naoki_Prize \"Naoki Prize\"): *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%28book%29 \"Dark Water (book)\")*\n* **1996** Nominee for [Izumi Kyōka Prize for Literature](/wiki/Izumi_Ky%C5%8Dka_Prize_for_Literature \"Izumi Kyōka Prize for Literature\"): *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%28book%29 \"Dark Water (book)\")*\n* **1998** Nominee for [Japanese SF Award](/wiki/Nihon_SF_Taisho_Award \"Nihon SF Taisho Award\"): *[Loop](/wiki/Loop_%28novel%29 \"Loop (novel)\")*\n\n### U.S. award\n\n* **2012** [Shirley Jackson Award](/wiki/Shirley_Jackson_Award \"Shirley Jackson Award\") for Best Novel: *Edge*\n\n### International award\n\n* **2021** [Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement](/wiki/Bram_Stoker_Award_for_Lifetime_Achievement \"Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement\")\n",
"### Japanese awards\n\n* **1990** [Japan Fantasy Novel Award](/wiki/Japan_Fantasy_Novel_Award \"Japan Fantasy Novel Award\"): *Paradise*\n* **1996** [Yoshikawa Eiji](/wiki/Eiji_Yoshikawa \"Eiji Yoshikawa\") Prize for New Writers: *[Spiral](/wiki/Spiral_%28Suzuki_novel%29 \"Spiral (Suzuki novel)\")*\n* **1996** Nominee for [Naoki Prize](/wiki/Naoki_Prize \"Naoki Prize\"): *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%28book%29 \"Dark Water (book)\")*\n* **1996** Nominee for [Izumi Kyōka Prize for Literature](/wiki/Izumi_Ky%C5%8Dka_Prize_for_Literature \"Izumi Kyōka Prize for Literature\"): *[Dark Water](/wiki/Dark_Water_%28book%29 \"Dark Water (book)\")*\n* **1998** Nominee for [Japanese SF Award](/wiki/Nihon_SF_Taisho_Award \"Nihon SF Taisho Award\"): *[Loop](/wiki/Loop_%28novel%29 \"Loop (novel)\")*\n",
"### U.S. award\n\n* **2012** [Shirley Jackson Award](/wiki/Shirley_Jackson_Award \"Shirley Jackson Award\") for Best Novel: *Edge*\n",
"### International award\n\n* **2021** [Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement](/wiki/Bram_Stoker_Award_for_Lifetime_Achievement \"Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Koji Suzuki bibliography at FantasticFiction](https://www.fantasticfiction.com/s/koji-suzuki/)\n* [Entry](http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/suzuki_koji) in *[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction](/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction \"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\")*\n* [J'Lit \\| Authors : Koji Suzuki \\| Books from Japan](http://www.booksfromjapan.jp/authors/item/2156-koji-suzuki) \n\n[Category:1957 births](/wiki/Category:1957_births \"1957 births\")\n[Category:Japanese horror writers](/wiki/Category:Japanese_horror_writers \"Japanese horror writers\")\n[Category:Japanese male writers](/wiki/Category:Japanese_male_writers \"Japanese male writers\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:People from Hamamatsu](/wiki/Category:People_from_Hamamatsu \"People from Hamamatsu\")\n[Category:The Ring (franchise)](/wiki/Category:The_Ring_%28franchise%29 \"The Ring (franchise)\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Flood alert
|
{
"id": [
18872885
],
"name": [
"WikiCleanerBot"
]
}
|
16n7yn187scidfqblqdzzcylnt85ika
|
2024-09-19T05:07:25Z
| 1,245,349,656 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Types of flood alerts in the United States",
"Flood alerts in other countries",
"See also",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Flood alerts** are issued by weather agencies to alert residents that [flood](/wiki/Flood \"Flood\") conditions are a possibility.\n\n",
"Types of flood alerts in the United States\n------------------------------------------\n\nIn the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), a [flash flood watch](/wiki/Flash_flood_watch \"Flash flood watch\") is issued by the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\") (NWS) when weather conditions are favorable for very heavy [rain](/wiki/Rain \"Rain\") that could cause flooding or [flash flooding](/wiki/Flash_flood \"Flash flood\"). A watch does not mean that flooding is occurring, only that [weather](/wiki/Weather \"Weather\") conditions have created or will create a significant risk for it. If flooding occurs, a [flood warning](/wiki/Flood_warning \"Flood warning\") or [flash flood warning](/wiki/Flash_flood_warning \"Flash flood warning\") would be issued, and immediate action should be taken. A flood warning or flash flood warning is issued when flooding is imminent or already occurring. When flood warnings are issued, it means that area [waterways](/wiki/Waterway \"Waterway\") will likely soon be in flood. Not all flood watches suggest that large\\-scale flooding, such as during [landfalling](/wiki/Landfall_%28meteorology%29 \"Landfall (meteorology)\") [tropical cyclones](/wiki/Tropical_cyclone \"Tropical cyclone\"), is possible.\n\n",
"Flood alerts in other countries\n-------------------------------\n\nIn [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), a [heavy rainfall warning](/wiki/Heavy_rainfall_warning \"Heavy rainfall warning\"), which indicates rainfall amounts that *could* produce flooding are expected, has basically the same meaning as a flood watch.\n\nIn [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), the [Bureau of Meteorology](/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology \"Bureau of Meteorology\") issues a flood watch that covers similar conditions to flood watches in the United States. However, they are known by slightly different names in some areas.\n\nIn Europe, there is the [European Flood Awareness System](/wiki/European_Flood_Alert_System \"European Flood Alert System\") and the commercial product including app and data services [FloodAlert](https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.jacobs.floodalert&pli=1).\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Flood forecasting](/wiki/Flood_forecasting \"Flood forecasting\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Weather warnings and advisories](/wiki/Category:Weather_warnings_and_advisories \"Weather warnings and advisories\")\n[Category:Flood control](/wiki/Category:Flood_control \"Flood control\")\n\n \n\n"
]
}
|
Thomas Blake Glover
|
{
"id": [
16185737
],
"name": [
"Smasongarrison"
]
}
|
fgtkk28jf4epoxab6rljcbbpb2a0hu8
|
2024-10-15T02:06:53Z
| 1,240,958,127 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life (1838–1858)",
"Japan (1859–1911)",
"Family",
"Freemasonry claim",
"Residences",
"Honours and legacy",
"The Glover whisky",
"In fiction",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Thomas Blake Glover** (6 June 1838 – 16 December 1911\\) was an Anglo\\-Scottish merchant in [Bakumatsu](/wiki/Bakumatsu \"Bakumatsu\") and [Meiji](/wiki/Meiji_period \"Meiji period\")\\-period [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\").\n\n",
"Early life (1838–1858\\)\n-----------------------\n\nThomas Blake Glover was born at 15 Commerce Street, [Fraserburgh](/wiki/Fraserburgh \"Fraserburgh\"), [Aberdeenshire](/wiki/Aberdeenshire_%28council_area%29 \"Aberdeenshire (council area)\") in northeast [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") on 6 June 1838, the fifth of eight children, to Thomas Berry Glover (1806\\-1878\\), a coastguard officer from [Vauxhall](/wiki/Vauxhall \"Vauxhall\"), London and Mary Findlay (1807\\-1887\\) from the parish of [Fordyce, Banffshire](/wiki/Fordyce%2C_Banffshire \"Fordyce, Banffshire\"). Thomas Blake Glover spent the first six years of his life in Fraserburgh, which was fast expanding as a fishing and trading port.\n\nIn 1844, the family moved first to [coastguard](/wiki/Coast_guard \"Coast guard\") stations at [Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby \"Grimsby\"), then [Collieston](/wiki/Collieston \"Collieston\") in Aberdeenshire, then finally to the [Bridge of Don](/wiki/Bridge_of_Don \"Bridge of Don\"), by [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen \"Aberdeen\"), Thomas senior having by this time been promoted to Chief Coastguard Officer. Young Thomas was educated first at the recently opened parish school in Fraserburgh, then in primary schools in [Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby \"Grimsby\"), [Collieston](/wiki/Collieston \"Collieston\"), and finally at the Chanonry School in [Old Aberdeen](/wiki/Old_Aberdeen \"Old Aberdeen\"). Upon leaving school, Glover took a job as a shipping clerk with the trading company [Jardine Matheson](/wiki/Jardine_Matheson \"Jardine Matheson\") and in 1857 he moved to Shanghai.\n\n",
"Japan (1859–1911\\)\n------------------\n\nIn 1859, aged 21, Glover crossed from [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\") to [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki%2C_Nagasaki \"Nagasaki, Nagasaki\") and worked initially buying Japanese [green tea](/wiki/Green_tea \"Green tea\"). Two years later, he founded his own firm, Glover and Co. (Guraba\\-Shokai).\n\nHis business was based in Nagasaki. It was here that he had his home constructed; the building remains today as the oldest Western\\-style building in Japan.Gardiner, Michael, \" [The Scot who shaped Japan](https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2011/12/11/general/the-scot-who-shaped-japan/)\", *[Japan Times](/wiki/Japan_Times \"Japan Times\")*, 11 December 2011, p. 7\\.\n\nAnti\\-western sentiment was rife in Japan in the [Bakumatsu](/wiki/Bakumatsu \"Bakumatsu\") period due to the [unbalanced treaty agreements](/wiki/Unequal_treaties \"Unequal treaties\") imposed upon the [Tokugawa shogunate](/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate \"Tokugawa shogunate\") by the United States and other western powers, which included [extraterritorial rights](/wiki/Extraterritoriality \"Extraterritoriality\"). [Nationalistic militants](/wiki/Sonno_Joi \"Sonno Joi\") in Satsuma and Chōshū spearheaded anti\\-government efforts aimed at toppling the Shogunate and restoring the [Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan \"Emperor of Japan\") as sovereign. It was these factions, later to become leaders in the [Meiji Restoration](/wiki/Meiji_Restoration \"Meiji Restoration\") government, that Glover supplied with arms and warships.[Jansen, Marius B.](/wiki/Marius_Jansen \"Marius Jansen\") (1961\\). *Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration.* Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 216\\-17, 253\\-55\n\nSome of the arms sales to rebellious factions in the Western regions of Japan (i.e., Satsuma and Choshu) were conducted in violation of treaty agreements between Great Britain and Japan as well as Japanese law.\n\n> The Bakufu had made \"a pointed request to the British Queen not to allow the illicit trade. The Shogun himself sent her a personal letter,\" Glover explained, and to sell arms to a rebel force would be a treaty violation. \"Glover feels sorry for us,\" Kido explained to the Seijido \\[Political Council] in Yamaguchi, \"but there is nothing he can do.\" The Scot did have a suggestion to circumvent the Bakufu. If Choshu would send a vessel directly to Shanghai to buy rifles, \"Glover will do everything in his power to buy and load as many guns as we want; he seems to be deeply committed to us on this matter.\"\n\n> In the end Glover provided the needed rifles directly from Nagasaki, and accompanied Ito Hirobumi back to Shimonoseki, on 15 October 1865, for his first personal meeting with Kido, who noted: \"Trading with our han is strictly prohibited for a foreigner; therefore, Glover is very reluctant about dealing with us,\" explained Kido; and he had not told his own crew about the sale of guns, which, in any case, were not aboard that ship. If discovered, Glover could be prohibited from engaging in foreign trade for three years, and even fined or imprisoned.Sydney DeVere Brown, \"Nagasaki in the Meiji Restoration: Choshu Loyalists and British Arms Merchants\", *Crossroads*, Number 1 (Summer 1993\\) <http://www.augustagazette.com/article/20101210/NEWS/312109909>\n\nIn 1863, Glover helped the [Chōshū Five](/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB_Five \"Chōshū Five\") travel to London on Jardine Matheson ships. He also helped send fifteen trainees from Satsuma under [Godai Tomoatsu](/wiki/Godai_Tomoatsu \"Godai Tomoatsu\") in 1865\\. The same year, he was also responsible for bringing a small\\-scale steam [locomotive](/wiki/Locomotive \"Locomotive\") and cars to Japan, which he demonstrated on a short track in the Ōura district of Nagasaki, causing a sensation and alerting Japan to the benefits of railway transportation.\n\nAs Glover had assisted in toppling the Tokugawa Shogunate during the [Boshin War](/wiki/Boshin_War \"Boshin War\"), he had cordial relations with the new [Meiji government](/wiki/Meiji_government \"Meiji government\"). These links led to his being responsible for commissioning one of the first warships in the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\") (the *Jo Sho Maru*, later called [*Ryūjō Maru*](/wiki/Japanese_ironclad_Ry%C5%ABj%C5%8D \"Japanese ironclad Ryūjō\")), which was built by [Alexander Hall and Company](/wiki/Economy_of_Aberdeen%23Traditional_%28pre_1970%29 \"Economy of Aberdeen#Traditional (pre 1970)\") in Aberdeen and launched on 27 March 1869\\. Glover also commissioned the smaller *Hosho Maru* for the navy and the *Kagoshima* for the Satsuma clan from the same Aberdeen shipyard.\n\nIn 1868, Glover made a contract with the [Nabeshima clan](/wiki/Nabeshima_clan \"Nabeshima clan\") of [Saga Domain](/wiki/Saga_Domain \"Saga Domain\") in [Hizen Province](/wiki/Hizen_Province \"Hizen Province\") and began to develop Japan's first [coal mine](/wiki/Coal_mine \"Coal mine\") at [Hashima Island](/wiki/Hashima_Island \"Hashima Island\"), [Takashima](/wiki/Takashima%2C_Nagasaki_%28Nishisonogi%29 \"Takashima, Nagasaki (Nishisonogi)\"). He also brought the first [dry dock](/wiki/Dry_dock \"Dry dock\") to Japan.\n\nThomas Glover went bankrupt in 1870, but he stayed in Japan to manage the Takashima coal mine after the Restoration for the mine's Dutch owners until it was taken over by the Meiji government. In 1881, the mine was acquired by [Iwasaki Yatarō](/wiki/Iwasaki_Yatar%C5%8D \"Iwasaki Yatarō\").\n\nGlover was a key figure in the industrialisation of Japan, helping to found the shipbuilding company which was later to become the [Mitsubishi Corporation of Japan](/wiki/Mitsubishi \"Mitsubishi\"). Negotiating the sale of [William Copeland's](/wiki/William_Copeland_%28brewer%29 \"William Copeland (brewer)\") Spring Valley Brewery in [Yokohama](/wiki/Yokohama \"Yokohama\"), Glover also helped establish the Japan Brewery Company, which later became the major [Kirin Brewery Company, Ltd.](/wiki/Kirin_Brewery_Company%2C_Ltd. \"Kirin Brewery Company, Ltd.\") An [urban myth](/wiki/Urban_myth \"Urban myth\") has it that the [moustache](/wiki/Moustache \"Moustache\") of the mythical creature featured on Kirin beer labels is in fact a tribute to Glover (who sported a similar moustache).[SECRET TALES](http://www.uwosh.edu/faculty_staff/earns/tales.html) at www.uwosh.edu\n\nIn recognition of these achievements, he was awarded the [Order of the Rising Sun](/wiki/Order_of_the_Rising_Sun \"Order of the Rising Sun\") (second class).\n\nThomas Blake Glover died of kidney disease at his home in Tokyo in 1911, and was buried at the [Sakamoto International Cemetery](/wiki/Sakamoto_International_Cemetery \"Sakamoto International Cemetery\") in Nagasaki.\n\n",
"Family\n------\n\n[thumb\\|Glover (holding grandson) and family, c. 1900](/wiki/File:GloverFamilly.JPG \"GloverFamilly.JPG\")\n\nThomas Glover had a [common\\-law marital relationship](/wiki/Common-law_marriage \"Common-law marriage\") with a Japanese woman named Awajiya Tsuru (淡路屋 ツル), a native of [Bungo province](/wiki/Bungo_province \"Bungo province\") (present day [Oita Prefecture](/wiki/Oita_Prefecture \"Oita Prefecture\")) whom he apparently met in [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka \"Osaka\") in the early 1870s. Glover and Tsuru remained together until the latter's death in 1899\\. The couple had a daughter named Hana, born in Nagasaki in 1876\\. Hana wed British merchant Walter George Bennett in 1897 and later moved with him to Korea, where she died in 1938\\. She had four children but only one grandchild, Ronald Bennett (born 1931\\), who lives in the United States.\n\nThomas Glover (Japanized as Gurabā or Kuraba) also adopted a British\\-Japanese son, later named Kuraba Tomisaburō (倉場 富三郎) (1870–1945\\), who was born in Nagasaki and went on to make important contributions to the economy of this city in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tomisaburō married Nakano Waka (中野 ワカ), also of mixed British and Japanese descent. Official household registers preserved at Nagasaki City Hall indicate that Tomisaburō was the son of a woman named Kaga Maki (加賀 マキ). Kaga Maki married a Japanese man and died in Nagasaki in 1905\\.\n\nDespite his Japanese citizenship, Kuraba Tomisaburō was hounded as a potential spy by the [Japanese military police](/wiki/Kempeitai \"Kempeitai\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). His wife Waka died in 1943, and Tomisaburō committed suicide on 26 August 1945, soon after the [atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki \"Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\") and a few weeks before the arrival of American occupation forces in Nagasaki.\n\nThomas Glover has been linked with [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini \"Giacomo Puccini\")'s opera *[Madama Butterfly](/wiki/Madama_Butterfly \"Madama Butterfly\")*. The opera was based on a [short story](/wiki/Madame_Butterfly_%28short_story%29 \"Madame Butterfly (short story)\") by [John Luther Long](/wiki/John_Luther_Long \"John Luther Long\"), and it has many parallels with [Pierre Loti](/wiki/Pierre_Loti \"Pierre Loti\")'s *[Madame Chrysanthème](/wiki/Madame_Chrysanth%C3%A8me_%28novel%29 \"Madame Chrysanthème (novel)\")* as well as Félix Régamey's parody *The Pink Notebook of Madame Chrysanthème*. All three stories are set on the eastern slope of Nagasaki Harbour. There is no historical evidence to support this claim, except Glover's adoption of half\\-British Tomisaburō, the photographs of Glover's wife Tsuru wearing a kimono with a butterfly design on the sleeve, and Loti's Summer 1885 affair a few blocks north of Glover Garden with Kiku (Chrysanthemum) née Kane. There is also no evidence for the claim that Tsuru went by the nickname \"Chōchō\\-san\" (Ms Butterfly). It is likely, as Brian Burke\\-Gaffney points out, that the Glover\\-Madame Butterfly connection is derived from the fact that the American occupation forces nicknamed the former Glover House the \"Madame Butterfly House\" (purely on the basis of the panoramic view over Nagasaki Harbor and the Euro\\-Japanese ambiance of the building) and that Nagasaki authorities picked up on this as a way to promote the postwar tourism industry.\n\n",
"Freemasonry claim\n-----------------\n\nThere is speculation that he may have been a [Freemason](/wiki/Freemason \"Freemason\").Michael Gardiner, 2007: At the Edge of Empire, The Life of Thomas Blake Glover, Birlinn, pp. 16\\-17, 21 However, no concrete evidence has been presented to support the claim. The gate with the Freemasons' insignia, which Gardiner and others cite as proof of some connection, was relocated to Glover Garden in the 1960s from the site of the former Masonic Lodge in Matsugae\\-machi, and none of the buildings in present\\-day Glover Garden have any historical link with Freemasons. \n\n> What trading houses like Jardine Matheson were looking for were boys of high ambition who showed strength of character useful in negotiation and who were willing to spend years away from their families. In Thomas Blake’s case, the scouts may have been Masons: one of the buildings in the Glover Garden complex is a Masonic lodge, and there is a close system of business contacts running through his career. Jardine Matheson invited Thomas to interview sometime in early 1857 at the age of 18, and not long after he was posted to China. The reason for Jardine Matheson’s appointing Thomas Blake Glover are not documented, even in their own records, and may have involved exotic handshakes. We don’t know.\n\nIn Scottish Freemasonry it is possible for the son of a Freemason to become one himself, at the age of eighteen, but there remains no evidence that Thomas Berry Glover was a member of the secret society.\n\n",
"Residences\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|Glover House known as *Ipponmatsu* (Single Pine Tree) from a drawing of 1863\\. The tree was chopped down in the early 1900s.](/wiki/File:Glover_House.jpg \"Glover House.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Today's Glover\\-Garden, Nagasaki](/wiki/File:Nagasaki-Glover-Garden-5415.jpg \"Nagasaki-Glover-Garden-5415.jpg\")\n\nGlover's former residence in Nagasaki is now a visitor attraction known as [Glover Garden](/wiki/Glover_Garden \"Glover Garden\") and attracts two million visitors each year. He also had a residence in the [Shiba Park](/wiki/Shiba_Park \"Shiba Park\") area of Tokyo.\n\nThe site of the house where Glover is thought to have been born in [Fraserburgh](/wiki/Fraserburgh \"Fraserburgh\") was levelled after a bomb strike during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), although a blue plaque marks the site of his birth. A display in Fraserburgh Heritage Centre commemorates this link.\n\nBraehead House in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen \"Aberdeen\") (now known as Glover House) was purchased by the Glover family in 1864 and Thomas Blake's parents lived there until their deaths. The house was purchased by Mitsubishi in 1996 and gifted to [Grampian Regional Council](/wiki/Grampian_Regional_Council \"Grampian Regional Council\"). Due to local government reorganisation, the house became the property of [Aberdeen City Council](/wiki/Aberdeen_City_Council \"Aberdeen City Council\") the same year, and in 1997 it was sold to Grampian Japan Trust for £1\\. The Trust sold the house to Mitsubishi for £250,000 who immediately sold it back to them for £1\\. The Trust used the funds to convert part of the house to a museum about Thomas Blake Glover's life. It closed to visitors in 2012 and ownership of the empty house transferred to Glover House Trustees Ltd (a company wholly owned by Aberdeen City Council) in 2015\\. As at October 2021, no new use for the house had been found and the property had fallen into disrepair.\n\n",
"Honours and legacy\n------------------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Statue of Thomas Blake Glover in Glover Garden, Nagasaki](/wiki/File:Thomas_Blake_Clover_Statue_Clover_Garden_Nagasaki.jpg \"Thomas Blake Clover Statue Clover Garden Nagasaki.jpg\")\n\n* [Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star](/wiki/Order_of_the_Rising_Sun \"Order of the Rising Sun\"), 1908 (Japan).[\"Crossroads: A Journal of Nagasaki History and Culture\"](http://www.uwosh.edu/faculty_staff/earns/tales.html). Uwosh.edu. Retrieved on 2011\\-11\\-18\\.\n\nHis association with the rebellious samurai clans of [Satsuma](/wiki/Satsuma_Rebellion \"Satsuma Rebellion\") and [Chōshū](/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB_Domain \"Chōshū Domain\"), and his interest in [samurai](/wiki/Samurai \"Samurai\") generally seems to have contributed to his being referred to as the \"Scottish Samurai\" in Scotland.[About Aberdeen.com, downloaded 19 June 2011](http://www.aboutaberdeen.com/thomasblakeglover.php). Aboutaberdeen.com. Retrieved on 2011\\-11\\-18\\.[Amazon listing for Scottish Samurai book](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Scottish-Samurai-Thomas-Blake-Glover/dp/0862414555). Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011\\-11\\-18\\. A Scottish Samurai award has been initiated by one of Aberdeenshire's most famous sons, who also holds the Order of the Rising Sun; Ronald Stewart Watt, OBE, ORS, OSS 大将軍, KCCR, KHT, 9th Dan, Hanshi, assisted by the Aberdeen Sports Council.[Scottish Samurai Award](http://www.scottishsamurai.org/). Retrieved on 2014\\-11\\-11\\.\n\nIn December 2021, a plantation of cherry blossom trees in Mineralwell Park, [Stonehaven](/wiki/Stonehaven \"Stonehaven\") was dedicated to Glover.\n\n",
"The Glover whisky\n-----------------\n\nThe Glover series of whiskies was launched in October 2015 to celebrate the life of Thomas Blake Glover and honour the long\\-standing relationship between Scotland and Japan.[\"Hybrid whisky honours ‘Scottish Samurai’\"](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/scotland/article4597247.ece), [The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")\n\nInitially, two whiskies were created, a 22\\-year\\-old and a 14\\-year\\-old. These were made using rare single malt whisky from the highly sought\\-after and now defunct Hanyu distillery in Japan and single malt Scotch from Longmorn and Glen Garioch distilleries, with the blending and bottling carried out by Fife\\-based [Adelphi](/wiki/Adelphi_Whisky \"Adelphi Whisky\"). They are considered to be the first Scottish\\-Japanese blend, and celebrate the fact they are a blend of Scotch and non\\-Scotch.[fusionwhisky.com](http://fusionwhisky.com/the-glover/)\n\nThe Glover 22\\-year\\-old, which had the highest concentration of the Japanese whisky, was priced at £1,050\\. Only 390 bottles were made. The 14\\-year\\-old was priced at around £85 and 1,500 bottles were made. Both have subsequently sold out.\n\nA third fusion whisky, an 18\\-year\\-old, was launched in August 2016\\. Of this, 1,448 were made, priced around £145\\.[\"Spirit of 'Scottish samurai' inspires whisky fusion to export success\"](http://www.heraldscotland.com/business/14688758.Spirit_of__Scottish_samurai__inspires_whisky_fusion_to_export_success/), [The Herald](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Glasgow%29 \"The Herald (Glasgow)\")\n\n",
"In fiction\n----------\n\nGlover is the subject of *The Pure Land* by [Alan Spence](/wiki/Alan_Spence \"Alan Spence\"). The novel relives in fiction his true life rise and fall, and his love affair with a courtesan who, unknown to him, has a son for which he has longed.[\"Nagasaki: On the trail of Madame Butterfly\", 6 Jul 2010, *Daily telegraph*](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/japan/7874306/Nagasaki-On-the-trailof-Madame-Butterfly.html) Glover is also the basis for the character Jamie McFay in the [James Clavell](/wiki/James_Clavell \"James Clavell\") novel *[Gai\\-Jin](/wiki/Gai-Jin \"Gai-Jin\")*, set in the early 1860s. In addition, Glover appeared as an enemy in the Japanese videogame *[Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!](/wiki/Ry%C5%AB_ga_Gotoku_Ishin%21 \"Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!\")* and is voiced by Jeff Gedert.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Harry Smith Parkes](/wiki/Harry_Smith_Parkes \"Harry Smith Parkes\")\n* [Foreign cemeteries in Japan](/wiki/Foreign_cemeteries_in_Japan \"Foreign cemeteries in Japan\")\n* [Anglo\\-Japanese relations](/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_relations \"Anglo-Japanese relations\")\n* [Chōshū Five](/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB_Five \"Chōshū Five\")\n* [Richard Henry Brunton](/wiki/Richard_Henry_Brunton \"Richard Henry Brunton\"), another Scotsman who made a major impact in 19th century Japan\n* [Joseph Henry Longford](/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Longford \"Joseph Henry Longford\") was a friend of Glover\n* [Ernest Satow](/wiki/Ernest_Satow \"Ernest Satow\")\n* [Alexander Cameron Sim](/wiki/Alexander_Cameron_Sim \"Alexander Cameron Sim\")\n* [Henry Dyer](/wiki/Henry_Dyer \"Henry Dyer\")\n* [List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868](/wiki/List_of_Westerners_who_visited_Japan_before_1868 \"List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868\")\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n* Burke\\-Gaffney, Brian. (2003\\). *Starcrossed: A Biography of Madame Butterfly.* Norwalk, Connecticut: EastBridge. ; [OCLC 261376334](http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/261376334)\n* Naito, Hatsuho. (2001\\). *Tōmasu bi guraba shimatsu : meiji kenkoku no yōshō.* (トーマス・B・グラバー始末： 明治建国の洋商). Tokyo: Ateneshobō. ; \n* McKay, Alexander. (1993\\). *Scottish Samurai: The Life of Thomas Blake Glover.* Edinburgh: [Canongate Books](/wiki/Canongate_Books \"Canongate Books\"). ; \n* McKay, Alexander. (Midori Hiraoka, trans). (1997\\). *Tōmasu guraba den* (トーマス・グラバー伝). Tokyo: Chuō Kōronsha. ; [OCLC 47299389](http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47299389)\n* Spence, Alan. (2006\\). *The Pure Land.* Edinburgh: Canongate Books. ; \n* Gardiner, Michael. (2007\\). *At the Edge of Empire: The Life of Thomas B. Glover.* Edinburgh: Birlinn. ; \n\n* van Rij, Jan. (2001\\). *Madame Butterfly: Japonisme, Puccini, and the Search for the Real Cho\\-Cho\\-San.* Berkeley, California: Stone Bridge Press. ; [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\")\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Thomas Blake Glover](http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/thomas_glover.htm)\n* [Famous Scots](http://www.rampantscotland.com/famous/blfamglover.htm)\n* Nagasaki Tourism website: [Glover Garden](https://web.archive.org/web/20121027120132/http://www.glover-garden.jp/foreign/english.html); [Glover Garden](https://web.archive.org/web/20090802211157/http://www.glover-garden.jp/index.html) \n* (BBC programme)\n\n[Category:1838 births](/wiki/Category:1838_births \"1838 births\")\n[Category:1911 deaths](/wiki/Category:1911_deaths \"1911 deaths\")\n[Category:People associated with Aberdeen](/wiki/Category:People_associated_with_Aberdeen \"People associated with Aberdeen\")\n[Category:People educated at Fordyce Academy](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Fordyce_Academy \"People educated at Fordyce Academy\")\n[Category:People from Fraserburgh](/wiki/Category:People_from_Fraserburgh \"People from Fraserburgh\")\n[Category:19th\\-century Scottish merchants](/wiki/Category:19th-century_Scottish_merchants \"19th-century Scottish merchants\")\n[Category:Scottish company founders](/wiki/Category:Scottish_company_founders \"Scottish company founders\")\n[Category:Scottish expatriates in Japan](/wiki/Category:Scottish_expatriates_in_Japan \"Scottish expatriates in Japan\")\n[Category:People of Meiji\\-period Japan](/wiki/Category:People_of_Meiji-period_Japan \"People of Meiji-period Japan\")\n[Category:People in Kyushu](/wiki/Category:People_in_Kyushu \"People in Kyushu\")\n[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class](/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Order_of_the_Rising_Sun%2C_2nd_class \"Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class\")\n[Category:19th\\-century Scottish businesspeople](/wiki/Category:19th-century_Scottish_businesspeople \"19th-century Scottish businesspeople\")\n[Category:20th\\-century Scottish businesspeople](/wiki/Category:20th-century_Scottish_businesspeople \"20th-century Scottish businesspeople\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Čičmany
|
{
"id": [
44292719
],
"name": [
"Dasomm"
]
}
|
2nbqg6eckmkbnnp2cl9iau3oxiqb8pd
|
2024-06-27T09:43:33Z
| 1,219,170,591 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Geography",
"Culture",
"Genealogical resources",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Čičmany** is a [village](/wiki/Village \"Village\") and [municipality](/wiki/Municipality \"Municipality\") in [Žilina District](/wiki/%C5%BDilina_District \"Žilina District\") in the [Žilina Region](/wiki/%C5%BDilina_Region \"Žilina Region\") of northern [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\"). It contains a [folk architecture](/wiki/Folk_architecture \"Folk architecture\") reserve, which was founded in 1977\\.\n\n",
"Etymology\n---------\n\nThe name is derived from a [Slovak](/wiki/Slovak_language \"Slovak language\") word *čičman* (a [lumberjack](/wiki/Lumberjack \"Lumberjack\") who makes a noise while working).\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe first preserved reference to the village dates from 1272 (*Cziczman*). After a great fire in 1921, the village was restored to its original appearance with generous contributions by the state. Until the mid\\-20th century, the village was a centre of [sheep](/wiki/Domestic_sheep \"Domestic sheep\") raising.\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nThe [municipality](/wiki/Municipality \"Municipality\") lies at an [altitude](/wiki/Altitude \"Altitude\") of and covers an [area](/wiki/Area \"Area\") of . It has a [population](/wiki/Population \"Population\") of about 204 people.\n\n",
"Culture\n-------\n\n[Timbered](/wiki/Lumber \"Lumber\") [houses](/wiki/House \"House\") with ridge [roofs](/wiki/Roof \"Roof\"), [galleries](/wiki/Long_gallery \"Long gallery\") and pointed or [linear](/wiki/Linear \"Linear\") [wall](/wiki/Wall \"Wall\") decorations have been preserved in Čičmany. Of particular interest are the very specific white patterns which are painted on the exterior walls of the houses to decorate them. The local [folk music](/wiki/Folk_music \"Folk music\"), special folk [costumes](/wiki/Costume \"Costume\") and [folk dances](/wiki/Folk_dance \"Folk dance\") of the village have been preserved as well.\n\n",
"Genealogical resources\n----------------------\n\nThe records for genealogical research are available at the state archive \"Statny Archiv in Bytca, Slovakia\"\n\n* Roman Catholic church records (births/marriages/deaths): 1729–1918 (parish A)\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of municipalities and towns in Slovakia](/wiki/List_of_municipalities_and_towns_in_Slovakia \"List of municipalities and towns in Slovakia\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* <http://www.cicmany.info>\n* <http://www.cicmany.viapvt.sk/>\n* [http://www.peacegallery.com/europe/slovakia/slovakia11\\.htm](http://www.peacegallery.com/europe/slovakia/slovakia11.htm)\n* <http://www.mestozilina.sk/sprievodca/mesto/okolie/cicmany.html>\n* [**Surnames** of living people in Čičmany](http://www.cisarik.com/0_Cicmany_Zilina_ZI_Trencsen_Trencin.html)\n\n \n\n[Category:Villages and municipalities in Žilina District](/wiki/Category:Villages_and_municipalities_in_%C5%BDilina_District \"Villages and municipalities in Žilina District\")\n\n \n\n"
]
}
|
Chunhyang (film)
|
{
"id": [
16078769
],
"name": [
"Jontel"
]
}
|
medem5knecgnh92jlscnighhjfy335z
|
2024-09-03T05:44:25Z
| 1,242,783,014 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Plot",
"Cast",
"Production",
"Critical reception",
"Awards and nominations",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n***Chunhyang*** () is a 2000 South Korean [period](/wiki/Period_drama \"Period drama\") [romantic drama film](/wiki/Romantic_drama_film \"Romantic drama film\") directed by [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\"), with a screenplay by Kang Hye\\-yeon and [Kim Myung\\-gon](/wiki/Kim_Myung-gon \"Kim Myung-gon\"). Distributed by [CJ Entertainment](/wiki/CJ_Entertainment \"CJ Entertainment\"), the film was released on January 29, 2000 in South Korea. Lee Hyo\\-jeong plays Chunhyang and [Cho Seung\\-woo](/wiki/Cho_Seung-woo \"Cho Seung-woo\") plays Mongryong.\n\nIt is a film adaptation of the *pansori* [Chunhyangga](/wiki/Chunhyangga \"Chunhyangga\"), one of the most notable works in the pansori tradition. To date, there have been more than sixteen works based on this narrative, including three North Korean films. Im Kwon\\-taek's *Chunhyang* presents a new interpretation of this oral tradition with a focus towards a more global audience. It is the first Chunhyang adaptation that uses lyrics of pansori as a major part of the screenplay. The film uses the framing device of a present\\-day pansori narrator who, accompanied by a drummer, sings the story of Chunhyang in front of a responsive audience. The film flashes back and forth between the singer's presentation and scenes of Mongryong.\n\nIt was entered into the [2000 Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/2000_Cannes_Film_Festival \"2000 Cannes Film Festival\"). The film is the first Korean film which was presented at the 2000 [Telluride Film Festival](/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival \"Telluride Film Festival\"). At the 2000 [Asia Pacific Film Festival](/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Film_Festival \"Asia Pacific Film Festival\"), it won a Special Jury Award. It also won an award for Best Narrative at the [Hawaii International Film Festival](/wiki/Hawaii_International_Film_Festival \"Hawaii International Film Festival\") in 2000\\.\n\n",
"Plot\n----\n\nThe film is told through [pansori](/wiki/Pansori \"Pansori\"), a traditional Korean form of storytelling that narrates through song. It is based on *[Chunhyangga](/wiki/Chunhyangga \"Chunhyangga\")*, a traditional Korean folktale, and is set in 18th century Korea.\n\nLee Mongryong, a governor's son living in [Namwon](/wiki/Namwon \"Namwon\") falls in love and marries Chunhyang Sung, the daughter of a courtesan. Their marriage is kept a secret from his father who would disown Lee if he found out that he had married beneath him. The governor is posted to Seoul and so Mongryong has to leave his wife behind, promising to return for her when he passes the official exam.\n\nAfter Mongryong and his father leaves, the new governor, Byun Hakdo, desires Chunhyang. When she refuses, stating that she is married and will remain faithful, the governor punishes her by flogging. Meanwhile, in Seoul, Lee passes the exam with the top score and becomes an officer. After three years, Mongryong returns to the town on a King's mission. There, he finds that his wife is to be beaten to death on the governor's birthday as a punishment for rejecting him. Mongryong arrests the governor for his corruption and avarice. The two lovers are finally united.\n\n",
"Cast\n----\n\n* Lee Hyo\\-jeong \\- Chunhyang\n* [Cho Seung\\-woo](/wiki/Cho_Seung-woo \"Cho Seung-woo\") \\- Mongryong\n* Kim Sung\\-nyeo \\- Wolmae\n* Lee Jung\\-hun \\- Governor Byun\n* Kim Hak\\-yong \\- Bangja\n* Choi Jin\\-young \\- Governor Lee\n* Hong Kyung\\-yeun \\- kisaeng leader\n* Cho Sang\\-hyun \\- pansori singer\n* Kim Myung\\-hwan \\- pansori drummer\n* Lee Hae\\-ryong \\- Lord of Soonchun\n* Gok Jun\\-hwam \\- Lord of Okgwa\n* Yoon Keun\\-mo \\- Lord of Goksung\n* Lee Hye\\-eun \\- Hyangdan\n",
"Production\n----------\n\nThe bed scene between Chunhyang and Mongryong took two days to film because [Cho Seung\\-woo](/wiki/Cho_Seung-woo \"Cho Seung-woo\") and Hyo\\-jeong Lee, who had no experience at all, were shy. The two of them didn't know there was a love scene until they started filming, and they were scared, and director [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") gave them homework to come after seeing 'Yellow Hair'.\n\n",
"Critical reception\n------------------\n\nAccording to Elvis Mitchell of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, \"Instead the story is freshened through the use of a Korean singing storyteller, a pansori singer, to provide a narration, belting out the song from a stage in front of an audience. The pansori, or song, is performed under a proscenium arch to highlight the ritual elements of folk tales. Even though much of what the pansori tells us unfolds before the cameras at the same moment, the forcefulness of the performance lends another layer of feeling to the picture.\"\n\n",
"Awards and nominations\n----------------------\n\n| Year | Award | Category | Recipients | Result | Ref. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2000 | [53rd Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/2000_Cannes_Film_Festival \"2000 Cannes Film Festival\") | [Palme d'Or](/wiki/Palme_d%27Or \"Palme d'Or\") | [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") | | |\n| 21st [Blue Dragon Film Awards](/wiki/Blue_Dragon_Film_Awards \"Blue Dragon Film Awards\") | [Best Film](/wiki/Blue_Dragon_Film_Award_for_Best_Film \"Blue Dragon Film Award for Best Film\") | *Chunhyang* | | |\n| [Best Director](/wiki/Blue_Dragon_Film_Award_for_Best_Director \"Blue Dragon Film Award for Best Director\") | [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") | | |\n| [Best Supporting Actress](/wiki/Blue_Dragon_Film_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress \"Blue Dragon Film Award for Best Supporting Actress\") | Kim Sung\\-nyeo | | |\n| [Best New Actor](/wiki/Blue_Dragon_Film_Award_for_Best_New_Actor \"Blue Dragon Film Award for Best New Actor\") | [Cho Seung\\-woo](/wiki/Cho_Seung-woo \"Cho Seung-woo\") | | |\n| 37th [Grand Bell Awards](/wiki/Grand_Bell_Awards \"Grand Bell Awards\") | Best Film | *Chunhyang* | | |\n| Special Jury Award | [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") | | |\n| Best Director | | |\n| Best Supporting Actress | Kim Sung\\-nyeo | | |\n| Best New Actor | [Cho Seung\\-woo](/wiki/Cho_Seung-woo \"Cho Seung-woo\") | | |\n| Best New Actress | Lee Hyo\\-jeong | | |\n| Best Cinematography | Jung II\\-sung | | |\n| Best Art Direction | Min Eon\\-ok | | |\n| 36th [Baeksang Arts Awards](/wiki/Baeksang_Arts_Awards \"Baeksang Arts Awards\") | [Grand Prize (Daesang)](/wiki/Baeksang_Arts_Awards_for_Grand_Prize_%28Film%29 \"Baeksang Arts Awards for Grand Prize (Film)\") | *Chunhyang* | | |\n| [Best Director](/wiki/Baeksang_Arts_Awards_for_Best_Director_%28Film%29 \"Baeksang Arts Awards for Best Director (Film)\") | [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") | | |\n| 8th [Chunsa Film Art Awards](/wiki/Chunsa_Film_Art_Awards \"Chunsa Film Art Awards\") | Best Supporting Actress | Kim Sung\\-nyeo | | |\n| Best Cinematography | Jung II\\-sung | | |\n| Best Lighting | Lee Min\\-bu | | |\n| Best Planning/Producer | Lee Tae\\-won | | |\n| [Telluride Film Festival](/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival \"Telluride Film Festival\") | Film Presented | *Chunhyang* | | |\n| [Asia Pacific Film Festival](/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Film_Festival \"Asia Pacific Film Festival\") | Special Jury Award | | |\n| [Hawaii International Film Festival](/wiki/Hawaii_International_Film_Festival \"Hawaii International Film Festival\") | Narrative Feature | *Chunhyang* | | |\n| 5th [Busan International Film Festival](/wiki/Busan_International_Film_Festival \"Busan International Film Festival\") | Netpac Award | [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") | | |\n| 13th [Singapore International Film Festival](/wiki/Singapore_International_Film_Festival \"Singapore International Film Festival\") | Best Director | | |\n| 20th [Korean Association of Film Critics Awards](/wiki/Korean_Association_of_Film_Critics_Awards \"Korean Association of Film Critics Awards\") | Best Cinematography | Jung Il\\-sung | | |\n| 2001 | [Fribourg International Film Festival](/wiki/Fribourg_International_Film_Festival \"Fribourg International Film Festival\") | Grand Prix | [Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Im_Kwon-taek \"Im Kwon-taek\") | | |\n|\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [*Chunhyang*](https://web.archive.org/web/20151208112549/http://www.biff.kr/eng/html/program/prog_view.asp?idx=10876&c_idx=71&sp_idx=268) at the [Busan International Film Festival](/wiki/Busan_International_Film_Festival \"Busan International Film Festival\")\n* [The Ch'unhyang Story](https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110156/http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page03.html?thisChar=6) \\- from the award\\-winning website Instrok.org, created by [East Rock Institute](/wiki/East_Rock_Institute \"East Rock Institute\")\n\n[Category:2000 films](/wiki/Category:2000_films \"2000 films\")\n[Category:2000s romantic musical films](/wiki/Category:2000s_romantic_musical_films \"2000s romantic musical films\")\n[Category:2000s historical romance films](/wiki/Category:2000s_historical_romance_films \"2000s historical romance films\")\n[Category:South Korean romantic musical films](/wiki/Category:South_Korean_romantic_musical_films \"South Korean romantic musical films\")\n[Category:Pansori](/wiki/Category:Pansori \"Pansori\")\n[Category:Films set in the 18th century](/wiki/Category:Films_set_in_the_18th_century \"Films set in the 18th century\")\n[Category:Films set in Joseon](/wiki/Category:Films_set_in_Joseon \"Films set in Joseon\")\n[Category:Films based on The Tale of Chunhyang](/wiki/Category:Films_based_on_The_Tale_of_Chunhyang \"Films based on The Tale of Chunhyang\")\n[Category:Films directed by Im Kwon\\-taek](/wiki/Category:Films_directed_by_Im_Kwon-taek \"Films directed by Im Kwon-taek\")\n[Category:2000s Korean\\-language films](/wiki/Category:2000s_Korean-language_films \"2000s Korean-language films\")\n[Category:South Korean historical romance films](/wiki/Category:South_Korean_historical_romance_films \"South Korean historical romance films\")\n[Category:Grand Prize Paeksang Arts Award (Film) winners](/wiki/Category:Grand_Prize_Paeksang_Arts_Award_%28Film%29_winners \"Grand Prize Paeksang Arts Award (Film) winners\")\n[Category:2000s South Korean films](/wiki/Category:2000s_South_Korean_films \"2000s South Korean films\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Sethi–Ullman algorithm
|
{
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35936988
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"name": [
"JJMC89 bot III"
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kgptvwo3hv3h0zfu0b19p3rc9tcxfy0
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2024-10-12T19:57:54Z
| 1,250,714,311 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Overview",
"Simple Sethi–Ullman algorithm",
"Example",
"Advanced Sethi–Ullman algorithm",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
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"In [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\"), the **Sethi–Ullman algorithm** is an [algorithm](/wiki/Algorithm \"Algorithm\") named after [Ravi Sethi](/wiki/Ravi_Sethi \"Ravi Sethi\") and [Jeffrey D. Ullman](/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Ullman \"Jeffrey D. Ullman\"), its inventors, for translating [abstract syntax trees](/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree \"Abstract syntax tree\") into [machine code](/wiki/Machine_code \"Machine code\") that uses as few [registers](/wiki/Processor_register \"Processor register\") as possible.\n\n",
"Overview\n--------\n\nWhen [generating code](/wiki/Code_generation_%28compiler%29 \"Code generation (compiler)\") for arithmetic expressions, the [compiler](/wiki/Compiler \"Compiler\") has to decide which is the best way to translate the expression in terms of number of instructions used as well as number of registers needed to evaluate a certain subtree. Especially in the case that free registers are scarce, the [order of evaluation](/wiki/Order_of_evaluation \"Order of evaluation\") can be important to the length of the generated code, because different orderings may lead to larger or smaller numbers of intermediate values being [spilled](/wiki/Register_allocation \"Register allocation\") to memory and then restored. The Sethi–Ullman algorithm (also known as **Sethi–Ullman numbering**) produces code which needs the fewest instructions possible as well as the fewest storage references (under the assumption that at the most [commutativity](/wiki/Commutativity \"Commutativity\") and [associativity](/wiki/Associativity \"Associativity\") apply to the operators used, but distributive laws i.e. a \\* b \\+ a \\* c \\= a \\* (b \\+ c) do not hold). The algorithm succeeds as well if neither [commutativity](/wiki/Commutativity \"Commutativity\") nor [associativity](/wiki/Associativity \"Associativity\") hold for the expressions used, and therefore arithmetic transformations can not be applied. The algorithm also does not take advantage of common subexpressions or apply directly to expressions represented as general directed acyclic graphs rather than trees.\n\n",
"Simple Sethi–Ullman algorithm\n-----------------------------\n\nThe **simple Sethi–Ullman algorithm** works as follows (for a [load/store architecture](/wiki/Load/store_architecture \"Load/store architecture\")):\n\n1. Traverse the [abstract syntax tree](/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree \"Abstract syntax tree\") in pre\\- or postorder\n\t1. For every leaf node, if it is a non\\-constant left\\-child, assign a 1 (i.e. 1 register is needed to hold the variable/field/etc.), otherwise assign a 0 (it is a non\\-constant right child or constant leaf node (RHS of an operation – literals, values)).\n\t2. For every non\\-leaf node, if the left and right subtrees respectively need different numbers of registers *l* and *r*, then assign max(*l*, *r*), otherwise assign *r* \\+ 1\\.\n2. To emit code, if the subtrees need different numbers of registers, evaluate the subtree needing the most registers first (since the register needed to save the result of one subtree may make the other one [spill](/wiki/Register_spilling \"Register spilling\")), otherwise the order is irrelevant.\n\n### Example\n\nFor an arithmetic expression a \\= (b \\+ c \\+ f \\* g)\\*(d\\+3\\), the [abstract syntax tree](/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree \"Abstract syntax tree\") looks like this:\n\n```\n =\n / \\\n a *\n / \\\n / \\\n + +\n / \\ / \\\n / \\ d 3\n + *\n / \\ / \\\n b c f g\n\n```\nTo continue with the algorithm, we need only to examine the arithmetic expression (b \\+ c \\+ f \\* g) \\* (d \\+ 3\\), i.e. we only have to look at the right subtree of the assignment '\\=':\n\n```\n *\n / \\\n / \\\n + +\n / \\ / \\\n / \\ d 3\n + *\n / \\ / \\\n b c f g\n\n```\nNow we start traversing the tree (in preorder for now), assigning the number of registers needed to evaluate each subtree (note that the last summand in the expression (b \\+ c \\+ f \\* g) \\* (d \\+ 3\\) is a constant):\n\n```\n *\n```\n\n**2**\n\n```\n / \\\n / \\\n +\n```\n\n**2** \\+**1**\n\n```\n / \\ / \\\n / \\ d\n```\n\n**1** 3**0**\n\n```\n +\n```\n\n**1** \\***1**\n\n```\n / \\ / \\\n b\n```\n\n**1** c**0**f**1** g**0**\nFrom this tree it can be seen that we need 2 registers to compute the left subtree of the '\\*', but only 1 register to compute the right subtree. Nodes 'c' and 'g' do not need registers for the following reasons: If T is a tree leaf, then the number of registers to evaluate T is either 1 or 0 depending whether T is a left or a right subtree (since an operation such as add R1, A can handle the right component A directly without storing it into a register). Therefore we shall start to emit code for the left subtree first, because we might run into the situation that we only have 2 registers left to compute the whole expression. If we now computed the right subtree first (which needs only 1 register), we would then need a register to hold the result of the right subtree while computing the left subtree (which would still need 2 registers), therefore needing 3 registers concurrently. Computing the left subtree first needs 2 registers, but the result can be stored in 1, and since the right subtree needs only 1 register to compute, the evaluation of the expression can do with only 2 registers left.\n\n",
"### Example\n\nFor an arithmetic expression a \\= (b \\+ c \\+ f \\* g)\\*(d\\+3\\), the [abstract syntax tree](/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree \"Abstract syntax tree\") looks like this:\n\n```\n =\n / \\\n a *\n / \\\n / \\\n + +\n / \\ / \\\n / \\ d 3\n + *\n / \\ / \\\n b c f g\n\n```\nTo continue with the algorithm, we need only to examine the arithmetic expression (b \\+ c \\+ f \\* g) \\* (d \\+ 3\\), i.e. we only have to look at the right subtree of the assignment '\\=':\n\n```\n *\n / \\\n / \\\n + +\n / \\ / \\\n / \\ d 3\n + *\n / \\ / \\\n b c f g\n\n```\nNow we start traversing the tree (in preorder for now), assigning the number of registers needed to evaluate each subtree (note that the last summand in the expression (b \\+ c \\+ f \\* g) \\* (d \\+ 3\\) is a constant):\n\n```\n *\n```\n\n**2**\n\n```\n / \\\n / \\\n +\n```\n\n**2** \\+**1**\n\n```\n / \\ / \\\n / \\ d\n```\n\n**1** 3**0**\n\n```\n +\n```\n\n**1** \\***1**\n\n```\n / \\ / \\\n b\n```\n\n**1** c**0**f**1** g**0**\nFrom this tree it can be seen that we need 2 registers to compute the left subtree of the '\\*', but only 1 register to compute the right subtree. Nodes 'c' and 'g' do not need registers for the following reasons: If T is a tree leaf, then the number of registers to evaluate T is either 1 or 0 depending whether T is a left or a right subtree (since an operation such as add R1, A can handle the right component A directly without storing it into a register). Therefore we shall start to emit code for the left subtree first, because we might run into the situation that we only have 2 registers left to compute the whole expression. If we now computed the right subtree first (which needs only 1 register), we would then need a register to hold the result of the right subtree while computing the left subtree (which would still need 2 registers), therefore needing 3 registers concurrently. Computing the left subtree first needs 2 registers, but the result can be stored in 1, and since the right subtree needs only 1 register to compute, the evaluation of the expression can do with only 2 registers left.\n\n",
"Advanced Sethi–Ullman algorithm\n-------------------------------\n\nIn an advanced version of the **Sethi–Ullman algorithm**, the arithmetic expressions are first transformed, exploiting the algebraic properties of the operators used.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Strahler number](/wiki/Strahler_number \"Strahler number\"), the minimum number of registers needed to evaluate an expression without any external storage\n* [Ershov Number](/wiki/Ershov_Number \"Ershov Number\"), basically the same concept as Strahler number\n",
"References\n----------\n\n* .\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Code Generation for Trees](https://lambda.uta.edu/cse5317/notes/node43.html)\n\n[Category:Compiler construction](/wiki/Category:Compiler_construction \"Compiler construction\")\n[Category:Graph algorithms](/wiki/Category:Graph_algorithms \"Graph algorithms\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Coelhoso
|
{
"id": [
28438779
],
"name": [
"CoolieCoolster"
]
}
|
10600hd4ez5iox73zouw4nr8hmelcgn
|
2024-04-16T05:22:13Z
| 956,562,362 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Coelhoso** is a civil parish in the municipality of [Bragança](/wiki/Bragan%C3%A7a_Municipality \"Bragança Municipality\"), Portugal. The population in 2011 was 319,[Instituto Nacional de Estatística](http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xlang=en&xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&indOcorrCod=0005889&contexto=pi&selTab=tab0) in an area of 19\\.78 km2.[Eurostat](http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_nomenclature/documents/PT-LAU.xls) \n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Parishes of Bragança, Portugal](/wiki/Category:Parishes_of_Bragan%C3%A7a%2C_Portugal \"Parishes of Bragança, Portugal\")\n\n \n\n"
]
}
|
Kogarah, New South Wales
|
{
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null
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"name": [
"58.107.252.15"
]
}
|
ovhyyfec53zy8fehre202ml9e7axz3i
|
2024-10-02T11:15:14Z
| 1,248,950,985 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Location",
"History",
"Heritage listings",
"Population",
"Demographics",
"Notable residents",
"Transportation",
"Schools and churches",
"Schools",
"Churches",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2
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"content": [
"\n\n**Kogarah** () is a [suburb](/wiki/Suburb \"Suburb\") of [Southern Sydney](/wiki/Southern_Sydney \"Southern Sydney\"), in the state of [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\"), Australia. Kogarah is located 14 kilometres (9 miles) south\\-west of the [Sydney central business district](/wiki/Sydney_central_business_district \"Sydney central business district\") and is considered to be the centre of the [St George](/wiki/St_George%2C_New_South_Wales \"St George, New South Wales\") area.\n\n",
"Location\n--------\n\nKogarah took its name from Kogarah Bay, a small [bay](/wiki/Bay \"Bay\") on the northern shore of the [Georges River](/wiki/Georges_River \"Georges River\"). The suburb originally stretched to the bay but has since been divided up to form the separate suburbs of [Kogarah Bay](/wiki/Kogarah_Bay%2C_New_South_Wales \"Kogarah Bay, New South Wales\") and [Beverley Park](/wiki/Beverley_Park%2C_New_South_Wales \"Beverley Park, New South Wales\").\n\nKogarah has a mixture of residential, commercial and light industrial areas. It is also known for its large number of schools (including primary school, high school and tertiary education) and health care services (including two hospitals and many medical centres). The [NRL](/wiki/National_Rugby_League \"National Rugby League\") side, [St George Illawarra Dragons](/wiki/St_George_Illawarra_Dragons \"St George Illawarra Dragons\") have their [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") office based at nearby [Jubilee Oval](/wiki/Jubilee_Oval \"Jubilee Oval\"), often referred to as Kogarah Oval. Kogarah features all types of residential developments from low density detached houses, to medium density flats and high density high\\-rise apartments.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n[Railway Parade in 1915\\. The former Kogarah Post Office on the right was built in 1892 and is now a community centre\\|thumb\\|left](/wiki/File:KogarahPostOffice1915.jpg \"KogarahPostOffice1915.jpg\")\nKogarah is derived from an [Aboriginal](/wiki/Indigenous_Australians \"Indigenous Australians\") word meaning *rushes or place of reeds*. It had also been written as 'Coggera', 'Cogerah' and 'Kuggerah' but the current spelling was settled when the railway line came through the area in the 1880s.\n\nEarly land grants in the area were made to John Townson (1760–1835\\) who received from 1808 to 1810, centred on [Hurstville](/wiki/Hurstville%2C_New_South_Wales \"Hurstville, New South Wales\") and James Chandler, whose neighbouring estate was centred on [Bexley](/wiki/Bexley%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bexley, New South Wales\"). The district provided fruit, vegetables and oysters for Sydney. In 1869, St Paul's Church of England opened on Rocky Point Road (now Princes Highway). It was built on of land given to the church by William Wolfen the Swedish Consul to Sydney, who owned in Kogarah. The suburb grew around the church and the Gardeners Arms Hotel. Kogarah became a municipality in 1885\\.*The Book of Sydney Suburbs*, Compiled by Frances Pollon, Angus \\& Robertson Publishers, 1990, Published in Australia , page 142\n\nThe former neighbourhood of Moorefield is now part of Kogarah. It was originally a land grant from [Governor Lachlan Macquarie](/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie \"Lachlan Macquarie\") in 1812 to Patrick Moore, who built a fine house there. The Moorefield racecourse built by a descendant opened in 1888\\. [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General_%28Australia%29 \"Brigadier General (Australia)\") [John Lamrock](/wiki/John_Lamrock \"John Lamrock\") [CB](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath \"Order of the Bath\") [VD](/wiki/Volunteer_Decoration \"Volunteer Decoration\") was appointed secretary of the Moorefield Race Club in 1912 and remained in that position until early in 1935\\. The Moorefield estate was subdivided in the 1950s and the Department of Education purchased , where it built two high schools and college of further education. Moorefields Girls High School was erected there in 1955 on the former site of Moore's farm.*Pictorial Memories. ST. GEORGE: Rockdale, Kogarah, Hurstville* Joan Lawrence, Kingsclear Books, 1996, Published in Australia \n\n",
"Heritage listings\n-----------------\n\nKogarah has a number of heritage\\-listed sites, including:\n* Toomevara Lane: [Toomevara Lane Chinese Market Gardens](/wiki/Toomevara_Lane_Chinese_Market_Gardens \"Toomevara Lane Chinese Market Gardens\")\n\n",
"Population\n----------\n\n### Demographics\n\nAccording to the 2021 [Australian Bureau of Statistics](/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Statistics \"Australian Bureau of Statistics\") [Census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of Population, there were 16,416 people in Kogarah. 36\\.3% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were Nepal 11\\.3%, China 8\\.2%, India 6\\.0%, the Philippines 3\\.9% and Bangladesh 2\\.9%. 30\\.4% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Nepali 11\\.6%, Mandarin 7\\.8%, Cantonese 5\\.3%, Greek 4\\.8% and Bengali 3\\.7%. The most common responses for religious affiliation were No Religion 22\\.7%, Catholic 17\\.8%, Hinduism 16\\.8% and Eastern Orthodox 9\\.5%.\n\n### Notable residents\n\n* [Dave Brown](/wiki/Dave_Brown_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1913%29 \"Dave Brown (rugby league, born 1913)\")rugby league star of the 1930s was born in Kogarah\n* [Ray Burton](/wiki/Ray_Burton_%28musician%29 \"Ray Burton (musician)\")an internationally acclaimed musician, singer and songwriter\n* Rev Dr [Rowland Croucher](/wiki/Rowland_Croucher \"Rowland Croucher\")theologian and author, lived in Warialda Street in the early years of married life while he was a staffworker with the InterVarsity Fellowship. His wife Jan taught at Kogarah High School\n* [Reg Gasnier](/wiki/Reg_Gasnier \"Reg Gasnier\")rugby league legend lived in Kogarah\n* [Clive James](/wiki/Clive_James \"Clive James\")writer, poet, essayist, critic and commentator on popular culture was born and raised in Kogarah\n* [Ronald Sharp](/wiki/Ronald_Sharp \"Ronald Sharp\")a notable Australian organ builder was born in Kogarah\n* [Kenneth Slessor](/wiki/Kenneth_Slessor \"Kenneth Slessor\")one of Australia's greatest poets, attended Kogarah Primary School, in the early 20th century. The family lived in Belgrave Street, according to his biographer, Geoffrey Dutton\n* [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28cricketer%29 \"Steve Smith (cricketer)\") former captain of Australia national cricket team, was born and raised in Kogarah\n* [Henry Thornton](/wiki/Henry_Thornton_%28cricketer%29 \"Henry Thornton (cricketer)\")cricketer, was born and raised in Kogarah\n* [Brandon Wakeham](/wiki/Brandon_Wakeham \"Brandon Wakeham\")rugby league player, was born and raised in Kogarah\n",
"### Demographics\n\nAccording to the 2021 [Australian Bureau of Statistics](/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Statistics \"Australian Bureau of Statistics\") [Census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of Population, there were 16,416 people in Kogarah. 36\\.3% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were Nepal 11\\.3%, China 8\\.2%, India 6\\.0%, the Philippines 3\\.9% and Bangladesh 2\\.9%. 30\\.4% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Nepali 11\\.6%, Mandarin 7\\.8%, Cantonese 5\\.3%, Greek 4\\.8% and Bengali 3\\.7%. The most common responses for religious affiliation were No Religion 22\\.7%, Catholic 17\\.8%, Hinduism 16\\.8% and Eastern Orthodox 9\\.5%.\n\n",
"### Notable residents\n\n* [Dave Brown](/wiki/Dave_Brown_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1913%29 \"Dave Brown (rugby league, born 1913)\")rugby league star of the 1930s was born in Kogarah\n* [Ray Burton](/wiki/Ray_Burton_%28musician%29 \"Ray Burton (musician)\")an internationally acclaimed musician, singer and songwriter\n* Rev Dr [Rowland Croucher](/wiki/Rowland_Croucher \"Rowland Croucher\")theologian and author, lived in Warialda Street in the early years of married life while he was a staffworker with the InterVarsity Fellowship. His wife Jan taught at Kogarah High School\n* [Reg Gasnier](/wiki/Reg_Gasnier \"Reg Gasnier\")rugby league legend lived in Kogarah\n* [Clive James](/wiki/Clive_James \"Clive James\")writer, poet, essayist, critic and commentator on popular culture was born and raised in Kogarah\n* [Ronald Sharp](/wiki/Ronald_Sharp \"Ronald Sharp\")a notable Australian organ builder was born in Kogarah\n* [Kenneth Slessor](/wiki/Kenneth_Slessor \"Kenneth Slessor\")one of Australia's greatest poets, attended Kogarah Primary School, in the early 20th century. The family lived in Belgrave Street, according to his biographer, Geoffrey Dutton\n* [Steve Smith](/wiki/Steve_Smith_%28cricketer%29 \"Steve Smith (cricketer)\") former captain of Australia national cricket team, was born and raised in Kogarah\n* [Henry Thornton](/wiki/Henry_Thornton_%28cricketer%29 \"Henry Thornton (cricketer)\")cricketer, was born and raised in Kogarah\n* [Brandon Wakeham](/wiki/Brandon_Wakeham \"Brandon Wakeham\")rugby league player, was born and raised in Kogarah\n",
"Transportation\n--------------\n\n**[Kogarah railway station](/wiki/Kogarah_railway_station \"Kogarah railway station\")** is located on the [Illawarra line](/wiki/Illawarra_railway_line \"Illawarra railway line\"), serving the [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") suburb of [Kogarah](/wiki/Kogarah \"Kogarah\"). It is served by [Sydney Trains](/wiki/Sydney_Trains \"Sydney Trains\") [T4 line](/wiki/Eastern_Suburbs_%26_Illawarra_Line \"Eastern Suburbs & Illawarra Line\") services.\n\n",
"Schools and churches\n--------------------\n\n### Schools\n\n* Kogarah Public School\n* [Kogarah High School](/wiki/Kogarah_High_School \"Kogarah High School\")\n* [James Cook Boys Technology High School](/wiki/James_Cook_Boys_Technology_High_School \"James Cook Boys Technology High School\")\n* Moorefield Girls High School\n* St Declan’s Catholic Primary School\n* [St George Girls High School](/wiki/St_George_Girls_High_School \"St George Girls High School\")\n* St Patrick's Primary School (co\\-ed)\n* [Marist College Kogarah](/wiki/Marist_College_Kogarah \"Marist College Kogarah\") (boys, secondary)\n* Sydney Institute of [TAFE](/wiki/Technical_and_Further_Education \"Technical and Further Education\"): St. George Campus\n\n### Churches\n\n* Resurrection of Christ Greek Orthodox Church\n* Grace Chinese Christian Church\n* Kogarah Soldiers' Memorial Presbyterian Church (Kirkplace)\n* St Patrick's Catholic Church\n* St Paul's Anglican Church\n* Christ Church St George (Anglican), and Church in the Bank (Anglican)\n* Christ Living Church (Indonesian Church)\n* Kogarah Uniting Church\n\nFile:Kogarah High School.JPG\\|Kogarah High School\nFile:Kogarah\\_St\\_Pauls\\_Anglican 1\\.JPG\\|St Paul's Anglican Church\nFile:Kogarah Greek Orthodox 1\\.JPG\\|Resurrection of Christ Greek Orthodox Church\n\n",
"### Schools\n\n* Kogarah Public School\n* [Kogarah High School](/wiki/Kogarah_High_School \"Kogarah High School\")\n* [James Cook Boys Technology High School](/wiki/James_Cook_Boys_Technology_High_School \"James Cook Boys Technology High School\")\n* Moorefield Girls High School\n* St Declan’s Catholic Primary School\n* [St George Girls High School](/wiki/St_George_Girls_High_School \"St George Girls High School\")\n* St Patrick's Primary School (co\\-ed)\n* [Marist College Kogarah](/wiki/Marist_College_Kogarah \"Marist College Kogarah\") (boys, secondary)\n* Sydney Institute of [TAFE](/wiki/Technical_and_Further_Education \"Technical and Further Education\"): St. George Campus\n",
"### Churches\n\n* Resurrection of Christ Greek Orthodox Church\n* Grace Chinese Christian Church\n* Kogarah Soldiers' Memorial Presbyterian Church (Kirkplace)\n* St Patrick's Catholic Church\n* St Paul's Anglican Church\n* Christ Church St George (Anglican), and Church in the Bank (Anglican)\n* Christ Living Church (Indonesian Church)\n* Kogarah Uniting Church\n\nFile:Kogarah High School.JPG\\|Kogarah High School\nFile:Kogarah\\_St\\_Pauls\\_Anglican 1\\.JPG\\|St Paul's Anglican Church\nFile:Kogarah Greek Orthodox 1\\.JPG\\|Resurrection of Christ Greek Orthodox Church\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Georges River Council website](https://www.georgesriver.nsw.gov.au/Home)\n* [Bayside Council website](http://www.bayside.nsw.gov.au)\n* [Kogarah Marist High School](https://web.archive.org/web/20050212100622/http://www.marist.kogarah.syd.catholic.edu.au/)\n* [St George Girls High School](/wiki/St_George_Girls_High_School \"St George Girls High School\")\n* [2001 Census Information](http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup2001Census/9EDF36AFA4A7E994CA256BBE0083818D)\n\n[Category:Suburbs of Sydney](/wiki/Category:Suburbs_of_Sydney \"Suburbs of Sydney\")\n[Category:1885 establishments in Australia](/wiki/Category:1885_establishments_in_Australia \"1885 establishments in Australia\")\n[Category:Populated places established in 1885](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1885 \"Populated places established in 1885\")\n[Category:Jewellery districts](/wiki/Category:Jewellery_districts \"Jewellery districts\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Patosi
|
{
"id": [
20585603
],
"name": [
"Bot1058"
]
}
|
nkbl0gi7mc24kqdx2pa5lam1p22f99n
|
2019-12-29T17:27:34Z
| 696,147,269 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Patosi"
],
"level": [
1
],
"content": [
"**Patosi** may refer to:\n\n* [Patos, Albania](/wiki/Patos%2C_Albania \"Patos, Albania\"), is a city in the District of Fier in Albania\n* [Ayanda Patosi](/wiki/Ayanda_Patosi \"Ayanda Patosi\") (born 1992\\), South African professional footballer\n\n"
]
}
|
Leonard Evans
|
{
"id": [
13791031
],
"name": [
"Frietjes"
]
}
|
b1f57p3h7otobr19a49id4yhsaxdkyx
|
2023-09-15T20:53:39Z
| 1,149,787,103 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life and career",
"Electoral record",
"Electoral history",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n**Leonard Salusbury Evans** (August 19, 1929 – January 2, 2016\\) was a Canadian politician in [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba \"Manitoba\"). He was a member of the [Manitoba legislature](/wiki/Manitoba_legislature \"Manitoba legislature\") from 1969 to 1999 and was a [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_%28government%29 \"Cabinet (government)\") Minister in the governments of [New Democratic](/wiki/New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba \"New Democratic Party of Manitoba\") Premiers [Edward Schreyer](/wiki/Edward_Schreyer \"Edward Schreyer\") and [Howard Pawley](/wiki/Howard_Pawley \"Howard Pawley\").\n\n",
"Early life and career\n---------------------\n\nThe son of David Evans and Gwen Salusbury, he was born in [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg \"Winnipeg\") and educated at [Transcona Collegiate Institute](/wiki/Transcona_Collegiate_Institute \"Transcona Collegiate Institute\"), the [University of Winnipeg](/wiki/University_of_Winnipeg \"University of Winnipeg\"), the [University of Manitoba](/wiki/University_of_Manitoba \"University of Manitoba\"), [Simon Fraser University](/wiki/Simon_Fraser_University \"Simon Fraser University\") and the [University of Ottawa](/wiki/University_of_Ottawa \"University of Ottawa\"). He worked as an economist and a professor of economics before entering political life. Evans first ran for public office in the [Canadian federal election of 1953](/wiki/1953_Canadian_federal_election \"1953 Canadian federal election\"), running as a [Cooperative Commonwealth Federation](/wiki/Cooperative_Commonwealth_Federation \"Cooperative Commonwealth Federation\") candidate in the riding of [St. Boniface](/wiki/St._Boniface_%28riding%29 \"St. Boniface (riding)\"). He finished second with 5568 votes, a credible showing for the party in the region.\n\nIn 1953, he married Alice Lorrain Mazinke.\n\n",
"Electoral record\n----------------\n\nEvans was elected to the Manitoba legislature as a New Democrat in the [provincial election of 1969](/wiki/1969_Manitoba_general_election \"1969 Manitoba general election\"). This election was a watershed moment in Manitoba politics, as the NDP emerged as the largest party with 28 seats and formed government after gaining the support of [Liberal](/wiki/Manitoba_Liberal_Party \"Manitoba Liberal Party\") MLA [Laurent Desjardins](/wiki/Laurent_Desjardins \"Laurent Desjardins\"). Evans was elected in the riding of [Brandon East](/wiki/Brandon_East_%28Manitoba_riding%29 \"Brandon East (Manitoba riding)\"), in the province's southwestern corner.\n\nEvans was named [Minister of Mines and Natural Resources](/wiki/Minister_of_Mines_and_Natural_Resources \"Minister of Mines and Natural Resources\") on July 15, 1969\\. On December 18 of the same year, he was promoted to [Minister of Industry and Commerce](/wiki/Manitoba_Minister_of_Industry_and_Commerce \"Manitoba Minister of Industry and Commerce\"), a position which he held until the defeat of the NDP government in 1977\\. He was also given ministerial responsibility for the [Manitoba Housing and Renewal Corporation](/wiki/Manitoba_Housing_and_Renewal_Corporation_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 \"Manitoba Housing and Renewal Corporation (Manitoba ministry)\") on September 22, 1976\\. Evans oversaw the [Manitoba Development Corporation](/wiki/Manitoba_Development_Corporation \"Manitoba Development Corporation\") in his ministerial role and used his position to promote public management within certain industries. Additionally, he co\\-founded [WESTAC](/wiki/WESTAC \"WESTAC\") to strengthen public\\-private relations in the transportation industry.\n\nEvans was easily re\\-elected in the [1973 provincial election](/wiki/1973_Manitoba_general_election \"1973 Manitoba general election\"). He faced a more serious challenge from [Progressive Conservative](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Manitoba \"Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba\") James Thornborough in the [1977 election](/wiki/1977_Manitoba_general_election \"1977 Manitoba general election\") but still won by over 1000 votes. The Tories won the 1977 election, and Evans served as opposition critic for Economic Development over the next four years.\n\nThe NDP were returned to government in [1981](/wiki/1981_Manitoba_general_election \"1981 Manitoba general election\"), and Evans was appointed as [Minister of Community Service and Correction](/wiki/Manitoba_Minister_of_Community_Service_and_Correction \"Manitoba Minister of Community Service and Correction\") and [Minister of Natural Resources](/wiki/Manitoba_Minister_of_Natural_Resources \"Manitoba Minister of Natural Resources\") on November 30, 1981, also receiving responsibility for the [Manitoba Telephone System](/wiki/Manitoba_Telephone_System_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 \"Manitoba Telephone System (Manitoba ministry)\"). He was relieved of the latter two positions on August 20, 1982, and on November 4, 1983, was transferred to the [Ministry of Employment Services and Economic Security](/wiki/Manitoba_Minister_of_Employment_Services_and_Economic_Security \"Manitoba Minister of Employment Services and Economic Security\"), where he would remain until the fall of the NDP government in 1988\\. He was also given responsibility for the [A.E. McKenzie Co. Ltd](/wiki/A.E._McKenzie_Co._Ltd._%28Manitoba_ministry%29 \"A.E. McKenzie Co. Ltd. (Manitoba ministry)\") from June 29, 1983, to January 4, 1984, was [Minister of Natural Resources](/wiki/Manitoba_Minister_of_Natural_Resources \"Manitoba Minister of Natural Resources\") again from January 3, 1986, to April 17, 1988, and held responsibility for [Manitoba Data Services](/wiki/Manitoba_Data_Services_%28Manitoba_ministry%29 \"Manitoba Data Services (Manitoba ministry)\") between September 21, 1987, and May 9, 1988\\.\n\nEvans faced a surprisingly strong challenge from PC candidate Jim Armstrong in the [1986 provincial election](/wiki/1986_Manitoba_general_election \"1986 Manitoba general election\") but was re\\-elected by about 1000 votes. He again defeated Armstrong by 653 votes in [1988](/wiki/1988_Manitoba_general_election \"1988 Manitoba general election\"), despite a sharp decline in NDP support in the rest of the province.\n\nPrior to the fall of the NDP government in 1988, Evans went on record as being one of the few MLAs in his party to oppose the [Meech Lake Accord](/wiki/Meech_Lake_Accord \"Meech Lake Accord\"). He wanted to join with [Elijah Harper](/wiki/Elijah_Harper \"Elijah Harper\") in denying approval for the Accord in 1990 but declined so as not to detract from the issue of aboriginal rights (Harper was aboriginal, Evans was not). As a cabinet minister, Evans stopped the process of adopting aboriginal children to non\\-aboriginal families outside of the province, a process which many aboriginal activists had regarded as cultural genocide.\n\nEvans served as NDP Finance critic from 1988 to 1999\\. By now a respected \"elder statesman\" in the party, he had little difficulty being re\\-elected in the elections of [1990](/wiki/1990_Manitoba_general_election \"1990 Manitoba general election\") and [1995](/wiki/1995_Manitoba_general_election \"1995 Manitoba general election\"). He did not seek re\\-election in the [1999 Manitoba general election](/wiki/1999_Manitoba_general_election \"1999 Manitoba general election\"); [Drew Caldwell](/wiki/Drew_Caldwell \"Drew Caldwell\") retained Brandon East for the NDP. As of July 2010, he was a member of the province's Public Utilities Board.\n\nIn 2007, Evans was elected as president of the Association of Former Manitoba MLAs. He died on January 2, 2016, at the age of 86 after suffering a heart attack in the previous week.\n\n",
"Electoral history\n-----------------\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:1929 births](/wiki/Category:1929_births \"1929 births\")\n[Category:2016 deaths](/wiki/Category:2016_deaths \"2016 deaths\")\n[Category:Canadian Unitarians](/wiki/Category:Canadian_Unitarians \"Canadian Unitarians\")\n[Category:Members of the Executive Council of Manitoba](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Executive_Council_of_Manitoba \"Members of the Executive Council of Manitoba\")\n[Category:New Democratic Party of Manitoba MLAs](/wiki/Category:New_Democratic_Party_of_Manitoba_MLAs \"New Democratic Party of Manitoba MLAs\")\n[Category:Politicians from Winnipeg](/wiki/Category:Politicians_from_Winnipeg \"Politicians from Winnipeg\")\n[Category:Simon Fraser University alumni](/wiki/Category:Simon_Fraser_University_alumni \"Simon Fraser University alumni\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Tim Spicer
|
{
"id": [
27823944
],
"name": [
"GreenC bot"
]
}
|
m1vc6s4exki8o28o36s0m93qi8qolcn
|
2024-09-27T04:18:07Z
| 1,246,473,853 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life and military career",
"Private military company",
"Sandline affair",
"Sierra Leone Scandal: the arms-to-Africa affair",
"Aegis Defence Services",
"Criticism by US Senators",
"See also",
"Books",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n",
"Early life and military career\n------------------------------\n\nBorn in 1952 in [Aldershot](/wiki/Aldershot \"Aldershot\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), Spicer was educated at [Sherborne School](/wiki/Sherborne_School \"Sherborne School\") and followed his father into the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\"), attending [Sandhurst](/wiki/Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst \"Royal Military Academy Sandhurst\") and then enlisted in the [Scots Guards](/wiki/Scots_Guards \"Scots Guards\"). He tried to join the [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service \"Special Air Service\") (SAS) prior to joining the Scots Guards, but failed the entry course. In 1982, his regiment was pulled from guard duty at the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\") and sent to the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\"), where he saw action at the [Battle of Mount Tumbledown](/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Tumbledown \"Battle of Mount Tumbledown\") on 13 June.\n\nAfter the Falklands War, Spicer, then at the rank of [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)\"), was sent to [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\") along with his regiment as part of [Operation Banner](/wiki/Operation_Banner \"Operation Banner\") during [the Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\").*An Unorthodox Soldier*, by Tim Spicer, Mainstream Publishing, 1999, pp. 121\\-125\\. In 1992, Spicer was awarded the [OBE](/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Order of the British Empire\") \"for operational service in Northern Ireland\". On 4 September of that year, two soldiers under his command, Mark Wright and James Fisher, shot and killed an 18\\-year old Catholic teenager named Peter McBride in disputed circumstances. Immediately following the incident, Wright and Fisher were interviewed by Spicer and three other officers before they were interrogated by the [Royal Ulster Constabulary](/wiki/Royal_Ulster_Constabulary \"Royal Ulster Constabulary\") (RUC). In his 1999 autobiography *An Unorthodox Soldier*, Spicer wrote that \"I thought between us we could reach a balanced judgement on what happened.\"*An Unorthodox Soldier*, by Tim Spicer, Mainstream Publishing, 1999, p. 121\\.\n\nThe two soldiers were subsequently tried via [court\\-martial](/wiki/Court-martial \"Court-martial\"), which convicted them of [murder](/wiki/Murder \"Murder\") and sentenced the pair to [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment \"Life imprisonment\") at [HM Prison Maghaberry](/wiki/HM_Prison_Maghaberry \"HM Prison Maghaberry\") on 10 February 1995\\. At the court\\-martial, Wright and James claimed that they feared that McBride was about to throw an [improvised explosive device](/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device \"Improvised explosive device\") he had hidden in a [plastic bag](/wiki/Plastic_bag \"Plastic bag\") towards them, a claim which Spicer supported (the bag was subsequently found to only contain a [t\\-shirt](/wiki/T-shirt \"T-shirt\")).[\"The murder of Peter Mc Bride\"](http://patfinucanecentre.org/cases/pmcbride/mcbride.html) , Pat Finucane Centre, accessed 7 January 2009\\.\n\nIn reaction to their conviction, Spicer organised a [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying \"Lobbying\") campaign to free Wright and James, arguing that the two had legitimately believed that their lives were in imminent danger due to McBride's actions. The campaign successfully persuaded the British government to free the pair from HM Prison Maghaberry on 2 September 1998, after they had spent roughly three and a half years in prison. Wright and James were flown to [Catterick Garrison](/wiki/Catterick_Garrison \"Catterick Garrison\") in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\") to meet Spicer, where they stayed until the [Army Board](/wiki/Army_Board \"Army Board\") decided to reinstate them into the Scots Guards a month later; the pair subsequently served in the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\").[Belfast court rules on McBride killers](http://www.rte.ie/news/2003/0613/mcbride.html), RTÉ News, 13 June 2003\\.\n\n",
"Private military company\n------------------------\n\nIn 1994 he left the army and founded [Sandline International](/wiki/Sandline_International \"Sandline International\"), a private military company. \n\n### Sandline affair\n\nThe Sandline affair was a political scandal that became one of the defining moments in the [history of Papua New Guinea](/wiki/History_of_Papua_New_Guinea \"History of Papua New Guinea\") (PNG), and particularly that of the conflict in [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Province \"Bougainville Province\"). It brought down the PNG government of [Sir Julius Chan](/wiki/Julius_Chan \"Julius Chan\") and took [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\") to the verge of military revolt. After coming to power in 1994, Prime Minister Chan made repeated attempts to resolve the Bougainville conflict by diplomatic means. These were ultimately unsuccessful, due to the repeated failure of Bougainvillean leaders to arrive at scheduled peace talks. \n\nAfter a number of failed military assaults and the refusal of Australia and New Zealand to provide troops, a decision was then made to investigate the use of mercenaries. Through some overseas contacts, defence minister Mathias Ijape was put in contact with Spicer. He accepted a contract for $36 million, but the deal fell through when the PNG Army found out that so much money was being spent on a job they claimed to be able to do. The Army overthrew the PNG government and arrested Spicer. He was eventually released and sued the PNG government for money not paid.\"The Private war of Tumbledown Tim\", *London Sunday Times Magazine*, 2 July 2000\\.\n\n### Sierra Leone Scandal: the arms\\-to\\-Africa affair\n\nWhen employed by Sandline International, Spicer was involved in military operations in the [Sierra Leone Civil War](/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War \"Sierra Leone Civil War\"), which included importing weapons in apparent violation of the United Nations [arms embargo](/wiki/Arms_embargo \"Arms embargo\"). The contract was first offered to Globe Risk International who declined the contract on moral grounds. He had been contacted by [Rakesh Saxena](/wiki/Rakesh_Saxena \"Rakesh Saxena\"), an [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") financier hoping that a new government would grant him diamond and mineral concessions. The controversy over this incident, and whether the British [Foreign and Commonwealth Office](/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office \"Foreign and Commonwealth Office\") (FCO) knew of Sandline's actions; inquiries into it concluded that the FCO had known of the actions, and that Spicer believed he was not breaking the embargo. However, former British diplomat [Craig Murray](/wiki/Craig_Murray \"Craig Murray\") claims that he was present at a Foreign office meeting when Spicer was explicitly read the text of UN [Security Council Resolution 1132](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1132 \"United Nations Security Council Resolution 1132\") which obliges member states to prevent their nationals from importing arms to Sierra Leone.\n\nSpicer maintains neither he nor Sandline did anything illegal: \n\nSpicer has claimed that he always has called for greater involvement of the British government in the PMC issue. In fact, Lt. Col. Spicer said that six weeks before the arms\\-to\\-Africa affair blew up, Sandline had submitted a paper to the Foreign Office calling for greater regulation, but had not yet received a response. At the time, with no government response, Sandline was considering setting up its own oversight committee, including a senior retired general, a lawyer and a representative of the media.\n\nIn late 1999, Spicer left Sandline, which kept operating until 2004\\. The next year, he launched Crisis and Risk Management. In 2001, he changed the company's name to Strategic Consulting International and also set up a partner firm specialising in anti\\-[piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") consulting, called Trident Maritime. In 2002, Spicer established Aegis Defence Services, which around the beginning of the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") was consulting for the [Disney Cruise Line](/wiki/Disney \"Disney\").\n\n### Aegis Defence Services\n\nSpicer was Chief Executive of [Aegis Defence Services](/wiki/Aegis_Defence_Services \"Aegis Defence Services\"), a PMC based in London, until replaced by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") [Graham Binns](/wiki/Graham_Binns \"Graham Binns\") in 2010\\. The chairman of the Aegis board of directors is former [Defence minister](/wiki/Minister_of_State_for_the_Armed_Forces \"Minister of State for the Armed Forces\"), [Nicholas Soames](/wiki/Nicholas_Soames \"Nicholas Soames\") [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\").[Defence Services website](http://www.aegisworld.com/index.php/new2/about-us-2/management2Aegis) The Board of Directors include: General [Sir Roger Wheeler](/wiki/Roger_Wheeler_%28British_Army_officer%29 \"Roger Wheeler (British Army officer)\"), [Chief of the General Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)\"); [Paul Boateng](/wiki/Paul_Boateng \"Paul Boateng\"), former Labour Minister and ex\\-High Commissioner to South Africa and [Sir John Birch](/wiki/John_Birch_%28diplomat%29 \"John Birch (diplomat)\"), former British deputy ambassador to the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\").\n\nIn October 2004, Aegis won a $293 million three\\-year contract in [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") outsourcing, among other things, intelligence for the [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army \"U.S. Army\").\n\n### Criticism by US Senators\n\nIn 2005, following the award of this contract, five [United States Senators](/wiki/United_States_Senator \"United States Senator\") – [Charles Schumer](/wiki/Charles_Schumer \"Charles Schumer\"), [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), [Ted Kennedy](/wiki/Ted_Kennedy \"Ted Kennedy\"), [Chris Dodd](/wiki/Chris_Dodd \"Chris Dodd\") and [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry \"John Kerry\") – wrote a joint letter calling on Secretary of Defence [Donald Rumsfeld](/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld \"Donald Rumsfeld\") to investigate the granting of the Aegis contract, describing Spicer as \"an individual with a history of supporting excessive use of force against a civilian population\" and stating that he \"vigorously defends \\[human rights abuses]\".\n\nIn a December 2005 letter to his constituents, then\\-U.S. Senator [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") (D\\-IL) called on the Department of Defense to withdraw its contract with Aegis. Obama wrote that \"The CEO of Aegis Defense Services Tim Spicer has been implicated in a variety of human rights abuses around the globe ... given his history, I agree that the United States should consider rescinding its contract with his company.\"\n\n",
"### Sandline affair\n\nThe Sandline affair was a political scandal that became one of the defining moments in the [history of Papua New Guinea](/wiki/History_of_Papua_New_Guinea \"History of Papua New Guinea\") (PNG), and particularly that of the conflict in [Bougainville](/wiki/Bougainville_Province \"Bougainville Province\"). It brought down the PNG government of [Sir Julius Chan](/wiki/Julius_Chan \"Julius Chan\") and took [Papua New Guinea](/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea \"Papua New Guinea\") to the verge of military revolt. After coming to power in 1994, Prime Minister Chan made repeated attempts to resolve the Bougainville conflict by diplomatic means. These were ultimately unsuccessful, due to the repeated failure of Bougainvillean leaders to arrive at scheduled peace talks. \n\nAfter a number of failed military assaults and the refusal of Australia and New Zealand to provide troops, a decision was then made to investigate the use of mercenaries. Through some overseas contacts, defence minister Mathias Ijape was put in contact with Spicer. He accepted a contract for $36 million, but the deal fell through when the PNG Army found out that so much money was being spent on a job they claimed to be able to do. The Army overthrew the PNG government and arrested Spicer. He was eventually released and sued the PNG government for money not paid.\"The Private war of Tumbledown Tim\", *London Sunday Times Magazine*, 2 July 2000\\.\n\n",
"### Sierra Leone Scandal: the arms\\-to\\-Africa affair\n\nWhen employed by Sandline International, Spicer was involved in military operations in the [Sierra Leone Civil War](/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War \"Sierra Leone Civil War\"), which included importing weapons in apparent violation of the United Nations [arms embargo](/wiki/Arms_embargo \"Arms embargo\"). The contract was first offered to Globe Risk International who declined the contract on moral grounds. He had been contacted by [Rakesh Saxena](/wiki/Rakesh_Saxena \"Rakesh Saxena\"), an [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") financier hoping that a new government would grant him diamond and mineral concessions. The controversy over this incident, and whether the British [Foreign and Commonwealth Office](/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office \"Foreign and Commonwealth Office\") (FCO) knew of Sandline's actions; inquiries into it concluded that the FCO had known of the actions, and that Spicer believed he was not breaking the embargo. However, former British diplomat [Craig Murray](/wiki/Craig_Murray \"Craig Murray\") claims that he was present at a Foreign office meeting when Spicer was explicitly read the text of UN [Security Council Resolution 1132](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1132 \"United Nations Security Council Resolution 1132\") which obliges member states to prevent their nationals from importing arms to Sierra Leone.\n\nSpicer maintains neither he nor Sandline did anything illegal: \n\nSpicer has claimed that he always has called for greater involvement of the British government in the PMC issue. In fact, Lt. Col. Spicer said that six weeks before the arms\\-to\\-Africa affair blew up, Sandline had submitted a paper to the Foreign Office calling for greater regulation, but had not yet received a response. At the time, with no government response, Sandline was considering setting up its own oversight committee, including a senior retired general, a lawyer and a representative of the media.\n\nIn late 1999, Spicer left Sandline, which kept operating until 2004\\. The next year, he launched Crisis and Risk Management. In 2001, he changed the company's name to Strategic Consulting International and also set up a partner firm specialising in anti\\-[piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") consulting, called Trident Maritime. In 2002, Spicer established Aegis Defence Services, which around the beginning of the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") was consulting for the [Disney Cruise Line](/wiki/Disney \"Disney\").\n\n",
"### Aegis Defence Services\n\nSpicer was Chief Executive of [Aegis Defence Services](/wiki/Aegis_Defence_Services \"Aegis Defence Services\"), a PMC based in London, until replaced by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") [Graham Binns](/wiki/Graham_Binns \"Graham Binns\") in 2010\\. The chairman of the Aegis board of directors is former [Defence minister](/wiki/Minister_of_State_for_the_Armed_Forces \"Minister of State for the Armed Forces\"), [Nicholas Soames](/wiki/Nicholas_Soames \"Nicholas Soames\") [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\").[Defence Services website](http://www.aegisworld.com/index.php/new2/about-us-2/management2Aegis) The Board of Directors include: General [Sir Roger Wheeler](/wiki/Roger_Wheeler_%28British_Army_officer%29 \"Roger Wheeler (British Army officer)\"), [Chief of the General Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)\"); [Paul Boateng](/wiki/Paul_Boateng \"Paul Boateng\"), former Labour Minister and ex\\-High Commissioner to South Africa and [Sir John Birch](/wiki/John_Birch_%28diplomat%29 \"John Birch (diplomat)\"), former British deputy ambassador to the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\").\n\nIn October 2004, Aegis won a $293 million three\\-year contract in [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") outsourcing, among other things, intelligence for the [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army \"U.S. Army\").\n\n",
"### Criticism by US Senators\n\nIn 2005, following the award of this contract, five [United States Senators](/wiki/United_States_Senator \"United States Senator\") – [Charles Schumer](/wiki/Charles_Schumer \"Charles Schumer\"), [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), [Ted Kennedy](/wiki/Ted_Kennedy \"Ted Kennedy\"), [Chris Dodd](/wiki/Chris_Dodd \"Chris Dodd\") and [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry \"John Kerry\") – wrote a joint letter calling on Secretary of Defence [Donald Rumsfeld](/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld \"Donald Rumsfeld\") to investigate the granting of the Aegis contract, describing Spicer as \"an individual with a history of supporting excessive use of force against a civilian population\" and stating that he \"vigorously defends \\[human rights abuses]\".\n\nIn a December 2005 letter to his constituents, then\\-U.S. Senator [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") (D\\-IL) called on the Department of Defense to withdraw its contract with Aegis. Obama wrote that \"The CEO of Aegis Defense Services Tim Spicer has been implicated in a variety of human rights abuses around the globe ... given his history, I agree that the United States should consider rescinding its contract with his company.\"\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Tony Hunter\\-Choat](/wiki/Tony_Hunter-Choat \"Tony Hunter-Choat\")\n",
"Books\n-----\n\nSpicer is the author of three books:\n\n* *An Unorthodox Soldier: Peace and War and the [Sandline Affair](/wiki/Sandline_affair \"Sandline affair\")* (2000\\)\n* *A Dangerous Enterprise: Secret War at Sea*,\n* *A Suspicion of Spies: Risk, Secrets and Shadows \\- the Biography of [Wilfred ‘Biffy’ Dunderdale](/wiki/Wilfred_Dunderdale \"Wilfred Dunderdale\")*, scheduled for publication on 12 September 2024\\.\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Sandline International](http://www.sandline.com/) \n* [Aegis Defence Services](https://web.archive.org/web/20050720002243/http://www.aegisdef.com/)\n\n[Category:1952 births](/wiki/Category:1952_births \"1952 births\")\n[Category:Date of birth missing (living people)](/wiki/Category:Date_of_birth_missing_%28living_people%29 \"Date of birth missing (living people)\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:People educated at Sherborne School](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Sherborne_School \"People educated at Sherborne School\")\n[Category:Military personnel from Aldershot](/wiki/Category:Military_personnel_from_Aldershot \"Military personnel from Aldershot\")\n[Category:Scots Guards officers](/wiki/Category:Scots_Guards_officers \"Scots Guards officers\")\n[Category:British Army personnel of the Falklands War](/wiki/Category:British_Army_personnel_of_the_Falklands_War \"British Army personnel of the Falklands War\")\n[Category:Graduates of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst](/wiki/Category:Graduates_of_the_Royal_Military_Academy_Sandhurst \"Graduates of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst\")\n[Category:People of the Sierra Leone Civil War](/wiki/Category:People_of_the_Sierra_Leone_Civil_War \"People of the Sierra Leone Civil War\")\n[Category:English mercenaries](/wiki/Category:English_mercenaries \"English mercenaries\")\n[Category:Human rights abuses in Northern Ireland](/wiki/Category:Human_rights_abuses_in_Northern_Ireland \"Human rights abuses in Northern Ireland\")\n[Category:British military personnel of The Troubles (Northern Ireland)](/wiki/Category:British_military_personnel_of_The_Troubles_%28Northern_Ireland%29 \"British military personnel of The Troubles (Northern Ireland)\")\n[Category:Businesspeople from Aldershot](/wiki/Category:Businesspeople_from_Aldershot \"Businesspeople from Aldershot\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Euan Wallace
|
{
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"name": [
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tcxqytx74ddb2v5md0xm4d6rmb0hb0b
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2024-06-16T23:49:46Z
| 1,215,515,298 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Career",
"Political career",
"Personal life",
"Descendants",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
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3,
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"content": [
"\n\n* + \n\t**David Euan Wallace**, [MC](/wiki/Military_Cross \"Military Cross\") [PC](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Privy Council of the United Kingdom\") (20 April 1892 – 9 February 1941\\) was a British [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") politician who was an ally of [Neville Chamberlain](/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain \"Neville Chamberlain\") and briefly served as [Minister of Transport](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Transport \"Secretary of State for Transport\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").\n\n",
"Early life\n----------\n\nWallace was born on 20 April 1892\\. He was the son of John [Wallace](/wiki/Clan_Wallace \"Clan Wallace\"), of Glassingall, [Dunblane](/wiki/Dunblane \"Dunblane\"), [Perthshire](/wiki/Perthshire \"Perthshire\"). His paternal grandparents were David Wallace, an [ironmaster](/wiki/Ironmaster \"Ironmaster\"), and Janet ([née](/wiki/N%C3%A9e \"Née\") Weir) Wallace. His aunt, Edith Wallace, was the wife of Maj. Robert Dunbar Sinclair\\-Wemyss.\n\nHe was educated at [Harrow](/wiki/Harrow_School \"Harrow School\") before attending the [Royal Military College, Sandhurst](/wiki/Royal_Military_College%2C_Sandhurst \"Royal Military College, Sandhurst\").\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\nIn 1911, Wallace joined the [2nd Regiment of Life Guards](/wiki/2nd_Regiment_of_Life_Guards \"2nd Regiment of Life Guards\") Reserve, gaining the rank of [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28British_Army_and_Royal_Marines%29 \"Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)\"), serving as adjutant from 1915 to 1918\\. He was decorated with the award of the [Military Cross](/wiki/Military_Cross \"Military Cross\") (MC) after being wounded four times during the [Great War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").\n\nAfter the War, he became assistant Military [Attaché](/wiki/Attach%C3%A9 \"Attaché\") at the [British Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington, D.C.\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") He acted as a special [Commissioner](/wiki/Commissioner \"Commissioner\") for the North\\-East coast and acted as *[aide\\-de\\-camp](/wiki/Aide-de-camp \"Aide-de-camp\")* to the [Governor General of Canada](/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada \"Governor General of Canada\") in 1920\\.\n\n### Political career\n\nHe was first elected to the House of Commons at [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") (MP) for [Rugby](/wiki/Rugby_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Rugby (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 1922 to 1923, then represented [Hornsey](/wiki/Hornsey_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Hornsey (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 1924 until his death in 1941 (when he was considered one of the richest members of the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons \"House of Commons\")). He served as Assistant Government [Whip](/wiki/Whip_%28politics%29 \"Whip (politics)\") from 1928 to 1929; Junior [Lord of the Treasury](/wiki/Lord_of_the_Treasury \"Lord of the Treasury\") in 1929 and 1931; [Civil Lord of the Admiralty](/wiki/Civil_Lord_of_the_Admiralty \"Civil Lord of the Admiralty\") from 1931 to 1934; [Under\\-Secretary of State for the Home Department](/wiki/Under-Secretary_of_State_for_the_Home_Department \"Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department\") from 1935 to 1935; [Secretary for Overseas Trade](/wiki/Secretary_for_Overseas_Trade \"Secretary for Overseas Trade\") from 1935 to 1937; [Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade](/wiki/Parliamentary_Secretary_to_the_Board_of_Trade \"Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade\") from 1937 to 1938; [Financial Secretary to the Treasury](/wiki/Financial_Secretary_to_the_Treasury \"Financial Secretary to the Treasury\") from 1938 to 1939\\. On 21 April 1939, [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\") [Neville Chamberlain](/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain \"Neville Chamberlain\") appointed Wallace the [Minister of Transport](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Transport \"Secretary of State for Transport\").\n\nWallace was invested as a [Privy Counsellor](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Privy Council of the United Kingdom\") by King [Edward VIII](/wiki/Edward_VIII \"Edward VIII\") in June 1936, along with Lt.\\-Col. [David John Colville](/wiki/John_Colville%2C_1st_Baron_Clydesmuir \"John Colville, 1st Baron Clydesmuir\") ([Parliamentary Under\\-Secretary of State for Scotland](/wiki/Parliamentary_Under-Secretary_of_State_for_Scotland \"Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland\")) and, his former brother\\-in\\-law, [Herbrand Sackville, 9th Earl De La Warr](/wiki/Herbrand_Sackville%2C_9th_Earl_De_La_Warr \"Herbrand Sackville, 9th Earl De La Warr\") ([Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education](/wiki/Parliamentary_Secretary_to_the_Board_of_Education \"Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education\")).\n\n",
"### Political career\n\nHe was first elected to the House of Commons at [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") (MP) for [Rugby](/wiki/Rugby_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Rugby (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 1922 to 1923, then represented [Hornsey](/wiki/Hornsey_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Hornsey (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 1924 until his death in 1941 (when he was considered one of the richest members of the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons \"House of Commons\")). He served as Assistant Government [Whip](/wiki/Whip_%28politics%29 \"Whip (politics)\") from 1928 to 1929; Junior [Lord of the Treasury](/wiki/Lord_of_the_Treasury \"Lord of the Treasury\") in 1929 and 1931; [Civil Lord of the Admiralty](/wiki/Civil_Lord_of_the_Admiralty \"Civil Lord of the Admiralty\") from 1931 to 1934; [Under\\-Secretary of State for the Home Department](/wiki/Under-Secretary_of_State_for_the_Home_Department \"Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department\") from 1935 to 1935; [Secretary for Overseas Trade](/wiki/Secretary_for_Overseas_Trade \"Secretary for Overseas Trade\") from 1935 to 1937; [Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade](/wiki/Parliamentary_Secretary_to_the_Board_of_Trade \"Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade\") from 1937 to 1938; [Financial Secretary to the Treasury](/wiki/Financial_Secretary_to_the_Treasury \"Financial Secretary to the Treasury\") from 1938 to 1939\\. On 21 April 1939, [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\") [Neville Chamberlain](/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain \"Neville Chamberlain\") appointed Wallace the [Minister of Transport](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Transport \"Secretary of State for Transport\").\n\nWallace was invested as a [Privy Counsellor](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Privy Council of the United Kingdom\") by King [Edward VIII](/wiki/Edward_VIII \"Edward VIII\") in June 1936, along with Lt.\\-Col. [David John Colville](/wiki/John_Colville%2C_1st_Baron_Clydesmuir \"John Colville, 1st Baron Clydesmuir\") ([Parliamentary Under\\-Secretary of State for Scotland](/wiki/Parliamentary_Under-Secretary_of_State_for_Scotland \"Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland\")) and, his former brother\\-in\\-law, [Herbrand Sackville, 9th Earl De La Warr](/wiki/Herbrand_Sackville%2C_9th_Earl_De_La_Warr \"Herbrand Sackville, 9th Earl De La Warr\") ([Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education](/wiki/Parliamentary_Secretary_to_the_Board_of_Education \"Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education\")).\n\n",
"Personal life\n-------------\n\nWallace was twice married and the father of five sons, four of whom died while serving in the military. On 26 November 1913 Wallace married [Lady (Myra) Idina Sackville](/wiki/Idina_Sackville \"Idina Sackville\"), daughter of [The 8th Earl De La Warr](/wiki/Gilbert_Sackville%2C_8th_Earl_De_La_Warr \"Gilbert Sackville, 8th Earl De La Warr\") and Lady Muriel Agnes Brassey. Lady Idina designed Kildonan House in [Barrhill, South Ayrshire](/wiki/Barrhill%2C_South_Ayrshire \"Barrhill, South Ayrshire\") with the architect [James Miller](/wiki/James_Miller_%28architect%29 \"James Miller (architect)\") in homage to her childhood home, but they separated before it was completed. Before the marriage ended in divorce in 1919, they were the parents of two sons:\n\n* David John Wallace [MC](/wiki/Military_Cross \"Military Cross\") (1914–1944\\), a [Major](/wiki/Major_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Major (United Kingdom)\") in the [King's Royal Rifle Corps](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps \"King's Royal Rifle Corps\") who was [killed in action](/wiki/Killed_in_action \"Killed in action\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") while serving with the [Special Operations Executive](/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive \"Special Operations Executive\") in [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\") (during the [Battle of Menina](/wiki/Battle_of_Menina \"Battle of Menina\")) and who married Joan Prudence Magor, a daughter of Richard Magor of Chelmsford, in 1939\\.\n* Gerard Euan Wallace (1915–1943\\), a [Wing Commander](/wiki/Wing_Commander_%28rank%29 \"Wing Commander (rank)\") in the [Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_Volunteer_Reserve \"Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve\") who was killed in a flying accident in [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\") in August 1943, aged 27Wg Cdr Gerard Wallace was Officer Commanding, 209 (FB) Squadron, based in Kipevu, Mombasa, Kenya, 23 May\\-20 August 1943\\. He failed to return and was presumed dead when 209 Sqn Catalina IB, FP302, hit the sea during a night\\-time practice attack off Mombasa on 20 August 1943\\. Flt Lts E. R. B. Roberts (pilot) \\& J. M. Inglis, Fg Off V. B. Field, Flt Sgts D. W. O'Leary, E. Mallon and E. Hallas, Sgt S. Borrill, and LAC N. Edwards were also killed. and who married Mary Elizabeth Koch de Gooreynd, née Lawson, in November 1940\\.\n\nOn 10 May 1920, he was married to Barbara Lutyens (1898–1981\\), the daughter of architect [Sir Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Sir_Edwin_Lutyens \"Sir Edwin Lutyens\") and Lady Emily Bulwer\\-Lytton (a daughter of [Edith Villiers](/wiki/Edith_Villiers \"Edith Villiers\") and [The 1st Earl of Lytton](/wiki/Robert_Bulwer-Lytton%2C_1st_Earl_of_Lytton \"Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton\"), the [Viceroy of India](/wiki/Viceroy_of_India \"Viceroy of India\") and [British Ambassador to France](/wiki/British_Ambassador_to_France \"British Ambassador to France\")). Together, they were the parents of three sons:\n\n* John Wallace (1922–1946\\), a [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") in the [Life Guards](/wiki/Life_Guards_%28British_Army%29 \"Life Guards (British Army)\") who died, unmarried, as a result of a general anaesthetic during a nose operation, while on active service.\n* Edward Peter Wallace [DFC](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)\") (1923–1944\\), a [Flight Lieutenant](/wiki/Flight_Lieutenant \"Flight Lieutenant\") in the [Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_Volunteer_Reserve \"Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve\") who was killed in action during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). He was unmarried.\n* [William Euan \"Billy\" Wallace](/wiki/William_Euan_%22Billy%22_Wallace \"William Euan \") (1927–1977\\), who was educated at [Eton](/wiki/Eton_College \"Eton College\") and [University College, Oxford](/wiki/University_College%2C_Oxford \"University College, Oxford\"), and was a former escort of [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret \"Princess Margaret\"), whom he had known since childhood. He married the Hon. Elizabeth Anne Hoyer Millar, daughter of [The 1st Baron Inchyra](/wiki/Frederick_Millar%2C_1st_Baron_Inchyra \"Frederick Millar, 1st Baron Inchyra\") and Anna de Marees van Swinderen (the daughter of Dutch diplomat [René de Marees van Swinderen](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_de_Marees_van_Swinderen \"René de Marees van Swinderen\")), in 1965\\.Charles Mosley, editor, *Burke's Peerage, Baronetage \\& Knightage, 107th edition*, 3 volumes ([Wilmington, Delaware](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware \"Wilmington, Delaware\"), U.S.A.: Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003\\), volume 1, page 1076\\. [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret \"Princess Margaret\"), by then married to [Antony Armstrong\\-Jones](/wiki/Antony_Armstrong-Jones%2C_1st_Earl_of_Snowdon \"Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon\"), attended the wedding.\n\nHe inherited a coal and iron fortune estimated at more than £2,000,000\\.\n\nAfter undergoing a serious operation before Christmas 1940, Wallace died on 9 February 1941\\. His widow, who married [Herbert Agar](/wiki/Herbert_Agar \"Herbert Agar\") (the [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") journalist who was editor of the *[Louisville Courier\\-Journal](/wiki/Louisville_Courier-Journal \"Louisville Courier-Journal\")*) in 1945, lived another forty years before her death in 1981\\.\n\n### Descendants\n\nThrough his eldest son David, he was a grandfather of two: Laura Jacqueline Wallace (b. 1941\\), who married Dominic Paul Morland (a son of [Sir Oscar Charles Morland](/wiki/Oscar_Morland \"Oscar Morland\") [GBE](/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_British_Empire \"Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire\") [KCMG](/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George \"Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George\"), of [Pickering](/wiki/Pickering%2C_North_Yorkshire \"Pickering, North Yorkshire\"), [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\") and Alice Lindley) in 1963, they divorced and she married, secondly, Keith Fitchett, in 2003; and Cary Davina Wallace (b. 1942\\), who married [David Howell, Baron Howell of Guildford](/wiki/David_Howell%2C_Baron_Howell_of_Guildford \"David Howell, Baron Howell of Guildford\").\n\n",
"### Descendants\n\nThrough his eldest son David, he was a grandfather of two: Laura Jacqueline Wallace (b. 1941\\), who married Dominic Paul Morland (a son of [Sir Oscar Charles Morland](/wiki/Oscar_Morland \"Oscar Morland\") [GBE](/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_British_Empire \"Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire\") [KCMG](/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George \"Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George\"), of [Pickering](/wiki/Pickering%2C_North_Yorkshire \"Pickering, North Yorkshire\"), [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\") and Alice Lindley) in 1963, they divorced and she married, secondly, Keith Fitchett, in 2003; and Cary Davina Wallace (b. 1942\\), who married [David Howell, Baron Howell of Guildford](/wiki/David_Howell%2C_Baron_Howell_of_Guildford \"David Howell, Baron Howell of Guildford\").\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [(David) Euan Wallace (1892\\-1941\\), Captain and politician](https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp66320/david-euan-wallace) at the [National Portrait Gallery, London](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London \"National Portrait Gallery, London\")\n\n[Category:1892 births](/wiki/Category:1892_births \"1892 births\")\n[Category:1941 deaths](/wiki/Category:1941_deaths \"1941 deaths\")\n[Category:Alumni of University College, Oxford](/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_University_College%2C_Oxford \"Alumni of University College, Oxford\")\n[Category:British Army personnel of World War I](/wiki/Category:British_Army_personnel_of_World_War_I \"British Army personnel of World War I\")\n[Category:British Life Guards officers](/wiki/Category:British_Life_Guards_officers \"British Life Guards officers\")\n[Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies](/wiki/Category:Conservative_Party_%28UK%29_MPs_for_English_constituencies \"Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies\")\n[Category:English people of Scottish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Scottish_descent \"English people of Scottish descent\")\n[Category:Lords of the Admiralty](/wiki/Category:Lords_of_the_Admiralty \"Lords of the Admiralty\")\n[Category:Lutyens family](/wiki/Category:Lutyens_family \"Lutyens family\")\n[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\")\n[Category:Ministers in the Chamberlain peacetime government, 1937–1939](/wiki/Category:Ministers_in_the_Chamberlain_peacetime_government%2C_1937%E2%80%931939 \"Ministers in the Chamberlain peacetime government, 1937–1939\")\n[Category:Ministers in the Chamberlain wartime government, 1939–1940](/wiki/Category:Ministers_in_the_Chamberlain_wartime_government%2C_1939%E2%80%931940 \"Ministers in the Chamberlain wartime government, 1939–1940\")\n[Category:Parliamentary Secretaries to the Board of Trade](/wiki/Category:Parliamentary_Secretaries_to_the_Board_of_Trade \"Parliamentary Secretaries to the Board of Trade\")\n[Category:People educated at Eton College](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Eton_College \"People educated at Eton College\")\n[Category:Recipients of the Military Cross](/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Military_Cross \"Recipients of the Military Cross\")\n[Category:Secretaries of State for Transport (UK)](/wiki/Category:Secretaries_of_State_for_Transport_%28UK%29 \"Secretaries of State for Transport (UK)\")\n[Category:UK MPs 1922–1923](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1922%E2%80%931923 \"UK MPs 1922–1923\")\n[Category:UK MPs 1924–1929](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1924%E2%80%931929 \"UK MPs 1924–1929\")\n[Category:UK MPs 1929–1931](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1929%E2%80%931931 \"UK MPs 1929–1931\")\n[Category:UK MPs 1931–1935](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1931%E2%80%931935 \"UK MPs 1931–1935\")\n[Category:UK MPs 1935–1945](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1935%E2%80%931945 \"UK MPs 1935–1945\")\n\n"
]
}
|
History of Hong Kong
|
{
"id": [
45984946
],
"name": [
"Alexeyevitch"
]
}
|
48yjw5ez2sytgwrkuxqh7quidzd3r9n
|
2024-10-20T11:01:31Z
| 1,252,210,153 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Prehistoric era",
"Imperial China era (221 BC – 1841 AD)",
"Colonial Hong Kong era (1841–1930s)",
"British lease of Kowloon and the New Territories",
"Japanese occupation era (1940s)",
"Post Japanese occupation",
"Modern Hong Kong",
"Modern Hong Kong under British rule (1950s–1997)",
"1950s",
"1960s",
"1970s",
"1980s",
"1990s until 1997",
"Chinese special administrative region (1997–ongoing)",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"Primary sources",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
3,
4,
4,
4,
4,
4,
3,
2,
2,
2,
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2
],
"content": [
"\n\nThe region of [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") has been inhabited since the [Old Stone Age](/wiki/Paleolithic \"Paleolithic\"), later becoming part of the Chinese Empire with its loose incorporation into the [Qin dynasty](/wiki/Qin_dynasty \"Qin dynasty\") (221–206 BC). Starting out as a [farming](/wiki/Walled_villages_of_Hong_Kong \"Walled villages of Hong Kong\") fishing [village](/wiki/List_of_villages_in_Hong_Kong \"List of villages in Hong Kong\") and salt production site, it became an important free port and eventually a major international [financial center](/wiki/Financial_center \"Financial center\").CIA gov. \" the population was 2000000\\.675\n[CIA](https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004710/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html).\" *HK GDP 2004\\.* Retrieved on 6 March 2007\\.\n\nThe [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") ceded Hong Kong to the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") in 1842 through the [Treaty of Nanjing](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanjing \"Treaty of Nanjing\"), ending the [First Opium War](/wiki/First_Opium_War \"First Opium War\"). Hong Kong then became a British [crown colony](/wiki/Crown_colony \"Crown colony\"). Britain also won the [Second Opium War](/wiki/Second_Opium_War \"Second Opium War\"), forcing the Qing Empire to cede [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\") in 1860, while leasing the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") for 99 years from 1898\\.\n\nJapan occupied Hong Kong from 1941 to 1945 during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). By the end of the war in 1945, Hong Kong had been liberated by joint British and Chinese troops and returned to British rule. Hong Kong greatly increased its population from refugees from mainland China, particularly during the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") and the [Great Leap Forward](/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward \"Great Leap Forward\"). In the 1950s, Hong Kong transformed from a territory of [entrepôt trade](/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t \"Entrepôt\") to one of industry and manufacturing. The [Chinese economic reform](/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform \"Chinese economic reform\") prompted manufacturers to relocate to China, leading Hong Kong to develop its commercial and financial industry.\n\nIn 1984, the British prime minister [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher \"Margaret Thatcher\") signed the [Sino\\-British Joint Declaration](/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration \"Sino-British Joint Declaration\"), which incited a wave of emigration from Hong Kong. The [handover of Hong Kong](/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong \"Handover of Hong Kong\") on 1 July 1997, returned Hong Kong to Chinese rule, and it adopted the [Hong Kong Basic Law](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law \"Hong Kong Basic Law\").\n\nIn the 21st century, Hong Kong has continued to enjoy success as a financial centre. However, civil unrest, dissatisfaction with the government and Chinese influence, in general, has been a central issue. The planned implementation of [Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23 \"Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23\") caused great controversy and a [massive demonstration on 1 July 2003](/wiki/2003_July_1_protest \"2003 July 1 protest\"), causing the bill to be shelved. Citizens expressed displeasure at their electoral system, culminating in the [2014 Hong Kong protests](/wiki/2014_Hong_Kong_protests \"2014 Hong Kong protests\"). In 2019, the proposed [Hong Kong extradition bill](/wiki/Fugitive_Offenders_and_Mutual_Legal_Assistance_in_Criminal_Matters_Legislation_%28Amendment%29_Bill_2019 \"Fugitive Offenders and Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Legislation (Amendment) Bill 2019\") was seen as another step taken by the [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China \"Communist Party of China\") to undermine Hong Kong's Rule of Law, instigating a new wave of [protests](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Hong_Kong_protests \"2019–20 Hong Kong protests\"). In 2020, the [National People's Congress](/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress \"National People's Congress\") passed the [Hong Kong national security law](/wiki/2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law \"2020 Hong Kong national security law\") to restore stability in the territory. The new law was highly scrutinized by the pro\\-democracy faction and provoked further political pessimism among the city's populace.\n\n",
"Prehistoric era\n---------------\n\nArchaeological findings suggesting human activity in Hong Kong date back over 30,000 years. Stone tools from the [Old Stone Age](/wiki/Paleolithic \"Paleolithic\") have been excavated in [Sai Kung](/wiki/Sai_Kung_District \"Sai Kung District\") in [Wong Tei Tung](/wiki/Wong_Tei_Tung \"Wong Tei Tung\"). The stone tools found in Sai Kung were perhaps from a stone tool making ground from perhaps the [Late Neolithic period](/wiki/Neolithic_period \"Neolithic period\") or [Early Bronze Age](/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age \"Early Bronze Age\").\n\nEvidence of an [Upper Paleolithic](/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic \"Upper Paleolithic\") settlement in Hong Kong was found at [Wong Tei Tung](/wiki/Wong_Tei_Tung \"Wong Tei Tung\") in [Sham Chung](/wiki/Sham_Chung \"Sham Chung\") beside the [Three Fathoms Cove](/wiki/Three_Fathoms_Cove \"Three Fathoms Cove\") in [Sai Kung Peninsula](/wiki/Sai_Kung_Peninsula \"Sai Kung Peninsula\"). There were 6000 [artefacts](/wiki/Artifact_%28archaeology%29 \"Artifact (archaeology)\") found in a slope in the area and jointly confirmed by the [Hong Kong Archaeological Society](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Archaeological_Society \"Hong Kong Archaeological Society\") and Centre for Lingnan Archaeology of [Sun Yat\\-sen University](/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen_University \"Sun Yat-sen University\").[2005 Field Archaeology on Sham Chung Site](http://www.hkarch.org/en_news.html) \n\nThe Neolithic era began approximately 7,000 years ago in Hong Kong. The settlers in this area during that time were the [Che people](/wiki/Che_people \"Che people\"), who also settled on the coast of southern China. Excavations were mostly found on the western shores of Hong Kong. This location was most likely chosen to avoid strong winds from the southeast and to collect food from the nearby shores. Settlement can be found in [Cheung Chau](/wiki/Cheung_Chau \"Cheung Chau\"), [Lantau Island](/wiki/Lantau_Island \"Lantau Island\") and [Lamma Island](/wiki/Lamma_Island \"Lamma Island\").\n\nThe coming of the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period \"Warring States period\") brought an influx of [Yuet people](/wiki/Baiyue \"Baiyue\") from the north into the area. They probably might have avoided the instabilities at the north and went south. [Bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") fishing, combat, and ritual tools were excavated on Lantau Island and Lamma Island. [Ma Wan](/wiki/Ma_Wan \"Ma Wan\") was the earliest settlement with direct evidence in Hong Kong. The Yuet people competed and assimilated with the indigenous Che people.Meacham, William (2008\\). *The Archaeology of Hong Kong*. [Hong Kong University Press](/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_Press \"Hong Kong University Press\"). . Hong Kong's prehistoric period ended roughly around the duration of the Qin and Han dynasties, when the territory became part of [Panyu County](/wiki/Panyu_District \"Panyu District\").\n\n",
"Imperial China era (221 BC – 1841 AD)\n-------------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|Map of [Bao'an (Po On) County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\") in 1866\\. It shows that Hong Kong and Shenzhen used to be a part of Bao'an County in the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\")](/wiki/File:Map_of_Xin%27an_County_%28in_Canton%29_in_1866.jpg \"Map of Xin'an County (in Canton) in 1866.jpg\")\n\nThe territory that now comprises Hong Kong was loosely part of China during the [Qin dynasty](/wiki/Qin_dynasty \"Qin dynasty\") (221–206 BC), and the area was part of the ancient kingdom of [Nam Viet](/wiki/Nam_Viet \"Nam Viet\") (203–111 BC). During the Qin dynasty, the territory was governed by [Panyu County](/wiki/Panyu_County \"Panyu County\") until the time of the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 \"Jin dynasty (265–420)\").\n\nArchaeological evidence indicates that the population increased during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") (206 BC – AD 220\\). In the 1950s, the [tomb at Lei Cheng Uk](/wiki/Lei_Cheng_Uk_Han_Tomb_Museum \"Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum\") from the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\") (25–220 AD) was excavated and archaeologists began to investigate the possibility that salt production flourished in Hong Kong around 2000 years ago, although conclusive evidence has not been found. [Tai Po Hoi](/wiki/Tai_Po_Hoi \"Tai Po Hoi\"), the sea of Tai Po, was a major [pearl hunting](/wiki/Pearl_hunting \"Pearl hunting\") harbour in China from the Han dynasty through to the [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") (1368–1644\\), with activities peaking during the [Southern Han](/wiki/Southern_Han \"Southern Han\") (917–971\\).\n\nDuring the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 \"Jin dynasty (265–420)\") until the early [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\"), Hong Kong was governed by [Bao'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\"). Under the [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\"), the [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong \"Guangdong\") region flourished as an international trading centre. The [Tuen Mun](/wiki/Tuen_Mun \"Tuen Mun\") region in what is now Hong Kong's [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") served as a port, naval base, salt production centre and later as a base for the exploitation of pearls. [Lantau Island](/wiki/Lantau_Island \"Lantau Island\") was also a salt production centre, where riots by salt smugglers against the government broke out. From the middle of the Tang dynasty until the Ming dynasty, Hong Kong was governed by [Dongguan County](/wiki/Dongguan_County \"Dongguan County\").\n\nOn 10 May 1278, Child [Zhao Bing](/wiki/Zhao_Bing \"Zhao Bing\"), the last Song dynasty emperor, was enthroned at [Mui Wo](/wiki/Mui_Wo \"Mui Wo\") on Lantau Island; this event is commemorated by the [Sung Wong Toi](/wiki/Sung_Wong_Toi \"Sung Wong Toi\") memorial in Kowloon. After his defeat at the [Battle of Yamen](/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen \"Battle of Yamen\") on 19 March 1279, the child emperor committed suicide by drowning with his officials at Mount Ya (modern [Yamen Town](/wiki/Yamen_%28town%29 \"Yamen (town)\") in Guangdong).\n\nDuring the Mongol period, Hong Kong saw its first population boom as Chinese refugees entered the area. Most of these refugees were Chinese Song dynasty loyalists fleeing the [Mongol conquest of Song China](/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Song_China \"Mongol conquest of Song China\").\n\nDespite the immigration and sparse development of agriculture, the area was hilly and relatively barren. People had to rely on salt, pearl and fishery trades to produce income. Some clans built [walled villages](/wiki/Walled_villages_of_Hong_Kong \"Walled villages of Hong Kong\") to protect themselves from the threat of bandits, rival clans and wild animals. The Qing\\-dynasty Chinese pirate [Cheung Po Tsai](/wiki/Cheung_Po_Tsai \"Cheung Po Tsai\") became a legend in Hong Kong.\n\nIn the mid\\-17th century, after the [Great Clearance](/wiki/Great_Clearance \"Great Clearance\") policy which purged most of the region's population, under the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\") order, many [Hakka people](/wiki/Hakka \"Hakka\") migrated from inland China to Xin'an County, which included modern Hong Kong.\n\nDuring the [Ming](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") and [Qing](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") dynasties, Hong Kong remained under the governance of Xin'an County (renamed from Bao'an County), before it was colonised by [the British](/wiki/British_government \"British government\"). As a military outpost and trading port, Hong Kong's territory gained the attention of the world.\n\nBefore the British government colonised the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") and [New Kowloon](/wiki/New_Kowloon \"New Kowloon\") in 1898, [Punti](/wiki/Punti \"Punti\"), [Hakka](/wiki/Hakka \"Hakka\"), [Tanka](/wiki/Tanka_%28ethnic_group%29 \"Tanka (ethnic group)\") and [Hoklo](/wiki/Hoklo \"Hoklo\") people had migrated to and stayed in Hong Kong for many years. They are the [indigenous inhabitants](/wiki/Indigenous_inhabitants_of_the_New_Territories_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories (Hong Kong)\") of Hong Kong. The Punti and Hoklo lived in the New Territories while the Tanka and Hakka lived both in the New Territories and Hong Kong Island. British reports on Hong Kong described the Tanka and [Hoklo](/wiki/Hoklo_people \"Hoklo people\") living in Hong Kong \"since time unknown\". The *[Encyclopaedia Americana](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Americana \"Encyclopaedia Americana\")* described Hoklo and Tanka as living in Hong Kong \"since prehistoric times\".\n\nWhen the [Union Flag](/wiki/Union_Flag \"Union Flag\") was raised over [Possession Point](/wiki/Possession_Point \"Possession Point\") on 26 January 1841, the population of Hong Kong island was about 7,450, mostly [Tanka](/wiki/Tanka_%28ethnic_group%29 \"Tanka (ethnic group)\") fishermen and [Hakka](/wiki/Hakka_people \"Hakka people\") [charcoal burners](/wiki/Charcoal_maker \"Charcoal maker\") living in several coastal villages.John Thomson 1837–1921, [Chap on Hong Kong](http://irc.aa.tufs.ac.jp/thomson/vol_1/mother/102.html), Illustrations of China and Its People (London,1873–1874\\)Info Gov HK. \"[Hong Kong Gov Info](http://www.info.gov.hk/police/hkp-text/english/history/history_01.htm) .\" *History of Hong Kong.* Retrieved on 16 February 2007\\. In the 1850s large numbers of Chinese would emigrate from China to Hong Kong due to the [Taiping Rebellion](/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion \"Taiping Rebellion\"). Other events such as floods, typhoons and famine in [mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\") would also play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place to escape the mayhem.\n\n",
"Colonial Hong Kong era (1841–1930s)\n-----------------------------------\n\n| \\+ Treaties and conventions between Britain and China related to Hong Kong |**Date**\n\n**Treaty**\n\n**Outcome**\n\n**Notes**\n\n| --- |\n\n 20 January 1841 | [Convention of Chuenpi](/wiki/Convention_of_Chuenpi \"Convention of Chuenpi\") | Preliminary cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\") to the United Kingdom | Included [Green Island](/wiki/Green_Island%2C_Hong_Kong \"Green Island, Hong Kong\") and [Ap Lei Chau](/wiki/Ap_Lei_Chau \"Ap Lei Chau\"). \nBefore the cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\"), this territory was governed by [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\") .\n\n 29 August 1842 | [Treaty of Nanking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking \"Treaty of Nanking\") | Cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\"), founded as a crown colony of the United Kingdom |\n 18 October 1860 | [Convention of Beijing](/wiki/Convention_of_Beijing \"Convention of Beijing\") | Cession of [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\") | South of [Boundary Street](/wiki/Boundary_Street \"Boundary Street\"), including [Ngong Shuen Chau](/wiki/Ngong_Shuen_Chau \"Ngong Shuen Chau\").Before the cession of [Kowloon Peninsula](/wiki/Kowloon_Peninsula \"Kowloon Peninsula\"), this territory was governed by [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\"). |\n 1 July 1898 | [Second Convention of Beijing](/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory \"Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory\") | Lease of the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") | South of the [Shenzhen River](/wiki/Shenzhen_River \"Shenzhen River\") in [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\"), including [New Kowloon](/wiki/New_Kowloon \"New Kowloon\"), [Lantau](/wiki/Lantau \"Lantau\") and outlying islands. |\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|140px\\|1888 German map of Hong Kong, [Macau](/wiki/Macau \"Macau\"), and [Canton (Guangzhou)](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\")](/wiki/File:Situationsk%C3%A4rtchen_von_Kanton%2C_Makao%2C_Hongkong.jpg \"Situationskärtchen von Kanton, Makao, Hongkong.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|140px\\|left\\|The [Treaty of Peking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Peking \"Treaty of Peking\")](/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Peking1887.jpg \"Treaty of Peking1887.jpg\")\nBy the early 19th century, the British Empire trade was heavily dependent upon the importation of tea, silk, and porcelain from China. While the British exported to China luxury items such as clocks and watches, there remained an overwhelming imbalance in trade. China developed a strong demand for silver, which was a difficult commodity for the British to come by in large quantities. The counterbalance of trade came with exports to China of opium grown in India. By the late 19th century China grew most of the opium it used.Carl A. Trocki, *Opium, Empire and the global political economy: a study of the Asian opium trade, 1750–1950* (Psychology Press, 1999\\) pp 111–113\\. A Chinese commissioner, [Lin Zexu](/wiki/Lin_Zexu \"Lin Zexu\"), voiced to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") the Qing state's opposition to the opium trade. The [First Opium War](/wiki/First_Opium_War \"First Opium War\") which ensued lasted from 1839 to 1842\\. Britain occupied the island of Hong Kong on 25 January 1841 and used it as a military staging point. China was defeated and was forced to cede Hong Kong in the [Treaty of Nanking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking \"Treaty of Nanking\") signed on 29 August 1842\\. The island became a [crown colony](/wiki/Crown_colony \"Crown colony\") of the British Empire.R. Derek Wood, \"The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the foreign office, 1842–43\\.\" *Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History* 24\\.2 (1996\\): 181–196 [online](http://www.midley.co.uk/midley_pdfs/Nanking_Wood1996.pdf)\n\nChristian missionaries founded many schools and churches in Hong Kong. St Stephen's Anglican Church located in West Point was founded by the [Church Mission Society](/wiki/Church_Mission_Society \"Church Mission Society\") in 1865\\. [Ying Wa Girls' School](/wiki/Ying_Wa_Girls%27_School \"Ying Wa Girls' School\") located in Mid\\-levels was founded by the [London Missionary Society](/wiki/London_Missionary_Society \"London Missionary Society\") in 1900\\. The [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/wiki/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese \"Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese\") was founded by the London Missionary Society in 1887, and [Sun Yat\\-sen](/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen \"Sun Yat-sen\") was one of its first two graduates in 1892\\. The college was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the [University of Hong Kong](/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong \"University of Hong Kong\"), which was established in 1911\\.\n\n[thumb\\|Victoria Harbour and Hong Kong Island in the 1860s](/wiki/File:City_of_Victoria.jpg \"City of Victoria.jpg\")\nAlong with fellow students [Yeung Hok\\-ling](/wiki/Yeung_Hok-ling \"Yeung Hok-ling\"), [Chan Siu\\-bak](/wiki/Chan_Siu-bak \"Chan Siu-bak\") and [Yau Lit](/wiki/Yau_Lit \"Yau Lit\"), Sun Yat\\-sen started to promote the thought of overthrowing the Qing empire while he studied in the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. The four students were known by the Qing as the [Four Bandits](/wiki/Four_Bandits \"Four Bandits\"). Sun attended To Tsai Church (道濟會堂, founded by the London Missionary Society in 1888\\) while he studied in this college. Sun led the [Chinese Revolution of 1911](/wiki/Chinese_Revolution_of_1911 \"Chinese Revolution of 1911\"), which changed China from an empire to a republic.\n\nIn April 1899, the residents of [Kam Tin](/wiki/Kam_Tin \"Kam Tin\") rebelled against the colonial government. They defended themselves in [Kat Hing Wai](/wiki/Kat_Hing_Wai \"Kat Hing Wai\"), a walled village. After several unsuccessful attacks by the British troops, the iron gate was blasted open. The gate was then shipped to London for exhibition. Under the demand of the [Tang clan](/wiki/Tang_clan \"Tang clan\") in 1924, the gate was eventually returned in 1925 by the 16th governor, [Sir Reginald Stubbs](/wiki/Reginald_Edward_Stubbs \"Reginald Edward Stubbs\").\n\n[The first gas company](/wiki/Hong_Kong_and_China_Gas_Company \"Hong Kong and China Gas Company\") opened in 1862\\. In 1890 came the [first electric company](/wiki/Hongkong_Electric \"Hongkong Electric\"). For local travel rickshaws gave way to [buses](/wiki/History_of_bus_transport_in_Hong_Kong \"History of bus transport in Hong Kong\"), [ferries](/wiki/Hongkong_and_Yaumati_Ferry \"Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry\"), and [trams](/wiki/Peak_Tram \"Peak Tram\"). [Imperial Airways](/wiki/Imperial_Airways \"Imperial Airways\") set up a base in 1936\\.Wiltshire, Trea. \\[First published 1987] (republished \\& reduced 2003\\). Old Hong Kong – Volume One. Central, Hong Kong: Text Form Asia books Ltd. ISBN Volume One 962\\-7283\\-59\\-2 Every industry went through major transformation and growth. Western\\-style education made advances through the efforts of [Frederick Stewart](/wiki/Frederick_Stewart_%28colonial_administrator%29 \"Frederick Stewart (colonial administrator)\").Bickley, Gillian. \\[1997](1997\\). The Golden Needle: The Biography of Frederick Stewart (1836–1889\\). Hong Kong. This was a crucial step in separating Hong Kong from mainland China during the political turmoil associated with the falling Qing dynasty. The base of the future financial center was formed with the opening of [The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank](/wiki/The_Hongkong_and_Shanghai_Banking_Corporation \"The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation\") in 1865\\.\nLim, Patricia. \\[2002] (2002\\). Discovering Hong Hong's Cultural Heritage. Central, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. ISBN Volume One 0\\-19\\-592723\\-0\n\nThe [Third Pandemic](/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic \"Third plague pandemic\") of [Bubonic Plague](/wiki/Bubonic_Plague \"Bubonic Plague\") attacked Hong Kong in the [1894 Hong Kong plague](/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague \"1894 Hong Kong plague\"). It provided the pretext for [racial zoning](/wiki/Racial_segregation \"Racial segregation\") with the creation of [Peak Reservation Ordinance](/wiki/Peak_Reservation_Ordinance \"Peak Reservation Ordinance\") and recognising the importance of the [first hospital](/wiki/Tung_Wah_Hospital \"Tung Wah Hospital\").\n\nOn the outbreak of World War I in 1914, fear of a possible attack on the colony led to an exodus of 60,000 Chinese. However, [Hong Kong during World War I](/wiki/Hong_Kong_during_World_War_I \"Hong Kong during World War I\") saw no direct military action, and Hong Kong's population continued to boom in the following decades from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925\\. Nonetheless, the crisis in mainland China in the 1920s and 1930s left Hong Kong vulnerable to a strategic invasion from [Imperial Japan](/wiki/Imperial_Japan \"Imperial Japan\").\n\nIn 1937, Hong Kong was [struck by a major typhoon](/wiki/1937_Great_Hong_Kong_typhoon \"1937 Great Hong Kong typhoon\").\n\n",
"British lease of Kowloon and the New Territories\n------------------------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|By 1990, the [Kowloon Walled City](/wiki/Kowloon_Walled_City \"Kowloon Walled City\") contained 50,000 residents within its borders.](/wiki/File:KWC_-_1989_Aerial.jpg \"KWC - 1989 Aerial.jpg\")\nIn 1860, at the end of the Second Opium War, the United Kingdom gained a perpetual lease over the Kowloon Peninsula, which is the mainland Chinese area just across the strait from Hong Kong Island. This agreement was part of the Convention of Beijing that ended that conflict.\n\nDuring the second half of the 19th century, the British became increasingly wary of the Chinese\\-controlled islands surrounding their newly bought port. After the [Second Opium War](/wiki/Second_Opium_War \"Second Opium War\") (1898, [Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory](/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory \"Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory\")) the British negotiated a lease of the \"New Territories\" in which the British would receive newer outlying islands for 99 years.\n\nOn 19 December 1984, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang signed the Sino\\-British Joint Declaration, in which Britain agreed to return not only the New Territories but also Kowloon and Hong Kong itself when the lease term expired. China promised to implement a \"One Country, Two Systems\" regime, under which for fifty years Hong Kong citizens could continue to practice capitalism and political freedoms forbidden on the mainland.\n\nOn , the lease ended, and the United Kingdom transferred control of Hong Kong and surrounding territories to the People's Republic of China.\n\n",
"Japanese occupation era (1940s)\n-------------------------------\n\nHong Kong was occupied by Japan from 23 December 1941 to 15 August 1945\\. The period, called '3 years and 8 months' halted the economy. The British, Canadians, Indians and the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces resisted the Japanese invasion commanded by [Sakai Takashi](/wiki/Sakai_Takashi \"Sakai Takashi\") which started on 8 December 1941, eight hours after the [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\"). Japan achieved air superiority on the first day of battle and the defensive forces were outnumbered. The British and the Indians retreated from the [Gin Drinker's Line](/wiki/Gin_Drinker%27s_Line \"Gin Drinker's Line\") and consequently from [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\") under heavy aerial bombardment and artillery barrage. Fierce fighting continued on [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\"); the only [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoirs_in_Hong_Kong \"Reservoirs in Hong Kong\") was lost. Canadian [Winnipeg Grenadiers](/wiki/Winnipeg_Grenadiers \"Winnipeg Grenadiers\") fought at the crucial [Wong Nai Chong Gap](/wiki/Wong_Nai_Chong_Gap \"Wong Nai Chong Gap\"), which was the passage between the north and the secluded southern parts of the island.\n\nOn 25 December 1941, referred to as *Black Christmas* by locals, British colonial officials headed by the [governor of Hong Kong](/wiki/Governor_of_Hong_Kong \"Governor of Hong Kong\"), [Mark Aitchison Young](/wiki/Mark_Aitchison_Young \"Mark Aitchison Young\"), surrendered in person at the Japanese headquarters on the third floor of the [Peninsula Hotel](/wiki/The_Peninsula_Hong_Kong \"The Peninsula Hong Kong\"). [Isogai Rensuke](/wiki/Isogai_Rensuke \"Isogai Rensuke\") became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong.\n\n[thumb\\|Japanese war criminals prepare for their transfer to [Stanley Prison](/wiki/Stanley_Prison \"Stanley Prison\")](/wiki/File:JapaneseWarCriminalsHK.jpg \"JapaneseWarCriminalsHK.jpg\")\nDuring the Japanese occupation, [hyper\\-inflation](/wiki/Hyper-inflation \"Hyper-inflation\") and food rationing became the norm of daily lives. It became unlawful to own [Hong Kong dollars](/wiki/Hong_Kong_dollar \"Hong Kong dollar\"), which were replaced by the [Japanese military yen](/wiki/Japanese_military_currency_%281937%E2%80%931945%29 \"Japanese military currency (1937–1945)\"), a currency without reserves issued by the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\") administration. During the three and half years of occupation by the Japanese, an estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated. Philip Snow, a prominent historian of the period, said that the Japanese cut rations for civilians to conserve food for soldiers, usually to starvation levels and deported many to famine\\- and disease\\-ridden areas of the [mainland](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\"). Most of the repatriated had come to Hong Kong just a few years earlier to flee the terror of the [Second Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\") in mainland China.\n\nBy the end of the war in 1945, Hong Kong had been liberated by joint British and Chinese troops. The population of Hong Kong had shrunk to 600,000; less than half of the pre\\-war population of 1\\.6 million due to scarcity of food and emigration. The [communist revolution in China](/wiki/Chinese_Revolution_%281949%29 \"Chinese Revolution (1949)\") in 1949 led to another population boom in Hong Kong. Thousands of [refugees](/wiki/Refugee \"Refugee\") emigrated from mainland China to Hong Kong, and made it an important [entrepôt](/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t \"Entrepôt\") until the United Nations ordered a [trade embargo](/wiki/Trade_embargo \"Trade embargo\") on mainland China due to the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). More refugees came during the [Great Leap Forward](/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward \"Great Leap Forward\").\n\n",
"Post Japanese occupation\n------------------------\n\nAfter the Second World War, the trend of decolonization swept across the world. Still, Britain chose to keep Hong Kong for strategic reasons. To consolidate its rule, constitutional changes, the [Young Plan](/wiki/Young_Plan_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Young Plan (Hong Kong)\"), were proposed in response to the trend of decolonization so as to meet the needs of the people. The political and institutional system made only minimal changes due to the political instability in mainland China at that time (aforementioned) which caused an influx of mainland residents to Hong Kong.\n\n",
"",
"",
"#### 1950s\n\n[thumb\\|300px\\|[Victoria, Hong Kong](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Hong_Kong \"Victoria, Hong Kong\"), 1950s](/wiki/File:Hk1950.jpg \"Hk1950.jpg\")\n\nSkills and capital brought by refugees of mainland China, especially from Shanghai, along with a vast pool of cheap labour helped revive the economy. At the same time, many foreign firms relocated their offices from Shanghai to Hong Kong. Enjoying unprecedented growth, Hong Kong transformed from a territory of [entrepôt trade](/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t \"Entrepôt\") to one of industry and manufacturing. The early industrial centres, where many of the workers spent the majority of their days, turned out anything that could be produced with small space from [buttons](/wiki/Buttons \"Buttons\"), [artificial flowers](/wiki/Artificial_flowers \"Artificial flowers\"), [umbrellas](/wiki/Umbrellas \"Umbrellas\"), [textile](/wiki/Textile \"Textile\"), [enamelware](/wiki/Enamelware \"Enamelware\"), [footwear](/wiki/Footwear \"Footwear\") to [plastics](/wiki/Plastic \"Plastic\").\n\nLarge squatter camps developed throughout the territory providing homes for the massive and growing number of immigrants. The camps, however, posed a fire and health hazard, leading to disasters like the [Shek Kip Mei Fire](/wiki/Shek_Kip_Mei_Fire \"Shek Kip Mei Fire\"). Governor [Alexander Grantham](/wiki/Alexander_Grantham \"Alexander Grantham\") responded with a \"multi\\-storey buildings\" plan as a standard. It was the beginning of the high\\-rise buildings. Conditions in public housing were very basic with several families sharing communal cooking facilities. Other aspects of life changed as traditional [Cantonese opera](/wiki/Cantonese_opera \"Cantonese opera\") gave way to [big screen cinemas](/wiki/Cinema_of_Hong_Kong \"Cinema of Hong Kong\"). [The tourism industry](/wiki/Tourism_in_Hong_Kong \"Tourism in Hong Kong\") began to formalise. [North Point](/wiki/North_Point \"North Point\") was known as *\"[Little Shanghai](/wiki/Little_Shanghai \"Little Shanghai\")\"* (小上海), since in the minds of many, it had already become the replacement for the surrendered Shanghai in China.\n\n",
"#### 1960s\n\n[alt\\=A queue of people with water containers outside a building\\|thumb\\|300x300px\\|Queueing for water in Hong Kong, July 1963](/wiki/File:Queueing_for_water_in_Hong_Kong_July_1963.jpg \"Queueing for water in Hong Kong July 1963.jpg\")\n\nThe manufacturing industry opened a new decade employing large sections of the population. The period is considered a turning point for Hong Kong's economy. The construction business was also revamped with new detailed guidelines for the first time since World War II. While Hong Kong started out with a low [GDP](/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product \"Gross Domestic Product\"), it used the textile industry as the foundation to boost the economy. China's [cultural revolution](/wiki/Cultural_revolution \"Cultural revolution\") put Hong Kong on a new political stage. Events like the [1967 riot](/wiki/Hong_Kong_1967_riots \"Hong Kong 1967 riots\") filled the streets with [home\\-made bombs](/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device \"Improvised explosive device\") and chaos. Bomb disposal experts from the police and the [British military](/wiki/British_military \"British military\") defused as many as 8,000 home\\-made bombs. One in every eight bombs was genuine.Wiltshire, Trea. \\[First published 1987] (republished \\& reduced 2003\\). Old Hong KongVolume Three. Central, Hong Kong: Text Form Asia books Ltd. p. 12\\. \n\nFamily values and Chinese tradition were challenged as people spent more time in the factories than at home. Other features of the period included water shortages, long working hours coupled with extremely low wages. The [Hong Kong Flu](/wiki/H3N2 \"H3N2\") of 1968 infected 15% of the population.Starling, Arthur (2006\\). *Plague, SARS, and the Story of Medicine in Hong Kong*. HK University Press. Amidst all the struggle, \"Made in Hong Kong\" went from a label that marked cheap low\\-grade products to a label that marked high\\-quality products.Buckley, Roger. \\[1997] (1997\\). Hong Kong: The Road to 1997 By Roger Buckley. Cambridge University Press. \n\n",
"#### 1970s\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|[Kowloon City](/wiki/Kowloon_City \"Kowloon City\") and [Victoria, Hong Kong](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Hong_Kong \"Victoria, Hong Kong\"), 1970s](/wiki/File:Hong_Kong_1978.jpg \"Hong Kong 1978.jpg\")\n\nThe 1970s saw the extension of [government subsidised education](/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong \"Education in Hong Kong\") from six years to nine years and the setup of Hong Kong's [country parks system](/wiki/Country_parks_and_conservation_in_Hong_Kong \"Country parks and conservation in Hong Kong\").\n\nThe opening of the mainland Chinese market and rising salaries drove many manufacturers north. Hong Kong consolidated its position as a commercial and tourism centre in Asia. High [life expectancy](/wiki/Life_expectancy \"Life expectancy\"), literacy, per\\-capita income and other socio\\-economic measures attest to Hong Kong's achievements over the last four decades of the 20th century. Higher income also led to the introduction of the first high\\-rise, [private housing estates](/wiki/Private_housing_estates \"Private housing estates\") with [Taikoo Shing](/wiki/Taikoo_Shing \"Taikoo Shing\"). From this time, people's homes became part of Hong Kong's skyline and scenery.\n\nIn 1974, [Murray McLehose](/wiki/MacLehose_of_Beoch \"MacLehose of Beoch\") founded the [ICAC](/wiki/Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_of_Hong_Kong \"Independent Commission Against Corruption of Hong Kong\"), the Independent Commission Against Corruption, to combat corruption within the [police force](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Police_Force \"Hong Kong Police Force\"). The corruption was so widespread that a mass police petition took place resisting prosecutions. Despite early opposition to the ICAC by the police force, Hong Kong was successful in its anti\\-corruption efforts, eventually becoming one of the [least corrupt societies in the world](/wiki/Index_of_perception_of_corruption \"Index of perception of corruption\").\n\nThe early 1970s saw legislation requiring equal pay and benefits for equal work by men and women, including the right for married women to be permanent employees.[Toronto SUN](http://m.torontosun.com/2012/04/06/celebrating-two-lives-well-lived) \n\n",
"#### 1980s\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|[Victoria, Hong Kong](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Hong_Kong \"Victoria, Hong Kong\"), 1980s](/wiki/File:Hk1989a.jpg \"Hk1989a.jpg\")\n\nIn 1982, the British prime minister, [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher \"Margaret Thatcher\"), hoped that the increasing openness of the PRC government and the [economic reform](/wiki/Economic_reform_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Economic reform in the People's Republic of China\") in the mainland would allow the continuation of British rule. The resulting meeting led to the signing of [Sino\\-British Joint Declaration](/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration \"Sino-British Joint Declaration\") and the proposal of the [One country, two systems](/wiki/One_country%2C_two_systems \"One country, two systems\") concept by [Deng Xiaoping](/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping \"Deng Xiaoping\"). But this time, Hong Kong was recognised as one of the wealthiest representatives of the far east. Political news dominated the media; while [real estate](/wiki/Economy_of_Hong_Kong \"Economy of Hong Kong\") took a major upswing, the financial world was rattled by panics, resulting in waves of changes in policy and [Black Saturday](/wiki/Black_Saturday_%281983%29 \"Black Saturday (1983)\"). Warnings of the coming [handover](/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong \"Handover of Hong Kong\") raised [emigration](/wiki/Emigration \"Emigration\") levels to historic highs. Many left Hong Kong for the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, and anywhere else in the world without any communist influence.\n\n[Hong Kong's Cinema](/wiki/Cinema_of_Hong_Kong \"Cinema of Hong Kong\") enjoyed one paramount run that put it on the international map. Some of the biggest names included [Jackie Chan](/wiki/Jackie_Chan \"Jackie Chan\") and [Chow Yun\\-fat](/wiki/Chow_Yun-fat \"Chow Yun-fat\"). The music world also saw a new group of [cantopop](/wiki/Cantopop \"Cantopop\") stars like [Anita Mui](/wiki/Anita_Mui \"Anita Mui\") and [Leslie Cheung](/wiki/Leslie_Cheung \"Leslie Cheung\").\n\n",
"",
"### Chinese special administrative region (1997–ongoing)\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|320px\\|Southern [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\") and [Victoria, Hong Kong](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Hong_Kong \"Victoria, Hong Kong\"), 2000s](/wiki/File:Hongkong_Evening_Skyline.jpg \"Hongkong Evening Skyline.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|320px\\|Southern [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\") and [Victoria, Hong Kong](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Hong_Kong \"Victoria, Hong Kong\"), 2014](/wiki/File:Hong_Kong_Skyscrapers.jpg \"Hong Kong Skyscrapers.jpg\")\n\nChinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC's rise to [great power](/wiki/Great_power \"Great power\") status.\n\nThe new millennium signalled a series of events. A sizeable portion of the population that was previously against the handover found itself living with the adjustments. [Article 23](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23 \"Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23\") became a controversy, and led to marches in different parts of Hong Kong with as many as 750,000 people out of a population of approximately 6,800,000 at the time. The government also dealt with the [SARS outbreak](/wiki/Severe_Acute_Respiratory_Syndrome \"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome\") in 2003\\. A further health crisis, the [Bird Flu Pandemic](/wiki/Global_spread_of_H5N1 \"Global spread of H5N1\") (H5N1\\) gained momentum from the late 1990s, and led to the disposal of millions of chickens and other poultry. The slaughter put Hong Kong at the centre of global attention. At the same time, the economy tried to adjust fiscally. Within a short time, the political climate heated up and the chief executive position was challenged culturally, politically and managerially.\n\nHong Kong's skylines have continued to evolve, with three new skyscrapers dominating, each in [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\"), [Tsuen Wan](/wiki/Tsuen_Wan \"Tsuen Wan\") and [Victoria, Hong Kong](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Hong_Kong \"Victoria, Hong Kong\"). The 88\\-storey [Two International Finance Centre](/wiki/Two_International_Finance_Centre \"Two International Finance Centre\"), completed in 2003, previously Hong Kong's tallest building, has been eclipsed by the , 118\\-storey [International Commerce Centre](/wiki/International_Commerce_Centre \"International Commerce Centre\") in West Kowloon, which was topped\\-out in 2010 and remains the tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong. Also worth mentioning is the 320\\-metre\\-tall (1,051 ft) [Nina Tower](/wiki/Nina_Tower \"Nina Tower\") located in [Tsuen Wan](/wiki/Tsuen_Wan \"Tsuen Wan\"). Eight additional skyscrapers over 250 meters (825 feet) have also been completed during this time.\n\nOccupy Central with Love and Peace (OCLP; 讓愛與和平佔領中環 or 和平佔中) was a single\\-purpose Hong Kong civil disobedience campaign convened by Reverend Chu Yiu\\-ming, Dr Benny Tai Yiu\\-ting, and Chan Kin\\-man on 27 March 2013\\. Its aim was to pressure the PRC Government into reforming the systems for election of the Hong Kong chief executive and Legislative Council so as to satisfy \"international standards in relation to universal suffrage\" as promised in the 1984 Sino\\-British Joint Declaration and Article 45 of the 1997 Hong Kong Basic Law. Its manifesto called for occupation of the region's central business district if such reforms were not made. Upstaged by the Hong Kong Federation of Students (HKFS) and Scholarism in September 2014, its leaders joined in the [Occupy Central protests](/wiki/2014_Hong_Kong_protests \"2014 Hong Kong protests\").\n[thumb\\|Hong Kong international airport was moved from Kai Tak to Chep Lap Kok. Photograph of Kai Tak taken the day after it closed.](/wiki/File:Boeing_747-467%2C_Cathay_Pacific_Airways_JP10362.jpg \"Boeing 747-467, Cathay Pacific Airways JP10362.jpg\")\nThe number of impoverished Hongkongers hit a record high in 2016 with one in five people living below the poverty line. Along with housing issues was growing sentiment over the influence of the [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China \"Communist Party of China\") and Chinese culture. The [anti\\-Hong Kong Express Rail Link movement](/wiki/Anti-Hong_Kong_Express_Rail_Link_movement \"Anti-Hong Kong Express Rail Link movement\") protested at the proposed Hong Kong section of the [Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link](/wiki/Guangzhou%E2%80%93Shenzhen%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_Express_Rail_Link \"Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link\"); the link was nevertheless completed in 2018\\. The [Hong Kong 818 incident](/wiki/Hong_Kong_818_incident \"Hong Kong 818 incident\"), inhibited by the visit of [Li Keqiang](/wiki/Li_Keqiang \"Li Keqiang\"), caused controversy regarding civil rights violations. The [Moral and National Education controversy](/wiki/Moral_and_National_Education_controversy \"Moral and National Education controversy\") exemplified the conflict between [communist](/wiki/Communist \"Communist\") and [nationalist](/wiki/Nationalist \"Nationalist\") positions of China's government with democratic sentiments expressed by Hong Kong citizens.\n\nThe [2016 Legislative council election](/wiki/2016_Hong_Kong_legislative_election \"2016 Hong Kong legislative election\") saw the localists emerging as a new political force behind the [pro\\-Beijing](/wiki/Pro-Beijing_camp_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Pro-Beijing camp (Hong Kong)\") and [pan\\-democracy](/wiki/Pro-democracy_camp_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)\") camps by winning six seats in Hong Kong's [geographical constituencies](/wiki/Geographical_constituencies \"Geographical constituencies\"). However, six candidates were [barred from contesting](/wiki/2016_Hong_Kong_LegCo_candidates%27_disqualification_controversy \"2016 Hong Kong LegCo candidates' disqualification controversy\") by the [Electoral Affairs Commission](/wiki/Electoral_Affairs_Commission \"Electoral Affairs Commission\"), due to their association with the [Hong Kong independence](/wiki/Hong_Kong_independence \"Hong Kong independence\") movement. Another six localist members who were elected were disqualified in the [Hong Kong Legislative Council oath\\-taking controversy](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Legislative_Council_oath-taking_controversy \"Hong Kong Legislative Council oath-taking controversy\"). After the [5th Hong Kong Chief Executive election](/wiki/2017_Hong_Kong_Chief_Executive_election \"2017 Hong Kong Chief Executive election\"), Carrie Lam became the first female chief executive of Hong Kong. However, her proposal of the [Fugitive Offenders and Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Legislation (Amendment) Bill 2019](/wiki/2019_Hong_Kong_extradition_bill \"2019 Hong Kong extradition bill\") has led to [mass demonstrations](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Hong_Kong_protests \"2019–20 Hong Kong protests\") against its implementation. The bill would make it legal for China to extradite criminals from Hong Kong, potentially including [political prisoners](/wiki/Political_prisoner \"Political prisoner\"). It is feared that the bill would cause the city to open itself up to the reach of [mainland Chinese law](/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China \"Law of the People's Republic of China\") and that people from Hong Kong [could become subject](/wiki/Law_of_Hong_Kong \"Law of Hong Kong\") to a different legal system.\n\n[thumb\\|Healthcare workers conducting mass COVID\\-19 testing in [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan%2C_Hong_Kong \"Jordan, Hong Kong\")](/wiki/File:Jordan%2C_Hong_Kong_healthcare_workers_testing_residents_for_COVID-19.jpg \"Jordan, Hong Kong healthcare workers testing residents for COVID-19.jpg\")\nThe **COVID\\-19 pandemic in Hong Kong** is part of the [worldwide pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\") of coronavirus disease 2019 () caused by [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2](/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2 \"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\") (). The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Hong Kong on 23 January 2020\\. Confirmed cases were generally transferred to [Princess Margaret Hospital](/wiki/Princess_Margaret_Hospital_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Princess Margaret Hospital (Hong Kong)\")'s Infectious Disease Centre for isolation and centralised treatment. On 5 February, after a five\\-day strike by front\\-line medical workers, the Hong Kong government closed all but three border control points including [Hong Kong International Airport](/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Airport \"Hong Kong International Airport\"), [Shenzhen Bay Control Point](/wiki/Shenzhen_Bay_Port \"Shenzhen Bay Port\"), and [Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge](/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Zhuhai%E2%80%93Macau_Bridge \"Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge\") Control Point remaining open.\n\nHong Kong was relatively unscathed by the first wave of the COVID\\-19 outbreak and had a flatter epidemic curve than most other places, which observers consider remarkable given its status as an international transport hub. Furthermore, its proximity to China and its millions of mainland visitors annually would make it vulnerable. Some experts now believe the habit of [wearing masks](/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic \"Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic\") in public since the SARS epidemic of 2003 may have helped keep its confirmed infections at 845, with four deaths, by the beginning of April. In a study published in April 2020 in the *Lancet*, the authors expressed their belief that border restrictions, quarantine and isolation, social distancing, and behavioural changes such as wearing masks likely all played a part in the containment of the disease up to the end of March. Others attributed the success to critical thinking of citizens who have become accustomed to distrusting the competence and political motivations of the government, the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization \"World Health Organization\"), and the [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party \"Chinese Communist Party\").\n\nAfter a much smaller second wave in late March and April 2020 caused by overseas returnees rushing to beat mandatory quarantine, Hong Kong saw a substantial uptick in COVID cases in July, with more than a hundred cases being reported several days in a row until early August. Experts attributed this third wave to imported cases – sea crew, aircrew members, and domestic helpers made up the majority of 3rd wave infections. In late November 2020 the city entered a fourth wave, called \"severe\" by Chief Executive [Carrie Lam](/wiki/Carrie_Lam \"Carrie Lam\"). The initial driver behind the fourth wave was a group of dance clubs in which wealthy, predominantly female Hong Kongers danced together and had dance lessons with mostly younger male dance instructors. Measures taken in response included a suspension of school classroom teaching until the end of the year, and an order for restaurants to seat only two persons per table and close at 10:00 p.m. taking effect on 2 December; a further tightening of restrictions saw, among other measures, a 6 pm closing time of restaurants starting from 10 December, and a mandate for authorities to order partial lockdowns in locations with multiple cases of COVID\\-19 until all residents were tested. From late January 2021, the government pursued repeatedly locked down residential buildings to conduct mass testing. A free mass vaccination program with the [Sinovac vaccine](/wiki/CoronaVac \"CoronaVac\") and [Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine](/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine \"Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine\") was launched on 26 February. The government sought to counter the [vaccine hesitancy](/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy \"Vaccine hesitancy\") by material incentives, which led to an acceleration of vaccinations in June.\n\nHong Kong was one of few countries and territories to pursue a \"[zero\\-COVID](/wiki/Zero-COVID \"Zero-COVID\")\" elimination strategy, by essentially closing all its borders and, until February 2022, subjecting even mild and asymptomatic cases to hospitalisation, and sometimes isolation extending over several weeks. The fifth, [Omicron variant](/wiki/Omicron_variant \"Omicron variant\") driven wave of the pandemic emerging in late December 2021 caused the health system to be stretched to its limits, the mandatory hospitalization to be abandoned, and led several experts to question the zero\\-COVID strategy. Some even considered it counterproductive, due to it having nourished hopes that the city would eventually become free of the virus, and thus having led to a low COVID\\-19 vaccination rate in the city. Most of the deaths in the fifth wave were among the unvaccinated elderly.\n\nThe [Standing Committee of the National People's Congress](/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress \"Standing Committee of the National People's Congress\") established the [Hong Kong national security law](/wiki/2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law \"2020 Hong Kong national security law\") which came into effect on 1 July 2020\\. In November 2020 the [National People's Congress](/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress \"National People's Congress\") authorised the dismissal of any Legco members who are perceived to ask for help from foreign countries and who \"refuse to recognise China's sovereignty over Hong Kong.\" After multiple pro\\-Democracy members of Legco resigned, the Government of the United Kingdom stated that the PRC was not upholding the Sino\\-British treaty.\n\nOn 27 January 2021, [CCP general secretary](/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party \"General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party\") [Xi Jinping](/wiki/Xi_Jinping \"Xi Jinping\") said that Hong Kong could only maintain its long\\-term stability and security by ensuring \"patriots governing Hong Kong\" when he heard a work report delivered by Carrie Lam. On 1 March, HKMAO director [Xia Baolong](/wiki/Xia_Baolong \"Xia Baolong\") in the seminar of \"patriots governing Hong Kong\" stated that Hong Kong must establish a \"democratic electoral system with Hong Kong characteristics.\"\n\nA \"[decision on improving the electoral system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region](/wiki/2021_Hong_Kong_electoral_reform \"2021 Hong Kong electoral reform\")\" was passed by the [National People's Congress](/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress \"National People's Congress\") (NPC) on 11 March 2021 to rewrite the [election rules](/wiki/Elections_in_Hong_Kong \"Elections in Hong Kong\") in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") to ensure a system of \"patriots governing Hong Kong.\" By amending the Annex I and [Annex II](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Annex_Two \"Hong Kong Basic Law Annex Two\") of the [Basic Law of Hong Kong](/wiki/Basic_Law_of_Hong_Kong \"Basic Law of Hong Kong\"), the composition of the [Legislative Council](/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Hong_Kong \"Legislative Council of Hong Kong\") (LegCo) and the [Election Committee](/wiki/Election_Committee \"Election Committee\") (EC). All electoral candidates of Chief Executive, Legislative Council Member, and Election Committee Member requires prior approval from the [Candidate Eligibility Review Committee](/wiki/Candidate_Eligibility_Review_Committee \"Candidate Eligibility Review Committee\").\n\nOn 23 June 2021, the pro\\-[democracy](/wiki/Democracy \"Democracy\") tabloid *[Apple Daily](/wiki/Apple_Daily \"Apple Daily\")* announced that its final edition would be released on Thursday and that it would later cease activities after five top executives were arrested under the national security law and the tabloid's assets were frozen. *Apple Daily* founder [Jimmy Lai](/wiki/Jimmy_Lai \"Jimmy Lai\") is already imprisoned and awaits trial, along with 46 others, on subversion charges. In 2021, it was announced that the library named \"Ocean Sea Public Library,\" the largest library in Asia, would open in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\").\n\nIn late 2022, it was announced that the species would be reintroduced to Hong Kong, furthermore known as rewilding. The forest on Hong Kong contains the air that is just thick with the buzzing of insects, singing of birds, chattering monkeys, and especially myriad other animals. This forest in Hong Kong is almost completely silent. That has argued that it surprises people to finally discover the considered verdant landscape being a contemporary addition in over the history, since of its started removal in industrial scale to create space for agriculture and to advance the fuel of those ceramics industry. Despite the growth, there were fewer animals to fill the emerging forests. The 200 kilometers of urban land between here and there have created an insurmountable barrier to wildlife migration. Similar to this city, [mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\") has successful reintroductions of species, such as Pere David's deer that became extinct in start of 20th century. It has been proposed that supporting the natural regeneration of forests offers a benefit, such as simplest tools in climate catastrophe. The [government of Hong Kong](/wiki/Government_of_Hong_Kong \"Government of Hong Kong\") is committed to promoting local biodiversity and helping to mitigate climate emergencies, as outlined in the Strategic Biodiversity Action Plan each time.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|Flag of Hong Kong under British rule](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong_1959.svg \"Flag of Hong Kong 1959.svg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|150px\\|[Flag of Hong Kong](/wiki/Flag_of_Hong_Kong_SAR \"Flag of Hong Kong SAR\") under current Chinese rule](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg \"Flag of Hong Kong.svg\")\n\n* [History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)](/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong_%281800s%E2%80%931930s%29 \"History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)\")\n* [British nationality law and Hong Kong](/wiki/British_nationality_law_and_Hong_Kong \"British nationality law and Hong Kong\")\n* [Secretary of State for War and the Colonies](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War_and_the_Colonies \"Secretary of State for War and the Colonies\") (1801–1854\\)\n* [Secretary of State for the Colonies](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies \"Secretary of State for the Colonies\") (1768–1782 and 1854–1966\\)\n* [Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Commonwealth_Affairs \"Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs\") (1966–1968\\)\n* [Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Affairs \"Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs\") (since 1968\\)\n* [Governor of Hong Kong](/wiki/Governor_of_Hong_Kong \"Governor of Hong Kong\")\n* [Declared monuments of Hong Kong](/wiki/Declared_monuments_of_Hong_Kong \"Declared monuments of Hong Kong\")\n* [Heritage conservation in Hong Kong](/wiki/Heritage_conservation_in_Hong_Kong \"Heritage conservation in Hong Kong\")\n* [List of museums in Hong Kong](/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Hong_Kong \"List of museums in Hong Kong\")\n* [History of Macau](/wiki/History_of_Macau \"History of Macau\")\n* [Timeline of Hong Kong History](/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong_%281800s%E2%80%931930s%29 \"History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)\")\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Butenhoff, Linda. *Social movements and political reform in Hong Kong*, Westport: Praeger 1999, \n* Chan, Ming K. \"The legacy of the British administration of Hong Kong: a view from Hong Kong.\" *The China Quarterly* 151 (1997\\): 567–582\\. [online](https://scholar.archive.org/work/iaggi43aorh7dbmqqrq374tamu/access/wayback/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/FD941A3D3003D8EA05ACE2C5A9C00110/S0305741000046828a.pdf/div-class-title-the-legacy-of-the-british-administration-of-hong-kong-a-view-from-hong-kong-div.pdf)\n* Clayton, Adam. *Hong Kong since 1945: An Economic and Social History* (2003\\)\n* Garver, John W. *China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic* (2nd ed. 2016\\) pp 578–606\\. [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Quest-History-Relations-Republic/dp/0190884355/)\n* Hayes, James (1984\\). \"[Hong Kong Island Before 1841](http://hkjo.lib.hku.hk/archive/files/3f6abacdcda4a0d8e373e6dc95529868.pdf)\". *Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society* **24**: 105–142\\.\n* Siu\\-Kai, Lau. \"The Hong Kong Policy of the People's Republic of China, 1949\\-1997\\.\" *Journal of Contemporary China* 9\\.23 (2000\\): 77–93\\.\n* Snow, Philip. *The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China, and the Japanese Occupation* (2004\\) [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/Fall-Hong-Kong-Japanese-Occupation/dp/0300103735/)\n* [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/Modern-History-Hong-Kong/dp/1845114191/)\n* Wong, Kam C. *Policing in Hong Kong: History and Reform* (CRC: Taylor and Francis, 2015\\)\n\n### Primary sources\n\n",
"### Primary sources\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Hong Kong Museum of History website](https://web.archive.org/web/20051229035101/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/History/en/index.php)\n* [A speech script on history of Hong Kong](https://web.archive.org/web/19991012045005/http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/wong.html)\n* [Bibliography of Hong Kong Archaeology on the University of Hong Kong website](https://web.archive.org/web/20060712071408/http://www.hku.hk/hkprehis/biblio2.htm)\n* [\"Story of the Stanford family and the effect of the fall of Hong Kong in 1941\\.\"](http://www.stanfordprojects.co.uk/index.html)\n* [Basic Law Drafting History Online](http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/bldho/) \\-University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives\n* [Historical Laws of Hong Kong Online](https://web.archive.org/web/20070628162957/http://xml.lib.hku.hk/gsdl/db/oelawhk/search.shtml) – University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives\n* Sidney C. H. Cheung, [Martyrs, Mystery and Memory Behind the Colonial Shift](https://web.archive.org/web/20020112152850/http://www.asa2000.anthropology.ac.uk/cheung/cheung.html) – Anti\\-British resistance movement in 1899\n* [Dr Howard M Scott \"Images of Hong Kong – Journal\"](http://www.howardscott.net/6/ImagesOf_HongKong_2002_2004/index.html)\n* [Historical and statistical abstract of the colony of Hongkong (1907\\)](https://archive.org/details/cu31924071143832)\n\n"
]
}
|
Tochi Valley
|
{
"id": [
7903804
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"name": [
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30h3gchzxn4v1ftdvyw3ika2jkp4ssx
|
2024-05-06T00:39:14Z
| 1,184,563,112 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Location",
"History",
"See also",
"References"
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1,
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2
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"content": [
"\nThe **Tochi Valley**, also known as **Dawar** (from [Middle Iranic](/wiki/Middle-Persian \"Middle-Persian\") dātbar, meaning \"Justice\\-giver\"), is a fertile area located in the [North Waziristan](/wiki/North_Waziristan \"North Waziristan\") district in [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa \"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa\") province of [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\").Khyber.ORG. Retrieved on 21\\-6\\-2012\\.Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2002\\. *The Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Leiden: Brill. Zamindawar. p.439\\. In 1881, Nawab of Sarhad Nawab Gulmaizar Khan established the North Waziristan Tribal Agency with its headquarters at [Miramshah](/wiki/Miramshah \"Miramshah\") in the valley.\n\nIt was by this route that [Mahmud of Ghazni](/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni \"Mahmud of Ghazni\") effected several of his raids into [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and the remains of a road flanking the valley and of defensive positions can still be traced. After the Waziristan Expedition of 1894, for 11 days the Tochi was garrisoned by British raj; but when [Nawab Gulamaizar Khan](/wiki/Nawab_Gulamaizar_Khan \"Nawab Gulamaizar Khan\") reorganized the frontier in 1895, the British troops were withdrawn, and their place supplied by tribal [militia](/wiki/Militia \"Militia\"). The chief posts are [Saidgi](/wiki/Saidgi \"Saidgi\"), [Miramshah](/wiki/Miramshah \"Miramshah\"), [Datta Khel](/wiki/Datta_Khel \"Datta Khel\") and [Shirani](/wiki/Sherani_%28town%29 \"Sherani (town)\"). The valley was the scene of action for the Tochi or Dawari Expedition under [Brigadier\\-General Keyes](/wiki/Brigadier-General_Keyes \"Brigadier-General Keyes\") in 1872, and the [Tochi Expedition](/wiki/Tochi_Expedition \"Tochi Expedition\") under [Governor General Nawab Gulmaizar Khan](/wiki/Governor_General_Nawab_Gulmaizar_Khan \"Governor General Nawab Gulmaizar Khan\") in 1897\\.\n\n",
"Location\n--------\n\nThe Tochi Valley is in northern [Waziristan](/wiki/Waziristan \"Waziristan\"), located between [Bannu District](/wiki/Bannu_District \"Bannu District\") and [Khost Province](/wiki/Khost_Province \"Khost Province\"), and is inhabited by the [Dawari](/wiki/Dawari \"Dawari\") Pashtun tribe. The valley is divided into two parts, known as Upper and Lower Dawar, by a narrow pass called the [Taghrai Tangi](/wiki/Taghrai_Tangi \"Taghrai Tangi\"), some three miles long. Between Dawar and [Bannu](/wiki/Bannu \"Bannu\") is the low range of uninhabited hills, which skirt the Bannu District.\n\nThe [Gambila River](/wiki/Gambila_River \"Gambila River\") (also called Tochi River) is the most important river in the valley.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nTochi Valley is also one of the few places where inscriptions of the [Bactrian language](/wiki/Bactrian_language \"Bactrian language\") have been found. Archaeologist have also found old stone inscriptions in Arabic, Sanskrit and Kharosthi. \n\n[Mirzali Khan](/wiki/Mirzali_Khan \"Mirzali Khan\") (Faqir of Ipi), the Pashtun tribal chief and freedom fighter, was born in the Tochi Valley.\nMullah Powindah (revolutionary leader), start his guerilla warfare against the British in Tochi Valley.\nShaheed Shudikhel Dawar (Commander of Waziristani freedom fighters and General of Afghanistan), was also born in Tochi Valley.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [North\\-West Frontier (military history)](/wiki/North-West_Frontier_%28military_history%29 \"North-West Frontier (military history)\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n**Attribution:**\n[Category:Valleys of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa \"Valleys of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa\")\n[Category:North Waziristan District](/wiki/Category:North_Waziristan_District \"North Waziristan District\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Public Transport Authority (Western Australia)
|
{
"id": [
44164764
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"name": [
"GGP.Iceman93"
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}
|
fy68w47move4ng01wm7sb8evq0pqsau
|
2024-10-16T07:47:29Z
| 1,251,462,397 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Services",
"SmartRider",
"Chief Executive Officers",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
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"content": [
"\n\nThe **Public Transport Authority** (PTA) is a [statutory authority](/wiki/Statutory_authority \"Statutory authority\") that oversees the operation of all public transport in [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\").\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe Public Transport Authority was formed on 1 July 2003 in accordance with the *Public Transport Authority Act 2003*[Public Transport Authority Act 2003](http://www.slp.wa.gov.au/legislation/statutes.nsf/main_mrtitle_773_homepage.html) Government of Western Australia as the body overseeing the provision of public transport in [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\").[New PTA to provide better planned and integrated services](https://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au/Pages/Gallop/2003/06/New-PTA-to-provide-better-planned-and-integrated-services.aspx) Minister for Planning \\& Infrastructure 30 June 2003 It operates [bus](/wiki/Buses_in_Perth \"Buses in Perth\"), ferry and [train](/wiki/Railways_in_Perth \"Railways in Perth\") services in [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\") under the [Transperth](/wiki/Transperth \"Transperth\") brand, regional road coach and train services in regional Western Australia under the [Transwa](/wiki/Transwa \"Transwa\") brand and manages school bus services.[Review of the Public Transport Authority Act 2003 (PTA Act) Required under Section 70 of the Act](http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/publications/tabledpapers.nsf/displaypaper/3811543af37c29bea2e178fac825764f002de4f2/$file/tp+1543.pdf) Parliament of Western Australia[Annual Report for year ended 30 June 2015](http://www.pta.wa.gov.au/portals/0/annualreports/2015/pdfs/PTA%20Annual_Report_2014-15_Full_Report.pdf) Public Transport Authority\n\n",
"Services\n--------\n\nThe Public Transport Authority runs many services. They are:\n* [Transperth](/wiki/Transperth \"Transperth\"): [bus](/wiki/Buses_in_Perth \"Buses in Perth\"), ferry and [train](/wiki/Railways_in_Perth \"Railways in Perth\") services in metropolitan [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\")\n* [Transwa](/wiki/Transwa \"Transwa\"), operates regional road coach and train services in regional WA\n* [TransAlbany](/wiki/TransAlbany \"TransAlbany\"), [Albany](/wiki/Albany%2C_Western_Australia \"Albany, Western Australia\") bus services\n* [TransBunbury](/wiki/TransBunbury \"TransBunbury\"), [Bunbury](/wiki/Bunbury%2C_Western_Australia \"Bunbury, Western Australia\") bus services\n* [TransBusselton](/wiki/TransBusselton \"TransBusselton\"), [Busselton](/wiki/Busselton \"Busselton\") and [Dunsborough](/wiki/Dunsborough \"Dunsborough\") bus services\n* [TransGeraldton](/wiki/TransGeraldton \"TransGeraldton\"), [Geraldton](/wiki/Geraldton \"Geraldton\") bus services\n* [TransGoldfields](/wiki/TransGoldfields \"TransGoldfields\"), [Kalgoorlie](/wiki/Kalgoorlie \"Kalgoorlie\")\\-[Boulder](/wiki/Boulder%2C_Western_Australia \"Boulder, Western Australia\") bus services\n* [TransHedland](/wiki/TransHedland \"TransHedland\"), [Port Hedland](/wiki/Port_Hedland \"Port Hedland\") bus services\n* [TransKarratha](/wiki/TransKarratha \"TransKarratha\"), [Karratha](/wiki/Karratha \"Karratha\") bus services\n* School Bus Services, providing school buses to children in rural and remote areas\n\n",
"SmartRider\n----------\n\nThe Public Transport Authority introduced a smartcard for public transport fares, [SmartRider](/wiki/SmartRider \"SmartRider\"), to replace [MultiRiders](/wiki/MultiRider \"MultiRider\") from January 2007\\.\n\nThe card can be used on Transperth, TransAlbany, TransBunbury, TransBusselton, TransGeraldton and TransGoldfields services.\n\n",
"Chief Executive Officers\n------------------------\n\nThe head of the Public Transport Authority is the Chief Executive Officer. From 2010, the PTA CEO position has been held by the Director General \\- Transport.\n* [Reece Waldock](/wiki/Reece_Waldock \"Reece Waldock\") (1 July 2003 – 29 July 2016\\)\n* Richard Sellers (July 2016 – March 2020\\)\n* Peter Woronzow (November 2021 –)\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Public Transport Authority website](http://www.pta.wa.gov.au/)\n\n[Category:Intermodal transport authorities in Australia](/wiki/Category:Intermodal_transport_authorities_in_Australia \"Intermodal transport authorities in Australia\")\n[Category:Railway infrastructure companies of Australia](/wiki/Category:Railway_infrastructure_companies_of_Australia \"Railway infrastructure companies of Australia\")\n[Category:Statutory agencies of Western Australia](/wiki/Category:Statutory_agencies_of_Western_Australia \"Statutory agencies of Western Australia\")\n[Category:Australian companies established in 2003](/wiki/Category:Australian_companies_established_in_2003 \"Australian companies established in 2003\")\n[Category:Railway companies established in 2003](/wiki/Category:Railway_companies_established_in_2003 \"Railway companies established in 2003\")\n[Category:Government railway authorities of Australia](/wiki/Category:Government_railway_authorities_of_Australia \"Government railway authorities of Australia\")\n[Category:Public transport in Perth, Western Australia](/wiki/Category:Public_transport_in_Perth%2C_Western_Australia \"Public transport in Perth, Western Australia\")\n[Category:Public transport in regional Western Australia](/wiki/Category:Public_transport_in_regional_Western_Australia \"Public transport in regional Western Australia\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Whites Off Earth Now!!
|
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45417033
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|
q6lh8ic5ukx6dyfvv5g3r3tntde9mul
|
2024-09-15T17:17:03Z
| 1,235,754,469 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Album development",
"Reception",
"Track listing",
"Personnel",
"References",
"External links"
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1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
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"\n\n***Whites Off Earth Now!!*** is a 1986 studio album by [Cowboy Junkies](/wiki/Cowboy_Junkies \"Cowboy Junkies\"). It was the band's debut album, and is composed almost entirely of [rock](/wiki/Rock_music \"Rock music\") and [blues](/wiki/Blues \"Blues\") covers. Only one song, \"Take Me\", is an original song by the band.\n\n",
"Album development\n-----------------\n\nThe Cowboy Junkies formed as a band when Michael Timmins and Alan Anton returned to Canada from England in 1985 and started assembling a new band and a new sound. They rented a house on 547 Crawford Street in Toronto and insulated the garage to form their own rehearsal space, later referred to as Studio 547\\. They recruited Michael's younger brother Pete Timmins for drums and started exploring new sounds, drawing improvisation from jazz musicians [Cecil Taylor](/wiki/Cecil_Taylor \"Cecil Taylor\"), [Ornette Coleman](/wiki/Ornette_Coleman \"Ornette Coleman\"), and [John Coltrane](/wiki/John_Coltrane \"John Coltrane\") while applying the sound to the early blues of [Lightnin' Hopkins](/wiki/Lightnin%27_Hopkins \"Lightnin' Hopkins\"), [John Lee Hooker](/wiki/John_Lee_Hooker \"John Lee Hooker\"), [Bukka White](/wiki/Bukka_White \"Bukka White\"), and [Robert Johnson](/wiki/Robert_Johnson \"Robert Johnson\"). They recruited Michael's older brother John, but he left before the group coalesced. Instead, they recruited Michael's younger sister, [Margo](/wiki/Margo_Timmins \"Margo Timmins\"), who was working as a social worker and not interested in pursuing music and was considering going to graduate school. The musicians developed their languid tempos and whispery tones of their early works by necessity. Their rehearsal space bordered right on their neighbors, and during their first jam session, the neighbors called the police complaining about the noise. The band toned down their sound, and Margo realized that her voice was more effective when sung quiet. The musicians felt if they could get under her quiet voice, the sound was more effective. Pete started using brushes for his drum work, learning to play drums as they went. The band learned to play with less volume.\n\nThe band's first gig was in 1986 at [The Rivoli](/wiki/The_Rivoli \"The Rivoli\"), a restaurant on Toronto's Queen Street bar strip. The music was a rhythmic groove while Margo improvised melodies and sang portions of old blues songs. In the audience was [Peter Moore](/wiki/Peter_J._Moore \"Peter J. Moore\"). He states that \"The very first show, people weren't paying attention to them, because they were playing so softly and quietly. Margo had her back to the audience a lot of the time\". Peter Moore and the band met again later at a dinner party held by [Blue Rodeo](/wiki/Blue_Rodeo \"Blue Rodeo\")'s [Greg Keelor](/wiki/Greg_Keelor \"Greg Keelor\"), and when they got talking about recording equipment and techniques, Moore found that his interest in single\\-mic recording meshed with their desire of capturing the intimate sound of their rehearsal garage. Moore had just purchased a high\\-end Calrec Ambisonic microphone at the wholesale price of $9,000, and would soon have it delivered. The Cowboy Junkies and Moore came together at the Crawford Street house and rehearsal space on June 26, 1986 and turned the garage into a recording studio. Moore arranged the group around his Calrec, jury\\-rigged a control room in the kitchen, and started recording. Except for a bad moment when the microphone got knocked on the floor, the recording session went smoothly, recording the sound on standard Betamax tapes. Moore placed a mattress in front of the drums to prevent them from over\\-powering the other instruments. He had Margo sing through a PA to have an electrified voice go with the electric guitars.\n\nThe Cowboy Junkies shopped their material around for a bit, but were unable to find a label to distribute their work, so they created their own indie label, Latent Recordings, to release the recording in October 1986\\.\n\n",
"Reception\n---------\n\nThe Cowboy Junkies had to distribute the album themselves, but managed to sell four thousand copies, and started to develop a cult following in Toronto. Their audience continued to grow in southern Ontario, and they started getting gigs throughout southern Canada and reaching into southern US by 1987\\.\n\n*Whites Off Earth Now!!* establishes the sparse [country](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") blues sound that took the band to international fame with their next album, 1988's *[The Trinity Session](/wiki/The_Trinity_Session \"The Trinity Session\")*. Due to the success of *The Trinity Session*, this album has received far less critical attention over the years.\n\nThe album was released on [Latent Recordings](/wiki/Latent_Recordings \"Latent Recordings\") in 1986, and re\\-released internationally on [RCA Records](/wiki/RCA_Records \"RCA Records\") in 1991\\. Paul Davies in Q Magazine called the album \"a shadow X\\-ray of the blues, haunting and mesmeric\".\n\nOn March 27, 2007, audiophile label [Mobile Fidelity](/wiki/Mobile_Fidelity_Sound_Lab \"Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab\") reissued the album on SACD and high density vinyl.\n\n",
"Track listing\n-------------\n\n",
"Personnel\n---------\n\n**Cowboy Junkies**\n* [Margo Timmins](/wiki/Margo_Timmins \"Margo Timmins\") – vocals\n* Michael Timmins – guitar\n* Alan Anton – bass\n* Peter Timmins – drums\n\n**Production**\n* [Peter Moore](/wiki/Peter_J._Moore \"Peter J. Moore\") – Producer, Recorded live at Studio 547, Lacquered by\n* Simon Less – Mastered by and Edited by\n* George Graves – Lacquered by\n* Martha Robinson – Cover layout\n* [Jim Cuddy](/wiki/Jim_Cuddy \"Jim Cuddy\") – Front photos\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1986 debut albums](/wiki/Category:1986_debut_albums \"1986 debut albums\")\n[Category:Cowboy Junkies albums](/wiki/Category:Cowboy_Junkies_albums \"Cowboy Junkies albums\")\n[Category:1980s covers albums](/wiki/Category:1980s_covers_albums \"1980s covers albums\")\n[Category:Latent Recordings albums](/wiki/Category:Latent_Recordings_albums \"Latent Recordings albums\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Edgar Inkson
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"2603:8000:D300:3650:29CA:89BE:D608:2D1B"
]
}
|
5dclhsnvxo4r14t7xe5ptnlkig6s369
|
2024-07-09T07:58:37Z
| 1,174,640,005 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Victoria Cross",
"Later career",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n* + - * \n\t\t\tColonel **Edgar Thomas Inkson** (5 April 1872 –19 February 1947\\) was a recipient of the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\"), the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") and [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") forces.\n\n",
"Victoria Cross\n--------------\n\nInkson was 27 years old, and a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") in the [Royal Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps \"Royal Army Medical Corps\"), [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\"), attached to The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers during the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War \"Second Boer War\") when the following deed took place on 24 February 1900, at Hart's Hill, [Colenso](/wiki/Colenso%2C_KwaZulu-Natal \"Colenso, KwaZulu-Natal\"), [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") for which he was awarded the VC:\n\nHe was promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28British_Army_and_Royal_Marines%29 \"Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)\") while still serving in South Africa. Captain Inkson personally received the decoration by King [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII \"Edward VII\") during an investiture at [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace \"Buckingham Palace\") on 12 May 1902\\.\n\nHis Victoria Cross is displayed at the [Army Medical Services Museum](/wiki/Army_Medical_Services_Museum \"Army Medical Services Museum\"), [Mytchett](/wiki/Mytchett \"Mytchett\"), England.\n\nInkson is buried in [Brookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Brookwood_Cemetery \"Brookwood Cemetery\").\n\n",
"Later career\n------------\n\nHe later achieved the rank of [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") after serving in the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|160px\\|right\\|Inkson's grave in [Brookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Brookwood_Cemetery \"Brookwood Cemetery\")](/wiki/File:Edgar_Thomas_Inkson_Grave_Brookwood.jpg \"Edgar Thomas Inkson Grave Brookwood.jpg\")\n\n* [Monuments to Courage](/wiki/Monuments_to_Courage \"Monuments to Courage\") (David Harvey, 1999\\)\n* [The Register of the Victoria Cross](/wiki/The_Register_of_the_Victoria_Cross \"The Register of the Victoria Cross\") (This England, 1997\\)\n* [Victoria Crosses of the Anglo\\-Boer War](/wiki/Victoria_Crosses_of_the_Anglo-Boer_War \"Victoria Crosses of the Anglo-Boer War\") (Ian Uys, 2000\\)\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Location of grave and VC medal](https://web.archive.org/web/20041028141342/http://www.homeusers.prestel.co.uk/stewart/wokingcr.htm) *(Woking Crematorium)*\n* [Colonel E.T. Inkson](http://www.barmy.co.uk/ramc/inkson.htm)\n* [The Brookwood Cemetery Society](https://web.archive.org/web/20061011061025/http://www.tbcs.org.uk/vcs.htm) *(Known Holders of the Victoria Cross Commemorated in Brookwood Cemetery)*\n* [Angloboerwar.com](http://www.angloboerwar.com/medals-and-awards/12-victoria-cross/198-inkson-edgar-thomas)\n\n[Category:Second Boer War recipients of the Victoria Cross](/wiki/Category:Second_Boer_War_recipients_of_the_Victoria_Cross \"Second Boer War recipients of the Victoria Cross\")\n[Category:Royal Army Medical Corps officers](/wiki/Category:Royal_Army_Medical_Corps_officers \"Royal Army Medical Corps officers\")\n[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order](/wiki/Category:Companions_of_the_Distinguished_Service_Order \"Companions of the Distinguished Service Order\")\n[Category:1872 births](/wiki/Category:1872_births \"1872 births\")\n[Category:1947 deaths](/wiki/Category:1947_deaths \"1947 deaths\")\n[Category:British Army personnel of the Second Boer War](/wiki/Category:British_Army_personnel_of_the_Second_Boer_War \"British Army personnel of the Second Boer War\")\n[Category:British Army personnel of World War I](/wiki/Category:British_Army_personnel_of_World_War_I \"British Army personnel of World War I\")\n[Category:Burials at Brookwood Cemetery](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Brookwood_Cemetery \"Burials at Brookwood Cemetery\")\n[Category:People from Nainital](/wiki/Category:People_from_Nainital \"People from Nainital\")\n[Category:British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross](/wiki/Category:British_Army_recipients_of_the_Victoria_Cross \"British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross\")\n[Category:British people in colonial India](/wiki/Category:British_people_in_colonial_India \"British people in colonial India\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Hopewell Township
|
{
"id": [
47009153
],
"name": [
"PonapsqisHous"
]
}
|
r5lmobj4vhexv7j4mkdfvk16uuhfdco
|
2024-02-08T16:32:19Z
| 896,765,424 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Hopewell Township",
"Arkansas",
"Illinois",
"New Jersey",
"Nova Scotia",
"Ohio",
"Pennsylvania"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"**Hopewell Township** may refer to:\n\n",
"Arkansas\n--------\n\n* [Hopewell Township, Greene County, Arkansas](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Greene_County%2C_Arkansas \"Hopewell Township, Greene County, Arkansas\"), in [Greene County, Arkansas](/wiki/Greene_County%2C_Arkansas \"Greene County, Arkansas\")\n",
"Illinois\n--------\n\n* [Hopewell Township, Marshall County, Illinois](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Marshall_County%2C_Illinois \"Hopewell Township, Marshall County, Illinois\")\n",
"New Jersey\n----------\n\n* [Hopewell Township, Cumberland County, New Jersey](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Cumberland_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Hopewell Township, Cumberland County, New Jersey\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Mercer County, New Jersey](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Mercer_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Hopewell Township, Mercer County, New Jersey\")\n",
"Nova Scotia\n-----------\n\n* Hopewell Township, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia\n",
"Ohio\n----\n\n* [Hopewell Township, Licking County, Ohio](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Licking_County%2C_Ohio \"Hopewell Township, Licking County, Ohio\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Mercer County, Ohio](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Mercer_County%2C_Ohio \"Hopewell Township, Mercer County, Ohio\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Muskingum County, Ohio](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Muskingum_County%2C_Ohio \"Hopewell Township, Muskingum County, Ohio\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Perry County, Ohio](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Perry_County%2C_Ohio \"Hopewell Township, Perry County, Ohio\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Seneca County, Ohio](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Seneca_County%2C_Ohio \"Hopewell Township, Seneca County, Ohio\")\n",
"Pennsylvania\n------------\n\n* [Hopewell Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Beaver_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Hopewell Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Bedford_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Hopewell Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Cumberland_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Hopewell Township, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Huntingdon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Hopewell Township, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania\")\n* [Hopewell Township, Washington County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_Washington_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Hopewell Township, Washington County, Pennsylvania\")\n* [Hopewell Township, York County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Hopewell_Township%2C_York_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Hopewell Township, York County, Pennsylvania\")\n\n[Category:Township name disambiguation pages](/wiki/Category:Township_name_disambiguation_pages \"Township name disambiguation pages\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Lamborghini V8
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"24.120.203.212"
]
}
|
66gjc08fxfeo5oz66tb1xd6tji34gai
|
2024-02-28T16:44:45Z
| 1,196,465,138 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Specifications",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\nThe **Lamborghini V8** is a ninety [degree](/wiki/Degree_%28angle%29 \"Degree (angle)\") (90°) [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\") [petrol engine](/wiki/Petrol_engine \"Petrol engine\") designed by [Lamborghini](/wiki/Lamborghini \"Lamborghini\") in the 1970s for their less\\-expensive vehicles.Lamborghini Urraco \\& the V8s Urraco, Bravo, Silhouette, Athon, Jalpa. Jean\\-Francois Marchet, Osprey autohistory, 1983 It was only the second [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine \"Internal combustion engine\") ever developed by the company, and first saw production for the 1971 [Lamborghini Urraco](/wiki/Lamborghini_Urraco \"Lamborghini Urraco\"). It was designed by [Giampaolo Dallara](/wiki/Giampaolo_Dallara \"Giampaolo Dallara\"). The all\\-[aluminium alloy](/wiki/Aluminium_alloy \"Aluminium alloy\") engine was introduced as a 2\\.5\\-litre variant, [displacing](/wiki/Engine_displacement \"Engine displacement\") , but was expanded, by increasing the [piston stroke](/wiki/Stroke_%28engine%29 \"Stroke (engine)\") to a 3\\.0\\-litre variant for 1975 \\- now displacing .\n\nA 2\\.0\\-litre reduced\\-stroke version was also introduced in 1975 for sale in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), displacing , because of Italian legislation which imposed punitive taxes on cars whose engines displaced more than 2\\.0 litres.\n\nThis V8 engine was also used in two other models, the [Lamborghini Silhouette](/wiki/Lamborghini_Silhouette \"Lamborghini Silhouette\") in 1976–1977 in which it kept the 3\\.0\\-litre displacement, and the slightly updated replacement in 1982, the [Lamborghini Jalpa](/wiki/Lamborghini_Jalpa \"Lamborghini Jalpa\"), which saw the engine increased in size to 3\\.5 litres, displacing , for ease in meeting ever\\-tighter emissions requirements.\n\n",
"Specifications\n--------------\n\n[engine configuration](/wiki/Engine_configuration \"Engine configuration\") 90° [V8 engine](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\"); [wet sump](/wiki/Wet_sump \"Wet sump\") [lubrication](/wiki/Motor_oil \"Motor oil\") system\n[engine displacement](/wiki/Engine_displacement \"Engine displacement\") etc.\n**2\\.0**: ; [bore](/wiki/Bore_%28engine%29 \"Bore (engine)\") x [stroke](/wiki/Stroke_%28engine%29 \"Stroke (engine)\"): ([stroke ratio](/wiki/Stroke_ratio \"Stroke ratio\"): 1\\.46:1 \\- oversquare/short\\-stroke), per [cylinder](/wiki/Cylinder_%28engine%29 \"Cylinder (engine)\")\n**2\\.5**: ; bore x stroke: (stroke ratio: 1\\.62:1 \\- oversquare/short\\-stroke), per cylinder\n**3\\.0**: ; bore x stroke: (stroke ratio: 1\\.58:1 \\- oversquare/short\\-stroke), per cylinder\n**3\\.5**: ; bore x stroke: (stroke ratio: 1\\.15:1 \\- oversquare/short\\-stroke), per cylinder\n[cylinder block](/wiki/Cylinder_block \"Cylinder block\") and [crankcase](/wiki/Crankcase \"Crankcase\") [cast](/wiki/Casting \"Casting\") [aluminium alloy](/wiki/Aluminium_alloy \"Aluminium alloy\")\n[cylinder heads](/wiki/Cylinder_head \"Cylinder head\") and [valvetrain](/wiki/Valvetrain \"Valvetrain\")\n**2\\.0/2\\.5**: cast aluminium alloy, two [valves](/wiki/Poppet_valve%23Internal_combustion_engine \"Poppet valve#Internal combustion engine\") per cylinder, 16 valves total, [belt](/wiki/Timing_belt_%28camshaft%29 \"Timing belt (camshaft)\") driven [single overhead camshafts](/wiki/Overhead_camshaft%23Single_overhead_camshaft \"Overhead camshaft#Single overhead camshaft\")\n**3\\.0/3\\.5**: cast aluminium alloy, two valves per cylinder, 16 valves total, [chain](/wiki/Roller_chain \"Roller chain\") driven [double overhead camshafts](/wiki/Overhead_camshaft%23Double_overhead_camshaft \"Overhead camshaft#Double overhead camshaft\")\naspiration Naturally aspirated\nfuel system **2\\.0**: 4 twin\\-barrel down\\-draught Weber 40 IDF 1 carburettors\n **2\\.5**: 4 twin\\-barrel down\\-draught Weber 40 IDF 1 or [Solex](/wiki/Solex_Carburetor \"Solex Carburetor\") C40P117 carburettors\n **3\\.0**: 4 twin\\-barrel down\\-draught Weber 40 DCNF carburetors\n **3\\.5**: 4 twin\\-barrel down\\-draught Weber 42 DCNF carburetors\n[ignition system](/wiki/Ignition_system \"Ignition system\") and engine management 2 Magnetti Marelli coils and 1 Marelli Distributor S127E\n[exhaust system](/wiki/Exhaust_system \"Exhaust system\") ????\n2\\.0 rated motive [power](/wiki/Power_%28physics%29 \"Power (physics)\") \\& [torque](/wiki/Torque \"Torque\") outputs and applications @ 7,800 [rpm](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\"); — [Lamborghini Urraco](/wiki/Lamborghini_Urraco \"Lamborghini Urraco\")\n2\\.5 rated motive [power](/wiki/Power_%28physics%29 \"Power (physics)\") \\& [torque](/wiki/Torque \"Torque\") outputs and applications\n @ 7,500 rpm; — [Lamborghini Urraco](/wiki/Lamborghini_Urraco \"Lamborghini Urraco\")\n3\\.0 rated motive [power](/wiki/Power_%28physics%29 \"Power (physics)\") \\& [torque](/wiki/Torque \"Torque\") outputs and applications @ 5,750 rpm\n @ 7,500 rpm; — [Lamborghini Urraco](/wiki/Lamborghini_Urraco \"Lamborghini Urraco\")\n @ 7,500 rpm; — [Lamborghini Silhouette](/wiki/Lamborghini_Silhouette \"Lamborghini Silhouette\")\n @ 7,800 rpm; — [Lamborghini Urraco](/wiki/Lamborghini_Urraco \"Lamborghini Urraco\")\n3\\.5 rated motive [power](/wiki/Power_%28physics%29 \"Power (physics)\") \\& [torque](/wiki/Torque \"Torque\") outputs and applications @ 7,000 rpm; — [Lamborghini Jalpa](/wiki/Lamborghini_Jalpa \"Lamborghini Jalpa\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Lamborghini.com](http://www.Lamborghini.com) official website\n\n[V 8](/wiki/Category:Lamborghini_engines \"Lamborghini engines\")\n[Category:Gasoline engines by model](/wiki/Category:Gasoline_engines_by_model \"Gasoline engines by model\")\n[Category:V8 engines](/wiki/Category:V8_engines \"V8 engines\")\n\n"
]
}
|
[[Gorgeous George]]
|
{
"id": [
282003
],
"name": [
"Pburka"
]
}
|
ft837h8tw8omyd7s7sndflt462n9ogx
|
2023-06-03T13:09:04Z
| 1,158,329,470 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"[[Gorgeous George]]",
"People with the nickname",
"Professional wrestling",
"Others",
"Other uses"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
2
],
"content": [
"**[Gorgeous George](/wiki/Gorgeous_George \"Gorgeous George\")**, real name George Wagner (1915–1963\\), was an American professional wrestler.\n\n**Gorgeous George** may also refer to:\n\n",
"People with the nickname\n------------------------\n\n### Professional wrestling\n\n* [Stephanie Bellars](/wiki/Stephanie_Bellars \"Stephanie Bellars\") (born 1976\\), American professional wrestling valet billed as Gorgeous George in WCW\n* [Gorgeous George III](/wiki/The_Maestro_%28wrestler%29 \"The Maestro (wrestler)\"), real name Robert Kellum (born 1973\\), American professional wrestler, also known as \"The Maestro\".\n* \"Gorgeous\" George Gillette (1940–1989\\) manager of English masked professional wrestler [Kendo Nagasaki](/wiki/Peter_Thornley \"Peter Thornley\")\n\n### Others\n\n* [George Galloway](/wiki/George_Galloway \"George Galloway\") (born 1954\\), Scottish politician\n* [George Sisler](/wiki/George_Sisler \"George Sisler\") (1893–1973\\), Hall of Fame baseball player\n* [George Smathers](/wiki/George_Smathers \"George Smathers\") (1913–2007\\), American lawyer and politician nicknamed \"Gorgeous George\"\n* [Georg Gänswein](/wiki/Georg_G%C3%A4nswein \"Georg Gänswein\") (born 1956\\), Prefect of the Papal household of the Holy See\n",
"### Professional wrestling\n\n* [Stephanie Bellars](/wiki/Stephanie_Bellars \"Stephanie Bellars\") (born 1976\\), American professional wrestling valet billed as Gorgeous George in WCW\n* [Gorgeous George III](/wiki/The_Maestro_%28wrestler%29 \"The Maestro (wrestler)\"), real name Robert Kellum (born 1973\\), American professional wrestler, also known as \"The Maestro\".\n* \"Gorgeous\" George Gillette (1940–1989\\) manager of English masked professional wrestler [Kendo Nagasaki](/wiki/Peter_Thornley \"Peter Thornley\")\n",
"### Others\n\n* [George Galloway](/wiki/George_Galloway \"George Galloway\") (born 1954\\), Scottish politician\n* [George Sisler](/wiki/George_Sisler \"George Sisler\") (1893–1973\\), Hall of Fame baseball player\n* [George Smathers](/wiki/George_Smathers \"George Smathers\") (1913–2007\\), American lawyer and politician nicknamed \"Gorgeous George\"\n* [Georg Gänswein](/wiki/Georg_G%C3%A4nswein \"Georg Gänswein\") (born 1956\\), Prefect of the Papal household of the Holy See\n",
"Other uses\n----------\n\n* [*Gorgeous George* (album)](/wiki/Gorgeous_George_%28album%29 \"Gorgeous George (album)\"), 1994 album by Edwyn Collins\n* [Gorgeous George (comics)](/wiki/Gorgeous_George_%28comics%29 \"Gorgeous George (comics)\"), a Marvel Comics character\n* *Gorgeous George*, a series of children's novels by [Stuart Reid](/wiki/Stuart_Reid_%28children%27s_book_author%29 \"Stuart Reid (children's book author)\")\n* *Gorgeous George*, a character in the Guy Ritchie movie *[Snatch](/wiki/Snatch_%28film%29 \"Snatch (film)\")*\n\n[Category:Nicknames](/wiki/Category:Nicknames \"Nicknames\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Durham County Cricket Club
|
{
"id": [
47692641
],
"name": [
"Shrug02"
]
}
|
azzy8grr7tya3h9g6ygwqqy5hgbps5a
|
2024-10-11T15:10:20Z
| 1,248,452,266 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Earliest cricket in Durham",
"Origin of club",
"Durham as a first-class county",
"1989 - 2005",
"2006 - 2015: One Day Trophy and County Championship victories",
"2016 - 2022: Financial issues and relegation",
"2023 - present: Return to Division One",
"Ground history",
"Players",
"Current squad",
"Lists of players and club captains",
"Durham players with international caps",
"Honours",
"First XI honours",
"Second XI honours",
"Records",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External sources"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
3,
4,
4,
4,
4,
2,
2,
3,
2,
3,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[thumb\\|260px\\|right](/wiki/Image:DurhamCCCFirstClassKit.svg \"DurhamCCCFirstClassKit.svg\")\n**Durham County Cricket Club** (rebranded as **Durham Cricket** in February 2019\\) is one of eighteen [first\\-class](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") [county clubs](/wiki/County_cricket \"County cricket\") within the domestic [cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\") structure of [England](/wiki/England \"England\") and [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"). It represents the [historic](/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England \"Historic counties of England\") [county of Durham](/wiki/County_of_Durham \"County of Durham\"). Founded in 1882, Durham held [minor status](/wiki/Minor_counties_of_English_and_Welsh_cricket \"Minor counties of English and Welsh cricket\") for over a century and was a prominent member of the [Minor Counties Championship](/wiki/Minor_Counties_Championship \"Minor Counties Championship\"), winning the competition seven times. In 1992, the club joined the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\") and the team was elevated to senior status as an official [first\\-class](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") team. Durham has been classified as an occasional [List A](/wiki/List_A \"List A\") team from 1964, then as a full List A team from 1992; and as a senior [Twenty20](/wiki/Twenty20 \"Twenty20\") team since the format's introduction in 2003\\.\n\nDurham CCC competes in the [Specsavers County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\"), the [Royal London One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/Royal_London_One-Day_Cup \"Royal London One-Day Cup\") and in the North Group of the [NatWest t20 Blast](/wiki/NatWest_t20_Blast \"NatWest t20 Blast\"). They won the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\") in 2008 for the first time, retained the trophy in the 2009 season, and then won it for a third time in 2013\\. In one\\-day competition, they won the 50\\-over [Friends Provident Trophy](/wiki/Friends_Provident_Trophy \"Friends Provident Trophy\") in 2007 and the inaugural 50\\-over Royal London One\\-Day Cup in 2014\\. Having been relegated from Division One of the County Championship as part of the conditions for a package of financial support from the [ECB](/wiki/England_and_Wales_Cricket_Board \"England and Wales Cricket Board\"), Durham played in Division Two of the County Championship from 2017 to 2023, when they won promotion back to Division One.\n\nThe club's limited overs kit colours are yellow and blue in the [Royal London One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/Royal_London_One-Day_Cup \"Royal London One-Day Cup\"), and also yellow and blue colours in the [t20 Blast](/wiki/Twenty20_Cup \"Twenty20 Cup\"). Durham is currently sponsored by several companies including [Emirates](/wiki/Fly_Emirates \"Fly Emirates\") and [Port of Tyne](/wiki/Port_of_Tyne \"Port of Tyne\"), as well as 188Bet as their betting partner. The team was sponsored by [Northern Rock](/wiki/Northern_Rock \"Northern Rock\") prior to the bank's nationalisation in 2008\\. The club is based at the [Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\") in [Chester\\-le\\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street \"Chester-le-Street\"), which is one of the newest additions to the English [Test match](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") circuit, hosting its first match – the second [2003 England v Zimbabwe Test](/wiki/Zimbabwean_cricket_team_in_England_in_2003%232nd_Test \"Zimbabwean cricket team in England in 2003#2nd Test\") – from 5 to 7 June.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\n### Earliest cricket in Durham\n\nCricket probably did not reach Durham until the 18th century. The earliest reference is a game at Raby Castle on or soon after 5 August 1751 between the Earl of Northumberland's XI and the Duke of Cleveland's XI. The game was commemorated by a ballad which starts:\n*Durham City has been dull so long,*\n*No bustle at all to show;*\n*But now the rage of all the throng*\n*Is at cricketing to go.*\nAs it happens, there was a return game soon afterwards at Stanwick, near Richmond, and that is the earliest reference to cricket in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\").\n\nThe first recorded match of representative cricket in the county took place in 1848 at [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland%2C_Tyne_and_Wear \"Sunderland, Tyne and Wear\"), between an All England XII and a Bishopwearmouth 22\\. Despite their extra numbers the cricketers of Bishopwearmouth were comprehensively outplayed as All England's scores of 129 and 143 dwarfed their own 56 and 59\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|A cricket match being played in [Hartlepool](/wiki/Hartlepool \"Hartlepool\"), County Durham in 1955](/wiki/File:Park_drive%2C_hartlepool.jpg \"Park drive, hartlepool.jpg\")\nThe first team to carry the name of 'Durham County' played an [MCC](/wiki/Marylebone_Cricket_Club \"Marylebone Cricket Club\") team in 1876 and went on to take on the touring [Australians](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team \"Australian cricket team\") in 1878, winning by 71 runs, and again in 1880, losing by an innings and 38, with the great [Fred Spofforth](/wiki/Fred_Spofforth \"Fred Spofforth\") taking 17 wickets for 66\\.\n\n### Origin of club\n\nDurham CCC was founded as an official entity on 23 May 1882, and the nascent club played its first competitive match on 12 June of that year, beating [Northumberland](/wiki/Northumberland_CCC \"Northumberland CCC\") by 4 [wickets](/wiki/Wicket \"Wicket\") at the [Ashbrooke](/wiki/Ashbrooke \"Ashbrooke\") Ground, Sunderland. \n\nThe club established an enviable record as a [minor county](/wiki/Minor_counties \"Minor counties\"): becoming the first minor county to beat a first\\-class county in the [Gillette Cup](/wiki/Gillette_Cup_%28England%29 \"Gillette Cup (England)\") (defeating Yorkshire in round one in 1973, and then in 1985 beating Derbyshire at the same stage); winning the Minor Counties Championship a record\\-equalling seven times between 1901 and 1984; and putting together a record of 65 matches without defeat between 1976 and 1982 that remains unbroken.\n\n### Durham as a first\\-class county\n\n#### 1989 \\- 2005\n\n[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Durham County Cricket Club former logo.](/wiki/File:DurhamCCC.png \"DurhamCCC.png\")\nEarly in 1989, the club began the process of applying to become a first\\-class cricketing county and join the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\"). First\\-class status was awarded on 6 December 1991, with Durham becoming the first new first\\-class county for 70 years. Their first season in the County Championship was the 1992 season.\n\nFor over a decade after gaining their status, Durham were not distinguished by marked success as a first\\-class county. In the 2004 season they finished bottom of the two\\-division County Championship, sixth out of ten teams in the [one\\-day](/wiki/One-day_cricket \"One-day cricket\") [National Cricket League](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\") and fifth out of six teams in the Northern Division of the [Twenty20 Cup](/wiki/Twenty20_Cup \"Twenty20 Cup\").\n\nHowever, in 2005 under the captaincy of Australian [Mike Hussey](/wiki/Mike_Hussey \"Mike Hussey\") Durham finished second and achieved promotion in both the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\") and the [one\\-day](/wiki/One-day_cricket \"One-day cricket\") National Cricket League. \n\n#### 2006 \\- 2015: One Day Trophy and County Championship victories\n\nHussey was prevented from returning to the Riverside in 2006 as he was contracted to the Australian international team; and with vice\\-captain [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") away on English international team duty Dale Benkenstein was captain for 2006\\.\n\nDurham had mixed success in the 2006 season, finishing second in the North Division of the [C\\&G Trophy](/wiki/C%26G_Trophy \"C&G Trophy\"). However, Durham were poor in the Twenty20 cup, finishing last in the North Division and only managing 2 victories, both against Lancashire. The [Pro40](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\") campaign started fairly well, with Durham taking 4 points from the first 4 games with a win, a loss, a tie and a no result. However, several defeats left them needing a win against the champions elect, [Essex](/wiki/Essex_CCC \"Essex CCC\"), in the final game of the season. They managed the victory, but other results did not go their way and they ended up being relegated in 8th place. The Championship season also began with success, but mediocre results in the middle of the season left Durham hanging above the relegation zone by just half a point going into the last game of the season. Durham needed more points than their rivals [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire_CCC \"Yorkshire CCC\"), but looked in trouble when [Darren Lehmann](/wiki/Darren_Lehmann \"Darren Lehmann\") hit a career\\-best 339 in the first innings. Achieving just one bowling bonus point meant that Durham needed to score 400 without losing more than 5 wickets and then draw the game.\n\nHowever, one other team could also be relegated. [Nottinghamshire](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_CCC \"Nottinghamshire CCC\") needed just 3 points to avoid the drop at the start of the matches, but only managed 1 point as they were soundly beaten by [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex_CCC \"Sussex CCC\"). This meant that Durham needed only to score 400 (for maximum batting points) and force a draw. At 191–6 this looked unlikely. But a record\\-breaking stand of 315 between Benkenstein and [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") made it possible. Gibson was out for 155, the highest first\\-class score in his career. Durham then collapsed again to 518 all out, needing work to be done in the second innings. This was provided by [Garry Park](/wiki/Garry_Park \"Garry Park\"), who hit a maiden first\\-class century (100\\*) as Durham played out a draw, leaving themselves and Yorkshire in the first division.\n\n[thumb\\|Until the 2014 season the team was known as Durham Dynamos in limited overs tournaments.](/wiki/File:Durham_Dynamos.png \"Durham Dynamos.png\")\nDuring the 2007 season the club won its first major trophy, the [Friends Provident Trophy](/wiki/Friends_Provident_Trophy \"Friends Provident Trophy\"), by beating the 2005 winners [Hampshire Hawks](/wiki/Hampshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Hampshire County Cricket Club\") in a game which started on 18 finishing a day later due to rain. The toss between [Dale Benkenstein](/wiki/Dale_Benkenstein \"Dale Benkenstein\") and [Shane Warne](/wiki/Shane_Warne \"Shane Warne\") was won by the latter who sent Durham into bat. Fellow Aussie [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\") and [wicket\\-keeper](/wiki/Wicket-keeper \"Wicket-keeper\") [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\") opened the batting. Mustard looked strong from ball 1 but Di Venuto was a little shaky and was dismissed by Hampshire's [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team \"West Indies cricket team\") international [Daren Powell](/wiki/Daren_Powell \"Daren Powell\") and caught by [Michael Carberry](/wiki/Michael_Carberry \"Michael Carberry\"). Ex\\-Scotland u\\-19 captain [Kyle Coetzer](/wiki/Kyle_Coetzer \"Kyle Coetzer\") and [Shiv Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\") made significant contributions (61 and 78 respectively), the latter being run\\-out. Captain Benkenstein made a quickfire 61 off 43 deliveries. Durham finished their innings on 312–5\\.\n\n[Michael Lumb](/wiki/Michael_John_Lumb \"Michael John Lumb\") and ex\\-captain [John Crawley](/wiki/John_Crawley \"John Crawley\") opened for the Hawks, the former departing for a golden duck, caught at second slip by Di Venuto. [Zimbabwean](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") [Sean Ervine](/wiki/Sean_Ervine \"Sean Ervine\") was next in, immediately edging to second slip in identical fashion leaving [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") on a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28cricket%29 \"Hat-trick (cricket)\"). [Kevin Pietersen](/wiki/Kevin_Pietersen \"Kevin Pietersen\") survived that ball, but was soon back in the pavilion with 12\\. [John Crawley](/wiki/John_Crawley \"John Crawley\") managed a resilient 68 but was bowled by [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") who was to finish with 3–33\\. The rain came down and play was delayed until the following day.\n\nWith the fall of [Nic Pothas](/wiki/Nic_Pothas \"Nic Pothas\") (47\\) and [Dimitri Mascarenhas](/wiki/Dimitri_Mascarenhas \"Dimitri Mascarenhas\") (12\\) the tail was exposed and was quickly disposed of with Hampshire finishing on 187, handing Durham a historic win. Veteran [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") was named man of the match for his spell of 3–24 at the start of the Hampshire innings, which included wickets with his first two deliveries.\n\nIn September 2008, Durham claimed their first [County Championship](/wiki/2008_County_Championship \"2008 County Championship\") by winning their final match of the season at Canterbury, against [Kent](/wiki/Kent_CCC \"Kent CCC\"). Durham won the match by an innings, condemning Kent to be relegated, and moving 8 points clear of runners up, [Nottinghamshire](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_CCC \"Nottinghamshire CCC\"). \n\nTwelve months later, Durham retained their [County Championship](/wiki/2009_County_Championship \"2009 County Championship\") title defeating Nottinghamshire by an innings and 52 runs at a sun soaked Riverside Ground in front of 5,000 jubilant supporters.\n\nFor the 2011 season, Durham County Cricket Club wished to return to a more traditional arrangement and have insisted on a smart dress code including jackets for gentlemen at all games.\n\nIn September 2013 Durham won the [County Championship](/wiki/2013_County_Championship \"2013 County Championship\") for a third time after beating Nottinghamshire by 8 wickets at Chester le Street.\n\nDurham won the [2014 One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/2014_One-Day_Cup \"2014 One-Day Cup\"), defeating Warwickshire by three wickets in the final at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\") on 20 September 2014\\.\n\nDuring this period of success Durham saw a number of homegrown players go on to make an impact on the [England](/wiki/England_cricket_team \"England cricket team\") side. Players such as [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") (who was the first Durham CCC player to hit a Test century and double century and captained England to victory at the [2010 ICC World Twenty20](/wiki/2010_ICC_World_Twenty20 \"2010 ICC World Twenty20\")), [Steve Harmison](/wiki/Steve_Harmison \"Steve Harmison\"), [Liam Plunkett](/wiki/Liam_Plunkett \"Liam Plunkett\"), [Graham Onions](/wiki/Graham_Onions \"Graham Onions\"), [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") (who became England Test captain in 2022\\) and [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") formed part of successful England sides of the 21st Century, including the [2005 Ashes series](/wiki/2005_Ashes_series \"2005 Ashes series\"), [2009 Ashes series](/wiki/2009_Ashes_series \"2009 Ashes series\"), [2010 ICC World Twenty20](/wiki/2010_ICC_World_Twenty20 \"2010 ICC World Twenty20\"), [2010–11 Ashes series](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Ashes_series \"2010–11 Ashes series\") and [2015 Ashes series](/wiki/2015_Ashes_series \"2015 Ashes series\"). Other Durham players to feature for England during this time included [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\"), [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\"), [Keaton Jennings](/wiki/Keaton_Jennings \"Keaton Jennings\") and [Mark Stoneman](/wiki/Mark_Stoneman \"Mark Stoneman\").\n\n#### 2016 \\- 2022: Financial issues and relegation\n\n The club's eligibility to bid to stage Test cricket at the Riverside Ground was also removed although club will still be eligible to bid to host one\\-day and Twenty20 international matches.\n\nThe decision led to a number of first team players leaving the club, including Borthwick and Stoneman (to Surrey) and Jennings (to Lancashire). However, some players who left following the relegation would later return as the club rebuilt, including Borthwick, [Ben Raine](/wiki/Ben_Raine \"Ben Raine\") and [Paul Coughlin](/wiki/Paul_Coughlin \"Paul Coughlin\")\n\n[Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") and [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") were part of the England team which won the [2019 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup \"2019 Cricket World Cup\"), with Stokes playing a starring role in the [final](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup_final \"2019 Cricket World Cup final\") in which he was named man of the match. The Riverside Ground hosted 3 games of the tournament. \n\nDurham reached the final of the [2021 One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/2021_One-Day_Cup \"2021 One-Day Cup\") but lost by 58 runs in the final to [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan_County_Cricket_Club \"Glamorgan County Cricket Club\").\n\nStokes and Wood were also part of the England squad which won the [2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup](/wiki/2022_ICC_Men%27s_T20_World_Cup \"2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup\"). Other Durham players to earn England call ups in these years included [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\"), [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\") and [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\").\n\nOn 28 April 2022, Stokes was named as England's new [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") captain, replacing [Joe Root](/wiki/Joe_Root \"Joe Root\").\n\nOn 6 May 2022, in Stokes' first match since becoming England's captain, he hit 17 sixes against [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire_County_Cricket_Club \"Worcestershire County Cricket Club\"), setting a new record for sixes hit in a single innings of a match in the County Championship. Stokes scored 161 runs from 88 balls, which included the fastest century in first\\-class cricket by a [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club \"Durham County Cricket Club\") player.\n\n#### 2023 \\- present: Return to Division One\n\nIn December 2022, former Australia cricketer and [Netherlands cricket team](/wiki/Netherlands_cricket_team \"Netherlands cricket team\") coach [Ryan Campbell](/wiki/Ryan_Campbell \"Ryan Campbell\") was appointed head coach of Durham on a three\\-year contract to the end of the 2025 season, succeeding [James Franklin](/wiki/James_Franklin_%28cricketer%29 \"James Franklin (cricketer)\"). Under Campbell Durham won the [2023 Division Two](/wiki/2023_County_Championship \"2023 County Championship\") title to secure a return to Division One for the first time since the 2016 relegation.\n\n",
"### Earliest cricket in Durham\n\nCricket probably did not reach Durham until the 18th century. The earliest reference is a game at Raby Castle on or soon after 5 August 1751 between the Earl of Northumberland's XI and the Duke of Cleveland's XI. The game was commemorated by a ballad which starts:\n*Durham City has been dull so long,*\n*No bustle at all to show;*\n*But now the rage of all the throng*\n*Is at cricketing to go.*\nAs it happens, there was a return game soon afterwards at Stanwick, near Richmond, and that is the earliest reference to cricket in [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire \"Yorkshire\").\n\nThe first recorded match of representative cricket in the county took place in 1848 at [Sunderland](/wiki/Sunderland%2C_Tyne_and_Wear \"Sunderland, Tyne and Wear\"), between an All England XII and a Bishopwearmouth 22\\. Despite their extra numbers the cricketers of Bishopwearmouth were comprehensively outplayed as All England's scores of 129 and 143 dwarfed their own 56 and 59\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|A cricket match being played in [Hartlepool](/wiki/Hartlepool \"Hartlepool\"), County Durham in 1955](/wiki/File:Park_drive%2C_hartlepool.jpg \"Park drive, hartlepool.jpg\")\nThe first team to carry the name of 'Durham County' played an [MCC](/wiki/Marylebone_Cricket_Club \"Marylebone Cricket Club\") team in 1876 and went on to take on the touring [Australians](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team \"Australian cricket team\") in 1878, winning by 71 runs, and again in 1880, losing by an innings and 38, with the great [Fred Spofforth](/wiki/Fred_Spofforth \"Fred Spofforth\") taking 17 wickets for 66\\.\n\n",
"### Origin of club\n\nDurham CCC was founded as an official entity on 23 May 1882, and the nascent club played its first competitive match on 12 June of that year, beating [Northumberland](/wiki/Northumberland_CCC \"Northumberland CCC\") by 4 [wickets](/wiki/Wicket \"Wicket\") at the [Ashbrooke](/wiki/Ashbrooke \"Ashbrooke\") Ground, Sunderland. \n\nThe club established an enviable record as a [minor county](/wiki/Minor_counties \"Minor counties\"): becoming the first minor county to beat a first\\-class county in the [Gillette Cup](/wiki/Gillette_Cup_%28England%29 \"Gillette Cup (England)\") (defeating Yorkshire in round one in 1973, and then in 1985 beating Derbyshire at the same stage); winning the Minor Counties Championship a record\\-equalling seven times between 1901 and 1984; and putting together a record of 65 matches without defeat between 1976 and 1982 that remains unbroken.\n\n",
"### Durham as a first\\-class county\n\n#### 1989 \\- 2005\n\n[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Durham County Cricket Club former logo.](/wiki/File:DurhamCCC.png \"DurhamCCC.png\")\nEarly in 1989, the club began the process of applying to become a first\\-class cricketing county and join the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\"). First\\-class status was awarded on 6 December 1991, with Durham becoming the first new first\\-class county for 70 years. Their first season in the County Championship was the 1992 season.\n\nFor over a decade after gaining their status, Durham were not distinguished by marked success as a first\\-class county. In the 2004 season they finished bottom of the two\\-division County Championship, sixth out of ten teams in the [one\\-day](/wiki/One-day_cricket \"One-day cricket\") [National Cricket League](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\") and fifth out of six teams in the Northern Division of the [Twenty20 Cup](/wiki/Twenty20_Cup \"Twenty20 Cup\").\n\nHowever, in 2005 under the captaincy of Australian [Mike Hussey](/wiki/Mike_Hussey \"Mike Hussey\") Durham finished second and achieved promotion in both the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\") and the [one\\-day](/wiki/One-day_cricket \"One-day cricket\") National Cricket League. \n\n#### 2006 \\- 2015: One Day Trophy and County Championship victories\n\nHussey was prevented from returning to the Riverside in 2006 as he was contracted to the Australian international team; and with vice\\-captain [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") away on English international team duty Dale Benkenstein was captain for 2006\\.\n\nDurham had mixed success in the 2006 season, finishing second in the North Division of the [C\\&G Trophy](/wiki/C%26G_Trophy \"C&G Trophy\"). However, Durham were poor in the Twenty20 cup, finishing last in the North Division and only managing 2 victories, both against Lancashire. The [Pro40](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\") campaign started fairly well, with Durham taking 4 points from the first 4 games with a win, a loss, a tie and a no result. However, several defeats left them needing a win against the champions elect, [Essex](/wiki/Essex_CCC \"Essex CCC\"), in the final game of the season. They managed the victory, but other results did not go their way and they ended up being relegated in 8th place. The Championship season also began with success, but mediocre results in the middle of the season left Durham hanging above the relegation zone by just half a point going into the last game of the season. Durham needed more points than their rivals [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire_CCC \"Yorkshire CCC\"), but looked in trouble when [Darren Lehmann](/wiki/Darren_Lehmann \"Darren Lehmann\") hit a career\\-best 339 in the first innings. Achieving just one bowling bonus point meant that Durham needed to score 400 without losing more than 5 wickets and then draw the game.\n\nHowever, one other team could also be relegated. [Nottinghamshire](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_CCC \"Nottinghamshire CCC\") needed just 3 points to avoid the drop at the start of the matches, but only managed 1 point as they were soundly beaten by [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex_CCC \"Sussex CCC\"). This meant that Durham needed only to score 400 (for maximum batting points) and force a draw. At 191–6 this looked unlikely. But a record\\-breaking stand of 315 between Benkenstein and [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") made it possible. Gibson was out for 155, the highest first\\-class score in his career. Durham then collapsed again to 518 all out, needing work to be done in the second innings. This was provided by [Garry Park](/wiki/Garry_Park \"Garry Park\"), who hit a maiden first\\-class century (100\\*) as Durham played out a draw, leaving themselves and Yorkshire in the first division.\n\n[thumb\\|Until the 2014 season the team was known as Durham Dynamos in limited overs tournaments.](/wiki/File:Durham_Dynamos.png \"Durham Dynamos.png\")\nDuring the 2007 season the club won its first major trophy, the [Friends Provident Trophy](/wiki/Friends_Provident_Trophy \"Friends Provident Trophy\"), by beating the 2005 winners [Hampshire Hawks](/wiki/Hampshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Hampshire County Cricket Club\") in a game which started on 18 finishing a day later due to rain. The toss between [Dale Benkenstein](/wiki/Dale_Benkenstein \"Dale Benkenstein\") and [Shane Warne](/wiki/Shane_Warne \"Shane Warne\") was won by the latter who sent Durham into bat. Fellow Aussie [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\") and [wicket\\-keeper](/wiki/Wicket-keeper \"Wicket-keeper\") [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\") opened the batting. Mustard looked strong from ball 1 but Di Venuto was a little shaky and was dismissed by Hampshire's [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team \"West Indies cricket team\") international [Daren Powell](/wiki/Daren_Powell \"Daren Powell\") and caught by [Michael Carberry](/wiki/Michael_Carberry \"Michael Carberry\"). Ex\\-Scotland u\\-19 captain [Kyle Coetzer](/wiki/Kyle_Coetzer \"Kyle Coetzer\") and [Shiv Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\") made significant contributions (61 and 78 respectively), the latter being run\\-out. Captain Benkenstein made a quickfire 61 off 43 deliveries. Durham finished their innings on 312–5\\.\n\n[Michael Lumb](/wiki/Michael_John_Lumb \"Michael John Lumb\") and ex\\-captain [John Crawley](/wiki/John_Crawley \"John Crawley\") opened for the Hawks, the former departing for a golden duck, caught at second slip by Di Venuto. [Zimbabwean](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") [Sean Ervine](/wiki/Sean_Ervine \"Sean Ervine\") was next in, immediately edging to second slip in identical fashion leaving [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") on a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28cricket%29 \"Hat-trick (cricket)\"). [Kevin Pietersen](/wiki/Kevin_Pietersen \"Kevin Pietersen\") survived that ball, but was soon back in the pavilion with 12\\. [John Crawley](/wiki/John_Crawley \"John Crawley\") managed a resilient 68 but was bowled by [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") who was to finish with 3–33\\. The rain came down and play was delayed until the following day.\n\nWith the fall of [Nic Pothas](/wiki/Nic_Pothas \"Nic Pothas\") (47\\) and [Dimitri Mascarenhas](/wiki/Dimitri_Mascarenhas \"Dimitri Mascarenhas\") (12\\) the tail was exposed and was quickly disposed of with Hampshire finishing on 187, handing Durham a historic win. Veteran [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") was named man of the match for his spell of 3–24 at the start of the Hampshire innings, which included wickets with his first two deliveries.\n\nIn September 2008, Durham claimed their first [County Championship](/wiki/2008_County_Championship \"2008 County Championship\") by winning their final match of the season at Canterbury, against [Kent](/wiki/Kent_CCC \"Kent CCC\"). Durham won the match by an innings, condemning Kent to be relegated, and moving 8 points clear of runners up, [Nottinghamshire](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_CCC \"Nottinghamshire CCC\"). \n\nTwelve months later, Durham retained their [County Championship](/wiki/2009_County_Championship \"2009 County Championship\") title defeating Nottinghamshire by an innings and 52 runs at a sun soaked Riverside Ground in front of 5,000 jubilant supporters.\n\nFor the 2011 season, Durham County Cricket Club wished to return to a more traditional arrangement and have insisted on a smart dress code including jackets for gentlemen at all games.\n\nIn September 2013 Durham won the [County Championship](/wiki/2013_County_Championship \"2013 County Championship\") for a third time after beating Nottinghamshire by 8 wickets at Chester le Street.\n\nDurham won the [2014 One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/2014_One-Day_Cup \"2014 One-Day Cup\"), defeating Warwickshire by three wickets in the final at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\") on 20 September 2014\\.\n\nDuring this period of success Durham saw a number of homegrown players go on to make an impact on the [England](/wiki/England_cricket_team \"England cricket team\") side. Players such as [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") (who was the first Durham CCC player to hit a Test century and double century and captained England to victory at the [2010 ICC World Twenty20](/wiki/2010_ICC_World_Twenty20 \"2010 ICC World Twenty20\")), [Steve Harmison](/wiki/Steve_Harmison \"Steve Harmison\"), [Liam Plunkett](/wiki/Liam_Plunkett \"Liam Plunkett\"), [Graham Onions](/wiki/Graham_Onions \"Graham Onions\"), [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") (who became England Test captain in 2022\\) and [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") formed part of successful England sides of the 21st Century, including the [2005 Ashes series](/wiki/2005_Ashes_series \"2005 Ashes series\"), [2009 Ashes series](/wiki/2009_Ashes_series \"2009 Ashes series\"), [2010 ICC World Twenty20](/wiki/2010_ICC_World_Twenty20 \"2010 ICC World Twenty20\"), [2010–11 Ashes series](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Ashes_series \"2010–11 Ashes series\") and [2015 Ashes series](/wiki/2015_Ashes_series \"2015 Ashes series\"). Other Durham players to feature for England during this time included [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\"), [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\"), [Keaton Jennings](/wiki/Keaton_Jennings \"Keaton Jennings\") and [Mark Stoneman](/wiki/Mark_Stoneman \"Mark Stoneman\").\n\n#### 2016 \\- 2022: Financial issues and relegation\n\n The club's eligibility to bid to stage Test cricket at the Riverside Ground was also removed although club will still be eligible to bid to host one\\-day and Twenty20 international matches.\n\nThe decision led to a number of first team players leaving the club, including Borthwick and Stoneman (to Surrey) and Jennings (to Lancashire). However, some players who left following the relegation would later return as the club rebuilt, including Borthwick, [Ben Raine](/wiki/Ben_Raine \"Ben Raine\") and [Paul Coughlin](/wiki/Paul_Coughlin \"Paul Coughlin\")\n\n[Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") and [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") were part of the England team which won the [2019 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup \"2019 Cricket World Cup\"), with Stokes playing a starring role in the [final](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup_final \"2019 Cricket World Cup final\") in which he was named man of the match. The Riverside Ground hosted 3 games of the tournament. \n\nDurham reached the final of the [2021 One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/2021_One-Day_Cup \"2021 One-Day Cup\") but lost by 58 runs in the final to [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan_County_Cricket_Club \"Glamorgan County Cricket Club\").\n\nStokes and Wood were also part of the England squad which won the [2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup](/wiki/2022_ICC_Men%27s_T20_World_Cup \"2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup\"). Other Durham players to earn England call ups in these years included [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\"), [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\") and [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\").\n\nOn 28 April 2022, Stokes was named as England's new [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") captain, replacing [Joe Root](/wiki/Joe_Root \"Joe Root\").\n\nOn 6 May 2022, in Stokes' first match since becoming England's captain, he hit 17 sixes against [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire_County_Cricket_Club \"Worcestershire County Cricket Club\"), setting a new record for sixes hit in a single innings of a match in the County Championship. Stokes scored 161 runs from 88 balls, which included the fastest century in first\\-class cricket by a [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club \"Durham County Cricket Club\") player.\n\n#### 2023 \\- present: Return to Division One\n\nIn December 2022, former Australia cricketer and [Netherlands cricket team](/wiki/Netherlands_cricket_team \"Netherlands cricket team\") coach [Ryan Campbell](/wiki/Ryan_Campbell \"Ryan Campbell\") was appointed head coach of Durham on a three\\-year contract to the end of the 2025 season, succeeding [James Franklin](/wiki/James_Franklin_%28cricketer%29 \"James Franklin (cricketer)\"). Under Campbell Durham won the [2023 Division Two](/wiki/2023_County_Championship \"2023 County Championship\") title to secure a return to Division One for the first time since the 2016 relegation.\n\n",
"#### 1989 \\- 2005\n\n[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Durham County Cricket Club former logo.](/wiki/File:DurhamCCC.png \"DurhamCCC.png\")\nEarly in 1989, the club began the process of applying to become a first\\-class cricketing county and join the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\"). First\\-class status was awarded on 6 December 1991, with Durham becoming the first new first\\-class county for 70 years. Their first season in the County Championship was the 1992 season.\n\nFor over a decade after gaining their status, Durham were not distinguished by marked success as a first\\-class county. In the 2004 season they finished bottom of the two\\-division County Championship, sixth out of ten teams in the [one\\-day](/wiki/One-day_cricket \"One-day cricket\") [National Cricket League](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\") and fifth out of six teams in the Northern Division of the [Twenty20 Cup](/wiki/Twenty20_Cup \"Twenty20 Cup\").\n\nHowever, in 2005 under the captaincy of Australian [Mike Hussey](/wiki/Mike_Hussey \"Mike Hussey\") Durham finished second and achieved promotion in both the [County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\") and the [one\\-day](/wiki/One-day_cricket \"One-day cricket\") National Cricket League. \n\n",
"#### 2006 \\- 2015: One Day Trophy and County Championship victories\n\nHussey was prevented from returning to the Riverside in 2006 as he was contracted to the Australian international team; and with vice\\-captain [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") away on English international team duty Dale Benkenstein was captain for 2006\\.\n\nDurham had mixed success in the 2006 season, finishing second in the North Division of the [C\\&G Trophy](/wiki/C%26G_Trophy \"C&G Trophy\"). However, Durham were poor in the Twenty20 cup, finishing last in the North Division and only managing 2 victories, both against Lancashire. The [Pro40](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\") campaign started fairly well, with Durham taking 4 points from the first 4 games with a win, a loss, a tie and a no result. However, several defeats left them needing a win against the champions elect, [Essex](/wiki/Essex_CCC \"Essex CCC\"), in the final game of the season. They managed the victory, but other results did not go their way and they ended up being relegated in 8th place. The Championship season also began with success, but mediocre results in the middle of the season left Durham hanging above the relegation zone by just half a point going into the last game of the season. Durham needed more points than their rivals [Yorkshire](/wiki/Yorkshire_CCC \"Yorkshire CCC\"), but looked in trouble when [Darren Lehmann](/wiki/Darren_Lehmann \"Darren Lehmann\") hit a career\\-best 339 in the first innings. Achieving just one bowling bonus point meant that Durham needed to score 400 without losing more than 5 wickets and then draw the game.\n\nHowever, one other team could also be relegated. [Nottinghamshire](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_CCC \"Nottinghamshire CCC\") needed just 3 points to avoid the drop at the start of the matches, but only managed 1 point as they were soundly beaten by [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex_CCC \"Sussex CCC\"). This meant that Durham needed only to score 400 (for maximum batting points) and force a draw. At 191–6 this looked unlikely. But a record\\-breaking stand of 315 between Benkenstein and [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") made it possible. Gibson was out for 155, the highest first\\-class score in his career. Durham then collapsed again to 518 all out, needing work to be done in the second innings. This was provided by [Garry Park](/wiki/Garry_Park \"Garry Park\"), who hit a maiden first\\-class century (100\\*) as Durham played out a draw, leaving themselves and Yorkshire in the first division.\n\n[thumb\\|Until the 2014 season the team was known as Durham Dynamos in limited overs tournaments.](/wiki/File:Durham_Dynamos.png \"Durham Dynamos.png\")\nDuring the 2007 season the club won its first major trophy, the [Friends Provident Trophy](/wiki/Friends_Provident_Trophy \"Friends Provident Trophy\"), by beating the 2005 winners [Hampshire Hawks](/wiki/Hampshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Hampshire County Cricket Club\") in a game which started on 18 finishing a day later due to rain. The toss between [Dale Benkenstein](/wiki/Dale_Benkenstein \"Dale Benkenstein\") and [Shane Warne](/wiki/Shane_Warne \"Shane Warne\") was won by the latter who sent Durham into bat. Fellow Aussie [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\") and [wicket\\-keeper](/wiki/Wicket-keeper \"Wicket-keeper\") [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\") opened the batting. Mustard looked strong from ball 1 but Di Venuto was a little shaky and was dismissed by Hampshire's [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team \"West Indies cricket team\") international [Daren Powell](/wiki/Daren_Powell \"Daren Powell\") and caught by [Michael Carberry](/wiki/Michael_Carberry \"Michael Carberry\"). Ex\\-Scotland u\\-19 captain [Kyle Coetzer](/wiki/Kyle_Coetzer \"Kyle Coetzer\") and [Shiv Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\") made significant contributions (61 and 78 respectively), the latter being run\\-out. Captain Benkenstein made a quickfire 61 off 43 deliveries. Durham finished their innings on 312–5\\.\n\n[Michael Lumb](/wiki/Michael_John_Lumb \"Michael John Lumb\") and ex\\-captain [John Crawley](/wiki/John_Crawley \"John Crawley\") opened for the Hawks, the former departing for a golden duck, caught at second slip by Di Venuto. [Zimbabwean](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\") [Sean Ervine](/wiki/Sean_Ervine \"Sean Ervine\") was next in, immediately edging to second slip in identical fashion leaving [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") on a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28cricket%29 \"Hat-trick (cricket)\"). [Kevin Pietersen](/wiki/Kevin_Pietersen \"Kevin Pietersen\") survived that ball, but was soon back in the pavilion with 12\\. [John Crawley](/wiki/John_Crawley \"John Crawley\") managed a resilient 68 but was bowled by [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") who was to finish with 3–33\\. The rain came down and play was delayed until the following day.\n\nWith the fall of [Nic Pothas](/wiki/Nic_Pothas \"Nic Pothas\") (47\\) and [Dimitri Mascarenhas](/wiki/Dimitri_Mascarenhas \"Dimitri Mascarenhas\") (12\\) the tail was exposed and was quickly disposed of with Hampshire finishing on 187, handing Durham a historic win. Veteran [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\") was named man of the match for his spell of 3–24 at the start of the Hampshire innings, which included wickets with his first two deliveries.\n\nIn September 2008, Durham claimed their first [County Championship](/wiki/2008_County_Championship \"2008 County Championship\") by winning their final match of the season at Canterbury, against [Kent](/wiki/Kent_CCC \"Kent CCC\"). Durham won the match by an innings, condemning Kent to be relegated, and moving 8 points clear of runners up, [Nottinghamshire](/wiki/Nottinghamshire_CCC \"Nottinghamshire CCC\"). \n\nTwelve months later, Durham retained their [County Championship](/wiki/2009_County_Championship \"2009 County Championship\") title defeating Nottinghamshire by an innings and 52 runs at a sun soaked Riverside Ground in front of 5,000 jubilant supporters.\n\nFor the 2011 season, Durham County Cricket Club wished to return to a more traditional arrangement and have insisted on a smart dress code including jackets for gentlemen at all games.\n\nIn September 2013 Durham won the [County Championship](/wiki/2013_County_Championship \"2013 County Championship\") for a third time after beating Nottinghamshire by 8 wickets at Chester le Street.\n\nDurham won the [2014 One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/2014_One-Day_Cup \"2014 One-Day Cup\"), defeating Warwickshire by three wickets in the final at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\") on 20 September 2014\\.\n\nDuring this period of success Durham saw a number of homegrown players go on to make an impact on the [England](/wiki/England_cricket_team \"England cricket team\") side. Players such as [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\") (who was the first Durham CCC player to hit a Test century and double century and captained England to victory at the [2010 ICC World Twenty20](/wiki/2010_ICC_World_Twenty20 \"2010 ICC World Twenty20\")), [Steve Harmison](/wiki/Steve_Harmison \"Steve Harmison\"), [Liam Plunkett](/wiki/Liam_Plunkett \"Liam Plunkett\"), [Graham Onions](/wiki/Graham_Onions \"Graham Onions\"), [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") (who became England Test captain in 2022\\) and [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") formed part of successful England sides of the 21st Century, including the [2005 Ashes series](/wiki/2005_Ashes_series \"2005 Ashes series\"), [2009 Ashes series](/wiki/2009_Ashes_series \"2009 Ashes series\"), [2010 ICC World Twenty20](/wiki/2010_ICC_World_Twenty20 \"2010 ICC World Twenty20\"), [2010–11 Ashes series](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Ashes_series \"2010–11 Ashes series\") and [2015 Ashes series](/wiki/2015_Ashes_series \"2015 Ashes series\"). Other Durham players to feature for England during this time included [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\"), [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\"), [Keaton Jennings](/wiki/Keaton_Jennings \"Keaton Jennings\") and [Mark Stoneman](/wiki/Mark_Stoneman \"Mark Stoneman\").\n\n",
"#### 2016 \\- 2022: Financial issues and relegation\n\n The club's eligibility to bid to stage Test cricket at the Riverside Ground was also removed although club will still be eligible to bid to host one\\-day and Twenty20 international matches.\n\nThe decision led to a number of first team players leaving the club, including Borthwick and Stoneman (to Surrey) and Jennings (to Lancashire). However, some players who left following the relegation would later return as the club rebuilt, including Borthwick, [Ben Raine](/wiki/Ben_Raine \"Ben Raine\") and [Paul Coughlin](/wiki/Paul_Coughlin \"Paul Coughlin\")\n\n[Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") and [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") were part of the England team which won the [2019 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup \"2019 Cricket World Cup\"), with Stokes playing a starring role in the [final](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup_final \"2019 Cricket World Cup final\") in which he was named man of the match. The Riverside Ground hosted 3 games of the tournament. \n\nDurham reached the final of the [2021 One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/2021_One-Day_Cup \"2021 One-Day Cup\") but lost by 58 runs in the final to [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan_County_Cricket_Club \"Glamorgan County Cricket Club\").\n\nStokes and Wood were also part of the England squad which won the [2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup](/wiki/2022_ICC_Men%27s_T20_World_Cup \"2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup\"). Other Durham players to earn England call ups in these years included [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\"), [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\") and [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\").\n\nOn 28 April 2022, Stokes was named as England's new [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") captain, replacing [Joe Root](/wiki/Joe_Root \"Joe Root\").\n\nOn 6 May 2022, in Stokes' first match since becoming England's captain, he hit 17 sixes against [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire_County_Cricket_Club \"Worcestershire County Cricket Club\"), setting a new record for sixes hit in a single innings of a match in the County Championship. Stokes scored 161 runs from 88 balls, which included the fastest century in first\\-class cricket by a [Durham](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club \"Durham County Cricket Club\") player.\n\n",
"#### 2023 \\- present: Return to Division One\n\nIn December 2022, former Australia cricketer and [Netherlands cricket team](/wiki/Netherlands_cricket_team \"Netherlands cricket team\") coach [Ryan Campbell](/wiki/Ryan_Campbell \"Ryan Campbell\") was appointed head coach of Durham on a three\\-year contract to the end of the 2025 season, succeeding [James Franklin](/wiki/James_Franklin_%28cricketer%29 \"James Franklin (cricketer)\"). Under Campbell Durham won the [2023 Division Two](/wiki/2023_County_Championship \"2023 County Championship\") title to secure a return to Division One for the first time since the 2016 relegation.\n\n",
"Ground history\n--------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|[The Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\"), Chester\\-le\\-Street. [Lumley Castle](/wiki/Lumley_Castle \"Lumley Castle\") can be seen in the background](/wiki/File:Durham_Riverside_Aerial.jpg \"Durham Riverside Aerial.jpg\")\n\nThe club's acceptance into [first\\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") was made conditional on the building of a new Test match\\-standard cricket ground. Work began on the new ground at the Riverside, a spectacular location overlooked by [Lumley Castle](/wiki/Lumley_Castle \"Lumley Castle\"), in 1990, and the ground hosted its first game, Durham v [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Warwickshire County Cricket Club\"), on 18 May 1995\\.\n\nDevelopment of the Riverside Ground has continued until the present day, and in 2003 the Riverside Ground was raised to Test match status. The ground has been used for six England Test matches, against [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team \"Zimbabwe national cricket team\") in 2003, [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh_national_cricket_team \"Bangladesh national cricket team\") in 2005, two against [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team \"West Indies cricket team\") in June 2007 and May 2009, an Ashes Test Match against [Australia](/wiki/Australia_cricket_team \"Australia cricket team\") in 2013, and against [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_national_cricket_team \"Sri Lanka national cricket team\") in 2016\\. England have won all six of these tests.\n\nAs part of the conditions of a package of financial support announced in October 2016, the ECB imposed a number of sanctions on Durham County Cricket Club, including removal of the club's eligibility to bid to stage Test cricket at the Riverside Ground. The club will still be eligible to bid to host one\\-day and Twenty20 international matches.\n\nThe Riverside hosted 3 games of the [2019 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2019_Cricket_World_Cup \"2019 Cricket World Cup\").\n\nThis following table gives details of every venue at which Durham have hosted a [first\\-class](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") or [List A cricket](/wiki/List_A_cricket \"List A cricket\") match:\n\n| Name of ground | Location | Year | FCmatches | LAmatches | T20matches | Total |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Riverside Ground](/wiki/Riverside_Ground \"Riverside Ground\") | [Chester\\-le\\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street \"Chester-le-Street\") | 1995–present | 182 | 176 | 70 | 428 |\n| [Feethams](/wiki/Feethams%23Cricket \"Feethams#Cricket\") | [Darlington](/wiki/Darlington \"Darlington\") | 1964–2003 | 10 | 14 | 0 | 24 |\n| [Grangefield Road](/wiki/Grangefield_Road \"Grangefield Road\") | [Stockton\\-on\\-Tees](/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees \"Stockton-on-Tees\") | 1992–2006 | 12 | 11 | 0 | 23 |\n| [The Racecourse](/wiki/The_Racecourse%23Cricket_Ground \"The Racecourse#Cricket Ground\") | [Durham City](/wiki/Durham%2C_England \"Durham, England\") | 1992–1994 | 8 | 7 | 0 | 15 |\n| [Park Drive](/wiki/Park_Drive_%28cricket%29 \"Park Drive (cricket)\") | [Hartlepool](/wiki/Hartlepool \"Hartlepool\") | 1992–2000 | 8 | 9 | 0 | 17 |\n| [Ropery Lane](/wiki/Ropery_Lane \"Ropery Lane\") | [Chester\\-le\\-Street](/wiki/Chester-le-Street \"Chester-le-Street\") | 1967–1994 | 3 | 7 | 0 | 10 |\n| [Eastwood Gardens](/wiki/Eastwood_Gardens \"Eastwood Gardens\") | [Gateshead](/wiki/Gateshead \"Gateshead\") Fell | 1992–1994 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 7 |\n| [Roseworth Terrace](/wiki/South_Northumberland_Cricket_Club \"South Northumberland Cricket Club\") | [Gosforth](/wiki/Gosforth \"Gosforth\") | 2014–2016 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 |\n| [Green Lane](/wiki/Green_Lane_Cricket_Ground \"Green Lane Cricket Ground\") | [Durham City](/wiki/Durham%2C_England \"Durham, England\") | 1979 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |\n| [Osborne Avenue](/wiki/Osborne_Avenue \"Osborne Avenue\") | [Jesmond](/wiki/Jesmond \"Jesmond\") | 1992 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |\n| Source: [cricketarchive](https://cricketarchive.com/Durham/Grounds/index.html) Updated: 5 October 2016 | | | | | | |\n\n* Located in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"), historically part of [Northumberland](/wiki/Northumberland \"Northumberland\").\n",
"Players\n-------\n\nSince Durham's induction as a first\\-class county, each player has been allocated a unique squad number. The first 11 numbers were allocated in batting order from the club's first game, and subsequent numbers have been allocated in order of appearance.\n\n### Current squad\n\n* No. denotes the player's squad number, as worn on the back of their shirt.\n* denotes players with international caps.\n\n| No. | Name | Nat | Birth date | Batting style | Bowling style | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Batsmen | | | | | | |\n|7 [Graham Clark](/wiki/Graham_Clark_%28English_cricketer%29 \"Graham Clark (English cricketer)\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg\\-break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | |\n|9 [Ben McKinney](/wiki/Ben_McKinney \"Ben McKinney\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [off break](/wiki/Off_spin \"Off spin\") | |\n|16 [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg\\-break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | [Club captain](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 \"Captain (cricket)\") |\n|19 [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg\\-break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | [LA/t20 captain](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 \"Captain (cricket)\") |\n|24 [Emilio Gay](/wiki/Emilio_Gay \"Emilio Gay\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|48 [Colin Ackermann](/wiki/Colin_Ackermann \"Colin Ackermann\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [off break](/wiki/Off_spin \"Off spin\") | |\n|— [Will Rhodes](/wiki/Will_Rhodes \"Will Rhodes\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n| All\\-rounders | | | | | | |\n|23 [Paul Coughlin](/wiki/Paul_Coughlin \"Paul Coughlin\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|27 [Bas de Leede](/wiki/Bas_de_Leede \"Bas de Leede\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|38 [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England test captain; England central contract |\n|44 [Ben Raine](/wiki/Ben_Raine \"Ben Raine\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n| Wicket\\-keepers | | | | | | |\n|5 [David Bedingham](/wiki/David_Bedingham \"David Bedingham\") | | | Right\\-handed | — | Overseas player |\n|21 [Ollie Robinson](/wiki/Ollie_Robinson_%28cricketer%2C_born_1998%29 \"Ollie Robinson (cricketer, born 1998)\") | | | Right\\-handed | — | |\n|52 [Haydon Mustard](/wiki/Haydon_Mustard \"Haydon Mustard\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n| Bowlers | | | | | | |\n|8 [George Drissell](/wiki/George_Drissell \"George Drissell\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [off\\-break](/wiki/Off_spin \"Off spin\") | |\n|11 [Mitchell Killeen](/wiki/Mitchell_Killeen \"Mitchell Killeen\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|12 [Luke Robinson](/wiki/Luke_Robinson_%28cricketer%29 \"Luke Robinson (cricketer)\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|17 [Callum Parkinson](/wiki/Callum_Parkinson \"Callum Parkinson\") | | | Right\\-handed | [Slow left\\-arm orthodox](/wiki/Left-arm_orthodox_spin \"Left-arm orthodox spin\") | |\n|22 [Daniel Hogg](/wiki/Daniel_Hogg \"Daniel Hogg\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|28 [Stanley McAlindon](/wiki/Stanley_McAlindon \"Stanley McAlindon\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|33 [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England central contract |\n|35 [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England central contract |\n|72 [Nathan Sowter](/wiki/Nathan_Sowter \"Nathan Sowter\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | UK passport |\n|77 [James Minto](/wiki/James_Minto \"James Minto\") | | | Left\\-handed | Left\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|99 [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England central contract |\n|— [Sam Conners](/wiki/Sam_Conners \"Sam Conners\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n",
"### Current squad\n\n* No. denotes the player's squad number, as worn on the back of their shirt.\n* denotes players with international caps.\n\n| No. | Name | Nat | Birth date | Batting style | Bowling style | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Batsmen | | | | | | |\n|7 [Graham Clark](/wiki/Graham_Clark_%28English_cricketer%29 \"Graham Clark (English cricketer)\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg\\-break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | |\n|9 [Ben McKinney](/wiki/Ben_McKinney \"Ben McKinney\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [off break](/wiki/Off_spin \"Off spin\") | |\n|16 [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg\\-break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | [Club captain](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 \"Captain (cricket)\") |\n|19 [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg\\-break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | [LA/t20 captain](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 \"Captain (cricket)\") |\n|24 [Emilio Gay](/wiki/Emilio_Gay \"Emilio Gay\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|48 [Colin Ackermann](/wiki/Colin_Ackermann \"Colin Ackermann\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [off break](/wiki/Off_spin \"Off spin\") | |\n|— [Will Rhodes](/wiki/Will_Rhodes \"Will Rhodes\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n| All\\-rounders | | | | | | |\n|23 [Paul Coughlin](/wiki/Paul_Coughlin \"Paul Coughlin\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|27 [Bas de Leede](/wiki/Bas_de_Leede \"Bas de Leede\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|38 [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England test captain; England central contract |\n|44 [Ben Raine](/wiki/Ben_Raine \"Ben Raine\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n| Wicket\\-keepers | | | | | | |\n|5 [David Bedingham](/wiki/David_Bedingham \"David Bedingham\") | | | Right\\-handed | — | Overseas player |\n|21 [Ollie Robinson](/wiki/Ollie_Robinson_%28cricketer%2C_born_1998%29 \"Ollie Robinson (cricketer, born 1998)\") | | | Right\\-handed | — | |\n|52 [Haydon Mustard](/wiki/Haydon_Mustard \"Haydon Mustard\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n| Bowlers | | | | | | |\n|8 [George Drissell](/wiki/George_Drissell \"George Drissell\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [off\\-break](/wiki/Off_spin \"Off spin\") | |\n|11 [Mitchell Killeen](/wiki/Mitchell_Killeen \"Mitchell Killeen\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|12 [Luke Robinson](/wiki/Luke_Robinson_%28cricketer%29 \"Luke Robinson (cricketer)\") | | | Left\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|17 [Callum Parkinson](/wiki/Callum_Parkinson \"Callum Parkinson\") | | | Right\\-handed | [Slow left\\-arm orthodox](/wiki/Left-arm_orthodox_spin \"Left-arm orthodox spin\") | |\n|22 [Daniel Hogg](/wiki/Daniel_Hogg \"Daniel Hogg\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|28 [Stanley McAlindon](/wiki/Stanley_McAlindon \"Stanley McAlindon\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|33 [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England central contract |\n|35 [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England central contract |\n|72 [Nathan Sowter](/wiki/Nathan_Sowter \"Nathan Sowter\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [leg break](/wiki/Leg_spin \"Leg spin\") | UK passport |\n|77 [James Minto](/wiki/James_Minto \"James Minto\") | | | Left\\-handed | Left\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n|99 [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | England central contract |\n|— [Sam Conners](/wiki/Sam_Conners \"Sam Conners\") | | | Right\\-handed | Right\\-arm [fast\\-medium](/wiki/Fast_bowling \"Fast bowling\") | |\n",
"Lists of players and club captains\n----------------------------------\n\n* [List of Durham CCC players](/wiki/List_of_Durham_CCC_players \"List of Durham CCC players\")\n* [List of Durham cricket captains](/wiki/List_of_Durham_cricket_captains \"List of Durham cricket captains\")\n\n### Durham players with international caps\n\nDurham county cricketers who have during their career also represented their national team in [Test cricket](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") or [One Day International](/wiki/One_Day_International \"One Day International\") cricket.\n\n**England**\n* [Ian Blackwell](/wiki/Ian_Blackwell \"Ian Blackwell\")\n* [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\")\n* [Ian Botham](/wiki/Ian_Botham \"Ian Botham\")\n* [Simon Brown](/wiki/Simon_Brown_%28cricketer%29 \"Simon Brown (cricketer)\")\n* [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\")\n* [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\")\n* [Geoff Cook](/wiki/Geoff_Cook \"Geoff Cook\")\n* [Graeme Fowler](/wiki/Graeme_Fowler \"Graeme Fowler\")\n* [Gavin Hamilton](/wiki/Gavin_Hamilton_%28cricketer%29 \"Gavin Hamilton (cricketer)\")\n* [Steve Harmison](/wiki/Steve_Harmison \"Steve Harmison\")\n* [Keaton Jennings](/wiki/Keaton_Jennings \"Keaton Jennings\")\n* [Wayne Larkins](/wiki/Wayne_Larkins \"Wayne Larkins\")\n* [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\")\n* [John Morris](/wiki/John_Morris_%28cricketer%2C_born_1964%29 \"John Morris (cricketer, born 1964)\")\n* [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\")\n* [Graham Onions](/wiki/Graham_Onions \"Graham Onions\")\n* [Paul Parker](/wiki/Paul_Parker_%28cricketer%29 \"Paul Parker (cricketer)\")\n* [Liam Plunkett](/wiki/Liam_Plunkett \"Liam Plunkett\")\n* [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\")\n* [Martin Saggers](/wiki/Martin_Saggers \"Martin Saggers\")\n* [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\")\n* [Mark Stoneman](/wiki/Mark_Stoneman \"Mark Stoneman\")\n* [Vince Wells](/wiki/Vince_Wells \"Vince Wells\")\n* [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\")\n\n**Australia**\n* [Cameron Bancroft](/wiki/Cameron_Bancroft \"Cameron Bancroft\")\n* [David Boon](/wiki/David_Boon \"David Boon\")\n* [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\")\n* [John Hastings](/wiki/John_Hastings_%28cricketer%29 \"John Hastings (cricketer)\")\n* [Brad Hodge](/wiki/Brad_Hodge \"Brad Hodge\")\n* [Michael Hussey](/wiki/Michael_Hussey \"Michael Hussey\")\n* [Dean Jones](/wiki/Dean_Jones_%28cricketer%29 \"Dean Jones (cricketer)\")\n* [Simon Katich](/wiki/Simon_Katich \"Simon Katich\")\n* [Mick Lewis](/wiki/Mick_Lewis \"Mick Lewis\")\n* [Martin Love](/wiki/Martin_Love \"Martin Love\")\n* [Jimmy Maher](/wiki/Jimmy_Maher \"Jimmy Maher\")\n* [Ashley Noffke](/wiki/Ashley_Noffke \"Ashley Noffke\")\n* [Marcus North](/wiki/Marcus_North \"Marcus North\")\n* [D'Arcy Short](/wiki/D%27Arcy_Short \"D'Arcy Short\")\n* [Shaun Tait](/wiki/Shaun_Tait \"Shaun Tait\")\n* [David Warner](/wiki/David_Warner_%28cricketer%29 \"David Warner (cricketer)\")\n* [Brad Williams](/wiki/Brad_Williams_%28cricketer%29 \"Brad Williams (cricketer)\")\n\n**Canada**\n* [Anderson Cummins](/wiki/Anderson_Cummins \"Anderson Cummins\")\n\n**India**\n* [Varun Aaron](/wiki/Varun_Aaron \"Varun Aaron\")\n* [Axar Patel](/wiki/Axar_Patel \"Axar Patel\")\n* [Manoj Prabhakar](/wiki/Manoj_Prabhakar \"Manoj Prabhakar\")\n* [Javagal Srinath](/wiki/Javagal_Srinath \"Javagal Srinath\")\n\n**Ireland**\n* [Peter Chase](/wiki/Peter_Chase \"Peter Chase\")\n* [Barry McCarthy](/wiki/Barry_McCarthy \"Barry McCarthy\")\n* [Stuart Poynter](/wiki/Stuart_Poynter \"Stuart Poynter\")\n\n**Italy**\n* [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\")\n\n**Netherlands**\n* [Brandon Glover](/wiki/Brandon_Glover \"Brandon Glover\")\n* [Bas de Leede](/wiki/Bas_de_Leede \"Bas de Leede\")\n* [Paul van Meekeren](/wiki/Paul_van_Meekeren \"Paul van Meekeren\")\n\n**New Zealand**\n* [Nathan Astle](/wiki/Nathan_Astle \"Nathan Astle\")\n* [Tom Latham](/wiki/Tom_Latham_%28cricketer%29 \"Tom Latham (cricketer)\")\n* [Ajaz Patel](/wiki/Ajaz_Patel \"Ajaz Patel\")\n* [Scott Styris](/wiki/Scott_Styris \"Scott Styris\")\n* [Ross Taylor](/wiki/Ross_Taylor \"Ross Taylor\")\n* [Paul Wiseman](/wiki/Paul_Wiseman \"Paul Wiseman\")\n* [Will Young](/wiki/Will_Young \"Will Young\")\n\n**Pakistan**\n* [Shoaib Akhtar](/wiki/Shoaib_Akhtar \"Shoaib Akhtar\")\n\n**Scotland**\n* [James Brinkley](/wiki/James_Brinkley \"James Brinkley\")\n* [Kyle Coetzer](/wiki/Kyle_Coetzer \"Kyle Coetzer\")\n* [Gavin Hamilton](/wiki/Gavin_Hamilton_%28cricketer%29 \"Gavin Hamilton (cricketer)\")\n* [Michael Jones](/wiki/Michael_Jones_%28cricketer%29 \"Michael Jones (cricketer)\")\n* [Calum MacLeod](/wiki/Calum_MacLeod_%28cricketer%29 \"Calum MacLeod (cricketer)\")\n* [Gavin Main](/wiki/Gavin_Main \"Gavin Main\")\n* [Moneeb Iqbal](/wiki/Moneeb_Iqbal \"Moneeb Iqbal\")\n\n**South Africa**\n* [David Bedingham](/wiki/David_Bedingham \"David Bedingham\")\n* [Dale Benkenstein](/wiki/Dale_Benkenstein \"Dale Benkenstein\")\n* [Stephen Cook](/wiki/Stephen_Cook_%28cricketer%29 \"Stephen Cook (cricketer)\")\n* [Herschelle Gibbs](/wiki/Herschelle_Gibbs \"Herschelle Gibbs\")\n* [Neil McKenzie](/wiki/Neil_McKenzie \"Neil McKenzie\")\n* [Aiden Markram](/wiki/Aiden_Markram \"Aiden Markram\")\n* [David Miller](/wiki/David_Miller_%28South_African_cricketer%29 \"David Miller (South African cricketer)\")\n* [Albie Morkel](/wiki/Albie_Morkel \"Albie Morkel\")\n* [Dewald Pretorius](/wiki/Dewald_Pretorius \"Dewald Pretorius\")\n* [Imran Tahir](/wiki/Imran_Tahir \"Imran Tahir\")\n\n**Sri Lanka**\n* [Kumar Sangakkara](/wiki/Kumar_Sangakkara \"Kumar Sangakkara\")\n\n**West Indies**\n* [Gareth Breese](/wiki/Gareth_Breese \"Gareth Breese\")\n* [Sherwin Campbell](/wiki/Sherwin_Campbell \"Sherwin Campbell\")\n* [Shivnarine Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\")\n* [Anderson Cummins](/wiki/Anderson_Cummins \"Anderson Cummins\")\n* [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\")\n* [Reon King](/wiki/Reon_King \"Reon King\")\n\n**Zimbabwe**\n* [Andy Blignaut](/wiki/Andy_Blignaut \"Andy Blignaut\")\n\n",
"### Durham players with international caps\n\nDurham county cricketers who have during their career also represented their national team in [Test cricket](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") or [One Day International](/wiki/One_Day_International \"One Day International\") cricket.\n\n**England**\n* [Ian Blackwell](/wiki/Ian_Blackwell \"Ian Blackwell\")\n* [Scott Borthwick](/wiki/Scott_Borthwick \"Scott Borthwick\")\n* [Ian Botham](/wiki/Ian_Botham \"Ian Botham\")\n* [Simon Brown](/wiki/Simon_Brown_%28cricketer%29 \"Simon Brown (cricketer)\")\n* [Brydon Carse](/wiki/Brydon_Carse \"Brydon Carse\")\n* [Paul Collingwood](/wiki/Paul_Collingwood \"Paul Collingwood\")\n* [Geoff Cook](/wiki/Geoff_Cook \"Geoff Cook\")\n* [Graeme Fowler](/wiki/Graeme_Fowler \"Graeme Fowler\")\n* [Gavin Hamilton](/wiki/Gavin_Hamilton_%28cricketer%29 \"Gavin Hamilton (cricketer)\")\n* [Steve Harmison](/wiki/Steve_Harmison \"Steve Harmison\")\n* [Keaton Jennings](/wiki/Keaton_Jennings \"Keaton Jennings\")\n* [Wayne Larkins](/wiki/Wayne_Larkins \"Wayne Larkins\")\n* [Alex Lees](/wiki/Alex_Lees \"Alex Lees\")\n* [John Morris](/wiki/John_Morris_%28cricketer%2C_born_1964%29 \"John Morris (cricketer, born 1964)\")\n* [Phil Mustard](/wiki/Phil_Mustard \"Phil Mustard\")\n* [Graham Onions](/wiki/Graham_Onions \"Graham Onions\")\n* [Paul Parker](/wiki/Paul_Parker_%28cricketer%29 \"Paul Parker (cricketer)\")\n* [Liam Plunkett](/wiki/Liam_Plunkett \"Liam Plunkett\")\n* [Matthew Potts](/wiki/Matthew_Potts \"Matthew Potts\")\n* [Martin Saggers](/wiki/Martin_Saggers \"Martin Saggers\")\n* [Ben Stokes](/wiki/Ben_Stokes \"Ben Stokes\")\n* [Mark Stoneman](/wiki/Mark_Stoneman \"Mark Stoneman\")\n* [Vince Wells](/wiki/Vince_Wells \"Vince Wells\")\n* [Mark Wood](/wiki/Mark_Wood_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Wood (cricketer)\")\n\n**Australia**\n* [Cameron Bancroft](/wiki/Cameron_Bancroft \"Cameron Bancroft\")\n* [David Boon](/wiki/David_Boon \"David Boon\")\n* [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\")\n* [John Hastings](/wiki/John_Hastings_%28cricketer%29 \"John Hastings (cricketer)\")\n* [Brad Hodge](/wiki/Brad_Hodge \"Brad Hodge\")\n* [Michael Hussey](/wiki/Michael_Hussey \"Michael Hussey\")\n* [Dean Jones](/wiki/Dean_Jones_%28cricketer%29 \"Dean Jones (cricketer)\")\n* [Simon Katich](/wiki/Simon_Katich \"Simon Katich\")\n* [Mick Lewis](/wiki/Mick_Lewis \"Mick Lewis\")\n* [Martin Love](/wiki/Martin_Love \"Martin Love\")\n* [Jimmy Maher](/wiki/Jimmy_Maher \"Jimmy Maher\")\n* [Ashley Noffke](/wiki/Ashley_Noffke \"Ashley Noffke\")\n* [Marcus North](/wiki/Marcus_North \"Marcus North\")\n* [D'Arcy Short](/wiki/D%27Arcy_Short \"D'Arcy Short\")\n* [Shaun Tait](/wiki/Shaun_Tait \"Shaun Tait\")\n* [David Warner](/wiki/David_Warner_%28cricketer%29 \"David Warner (cricketer)\")\n* [Brad Williams](/wiki/Brad_Williams_%28cricketer%29 \"Brad Williams (cricketer)\")\n\n**Canada**\n* [Anderson Cummins](/wiki/Anderson_Cummins \"Anderson Cummins\")\n\n**India**\n* [Varun Aaron](/wiki/Varun_Aaron \"Varun Aaron\")\n* [Axar Patel](/wiki/Axar_Patel \"Axar Patel\")\n* [Manoj Prabhakar](/wiki/Manoj_Prabhakar \"Manoj Prabhakar\")\n* [Javagal Srinath](/wiki/Javagal_Srinath \"Javagal Srinath\")\n\n**Ireland**\n* [Peter Chase](/wiki/Peter_Chase \"Peter Chase\")\n* [Barry McCarthy](/wiki/Barry_McCarthy \"Barry McCarthy\")\n* [Stuart Poynter](/wiki/Stuart_Poynter \"Stuart Poynter\")\n\n**Italy**\n* [Michael Di Venuto](/wiki/Michael_Di_Venuto \"Michael Di Venuto\")\n\n**Netherlands**\n* [Brandon Glover](/wiki/Brandon_Glover \"Brandon Glover\")\n* [Bas de Leede](/wiki/Bas_de_Leede \"Bas de Leede\")\n* [Paul van Meekeren](/wiki/Paul_van_Meekeren \"Paul van Meekeren\")\n\n**New Zealand**\n* [Nathan Astle](/wiki/Nathan_Astle \"Nathan Astle\")\n* [Tom Latham](/wiki/Tom_Latham_%28cricketer%29 \"Tom Latham (cricketer)\")\n* [Ajaz Patel](/wiki/Ajaz_Patel \"Ajaz Patel\")\n* [Scott Styris](/wiki/Scott_Styris \"Scott Styris\")\n* [Ross Taylor](/wiki/Ross_Taylor \"Ross Taylor\")\n* [Paul Wiseman](/wiki/Paul_Wiseman \"Paul Wiseman\")\n* [Will Young](/wiki/Will_Young \"Will Young\")\n\n**Pakistan**\n* [Shoaib Akhtar](/wiki/Shoaib_Akhtar \"Shoaib Akhtar\")\n\n**Scotland**\n* [James Brinkley](/wiki/James_Brinkley \"James Brinkley\")\n* [Kyle Coetzer](/wiki/Kyle_Coetzer \"Kyle Coetzer\")\n* [Gavin Hamilton](/wiki/Gavin_Hamilton_%28cricketer%29 \"Gavin Hamilton (cricketer)\")\n* [Michael Jones](/wiki/Michael_Jones_%28cricketer%29 \"Michael Jones (cricketer)\")\n* [Calum MacLeod](/wiki/Calum_MacLeod_%28cricketer%29 \"Calum MacLeod (cricketer)\")\n* [Gavin Main](/wiki/Gavin_Main \"Gavin Main\")\n* [Moneeb Iqbal](/wiki/Moneeb_Iqbal \"Moneeb Iqbal\")\n\n**South Africa**\n* [David Bedingham](/wiki/David_Bedingham \"David Bedingham\")\n* [Dale Benkenstein](/wiki/Dale_Benkenstein \"Dale Benkenstein\")\n* [Stephen Cook](/wiki/Stephen_Cook_%28cricketer%29 \"Stephen Cook (cricketer)\")\n* [Herschelle Gibbs](/wiki/Herschelle_Gibbs \"Herschelle Gibbs\")\n* [Neil McKenzie](/wiki/Neil_McKenzie \"Neil McKenzie\")\n* [Aiden Markram](/wiki/Aiden_Markram \"Aiden Markram\")\n* [David Miller](/wiki/David_Miller_%28South_African_cricketer%29 \"David Miller (South African cricketer)\")\n* [Albie Morkel](/wiki/Albie_Morkel \"Albie Morkel\")\n* [Dewald Pretorius](/wiki/Dewald_Pretorius \"Dewald Pretorius\")\n* [Imran Tahir](/wiki/Imran_Tahir \"Imran Tahir\")\n\n**Sri Lanka**\n* [Kumar Sangakkara](/wiki/Kumar_Sangakkara \"Kumar Sangakkara\")\n\n**West Indies**\n* [Gareth Breese](/wiki/Gareth_Breese \"Gareth Breese\")\n* [Sherwin Campbell](/wiki/Sherwin_Campbell \"Sherwin Campbell\")\n* [Shivnarine Chanderpaul](/wiki/Shivnarine_Chanderpaul \"Shivnarine Chanderpaul\")\n* [Anderson Cummins](/wiki/Anderson_Cummins \"Anderson Cummins\")\n* [Ottis Gibson](/wiki/Ottis_Gibson \"Ottis Gibson\")\n* [Reon King](/wiki/Reon_King \"Reon King\")\n\n**Zimbabwe**\n* [Andy Blignaut](/wiki/Andy_Blignaut \"Andy Blignaut\")\n\n",
"Honours\n-------\n\n### First XI honours\n\n* **[County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\"): 3**\n\t+ [2008](/wiki/2008_County_Championship \"2008 County Championship\"), [2009](/wiki/2009_County_Championship \"2009 County Championship\"), [2013](/wiki/2013_County_Championship \"2013 County Championship\")\n\n *Division Two* (1\\) \\- [2023](/wiki/2023_County_Championship \"2023 County Championship\")\n* **[Gillette/NatWest/C\\&G/Friends Provident Trophy](/wiki/Friends_Provident_Trophy \"Friends Provident Trophy\"): 1**\n\t+ [2007](/wiki/2007_Friends_Provident_Trophy \"2007 Friends Provident Trophy\")\n* **[Royal London One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/Royal_London_One-Day_Cup \"Royal London One-Day Cup\"): 1**\n\t+ [2014](/wiki/2014_Royal_London_One-Day_Cup \"2014 Royal London One-Day Cup\")\n* **[Sunday League/Pro 40/National League (2nd Division)](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\"): 1**\n\t+ 2007\n* [**Zimbabwean Domestic Twenty20**](/wiki/Zimbabwe_Domestic_Twenty20_Competition \"Zimbabwe Domestic Twenty20 Competition\")**: 1**\n\t+ [2024](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Zimbabwe_Domestic_Twenty20_Competition \"2023–24 Zimbabwe Domestic Twenty20 Competition\")\n* **Minor Counties Championship: 7**\n\t+ 1895 (shared), 1900 (shared), 1901, 1926, 1930, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1984\n* **MCCA Knockout Trophy: 1**\n\t+ 1985\n\n### Second XI honours\n\n* **Second XI Championship: 3**\n\t+ 2008, 2016, 2018\n* **Second XI Trophy: 0**\n",
"### First XI honours\n\n* **[County Championship](/wiki/County_Championship \"County Championship\"): 3**\n\t+ [2008](/wiki/2008_County_Championship \"2008 County Championship\"), [2009](/wiki/2009_County_Championship \"2009 County Championship\"), [2013](/wiki/2013_County_Championship \"2013 County Championship\")\n\n *Division Two* (1\\) \\- [2023](/wiki/2023_County_Championship \"2023 County Championship\")\n* **[Gillette/NatWest/C\\&G/Friends Provident Trophy](/wiki/Friends_Provident_Trophy \"Friends Provident Trophy\"): 1**\n\t+ [2007](/wiki/2007_Friends_Provident_Trophy \"2007 Friends Provident Trophy\")\n* **[Royal London One\\-Day Cup](/wiki/Royal_London_One-Day_Cup \"Royal London One-Day Cup\"): 1**\n\t+ [2014](/wiki/2014_Royal_London_One-Day_Cup \"2014 Royal London One-Day Cup\")\n* **[Sunday League/Pro 40/National League (2nd Division)](/wiki/Pro40 \"Pro40\"): 1**\n\t+ 2007\n* [**Zimbabwean Domestic Twenty20**](/wiki/Zimbabwe_Domestic_Twenty20_Competition \"Zimbabwe Domestic Twenty20 Competition\")**: 1**\n\t+ [2024](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Zimbabwe_Domestic_Twenty20_Competition \"2023–24 Zimbabwe Domestic Twenty20 Competition\")\n* **Minor Counties Championship: 7**\n\t+ 1895 (shared), 1900 (shared), 1901, 1926, 1930, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1984\n* **MCCA Knockout Trophy: 1**\n\t+ 1985\n",
"### Second XI honours\n\n* **Second XI Championship: 3**\n\t+ 2008, 2016, 2018\n* **Second XI Trophy: 0**\n",
"Records\n-------\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Durham County Cricket Club seasons](/wiki/Durham_County_Cricket_Club_seasons \"Durham County Cricket Club seasons\")\n* [Dynamo (disambiguation)](/wiki/Dynamo_FC_%28disambiguation%29 \"Dynamo FC (disambiguation)\")\n* [Durham County Football Association](/wiki/Durham_County_Football_Association \"Durham County Football Association\")\n",
"Notes\n-----\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"Further reading\n---------------\n\n* [Derek Birley](/wiki/Derek_Birley \"Derek Birley\"), *A Social History of English Cricket*, Aurum, 1999\n* [Rowland Bowen](/wiki/Rowland_Bowen \"Rowland Bowen\"), *Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development*, Eyre \\& Spottiswoode, 1970\n* Simon Hughes, *From Minor to Major: Durham's First Year in the Championship*, Hodder \\& Stoughton, 1992, \n* [Playfair Cricket Annual](/wiki/Playfair_Cricket_Annual \"Playfair Cricket Annual\") – various editions\n* [Wisden Cricketers' Almanack](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack \"Wisden Cricketers' Almanack\") – various editions\n",
"External sources\n----------------\n\n* [Official Durham County Cricket Club website](http://www.durhamccc.co.uk/)\n* [BBC Wear – Riverside Cricket Ground interactive 360° Panorama](http://www.bbc.co.uk/wear/content/panoramas/riverside_ground_players_view_360.shtml)\n* [BBC Wear – DCCC celebrate with the County Championship Trophy 2008](http://www.bbc.co.uk/wear/content/image_galleries/durham_county_cricket_celebrate_gallery.shtml)\n* [Scorecard from the 2007 Friends Provident Trophy Final](http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/countycricket2007/engine/current/match/268284.html)\n\n[Category:History of County Durham](/wiki/Category:History_of_County_Durham \"History of County Durham\")\n[Category:English first\\-class cricket teams](/wiki/Category:English_first-class_cricket_teams \"English first-class cricket teams\")\n[Category:Cricket in County Durham](/wiki/Category:Cricket_in_County_Durham \"Cricket in County Durham\")\n[Category:Cricket clubs established in 1882](/wiki/Category:Cricket_clubs_established_in_1882 \"Cricket clubs established in 1882\")\n[Category:1882 establishments in England](/wiki/Category:1882_establishments_in_England \"1882 establishments in England\")\n[Category:First\\-class cricket teams](/wiki/Category:First-class_cricket_teams \"First-class cricket teams\")\n\n"
]
}
|
John Alexander Low Waddell
|
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|
6e2ob0w40etllkbx7ksiwxk3np7neva
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2024-03-04T05:52:32Z
| 1,179,839,754 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Early life and education",
"Career",
"Private practice",
"Notable works",
"Truss bridge",
"Vertical-lift bridge",
"List of major projects",
"Death",
"Partial bibliography",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
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"content": [
"\n\n**Dr. John Alexander Low Waddell** (January 15, 1854 – March 3, 1938, often shortened to **J.A.L. Waddell** and sometimes known as **John Alexander Waddell**) was a Canadian\\-American [civil engineer](/wiki/Civil_engineer \"Civil engineer\") and prolific [bridge](/wiki/Bridge \"Bridge\") designer, with more than a thousand structures to his credit in the United States, Canada, as well as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\"). Waddell’s work set standards for elevated railroad systems and helped develop materials suitable for large span bridges. His most important contribution was the development of the [steam\\-powered](/wiki/Steam_engine \"Steam engine\") [high\\-lift bridge](/wiki/Lift_bridge \"Lift bridge\"). Waddell was a widely respected writer on bridge design and engineering theory, as well as an advocate for quality in higher education engineering programs. The company he founded in 1887, 'J.A.L. Waddell, Consulting Engineer,' would eventually become the modern day [Hardesty \\& Hanover](/wiki/Hardesty_%26_Hanover \"Hardesty & Hanover\"), a leading moveable bridge engineering firm. Many of Waddell's surviving bridges are now considered historic landmarks.\n\n",
"Early life and education\n------------------------\n\n**John Alexander Low Waddell** was born on January 15, 1854, in [Port Hope, Ontario](/wiki/Port_Hope%2C_Ontario \"Port Hope, Ontario\"), Canada, to Robert Waddell (b. 1815\\) and Angeline E. Jones. His mother was the daughter of William Jones, late colonel of the 27th regiment and sheriff of the city of New York and a member of the State legislature in 1844\\. Waddell was the oldest child of eight.\n\nHomeschooled to nine years of age, Waddell was reportedly in poor health throughout his youth. He later attended [Trinity College School](/wiki/Trinity_College_School \"Trinity College School\") in Port Hope until turning sixteen, when his parents sent him on a ten\\-month voyage to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") and [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\") on the clipper ship [N.B. Palmer](/wiki/N.B._Palmer_%28clipper%29 \"N.B. Palmer (clipper)\"). In 1875, Waddell obtained his first degree, in civil engineering, from [Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute \"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute\") in [Troy, New York](/wiki/Troy%2C_New_York \"Troy, New York\"). In 1882 he married Ava Everett of [Council Bluffs, Iowa](/wiki/Council_Bluffs%2C_Iowa \"Council Bluffs, Iowa\"), the daughter of prominent lawyer Horace Everett. In 1904 he earned a [Doctorate](/wiki/Doctorate \"Doctorate\") of Science (D.Sc) from [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University \"McGill University\"). \n\n",
"Career\n------\n\nWaddell began his career by returning to his homeland as a draftsman in Canada's [Department of Marine and Fisheries](/wiki/Department_of_Marine_and_Fisheries \"Department of Marine and Fisheries\") in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\"), where he spent a few months designing buoys, lanterns, and similar marine appliances. His next position came as a 'rodman' (surveyor's assistant) on the [Canadian Pacific Railway](/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway \"Canadian Pacific Railway\").\n\nHe returned to the United States where he designed [mines](/wiki/Mining \"Mining\") for a [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\") coal company. In 1878, he returned to Rensselaer and taught mechanics courses until 1880\\. Waddell then traveled west, obtaining additional degrees from [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University \"McGill University\") in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\"), Quebec, and spending some time working at the [Raymond \\& Campbell](/wiki/Raymond_%26_Campbell \"Raymond & Campbell\") firm in [Council Bluffs, Iowa](/wiki/Council_Bluffs%2C_Iowa \"Council Bluffs, Iowa\").\n\nIn July 1882, he was hired as a [foreign advisor](/wiki/O-yatoi_gaikokujin \"O-yatoi gaikokujin\") by the [Meiji government](/wiki/Meiji_government \"Meiji government\") of the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") and taught at the [Tokyo Imperial University](/wiki/Tokyo_Imperial_University \"Tokyo Imperial University\") while writing two books. That same year, he was also awarded an honorary [Bachelor's](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree \"Bachelor's degree\") and [Master's](/wiki/Master%27s_degree \"Master's degree\") of Science each by [McGill University](/wiki/McGill_University \"McGill University\").\n\n### Private practice\n\nWaddell returned to the United States in 1886, and one year later established a private engineering practice in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"), as [J.A.L. Waddell, Consulting Engineer](/wiki/J.A.L._Waddell%2C_Consulting_Engineer \"J.A.L. Waddell, Consulting Engineer\"). The firm would later evolve over the decades with various junior partners, including [Ira G. Hedrick](/wiki/Ira_G._Hedrick \"Ira G. Hedrick\") in 1899, [John L. Harrington](/wiki/John_L._Harrington \"John L. Harrington\") in 1907, Waddell's own son Needham Everett in 1915, and [Shortridge Hardesty](/wiki/Shortridge_Hardesty \"Shortridge Hardesty\") in 1927\\. After Waddell's death, the company became, and continues today as, [Hardesty \\& Hanover](/wiki/Hardesty_%26_Hanover \"Hardesty & Hanover\").\n\nThe company enjoyed great success with railroad clients in particular during its early years; in addition to the wide adoption of Waddell's \"A\" truss design along the [St. Louis Southwestern Railway](/wiki/St._Louis_Southwestern_Railway \"St. Louis Southwestern Railway\") and [Nippon Railway](/wiki/Nippon_Railway \"Nippon Railway\"), one 1906 newspaper article from [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas \"Brownsville, Texas\"), reported that Dr. Waddell had been responsible for all the bridges on the [International–Great Northern Railroad](/wiki/International%E2%80%93Great_Northern_Railroad \"International–Great Northern Railroad\").\n\nMidway through his consulting career, Waddell opened a [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") office, which soon became the firm's headquarters in 1920 amidst the economic boom of the [Roaring Twenties](/wiki/Roaring_Twenties \"Roaring Twenties\"). Many of [metropolitan area's](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area \"New York metropolitan area\") most important postwar infrastructure projects were awarded to the company, including the [Goethals Bridge](/wiki/Goethals_Bridge \"Goethals Bridge\") and [Marine Parkway–Gil Hodges Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Marine_Parkway%E2%80%93Gil_Hodges_Memorial_Bridge \"Marine Parkway–Gil Hodges Memorial Bridge\").\n\nWaddell was also an adviser to the Ministry of Railways, [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\"). When in China he along with Meloy was entrusted by [MIT](/wiki/MIT \"MIT\") and [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") to talk over with [National Southeastern University](/wiki/National_Southeastern_University \"National Southeastern University\") (later renamed [National Central University](/wiki/National_Central_University \"National Central University\") and then [Nanking University](/wiki/Nanking_University \"Nanking University\")) and reached the agreement on founding Sino\\-American joint engineering college in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), but it soon ceased due to the wars outbroken in the area.\n\nHe was widely recognised, being awarded honours by Japan, Russia, China, and Italy, holding five honorary doctorates (including those from Japan, Canada, and Puerto Rico) and being elected an Honorary Member of the [American Society of Civil Engineers](/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers \"American Society of Civil Engineers\") in 1936\\.\n\n",
"### Private practice\n\nWaddell returned to the United States in 1886, and one year later established a private engineering practice in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"), as [J.A.L. Waddell, Consulting Engineer](/wiki/J.A.L._Waddell%2C_Consulting_Engineer \"J.A.L. Waddell, Consulting Engineer\"). The firm would later evolve over the decades with various junior partners, including [Ira G. Hedrick](/wiki/Ira_G._Hedrick \"Ira G. Hedrick\") in 1899, [John L. Harrington](/wiki/John_L._Harrington \"John L. Harrington\") in 1907, Waddell's own son Needham Everett in 1915, and [Shortridge Hardesty](/wiki/Shortridge_Hardesty \"Shortridge Hardesty\") in 1927\\. After Waddell's death, the company became, and continues today as, [Hardesty \\& Hanover](/wiki/Hardesty_%26_Hanover \"Hardesty & Hanover\").\n\nThe company enjoyed great success with railroad clients in particular during its early years; in addition to the wide adoption of Waddell's \"A\" truss design along the [St. Louis Southwestern Railway](/wiki/St._Louis_Southwestern_Railway \"St. Louis Southwestern Railway\") and [Nippon Railway](/wiki/Nippon_Railway \"Nippon Railway\"), one 1906 newspaper article from [Brownsville, Texas](/wiki/Brownsville%2C_Texas \"Brownsville, Texas\"), reported that Dr. Waddell had been responsible for all the bridges on the [International–Great Northern Railroad](/wiki/International%E2%80%93Great_Northern_Railroad \"International–Great Northern Railroad\").\n\nMidway through his consulting career, Waddell opened a [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") office, which soon became the firm's headquarters in 1920 amidst the economic boom of the [Roaring Twenties](/wiki/Roaring_Twenties \"Roaring Twenties\"). Many of [metropolitan area's](/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area \"New York metropolitan area\") most important postwar infrastructure projects were awarded to the company, including the [Goethals Bridge](/wiki/Goethals_Bridge \"Goethals Bridge\") and [Marine Parkway–Gil Hodges Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Marine_Parkway%E2%80%93Gil_Hodges_Memorial_Bridge \"Marine Parkway–Gil Hodges Memorial Bridge\").\n\nWaddell was also an adviser to the Ministry of Railways, [Republic of China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931949%29 \"Republic of China (1912–1949)\"). When in China he along with Meloy was entrusted by [MIT](/wiki/MIT \"MIT\") and [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\") to talk over with [National Southeastern University](/wiki/National_Southeastern_University \"National Southeastern University\") (later renamed [National Central University](/wiki/National_Central_University \"National Central University\") and then [Nanking University](/wiki/Nanking_University \"Nanking University\")) and reached the agreement on founding Sino\\-American joint engineering college in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), but it soon ceased due to the wars outbroken in the area.\n\nHe was widely recognised, being awarded honours by Japan, Russia, China, and Italy, holding five honorary doctorates (including those from Japan, Canada, and Puerto Rico) and being elected an Honorary Member of the [American Society of Civil Engineers](/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers \"American Society of Civil Engineers\") in 1936\\.\n\n",
"Notable works\n-------------\n\n[alt\\=Patent schematic of the Waddell Truss Bridge\\|thumb\\|Waddell \"A\" Truss Bridge Patent (1894\\)\\|307x307px](/wiki/File:Waddell-A-truss-patent.png \"Waddell-A-truss-patent.png\")\n\n### Truss bridge\n\nOne of Waddell's earliest contributions to the field of [civil engineering](/wiki/Civil_engineering \"Civil engineering\") was the \"A\" Truss bridge. Patented in 1893, the cost\\-effective design allowed for cheap and rapid construction, and could easily carry the heavy loads generated by [steam locomotive](/wiki/Steam_locomotive \"Steam locomotive\")\\-powered trains. Replicated throughout the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") and the American West and Midwest, this basic design contributed to the rapid expansion of several [railway companies](/wiki/Railway_company \"Railway company\") during the [Second Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution \"Second Industrial Revolution\").\n\n### Vertical\\-lift bridge\n\nLifting and swinging bridges had been used for generations, but not on the scale that they exist today. Waddell was the first to invent a modern design, originally intended to span a short channel across [Minnesota Point](/wiki/Minnesota_Point \"Minnesota Point\") in the harbor of [Duluth, Minnesota](/wiki/Duluth%2C_Minnesota \"Duluth, Minnesota\"). His design won a city contest in 1892, but the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\") objected to the proposal. The city built an aerial transporter bridge in that location in 1905\\. In 1929, it was remodeled into the [Aerial Lift Bridge](/wiki/Aerial_Lift_Bridge \"Aerial Lift Bridge\"), similar to Waddell's design.\n\nWaddell adapted his vertical\\-lift concept in 1893 and it was finally built as the [South Halsted Street Lift\\-Bridge](/wiki/South_Halsted_Street_Lift-Bridge \"South Halsted Street Lift-Bridge\") over the [Chicago River](/wiki/Chicago_River \"Chicago River\"). While the city of Chicago was the first to build a lift bridge of Waddell's design, the second had to wait for his partnership with [mechanical engineer](/wiki/Mechanical_engineering \"Mechanical engineering\") [John Lyle Harrington](/wiki/John_L._Harrington \"John L. Harrington\"), formed in 1907\\. [Waddell \\& Harrington](/wiki/Waddell_%26_Harrington \"Waddell & Harrington\") designed a vertical lift bridge (since demolished) for the Iowa Central Railway over the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") at [Keithsburg, Illinois](/wiki/Keithsburg%2C_Illinois \"Keithsburg, Illinois\"), in 1909\\. The pair designed more than two dozen more vertical lift bridges over the next five years before Harrington left in 1914,See list of Waddell \\& Harrington bridges in Appendix A of among them the [ASB Bridge](/wiki/ASB_Bridge \"ASB Bridge\") in [Kansas City Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City_Missouri \"Kansas City Missouri\").\n[thumb\\|[South Halsted Street Lift Bridge](/wiki/South_Halsted_Street_Lift_Bridge \"South Halsted Street Lift Bridge\"), [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\")](/wiki/File:Halstead_Street_Lift_Bridge%2C_Chicago%2C_Ill_%28NYPL_b12647398-73822%29.tiff \"Halstead Street Lift Bridge, Chicago, Ill (NYPL b12647398-73822).tiff\")\n[thumb\\|300px\\|[ASB Bridge](/wiki/ASB_Bridge \"ASB Bridge\") in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\")](/wiki/Image:Asb-bridge.jpg \"Asb-bridge.jpg\")\n### List of major projects\n\n* [South Halsted Street Lift\\-Bridge](/wiki/South_Halsted_Street_Lift-Bridge \"South Halsted Street Lift-Bridge\"), Chicago, Illinois (1893\\)\n* [Chicago\\_\"L\"](/wiki/Chicago_%22L%22 \"Chicago \"), Chicago, Illinois (1894\\-97\\)The Loop: The \"L\" Tracks That Shaped and Saved Chicago, by Patrick T. Reardon,2021, Southern Illinois University Press\n* [Waddell \"A\" Truss Bridge](/wiki/Waddell_%22A%22_Truss_Bridge \"Waddell \") Parkville, Missouri (1898\\) ()\n* [Kansas City Southern Railroad Bridge, Cross Bayou](/wiki/Kansas_City_Southern_Railroad_Bridge%2C_Cross_Bayou \"Kansas City Southern Railroad Bridge, Cross Bayou\") Shreveport, Louisiana (1890, re\\-erected 1926\\)\n* [Hawthorne Bridge](/wiki/Hawthorne_Bridge \"Hawthorne Bridge\"), Portland, Oregon (1910\\)\n* [Armour\\-Swift\\-Burlington Bridge](/wiki/Armour-Swift-Burlington_Bridge \"Armour-Swift-Burlington Bridge\"), Kansas City, Missouri (1911\\)\n* [Steel Bridge](/wiki/Steel_Bridge \"Steel Bridge\"), Portland, Oregon (1912\\)\n* [Colorado Street Bridge](/wiki/Colorado_Street_Bridge_%28Pasadena%2C_California%29 \"Colorado Street Bridge (Pasadena, California)\"), Pasadena, California (1913\\)\n* [11th Street Bridge (aka Murray Morgan Bridge)](/wiki/Murray_Morgan_Bridge \"Murray Morgan Bridge\"), Tacoma, Washington (1913\\)\n* [Snowden Bridge](/wiki/Snowden_Bridge \"Snowden Bridge\"), Bainville and Fairview, Montana (1913\\)\n* [Caddo Lake Drawbridge](/wiki/Caddo_Lake_Drawbridge \"Caddo Lake Drawbridge\"), Mooringsport, Louisiana (1914\\)\n* [Twelfth Street Trafficway Viaduct](/wiki/Twelfth_Street_Trafficway_Viaduct \"Twelfth Street Trafficway Viaduct\"), Kansas City, Missouri (1915\\)\n* [Detroit\\-Superior Bridge](/wiki/Detroit-Superior_Bridge \"Detroit-Superior Bridge\"), Cleveland, Ohio (1917\\)\n* [Interstate Bridge](/wiki/Interstate_Bridge \"Interstate Bridge\"), Vancouver, Washington, and Portland, Oregon (1917\\)\n* [Washington Bridge](/wiki/Washington_Bridge_%28Connecticut%29 \"Washington Bridge (Connecticut)\"), Milford and Stratford, Connecticut (1921\\)\n* [Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Memorial_Bridge_%28Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire%29 \"Memorial Bridge (Portsmouth, New Hampshire)\"), Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and Kittery, Maine (1923\\)\n* [CRRNJ Newark Bay Bridge](/wiki/CRRNJ_Newark_Bay_Bridge \"CRRNJ Newark Bay Bridge\"), Elizabethport and Bayonne, New Jersey (1926\\)\n* [Outerbridge Crossing](/wiki/Outerbridge_Crossing \"Outerbridge Crossing\"), Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and Staten Island, New York (opened June 29, 1928\\)\n* [Goethals Bridge](/wiki/Goethals_Bridge \"Goethals Bridge\"), Elizabeth, New Jersey, and Staten Island, New York (opened June 29, 1928; replaced 2017\\)\n* [Lower Hack Lift](/wiki/Lower_Hack_Lift \"Lower Hack Lift\"), Kearny and Jersey City, New Jersey (1928\\)\n* [Route 46 Hackensack River Bridge](/wiki/Winant_Avenue_Bridge \"Winant Avenue Bridge\"), Little Ferry and Ridgefield Park, New Jersey (1934\\)\n* [Fourteenth Street (L\\&I) Bridge](/wiki/Fourteenth_Street_Bridge_%28Ohio_River%29 \"Fourteenth Street Bridge (Ohio River)\"), Louisville, Kentucky (1918\\)\n\n",
"### Truss bridge\n\nOne of Waddell's earliest contributions to the field of [civil engineering](/wiki/Civil_engineering \"Civil engineering\") was the \"A\" Truss bridge. Patented in 1893, the cost\\-effective design allowed for cheap and rapid construction, and could easily carry the heavy loads generated by [steam locomotive](/wiki/Steam_locomotive \"Steam locomotive\")\\-powered trains. Replicated throughout the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") and the American West and Midwest, this basic design contributed to the rapid expansion of several [railway companies](/wiki/Railway_company \"Railway company\") during the [Second Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution \"Second Industrial Revolution\").\n\n",
"### Vertical\\-lift bridge\n\nLifting and swinging bridges had been used for generations, but not on the scale that they exist today. Waddell was the first to invent a modern design, originally intended to span a short channel across [Minnesota Point](/wiki/Minnesota_Point \"Minnesota Point\") in the harbor of [Duluth, Minnesota](/wiki/Duluth%2C_Minnesota \"Duluth, Minnesota\"). His design won a city contest in 1892, but the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\") objected to the proposal. The city built an aerial transporter bridge in that location in 1905\\. In 1929, it was remodeled into the [Aerial Lift Bridge](/wiki/Aerial_Lift_Bridge \"Aerial Lift Bridge\"), similar to Waddell's design.\n\nWaddell adapted his vertical\\-lift concept in 1893 and it was finally built as the [South Halsted Street Lift\\-Bridge](/wiki/South_Halsted_Street_Lift-Bridge \"South Halsted Street Lift-Bridge\") over the [Chicago River](/wiki/Chicago_River \"Chicago River\"). While the city of Chicago was the first to build a lift bridge of Waddell's design, the second had to wait for his partnership with [mechanical engineer](/wiki/Mechanical_engineering \"Mechanical engineering\") [John Lyle Harrington](/wiki/John_L._Harrington \"John L. Harrington\"), formed in 1907\\. [Waddell \\& Harrington](/wiki/Waddell_%26_Harrington \"Waddell & Harrington\") designed a vertical lift bridge (since demolished) for the Iowa Central Railway over the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\") at [Keithsburg, Illinois](/wiki/Keithsburg%2C_Illinois \"Keithsburg, Illinois\"), in 1909\\. The pair designed more than two dozen more vertical lift bridges over the next five years before Harrington left in 1914,See list of Waddell \\& Harrington bridges in Appendix A of among them the [ASB Bridge](/wiki/ASB_Bridge \"ASB Bridge\") in [Kansas City Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City_Missouri \"Kansas City Missouri\").\n[thumb\\|[South Halsted Street Lift Bridge](/wiki/South_Halsted_Street_Lift_Bridge \"South Halsted Street Lift Bridge\"), [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\")](/wiki/File:Halstead_Street_Lift_Bridge%2C_Chicago%2C_Ill_%28NYPL_b12647398-73822%29.tiff \"Halstead Street Lift Bridge, Chicago, Ill (NYPL b12647398-73822).tiff\")\n[thumb\\|300px\\|[ASB Bridge](/wiki/ASB_Bridge \"ASB Bridge\") in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\")](/wiki/Image:Asb-bridge.jpg \"Asb-bridge.jpg\")\n\n",
"### List of major projects\n\n* [South Halsted Street Lift\\-Bridge](/wiki/South_Halsted_Street_Lift-Bridge \"South Halsted Street Lift-Bridge\"), Chicago, Illinois (1893\\)\n* [Chicago\\_\"L\"](/wiki/Chicago_%22L%22 \"Chicago \"), Chicago, Illinois (1894\\-97\\)The Loop: The \"L\" Tracks That Shaped and Saved Chicago, by Patrick T. Reardon,2021, Southern Illinois University Press\n* [Waddell \"A\" Truss Bridge](/wiki/Waddell_%22A%22_Truss_Bridge \"Waddell \") Parkville, Missouri (1898\\) ()\n* [Kansas City Southern Railroad Bridge, Cross Bayou](/wiki/Kansas_City_Southern_Railroad_Bridge%2C_Cross_Bayou \"Kansas City Southern Railroad Bridge, Cross Bayou\") Shreveport, Louisiana (1890, re\\-erected 1926\\)\n* [Hawthorne Bridge](/wiki/Hawthorne_Bridge \"Hawthorne Bridge\"), Portland, Oregon (1910\\)\n* [Armour\\-Swift\\-Burlington Bridge](/wiki/Armour-Swift-Burlington_Bridge \"Armour-Swift-Burlington Bridge\"), Kansas City, Missouri (1911\\)\n* [Steel Bridge](/wiki/Steel_Bridge \"Steel Bridge\"), Portland, Oregon (1912\\)\n* [Colorado Street Bridge](/wiki/Colorado_Street_Bridge_%28Pasadena%2C_California%29 \"Colorado Street Bridge (Pasadena, California)\"), Pasadena, California (1913\\)\n* [11th Street Bridge (aka Murray Morgan Bridge)](/wiki/Murray_Morgan_Bridge \"Murray Morgan Bridge\"), Tacoma, Washington (1913\\)\n* [Snowden Bridge](/wiki/Snowden_Bridge \"Snowden Bridge\"), Bainville and Fairview, Montana (1913\\)\n* [Caddo Lake Drawbridge](/wiki/Caddo_Lake_Drawbridge \"Caddo Lake Drawbridge\"), Mooringsport, Louisiana (1914\\)\n* [Twelfth Street Trafficway Viaduct](/wiki/Twelfth_Street_Trafficway_Viaduct \"Twelfth Street Trafficway Viaduct\"), Kansas City, Missouri (1915\\)\n* [Detroit\\-Superior Bridge](/wiki/Detroit-Superior_Bridge \"Detroit-Superior Bridge\"), Cleveland, Ohio (1917\\)\n* [Interstate Bridge](/wiki/Interstate_Bridge \"Interstate Bridge\"), Vancouver, Washington, and Portland, Oregon (1917\\)\n* [Washington Bridge](/wiki/Washington_Bridge_%28Connecticut%29 \"Washington Bridge (Connecticut)\"), Milford and Stratford, Connecticut (1921\\)\n* [Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Memorial_Bridge_%28Portsmouth%2C_New_Hampshire%29 \"Memorial Bridge (Portsmouth, New Hampshire)\"), Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and Kittery, Maine (1923\\)\n* [CRRNJ Newark Bay Bridge](/wiki/CRRNJ_Newark_Bay_Bridge \"CRRNJ Newark Bay Bridge\"), Elizabethport and Bayonne, New Jersey (1926\\)\n* [Outerbridge Crossing](/wiki/Outerbridge_Crossing \"Outerbridge Crossing\"), Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and Staten Island, New York (opened June 29, 1928\\)\n* [Goethals Bridge](/wiki/Goethals_Bridge \"Goethals Bridge\"), Elizabeth, New Jersey, and Staten Island, New York (opened June 29, 1928; replaced 2017\\)\n* [Lower Hack Lift](/wiki/Lower_Hack_Lift \"Lower Hack Lift\"), Kearny and Jersey City, New Jersey (1928\\)\n* [Route 46 Hackensack River Bridge](/wiki/Winant_Avenue_Bridge \"Winant Avenue Bridge\"), Little Ferry and Ridgefield Park, New Jersey (1934\\)\n* [Fourteenth Street (L\\&I) Bridge](/wiki/Fourteenth_Street_Bridge_%28Ohio_River%29 \"Fourteenth Street Bridge (Ohio River)\"), Louisville, Kentucky (1918\\)\n",
"Death\n-----\n\nFour years after the death of his wife Ada, Waddell died on March 3, 1938, in his [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\") apartment at the [Hotel Earle](/wiki/Hotel_Earle \"Hotel Earle\"). According to an obituary his death was caused by complications from a stroke, suffered 3 months prior. Waddell is memorialized with his wife at Fairview Cemetery in [Council Bluffs, Iowa](/wiki/Council_Bluffs%2C_Iowa \"Council Bluffs, Iowa\").\n\n",
"Partial bibliography\n--------------------\n\n* [*The Designing of Ordinary Iron Highway Bridges*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AXlVAAAAMAAJ), \\[1884] (1891\\), 5th edition (in English). New York: John Wiley \\& Sons, 252 pages.\n* [*System of Iron Railroad Bridges for Japan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3bciAAAAMAAJ) (1885\\). Tokyo: Tokyo University, 258 pages.\n* [*De Pontibus: A Pocket\\-book for Bridge Engineers*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Dxc5AAAAMAAJ), (1898\\) 1st edition. New York: John Wiley \\& Sons, 403 pages.\n* *Principal professional papers of Dr. J. A. L. Waddell, civil engineer*, Waddell, J. (Ed.). (1905\\). Retrieved from <https://archive.org/details/principalprofes00harrgoog> on December 31, 2017\\.\n* *Bridge Engineering*, [Volume I](https://books.google.com/books?id=nd4gAAAAMAAJ) and [Volume II](https://books.google.com/books?id=bxAkAAAAMAAJ), (1916\\). New York: John Wiley \\& Sons, 2,177 pages.\n* *Engineering Economics*, Waddell, John Alexander Low., University of Kansas, 1917\\. Accessed at <https://archive.org/details/engineeringecon00waddgoog> on December 31, 2017\\.\n* [*Economics of Bridgework: A Sequel to Bridge Engineering*](https://books.google.com/books?id=USwkAAAAMAAJ) (1921\\). New York: John Wiley \\& Sons, 512 pages.\n* *[The engineering profession fifty years hence.](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/005758338/Home)* Lancaster, Pa.: Press of the New Era Print. Co. (1918\\).\n* [*Memoirs and Addresses of Two Decades*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0AMZAAAAIAAJ), with Frank Woodward Skinner, edited by J.L. Harrington (1928\\). New York: Mack Printing Company, 1,174 pages.\n* *Vocational Guidance in Engineering Lines* (1933\\) by the Committee on Engineering Education of the American Association of Engineers. Waddell was a contributor.\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Waddell \\& Harrington](/wiki/Waddell_%26_Harrington \"Waddell & Harrington\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [\"Dr. J. A. L. Waddell's Contributions to Vertical Lift Bridge Design\"](https://heavymovablestructures.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/0092.pdf) 2002 paper from [Heavy Movable Structures](https://heavymovablestructures.org/)\n\n[Category:1854 births](/wiki/Category:1854_births \"1854 births\")\n[Category:1938 deaths](/wiki/Category:1938_deaths \"1938 deaths\")\n[Category:American bridge engineers](/wiki/Category:American_bridge_engineers \"American bridge engineers\")\n[Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States](/wiki/Category:Canadian_emigrants_to_the_United_States \"Canadian emigrants to the United States\")\n[Category:American civil engineers](/wiki/Category:American_civil_engineers \"American civil engineers\")\n[Category:Canadian civil engineers](/wiki/Category:Canadian_civil_engineers \"Canadian civil engineers\")\n[Category:Foreign advisors to the government in Meiji\\-period Japan](/wiki/Category:Foreign_advisors_to_the_government_in_Meiji-period_Japan \"Foreign advisors to the government in Meiji-period Japan\")\n[Category:Foreign educators in Japan](/wiki/Category:Foreign_educators_in_Japan \"Foreign educators in Japan\")\n[Category:Canadian expatriates in Japan](/wiki/Category:Canadian_expatriates_in_Japan \"Canadian expatriates in Japan\")\n[Category:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute alumni](/wiki/Category:Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute_alumni \"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute alumni\")\n[Category:People from Northumberland County, Ontario](/wiki/Category:People_from_Northumberland_County%2C_Ontario \"People from Northumberland County, Ontario\")\n[Category:19th\\-century American engineers](/wiki/Category:19th-century_American_engineers \"19th-century American engineers\")\n[Category:19th\\-century Canadian engineers](/wiki/Category:19th-century_Canadian_engineers \"19th-century Canadian engineers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American engineers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_engineers \"20th-century American engineers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century Canadian engineers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_Canadian_engineers \"20th-century Canadian engineers\")\n[Category:McGill University alumni](/wiki/Category:McGill_University_alumni \"McGill University alumni\")\n\n"
]
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Reinhard Mohn
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2024-03-16T00:04:56Z
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{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Background",
"Family",
"Career",
"Bertelsmann",
"Bertelsmann Stiftung",
"Honors (selection)",
"Published works",
"Miscellaneous",
"Criticism",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
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"\n\n* + \n\n**Reinhard Mohn** (29 June 1921 – 3 October 2009\\) was a German billionaire businessman and philanthropist. Under his leadership, [Bertelsmann](/wiki/Bertelsmann \"Bertelsmann\"), once a medium\\-sized printing and publishing house, established in 1835, developed into a global media conglomerate. In 1977, he founded the non\\-profit [Bertelsmann Stiftung](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Stiftung \"Bertelsmann Stiftung\"), which is today one of the largest foundations in Germany, with worldwide reach.\n\nMohn received numerous domestic and international awards, including the Knight Commander's Cross of the [Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany \"Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\"), and Spain's [Prince of Asturias Award](/wiki/Princess_of_Asturias_Awards \"Princess of Asturias Awards\").\n\n",
"Life\n----\n\n### Background\n\nBorn in 1921 as the fifth child of Agnes Mohn (née Seippel) and , Reinhard represented the fifth generation of the shareholding families of Bertelsmann. In 1887, his grandfather, , had taken over the management of the printing and publishing house from his father\\-in\\-law, , son of [Carl Bertelsmann](/wiki/Carl_Bertelsmann \"Carl Bertelsmann\").\n\nRaised in a strict Protestant family, Mohn earned his German baccalaureate ([Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\")) at the Evangelisch Stiftische Gymnasium Gütersloh in 1939 and went on to complete his [Reichsarbeitsdienst](/wiki/Reichsarbeitsdienst \"Reichsarbeitsdienst\"), the official labor service of the [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich \"Third Reich\"). Afterwards, he volunteered for military service with the [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\"), originally with the aim of becoming a pilot. After serving in an air\\-base command on the Western Front, Mohn was stationed with an anti\\-aircraft unit, advancing in rank from private to sergeant, and in 1942 achieving the rank of lieutenant. From France, via Italy, his regiment was moved to Tunisia. On 5 May 1943, Mohn became a U.S. prisoner of war, and in mid\\-June, he was taken across the Atlantic to [Camp Concordia](/wiki/Camp_Concordia \"Camp Concordia\"), an internment center in Kansas for German prisoners of war. According to Mohn's accounts, he was profoundly influenced by this experience; as one example, he began reading American management literature for the first time.\n\nIn January 1946, Reinhard Mohn returned to [Gütersloh](/wiki/G%C3%BCtersloh \"Gütersloh\"). His oldest brother, Hans Heinrich Mohn, had died in 1939, and Sigbert Mohn, his second\\-oldest brother, was still a prisoner of war. Reinhard initially took an apprenticeship as a bookseller, and later joined his father's business. His father, Heinrich Mohn, had come under the scrutiny of British occupation authorities because he was a supporting member of the [SS](/wiki/SS \"SS\"), because he had donated to other [Nazi](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\") organizations, and for other reasons. In April 1947, Heinrich Mohn transferred his publishing license to his son Reinhard, who managed the publishing business from then on.\n\n### Family\n\nIn 1948, Mohn married Magdalene Raßfeld, whom he knew from his school days. The couple had three children: Johannes, Susanne and Christiane; they divorced in 1982\\. Later that year, Mohn married [Elisabeth Scholz](/wiki/Liz_Mohn \"Liz Mohn\"), with whom he had had an affair since the 1950s and fathered three children in the 1960s. After the wedding, Mohn adopted their three mutual children: [Brigitte](/wiki/Brigitte_Mohn \"Brigitte Mohn\"), [Christoph](/wiki/Christoph_Mohn \"Christoph Mohn\") and [Andreas](/wiki/Andreas_Mohn \"Andreas Mohn\").\n\n",
"### Background\n\nBorn in 1921 as the fifth child of Agnes Mohn (née Seippel) and , Reinhard represented the fifth generation of the shareholding families of Bertelsmann. In 1887, his grandfather, , had taken over the management of the printing and publishing house from his father\\-in\\-law, , son of [Carl Bertelsmann](/wiki/Carl_Bertelsmann \"Carl Bertelsmann\").\n\nRaised in a strict Protestant family, Mohn earned his German baccalaureate ([Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\")) at the Evangelisch Stiftische Gymnasium Gütersloh in 1939 and went on to complete his [Reichsarbeitsdienst](/wiki/Reichsarbeitsdienst \"Reichsarbeitsdienst\"), the official labor service of the [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich \"Third Reich\"). Afterwards, he volunteered for military service with the [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\"), originally with the aim of becoming a pilot. After serving in an air\\-base command on the Western Front, Mohn was stationed with an anti\\-aircraft unit, advancing in rank from private to sergeant, and in 1942 achieving the rank of lieutenant. From France, via Italy, his regiment was moved to Tunisia. On 5 May 1943, Mohn became a U.S. prisoner of war, and in mid\\-June, he was taken across the Atlantic to [Camp Concordia](/wiki/Camp_Concordia \"Camp Concordia\"), an internment center in Kansas for German prisoners of war. According to Mohn's accounts, he was profoundly influenced by this experience; as one example, he began reading American management literature for the first time.\n\nIn January 1946, Reinhard Mohn returned to [Gütersloh](/wiki/G%C3%BCtersloh \"Gütersloh\"). His oldest brother, Hans Heinrich Mohn, had died in 1939, and Sigbert Mohn, his second\\-oldest brother, was still a prisoner of war. Reinhard initially took an apprenticeship as a bookseller, and later joined his father's business. His father, Heinrich Mohn, had come under the scrutiny of British occupation authorities because he was a supporting member of the [SS](/wiki/SS \"SS\"), because he had donated to other [Nazi](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\") organizations, and for other reasons. In April 1947, Heinrich Mohn transferred his publishing license to his son Reinhard, who managed the publishing business from then on.\n\n",
"### Family\n\nIn 1948, Mohn married Magdalene Raßfeld, whom he knew from his school days. The couple had three children: Johannes, Susanne and Christiane; they divorced in 1982\\. Later that year, Mohn married [Elisabeth Scholz](/wiki/Liz_Mohn \"Liz Mohn\"), with whom he had had an affair since the 1950s and fathered three children in the 1960s. After the wedding, Mohn adopted their three mutual children: [Brigitte](/wiki/Brigitte_Mohn \"Brigitte Mohn\"), [Christoph](/wiki/Christoph_Mohn \"Christoph Mohn\") and [Andreas](/wiki/Andreas_Mohn \"Andreas Mohn\").\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\n### Bertelsmann\n\nIn 1947, Mohn took over the management of the [C. Bertelsmann](/wiki/C._Bertelsmann_Verlag \"C. Bertelsmann Verlag\") publishing company, which had been largely destroyed by bombing raids during World War II. In 1950, he established the book club, which formed the basis for the fast growth of the company in the decades that followed. From the beginning, he closely involved employees, e.g. through the loan participation program introduced in 1951\\. In 1969, he launched an employee profit\\-sharing model, viewed as exemplary throughout Germany. As a businessman, Mohn was consistent in his efforts to grow the traditional publishing business into a media conglomerate: Thus, he entered music and film production, invested in the magazine business, and promoted international expansion. A merger of Bertelsmann with the [Axel Springer](/wiki/Axel_Springer_SE \"Axel Springer SE\") group planned in the years 1969/70 did not come to fruition.\n\nIn 1971, Mohn transformed the family company into a [joint stock corporation](/wiki/Joint_stock_corporation \"Joint stock corporation\"). In this way, he created another structural prerequisite for Bertelsmann's rise to one of the world's leading media groups. Mohn became chairman of the executive board, and in this position continued a corporate culture based on partnership, the essential component of which involves dialogue between management and employees. In 1976, he had a new corporate headquarters built, where Bertelsmann's home offices are still located today. During this time, Mohn also began an entry into the U.S. publishing business, of vital importance to Bertelsmann. The acquisition of [Bantam Books](/wiki/Bantam_Books \"Bantam Books\") (1977/1980\\) and [Doubleday](/wiki/Doubleday_%28publisher%29 \"Doubleday (publisher)\") (1986\\) created the largest trade\\-book publishing group in the United States, at the time.\n\nIn 1981, Mohn moved from the executive board to the supervisory board, which he chaired for another ten years, still remaining involved in business operations. At 70, he finally stepped down from his duties, and remained honorary chairman of the supervisory board. From then on, he dedicated his efforts primarily to the Bertelsmann Stiftung foundation. In 1999, Mohn transferred his sole control over the voting rights of roughly 90% of Bertelsmann shares to the Bertelsmann Verwaltungsgesellschaft, a move designed to ensure the continuity of his company.\n\n### Bertelsmann Stiftung\n\nIn 1977, Mohn established the non\\-profit [Bertelsmann Stiftung](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Stiftung \"Bertelsmann Stiftung\"), initially endowed with capital of 100,000 [Deutsche Mark](/wiki/Deutsche_Mark \"Deutsche Mark\"). Mohn supported the management\\-driven concept of an operating foundation, independently developing and managing projects. He directed the Bertelsmann Stiftung to help fund the improvement of the and established the Carl Bertelsmann Prize (today the [Reinhard Mohn Prize](/wiki/Reinhard_Mohn_Prize \"Reinhard Mohn Prize\")).\n\nIn the 1980s, the Bertelsmann Stiftung became the key focus of Mohn's corporate citizenship activities. In 1993, the majority of shareholdings in Bertelsmann was transferred to the foundation, making the Bertelsmann Stiftung the largest [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\") in the group. Capital shares and voting rights were strictly separated in the gift agreement, so that neither the foundation nor the group can exert any significant controlling influence over the other.\n\nMohn massively increased the Bertelsmann Stiftung's budget in the 1990s. In addition to projects in Germany, he supported projects in Spain, such as the Fundació Biblioteca d'Alcúdia Can Torró on Mallorca. In 1995, he founded the , now based in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") and [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), as an independent subsidiary foundation that works to promote dual training to reduce [youth unemployment](/wiki/Youth_unemployment \"Youth unemployment\"). Founded in 2008, the [Bertelsmann Foundation North America](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Foundation_North_America \"Bertelsmann Foundation North America\"), headquartered in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), deals with transatlantic cooperation, among other issues.\n\nIn the early years, the founder was the sole Executive Board member of the Bertelsmann Stiftung. In 1979, a managing director was hired; from 1983, Mohn was supported by an [Advisory Board](/wiki/Advisory_board \"Advisory board\"), and in 1993, the Executive Board was also expanded. After 1998, Mohn withdrew from executive management: Initially, he stepped down from his position as [Chairman](/wiki/Chairman \"Chairman\") of the Executive Board, and a year later also withdrew as the Chairman of the Advisory Board. As a result of several structural and personnel changes, Mohn held the interim chairmanship of both Bertelsmann Stiftung executive bodies again from the end of 2000 until mid\\-2001, when he was succeeded by [Gunter Thielen](/wiki/Gunter_Thielen \"Gunter Thielen\") as Chairman of the Executive Board. In 2004, he permanently stepped down from the Executive Board of the Bertelsmann Stiftung, but as the founder, according to the [statutes](/wiki/Statute \"Statute\"), he remained a member of the Board of Trustees until he died in 2009\\.\n\n",
"### Bertelsmann\n\nIn 1947, Mohn took over the management of the [C. Bertelsmann](/wiki/C._Bertelsmann_Verlag \"C. Bertelsmann Verlag\") publishing company, which had been largely destroyed by bombing raids during World War II. In 1950, he established the book club, which formed the basis for the fast growth of the company in the decades that followed. From the beginning, he closely involved employees, e.g. through the loan participation program introduced in 1951\\. In 1969, he launched an employee profit\\-sharing model, viewed as exemplary throughout Germany. As a businessman, Mohn was consistent in his efforts to grow the traditional publishing business into a media conglomerate: Thus, he entered music and film production, invested in the magazine business, and promoted international expansion. A merger of Bertelsmann with the [Axel Springer](/wiki/Axel_Springer_SE \"Axel Springer SE\") group planned in the years 1969/70 did not come to fruition.\n\nIn 1971, Mohn transformed the family company into a [joint stock corporation](/wiki/Joint_stock_corporation \"Joint stock corporation\"). In this way, he created another structural prerequisite for Bertelsmann's rise to one of the world's leading media groups. Mohn became chairman of the executive board, and in this position continued a corporate culture based on partnership, the essential component of which involves dialogue between management and employees. In 1976, he had a new corporate headquarters built, where Bertelsmann's home offices are still located today. During this time, Mohn also began an entry into the U.S. publishing business, of vital importance to Bertelsmann. The acquisition of [Bantam Books](/wiki/Bantam_Books \"Bantam Books\") (1977/1980\\) and [Doubleday](/wiki/Doubleday_%28publisher%29 \"Doubleday (publisher)\") (1986\\) created the largest trade\\-book publishing group in the United States, at the time.\n\nIn 1981, Mohn moved from the executive board to the supervisory board, which he chaired for another ten years, still remaining involved in business operations. At 70, he finally stepped down from his duties, and remained honorary chairman of the supervisory board. From then on, he dedicated his efforts primarily to the Bertelsmann Stiftung foundation. In 1999, Mohn transferred his sole control over the voting rights of roughly 90% of Bertelsmann shares to the Bertelsmann Verwaltungsgesellschaft, a move designed to ensure the continuity of his company.\n\n",
"### Bertelsmann Stiftung\n\nIn 1977, Mohn established the non\\-profit [Bertelsmann Stiftung](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Stiftung \"Bertelsmann Stiftung\"), initially endowed with capital of 100,000 [Deutsche Mark](/wiki/Deutsche_Mark \"Deutsche Mark\"). Mohn supported the management\\-driven concept of an operating foundation, independently developing and managing projects. He directed the Bertelsmann Stiftung to help fund the improvement of the and established the Carl Bertelsmann Prize (today the [Reinhard Mohn Prize](/wiki/Reinhard_Mohn_Prize \"Reinhard Mohn Prize\")).\n\nIn the 1980s, the Bertelsmann Stiftung became the key focus of Mohn's corporate citizenship activities. In 1993, the majority of shareholdings in Bertelsmann was transferred to the foundation, making the Bertelsmann Stiftung the largest [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\") in the group. Capital shares and voting rights were strictly separated in the gift agreement, so that neither the foundation nor the group can exert any significant controlling influence over the other.\n\nMohn massively increased the Bertelsmann Stiftung's budget in the 1990s. In addition to projects in Germany, he supported projects in Spain, such as the Fundació Biblioteca d'Alcúdia Can Torró on Mallorca. In 1995, he founded the , now based in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") and [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), as an independent subsidiary foundation that works to promote dual training to reduce [youth unemployment](/wiki/Youth_unemployment \"Youth unemployment\"). Founded in 2008, the [Bertelsmann Foundation North America](/wiki/Bertelsmann_Foundation_North_America \"Bertelsmann Foundation North America\"), headquartered in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), deals with transatlantic cooperation, among other issues.\n\nIn the early years, the founder was the sole Executive Board member of the Bertelsmann Stiftung. In 1979, a managing director was hired; from 1983, Mohn was supported by an [Advisory Board](/wiki/Advisory_board \"Advisory board\"), and in 1993, the Executive Board was also expanded. After 1998, Mohn withdrew from executive management: Initially, he stepped down from his position as [Chairman](/wiki/Chairman \"Chairman\") of the Executive Board, and a year later also withdrew as the Chairman of the Advisory Board. As a result of several structural and personnel changes, Mohn held the interim chairmanship of both Bertelsmann Stiftung executive bodies again from the end of 2000 until mid\\-2001, when he was succeeded by [Gunter Thielen](/wiki/Gunter_Thielen \"Gunter Thielen\") as Chairman of the Executive Board. In 2004, he permanently stepped down from the Executive Board of the Bertelsmann Stiftung, but as the founder, according to the [statutes](/wiki/Statute \"Statute\"), he remained a member of the Board of Trustees until he died in 2009\\.\n\n",
"Honors (selection)\n------------------\n\n* 1981: [Honorary Citizen](/wiki/Honorary_citizenship \"Honorary citizenship\") of the [City of Gütersloh](/wiki/City_of_G%C3%BCtersloh \"City of Gütersloh\")\n* 1987: Friend of the [City of Jerusalem](/wiki/City_of_Jerusalem \"City of Jerusalem\"), awarded at the [Jerusalem Book Fair](/wiki/Jerusalem_Book_Fair \"Jerusalem Book Fair\")\n* 1992: Induction into the symbolic Hall of Fame of [Manager Magazine](/wiki/Manager_Magazin \"Manager Magazin\")\n* 1994: Commander's Cross of the [Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany \"Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\")\n* 1996: Europäischer Stifterpreis (a )\n* 1996: Honorary Member of the [Club of Rome](/wiki/Club_of_Rome \"Club of Rome\")\n* 1997: [Schumpeter Prize](/wiki/Schumpeter_Prize \"Schumpeter Prize\")\n* 1998: Knight Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\n* 1998: [Prince of Asturias Award](/wiki/Princess_of_Asturias_Awards \"Princess of Asturias Awards\")\n* 1998: Gold Medal of the \n* 1998: Integration Award of the foundation Apfelbaum Stiftung\n* 1998: [Hanns Martin Schleyer](/wiki/Hanns_Martin_Schleyer \"Hanns Martin Schleyer\") Prize\n* 1999: State Prize of [North Rhine\\-Westphalia](/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia \"North Rhine-Westphalia\")\n* 1999: Spanish Grand Cross of the [Order of Civil Merit](/wiki/Order_of_Civil_Merit \"Order of Civil Merit\")\n* 2000: \n* 2000: \n* 2001: [Honorary Doctorate](/wiki/Honorary_degree \"Honorary degree\") from the [University of Münster](/wiki/University_of_M%C3%BCnster \"University of Münster\")\n* 2002: Future Prize of the [CDU](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany \"Christian Democratic Union of Germany\") Social Committees\n* 2003: Teddy Kollek Award of the \n* 2005: Honorary Citizen of the [City of Alcúdia](/wiki/Alc%C3%BAdia \"Alcúdia\"), [Mallorca](/wiki/Mallorca \"Mallorca\")\n* 2007: for his lifetime achievement\n* 2010 (postmortem): Gold Medal of the [Balearic Islands](/wiki/Balearic_Islands \"Balearic Islands\")\n",
"Published works\n---------------\n\nFrom the late 1980s on, Reinhard Mohn was also involved in journalistic activities as an essayist and nonfiction book author. He wrote several books and magazine articles in which he dealt with topics concerning society and business. In 1985, he published an essay on \"Vanity in the Life of the Executive\", in which he decried the archetype of a self\\-centered [managerial class](/wiki/Managerial_Class \"Managerial Class\"). With his statements on this topic, Mohn's perspectives repeatedly drew controversy. In 1986, with the worldwide publication of his book \"Success through Partnership\", he laid out the principles of corporate culture at Bertelsmann. In \"Humanity Wins\", published in 2000, he strongly advocated an executive style in a spirit of partnership as a paradigm of a modern [organizational structure](/wiki/Organizational_structure \"Organizational structure\"). \"An Age of New Possibilities\" from 2001, defined a regulatory framework, which at its core is defined by [entrepreneurship](/wiki/Entrepreneurship \"Entrepreneurship\"). In 2008, his last work was published as \"A Global Lesson\", in which Mohn provided an autobiographical account of the formative elements of his own life. It was written with author , who also wrote the script to the film \"Es müssen mehr Köpfe ans Denken kommen\" (More minds need to start thinking) from [Roland Suso Richter](/wiki/Roland_Suso_Richter \"Roland Suso Richter\"). This film was the gift from the Bertelsmann Executive Board to Mohn on his 85th birthday in 2006\\.\n\n",
"Miscellaneous\n-------------\n\nIn 1991, on the 70th birthday of Reinhard Mohn, the Bertelsmann Executive Board established a Reinhard Mohn Endowed Chair for Corporate Governance, Business Ethics and Social Evolution at the private [University of Witten/Herdecke](/wiki/Witten/Herdecke_University \"Witten/Herdecke University\").\n\nIn 2006, Mohn created the , an eponymous foundation bearing his name, which has been run since 2010 by his son, [Christoph Mohn](/wiki/Christoph_Mohn \"Christoph Mohn\"). After the senior Mohn's death, the foundation gained shareholdings in Bertelsmann, which Reinhard Mohn had held via an intermediary company.\n\nIn 2010, the University of Witten/Herdecke honored Mohn by establishing an Institute for [Corporate Management](/wiki/Corporate_management \"Corporate management\") and [Corporate Governance](/wiki/Corporate_governance \"Corporate governance\"), today known as the Reinhard Mohn Institute of Management. It also houses the Reinhard Mohn Chair of Management, endowed in 1991, and two professorships, one for strategy and organization and one for research.\n\nIn 2011, the Bertelsmann Stiftung awarded the first [Reinhard Mohn Prize](/wiki/Reinhard_Mohn_Prize \"Reinhard Mohn Prize\"), which upholds and advances the tradition of the Carl Bertelsmann Prize. This award honors internationally renowned individuals for forward\\-looking solutions to [societal](/wiki/Society \"Society\") and [political](/wiki/Politics \"Politics\") challenges.\n\n",
"Criticism\n---------\n\nMohn was criticized for how he dealt with the [National Socialist](/wiki/National_Socialist \"National Socialist\") past of Bertelsmann. After questions arose in the 1990s as to the company's role in the Third Reich, Bertelsmann, with the support of Mohn, established an independent historical commission, seeking to come to terms with its involvement in the Nazi era. The commission presented its final report in 2002 and found that the decades\\-long account of its alleged involvement in a publishing company for the resistance could not be substantiated. On the contrary, Bertelsmann was the largest book producer for the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\").\n\nIn 2010, author and journalist criticized a \"tax\\-saving interrelationship\" between Bertelsmann and the foundation Bertelsmann Stiftung. The structures set up by Mohn were alleged to have saved his family billions in [inheritance tax](/wiki/Inheritance_tax \"Inheritance tax\"). However, this tax would not have been owed, according to the prevailing legal view at that time.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of billionaires](/wiki/List_of_billionaires \"List of billionaires\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Reinhard Mohn: Entrepreneur Par Excellence](https://www.bertelsmann.com/company/history/reinhard-mohn/)\n\n[Category:1921 births](/wiki/Category:1921_births \"1921 births\")\n[Category:2009 deaths](/wiki/Category:2009_deaths \"2009 deaths\")\n[Category:German billionaires](/wiki/Category:German_billionaires \"German billionaires\")\n[Category:German mass media owners](/wiki/Category:German_mass_media_owners \"German mass media owners\")\n[Category:20th\\-century German newspaper publishers (people)](/wiki/Category:20th-century_German_newspaper_publishers_%28people%29 \"20th-century German newspaper publishers (people)\")\n[Category:21st\\-century German newspaper publishers (people)](/wiki/Category:21st-century_German_newspaper_publishers_%28people%29 \"21st-century German newspaper publishers (people)\")\n[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Category:Knights_Commander_of_the_Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany \"Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\")\n[Reinhard](/wiki/Category:Mohn_family \"Mohn family\")\n[Category:German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States](/wiki/Category:German_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II_held_by_the_United_States \"German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States\")\n[Category:People from Gütersloh](/wiki/Category:People_from_G%C3%BCtersloh \"People from Gütersloh\")\n[Category:People from the Province of Westphalia](/wiki/Category:People_from_the_Province_of_Westphalia \"People from the Province of Westphalia\")\n[Category:Reich Labour Service members](/wiki/Category:Reich_Labour_Service_members \"Reich Labour Service members\")\n[Category:Luftwaffe personnel of World War II](/wiki/Category:Luftwaffe_personnel_of_World_War_II \"Luftwaffe personnel of World War II\")\n[Category:Bertelsmann Stiftung people](/wiki/Category:Bertelsmann_Stiftung_people \"Bertelsmann Stiftung people\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Medicine Hat Tigers
|
{
"id": [
393766
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"name": [
"Rickyharder"
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|
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|
2024-09-15T16:16:54Z
| 1,240,298,100 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Season-by-season record",
"WHL Championship history",
"WHL Championships",
"Memorial Cup finals",
"NHL alumni",
"Team records",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
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2
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"content": [
"\n\n[220px\\|thumb\\|[Travis Dunstall](/wiki/Travis_Dunstall \"Travis Dunstall\") playing for the Tigers in 2007\\.](/wiki/File:DunstallMedicineHatTigers.jpg \"DunstallMedicineHatTigers.jpg\")\nThe **Medicine Hat Tigers** are a Canadian major [junior ice hockey](/wiki/Junior_ice_hockey \"Junior ice hockey\") team in the [Western Hockey League](/wiki/Western_Hockey_League \"Western Hockey League\") (WHL) based in [Medicine Hat](/wiki/Medicine_Hat \"Medicine Hat\"), [Alberta](/wiki/Alberta \"Alberta\"). Established in 1970, the team has won the second most Ed Chynoweth Cups as league champion with five, and has gone on to win two [Memorial Cup](/wiki/Memorial_Cup \"Memorial Cup\") titles. The Tigers also have seven Division titles. Since 2015, the Tigers play at [Co\\-op Place](/wiki/Co-op_Place \"Co-op Place\") after forty\\-five seasons at the [Medicine Hat Arena](/wiki/Medicine_Hat_Arena \"Medicine Hat Arena\").\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nMedicine Hat was granted a team in the Western Canada Hockey League ahead of its fifth season, and the Tigers began play in [1970–71](/wiki/1970%E2%80%9371_WCHL_season \"1970–71 WCHL season\"). Although the team struggled in its inaugural season, the Tigers rapidly improved, led by the scoring exploits of [Tom Lysiak](/wiki/Tom_Lysiak \"Tom Lysiak\")—who won league scoring titles in 1972 and 1973—[Lanny McDonald](/wiki/Lanny_McDonald \"Lanny McDonald\"). The team made the playoffs in its second season, and in its third made it to the championship final. In the final, they defeated the [Saskatoon Blades](/wiki/Saskatoon_Blades \"Saskatoon Blades\") to win their first title.\n\nThe Tigers' next significant run of success came in the latter half of the 1980s. In 1986, the team secured its first regular season title and advanced to its first of three consecutive league finals. Led by the likes of [Trevor Linden](/wiki/Trevor_Linden \"Trevor Linden\"), [Wayne McBean](/wiki/Wayne_McBean \"Wayne McBean\"), and [Mark Pederson](/wiki/Mark_Pederson \"Mark Pederson\"), the Tigers would capture back\\-to\\-back championships and Memorial Cup titles in 1987 and 1988\\. Because of their success, the championship Tigers' teams were inducted into the [Alberta Sports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Alberta_Sports_Hall_of_Fame \"Alberta Sports Hall of Fame\").\n\nThe Tigers won two more league titles in a four\\-year span between 2004 and 2007\\. In 2004, Medicine Hat put together the best record in the Eastern Conference and advanced to the final, where they swept the expansion Everett Silvertips. In 2005–06, the Tigers secured their second regular season title, before losing the Conference Final against the [Moose Jaw Warriors](/wiki/Moose_Jaw_Warriors \"Moose Jaw Warriors\"). The following season, they would return to the championship series, where they faced the [Vancouver Giants](/wiki/Vancouver_Giants \"Vancouver Giants\"). Backstopped by goaltender [Matt Keetley](/wiki/Matt_Keetley \"Matt Keetley\"), the Tigers defeated the Giants in double\\-overtime of game seven to win the title. Because Vancouver was hosting the [2007 Memorial Cup](/wiki/2007_Memorial_Cup \"2007 Memorial Cup\"), both teams advanced to the tournament. The Tigers again defeated the Giants in overtime during the preliminary round in order to advance directly to the final, which wound up being a re\\-match between the two rivals. In the final, the host Giants avenged their earlier losses, defeating the Tigers 3–1 at [Pacific Coliseum](/wiki/Pacific_Coliseum \"Pacific Coliseum\").\n\nSince their last title run in 2007, the Tigers have missed the playoffs only twice, but have failed to advance past the second round of the playoffs, even despite securing division titles in 2016–17 and 2017–18\\. In 2015, the team moved from the old Arena to the new Co\\-op Place. In 2024, [Gavin McKenna](/wiki/Gavin_McKenna \"Gavin McKenna\") became the fourth Tiger and the first since [Neil Brady](/wiki/Neil_Brady \"Neil Brady\") in 1986 to be named the winner of the [Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Jim_Piggott_Memorial_Trophy \"Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy\") as WHL rookie of the year.\n\n",
"Season\\-by\\-season record\n-------------------------\n\n***Note:** GP \\= Games played, W \\= Wins, L \\= Losses, T \\= Ties, OTL \\= Overtime losses, Pts \\= Points, GF \\= Goals for, GA \\= Goals against*\n\n| **Season** | **GP** | **W** | **L** | **T** | **OTL** | **GF** | **GA** | **Points** | **Finish** | **Playoffs** |\n| [1970–71](/wiki/1970%E2%80%9371_WCHL_season \"1970–71 WCHL season\") | 66 | 22 | 43 | 1 | \\- | 271 | 351 | 45 | 5th West | Did not qualify |\n| [1971–72](/wiki/1971%E2%80%9372_WCHL_season \"1971–72 WCHL season\") | 68 | 35 | 30 | 3 | \\- | 351 | 312 | 73 | 4th West | Lost in quarterfinal |\n| [1972–73](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_WCHL_season \"1972–73 WCHL season\") | 68 | 39 | 20 | 9 | \\- | 348 | 254 | 87 | 2nd West | **Won [Championship](/wiki/Ed_Chynoweth_Cup \"Ed Chynoweth Cup\")** |\n| [1973–74](/wiki/1973%E2%80%9374_WCHL_season \"1973–74 WCHL season\") | 68 | 29 | 31 | 8 | \\- | 305 | 314 | 66 | 3rd West | Lost in quarterfinal |\n| [1974–75](/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_WCHL_season \"1974–75 WCHL season\") | 70 | 40 | 22 | 8 | \\- | 380 | 291 | 88 | 2nd West | Lost in quarterfinal |\n| [1975–76](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_WCHL_season \"1975–76 WCHL season\") | 72 | 38 | 24 | 10 | \\- | 379 | 306 | 86 | 3rd West | Lost in quarterfinal |\n| [1976–77](/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_WCHL_season \"1976–77 WCHL season\") | 72 | 32 | 28 | 12 | \\- | 330 | 304 | 76 | **1st Central** | Lost in preliminary round |\n| [1977–78](/wiki/1977%E2%80%9378_WCHL_season \"1977–78 WCHL season\") | 72 | 22 | 41 | 9 | \\- | 293 | 365 | 53 | 3rd Central | Lost in Central Division final |\n| [1978–79](/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_WHL_season \"1978–79 WHL season\") | 72 | 15 | 50 | 7 | \\- | 270 | 479 | 37 | 4th Central | Did not qualify |\n| [1979–80](/wiki/1979%E2%80%9380_WHL_season \"1979–80 WHL season\") | 72 | 37 | 30 | 5 | \\- | 344 | 315 | 79 | 3rd East | Lost in East Division final |\n| [1980–81](/wiki/1980%E2%80%9381_WHL_season \"1980–81 WHL season\") | 72 | 40 | 29 | 3 | \\- | 358 | 302 | 83 | 3rd East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1981–82](/wiki/1981%E2%80%9382_WHL_season \"1981–82 WHL season\") | 72 | 25 | 46 | 1 | \\- | 308 | 446 | 51 | 7th East | Did not qualify |\n| [1982–83](/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_WHL_season \"1982–83 WHL season\") | 72 | 37 | 34 | 1 | \\- | 345 | 338 | 75 | 6th East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1983–84](/wiki/1983%E2%80%9384_WHL_season \"1983–84 WHL season\") | 72 | 45 | 26 | 1 | \\- | 404 | 288 | 91 | 2nd East | Lost in East Division final |\n| [1984–85](/wiki/1984%E2%80%9385_WHL_season \"1984–85 WHL season\") | 72 | 53 | 17 | 2 | \\- | 355 | 224 | 108 | 2nd East | Lost in East Division final |\n| [1985–86](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_WHL_season \"1985–86 WHL season\") | 72 | 54 | 17 | 1 | \\- | 384 | 245 | 109 | **1st East** | Lost in final |\n| [1986–87](/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_WHL_season \"1986–87 WHL season\") | 72 | 48 | 19 | 5 | \\- | 383 | 264 | 101 | **1st East** | **Won [Championship](/wiki/Ed_Chynoweth_Cup \"Ed Chynoweth Cup\") and [Memorial Cup](/wiki/Memorial_Cup \"Memorial Cup\")** |\n| [1987–88](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_WHL_season \"1987–88 WHL season\") | 72 | 44 | 22 | 6 | \\- | 353 | 261 | 94 | 2nd East | **Won [Championship](/wiki/Ed_Chynoweth_Cup \"Ed Chynoweth Cup\") and [Memorial Cup](/wiki/Memorial_Cup \"Memorial Cup\")** |\n| [1988–89](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_WHL_season \"1988–89 WHL season\") | 72 | 41 | 27 | 4 | \\- | 359 | 326 | 86 | 3rd East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1989–90](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_WHL_season \"1989–90 WHL season\") | 72 | 32 | 38 | 2 | \\- | 298 | 331 | 66 | 5th East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_WHL_season \"1990–91 WHL season\") | 72 | 40 | 27 | 5 | \\- | 366 | 296 | 85 | 2nd East | Lost in East Division final |\n| [1991–92](/wiki/1991%E2%80%9392_WHL_season \"1991–92 WHL season\") | 72 | 48 | 24 | 0 | \\- | 336 | 264 | 96 | 2nd East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1992–93](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_WHL_season \"1992–93 WHL season\") | 72 | 29 | 38 | 5 | \\- | 285 | 343 | 63 | 7th East | Lost in East Division semifinal |\n| [1993–94](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_WHL_season \"1993–94 WHL season\") | 72 | 33 | 33 | 6 | \\- | 263 | 264 | 72 | 5th East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1994–95](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_WHL_season \"1994–95 WHL season\") | 72 | 38 | 32 | 2 | \\- | 244 | 229 | 78 | 5th East | Lost in East Division quarterfinal |\n| [1995–96](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_WHL_season \"1995–96 WHL season\") | 72 | 30 | 37 | 5 | \\- | 243 | 288 | 65 | 3rd Central | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal |\n| [1996–97](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_WHL_season \"1996–97 WHL season\") | 72 | 39 | 32 | 1 | \\- | 270 | 278 | 79 | 3rd Central | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal |\n| [1997–98](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_WHL_season \"1997–98 WHL season\") | 72 | 16 | 50 | 6 | \\- | 188 | 340 | 38 | 5th Central | Did not qualify |\n| [1998–99](/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_WHL_season \"1998–99 WHL season\") | 72 | 15 | 56 | 1 | \\- | 185 | 323 | 31 | 5th Central | Did not qualify |\n| [1999–00](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_WHL_season \"1999–2000 WHL season\") | 72 | 21 | 39 | 6 | 6 | 222 | 295 | 54 | 5th Central | Did not qualify |\n| [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_WHL_season \"2000–01 WHL season\") | 72 | 24 | 40 | 5 | 3 | 271 | 316 | 56 | 5th Central | Did not qualify |\n| [2001–02](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_WHL_season \"2001–02 WHL season\") | 72 | 30 | 36 | 4 | 2 | 277 | 316 | 66 | 5th Central | Did not qualify |\n| [2002–03](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_WHL_season \"2002–03 WHL season\") | 72 | 29 | 34 | 2 | 7 | 278 | 314 | 67 | 3rd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_WHL_season \"2003–04 WHL season\") | 72 | 40 | 20 | 9 | 3 | 277 | 216 | 92 | **1st Central** | **Won [Championship](/wiki/Ed_Chynoweth_Cup \"Ed Chynoweth Cup\")** |\n| [2004–05](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_WHL_season \"2004–05 WHL season\") | 72 | 45 | 21 | 4 | 2 | 234 | 143 | 96 | **1st Central** | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| **Season** | **GP** | **W** | **L** | **OTL** | **SOL** | **GF** | **GA** | **Points** | **Finish** | **Playoffs** |\n| [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_WHL_season \"2005–06 WHL season\") | 72 | 47 | 16 | 1 | 8 | 257 | 171 | 103 | **1st Central** | Lost in Eastern Conference final |\n| [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_WHL_season \"2006–07 WHL season\") | 72 | 52 | 17 | 3 | 0 | 264 | 175 | 107 | **1st Central** | **Won [Championship](/wiki/Ed_Chynoweth_Cup \"Ed Chynoweth Cup\")**; Lost [Memorial Cup](/wiki/2007_Memorial_Cup \"2007 Memorial Cup\") final |\n| [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_WHL_season \"2007–08 WHL season\") | 72 | 43 | 22 | 5 | 2 | 234 | 191 | 93 | 3rd Central | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal |\n| [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_WHL_season \"2008–09 WHL season\") | 72 | 36 | 29 | 4 | 3 | 249 | 242 | 79 | 2nd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2009–10](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_WHL_season \"2009–10 WHL season\") | 72 | 41 | 23 | 3 | 5 | 276 | 232 | 90 | 3rd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_WHL_season \"2010–11 WHL season\") | 72 | 46 | 18 | 4 | 4 | 265 | 196 | 100 | 2nd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference final |\n| [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_WHL_season \"2011–12 WHL season\") | 72 | 42 | 24 | 2 | 4 | 255 | 209 | 90 | 3rd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_WHL_season \"2012–13 WHL season\") | 72 | 36 | 33 | 2 | 1 | 243 | 244 | 75 | 4th Central | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_WHL_season \"2013–14 WHL season\") | 72 | 44 | 24 | 3 | 1 | 260 | 196 | 92 | 3rd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference final |\n| [2014–15](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_WHL_season \"2014–15 WHL season\") | 72 | 45 | 23 | 2 | 2 | 268 | 213 | 94 | 2nd Central | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2015–16](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_WHL_season \"2015–16 WHL season\") | 72 | 30 | 37 | 3 | 2 | 223 | 287 | 65 | 5th Central | Lost tiebreaker game vs [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton_Oil_Kings \"Edmonton Oil Kings\") |\n| [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_WHL_season \"2016–17 WHL season\") | 72 | 51 | 20 | 1 | 0 | 350 | 248 | 103 | **1st Central** | Lost in Eastern Conference semifinal |\n| [2017–18](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_WHL_season \"2017–18 WHL season\") | 72 | 36 | 28 | 8 | 0 | 260 | 252 | 80 | **1st Central** | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal |\n| [2018–19](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_WHL_season \"2018–19 WHL season\") | 68 | 35 | 27 | 4 | 2 | 217 | 222 | 76 | 4th Central | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal |\n\n [2019–20](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_WHL_season \"2019–20 WHL season\") | 63 | 41 | 19 | 2 | 1 | 265 | 182 | 85 | 2nd Central | *Cancelled due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada \"COVID-19 pandemic in Canada\")* |\n [2020–21](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_WHL_season \"2020–21 WHL season\") | 23 | 14 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 87 | 69 | 29 | 2nd Central | *No playoffs due to the COVID\\-19 pandemic* || [2021\\-22](/wiki/2021-22_WHL_season \"2021-22 WHL season\") | 68 | 11 | 53 | 3 | 1 | 154 | 315 | 26 | 6th Central | Did not qualify |\n\n [2022–23](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_WHL_season \"2022–23 WHL season\") | 68 | 30 | 29 | 8 | 1 | 248 | 224 | 69 | 4th Central | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal || [2023\\-24](/wiki/2023-24_WHL_season \"2023-24 WHL season\") | 68 | 37 | 23 | 6 | 2 | 280 | 231 | 82 | 2nd Central | Lost Eastern Conference quarterfinal |\n",
"WHL Championship history\n------------------------\n\n* **[Memorial Cups](/wiki/Memorial_Cup \"Memorial Cup\")**: [1987](/wiki/1987_Memorial_Cup \"1987 Memorial Cup\"), [1988](/wiki/1988_Memorial_Cup \"1988 Memorial Cup\")\n* **[President's Cups](/wiki/Ed_Chynoweth_Cup \"Ed Chynoweth Cup\")**: [1972–73](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_WCHL_season \"1972–73 WCHL season\"), [1986–87](/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_WHL_season \"1986–87 WHL season\"), [1987–88](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_WHL_season \"1987–88 WHL season\"), [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_WHL_season \"2003–04 WHL season\"), [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_WHL_season \"2006–07 WHL season\")\n* **[Scotty Munro Memorial Trophies](/wiki/Scotty_Munro_Memorial_Trophy \"Scotty Munro Memorial Trophy\")**: [1985–86](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_WHL_season \"1985–86 WHL season\"), [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_WHL_season \"2005–06 WHL season\")\n\n### WHL Championships\n\n* [1972–73](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_WCHL_season \"1972–73 WCHL season\"): **Win**, 3\\-0\\-2 vs [Saskatoon Blades](/wiki/Saskatoon_Blades \"Saskatoon Blades\")\n* [1985–86](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_WHL_season \"1985–86 WHL season\"): Loss, 1\\-4 vs [Kamloops Blazers](/wiki/Kamloops_Blazers \"Kamloops Blazers\")\n* [1986–87](/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_WHL_season \"1986–87 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-3 vs [Portland Winter Hawks](/wiki/Portland_Winterhawks \"Portland Winterhawks\")\n* [1987–88](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_WHL_season \"1987–88 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-2 vs Kamloops Blazers\n* [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_WHL_season \"2003–04 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-0 vs [Everett Silvertips](/wiki/Everett_Silvertips \"Everett Silvertips\")\n* [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_WHL_season \"2006–07 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-3 vs [Vancouver Giants](/wiki/Vancouver_Giants \"Vancouver Giants\")\n\n### Memorial Cup finals\n\n* 1987: **Win**, 6–2 vs [Oshawa Generals](/wiki/Oshawa_Generals \"Oshawa Generals\")\n* 1988: **Win**, 7–6 vs [Windsor Spitfires](/wiki/Windsor_Spitfires \"Windsor Spitfires\")\n* [2007](/wiki/2007_Memorial_Cup \"2007 Memorial Cup\"): Loss, 1–3 vs [Vancouver Giants](/wiki/Vancouver_Giants \"Vancouver Giants\")\n",
"### WHL Championships\n\n* [1972–73](/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_WCHL_season \"1972–73 WCHL season\"): **Win**, 3\\-0\\-2 vs [Saskatoon Blades](/wiki/Saskatoon_Blades \"Saskatoon Blades\")\n* [1985–86](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_WHL_season \"1985–86 WHL season\"): Loss, 1\\-4 vs [Kamloops Blazers](/wiki/Kamloops_Blazers \"Kamloops Blazers\")\n* [1986–87](/wiki/1986%E2%80%9387_WHL_season \"1986–87 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-3 vs [Portland Winter Hawks](/wiki/Portland_Winterhawks \"Portland Winterhawks\")\n* [1987–88](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_WHL_season \"1987–88 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-2 vs Kamloops Blazers\n* [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_WHL_season \"2003–04 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-0 vs [Everett Silvertips](/wiki/Everett_Silvertips \"Everett Silvertips\")\n* [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_WHL_season \"2006–07 WHL season\"): **Win**, 4\\-3 vs [Vancouver Giants](/wiki/Vancouver_Giants \"Vancouver Giants\")\n",
"### Memorial Cup finals\n\n* 1987: **Win**, 6–2 vs [Oshawa Generals](/wiki/Oshawa_Generals \"Oshawa Generals\")\n* 1988: **Win**, 7–6 vs [Windsor Spitfires](/wiki/Windsor_Spitfires \"Windsor Spitfires\")\n* [2007](/wiki/2007_Memorial_Cup \"2007 Memorial Cup\"): Loss, 1–3 vs [Vancouver Giants](/wiki/Vancouver_Giants \"Vancouver Giants\")\n",
"NHL alumni\n----------\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * \n",
"Team records\n------------\n\n| \\+ Team records for a single season |\n| --- |\n| Statistic | Total | Season |\n| Most points | 109 | [1985–86](/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_WHL_season \"1985–86 WHL season\") |\n| Most wins | 54 | 1985–86 |\n| Most goals for | 404 | [1983–84](/wiki/1983%E2%80%9384_WHL_season \"1983–84 WHL season\") |\n| Fewest goals for | 185 | [1998–99](/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_WHL_season \"1998–99 WHL season\") |\n| Fewest goals against | 143 | [2004–05](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_WHL_season \"2004–05 WHL season\") |\n| Most goals against | 479 | [1978–79](/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_WHL_season \"1978–79 WHL season\") |\n\n| \\+ Individual player records for a single season |\n| --- |\n| Statistic | Player | Total | Season |\n| Most goals | [Don Murdoch](/wiki/Don_Murdoch \"Don Murdoch\") | 88 | [1975–76](/wiki/1975%E2%80%9376_WCHL_season \"1975–76 WCHL season\") |\n| Most assists | [Greg Carroll](/wiki/Greg_Carroll_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Greg Carroll (ice hockey)\") | 111 | 1975–76 |\n| Most points | Greg Carroll | 171 | 1975–76 |\n| Most points, rookie | Don Murdoch | 141 | [1974–75](/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_WCHL_season \"1974–75 WCHL season\") |\n| Most points, defenceman | [Cliff Lane](/wiki/Cliff_Lane \"Cliff Lane\") | 82 | 1975–76 |\n| Best GAA (goalie) | [Matt Keetley](/wiki/Matt_Keetley \"Matt Keetley\") | 1\\.66 | 2004–05 |\n| *Goalies \\= minimum 1500 minutes played* | | | |\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of ice hockey teams in Alberta](/wiki/List_of_ice_hockey_teams_in_Alberta \"List of ice hockey teams in Alberta\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official site](https://chl.ca/whl-tigers/)\n\n[Category:Ice hockey teams in Alberta](/wiki/Category:Ice_hockey_teams_in_Alberta \"Ice hockey teams in Alberta\")\n[Category:Sport in Medicine Hat](/wiki/Category:Sport_in_Medicine_Hat \"Sport in Medicine Hat\")\n[Category:Ice hockey clubs established in 1970](/wiki/Category:Ice_hockey_clubs_established_in_1970 \"Ice hockey clubs established in 1970\")\n[Category:Western Hockey League teams](/wiki/Category:Western_Hockey_League_teams \"Western Hockey League teams\")\n[Category:1970 establishments in Alberta](/wiki/Category:1970_establishments_in_Alberta \"1970 establishments in Alberta\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Adel Emam
|
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2024-10-14T23:57:10Z
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{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Career",
"Personal life",
"Awards",
"Honours",
"Egyptian Honours",
"Foreign Honours",
"Selected works",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
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"\n\n**Adel Emam** (; born 17 May 1940\\) is an [Egyptian](/wiki/Egyptians \"Egyptians\") [film](/wiki/Cinema_of_Egypt \"Cinema of Egypt\"), [television](/wiki/Television_in_Egypt \"Television in Egypt\"), and [stage](/wiki/Egyptian_Theatre \"Egyptian Theatre\") [actor](/wiki/Actor \"Actor\"). He is primarily a [comedian](/wiki/Comedian \"Comedian\"), but he has starred in more serious works and, combined comedy with [romance](/wiki/Romance_film \"Romance film\") especially in his earlier secondary roles in films such as *[My Wife, the Director General](/wiki/My_Wife%2C_the_Director_General \"My Wife, the Director General\")*, *[My Wife's Dignity](/wiki/My_Wife%27s_Dignity \"My Wife's Dignity\")*, *[My Wife's Goblin](/wiki/My_Wife%27s_Goblin \"My Wife's Goblin\")* and *[Virgo](/wiki/Virgo_%28film%29 \"Virgo (film)\"),* all films starring [Salah Zulfikar](/wiki/Salah_Zulfikar \"Salah Zulfikar\").\n\nEmam earned a [bachelor's degree](/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree \"Bachelor's degree\") in [Agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture \"Agriculture\") from [Cairo University](/wiki/Cairo_University \"Cairo University\"). Since then he has appeared in over 103 [movies](/wiki/Film \"Film\") and 10 [plays](/wiki/Play_%28theatre%29 \"Play (theatre)\"). He is one of the most famous actors in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") and in the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\").\n\nHis contributions to the [Egyptian film industry](/wiki/Cinema_of_Egypt \"Cinema of Egypt\") and theatre through addressing social and [political](/wiki/Politics \"Politics\") issues in film and television earned him a [cult following](/wiki/Cult_following \"Cult following\") and a worldwide reputation that made him one of the most influential Arab public figures in the 1980s and 1990s. Adel Imam is considered by a huge mass of cult followers as a [cultural icon](/wiki/Cultural_icon \"Cultural icon\") in the [history of modern Egypt](/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt \"History of modern Egypt\").\n\nIn January 2000, the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") appointed Emam as a [Goodwill Ambassador](/wiki/Goodwill_ambassador \"Goodwill ambassador\") for UNHCR.\n\n",
"Career\n------\n\nEmam launched his career in theater in *Ana w Howa w Heya* (1962\\) with [Fouad El\\-Mohandes](/wiki/Fouad_el-Mohandes \"Fouad el-Mohandes\") and [Shwikar](/wiki/Shwikar \"Shwikar\"). In cinema he acted in *[My Wife, the Director General](/wiki/My_Wife%2C_the_Director_General \"My Wife, the Director General\")* (1966\\), *[My Wife's Dignity](/wiki/My_Wife%27s_Dignity \"My Wife's Dignity\")* (1967\\), and *[My Wife's Goblin](/wiki/My_Wife%27s_Goblin \"My Wife's Goblin\")* (1968\\) with [Salah Zulfikar](/wiki/Salah_Zulfikar \"Salah Zulfikar\") and [Shadia](/wiki/Shadia \"Shadia\").\nIn early 1970s, he co\\-starred with Salah Zulfikar in *[Virgo](/wiki/Virgo_%28film%29 \"Virgo (film)\")* (1970\\), and shared the lead in *Find a scandal* (1973\\) with [Mervat Amin](/wiki/Mervat_Amin \"Mervat Amin\") and Samir Sabry. Later, he started to act in starring roles in the 1980s and 1990s including *[The Suspect](/wiki/The_Suspect_%281981_film%29 \"The Suspect (1981 film)\")* (1981\\), and *Love in a Jail Cell* (1983\\), both films alongside leading actress [Soad Hosny](/wiki/Soad_Hosny \"Soad Hosny\").\nEmam was an important national figure in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") largely because of the [Egyptian political](/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt \"Politics of Egypt\") roles he took on in many of his films and plays, he always focused on Egypt's politics and religious problems. These roles, whether he intended it or not, often put him in a critical position vis\\-à\\-vis the president or the government, such as *[The Terrorist](/wiki/The_Terrorist_%281994_film%29 \"The Terrorist (1994 film)\")* (1994\\) alongside Salah Zulfikar in Zulfikar's final film role. He has been cast several times by the producer Emad Adeeb in movies like *[Morgan Ahmed Morgan](/wiki/Morgan_Ahmed_Morgan \"Morgan Ahmed Morgan\")* (2007\\), and *[Hassan and Marcus](/wiki/Hassan_and_Marcus \"Hassan and Marcus\")* (2008\\) starring [Omar Sharif](/wiki/Omar_Sharif \"Omar Sharif\").[thumb\\|210x210px\\|Adel Emam (left) with [Abdel Halim Hafez](/wiki/Abdel_Halim_Hafez \"Abdel Halim Hafez\") while recording *Please, do not get me quickly* (1973\\)](/wiki/File:Adel_Emam_and_Abdel_Halim_Hafez_%281973%29.png \"Adel Emam and Abdel Halim Hafez (1973).png\")\nIn 2005, he starred in *[The Embassy in the Building](/wiki/The_Embassy_in_the_Building \"The Embassy in the Building\")*, playing a Cairene everyman inconvenienced when the Embassy of Israel moves into his apartment building. In the following year, Emam was one of the ensemble cast of *[The Yacoubian Building](/wiki/The_Yacoubian_Building_%28film%29 \"The Yacoubian Building (film)\")*, a film reputed to be the highest\\-budgeted in Egyptian cinema and adapted from the novel of the same name. The story is a sharp look at contemporary Egyptian life through the prism of a faded downtown [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") apartment building. Emam portrays an aging *[roué](/wiki/Rou%C3%A9 \"Roué\")* whose misadventures form a central strand of the film's complex narrative.\n\n",
"Personal life\n-------------\n\nAdel Emam is married to Hala El\\-Shalaqani and has three children: the director [Ramy Imam](/wiki/Ramy_Imam \"Ramy Imam\"), Sarah Emam, and [Mohamed Emam](/wiki/Mohamed_Emam \"Mohamed Emam\"), who also starred in the movie *[The Yacoubian Building](/wiki/The_Yacoubian_Building_%28film%29 \"The Yacoubian Building (film)\")* as *Taha ElShazli*. He's the brother of Esam Imam and Iman Imam. His brother\\-in\\-law was actor [Mustafa Metwalli](/wiki/Mustafa_Metwalli \"Mustafa Metwalli\").\n\nAdel Emam stated on a talk show hosted by Hala Sarhan that Amin Shalaby and the late Younes Shalaby as well as [Saeed Saleh](/wiki/Saeed_Saleh \"Saeed Saleh\") were his best friends since university.\n\nIn February 2012, Emam was sentenced (in absentia) to three months in jail for offending Islam. Imam said he would appeal the sentence. On September 12, 2012, Emam won his appeal when a Cairo misdemeanours court cleared him of defaming Islam in his films.\n\n",
"Awards\n------\n\nAdel Emam received numerous awards through his five decades career. He won \"Horus\" [Award](/wiki/Award \"Award\") twice for his leading roles in *[Omaret Yakobean](/wiki/The_Yacoubian_Building \"The Yacoubian Building\")* and *[Al\\-irhabi](/wiki/The_Terrorist_%281994_film%29 \"The Terrorist (1994 film)\")* at [Cairo International Film Festival](/wiki/Cairo_International_Film_Festival \"Cairo International Film Festival\").\n\n[thumb\\|Emam in 2009\\|220x220px](/wiki/File:Adel_Imam_2009_cropped.jpg \"Adel Imam 2009 cropped.jpg\")\n\nHe won the [Honorary Award](/wiki/Academy_Honorary_Award \"Academy Honorary Award\") of the Festival at 2014 Marrakech International Film Festival. He won International Jury Award at [São Paulo International Film Festival](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_International_Film_Festival \"São Paulo International Film Festival\"). In 2005 and 2008 [Dubai International Film Festival](/wiki/Dubai_International_Film_Festival \"Dubai International Film Festival\") awarded Adel Emam the Lifetime Achievement Award. He received the first Career Achievement Award in El\\-Gouna Film Festival in 2017\\. In January 2024, he received the Arab Art Leader Award at Joy Awards.\n\n",
"Honours\n-------\n\n### Egyptian Honours\n\n* Commander of the [Order of Merit (Egypt)](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_%28Egypt%29 \"Order of Merit (Egypt)\")\n\n### Foreign Honours\n\n* : Knight (*Achir*) of the [National Order of Merit (Algeria)](/wiki/National_Order_of_Merit_%28Algeria%29 \"National Order of Merit (Algeria)\") (2002\\)\n* : Officer of the [National Order of the Cedar](/wiki/National_Order_of_the_Cedar \"National Order of the Cedar\") (2003\\)\n* : Commander of the [Order of Intellectual Merit](/wiki/Order_of_Intellectual_Merit \"Order of Intellectual Merit\") (1997\\)\n* : Grand Officier of the [National Order of Merit of Tunisia](/wiki/National_Order_of_Merit_%28Tunisia%29 \"National Order of Merit (Tunisia)\") (2016\\)\n",
"### Egyptian Honours\n\n* Commander of the [Order of Merit (Egypt)](/wiki/Order_of_Merit_%28Egypt%29 \"Order of Merit (Egypt)\")\n",
"### Foreign Honours\n\n* : Knight (*Achir*) of the [National Order of Merit (Algeria)](/wiki/National_Order_of_Merit_%28Algeria%29 \"National Order of Merit (Algeria)\") (2002\\)\n* : Officer of the [National Order of the Cedar](/wiki/National_Order_of_the_Cedar \"National Order of the Cedar\") (2003\\)\n* : Commander of the [Order of Intellectual Merit](/wiki/Order_of_Intellectual_Merit \"Order of Intellectual Merit\") (1997\\)\n* : Grand Officier of the [National Order of Merit of Tunisia](/wiki/National_Order_of_Merit_%28Tunisia%29 \"National Order of Merit (Tunisia)\") (2016\\)\n",
"Selected works\n--------------\n\n| Year | Film/TV Series/Play in Arabic | Name Translation | Role |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2020 | Valentino (TV Series) | Valentino | Noor Valentino |\n| 2018 | Awalem Khafyah (TV Series) | Hidden Worlds | Helal Kamel |\n| 2017 | Afareet Adly Alam (TV Series) | Adly Alam's Ghosts | Adly Alam |\n| 2016 | Ma'amoon wa shorakaah (TV Series) | Ma'amoon and his partners | Ma'amoon Mobasher |\n| 2015 | Ostaz wa rayees kesm (TV Series) | Professor and Head of Department | Fawzy Gomaa |\n| 2014 | Saheb El Saada (TV Series) | His Majesty | Bahgat Abou\\-Kheir |\n| 2013 | Al Aaraf (TV Series) | The Fortune\\-teller | Abd\\-El\\-Hamid El\\-Bakry / Hazem Ghorbal / Mostafa Zahran / Araby El\\-Kahky / Sobhy Abou\\-El\\-Fadl / Abou\\-El\\-Haggag El\\-Masry |\n| 2012 | Firqit Naji Atallah (TV Series) | Naji Atallah's Team | Naji Atallah |\n| 2010 | [Zahaimar](/wiki/Zahaimar \"Zahaimar\") | Alzheimer's | Mahmoud |\n| 2009 | [Bobbos](/wiki/Bobbos \"Bobbos\") | Bobbos | Mohsen Hendawi |\n| 2008 | *[Hassan w Morqos](/wiki/Hassan_and_Marcus \"Hassan and Marcus\")* | Hassan and Marcus | Boules |\n| 2007 | *[Morgan Ahmad Morgan](/wiki/Morgan_Ahmad_Morgan \"Morgan Ahmad Morgan\")* | Morgan Ahmad Morgan | Morgan |\n| 2006 | *[Emaret Yaqubian](/wiki/The_Yacoubian_Building_%28film%29 \"The Yacoubian Building (film)\")* | The Yacoubian Building | Zakki |\n| 2005 | *[El\\-Sefara fi El\\-Omara](/wiki/El-Sefara_fi_El-Omara \"El-Sefara fi El-Omara\")* | The Embassy Is In The Building | Shereef |\n| 2004 | Arees Menn Gehha Amneya | A Security Service Groom | Khattaab |\n| 2003 | [Al\\-Tagroba Al\\-Danemarkeya](/wiki/The_Danish_Experience \"The Danish Experience\") | The Danish Experiment | Qadri |\n| 2002 | *[Ameer Al\\-Thalaam](/wiki/Ameer_Al-Thalaam \"Ameer Al-Thalaam\")* | Prince of Darkness | Saeed Al\\-Masri |\n| 2000 | [Bekheet Wa Adeela 3: Hello America](/wiki/Hello_America_%28film%29 \"Hello America (film)\") | Bekheet And Adeela 3: Hello America | Bekheet |\n| 1999 | El\\-Wad Mahroos Betaa El\\-Wazeer | Mahroos; The Minister's Guy | Mahroos |\n| *Body Guard (play)* | Body Guard | Adham |\n| 1998 | [Risala Ela Al\\-Wali](/wiki/Risala_Ela_Al-Wali \"Risala Ela Al-Wali\") | A Message to the Governor | Harfoosh |\n| 1997 | Bekheet Wa Adeela 2: El\\-Gardal wel\\-Kanaka | Bekheet and Adeela 2: The Pail and the Coffeepot | Bekheet |\n| 1996 | Al\\-Nom Fil\\-Assal | Sleeping In The Honey \\- Fast asleep | Colonel Magdi |\n| 1995 | Bekheet Wa Adeela | Bekheet And Adeela | Bekheet |\n| Toyoor Al\\-Zalaam | Birds Of Darkness | Fathy Nofal |\n| 1994 | [Al\\-Erhabi](/wiki/The_Terrorist_%281994_film%29 \"The Terrorist (1994 film)\") | The Terrorist | AliMurphy, Kim (12 April 1994\\). [Movie Breaks Arab World's Silence on Terrorism Issues](https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/59345243.html?dids=59345243:59345243&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+12,+1994&author=KIM+MURPHY&pub=Los+Angeles+Times+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&desc=Media+Movie+Breaks+Arab+World's+Silence+on+Terrorism+Issues+`Explosive'+script+focuses+on+Muslim+militant+who+foments+violence+and+then+learns+the+meaning+of+love.&pqatl=google), *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, Retrieved December 14, 2010 |\n| 1993 | El Mansy | The Forgotten | Youssef El Mansy |\n| *[Al\\-Zaeem (play)](/wiki/Al-Zaeem \"Al-Zaeem\")* | The Leader | Zeinhom |\n| 1992 | [El Erhab Wal Kabab](/wiki/Terrorism_and_Kebab \"Terrorism and Kebab\") | Terrorism and Kebab | Ahmed |\n| 1991 | Shams Elzanaty | Shams Elzanaty | Shams Elzanaty |\n| 1987 | Al\\-Nemr Wal\\-Ontha | The Tiger And The Female | Waheed |\n| 1985 | [Al Halfout](/wiki/Al_Halfout \"Al Halfout\") | | Arafa |\n| 1984 | Hatta La\\-Yeteer Al\\-Dukhan | So that smoke won't fly | Fahmi |\n| Al Ins wa Algen | Humans and The Devil | Jalal (The Devil) |\n| [*Al\\-Wad Sayed Al\\-Shaghal* (play)](/wiki/Al-Wad_Sayed_Al-Shaghal \"Al-Wad Sayed Al-Shaghal\") | The Boy Sayyed The Servant | Sayyed |\n| 1983 | [El Harrif](/wiki/The_Street_Player \"The Street Player\") | The Professional | Fares |\n| [Al\\-Motasawel](/wiki/The_Beggar_%28film%29 \"The Beggar (film)\") | The Beggar | Hasanin |\n| El Avocato | The Advocate | Hasan Sabanekh |\n| 1982 | Dumu Fi Uyun Waqeha | Tears In Insolent Eyes | Gomaa El\\-Shawwan |\n| 1981 | [Al\\-Mashbouh](/wiki/The_Suspect_%281981_film%29 \"The Suspect (1981 film)\") | The Suspect | Maher |\n| 1979 | Ihna Bitua' al\\-Autobis | We are the Bus people | Jabir |\n| 1978 | Ahlam Al fata Al ta2r | Dreams Of The Fugitive Boy | Ibrahim El\\-Tayer |\n| 1975 | *[Shahed Ma Shafsh Haga](/wiki/Shahed_Ma_Shafsh_Haga \"Shahed Ma Shafsh Haga\") (play)* | The Witness Who Didn't See Anything | Sarhan Abdelbaseer |\n| *Gharameyat Afifi (play)* | |\n| 1973 | *[Madrast Al\\-Mushaghebeen](/wiki/Madrast_Al-Mushaghebeen \"Madrast Al-Mushaghebeen\") (play)* | The School of Mischievous | Bahgat |\n| 1971 | *[Sahira](/wiki/Witch_%28short_film%29 \"Witch (short film)\") (short)* | Witch | Waiter |\n| 1970 | *[Borj El\\-Athraa](/wiki/Virgo_%28film%29 \"Virgo (film)\")* | *Virgo* | |\n| 1965 | *Ana Feen W Enti Feen (play)* | | |\n| 1968 | *[Afreet Mirati](/wiki/My_Wife%27s_Goblin \"My Wife's Goblin\")* | *My Wife's Goblin* | |\n| 1967 | *[Karamat Zawgaty](/wiki/My_Wife%27s_Dignity \"My Wife's Dignity\")* | *My Wife's Dignity* | |\n| 1967 | *Dhat Al\\-Bijama Al\\-Hamraa (play)* | | |\n| 1966 | *[Mirati Modeer Aam](/wiki/My_Wife%2C_the_Director_General \"My Wife, the Director General\")* | *My Wife, the Director General* | |\n| 1966 | *[3 Losoos](/wiki/Three_Thieves_%281966_film%29 \"Three Thieves (1966 film)\")* | *Three Thieves* | |\n| 1966 | *Al\\-Nassabeen (play)* | | |\n| 1963 | *Ana Wa Howa Wa Heya (play)* | | |\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [List of Egyptian films of the 1980s](/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_films_of_the_1980s \"List of Egyptian films of the 1980s\")\n* [List of Egyptian films of the 1990s](/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_films_of_the_1990s \"List of Egyptian films of the 1990s\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [All Adel Imam films online in English, Arabic and French](https://web.archive.org/web/20090127044708/http://adelimamfilm.com/)\n\n[Category:Egyptian comedians](/wiki/Category:Egyptian_comedians \"Egyptian comedians\")\n[Category:Egyptian male film actors](/wiki/Category:Egyptian_male_film_actors \"Egyptian male film actors\")\n[Category:1940 births](/wiki/Category:1940_births \"1940 births\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Goodwill Ambassadors](/wiki/Category:United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees_Goodwill_Ambassadors \"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Goodwill Ambassadors\")\n[Category:Egyptian male television actors](/wiki/Category:Egyptian_male_television_actors \"Egyptian male television actors\")\n[Category:Cairo University alumni](/wiki/Category:Cairo_University_alumni \"Cairo University alumni\")\n[Category:People from Mansoura, Egypt](/wiki/Category:People_from_Mansoura%2C_Egypt \"People from Mansoura, Egypt\")\n[Category:Egyptian male stage actors](/wiki/Category:Egyptian_male_stage_actors \"Egyptian male stage actors\")\n[Category:20th\\-century Egyptian male actors](/wiki/Category:20th-century_Egyptian_male_actors \"20th-century Egyptian male actors\")\n[Category:Egyptian nationalists](/wiki/Category:Egyptian_nationalists \"Egyptian nationalists\")\n[Category:Male comedians](/wiki/Category:Male_comedians \"Male comedians\")\n[Category:21st\\-century Egyptian male actors](/wiki/Category:21st-century_Egyptian_male_actors \"21st-century Egyptian male actors\")\n[Category:Egyptian Muslims](/wiki/Category:Egyptian_Muslims \"Egyptian Muslims\")\n[Category:African comedians](/wiki/Category:African_comedians \"African comedians\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Sudden Strike
|
{
"id": [
null
],
"name": [
"141.136.136.154"
]
}
|
5kww8up63evdw4oktl37qvhb6bqfuac
|
2024-05-30T19:24:58Z
| 1,226,457,257 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Games",
"''Sudden Strike''",
"''Sudden Strike 2''",
"''Sudden Strike 3: Arms for Victory''",
"''Sudden Strike: The Last Stand''",
"''Warfare Reloaded''",
"''Sudden Strike 4''",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
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3,
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3,
3,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n***Sudden Strike*** is a series of [real\\-time tactics](/wiki/Real-time_tactics \"Real-time tactics\") video games set during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). The series is developed by Fireglow based in Russia and published by [CDV](/wiki/Cdv_Software_Entertainment \"Cdv Software Entertainment\") software of Germany and has been re\\-published by ZOOM\\-Platform.com. The player selects a faction (e.g. Soviets, Germans, or Allied forces) and gains control of many varied units such as [infantry](/wiki/Infantry \"Infantry\"), [tanks](/wiki/Tank \"Tank\") and [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\"). The games focus primarily on tactics, eschewing traditional [real\\-time strategy](/wiki/Real-time_strategy \"Real-time strategy\") resource gathering and base development.\n\n",
"Games\n-----\n\n[thumb\\|*[Sudden Strike 4](/wiki/Sudden_Strike_4 \"Sudden Strike 4\")* promotion at [Gamescom](/wiki/Gamescom \"Gamescom\") 2016](/wiki/File:Wikia-Gamescom-2016-352_%2828475781333%29.jpg \"Wikia-Gamescom-2016-352 (28475781333).jpg\")\n\n### *Sudden Strike*\n\nThe original *Sudden Strike*, released in 2000, included three campaigns (Soviets, Germans, and Allied forces). The battles are presented in an [isometric](/wiki/Isometric_projection \"Isometric projection\") perspective with line\\-of\\-sight occlusions and practical cover. *Sudden Strike* helped pioneer the [real\\-time tactics](/wiki/Real-time_tactics \"Real-time tactics\") genre, building upon concepts established by *Counter Action* for [DOS](/wiki/DOS \"DOS\"), which was published by [Mindscape](/wiki/Mindscape_%28company%29 \"Mindscape (company)\") in 1996\\.\n\n### *Sudden Strike 2*\n\n*Sudden Strike 2* was also developed by Russian developer Fireglow and published by CDV and was released in 2002\\. The game has since undergone minor changes in its game engine and now features a higher resolution setting and other graphical changes. The campaign still involves the Soviets and Allies, against the Germans and a new country, Japan.\n\n### *Sudden Strike 3: Arms for Victory*\n\n*Sudden Strike 3* is the third title in the series and the first to incorporate a [3D graphics](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics \"3D computer graphics\") engine. The game was released in 2007\\.\n\n#### *Sudden Strike: The Last Stand*\n\n*Sudden Strike: The Last Stand* was released in March 2009\\. It is a enhanced version of *Sudden Strike 3* which brings back a few features from *Sudden Strike 2*. The user interface is reworked in order to make it easier for player to control units and realize their tactics in the game.\n\n### *Warfare Reloaded*\n\nIn 2010, GFI Russia made *Confrontation. 3D. Reboot*, a spin\\-off of the series set in the modern day with the Russian Federation fighting both the USA and Taliban in a fictional 10\\-day conflict. \n\nFor the Western release, the game was renamed to *Warfare Reloaded*, likely since it used the same engine as \"Warfare\", with the \"Confrontation\" (or *Sudden Strike* in English) branding removed. \n\n### *Sudden Strike 4*\n\n*Sudden Strike* was released in 2017\\. It was developed by Kite Games and published by [Kalypso Media](/wiki/Kalypso_Media \"Kalypso Media\") for [PlayStation 4](/wiki/PlayStation_4 \"PlayStation 4\") and PC. While the developers hoped to remain true to the spirit of other games in the series, new skill trees and commander roles were introduced as features.\n\n",
"### *Sudden Strike*\n\nThe original *Sudden Strike*, released in 2000, included three campaigns (Soviets, Germans, and Allied forces). The battles are presented in an [isometric](/wiki/Isometric_projection \"Isometric projection\") perspective with line\\-of\\-sight occlusions and practical cover. *Sudden Strike* helped pioneer the [real\\-time tactics](/wiki/Real-time_tactics \"Real-time tactics\") genre, building upon concepts established by *Counter Action* for [DOS](/wiki/DOS \"DOS\"), which was published by [Mindscape](/wiki/Mindscape_%28company%29 \"Mindscape (company)\") in 1996\\.\n\n",
"### *Sudden Strike 2*\n\n*Sudden Strike 2* was also developed by Russian developer Fireglow and published by CDV and was released in 2002\\. The game has since undergone minor changes in its game engine and now features a higher resolution setting and other graphical changes. The campaign still involves the Soviets and Allies, against the Germans and a new country, Japan.\n\n",
"### *Sudden Strike 3: Arms for Victory*\n\n*Sudden Strike 3* is the third title in the series and the first to incorporate a [3D graphics](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics \"3D computer graphics\") engine. The game was released in 2007\\.\n\n#### *Sudden Strike: The Last Stand*\n\n*Sudden Strike: The Last Stand* was released in March 2009\\. It is a enhanced version of *Sudden Strike 3* which brings back a few features from *Sudden Strike 2*. The user interface is reworked in order to make it easier for player to control units and realize their tactics in the game.\n\n",
"#### *Sudden Strike: The Last Stand*\n\n*Sudden Strike: The Last Stand* was released in March 2009\\. It is a enhanced version of *Sudden Strike 3* which brings back a few features from *Sudden Strike 2*. The user interface is reworked in order to make it easier for player to control units and realize their tactics in the game.\n\n",
"### *Warfare Reloaded*\n\nIn 2010, GFI Russia made *Confrontation. 3D. Reboot*, a spin\\-off of the series set in the modern day with the Russian Federation fighting both the USA and Taliban in a fictional 10\\-day conflict. \n\nFor the Western release, the game was renamed to *Warfare Reloaded*, likely since it used the same engine as \"Warfare\", with the \"Confrontation\" (or *Sudden Strike* in English) branding removed. \n\n",
"### *Sudden Strike 4*\n\n*Sudden Strike* was released in 2017\\. It was developed by Kite Games and published by [Kalypso Media](/wiki/Kalypso_Media \"Kalypso Media\") for [PlayStation 4](/wiki/PlayStation_4 \"PlayStation 4\") and PC. While the developers hoped to remain true to the spirit of other games in the series, new skill trees and commander roles were introduced as features.\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* *[Stranger](/wiki/Stranger_%28video_game%29 \"Stranger (video game)\")*, also developed by Fireglow\n* *[Cold War Conflicts](/wiki/Cold_War_Conflicts \"Cold War Conflicts\")*, also developed by Fireglow\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* (archived)\n\n[Category:Real\\-time tactics video games](/wiki/Category:Real-time_tactics_video_games \"Real-time tactics video games\")\n[Category:Video game franchises](/wiki/Category:Video_game_franchises \"Video game franchises\")\n[Category:Video game franchises introduced in 2000](/wiki/Category:Video_game_franchises_introduced_in_2000 \"Video game franchises introduced in 2000\")\n[Category:Video games developed in Russia](/wiki/Category:Video_games_developed_in_Russia \"Video games developed in Russia\")\n[Category:World War II video games](/wiki/Category:World_War_II_video_games \"World War II video games\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Roman Szymański
|
{
"id": [
16185737
],
"name": [
"Smasongarrison"
]
}
|
bulkaqnj46rqofoibmquf9dwx8bs46x
|
2024-08-30T11:36:30Z
| 1,219,194,621 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Roman Szymański** (4 August 1840, [Kostrzyn](/wiki/Kostrzyn%2C_Greater_Poland_Voivodeship \"Kostrzyn, Greater Poland Voivodeship\"), [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") – 18 December 1908, [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\")) was a Polish political activist, publicist, editor of *[Orędownik](/wiki/Oredownik \"Oredownik\")* magazine.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n* [Witold Jakóbczyk](/wiki/Witold_Jak%C3%B3bczyk \"Witold Jakóbczyk\"), *Przetrwać na Wartą 1815\\-1914*, *Dzieje narodu i państwa polskiego*, vol. III\\-55, Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1989\n\n[Category:1840 births](/wiki/Category:1840_births \"1840 births\")\n[Category:1908 deaths](/wiki/Category:1908_deaths \"1908 deaths\")\n[Category:19th\\-century Prussian people](/wiki/Category:19th-century_Prussian_people \"19th-century Prussian people\")\n[Category:People from Poznań County](/wiki/Category:People_from_Pozna%C5%84_County \"People from Poznań County\")\n[Category:People from the Grand Duchy of Posen](/wiki/Category:People_from_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Posen \"People from the Grand Duchy of Posen\")\n[Category:Polish activists](/wiki/Category:Polish_activists \"Polish activists\")\n[Category:Polish publicists](/wiki/Category:Polish_publicists \"Polish publicists\") \n\n"
]
}
|
List of diplomatic missions in Australia
|
{
"id": [
3496179
],
"name": [
"Aquintero82"
]
}
|
4533nzittv6w24o1ftynbi5icu4ir9u
|
2024-10-13T21:42:50Z
| 1,248,115,783 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Diplomatic missions in Canberra",
"Embassies/High Commissions",
"Other delegations or representative offices",
"Consular missions",
"[[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]]",
"[[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Northern Territory]]",
"[[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]]",
"[[Cairns]], [[Queensland]]",
"[[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]",
"[[Perth]], [[Western Australia]]",
"[[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]]",
"Non-resident embassies and high commissions",
"Resident in [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]",
"Resident in [[Singapore]]",
"Resident in [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]",
"Resident elsewhere",
"Other delegations or representative offices",
"[[Sydney]]",
"Closed missions",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Diplomatic missions in Australia\n](/wiki/File:Diplomatic_missions_in_Australia.png \"Diplomatic missions in Australia.png\")\nConsulates were operating in Australian cities long before the [Commonwealth of Australia](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia \"Commonwealth of Australia\") was founded in 1901\\. The United States opened a consulate in Sydney in 1836, with other countries later following including Switzerland (1855\\), Germany (1879\\) and Japan (1896, in [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\")).\n\nThe diplomatic corps was first established in [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\") in 1936 when the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") appointed its first [High Commissioner](/wiki/High_Commissioner \"High Commissioner\") to Australia.\\*[High Commissioner in Australia](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/11758499) \\* The Argus (Melbourne), Friday 16 August 1935, page 9\\. Retrieved February 22, 2022\\. [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") appointed a representative in 1939\\*[Appointments of Dominion High Commissioners](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1259378954/view?partId=nla.obj-1259396895#page/n23/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 8 No 1 (January 1940\\), page 22\\. Retrieved February 22, 2022\\. and the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") established a [legation](/wiki/Legation \"Legation\") in 1940\\.\\*[History of the US and Australia](https://au.usembassy.gov/our-relationship/policy-history/history-of-u-s-and-australia/) \\* United States Department of State. Retrieved February 22, 2022\\. This was followed in early 1941 by [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\")\\*[Appointment of Japanese Minister to Australia](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1168565772/view?partId=nla.obj-1168597402#page/n22/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 10 No. 1 (January 1941\\), pages 19\\-20\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. \\*[Japense Minister in Australia](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1168565982/view?partId=nla.obj-1168625805#page/n6/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 10 No. 6 (April 1941\\), pages 132\\-133\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. only for the legation to be closed in December 1941 with the entry of Japan into World War II. The period 1941\\-1945 saw additional legations opened by wartime allies [China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_1912-1949 \"Republic of China 1912-1949\"),\\*[Exchange of Diplomatic Representatives Between Australia and China](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1214160750/view?partId=nla.obj-1214226550#page/n23/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 11 No 2, page 52\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\.\\*[Chinese Minister in Australia](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1168566463/view?partId=nla.obj-1168719413#page/n8/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol 11 No 6 Page 151\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. the [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics](/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics \"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\"),\\*[Soviet Minister to Australia](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-890608439/view?partId=nla.obj-890639045#page/n4/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 14 No. 3 (March 1943\\) pages 61\\-62\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. [France](/wiki/France \"France\")\\*[French Minister Appointed to Australia](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/91737438) \\* Advocate (Burnie) October 25, 1944, Page 5\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. and the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\")\\*[To Open Dutch Legation in Canberra](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/68754228) \\* Advocate (Burnie), February 16, 1942 page 2\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. and the appointment of [High Commissioners](/wiki/High_Commissioner \"High Commissioner\") by [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\")\\*[New Zealand High Commissioner](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-890608439/view?partId=nla.obj-890639308#page/n5/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 14, No.3 (March 1943\\) page 62\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. and [India](/wiki/India \"India\").\\*[Indian High Commissioner](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-890404943/view?partId=nla.obj-890430019#page/n26/mode/1up) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 15 No. 5 (June 1944\\), pages 141\\-142\\. Retrieved February 23, 2022\\. In 1946, Australia and the United States upgraded their diplomatic relations to ambassadorial level and exchanged ambassadors in September of that year. This was followed for the other non\\-Commonwealth permanent members of the UN Security Council, [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), [China](/wiki/Republic_of_China_1912-1949 \"Republic of China 1912-1949\") and the [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics](/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics \"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\") in 1948 \\*[Raising of Legations to Status of Embassies](https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1182177788/view?partId=nla.obj-1182272904) \\* Current Notes on International Affairs, Vol. 19, No 3 (March 1948\\) page 144\\. Retrieved February 22, 2022\\. and by the late 1960s all existing legations in Canberra had been upgraded to embassies.\n\nInitially [residences](/wiki/Ambassadorial_residence \"Ambassadorial residence\") and [chanceries](/wiki/Embassy \"Embassy\") were in the Canberra suburbs of [Red Hill](/wiki/Red_Hill%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Red Hill, Australian Capital Territory\") and [Forrest](/wiki/Forrest%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Forrest, Australian Capital Territory\"). The majority of missions are today in the lakeside suburb of [Yarralumla](/wiki/Yarralumla%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory\") or the suburb of [O'Malley](/wiki/O%27Malley%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"O'Malley, Australian Capital Territory\") in the [Woden Valley](/wiki/Woden_Valley \"Woden Valley\"). Many countries have built their chanceries in distinctive architectural styles reflecting national traditions or aspirations.\n\nSome countries have chosen not to establish an embassy in Canberra but instead operate a consulate in a major city, such as [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\").\n\nAs of 2024, Canberra hosts 112 embassies/high commissions.\n\n",
"Diplomatic missions in Canberra\n-------------------------------\n\n### Embassies/High Commissions\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Afghanistan%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Afghanistan, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Afghan_Embassy_in_Canberra.jpg \"Afghan Embassy in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Austria_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Austria Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Bangladesh_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"High Commission of Bangladesh to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Belgium_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Belgium in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Botswana_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Botswana in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Brazil_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Brazil in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Bruneian_High_Commission_in_Canberra.jpg \"Bruneian High Commission in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|119x119px](/wiki/File:Cambodian_Embassy_in_Canberra.JPG \"Cambodian Embassy in Canberra.JPG\") | |\n| | [High Commission](/wiki/High_Commission_of_Canada%2C_Canberra \"High Commission of Canada, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Canadian_High_Commission_in_Canberra_June_2014.jpg \"Canadian High Commission in Canberra June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_China%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of China, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Entrance_to_the_Chinese_Embassy_in_Canberra_June_2014.jpg \"Entrance to the Chinese Embassy in Canberra June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Croatian_Embassy_in_Canberra.JPG \"Croatian Embassy in Canberra.JPG\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_the_Republic_of_Cyprus_to_Australia_during_October_2014.jpg \"High Commission of the Republic of Cyprus to Australia during October 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Egyptian_Embassy_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Egyptian Embassy in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Estonia%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Estonia, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassies_of_Estonia_and_Finland_to_Australia_June_2016.jpg \"Embassies of Estonia and Finland to Australia June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Fiji_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Fiji in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Finland%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Finland, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassies_of_Estonia_and_Finland_to_Australia_June_2016.jpg \"Embassies of Estonia and Finland to Australia June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_France_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of France in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Germany%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Germany, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:German_Embassy_in_Canberra.jpg \"German Embassy in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Greece%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Greece, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Greek_embassy_in_Canberra_June_2016.jpg \"Greek embassy in Canberra June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Apostolic Nunciature](/wiki/Apostolic_Nunciature_to_Australia \"Apostolic Nunciature to Australia\") | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Hungary_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Hungary Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_India_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of India in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Indonesia%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Indonesian_Embassy_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Indonesian Embassy in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Iranian_embassy_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Iranian embassy to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Iraq_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Iraq to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embasy_of_Ireland_to_Australia_July_2014.jpg \"Embasy of Ireland to Australia July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Japan_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Japan in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Libya_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Libya to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Malaysian_High_Commission_to_Australia_July_2014.jpg \"Malaysian High Commission to Australia July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Mauritius_in_Australia.jpg \"High Commission of Mauritius in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Mexico%2C_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Mexico, Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Mongolia_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Mongolia to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Myanmar_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Myanmar in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:East_face_of_the_Embassy_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_to_Australia_December_2013.jpg \"East face of the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to Australia December 2013.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:New_Zealand_High_Commission_in_Canberra_June_2014.jpg \"New Zealand High Commission in Canberra June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Nigeria_in_Australia.jpg \"High Commission of Nigeria in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Norway%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Norway, Canberra\") | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Pakistan_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Pakistan in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Papua_New_Guinea_to_Australia_June_2016.jpg \"High Commission of Papua New Guinea to Australia June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Peru_Embassy_in_Australia.jpg \"Peru Embassy in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_the_Philippines%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of the Philippines, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_the_Philippines_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of the Philippines in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Poland_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Poland in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Russia, Canberra\") | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Samoa_in_Australia.jpg \"High Commission of Samoa in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Saudi_Arabia_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Singapore_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Singapore in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Solomon_Islands_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Solomon Islands in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:South_African_high_commission_to_Australia_December_2013.jpg \"South African high commission to Australia December 2013.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Spain_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Spain in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | [High Commission](/wiki/High_Commission_of_Sri_Lanka%2C_Canberra \"High Commission of Sri Lanka, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Sri_Lanka_High_Commission_in_Canberra.jpg \"Sri Lanka High Commission in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Sweden%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Sweden, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Swedish_Embassy%2C_Canberra_%283%29.JPG \"Swedish Embassy, Canberra (3).JPG\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Switzerland_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Switzerland in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Thailand_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Thailand in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Timor_Leste_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Timor Leste in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Turkey_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Turkey in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Ukraine%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Ukraine, Canberra\") | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [High Commission](/wiki/High_Commission_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Canberra \"High Commission of the United Kingdom, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:British_High_Commission_in_Canberra.jpg \"British High Commission in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of the United States, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_the_United_States.jpg \"Embassy of the United States.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n\n### Other delegations or representative offices\n\n* (Delegation)\n* [National Unity Government of Myanmar](/wiki/National_Unity_Government_of_Myanmar \"National Unity Government of Myanmar\") (Representative Office)[Dr. Tun Aung Shwe – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the National Unity Government of Myanmar](https://mofa.nugmyanmar.org/dr-tun-aung-shwe/)['This is really important': Myanmar's government\\-in\\-exile opens office in Canberra \\| SBS News](https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/this-is-really-important-myanmars-government-in-exile-opens-office-in-canberra/qlunvjqro)\n* (Delegation)\n* (Representative Office)\n* ([Economic \\& Cultural Office](/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Australia \"Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Australia\"))\n* (Information Centre)\n",
"### Embassies/High Commissions\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Afghanistan%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Afghanistan, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Afghan_Embassy_in_Canberra.jpg \"Afghan Embassy in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Austria_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Austria Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Bangladesh_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"High Commission of Bangladesh to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Belgium_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Belgium in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Botswana_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Botswana in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Brazil_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Brazil in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Bruneian_High_Commission_in_Canberra.jpg \"Bruneian High Commission in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|119x119px](/wiki/File:Cambodian_Embassy_in_Canberra.JPG \"Cambodian Embassy in Canberra.JPG\") | |\n| | [High Commission](/wiki/High_Commission_of_Canada%2C_Canberra \"High Commission of Canada, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Canadian_High_Commission_in_Canberra_June_2014.jpg \"Canadian High Commission in Canberra June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_China%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of China, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Entrance_to_the_Chinese_Embassy_in_Canberra_June_2014.jpg \"Entrance to the Chinese Embassy in Canberra June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Croatian_Embassy_in_Canberra.JPG \"Croatian Embassy in Canberra.JPG\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_the_Republic_of_Cyprus_to_Australia_during_October_2014.jpg \"High Commission of the Republic of Cyprus to Australia during October 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Egyptian_Embassy_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Egyptian Embassy in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Estonia%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Estonia, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassies_of_Estonia_and_Finland_to_Australia_June_2016.jpg \"Embassies of Estonia and Finland to Australia June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Fiji_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Fiji in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Finland%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Finland, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassies_of_Estonia_and_Finland_to_Australia_June_2016.jpg \"Embassies of Estonia and Finland to Australia June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_France_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of France in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Germany%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Germany, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:German_Embassy_in_Canberra.jpg \"German Embassy in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Greece%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Greece, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Greek_embassy_in_Canberra_June_2016.jpg \"Greek embassy in Canberra June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Apostolic Nunciature](/wiki/Apostolic_Nunciature_to_Australia \"Apostolic Nunciature to Australia\") | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Hungary_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Hungary Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_India_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of India in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Indonesia%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Indonesian_Embassy_in_Canberra_July_2014.jpg \"Indonesian Embassy in Canberra July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Iranian_embassy_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Iranian embassy to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Iraq_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Iraq to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embasy_of_Ireland_to_Australia_July_2014.jpg \"Embasy of Ireland to Australia July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Japan_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Japan in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Libya_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Libya to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Malaysian_High_Commission_to_Australia_July_2014.jpg \"Malaysian High Commission to Australia July 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Mauritius_in_Australia.jpg \"High Commission of Mauritius in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Mexico%2C_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Mexico, Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Mongolia_to_Australia_June_2014.jpg \"Embassy of Mongolia to Australia June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Myanmar_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Myanmar in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:East_face_of_the_Embassy_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_to_Australia_December_2013.jpg \"East face of the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to Australia December 2013.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:New_Zealand_High_Commission_in_Canberra_June_2014.jpg \"New Zealand High Commission in Canberra June 2014.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Nigeria_in_Australia.jpg \"High Commission of Nigeria in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Norway%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Norway, Canberra\") | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Pakistan_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Pakistan in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Papua_New_Guinea_to_Australia_June_2016.jpg \"High Commission of Papua New Guinea to Australia June 2016.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Peru_Embassy_in_Australia.jpg \"Peru Embassy in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_the_Philippines%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of the Philippines, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_the_Philippines_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of the Philippines in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Poland_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Poland in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Russia, Canberra\") | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Samoa_in_Australia.jpg \"High Commission of Samoa in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Saudi_Arabia_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Singapore_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Singapore in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:High_Commission_of_Solomon_Islands_in_Canberra.jpg \"High Commission of Solomon Islands in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:South_African_high_commission_to_Australia_December_2013.jpg \"South African high commission to Australia December 2013.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Spain_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Spain in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | [High Commission](/wiki/High_Commission_of_Sri_Lanka%2C_Canberra \"High Commission of Sri Lanka, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Sri_Lanka_High_Commission_in_Canberra.jpg \"Sri Lanka High Commission in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Sweden%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Sweden, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Swedish_Embassy%2C_Canberra_%283%29.JPG \"Swedish Embassy, Canberra (3).JPG\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Switzerland_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Switzerland in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Thailand_in_Australia.jpg \"Embassy of Thailand in Australia.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Timor_Leste_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Timor Leste in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_Turkey_in_Canberra.jpg \"Embassy of Turkey in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_Ukraine%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of Ukraine, Canberra\") | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | [High Commission](/wiki/High_Commission_of_the_United_Kingdom%2C_Canberra \"High Commission of the United Kingdom, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:British_High_Commission_in_Canberra.jpg \"British High Commission in Canberra.jpg\") | |\n| | [Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States%2C_Canberra \"Embassy of the United States, Canberra\") | | [frameless\\|120x120px](/wiki/File:Embassy_of_the_United_States.jpg \"Embassy of the United States.jpg\") | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n| | High Commission | | | |\n| | Embassy | | | |\n\n",
"### Other delegations or representative offices\n\n* (Delegation)\n* [National Unity Government of Myanmar](/wiki/National_Unity_Government_of_Myanmar \"National Unity Government of Myanmar\") (Representative Office)[Dr. Tun Aung Shwe – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the National Unity Government of Myanmar](https://mofa.nugmyanmar.org/dr-tun-aung-shwe/)['This is really important': Myanmar's government\\-in\\-exile opens office in Canberra \\| SBS News](https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/this-is-really-important-myanmars-government-in-exile-opens-office-in-canberra/qlunvjqro)\n* (Delegation)\n* (Representative Office)\n* ([Economic \\& Cultural Office](/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Australia \"Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Australia\"))\n* (Information Centre)\n",
"Consular missions\n-----------------\n\n### [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n\n### [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory \"Darwin, Northern Territory\"), [Northern Territory](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n\n### [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate | | | [Consulate of Italy in Brisbane](https://consbrisbane.esteri.it/consolato_brisbane/en/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Eagle_Street%2C_Brisbane_06.2013_081.jpg \"Eagle Street, Brisbane 06.2013 081.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consular Office | | | [Consular Office of South Korea in Brisbane](https://overseas.mofa.go.kr/au-brisbane-en/index.do) |\n| | Economic \\& Cultural Office | | | [Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Brisbane](https://www.roc-taiwan.org/aubne_en/index.html) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of the United Kingdom in Brisbane](https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-consulate-general-brisbane) |\n\n### [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns \"Cairns\"), [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consular Office | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Cairns_corporate_tower.JPG \"Cairns corporate tower.JPG\") | [The Consular Office of Japan in Cairns \\| Consulate\\-General of Japan in Brisbane](https://www.brisbane.au.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/about_cairns.html) |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n\n### [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 \"Victoria (Australia)\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Consulate_General_of_the_Republic_of_Indonesia_in_Melbourne.jpg \"Consulate General of the Republic of Indonesia in Melbourne.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"), [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Economic \\& Cultural Office | | | [Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Melbourne](https://www.roc-taiwan.org/aumel_en/index.html) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") \\& [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"), [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n\n### [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Chinese_consulate_in_Perth.jpg \"Chinese consulate in Perth.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Consulate_General_of_the_Republic_of_Indonesia_in_Perth.jpg \"Consulate General of the Republic of Indonesia in Perth.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\") (commercial matters only) | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n\n### [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"), [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") | | [Consulate\\-General of Canada in Sydney](https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/australia-australie/sydney.aspx?lang=eng) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Chinese_Consulate_General_in_Sydney_04.jpg \"Chinese Consulate General in Sydney 04.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Colombia in Sydney](https://sydney.consulado.gov.co/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of East Timor in Sydney](https://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Public/Consulates/198/State/8) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Fiji in Sydney](https://www.investinfiji.today/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Hungary in Sydney](https://canberra.mfa.gov.hu/eng/page/elerhetosegek-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") and [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Italy in Sydney](https://conssydney.esteri.it/consolato_sydney/en/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Behind_Circular_Quay_-_cropped.jpg \"Behind Circular Quay - cropped.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Kazakhstan in Sydney](https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/mfa-sydney?lang=en) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Malaysia in Sydney](https://www.kln.gov.my/web/aus_canberra/agencies) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of the Netherlands in Sydney](https://www.netherlandsandyou.nl/your-country-and-the-netherlands/australia/about-us/consulate-general-in-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Peru in Sydney](http://www.consulado.pe/es/Sydney/Paginas/Inicio.aspx) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Poland in Sydney](https://www.gov.pl/web/australia-en/consulate-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Portugal in Sydney](https://sidney.consuladoportugal.mne.gov.pt/en/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Romania in Sydney](https://sydney.mae.ro/en) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Russia in Sydney](https://sydney.mid.ru/web/sydney-en) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Saudi Arabia in Sydney](https://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Public/Consulates/174/State/2) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Serbia in Sydney](http://www.sydney.mfa.gov.rs) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Economic \\& Cultural Office | | | [Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Sydney](https://www.roc-taiwan.org/ausyd_en/index.html) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of the United Kingdom in Sydney](https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-consulate-general-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NFI](/wiki/Norfolk_Island \"Norfolk Island\"), [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n\n",
"### [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n\n",
"### [Darwin](/wiki/Darwin%2C_Northern_Territory \"Darwin, Northern Territory\"), [Northern Territory](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n\n",
"### [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate | | | [Consulate of Italy in Brisbane](https://consbrisbane.esteri.it/consolato_brisbane/en/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Eagle_Street%2C_Brisbane_06.2013_081.jpg \"Eagle Street, Brisbane 06.2013 081.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consular Office | | | [Consular Office of South Korea in Brisbane](https://overseas.mofa.go.kr/au-brisbane-en/index.do) |\n| | Economic \\& Cultural Office | | | [Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Brisbane](https://www.roc-taiwan.org/aubne_en/index.html) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of the United Kingdom in Brisbane](https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-consulate-general-brisbane) |\n\n",
"### [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns \"Cairns\"), [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consular Office | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Cairns_corporate_tower.JPG \"Cairns corporate tower.JPG\") | [The Consular Office of Japan in Cairns \\| Consulate\\-General of Japan in Brisbane](https://www.brisbane.au.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/about_cairns.html) |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n\n",
"### [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 \"Victoria (Australia)\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Consulate_General_of_the_Republic_of_Indonesia_in_Melbourne.jpg \"Consulate General of the Republic of Indonesia in Melbourne.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"), [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Economic \\& Cultural Office | | | [Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Melbourne](https://www.roc-taiwan.org/aumel_en/index.html) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\"), and [WA](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") \\& [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"), [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and [TAS](/wiki/Tasmania \"Tasmania\") | | |\n\n",
"### [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia \"Western Australia\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Chinese_consulate_in_Perth.jpg \"Chinese consulate in Perth.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Consulate_General_of_the_Republic_of_Indonesia_in_Perth.jpg \"Consulate General of the Republic of Indonesia in Perth.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\") (commercial matters only) | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n\n",
"### [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\")\n\n| Sending Country | Mission | Notes | Image | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NT](/wiki/Northern_Territory \"Northern Territory\"), [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") | | [Consulate\\-General of Canada in Sydney](https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/australia-australie/sydney.aspx?lang=eng) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Chinese_Consulate_General_in_Sydney_04.jpg \"Chinese Consulate General in Sydney 04.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Colombia in Sydney](https://sydney.consulado.gov.co/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of East Timor in Sydney](https://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Public/Consulates/198/State/8) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Fiji in Sydney](https://www.investinfiji.today/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Hungary in Sydney](https://canberra.mfa.gov.hu/eng/page/elerhetosegek-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") and [SA](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Italy in Sydney](https://conssydney.esteri.it/consolato_sydney/en/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | [120x120px](/wiki/File:Behind_Circular_Quay_-_cropped.jpg \"Behind Circular Quay - cropped.jpg\") | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Kazakhstan in Sydney](https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/mfa-sydney?lang=en) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Malaysia in Sydney](https://www.kln.gov.my/web/aus_canberra/agencies) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of the Netherlands in Sydney](https://www.netherlandsandyou.nl/your-country-and-the-netherlands/australia/about-us/consulate-general-in-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Peru in Sydney](http://www.consulado.pe/es/Sydney/Paginas/Inicio.aspx) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Poland in Sydney](https://www.gov.pl/web/australia-en/consulate-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Portugal in Sydney](https://sidney.consuladoportugal.mne.gov.pt/en/) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Romania in Sydney](https://sydney.mae.ro/en) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Russia in Sydney](https://sydney.mid.ru/web/sydney-en) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Saudi Arabia in Sydney](https://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Public/Consulates/174/State/2) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of Serbia in Sydney](http://www.sydney.mfa.gov.rs) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Economic \\& Cultural Office | | | [Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Sydney](https://www.roc-taiwan.org/ausyd_en/index.html) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | [Consulate\\-General of the United Kingdom in Sydney](https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-consulate-general-sydney) |\n| | Consulate\\-General | Also serves [NFI](/wiki/Norfolk_Island \"Norfolk Island\"), [QLD](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | | | |\n\n",
"Non\\-resident embassies and high commissions\n--------------------------------------------\n\n### Resident in [Jakarta](/wiki/Jakarta \"Jakarta\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\")\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n4. \n5. \n\n### Resident in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\")\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n\n### Resident in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\")\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n4. \n5. \n6. \n7. \n8. \n9. \n10. \n11. \n12. \n13. \n14. \n15. \n16. \n17. \n\n### Resident elsewhere\n\n1. ([Nassau](/wiki/Nassau%2C_Bahamas \"Nassau, Bahamas\"))\n2. ([London](/wiki/London \"London\"))\n3. ([Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"))\n4. (Ottawa)\n5. ([Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"))\n6. (Beijing)\n7. ([Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria \"Pretoria\"))\n8. (Beijing)\n9. (Beijing)\n10. (Beijing)\n11. \n12. ([New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi \"New Delhi\"))\n13. (Beijing)\n14. (Kuala Lumpur)\n15. \n16. ([Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\"))\n17. (Washington, D.C.)\n18. (Beijing)\n19. (Ottawa)\n20. \n21. \n22. ([Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\"))\n23. ([Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\"))\n24. \n25. (Kuala Lumpur)\n26. ([Port Louis](/wiki/Port_Louis \"Port Louis\"))\n27. ([Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"))\n28. ([Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo \"Monte Carlo\"))\n29. ([Suva](/wiki/Suva \"Suva\"))\n30. ([Podgorica](/wiki/Podgorica \"Podgorica\"))\n31. (Kuala Lumpur)\n32. \n33. (New Delhi)\n34. (Manila)\n35. ([New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"))\n36. ([Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"))\n37. (Washington, D.C.)\n38. (Beijing)\n39. (Beijing)\n40. (New Delhi)\n41. (Kuala Lumpur)\n42. \n43. (Beijing)\n44. (Beijing) \n\n",
"### Resident in [Jakarta](/wiki/Jakarta \"Jakarta\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\")\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n4. \n5. \n\n",
"### Resident in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\")\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n\n",
"### Resident in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\")\n\n1. \n2. \n3. \n4. \n5. \n6. \n7. \n8. \n9. \n10. \n11. \n12. \n13. \n14. \n15. \n16. \n17. \n\n",
"### Resident elsewhere\n\n1. ([Nassau](/wiki/Nassau%2C_Bahamas \"Nassau, Bahamas\"))\n2. ([London](/wiki/London \"London\"))\n3. ([Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"))\n4. (Ottawa)\n5. ([Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"))\n6. (Beijing)\n7. ([Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria \"Pretoria\"))\n8. (Beijing)\n9. (Beijing)\n10. (Beijing)\n11. \n12. ([New Delhi](/wiki/New_Delhi \"New Delhi\"))\n13. (Beijing)\n14. (Kuala Lumpur)\n15. \n16. ([Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\"))\n17. (Washington, D.C.)\n18. (Beijing)\n19. (Ottawa)\n20. \n21. \n22. ([Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\"))\n23. ([Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\"))\n24. \n25. (Kuala Lumpur)\n26. ([Port Louis](/wiki/Port_Louis \"Port Louis\"))\n27. ([Colombo](/wiki/Colombo \"Colombo\"))\n28. ([Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo \"Monte Carlo\"))\n29. ([Suva](/wiki/Suva \"Suva\"))\n30. ([Podgorica](/wiki/Podgorica \"Podgorica\"))\n31. (Kuala Lumpur)\n32. \n33. (New Delhi)\n34. (Manila)\n35. ([New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"))\n36. ([Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"))\n37. (Washington, D.C.)\n38. (Beijing)\n39. (Beijing)\n40. (New Delhi)\n41. (Kuala Lumpur)\n42. \n43. (Beijing)\n44. (Beijing) \n\n",
"Other delegations or representative offices\n-------------------------------------------\n\n### [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\")\n\n* (Representative Office)\n",
"### [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\")\n\n* (Representative Office)\n",
"Closed missions\n---------------\n\n| Host city | Sending country | Mission | Year closed | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\") | | Embassy | 2018 | |\n| | Embassy | 2020 | \\*[Embassy of Ivory Coast in Australia](https://australie.diplomatie.gouv.ci/actu-ambassade.php?lang=en&type=1)\\* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cote d'Ivoire. Retrieved January 17, 2024\\. |\n| | Embassy | 2013 | |\n| | Embassy | 2008 | |\n| | Embassy | 2024 | [Gobierno de Santiago Peña oficializó el cierre de cuatro embajadas (in Spanish)](https://www.lanacion.com.py/politica/2024/10/11/gobierno-de-santiago-pena-oficializo-el-cierre-de-cuatro-embajadas/) |\n| | Embassy | 1975 | |\n| | Embassy | 2012 | |\n| [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\") | | Consulate\\-General | 1990 | |\n| | Consulate | 2006 | |\n| [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") | | Consulate\\-General | 2010 | |\n| | Consulate | 1980s | |\n| [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") | | Consulate\\-General | 2023 | |\n| [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\") | | Consulate\\-General | 1990 | |\n| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") | | Consulate\\-General | 2020 | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | 2012 | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | 2001 | |\n| | Consulate\\-General | 1995 | |\n| [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\") | | Consulate | 1908 | |\n\n",
"See also\n--------\n\n* [Foreign relations of Australia](/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Australia \"Foreign relations of Australia\")\n* [Visa requirements for Australian citizens](/wiki/Visa_requirements_for_Australian_citizens \"Visa requirements for Australian citizens\")\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Diplomatic List](https://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Public/Display)\n\n[Diplomatic missions](/wiki/Category:Australia_diplomacy-related_lists \"Australia diplomacy-related lists\")\n[Australia](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_diplomatic_missions_by_receiving_country \"Lists of diplomatic missions by receiving country\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Malta, Austria
|
{
"id": [
35502160
],
"name": [
"Toweli"
]
}
|
pmnvx1f1dmw9olpgoklazzuyw729k5q
|
2024-05-12T15:40:18Z
| 1,040,264,922 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"History",
"Kölnbrein Dam",
"Politics",
"Notable people",
"References"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n**Malta** is a municipality and a village in the district of [Spittal an der Drau](/wiki/Spittal_an_der_Drau_District \"Spittal an der Drau District\"), in the [Austrian](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") state of [Carinthia](/wiki/Carinthia \"Carinthia\").\n\n",
"Geography\n---------\n\nThe municipal area, with the second largest in Carinthia, covers most of the [Maltatal](/wiki/Maltatal \"Maltatal\") valley, stretching from the [Ankogel Group](/wiki/Ankogel_Group \"Ankogel Group\") of the [Hohe Tauern](/wiki/Hohe_Tauern \"Hohe Tauern\") range in the northwest down to the town of [Gmünd](/wiki/Gm%C3%BCnd%2C_Carinthia \"Gmünd, Carinthia\") on the Lieser river, a tributary of the [Drava](/wiki/Drava \"Drava\"). In the southwest it borders on the [Reißeck](/wiki/Rei%C3%9Feck \"Reißeck\") municipality, while the [Alpine crest](/wiki/Main_chain_of_the_Alps \"Main chain of the Alps\") including the [Ankogel](/wiki/Ankogel \"Ankogel\") and [Hochalmspitze](/wiki/Hochalmspitze \"Hochalmspitze\") peaks forms the northern border with the Austrian state of [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg_%28state%29 \"Salzburg (state)\"). It includes the [cadastral communities](/wiki/Cadastral_community \"Cadastral community\") (*Katastralgemeinden*) of Dornbach, Malta proper, and Maltaberg. \n[thumb\\|left\\|Parish church](/wiki/File:Pfarrkirche_Malta_%28K%C3%A4rnten%291.JPG \"Pfarrkirche Malta (Kärnten)1.JPG\")\nFormerly an agricultural area, the local economy today largely depends on tourism with about 120,000 overnight stays per year. Attractions include a former [provost](/wiki/Provost_%28religion%29 \"Provost (religion)\")'s cottage (turned into an open\\-air museum) and the *Fallbach Klettersteig*, a [via ferrata](/wiki/Via_ferrata \"Via ferrata\") along the [Fallbach Waterfall](/wiki/Fallbach_Waterfall \"Fallbach Waterfall\"). In 1987 the *Nationalpark Hohe Tauern* was extended as far as the Ankogel Group and today, some 85\\.7 square kilometres of the municipal area are part of the national park territory.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nAlready settled in pre\\-[Roman](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") times, the first documented mention of Malta was between 957 and 992 under the name *locus Malontina*. In the 11th century, Ödenfest Castle was erected on the northern slopes of the Maltatal valley, then held by *[ministeriales](/wiki/Ministerialis \"Ministerialis\")* of the [Bishops of Brixen](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Brixen \"Bishopric of Brixen\"). It was devastated in the early 14th century, when the local Counts of Malta revolted against the [Meinhardiner](/wiki/House_of_Gorizia \"House of Gorizia\") dukes of [Carinthia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carinthia \"Duchy of Carinthia\").\n\nA first church beneath the castle was mentioned between 1006 and 1039\\. The [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") parish church of *Maria Hilf Assumptio* was built in various stages between the 13th and the 15th centuries. It has a Roman gravestone set into the wall, 15th\\-century paintings in the vaults, and 14th\\-century frescoes on the walls of the choir. In the neighbourhood is the Dornbach [water castle](/wiki/Water_castle \"Water castle\") (originally Gothic, but with alterations added in the 16th century); it is surrounded by a circuit of walls and a moat. The village of Fischertratten is centered on a [Protestant](/wiki/Religion_in_Austria \"Religion in Austria\") church, erected upon the [Patent of Toleration](/wiki/Patent_of_Toleration \"Patent of Toleration\") in 1787\\.\n\n",
"Kölnbrein Dam\n-------------\n\n[thumb\\|Kölnbrein reservoir with Hochalmspitze and Ankogel peaks](/wiki/File:K%C3%B6lnbreinspeicher_von_Weinschnabel.JPG \"Kölnbreinspeicher von Weinschnabel.JPG\")\n\nThe *Hochalm* mountain road up the steep Malta valley leads to the Kölnbrein [arch dam](/wiki/Arch_dam \"Arch dam\"), part of the Malta [hydroelectric plant](/wiki/Hydroelectricity \"Hydroelectricity\") run by the [Verbund](/wiki/Verbund \"Verbund\") power company. Tunnels lead the water to the power stations in the [Möll valley](/wiki/M%C3%B6ll_valley \"Möll valley\") at [Reißeck](/wiki/Rei%C3%9Feck \"Reißeck\") over 1100 m (3610 ft) below.\n\nThe dam collects a large amount of water from the surrounding mountains and also by a system of water supply tunnels bringing water from the *Lieser* and *Möll* rivers. The [masonry dam](/wiki/Masonry_dam \"Masonry dam\") built between 1971 and 1978 with a length of 626 m (2053 ft) reaches a height above ground of 200 m (656 ft) and therefore is the [tallest](/wiki/List_of_world%27s_tallest_dams \"List of world's tallest dams\") in Austria. The [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir \"Reservoir\") extends 4\\.5 km (2\\.8 mi) behind the dam, holding approximately 200 million m³ of water.\n\nAdjacent to the dam is a restaurant and a hotel. The reservoir serves [competitive rowers](/wiki/Rowing_%28sport%29 \"Rowing (sport)\") for [altitude training](/wiki/Altitude_training \"Altitude training\") while the dam is a popular [bungee jumping](/wiki/Bungee_jumping \"Bungee jumping\") venue.\n\n",
"Politics\n--------\n\n[thumb\\|Municipal office](/wiki/File:Malta_Gemeindeamt.JPG \"Malta Gemeindeamt.JPG\")\nSeats in the municipal assembly (*Gemeinderat*) as of 2015 local elections:\n* *Liste für Malta* ([Independent](/wiki/Independent_politician \"Independent politician\")): 6\n* [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria \"Freedom Party of Austria\") (FPÖ): 5\n* [Social Democratic Party of Austria](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria \"Social Democratic Party of Austria\") (SPÖ): 4\n* [Greens](/wiki/The_Greens_%E2%80%93_The_Green_Alternative \"The Greens – The Green Alternative\") and Independents: 4\n\n",
"Notable people\n--------------\n\n* [Eva Kary](/wiki/Eva_Faschaunerin \"Eva Faschaunerin\"), called Faschaunerin, tortured and executed in 1773\n",
"References\n----------\n\n[Category:Cities and towns in Spittal an der Drau District](/wiki/Category:Cities_and_towns_in_Spittal_an_der_Drau_District \"Cities and towns in Spittal an der Drau District\")\n\n"
]
}
|
Central Market (Texas)
|
{
"id": [
541143
],
"name": [
"Postoak"
]
}
|
caylfheywqhz5ziv1u0m5nr10muh95o
|
2024-02-11T07:37:24Z
| 1,206,122,451 | 0 |
{
"title": [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Central Market specialties",
"Live music",
"References",
"External links"
],
"level": [
1,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
],
"content": [
"\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Entrance of the original store in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\").](/wiki/File:Central_Market_north_Austin.jpg \"Central Market north Austin.jpg\")\n**Central Market** is an American [gourmet](/wiki/Gourmet \"Gourmet\") grocery store chain owned by [H\\-E\\-B Grocery Company](/wiki/H-E-B \"H-E-B\") based in [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\"). Most locations also have a full\\-service [kitchen](/wiki/Kitchen \"Kitchen\"), offer cooking and wine classes in their [culinary school](/wiki/Culinary_school \"Culinary school\"), and offer [catering](/wiki/Catering \"Catering\") services. The chain has ten locations, all in Texas. Central Market was named \"Outstanding Specialty Food Retailer\" by *Specialty Food Magazine* and the National Association for Specialty Food Trade.[\"Central Market wins national honor\"](http://www.mysanantonio.com/business/stories/MYSA06120.10B.NZ.State.Central_Market_.2ab1963.html) , *San Antonio Express\\-News*, June 11, 2007\\.\n\n",
"History\n-------\n\nThe original store opened in 1994 in the Central Park Shopping Center on North Lamar Boulevard in [Austin, Texas](/wiki/Austin%2C_Texas \"Austin, Texas\").\n\nIt was not long before H\\-E\\-B Grocery Company expanded the chain to [Alamo Heights](/wiki/Alamo_Heights%2C_Texas \"Alamo Heights, Texas\"), [Fort Worth](/wiki/Fort_Worth%2C_Texas \"Fort Worth, Texas\"), [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\") and [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\"). The chain's second store opened in 1997 in a converted H\\-E\\-B on Broadway in the [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\") area (in the [Alamo Heights](/wiki/Alamo_Heights%2C_Texas \"Alamo Heights, Texas\") city limits). Two years later, a third store was opened on South Lamar in Austin. Fort Worth and Houston were introduced to the chain for the first time in 2001, with stores on West Freeway and Westheimer, respectively; the latter was on the former site of Fox owned\\-and\\-operated television station [KRIV](/wiki/KRIV_%28TV%29 \"KRIV (TV)\"). Central Market's sixth and seventh stores opened in 2002 on East Lovers Lane in Dallas and Coit Road in [Plano](/wiki/Plano%2C_Texas \"Plano, Texas\"). Continuing its Dallas/Fort Worth area expansion, an eighth store opened at The Shops of Southlake in [Southlake](/wiki/Southlake%2C_Texas \"Southlake, Texas\") on December 6, 2006, and another store opened at Preston Road and Royal Lane in [the Preston Hollow neighborhood of Dallas](/wiki/Preston_Hollow%2C_Texas \"Preston Hollow, Texas\") on February 15, 2012\\. Their latest store opened on September 5, 2018, Dallas Texas' 3rd store, located at Midway Road and Northwest Highway.\n\n",
"Central Market specialties\n--------------------------\n\nCentral Market is known for its *Café on the Run*. The chain also carries a line of exclusive [organic](/wiki/Organic_food \"Organic food\") products called *Central Market Organics*. The product line includes organic or all\\-natural items ranging from commodities such as milk and eggs to pasta sauce and cookie dough.\n\nCentral Market deliberately limits floor space allocated to packaged products, allowing more space for fresh produce, meat and seafood, bulk products, and chef\\-prepared items. The produce section stocks items such as crab\\-apples, Meyer lemons, sweet limes, and pink lemons that are hard to find at other stores. The limited space for packaged products is devoted primarily to items that cannot be found at other supermarkets. Other aisles follow the same pattern with an emphasis on local, imported, organic, and gourmet brands rather than standard supermarket products. Central Market also offers a wide variety of sushi which is made in house by sushi chefs. The company that provides the sushi is called Yummi Sushi based out of Farmers Branch, Texas.\n\n",
"Live music\n----------\n\n[right\\|thumb\\|The Boxcar Preachers perform at the original Central Market in Austin](/wiki/Image:BoxcarPreachers.jpg \"BoxcarPreachers.jpg\")\nAs appropriate for a store that first began in Austin, the self\\-styled \"Live Music Capital of the World\", most Central Market locations feature a patio with live music on several nights each week.\n\n",
"References\n----------\n\n",
"External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official site](http://www.centralmarket.com/)\n\n[Category:Retail companies established in 1994](/wiki/Category:Retail_companies_established_in_1994 \"Retail companies established in 1994\")\n[Category:Companies based in San Antonio](/wiki/Category:Companies_based_in_San_Antonio \"Companies based in San Antonio\")\n[Category:Organic food retail organizations](/wiki/Category:Organic_food_retail_organizations \"Organic food retail organizations\")\n[Category:Privately held companies based in Texas](/wiki/Category:Privately_held_companies_based_in_Texas \"Privately held companies based in Texas\")\n[Category:Supermarkets of the United States](/wiki/Category:Supermarkets_of_the_United_States \"Supermarkets of the United States\")\n[Category:1994 establishments in Texas](/wiki/Category:1994_establishments_in_Texas \"1994 establishments in Texas\")\n\n"
]
}
|
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