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3hduel
|
why is bed-wetting associated with serial killers?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is part of the Macdonald triad. The Macdonald triad proposes that three behaviours in youth (extended bedwetting, fire-starting, cruelty to animals) are indicative of later violent tendencies.\n\nThe thing is though, we aren't actually sure if the Macdonald triad is actually statistically a thing. Some studies say it is, some studies say it isn't, some studies say that those behaviours (among others) are linked to childhood neglect and abuse which puts a child more at risk of violent tendencies. The people who believe in this say that bed wetting longer than average can lead to feelings of shame and loss of control, which can then result in fire starting and animal cruelty (trying to regain that control), especially when they are punished by parents for this bed wetting. But like I said, there is a lot of debate if it is a thing at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find them scary all right?! Jeez!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's shame and bullying. The worst accusation you can make of a kid in grade school is that they wet the bed. Those who are known to are shamed and bullied and thus especially if the kid doesn't have a good support network he ends up feeling like people are assholes and that he deserves revenge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61126242",
"title": "Confusional arousals",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Sleep-related violence and abnormal sexual behaviours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Confusional arousals have often been linked to sleep-related violence (self-injury or injury to the bed partner). The latter highlights important medical and legal issues when such behaviours are suspected and purported to have caused a criminal offense. The first documented case of homicide as a result of confusional arousal was reported in medieval times by the case of the Silesian woodcutter Bernard Schedmaizig. Sleep-related abnormal sexual behaviours (also called sexsomnia or sleep sex) are mainly classified as confusional arousals and more rarely associated to sleepwalking (also known as somnambulism). Even if sleep-related violence may occur during an episode of confusional arousal, it remains extremely rare and there are no specific predisposition to aggression during these episodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331155",
"title": "Nocturnal enuresis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "BULLET::::- Psychological issues (e.g., death in the family, sexual abuse, extreme bullying) are established as a cause of (a return to bedwetting), but are very rarely a cause of PNE-type bedwetting. Bedwetting can also be a symptom of a pediatric neuropsychological disorder called PANDAS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42626",
"title": "Serial killer",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The English term and concept of \"serial killer\" are commonly attributed to former FBI Special agent Robert Ressler who used the term \"serial homicide\" in 1974 in a lecture at Bramshill Police Academy in Britain. Author Ann Rule postulates in her book, \"Kiss Me, Kill Me\" (2004), that the English-language credit for coining the term goes to LAPD detective Pierce Brooks, who created the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (ViCAP) system in 1985.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165867",
"title": "Bedroom farce",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "A bedroom farce or sex farce is a type of light comedy, centered on the sexual pairings and recombinations of characters as they move through improbable plots and slamming doors. The bedroom farce is perhaps the most common form of farce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320713",
"title": "Sexual fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Sexual crimes.:Sadistic sexual fantasies and crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "A lot of sexual homicides are well planned due to extensive practice in form of sexual fantasies. The murders involve the infliction of a lot of pain and terror and this serves to satisfy the sadistic fantasy, albeit only temporarily. They start trying to replicate their fantasies more accurately with practice and will continue until they are caught as a fantasy can never be replicated with 100% accuracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414267",
"title": "Lust murder",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The most critical component in the psychological development of a serial killer is violent fantasy, especially in the lust murderer. Fantasies accompany \"intrusive thoughts about killing someone that are associated with other distressing psychopathological processes\". Fantasies can never be completely fulfilled; sometimes the experience of killing can generate new fantasies of violence, creating a repetitive cycle. The purpose of fantasy is total control of the victim, whereas a sexual assault can be used as a vehicle for control. Sexual torture becomes a tool to degrade, humiliate, and subjugate the victim. Often the killer selects victims to stand as a proxy, resulting from childhood trauma. Fantasies may be fueled by pornography and facilitated by alcohol or other causes. Typically, fantasies involve one or several forms of paraphilia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331155",
"title": "Nocturnal enuresis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "BULLET::::- Infection/disease Infections and disease are more strongly connected with and with daytime wetting. Less than 5% of all bedwetting cases are caused by infection or disease, the most common of which is a urinary tract infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6q6lu8
|
when watching a screen, do our eyes focus purely on to the distance of the screen or the percieved depth of the picture?
|
[
{
"answer": "Purely on the screen. Same if you're looking at a photo: the depth isn't real and doesn't affect your focus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "195718",
"title": "Cinematography",
"section": "Section::::Aspects.:Depth of field and focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "Focal length and diaphragm aperture affect the depth of field of a scene – that is, how much the background, mid-ground and foreground will be rendered in \"acceptable focus\" (only one exact plane of the image is in precise focus) on the film or video target. Depth of field (not to be confused with depth of focus) is determined by the aperture size and the focal distance. A large or deep depth of field is generated with a very small iris aperture and focusing on a point in the distance, whereas a shallow depth of field will be achieved with a large (open) iris aperture and focusing closer to the lens. Depth of field is also governed by the format size. If one considers the field of view and angle of view, the smaller the image is, the shorter the focal length should be, as to keep the same field of view. Then, the smaller the image is, the more depth of field is obtained, for the same field of view. Therefore, 70mm has less depth of field than 35mm for a given field of view, 16mm more than 35mm, and early video cameras, as well as most modern consumer level video cameras, even more depth of field than 16mm. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86058",
"title": "Binoculars",
"section": "Section::::Optical designs.:Optical parameters.:Close focus distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Close focus distance is the closest point that the binocular can focus on. This distance varies from about 0.5 m to 30 m, depending upon the design of the binoculars. If the close focus distance is short respect to the magnification, the binocular can be used also to see particulars not visible to the naked eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8210422",
"title": "Stereo cameras",
"section": "Section::::Calculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "In this approach, two cameras with a known physical relationship (i.e. a common field of view the cameras can see, and how far apart their focal points sit in physical space) are correlated via software. By finding mappings of common pixel values, and calculating how far apart these common areas reside in pixel space, a rough depth map can be created. This is very similar to how the human brain uses stereoscopic information from the eyes to gain depth cue information, i.e. how far apart any given object in the scene is from the viewer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27653752",
"title": "Retina display",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "where formula_2 is the distance to the screen, formula_3 is the resolution of the screen in pixels per unit length, and formula_4 is the aperture of a cone having the apex on focus, height formula_2, and the base in the eye lens —the optical correspondent to a cone inside the eye having the same base and the apex in the other focus, the fovea. That aperture, which can be measured by visual field tests, varies widely among different human subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878311",
"title": "Lenticular printing",
"section": "Section::::Types of lenticular prints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "BULLET::::- Animated prints: Here the distance between different angles of view is \"medium\", so that while both eyes usually see the same picture, moving a little bit switches to the next picture in the series. Two or more sequential images are used, with only small differences between each image and the next. This can be used to create an image that moves (\"motion effect\"), or can create a \"zoom\" or \"morph\" effect, in which part of the image expands in size or changes shape as the angle of view changes. The movie poster of the film Species II, shown in this article, is an example of this technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22510110",
"title": "Optimum HDTV viewing distance",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Visual angle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The ideal optimum viewing distance is affected by the horizontal angle of the camera capturing the image. One concept of an ideal optimal viewing distance places the viewer where the horizontal angle subtended by the screen is the same as the horizontal angle captured by the camera. If this is the case, the angular relationships perceived by the viewer would be identical to those recorded by the camera. A mismatch in this regard is traditionally disregarded, but some rotating motions can make these distortions very noticeable as a pincushion effect. This is likely in 3d video games, so gamers are likely to adopt close viewing positions matched to a game's fixed field of view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10750774",
"title": "Tilted plane focus",
"section": "Section::::Limits to focus in imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Focus is relative to spatial depth. Selective focus in photography is usually associated with depth of field. A pinhole camera generates an image of infinite relative focus, from a point just outside the camera opening out to infinity. Lenses focus more selectively so that, for objects near the lens, the distance between lens and sensor or film is increased and is shortened for more distant objects, to a point beyond which all is in focus. In telephoto lenses this point may be tens or hundreds of metres from the camera. Wide-angle lenses distinguish differences in depth only up to a short distance, beyond which all is in focus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yg1nq
|
do my dogs think i'm just a big dog?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to say what dogs actually *think*, but there are some things we can infer from their behavior and from their body chemistry. We have recently come to understand that dogs' brains are capable of generating oxytocin in the same way ours are, and under the same circumstances. When you interact with other humans, when you hold hands or hug or put an arm around someone's shoulder, your brain generates the hormone oxytocin, and this hormone strengthens human relationships. It's been referred to as the love hormone, because it's the chemical that seems to be most responsible for feelings of love and affection. \n\nThe fun thing is that dogs' brains do this as well when we interact with them. When they're being loved-on, hugged, petted, etc., their brains also produce oxytocin. Our best guess is that dogs probably realize that we are not dogs. They know that we're not dogs. They probably don't have the means to comprehend what we actually are, but they know we aren't dogs. But through tens-of-thousands of years of selective breeding, they've still come to view us as vitally important to them. They absolutely see us as part of their \"pack.\" The part of your dog that is still a wolf tracking through the wilds with its pack sees you as a part of that pack.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044754",
"title": "Dog communication",
"section": "Section::::Dog-human communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Additionally, most people can tell from a bark whether a dog was alone or being approached by a stranger, playing or being aggressive, and able tell from a growl how big the dog is. This is thought to be evidence of human-dog coevolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3839795",
"title": "Laurence Trimble",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "\"A dog has no politics or religion, so you can tell people about him freely, and when you have finished you have talked to them about themselves,\" Trimble said. \"I can tell more about people from what they say about their dogs than from what they say about themselves.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1690607",
"title": "Dog Logan",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Much about Dog remains unrevealed, due to the few appearances he has made. Dog is tall and powerfully built and demonstrates impressive tracking abilities, though it remains unrevealed precisely how he locates James and Rose. Dog also shows himself to be a formidable combatant during his fight with James. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7118482",
"title": "Dog behavior",
"section": "Section::::Behavior problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "There are many different types of behavioural issues that a dog can exhibit, including growling, snapping, barking, and invading human's space. A survey of 203 dog owners in Melbourne, Australia, found that the main behaviour problems reported by owners were overexcitement (63%) and jumping up on people (56%). Some problems are related to attachment while others are neurological, as seen below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7036252",
"title": "Stereotypes of animals",
"section": "Section::::Common Western animal stereotypes.:Mammals.:Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "BULLET::::- While dogs are often portrayed as heroic, brave and strong they don't tend to be portrayed as intelligent that often, though there have been exceptions: Droopy, Snoopy, Dogbert, Brian Griffin, Gromit, Goliath, Mr. Peabody, Tekko Taks, Fokkie Flink, Top Dog\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4765",
"title": "Basenji",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Temperament and Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Basenjis often stand on their hind legs, somewhat like a meerkat, by themselves or leaning on something; this behavior is often observed when the dog is curious about something. Basenjis have a strong prey drive. According to the book \"The Intelligence of Dogs\", they are the second least trainable dog, when required to do human commands. Their real intelligence manifests, when they are required to actually \"think\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2784104",
"title": "Doga (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The name Doga is a derivative of dog, a creature which is extremely brave. Dogs are also scary and are usually kept for protection. These elements of a dogs nature are fairly prominent in the character of Doga.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bt6pn
|
why do we only see fog when it is at a distance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fog is a collection of tiny water droplets suspended in air at or just above ground-level. They are too small to see individually but they bend light never the less. As you get further away, there are so many droplets bending light that the objects further away from you can't be seen because the light from those objects isn't (entirely) traveling to your eyes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact: you see this effect in normal, clear air as well. \n\nIf you ever looked off toward the horizon, you may notice that the further out you look, a bit of a haze develops. Even in clean air. \n\nIf you looked at, say a building right in front of you, the details would be sharp. Take note of the distance between you and the building. That's how much air you're looking *through*.\n\nIf you go really far away and look at the building, even through a powerful telescope, you'll see that the details aren't as clear, and the color is a little off. The distance between you and the building you're looking at is much greater. Consequently, you're looking through a lot **more** air. \n\nThis happens when you're in fog, or air with pollutants in it as well. The only time this doesn't happen is if you're looking through a vacuum. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nah, you see it right there in front of you. Have you never walked through fog? It's beautiful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "217296",
"title": "Shadow",
"section": "Section::::Three-dimensional shadows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Fog shadows may look odd to viewers who are not used to seeing shadows in three dimensions. A thin fog is just dense enough to be illuminated by the light that passes through the gaps in a structure or in a tree. As a result, the path of an object's shadow through the fog becomes visible as a darkened volume. In a sense, these shadow lanes are the inverse of crepuscular rays caused by beams of light, but caused by the shadows of solid objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17326499",
"title": "Climate of Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Visibility is generally very good, because of the proximity of industry to the coast, allowing breezes to disperse any smog. Mist and fog often occur, as well as coastal fog in the east, but it is generally not long-lasting. However, in winter, it can be slow to clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58991",
"title": "Fog",
"section": "Section::::Historical references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The presence of fog has often played a key role in historical events, such as strategic battles. One example is the Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776), when American general George Washington and his command were able to evade imminent capture by the British Army, using fog to conceal their escape. Another example is D-Day (June 6, 1944) during World War II, when the Allies landed on the beaches of Normandy, France during fog conditions. Both positive and negative results were reported from both sides during that battle, due to impaired visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195198",
"title": "Mist",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Cloud cover is often referred to as \"mist\" when encountered on mountains, whereas moisture suspended above a body of water or marsh area is usually called \"fog\". One difference between mist and fog is visibility. The phenomenon is called fog if the visibility is or less. In the U.K., the definition of fog is visibility less than (for driving purposes, UK Highway Code rule 226), while for pilots the distance is 1 km. Otherwise, it is known as mist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58991",
"title": "Fog",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The term \"fog\" is typically distinguished from the more generic term \"cloud\" in that fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often generated locally (such as from a nearby body of water, like a lake or the ocean, or from nearby moist ground or marshes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4413707",
"title": "San Francisco fog",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "There are also occasional extended spells when fog and stratus (\"overcast\") do not clear all the way back to the coast for several days. These extended periods of cloudiness are usually a consequence of a weak area of low pressure above the marine layer which increases its depth, making it more difficult for surface heating to evaporate the clouds within it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4313457",
"title": "Sea smoke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Sea smoke has a turbulent appearance and may form spiralling columns. It is usually not very high and lookouts on ships can usually see over it (but small boats may have very poor visibility) because the fog is confined to the layer of warm air above the sea. However, sea smoke columns 20–30 metres high have been observed. Because this type of fog requires very low air temperatures, it is uncommon in temperate climates, but is common in the Arctic and Antarctic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30w622
|
At the time of the American Revolution, were there any other republics in the world?
|
[
{
"answer": "**Commenters:** Please keep in mind that top-level answers at /r/AskHistorians should be informative and comprehensive. Answers will be removed if they are only a single sentence long.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Netherlands was a republic from 1581 to 1795. However, it's not exactly what we think of when we think of a modern republic. [Federalist #20](_URL_0_) covers Madison's thoughts on it's structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Swiss Confederacy was a federation of states, named \"cantons\"; it was formed over time, starting in the middle ages, as different communities in the Alps developed a series of alliances.\n\nIt was a part of the Holy Roman Empire but it fought against the Habsburgs and did gain independence. That was formally recognized as an independent state by the europeans powers in 1648 at the Peace of Westphalia.\n\nIn Italy, the republics of Venice and of Genua were born as city states, mainly concerned with sea trade within the Mediterranean Sea.\n\nLater, after the discovery of America and of the route to India around Africa, the Mediterranean become a bit of a backwater, and both cities expanded over land. Venice in particular did gain vast territories, expanding to the west nearly to Milan and controlling the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea (Dalmatia).\n\nThe were some other small republics in Italy, that based on the city state of Lucca and the tiny city state of San Marino (which is still existing today !). Also there were some city states that were nominally members of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany, but that in practice were mostly autonomous.\n\nKeep in mind that those republics could all be defined as oligarchies: the power was concentrated in the hands of the members of a very small number of wealthy families, mostly very successful trading houses. Membership in the ruling councils was mainly by co-optation by the existing members, only extended to members of the families.\n\nSo nothing like the suffrage that was established in the United States, that was certainly not universal at the start but that was mush more effective and direct.\n\nAlso, many of those entities were destroyed by the revolutionary and napoleonic wars and the by the Congress of Vienna, with the exception of the Swiss confederacy. Venice was given to Austria, Lucca to the Duchy of Parma, Genua to the Kingdom of Savoy and Sardinia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "885795",
"title": "Modern history",
"section": "Section::::Early modern period.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "Beginning the Age of Revolution, the American Revolution and the ensuing political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century saw the Thirteen Colonies of North America overthrow the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and then reject the British monarchy itself to become the sovereign United States of America. In this period the colonies first rejected the authority of the Parliament to govern them without representation, and formed self-governing independent states. The Second Continental Congress then joined together against the British to defend that self-governance in the armed conflict from 1775 to 1783 known as the American Revolutionary War (also called American War of Independence).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78359",
"title": "Client state",
"section": "Section::::19th and 20th centuries.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "At first, during the French revolutionary wars these states were erected as republics (the so-called \"Républiques soeurs\", or \"sister republics\"). They were established in Italy (Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy, Parthenopean Republic in Southern Italy), Greece (Septinsular Republic), Switzerland (Helvetic Republic and Rhodanic Republic), Belgium and the Netherlands (Batavian Republic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406239",
"title": "Treaty of Tripoli",
"section": "Section::::Barbary pirates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1596,
"text": "Before the American Revolution (1775-1783), the British colonies in North America were protected from the Barbary pirates by British warships of the Royal Navy and treaties. During the Revolution, the Kingdom of France formed an alliance with the former British colonies in 1778, now the proclaimed independent \"United States of America\" and assumed the responsibility of providing protection of U.S. merchant ships in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic Ocean against the Barbary pirates by the French Navy. After the Revolutionary War ended and the new U.S.A. won its independence with the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), it had to face the threat of the Barbary pirates on its own. Two American ships were captured by Algerian pirates in July 1785 and the survivors forced into slavery, their ransom set at $60,000. A rumor that Benjamin Franklin, who was en route from France to Philadelphia about that time, had been captured by Barbary pirates, caused considerable upset in the U.S. With the disbanding of the former Continental Navy and the selling of its last warship by the Confederation Congress in 1785, now without a standing navy, much less a navy capable of projecting force across an ocean, the U.S. was forced to pay tribute monies and goods to the Barbary nations for the security of its ships and the freedom of its captured citizens. As Lieutenant and consul William Eaton informed newly appointed Secretary of State John Marshall in 1800, \"It is a maxim of the Barbary States, that 'The Christians who would be on good terms with them must fight well or pay well.'\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35835705",
"title": "Outline of the history of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Rise of Western empires: 1500–1800.:Revolution: 1770–1815.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "BULLET::::- American Revolution – The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52507",
"title": "British colonization of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::North America.:British colonies in North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Thirteen of Great Britain's colonies rebelled in the American Revolutionary War, beginning in 1775, primarily over representation, local laws and tax issues, and established the United States of America, which was recognised internationally with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 3 September 1783.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973",
"title": "American Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The American Revolution was a colonial revolt which occurred between 1765 and 1783. The American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) with the assistance of France, winning independence from Great Britain and establishing the United States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25536",
"title": "Republic",
"section": "Section::::Head of state.:Sub-national republics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In the example of the United States, the original 13 British colonies became independent states after the American Revolution, each having a republican form of government. These independent states initially formed a loose confederation called the United States and then later formed the current United States by ratifying the current U.S. Constitution, creating a union of sovereign states with the union or federal government also being a republic. Any state joining the union later was also required to be a republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z5ybj
|
What was Attila the Hun's full name?
|
[
{
"answer": "So far as we can tell, his name was Attila. As you've guessed, Huns did not use surnames or family names, and only a non-Hun would call him \"the Hun.\"\n\nInteresting trivia: *Attila* does not seem to be a Hunnish name but Gothic, like *Totila*. The Huns were not one tribe but a confederation of tribes including the Goths who did not flee them and the Sarmatian Alans. These tribes tended to adopt Hunnish culture, like cranial deformation and facial cicatrization. But it means that depictions of Attila as a Mongol might be quite a ways off: Goths were Germanic tribes, as in Ostrogoth and Visigoth (tribes that did flee the Huns).\n\nIngraham, *People's Names*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "841",
"title": "Attila",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Attila (; fl. c. 406–453), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, and Alans among others, in Central and Eastern Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5716888",
"title": "Attila (miniseries)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Attila (also known as Attila the Hun in the UK) is a 2001 American television miniseries set during the waning days of the Western Roman Empire, in particular during the invasions of the Huns in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841",
"title": "Attila",
"section": "Section::::Later folklore and iconography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Attila himself is said to have claimed the titles \"Descendant of the Great Nimrod\", and \"King of the Huns, the Goths, the Danes, and the Medes\"—the last two peoples being mentioned to show the extent of his control over subject nations even on the peripheries of his domain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26238906",
"title": "Attila in popular culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Attila the Hun has had many depictions in popular culture. Many of these depictions either portray him as a great ruler or a ruthless conqueror. Attila has also appeared in numerous German and Norse epics, under the names Etzel and Atli, both with completely different personas. His sudden death remains a fascinating unsolved mystery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841",
"title": "Attila",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Many scholars have argued that Attila derives from East Germanic origin; \"Attila\" is formed from the Gothic or Gepidic noun \"atta\", \"father\", by means of the diminutive suffix \"-ila\", meaning \"little father\". The Gothic etymology was first proposed by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 19th century. Maenchen-Helfen notes that this derivation of the name \"offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties\", and Gerhard Doerfer notes that the name is simply correct Gothic. The name has sometimes been interpreted as a Germanization of a name of Hunnic origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6640990",
"title": "Attila (1954 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Flavius Aetius, a Roman general, is the only person who knows Attila since he was a hostage with the Huns for years. Aetius and his companion Prisco carry a message from the Roman emperor Valentinian III to the Hun's king Rua. After reaching their palace, Aetius learns that the king died, and that two brothers Bleda and Attila are now ruling the Hun kingdom. Bleda favours peace and tolerance, but Attila is at odds with him, and tensions develop. Yet Aetius knows to make an alliance between the Western Roman Empire and the Huns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73525",
"title": "Totila",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "\"Totila\" was the \"nom de guerre\" of a man whose real name was Baduila, as can be seen from the coinage he issued. \"Totila\" is the name used by the Byzantine historian Procopius, who accompanied the Byzantine general Belisarius during the Gothic War, and whose chronicles are the main source of our information for Totila. According to Henry Bradley, 'Totila' and 'Baduila' are diminutives of 'Totabadws'. Born in Treviso, Totila was a relative of Theudis, king of the Visigoths. Elected king of the Ostrogoths in 541 after the assassination of his uncle Ildibad, having engineered the assassination of Ildibad's short-lived successor, his cousin Eraric, in 541. The official Byzantine position, adopted by Procopius and even by the Romanized Goth Jordanes, writing just before the conclusion of the Gothic Wars, was that Totila was a usurper: Jordanes' \"Getica\" (551) overlooks the then-recent successes of Totila.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pfzea
|
what would happen to you if only your head was above water for a long, long time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends how long and what kind of water.\n\nThe skin is capable of passing stuff in and out of the body. If you're under water this presents a problem, if the water is pure enough the overall transfer will be water into the body and salts/minerals out of the body (bones and blood would have major issues). If the water is very salty the process reverses to drive up salt in the body effectively dehydrating you (this is why you can't drink seawater). If the water had just the right amount of all the necessary components then it's harder to say what will happen, I can't give you an answer there.\n\nA vacuum would be less forgiving, lets assume a space-like vacuum.\n\nAny moisture in your skin exposed to the vacuum would boil away, the skin would draw more moisture from the body and the process goes on until you're a dried out meat husk. Not to mention of course that your digestive tract is a hollow tube from end to end, if only your head was protected then everything would be sucked out the rear anyway. There's slightly more to it but the end doesn't get any better for you. The whole ordeal won't take long at all, only a few minutes at most.\n\nObviously less intense vacuums would be much less severe, but given enough time death would be the likely outcome. Our lungs are designed to work with equal pressure, if the outside of the chest is a vacuum then exhaling becomes more difficult, your chest will want to expand into the vacuum. While not as dramatic as in space your skin will still dehydrate faster than normal, this could make you bleed and, as air is required for clotting, it might not stop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2070255",
"title": "Jackie Speier",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"This Is Not the Life I Ordered: 50 Ways to Keep Your Head Above Water When Life Keeps Dragging You Down\", by Deborah Collins Stephens, Michealene Cristini Risley, Jackie Speier, and Jan Yanehiro, 2007,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17484978",
"title": "Cold shock response",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Hypothermia from exposure to cold water is not as sudden as is often believed. A person who survives the initial minute of trauma (after falling into icy water), can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they don't drown. However, the ability to perform useful work (for example to save oneself) declines substantially after ten minutes (as the body protectively cuts off blood flow to \"non-essential\" muscles).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5809270",
"title": "Asleep in the Deep (Dad's Army)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Later, the inner room is now waist high in water. Only Pike is standing in the cold water, pleading with everyone to do something otherwise he will drown. Hodges is floating in a tank, the rest of the platoon is crammed onto the bunks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1573736",
"title": "Ghusl",
"section": "Section::::Sunni school of thought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::5. Water should be poured over the head three times so that it flows all over the body, ensuring that the roots of hairs and parts not easily reached by water such as the back of the knees are washed thoroughly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23892117",
"title": "Thou shalt not kill",
"section": "Section::::Jewish doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "According to the \"Mishnah\" (older part of the \"Talmud\"), it is said of Hillel the Elder that he saw a skull that was floating on top of the water and he said (to it): \"Since you drowned [others, others] drowned you. And in the end, those that drowned you will be drowned.\" From Rabbi Tarfon and Rabbi Akiva it is stated in the \"Mishnah\": \"If we were on the \"Sanhedrin\", nobody would have ever been executed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12438548",
"title": "Kalpana Chakma",
"section": "Section::::Abduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "\"I was asked to dip into the water near the well. As soon as I did so, someone shouted 'shoot him'. Sensing imminent death I somehow untied my hand, removed blindfold around my eyes and started running in the waist deep water. I could hear one gunshot behind me but I kept running.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25851534",
"title": "Water contamination in Crestwood, Illinois",
"section": "Section::::The \"Best-run town in America\".:March 2010.:Residents respond to IDPH study.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 286,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 286,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "\"Of course there's a concern. If I said it wasn't in the back of my head, I'd be lying. You don't want to think something bad could happen from just drinking water\", said Dominic Covone, 37, a resident of about six years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cvqyfg
|
why are paddling pools blue etc instead of black to absorb the heat and keep warm?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blue reminds people of the seas and oceans (or rather shallow water near the beach). Black would be creepy to many people (b/c it looks like deep water). \n\nAbsorbing heat can make the water too hot, and most pools are sold in areas with a lot of sun, and people want their pools to stay cool. \n\nLighter color makes it easier to see dirt, so you know when the pool is clean.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Blue pools are A) familiar and B) remind people of \"clear blue waters\". That being said, my parents new a guy who had a black bottomed pool. It was the coolest thing about his house.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who wants to swim in a hot pool in the dead of summer?\n\nWho wants to swim in a dark pool?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51165520",
"title": "Concerns and controversies at the 2016 Summer Olympics",
"section": "Section::::During the Olympics.:Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Starting 9 August, the pool used for diving competitions began turning a green color instead of its natural blue, followed by the water polo pool the next day. Several athletes reported that it affected their performance, either by preventing them from seeing underwater or hurting their eyes (possibly because of increased chlorine to counteract the problem). The color change was officially reported as being caused by a lack of chemicals used for the water treatment process, which resulted in the pH level of the pool to change. The diving pool was closed on 12 August after it began producing a sulfuric smell and was suggested to be a cause of eye itchiness among some athletes who competed within it. A report said that a sanitation contractor had added the dechlorinating sterilizer hydrogen peroxide to water that was already chlorinated, neutralizing the sterilizing effect of chlorine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36721615",
"title": "Diving at the 2016 Summer Olympics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "On Tuesday August 9, the water of the diving well turned dark green, originally thought to be caused by the heat and lack of wind in the venue. However, at the time a CNN photographer took a picture, an adjacent pool in the same location was not green. Olympic officials later confirmed that the change in color was due to 160 litres of hydrogen peroxide having been mistakenly added to the pool during cleaning. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5292892",
"title": "Black Pool",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The pool was cool enough up until 1991 for dark orange-brown cyanobacteria to grow throughout the pool. When combined with the blue of the water, the pool appeared to be an exceptionally dark green to almost black, hence the name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2420418",
"title": "Color of water",
"section": "Section::::Color of lakes and oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Some constituents of sea water can influence the shade of blue of the ocean. This is why it can look greener or bluer in different areas. Water in swimming pools (which may also contain various chemicals) with white-painted sides and bottom will appear as a turquoise blue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1239618",
"title": "Green sunfish",
"section": "Section::::Habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The species prefers areas in sluggish backwaters, lakes, and ponds with gravel, sand, or bedrock bottoms. They also can be found in very muddy waters and are able to tolerate poor water conditions. Green sunfish tend to spend their time hiding around rocks, submerged logs, plants, and other things that provide cover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6174083",
"title": "Nantucket Reds",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "\"Nantucket Reds\" were originally inspired by cotton trousers worn in Brittany. A characteristic of Reds is that they fade to a \"dusty rose\" as they age. Since their inception, the cotton canvas pants have been marketed as shorts. The distinctive salmon pink color has since been used on hats, shirts, sweaters and socks. Reds are worn predominantly by summer residents of Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, and Cape Cod in place of khakis or chinos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4520037",
"title": "Emerald Pool",
"section": "Section::::Yellowstone National Park.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Emerald Pool, a hot spring named for its emerald green color, is one of the main attractions at Black Sand Basin in Yellowstone National Park. Its temperature is 154.6 °F and its dimensions are 27x38 feet with a depth of 25 feet. The color is due to growth of yellow bacteria and algae. Cooling, the result of objects thrown into the pool and natural debris, has affected the growth of the bacteria and algae, making the pool appear orange and brown around the edges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rxivv
|
A few questions on Wave interference
|
[
{
"answer": "Observing interference is a little harder to do in those situations. Things like headlights and music are made up of lots of waves with many different wavelengths so the interference pattern is very complicated and you won't notice it.\n\nThere are two ways you could observe wave interference at home:\n\n1. Set up your speakers as far away from each other as you can and point them towards each other, a few meters would be good. Instead of music, play a continuous note of a single pitch through the speakers. You should be able to google something to play single pitch sounds. Then, if the distance between the speakers is a few multiples of the wavelength, say 1:3 or 1:4 (pick either but be as precise as possible!!), you should set up a nice standing wave pattern, ie. constructive interference that doesn't change with time. To observe it, start with your head at one speaker and move your head along a line towards the other speaker. If your speakers are good enough (decent computer speakers should be) and you have set up the distances precisely, then you should notice changes in volume along the path.\n\n2. With a wide pan or bowl of water you could dip you fingers in and out quickly at two different spots to make ripples which will interfere as they cross over each other. Watch closely though!!\n\nYou'd need better equipment to observe this effect with light. But if you have a laser pointer you could maybe do it with the [double slit experiment](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112",
"title": "Wave interference",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive and destructive interference result from the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency. Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity waves, or matter waves. The resulting images or graphs are called interferograms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1201321",
"title": "Superposition principle",
"section": "Section::::Wave superposition.:Wave interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is called \"destructive interference\". In other cases, such as in a line array, the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than any of the components individually; this is called \"constructive interference\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240011",
"title": "Coherence (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Interference is the addition, in the mathematical sense, of wave functions. A single wave can interfere with itself, but this is still an addition of two waves (see Young's slits experiment). Constructive or destructive interferences are limit cases, and two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112",
"title": "Wave interference",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between the waves is an even multiple of (180°) , whereas destructive interference occurs when the difference is an odd multiple of . If the difference between the phases is intermediate between these two extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies between the minimum and maximum values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6138641",
"title": "Blast wave",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and properties.:Constructive and destructive interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 680,
"text": " In physics, interference is the meeting of two correlated waves and either increasing or lowering the net amplitude, depending on whether it is constructive or destructive interference. If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere constructively and the resultant crest wave amplitude is increased; forming a much more powerful wave than either of the beginning waves. Similarly two troughs make a trough of increased amplitude. If a crest of a wave meets a trough of another wave then they interfere destructively, and the overall amplitude is decreased; thus making a wave that is much smaller than either of the parent waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112",
"title": "Wave interference",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Between two plane waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Constructive interference occurs when the waves are in phase, and destructive interference when they are half a cycle out of phase. Thus, an interference fringe pattern is produced, where the separation of the maxima is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "912171",
"title": "Optical ring resonators",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Interference is the process by which two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater or less amplitude. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other. In constructive interference, the two waves are of the same phase interfere in a way such that the resultant amplitude will be equal to the sum of the individual amplitudes. As the light in an optical ring resonator completes multiple circuits around the ring component, it will interfere with the other light still in the loop. As such, assuming there are no losses in the system such as those due to absorption, evanescence, or imperfect coupling and the resonance condition is met, the intensity of the light emitted from a ring resonator will be equal to the intensity of the light fed into the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ak6jj
|
Why don't orbiting electrons radiate?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not enough for you that they're in their lowest energy state? Clearly, they can't emit energy in the form of a photon and _gain_ energy doing so - that'd just blatantly violate of conservation of energy. \n\nBut fair enough then. If the electrons behave quantum mechanically (which you've accepted) and the field is behaving classically (which you're sort of implying), then it _still_ can't emit any radiation, even if the electrons have orbital angular momentum (not all bound states do though). \n\nBecause they're behaving quantum-mechanically, the electrons have no definite positions in space. You only have the electron probability-density (= charge density) around the atom. In the ground state and other energetic eigenstates, the state is _stationary_. The probabilities of where the electrons are likely to be doesn't change with time, so the charge density is stationary. There's no charge flux, no acceleration of the charges, nothing capable of emitting radiation. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4831",
"title": "Bohr model",
"section": "Section::::Shell model of heavier atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting. But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening. The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2840",
"title": "Plum pudding model",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "In this model, the orbits of the electrons were stable because when an electron moved away from the centre of the positively-charged sphere, it was subjected to a greater net positive inward force, because there was more positive charge inside its orbit (see Gauss's law). Electrons were free to rotate in rings which were further stabilized by interactions among the electrons, and spectroscopic measurements were meant to account for energy differences associated with different electron rings. Thomson attempted unsuccessfully to reshape his model to account for some of the major spectral lines experimentally known for several elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277468",
"title": "Two-body problem",
"section": "Section::::Results for prominent cases.:Inapplicability to atoms and subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Electrons in an atom are sometimes described as \"orbiting\" its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \"orbital\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "In 1913 [[Niels Bohr]] proposed [[Bohr model|a new model of the atom]] that included quantized electron orbits: electrons still orbit the nucleus much as planets orbit around the sun, but they are permitted to inhabit only certain orbits, not to orbit at any distance. When an atom emitted (or absorbed) energy, the electron did not move in a continuous trajectory from one orbit around the nucleus to another, as might be expected classically. Instead, the electron would jump instantaneously from one orbit to another, giving off the emitted light in the form of a photon. The possible energies of photons given off by each element were determined by the differences in energy between the orbits, and so the emission spectrum for each element would contain a number of lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48900",
"title": "Atomic radius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Electrons do not have definite orbits, or sharply defined ranges. Rather, their positions must be described as probability distributions that taper off gradually as one moves away from the nucleus, without a sharp cutoff. Moreover, in condensed matter and molecules, the electron clouds of the atoms usually overlap to some extent, and some of the electrons may roam over a large region encompassing two or more atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4831",
"title": "Bohr model",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "BULLET::::1. The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043836",
"title": "Nuclear binding energy",
"section": "Section::::Binding energy for atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "This is also evident from phenomena like electron capture. Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not \"orbit\" in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45i9rk
|
How does LIGO know that the gravitational waves they observed were from 2 black holes?
|
[
{
"answer": "The shape of the signal they detected -- how long it lasted, how its frequency changed, how its amplitude changed -- distinguished the event as a black hole merger, and even allowed determination of the masses of the two black holes.\n\nThere was a lot of modeling of various phenomena using general relativity to see what kinds of gravitational wave waveforms they'd produce, so that when there was a signal, the could recognize what kind of signal it was.\n\nYou can read a press release about the modeling of black hole mergers [here](_URL_0_).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "183089",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in physics",
"section": "Section::::Problems solved in recent decades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- Existence of gravitational waves (1916–2016): On 11 February 2016, the Advanced LIGO team announced that they had directly detected gravitational waves from a pair of black holes merging, which was also the first detection of a stellar binary black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11084989",
"title": "Gravitational-wave astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Observations.:High frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "In 2015, the LIGO project was the first to directly observe gravitational waves using laser interferometers. The LIGO detectors observed gravitational waves from the merger of two stellar-mass black holes, matching predictions of general relativity. These observations demonstrated the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems, and were the first direct detection of gravitational waves and the first observation of a binary black hole merger. This finding has been characterized as revolutionary to science, because of the verification of our ability to use gravitational-wave astronomy to progress in our search and exploration of dark matter and the big bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191496",
"title": "Joseph Weber",
"section": "Section::::Work on gravitational wave detection.:Discovery of gravitational waves by LIGO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams held a press conference to announce that they had directly detected gravitational waves from a pair of black holes merging, on Rosh Hashanah 2015, (Weber's yahrtzeit), using the Advanced LIGO detectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81610",
"title": "LIGO",
"section": "Section::::Observations.:Advanced LIGO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "On 11 February 2016, the LIGO and Virgo collaborations announced the first observation of gravitational waves. The signal was named GW150914. The waveform showed up on 14 September 2015, within just two days of when the Advanced LIGO detectors started collecting data after their upgrade. It matched the predictions of general relativity for the inward spiral and merger of a pair of black holes and subsequent 'ringdown' of the resulting single black hole. The observations demonstrated the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems and the first observation of a binary black hole merger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Detection of gravitational waves from merging black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "On 14 September 2015 the LIGO gravitational wave observatory made the first-ever successful direct observation of gravitational waves. The signal was consistent with theoretical predictions for the gravitational waves produced by the merger of two black holes: one with about 36 solar masses, and the other around 29 solar masses. This observation provides the most concrete evidence for the existence of black holes to date. For instance, the gravitational wave signal suggests that the separation of the two objects prior to the merger was just 350 km (or roughly 4 times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to the inferred masses). The objects must therefore have been extremely compact, leaving black holes as the most plausible interpretation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81610",
"title": "LIGO",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "As of December 2018, LIGO has made eleven detections of gravitational waves, of which ten are from binary black hole mergers. The other event was the first detection of a collision of two neutron stars, on 17 August 2017 which simultaneously produced optical signals detectable by conventional telescopes. All eleven events were observed in data from the first and second observing runs of Advanced LIGO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "On 11 February 2016, the LIGO collaboration announced the first direct detection of gravitational waves, which also represented the first observation of a black hole merger. , eleven gravitational wave events have been observed that originated from ten merging black holes (along with one binary neutron star merger). On 10 April 2019, the first ever direct image of a black hole and its vicinity was published, following observations made by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2017 of the supermassive black hole in Messier 87's galactic centre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gzsfg
|
does poison ivy really get worse each time? why?
|
[
{
"answer": " > \"the memory of the last infection\"\n\nYour immune system has greater reactions to things it recognizes more quickly, and it recognizes things more quickly by being exposed to them in the past. I think this is why you can develop allergies to things like super powerful epoxy if it touches your skin too much. \n\nEssentially, when your body recognizes a foreign and potentially dangerous substance, it produces antibodies that attach to that substance and serve as markers for other parts of the immune system to destroy things. After the threat is neutralized, your body continues to circulate antibodies for that substance, in case it shows up again. Then if you are exposed to that substance again, the immune reaction is even faster and more dramatic as a result, because there are already a lot of antibodies for the thing floating around. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "69229",
"title": "Toxicodendron radicans",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Poison ivy is particularly sensitive to carbon dioxide levels, greatly benefiting from higher concentrations in the atmosphere. Higher carbon dioxide levels increase the rate of plant growth, and causes them to produce more unsaturated urushiol, which causes stronger reactions in humans. Poison ivy's growth and potency has already doubled since the 1960s, and it could double again once carbon dioxide levels reach 560 ppm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2467826",
"title": "Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- Poison ivy and poison oak are still harmful when the leaves have fallen off, as the toxic residue is persistent, and exposure to any parts of plants containing urushiol can cause a rash at any time of the year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367371",
"title": "Pyrethrin",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Recent reports show that accidental poisoning rates have steadily been increasing since the use of natural pyrethrins, prompting some countries to ban their use altogether. In the USA, the use of pyrethrum in home bug sprays (ie. RAID) was banned in 2012 shortly after cases of fatalities in children emerged, prompting an investigation by the FDA. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74154",
"title": "Poison Ivy (character)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Poison Ivy's body produces pheromones that make people susceptible to mind control around her, especially men, although strong-minded people like Batman are usually capable of resisting. She specializes in hybrids and can create the most potent floral toxins in Gotham City, ranging from truth serums and love potions. Often these toxins are secreted from her lips and administered in her preferred way, a poisonous kiss, usually after professing false love or affection for her victim. They come in a number of varieties, from mind-controlling drugs to instantly fatal toxins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10879112",
"title": "Poison Ivy (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "\"Poison Ivy\" is a popular song by American songwriting duo Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. It was originally recorded by The Coasters in 1959. It went to #1 on the R&B chart, #7 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, and #15 in the UK. This was their third top-ten hit of that year following \"Charlie Brown\" and \"Along Came Jones\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2045543",
"title": "Toxicodendron vernix",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The differences in toxicity in poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are due to differences in the side chains of the chemicals in these plants. In general, poison ivy has a C side chain, poison oak has a C side chain and poison sumac has a C side chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29855647",
"title": "Arsenic biochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Arsenic poisoning treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "These drugs are efficient for acute poisoning of arsenic, which refers to the instantaneous effects caused by arsenic poisoning. For example, headaches, vomiting or sweating are some of the common examples of an instantaneous effect. In comparison, chronic poisonous effects arise later on, and unexpectedly such as organ damage. Usually it is too late to prevent them once they appear. Therefore, action should be taken as soon as acute poisonous effects arise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6eep78
|
Why do some vaccines, such as Hep B or HPV, require multiple shots spread out over time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Several things come into play here. The initial immunization that triggers the first immune response results in the generation of memory B and T cells as well as long-lived antibody-secreting plasma cells. After that in subsequent immunizations, you are re-activating memory B and T cells, which can respond more quickly and fully leading to stronger and more specific immune responses. So you get more high affinity antibody, more IgG and other class-switched antibody (the primary immunization will give more IgM antibody, which is less effective in controlling infection), more long-lived antibody-secreting cells and more T cell responses (either cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells). The outcome of this is that you protected much better against infection if you receive multiple doses of the vaccine. Another thing that plays into this is that many initial vaccines are given to babies. This is important to protect them from serious diseases, but their immune systems are immature. And hence they do not respond as well to a vaccination as an older child or adult would. This makes it doubly important to do multiple vaccinations to achieve the best results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you inject too much of weakened disease thingy's into your body at once, it can still overwhelm your immune system. You also need to keep your \"database\" up to date. Think of the immunity to the disease as something expirable. After a while of not using it, your system will toss it into the trash bin. It needs to be reactivated to stay effective. I think that's basically it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1660995",
"title": "Virus-like particle",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Research suggests that VLP vaccines against influenza virus could provide stronger and longer-lasting protection against flu viruses than conventional vaccines. Production can begin as soon as the virus strain is sequenced and can take as little as 12 weeks, compared to 9 months for traditional vaccines. In early clinical trials, VLP vaccines for influenza appeared to provide complete protection against both the Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 and the 1918 flu pandemic. Novavax and Medicago Inc. have run clinical trials of their VLP flu vaccines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2888063",
"title": "Influenza pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Strategies to slow down a flu pandemic.:Vaccines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A vaccine probably would not be available in the initial stages of population infection. A vaccine cannot be developed to protect against a virus which does not exist yet. The avian flu virus H5N1 has the potential to mutate into a pandemic strain, but so do other types of flu virus. Once a potential virus is identified and a vaccine is approved, it normally takes five to six months before the vaccine becomes available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43779954",
"title": "RVSV-ZEBOV vaccine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "In April 2019, following a large-scale ring-vaccination scheme in the DRC outbreak, preliminary results showed that the vaccine had been 97.5% effective at stopping Ebola transmission, relative to no vaccination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6390798",
"title": "Synthetic vaccine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "During the H1N1 outbreak in 2009, vaccines only became available in large quantities after the peak of human infections. This was a learning experience for vaccination companies. Novartis Vaccine and Diagnostics, among other companies, developed a synthetic approach that very rapidly generates vaccine viruses from sequence data in order to be able to administer vaccinations early in the pandemic outbreak. Philip Dormatizer, the leader of viral vaccine research at Novartis, says they have \"developed a way of chemically synthesizing virus genomes and growing them in tissue culture cells\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344536",
"title": "Hepatitis A",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Vaccination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The two types of vaccines contain either inactivated \"Hepatovirus A\" or a live but attenuated virus. Both provide active immunity against a future infection. The vaccine protects against HAV in more than 95% of cases for longer than 25 years. In the US, the vaccine was first used in 1996 for children in high-risk areas, and in 1999 it was spread to areas with elevating levels of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21438755",
"title": "Foot-and-mouth disease",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Many early vaccines used dead samples of FMDV to inoculate animals, but those early vaccines sometimes caused real outbreaks. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that a vaccine could be made using only a single key protein from the virus. The task was to produce enough quantities of the protein to be used in the vaccination. On June 18, 1981, the US government announced the creation of a vaccine targeted against FMD, the world's first genetically engineered vaccine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42832306",
"title": "Bovine respiratory disease",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and control.:Vaccination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Vaccinations exist for several biological BRD precursors, but the multitude of possible precursors complicates the process of choosing a vaccine regime. Additionally, vaccines are not completely effective in stopping the disease, but are merely helpful in mitigation. Many of the problems with vaccine effectiveness rest with improper use, such as failing to time vaccine doses appropriately, or not administering them before shipping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
387aou
|
why are services like uber and airbnb considered by some to be disruptive to the economy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hotels and cab companies are regulated and taxed, they have to follow certain rules in order to keep their operating license. If I rent you my house for a short stay or pick you up and drive you around the government doesn't get any tax revenue from that and I'm not bound by the same licensing requirements. Because the hotels and cabs I'd be competing against do have to pay taxes and follow those regs I'm operating at an unfair advantage. Of course I can charge less than Yellow Cab, I don't have to pay for official inspections or cab medallions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When they're described as 'disruptive' it's referring to how they disrupt an industry, not the economy.\n\nIt happens when a business enters a traditional market which has an entrenched way of 'doing things' and does things in a completely new way.\n\nIn the case of Uber for example, they used smartphone, geolocation, mapping and app technology to disrupt the industry.\n\nEveryone with a smartphone can be their customer, and everyone with a car can be their driver. \n\nThat advantage is huge and when combined with the reduction in overheads it means they can outcompete most traditional cab companies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are not disruptive to the economy, the are disruptive to the barrier of entry for a specific section of the economy thus penalising companies that work in the walled in section.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hotels have to adhere to certain safety standards that can be very costly. They have to have fire escapes, trained staff, emercency plans and so on. It's all heavily regulated. If you however rent your room with airbnb you don't have to have any safety measures. So you have an advantage that lets you rent your room out a lot cheaper than a hotel can.\nEdit: grammar\n\nAdditionaly especially in cities with very high rents airbnb can lead to even higher rents because it's more profitable to rent your appartement to tourists for a couple days than to rent it out long term. So while less people go to hotels people living in these cities are facing higher rents because normal appartements are converted in to commercially used airbnb rentals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone so far has missed the real reason these services are disruptive to the economy. All of these services, when you work for them, classify you as \"independent contractors\". Essentially, this means that you are in work for yourself. The company doesn't employ you, just provides a matching service between people who have a need and yourself. \n\nThis is disruptive because it's indicative of a greater trend in the economy. Post WW2, the political economy of the U.S. was built upon the relationship between you and your employer. Many of the social services and safety net programs provided by the nation state elsewhere were provided or supplemented by your employer here such as medical insurance, retirement savings, vacation time, disability insurance, etc. Now, since more and more jobs are considered independent contractors, and our laws haven't moved in to fill the gaps, it has shifted the responsibility for these things to the individual, which has some interesting consequences long term.\n\nIn addition, this also further highlights the changing relationship between capitalism and the individual. Originally, companies were very reluctant to engage in layoffs when they were running into hard times because there was an implicit agreement of mutual responsibility for each other between the two parties, reinforced through unions. Also, the number of people you employed was a matter of prestige for your company. Slowly, this he shifted to the current situation where companies are rewarded by the market for laying off employees quickly when needed. The next step is an ideal where you actually employ as close to zero employees as possible. I heard it described on NPR yesterday that the ideal form for a company now is a completely self sufficient and self contained money making algorithm that requires no input in the form of human capital. \n\nSo, basically, these services are disrupted because they're accelerating the breaking down of traditional employer-employee relationships and our \"old economy\" at a time when we don't seem capable of making the changes in our society that would ease this transition. Depending on your particular viewpoint, you might consider it to be increasing the overall misery in the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you owned a multi million dollar taxi company your would also say that it's disruptive to the economy. \n\nIt's always about people with money getting less money. You can use my rule of thumb:\nIf a ceo of any company says something it bad for you, not safe, harming the economy, ect. It's becouse he is losing money. (there are some exceptions)\nRule 2: \nIf a politician says anything from rule 1 he is being payed to say that from said person in rule 1.\n\nTLDR:greed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same argument the British used to keep the Indians from making their own salt. Artificially propping up a market is not a free market.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are claiming that this disrupts business models only, not the economy. However, that's not entirely true. As far as AirBnB goes, they're highly disruptive to economies with a high cost of living and a large amount of tourism. I live in NYC, where there are thousands of AirBnBs throughout the city. People have been renting out multiple apartments and putting them up as mini hotels, which displaces people who actually want to live there. It ends up pushing down the number of available apartments in an area, which pushes rents higher and sends prospective tenants to up-and-coming neighborhoods, which pushes longtime residents out even further. High disruptive, indeed.\n\nFor those who claim that this practice is just smart business, I think the others below/above start to answer these concerns: these hotel/apartments aren't regulated; they aren't insured; there's no oversight whatsoever. Not to mention that they're blatant violations of lease agreements for those very reasons—not just because of greedy landlords (though of course every city has those, too).\n\nFor those who own their apartments it's slightly different, but also disruptive. I own in a Brooklyn coop, and its value takes into account a lot of things. One of those things is that I'm living with other tenants who (hopefully) want to be there long-term, and put energy into making my building more lovely, livable, and ultimately, more profitable. Having hotelesque visitors running in and out of apartments runs antithetical to all those, and ultimately affects property values (and my sanity level). Again, highly disruptive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they provide better service at a better price than the older businesses in the local economy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think this is a pretty good example of people thinking government is out to fuck them, where in reality it's government doing exactly what they're supposed to do: keep the public safe (through insurance and safety regulations).\n\nNow, that's not to say cab medallions are extortionist and that corruption doesn't exist, but for the most part, keeping Uber in check is probably a good thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have the time, I recommend you listen to [this episode](_URL_0_) of the Freakonomics podcast. It's called \"Regulate This\" and it does a great job of presenting both sides of the discussion. I believe the production value is top notch and very ELI5 friendly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do half-truths/lies like this get upvoted? Uber drivers do report and pay taxes on their revenue (otherwise they'd be evading taxes, which is illegal). It's disruptive because the taxi medallions are an anti-competitive restriction used to artificially constrain supply and keep prices at above-market levels. With Uber, prices have lowered to market levels and a lot of taxi drivers don't like to accept what that means for their bottom line. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because people don't understand how capitalism works. \n\nIf you provide the best service for the lowest price, then typically you gain the majority market share.\n\nDinosaur companies that aren't able to evolve to match the new competition then get upset, and demand something be done to help them (see black cab drivers in London).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ITT: People saying: \"They aren't taxed or pay a license fee\"\n\nPaying less in taxes or fees isn't *disruptive* to the economy, guys. The government is not the economy. Any time anyone does something more efficient, it's a bonus to the economy. It's disruptive *to their specific industry*. Which makes sense, as outdated, less efficient business models *should* be disrupted by a more efficient, more versatile company.\n\nAlso, don't feel bad for the industries that are 'forced' to get a license, and thus have a 'disadvantage' when competing with companies like Uber. Those onerous licenses have acted as a barrier to market for decades - artificially suppressing the number of people in the industry and giving them far higher job security and profits than the market suggests they deserve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's look at airbnb first. Let's compare them to a major hotel chain...Hyatt, perhaps. Airbnb has virtually no cost to add an additional room to their offerings. Hyatt, on the other hand, would have to build an entire hotel, staff it, and maintain it, just to offer *one* additional room. Airbnb has over 1M properties in over 190 countries around the world. Hyatt is has about 550 properties, in 50 countries. When you think about the economies of scale and agility, Airbnb has disrupted on many fronts. Not to mention the fact that they have 600 castles. CASTLES. Hyatt has none.\n\nNow we can think about Uber. As a company, it costs them next-to-nothing to add a new driver or a new car. They have disrupted the economy by allowing drivers and passengers to work/ride where they want, when they want. Uber has set the pace for the on-demand economy, empowering consumers and workers to rise above the scarcity-based economy to one of abundance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as AirBNB goes, just in case no one has said this, I live in California along the coast. There are a lot of little houses, cottages and such. People live there, day in and day out, go to work, eat dinner etc. Then some rich fuck wit buys the house next door for an \"investment property\"... and starts renting it out on AirBNB... all of a sudden, your nice, quiet little neighborhood becomes a fucking nightly raucous party by assholes on vacation by the beach for 2 days and think that just because they have the days off, everyone in the neighborhood does too... that has become a bit of a problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting note from airbnb's research, people who stay in their homes leave more cash, in more diverse neighborhoods than hotels.\n\nFor example, a tourist comes to NYC, there's a high likelihood they stay in midtown (where many hotels are zoned) at a Hyatt (to pick a chain). They (tourists)!cluster their spending in midtown, and much of the money spent on lodging flows back to Huarte corporate\n\nContrast that with an airBnB stay. They're much more likely to stay on the boroughs (or places besides midtown), they spend more on local mom and pop's and their lodging costs go back to the owners, who live (and spend) in that same neighborhood. \n\nThis data is a big part of why cities have gone from outright opposition to working to harness airbnb. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of them as \"Loophole businesses\". They found a method that allows them to skirt government regulations and taxation to provide a advantage over their established competitors. The proper way to fix this is new tax laws and regulations to close these loopholes but this can causes backlash against politicians who do this. The elimination of these loopholes is happening now and this is why the backlash is happening.\n\nThe biggest loophole business is Amazon as it and other Internet sellers often don't require sales tax. Imagine if Walmart suddenly didn't have to collect sales tax and how much a drain that would be on government budgets. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was just in Barcelona and was reading about multiple protests locals held to demand airbnb be banned. Their arguments were twofold. 1) Rowdy drunk tourists were now spread out across the entire city rather than concentrated in hotel areas. If an airbnb opened next to your home, it met an end to your sleep and peaceful evenings. 2) It increased speculation in the housing market, investment companies had a increased incentive to purchase residential homes, thus driving up costs, and possibly creating a housing bubble.\n\nThat said I used airbnb to say in the guest house of an amazing older couple, and saved a ton of money while meeting some great locals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I feel like Uber is a service that lets you hitchhike for cheap, and AirBnB lets you couch surf for cheap. Without some regulation/insurance behind them, they're considerably riskier than established services. Hence, why said established services probably cost more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because big conglomerate companies aren't getting a cut and it's cutting into their business. Those same business owners stuff the pockets of politicians who go on a tirade and make media say things like it's bad for the economy. If you are a product, which most people are, they don't want you to own your own life and avoid paying the mafia like entities that control the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Big problem is they don't adhere to laws and standards that apply to taxi companies or hotels including insurance and licensing. Uber drivers don't need taxi plates, don't have commercial insurance of even first party insurance, and don't pay the fees that other taxi drivers need to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of taxicabs and hotels?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's pose the opposite question, just for balance. One day, while you're complaining about your grandmother getting into a car accident because her Uber driver was driving like an idiot (or even drunk) and she wrecked her back in the accident that wasn't properly insured... on that day you'll be talking with friends, saying, \"Why isn't the government regulating this? There should be rules and limits on who can drive people around! There should be regulations and protections for consumers! I would gladly pay more for better safety and reliability of service.\" \n\nAnd then the owners of the taxi companies that have all become upper-end limo companies due to the competition at the bottom end of the market will shake their heads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They skip the government mandated policies and laws and can make more money by contracting the work out to unlicensed taxi drivers who maintain the cars at their own expense. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unmeasurable, untaxable revenue generation means people think the economy is worse than it is. \n\nHowever, I don't know why this is a bad thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These services consolidate profits that were once broadly dispersed by various firms with many employees and dependent businesses to one firm with very few employees. This narrows the stream of revenue resulting in the exploding billionaire count we are seeing now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nAnother example are the old switch operators for telephone calls. those jobs were lost to the transistor...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "apart from all the other good reasons in this thread, Uber and Lyft do scummy shit like charge you 4 or 5 or 6x the standard fare, almost randomly, depending on what block you're on. you could take a ride that would be $10 or $15 in a taxi and owe $75 on uber. and that rate can drop or increase dramatically within the span of a few blocks, so if you call the car to the wrong spot, you're out a lot more cash.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39502824",
"title": "Sharing economy",
"section": "Section::::Economic effects.:Effects on infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Uber, Airbnb, and other companies have had drastic effects on infrastructures such as road congestion and housing. Major cities such as San Francisco and New York City have arguably become more congested due to their use. According to transportation analyst Charles Komanoff, \"Uber-caused congestion has reduced traffic speeds in downtown Manhattan by around 8 percent\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39502824",
"title": "Sharing economy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Relationship to job loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "However, in a report published in January 2017, Carl Benedikt Frey found that while the introduction of Uber had not led to jobs being lost, but had caused a reduction in the incomes of incumbent taxi drivers of almost 10%. Frey found that the \"sharing economy\", and Uber in particular, has had substantial negative impacts on workers wages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50824743",
"title": "Carl Benedikt Frey",
"section": "Section::::Other work.:The Uber effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "In \"Drivers of Disruption? Estimating the Uber Effect\", Frey found that while the introduction of Uber had not led to jobs being lost, but had caused a reduction in the incomes of incumbent taxi drivers of almost 10 percent. On Al Jazeera he called the TFL decision to restrict Uber in London a massive transfer of consumer surplus from millions of users to a few taxi drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47886",
"title": "Disruptive innovation",
"section": "Section::::Example of disruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Uber is not an example of disruption because it did not originate in a low-end or new market footholds. One of the conditions for the business to be considered disruptive according to Clayton M. Christensen is that the business should originate on a) low-end or b) new-market footholds. Instead, Uber was launched in San Franscisco, a large urban city with an established taxi service and did not target low-end customers or created a new market (from the consumer perspective). In contrast, UberSELECT, an option that provides luxurious cars such as limousine at a discounted price, is an example of disruption innovation because it originates from low-end customers segment - customers who would not have entered the traditional luxurious market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50698598",
"title": "New York Communities for Change",
"section": "Section::::Issues and actions.:Good Jobs and Living Wages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "In 2015, in close collaboration with the Taxi Workers Alliance, NYCC launched a campaign to transform workplace in the access, or temporary work, recognizing that companies like Uber were shortchanging its low-income workforce. The campaign argues that the company evades payroll taxes by designating their workers as \"independent contractors\" even though Uber sets its own prices and rules for ride-sharing transactions, and that by finding a loophole around the National Labor Relations Act, they fail to give their workers basic labor protections, such as a minimum wage, overtime compensation, and unemployment compensation. One recent study showed that these drivers made as little as $2.89 per hour after Uber cut fares. The organization has also partnered with Amazon workers in their successful push for a $15/hour minimum wage. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50478388",
"title": "Uberisation",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Uberisation has, as of yet, taken place in a limited but growing amount of industries. For example, with the advent of Airbnb, the hospitality industry has been transformed to a large extent, estimated by industry analysts to have a total annual value, just in New York City, of over US $2.1 billion. While uberisation has been criticised as potentially catalysing a chaotic shift by undermining existing corporate models in the hospitality and taxi industries, existing companies in industries such as marketing can use the phenomenon to reduce expenses and provide more specialised services for customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37925700",
"title": "Cyberattack",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructures as targets.:Transportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "Transportation infrastructure mirrors telecommunication facilities; by impeding transportation for individuals in a city or region, the economy will slightly degrade over time. Successful cyber-attacks can impact scheduling and accessibility, creating a disruption in the economic chain. Carrying methods will be impacted, making it hard for cargo to be sent from one place to another. In January 2003 during the \"slammer\" virus, Continental Airlines was forced to shut down flights due to computer problems. Cyberterrorists can target railroads by disrupting switches, target flight software to impede airplanes, and target road usage to impede more conventional transportation methods. In May 2015, a man, Chris Roberts, who was a cyberconsultant, revealed to the FBI that he had repeatedly, from 2011 to 2014, managed to hack into Boeing and Airbus flights' controls via the onboard entertainment system, allegedly, and had at least once ordered a flight to climb. The FBI, after detaining him in April 2015 in Syracuse, had interviewed him about the allegations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2c6h05
|
What is the definition of a "Great Power" and what makes a country one?
|
[
{
"answer": "I was a history and international relations major as an undergrad, and here is where the two disciplines meet. The term \"Great Power\" comes from the Realist tradition in international relations. Without going too far down the rabbit hole of explaining what Realists believe, they essentially view international politics as a struggle for survival between nation-states and they see power rather than ideology as the key variable that leads nations into conflict (ideology may be an important reason why a war is worth fighting for the common man, but the conflicts are ultimately driven by competition for security between nations rather than conflicts over ideology.) \n\nRealists like John Mearsheimer would define great powers generally as those which have a significant military capability (including latent capability) and an influence on affairs that extends beyond it's immediate region. Great powers can also extend their territorial influence beyond their defined borders in the absence of another power stopping them from doing so. There's not really a hard-and-fast way to differentiate great powers from lesser powers, but a nation that stands a realistic chance of defeating another great power in a war is generally going to be considered a great power. \n\nThe term was much more relevant in the absence of *superpowers*, which are essentially magnified great powers capable of projecting power over vast regions of the globe. *Great Powers* are much more important when there are powerful states with great military capabilities with no clear hegemon dominating a region. Historically, Western Europe has often been characterized by competition among Great Powers including Russia, England, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Spain. Certain of these countries have dropped off the list of Great Powers at different points as their ability to influence affairs beyond their boarders lessened and their military capabilities became weakened. Now, some people would characterize Germany, Japan, the UK, France, and Russia as Great Powers (although these are all arguable) but most IR Realists would say that the United States is the sole Superpower in the world, rendering Great Power status fairly useless. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47555277",
"title": "List of modern great powers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "A great power is a nation or state that, through its great economic, political and military strength, is able to exert power and influence not only over its own region of the world, but beyond to others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228753",
"title": "Power (international relations)",
"section": "Section::::Power as status.:Categories of power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "BULLET::::- Great power: In historical mentions, the term \"great power\" refers to the states that have strong political, cultural and economical influence over nations around them and across the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372836",
"title": "Great power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence, which may cause middle or small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228753",
"title": "Power (international relations)",
"section": "Section::::Power as status.:Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "Much effort in academic and popular writing is devoted to deciding which countries have the status of \"power\", and how this can be measured. If a country has \"power\" (as influence) in military, diplomatic, cultural, and economic spheres, it might be called a \"power\" (as status). There are several categories of power, and inclusion of a state in one category or another is fraught with difficulty and controversy. In his famous 1987 work, \"The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,\" British-American historian Paul Kennedy charts the relative status of the various powers from AD 1500 to 2000. He does not begin the book with a theoretical definition of a \"great power\"; however he does list them, separately, for many different eras. Moreover, he uses different working definitions of a great power for different eras. For example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55666665",
"title": "Power Politics (Wight book)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Wight begins: \"Power politics is a colloquial phrase for international politics.\" He explains that states exploit power to achieve expansion and dominance; \"every dominant power aspires... to become a universal empire.\" For diplomatic reasons, \"dominant powers\" are euphemized as \"Great Powers ... who wish to monopolise (sic) the right to create international conflict\". Great Powers win and lose their status through violence, and are defined by their ability to wage war; they are decreasing in number, but those remaining are increasing in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372836",
"title": "Great power",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Status dimension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Formal or informal acknowledgment of a nation's great power status has also been a criterion for being a great power. As political scientist George Modelski notes, \"The status of Great power is sometimes confused with the condition of being powerful. The office, as it is known, did in fact evolve from the role played by the great military states in earlier periods... But the Great power system institutionalizes the position of the powerful state in a web of rights and obligations.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333951",
"title": "J. William Fulbright",
"section": "Section::::Congressional career.:Vietnam War and U.S. foreign policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Power tends to confuse itself with virtue and a great nation is particularly susceptible to the idea that its power is a sign of God's favor, conferring upon it a special responsibility for other nations—to make them richer and happier and wiser, to remake them, that is, in its own shining image. Power confuses itself with virtue and tends also to take itself for omnipotence. Once imbued with the idea of a mission, a great nation easily assumes that it has the means as well as the duty to do God's work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13umtn
|
Just how credible is the Abiotic Oil Theory vs. the organic algae/zoo-plankton theory?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This review from Resource Geology shoots it down pretty hard.](_URL_0_) Really, the most obvious criticism is that there haven't been any big oil discoveries that can be conclusively credited to this hypothesis.\n\nThis hypothesis might have been worth consideration back in the 1950s, when the Russians came up with it, but it doesn't mesh with what we now know about the world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14711705",
"title": "Predicting the timing of peak oil",
"section": "Section::::Past predictions.:Abiogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "One of the main counter arguments to the abiotic theory is the existence of biomarkers in petroleum. These chemical compounds can be best explained as residues of biogenic organic matter. They have been found in all oil and gas accumulations tested so far and suggest that oil has a biological origin and is generated from kerogen by pyrolysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203711",
"title": "Bioluminescence",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "E. N. Harvey (1932) was among the first to propose how bioluminescence could have evolved. In this early paper, he suggested that proto-bioluminescence could have arisen from respiratory chain proteins that hold fluorescent groups. This hypothesis has since been disproven, but it did lead to considerable interest in the origins of the phenomenon. Today, the two prevailing hypotheses (both concerning marine bioluminescence) are the ones put forth by Seliger (1993) and Rees et al. (1998).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646478",
"title": "Abiogenic petroleum origin",
"section": "Section::::Overview hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The abiogenic hypothesis regained some support in 2009 when researchers at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm reported they believed they had proven that fossils from animals and plants are not necessary for crude oil and natural gas to be generated. In his 2014 publication \"Chemistry of the Climate System\", German chemist Detlev Moller documents sufficient reliable evidence to show that both processes can be shown to co-exist, that they're not mutually exclusive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43183712",
"title": "Bioluminescent bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Purpose of bio-luminescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "The wide-ranged biological purposes of bio-luminescence include but are not limited to attraction of mates, defense against predators, and warning signals. In the case of bioluminescent bacteria, bio-luminescence mainly serves as a form of dispersal. It has been hypothesized that enteric bacteria (bacteria that survive in the guts of other organisms) - especially those prevalent in the depths of the ocean - employ bio-luminescence as an effective form of distribution. After making their way into the digestive tracts of fish and other marine organisms and being excreted in fecal pellets, bioluminescent bacteria are able to utilize their bio-luminescent capabilities to lure in other organisms and prompt ingestion of these bacterial-containing fecal pellets. The bio-luminescence of bacteria thereby ensures their survival, persistence, and dispersal as they are able to enter and inhabit other organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62251",
"title": "Ctenophora",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Ecological impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Ctenophores may balance marine ecosystems by preventing an over-abundance of copepods from eating all the phytoplankton (planktonic plants), which are the dominant marine producers of organic matter from non-organic ingredients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14205946",
"title": "Algae fuel",
"section": "Section::::Species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Research into algae for the mass-production of oil focuses mainly on microalgae (organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria) as opposed to macroalgae, such as seaweed. The preference for microalgae has come about due largely to their less complex structure, fast growth rates, and high oil-content (for some species). However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646478",
"title": "Abiogenic petroleum origin",
"section": "Section::::Proposed mechanisms of abiogenic petroleum.:Serpentinite mechanism.:Serpentinite synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "A chemical basis for the abiotic petroleum process is the serpentinization of peridotite, beginning with methanogenesis via hydrolysis of olivine into serpentine in the presence of carbon dioxide. Olivine, composed of Forsterite and Fayalite metamorphoses into serpentine, magnetite and silica by the following reactions, with silica from fayalite decomposition (reaction 1a) feeding into the forsterite reaction (1b).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dfgrq7
|
what is happening when the body develops a cauliflower ear?
|
[
{
"answer": "The ear fills with blood and fluid that calicifies and hardens over time if it isn't drained and taken care of right away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From what I hear most people don't have it drained, because it's one of the msot painful things you can do. \n\n\nWhat I never understand: Does the blood just clot and stay there forever? Doesn't it break down or something at some point?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question has been answered at this point, but I don't see anyone talking about how much it hurts when it's fresh. I had a bad bout with it my junior year of hs (drained 5 times over a several month period). At it's worst, it hurt my ear to walk, because it was so full of fluid that it bounced. I still sleep on my left side because of it, and woke myself up during the night rolling over.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149394",
"title": "Cauliflower ear",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The most common cause of cauliflower ear is blunt trauma to the ear leading to a hematoma which, if left untreated, eventually heals to give the distinct appearance of cauliflower ear. The structure of the ear is supported by a cartilaginous scaffold consisting of the following distinct components: the helix, antihelix, concha, tragus, and antitragus. The skin that covers this cartilage is extremely thin with virtually no subcutaneous fat while also strongly attached to the perichondrium, which is richly vascularized to supply the avascular cartilage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149394",
"title": "Cauliflower ear",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Cauliflower ear is an irreversible condition that occurs when the external portion of the ear is hit and develops a blood clot or other collection of fluid under the perichondrium. This separates the cartilage from the overlying perichondrium that supplies its nutrients, causing it to die and resulting in the formation of fibrous tissue in the overlying skin. As a result, the outer ear becomes permanently swollen and deformed, resembling a cauliflower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622572",
"title": "Collegiate wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Injuries and infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Cauliflower ear is a blood clot that forms under the skin in the ear, causing there to be a large bump in the ear; the bump tends to be extremely hard. To develop cauliflower ear one must be hit in the ear many times or hit hard for it to form into a blood clot. When having cauliflower ear it is important to get the ear drained of liquid that has built up. Otherwise the ear will require surgery to return to normal shape and size. The best way to prevent cauliflower is to wear headgear. This will protect the ears from taking hard hits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149394",
"title": "Cauliflower ear",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The components of the ear involved in cauliflower ear are the outer skin, the perichondrium, and the cartilage. The outer ear skin is tightly adherent to the perichondrium because there is almost no subcutaneous fat on the anterior of the ear. This leaves the perichondrium relatively exposed to damage from direct trauma and shear forces, created by a force pushing across the ear like a punch, and increasing the risk of hematoma formation. In an auricular hematoma, blood accumulates between the perichondrium and cartilage. The hematoma mechanically obstructs blood flow from the perichondrium to the avascular cartilage. This lack of perfusion puts the cartilage at risk for becoming necrotic and/or infected. If left untreated, disorganized fibrosis and cartilage formation will occur around the aforementioned cartilaginous components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Stem cell transplant and gene therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 252,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 252,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "A 2005 study achieved successful regrowth of cochlea cells in guinea pigs. However, the regrowth of cochlear hair cells does not imply the restoration of hearing sensitivity, as the sensory cells may or may not make connections with neurons that carry the signals from hair cells to the brain. A 2008 study has shown that gene therapy targeting Atoh1 can cause hair cell growth and attract neuronal processes in embryonic mice. Some hope that a similar treatment will one day ameliorate hearing loss in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1187487",
"title": "Sensorineural hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Recessive, dominant, X-linked, or mitochondrial genetic mutations can affect the structure or metabolism of the inner ear. Some may be single point mutations, whereas others are due to chromosomal abnormalities. Some genetic causes give rise to a late onset hearing loss. Mitochondrial mutations can cause SNHL i.e. m.1555AG, which makes the individual sensitive to the ototoxic effects of aminoglycoside antibiotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18600477",
"title": "Hiccup",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "An anecdotal medical approach is to install lidocaine liniment 3% or gel 2% into the ear canal. Somehow this creates a vagus nerve-triggering reflex through its extensions to the external ear and tympanus (ear drum). The effect can be immediate, and also have lasting effect after the lidocaine effect expires after about two hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dkpq6f
|
Have there been any major Civil Rights movements in the US which ultimately failed totally and completely?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, there's the modern pederasty movement. By pederasty I mean movements defending adult - adolescent sexual relationships, especially of the homosexual kind. It arose during the 60s and 70s, along with other parts of the sexual revolution and civil rights movement. NAMBLA (North American Man Boy Love Association) was founded in 1978 and describes itself as a political, educational and civil rights association whose goal is to end \"the extreme oppression of men and boys in mutually consensual relationships\". So they (the few members) describe themselves as being part of civil rights, but I don't know how much other civil rights would agree with that (I think not much, at least from what the statements I've read of gay civil rights associations, that try to dissociate their image as much as possible from them).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might argue that the welfare rights movement of the 1960's-70's (which tried to expand to more of a poor people's movement but never quite made it) is an example of a failed social movement. They did get some changes in terms of reducing racism in determining benefit eligibility, but by 1980 Reagan's anti-government rhetoric and the (false) image of the welfare queen became firmly lodged in people's minds. After that we entered into a long period of cutting and reducing social spending of all kinds and reducing taxes. Still today it is hard to argue for government support of almost any social program in the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37071",
"title": "Civil and political rights",
"section": "Section::::Social movements for civil rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Most civil rights movements relied on the technique of civil resistance, using nonviolent methods to achieve their aims. In some countries, struggles for civil rights were accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and even armed rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty years have resulted in an extension of civil and political rights, the process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154",
"title": "African Americans",
"section": "Section::::Social status.:Political legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The civil rights movement marked an enormous change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it boycotts, sit-ins, nonviolent demonstrations and marches, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; and disrupted and realigned the nation's two major political parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361758",
"title": "Civil rights movements",
"section": "Section::::Movements for civil rights in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Movements for civil rights in the United States include noted legislation and organized efforts to abolish public and private acts of racial discrimination against African Americans and other disadvantaged groups between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the southern United States. It is sometimes referred to as the Second Reconstruction era, alluding to the unresolved issues of the Reconstruction Era (1863–77).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1688046",
"title": "Civil rights movement (1896–1954)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The civil rights movement (1896–1954) was a long, primarily nonviolent series of events to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. The era has had a lasting impact on United States society, in its tactics, the increased social and legal acceptance of civil rights, and in its exposure of the prevalence and cost of racism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361758",
"title": "Civil rights movements",
"section": "Section::::Movements for civil rights in the United States.:Ethnicity equity issues.:Integrationism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Noted achievements of the Civil Rights Movement include the judicial victory in the \"Brown v. Board of Education\" case that nullified the legal article of \"separate but equal\" and made segregation legally impermissible, and the passages of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, . that banned discrimination in employment practices and public accommodations, passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that restored voting rights, and passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56646967",
"title": "White America, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "While the Civil Rights Movement was ongoing, several anti-integration groups founded to attempt to stop the racial desegregation and removals of discrimination which were beginning to occur. One such network of organizations was the White Citizens' Councils, which founded in 1954, after the landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling \"Brown v. Board of Education\", that same year, that stated state laws permitting white and black segregation were found to be unconstitutional. While the decision effectively overturned the \"Plessy v. Ferguson\" decision of 1896, which allowed states to segregate schools stating \"separate educational facilities are inherently unequal\", there was no true enforcement of this ruling in the south for many years. Blatant discrimination continued to take place for decades via Jim Crow laws, which had mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, and continued to be enforced in many ways until 1965.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "361758",
"title": "Civil rights movements",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Civil rights movements are a worldwide series of political movements for equality before the law, that peaked in the 1960s. In many situations they have been characterized by nonviolent protests, or have taken the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change through nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations, they have been accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion. The process has been long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not, or have yet to, fully achieve their goals, although the efforts of these movements have led to improvements in the legal rights of some previously oppressed groups of people, in some places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7gor1m
|
if someone were pushed into a bottomless hole, what would be the first thing that killed them and how long would it take?
|
[
{
"answer": "If they could theoretically fall forever, my guess would be dehydration would kill them eventually. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The air pressure would get too high and they would die due to oxygen and nitrogen toxicity once the air pressure got over 10 atm, probably within the first hour or two.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dehydration would be the first to kill them.\n\nDuring the fall you would hit terminal velocity, which simply means the speed at which you could go no faster. At that point, you would just continue falling at that speed, but the wind blowing past you would accelerate your dehydration.\n\nIf this hole were in the earth, you would just keep falling back and forth, alternating gravitational orientation until you dried up like a raisin.\n\nThere are no other forces that would be in place here. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In 7 minutes you would be 75,000 feet underground, where the pressure would cause organ failure, unconsciousness, and brain hemorrhaging. It would be possible to technically be alive for another couple minutes, but by 10 minutes anyone would be toast.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's heat - assuming you're doing this experiment on earth. In under 6 minutes you'd die\n\nThe earth gets really hot as you go down. The world's deepest mines humans go in are almost 4km down, and are so hot they require cooling systems or people couldn't work there.\n\nThe terminal velocity of a falling human in air is 195km/h.\n\nMost humans will suffer hyperthermia after 10 minutes at 140 degrees f (60c) or above.\n\nCoincidentally, this is roughly the temperature of that 4km deep mine.\n\nSo basically after about 90 seconds of falling you'll hit lethal temperatures, it'll keep getting hotter, so about 5 minutes later or less your body will just shut down and die due to heat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "386172",
"title": "Harry Lauder",
"section": "Section::::Career.:10 years a miner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "I was entombed once for 6 long hours. It seemed like 6 years. There were no visible means of getting out either – we had just to wait. I was once right next to a cave-in when my fire boss was buried alive. As we were working and chatting a big stone twice as big as a trunk came tumbling down on my mate from overhead, doubling him like a jack-knife. It squeezed his face right down on the floor. God knows I wasn't strong enough to lift that rock alone, but by superhuman efforts I did. This gave him a chance to breathe and then I shouted. Some men 70 yards away heard me and came and got him out alive. A chap who worked beside me was killed along with 71 others at Udston, and all they could identify him with was his pin leg. I wasn't there that day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30892610",
"title": "Ellison's Cave",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- March 10, 1999 - A caver climbing the Incredible pit became tangled in multiple ropes and was stranded 140 feet off the cave floor underneath water falling into the pit. The incident resulted in fatality due to hypothermia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28014203",
"title": "Chevé Cave",
"section": "Section::::Exploration history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "On March 1, 1991, Indiana caver, Christopher Yeager, made a fatal mistake while rappelling the 23-meter drop in Chevé Cave. Eleven days after the accident, Yeager was buried in a passage near where he fell. On February 8, 1992, almost a year after his death, a team of Yeager’s caving friends used ropes and pulleys to pull his body to the surface which was returned to his family in Indiana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45356032",
"title": "The Athlete (1932 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The fourth and final event involves jumping into a tub filled with water from a highly elevated plank. But as Pooch leaps, the tub somehow moves, and therefore an official sends him back up. And when Pooch plunges again, everyone below moves away instead of breaking his fall. Pooch plummets into the ground, creating a deep hole as a result. Surprisingly, a Tibetan man from the hole picks up and places him back on the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59414446",
"title": "Hole",
"section": "Section::::Types of hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Holes can occur for a number of reasons, including natural processes and intentional actions by humans or animals. Holes in the ground that are made intentionally, such as holes made while searching for food, for replanting trees, or postholes made for securing an object, are usually made through the process of digging. Unintentional holes in an object are often a sign of damage. Potholes and sinkholes can damage human settlements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3944949",
"title": "Felling mine disasters",
"section": "Section::::1812 disaster.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The rescue team all agreed that there was no possibility of the men left below ground being alive. Two explosions, blackdamp (locally called choak-damp), fire and the lethal afterdamp made any rescue attempt impossible. The suggestion was made that the pit be stopped up to extinguish the fire. However, local recollections of three men who had survived for 40 days in a pit near Byker led to shouts of \"Murder\" and obstruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19096888",
"title": "A Hole Lot of Trouble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "A Hole Lot of Trouble is a 1969 British short comedy film. Lasting only twenty-seven minutes, it charts the efforts of a group of workmen trying to dig a hole. It was written and directed by Francis Searle and starred Arthur Lowe, Victor Maddern and Bill Maynard. It became available on DVD in the UK in 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1eihup
|
Can one neuron within the human brain have several types of neurotransmitters that binds to it? For instance, can a neuron that usually allows binding by GABA neurotransmitters also allow binding from other types of neurotransmitters, such as NDMA, DA, 5-HT, etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. Neurons can have, for instance, both excitatory and inhibitory inputs, mostly mediated through glutamate and GABA",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, the neurotransmitters bind to receptors (specialized for that molecule) which protrude from the neuron. Each neuron can have multiple receptor types on its surface which can elicit varying degrees of responses depending on the neurotransmitter cocktail that is released into the synapse. Some neurons specialize with certain receptor types but it is very possible that a neuron can contain multiple types of different receptors which are triggered by different neurotransmitters. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question: Is it possible (read: existing) for one synaptic terminal to have more than one type of signaling neurotransmitter, or for there to be different synaptic terminals with different neurotransmitters whose axons originate from the same cell body? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes!! Not only can a single neuron bind multiple types of neurotransmitters, but it get's even more complex!\n \n* Receptors can *complex* together and have unique response patterns compared to the same receptors apart. This can occur as receptor dimers (two receptors stuck together) or oligomers (multiple receptors stuck together). This can occur with receptors of the same type, or different types. \n \nAn example of this in a lab I am involved with is a hetero-oligomer complex in the Striatum (part of Basal Ganglia): D2 receptor (dopamine) / A2A receptor (adenosine) / mGluR5 (metabotropic glutamate receptor).\n\n[You can see this type of complex discussed in this article.](_URL_0_) \n_____________________________________________________ \nedit: formatting",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Definitely. While this is fairly ubiquitous throughout the CNS, a quick example to illustrate this is seizures. Seizures result from excessive neuron stimulation via glutamate (CNS excitatory molecule) and resultant depolarization. One method of treating seizures are by medications which agonize GABA receptors (CNS inhibitory molecule), which raise the depolarization threshold, lessening the chance of depolarization/firing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate) is actually not a neurotransmitter. It is a synthetic analogue for glutamate that activates a subset of glutamate receptors (aptly named the NMDA receptors).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, to summarize: one neuron can have thousands of synapses.these synapses are unlikely to all have the same neurotransmitter that excites them. Even within a single synapse there are likely more than one neurotransmitters binding to receptors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29167845",
"title": "Llinás's law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "A neuron of a given kind (e.g. a thalamic cell) cannot be functionally replaced by one of another type (e.g. an inferior ollivary cell) even if their synaptic connectivity and the type of neurotransmitter outputs are identical. (The difference is that the intrinsic electrophysiological properties of thalamic cells are extraordinarily different from those of inferior olivary neurons).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neurons and synapses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "There are literally hundreds of different types of synapses. In fact, there are over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple types of receptors. Many synapses use more than one neurotransmitter—a common arrangement is for a synapse to use one fast-acting small-molecule neurotransmitter such as glutamate or GABA, along with one or more peptide neurotransmitters that play slower-acting modulatory roles. Molecular neuroscientists generally divide receptors into two broad groups: chemically gated ion channels and second messenger systems. When a chemically gated ion channel is activated, it forms a passage that allows specific types of ions to flow across the membrane. Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the target cell may be excitatory or inhibitory. When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering gene transcription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730370",
"title": "Myenteric plexus",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neurotransmitters.:Receptors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Since many of the same neurotransmitters are found in the ENS as the brain, it follows that myenteric neurons can express receptors for both peptide and non-peptide (amines, amino acids, purines) neurotransmitters. Generally, expression of a receptor is limited to a subset of myenteric neurons, with probably the only exception being expression of nicotinic cholinergic receptors on all myenteric neurons. One receptor that has been targeted for therapeutic reasons has been the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor. Activating this pre-synaptic receptor enhances cholinergic neurotransmission and can stimulate gastrointestinal motility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neurons and synapses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "According to a rule called Dale's principle, which has only a few known exceptions, a neuron releases the same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses. This does not mean, though, that a neuron exerts the same effect on all of its targets, because the effect of a synapse depends not on the neurotransmitter, but on the receptors that it activates. Because different targets can (and frequently do) use different types of receptors, it is possible for a neuron to have excitatory effects on one set of target cells, inhibitory effects on others, and complex modulatory effects on others still. Nevertheless, it happens that the two most widely used neurotransmitters, glutamate and GABA, each have largely consistent effects. Glutamate has several widely occurring types of receptors, but all of them are excitatory or modulatory. Similarly, GABA has several widely occurring receptor types, but all of them are inhibitory. Because of this consistency, glutamatergic cells are frequently referred to as \"excitatory neurons\", and GABAergic cells as \"inhibitory neurons\". Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of terminology—it is the receptors that are excitatory and inhibitory, not the neurons—but it is commonly seen even in scholarly publications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60332185",
"title": "Oscillatory neural network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "A neuron made of two coupled oscillators, one having a fixed and the other having a tunable natural frequency, has been shown able to run logic gates such as XOR that conventional sigmoid neurons cannot. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1685778",
"title": "Neuropharmacology",
"section": "Section::::Neurochemical interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "There are two types of receptors that neurotransmitters interact with on a post-synaptic neuron. The first types of receptors are ligand-gated ion channels or LGICs. LGIC receptors are the fastest types of transduction from chemical signal to electrical signal. Once the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, it will cause a conformational change that will allow ions to directly flow into the cell. The second types are known as G-protein-coupled receptors or GPCRs. These are much slower than LGICs due to an increase in the amount of biochemical reactions that must take place intracellularly. Once the neurotransmitter binds to the GPCR protein, it causes a cascade of intracellular interactions that can lead to many different types of changes in cellular biochemistry, physiology, and gene expression. Neurotransmitter/receptor interactions in the field of neuropharmacology are extremely important because many drugs that are developed today have to do with disrupting this binding process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50161687",
"title": "Functional Ensemble of Temperament",
"section": "Section::::Earlier theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "By the end of the 20th century, it became clear that the human brain operates with more than a dozen neurotransmitters and a large number of neuropeptides and hormones. The relationships between these different chemical systems are complex as some of them suppress and some of them induce each other's release during neuronal exchanges. This complexity of relationships devalues the old approach of assigning “inhibitory vs. excitatory” roles to neurotransmitters: the same neurotransmitters can be either inhibitory or excitatory depending on what system they interact with. It became clear that an impressive diversity of neurotransmitters and their receptors is necessary to meet a wide range of behavioural situations, but the links between temperament traits and specific neurotransmitters are still a matter of research. Several attempts were made to assign specific (single) neurotransmitters to specific (single) traits. For example, dopamine was proposed to be a neurotransmitter of the trait of Extraversion, noradrenaline was linked to anxiety, and serotonin was thought to be a neurotransmitter of an inhibition system. These assignments of neurotransmitter functions appeared to be an oversimplification when confronted by the evidence of much more diverse functionality. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23awy0
|
how do google glasses work if i can't focus on anything within three inches of my eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've wondered this too. Commenting to keep an eye on this thread in hopes someone will explain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can't focus on anything within three inches of your eyes because the lens in your eye can't accommodate (become stronger) well enough. You can only make the lens so strong and it turns out that the shortest focal point you can get with just your eyes is around that distance, so you can't focus on anything closer than that.\n\nWhat Glass does is focus the light for you. A little projector projects light onto a prism (the glass thing) and the prism will actually focus the light onto your retina, so your eye lens doesn't have to accommodate.\n\n[See this infographic.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Google Glass is a brand of smart glasses—an optical head-mounted display designed in the shape of a pair of eyeglasses. It was developed by X (previously Google X) with the mission of producing a ubiquitous computer. Google Glass displayed information in a smartphone-like, hands-free format. Wearers communicated with the Internet via natural language voice commands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Software.:Voice activation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Other than the touchpad, Google Glass can be controlled using just \"voice actions\". To activate Glass, wearers tilt their heads 30° upward (which can be altered for preference) or simply tap the touchpad, and say \"O.K., Glass.\" Once Glass is activated, wearers can say an action, such as \"Take a picture\", \"Record a video\", \"Hangout with [person/Google+ circle]\", \"Google 'What year was Wikipedia founded?'\", \"Give me directions to the Eiffel Tower\", and \"Send a message to John\" (many of these commands can be seen in a product video released in February 2013). For search results that are read back to the user, the voice response is relayed using bone conduction through a transducer that sits beside the ear, thereby rendering the sound almost inaudible to other people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Use in medicine.:In hospitals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "In June 2014, Google Glass' ability to acquire images of a patient's retina (\"Glass Fundoscopy\") was publicly demonstrated for the first time at the Wilmer Clinical Meeting at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine by Dr. Aaron Wang and Dr. Allen Eghrari. This technique was featured on the cover of the Journal for Mobile Technology in Medicine for January 2015. Doctors Phil Haslam and Sebastian Mafeld demonstrated the first application of Google Glass in the field of interventional radiology. They demonstrated how Google Glass could assist a liver biopsy and fistulaplasty, and the pair stated that Google Glass has the potential to improve patient safety, operator comfort, and procedure efficiency in the field of interventional radiology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The Google Glass prototype resembled standard eyeglasses with the lens replaced by a head-up display. In mid-2011, Google engineered a prototype that weighed ; by 2013 they were lighter than the average pair of sunglasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36841973",
"title": "Sigma 8–16mm f/4.5–5.6 DC HSM lens",
"section": "Section::::Close focus and macro.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "At 8 mm and 16 mm, respectively, the lens is able to focus on an area and in width. Although the official close focus distance is , Scott Gietler reported that by using the spot-focus mode, rather than multiple focus points, he was able to achieve a minimum working distance (glass to subject).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118130",
"title": "Eye relief",
"section": "Section::::Adding prescription lenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "In the event that a spectacle wearer cannot obtain the eye relief that they require, some cameras and microscopes allow prescription lenses to be fitted onto their eyepieces. In this way, the user can temporarily dispense with glasses in favor of the lens mounted on the optics. Although this method does not afford good incidental vision for the field around them, it might still be of use to some.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19065640",
"title": "Adjustable-focus eyeglasses",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Current bifocals and progressive lenses are static, in that the user has to change their eye position to look through the portion of the lens with the focal power corresponding to the distance of the object. This usually means looking through the top of the lens for distant objects and down through the bottom of the lens for near objects. Adjustable focus eyeglasses have one focal length, but it is variable without having to change where one is looking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
acznaz
|
the difference between functions, methods, objects, classes, and oop languages.
|
[
{
"answer": "A *function* is a block of code which runs some commands and can be called on from elsewhere in the code.\n\nexample:\n\n def function():\n print \"I do something.\"\n\n # now we can call the function from other code, like this, and it will always print \"I do something\".\n function()\n\n\nA *class* represents an object. A thing. It can contain both *data* and *functions that operate on the data*.\n\nA function which is attached to a class is called a *method*. It can only be called through the class.\n\nSo, for example:\n\n class Car():\n def __init__(self):\n self.model = \"Honda\"\n self.color = \"red\"\n\n def drive(self, destination):\n # do something \n\n henry = Car()\n henry.drive()\n\n\nin this example, I have a \"car\" class with two attached methods. One of them, __init__, is something used by python to create the object. The other one, drive(), does something about driving.\n\nthen i created an *instance* of the car class, and called the method 'drive' on the instance.\n\nSo: function() is a 'function', meaning a block of code that can be called from elsewhere and run when it is called. 'Car' is a *class*, which is a collection of data and functions that operate on that data; the functions contained within a class are called 'methods'. So *drive* is a function contained within Car, meaning it is a method.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An object is almost anything - it's a conceptual term. Almost everything should be an object in OOP. A school, a room, a teacher, a pupil, an arm, a finger - all objects.\n\nClasses are a collection of stuff, usually to create an object (things like abstract classes are a bit different but if you don't know what a class is, you probably don't yet need to know what an abstract class is) that implement the behaviour of something. So you'd have a School class, a Room class, a Person class, a Pupil class that extends Person, a Teacher class that also extends Person, and so on.\n\nFor the sake of ELI5, methods and functions are basically the same thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "558359",
"title": "Metaclass",
"section": "Section::::In Objective-C.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Like Smalltalk, in Objective-C, class methods are simply methods called on the class object, hence a class's class methods must be defined as instance methods in its metaclass. Because different classes can have different sets of class methods, each class must have its own separate metaclass. Classes and metaclasses are always created as a pair: the runtime has functions codice_85 and codice_86 to create and register class-metaclass pairs, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8741",
"title": "Dylan (programming language)",
"section": "Section::::Modules vs. namespace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In many object-oriented languages, classes are the main means of encapsulation and modularity; each class defines a namespace and controls which definitions are externally visible. Further, classes in many languages define an indivisible unit that must be used as a whole. For example, using a codice_23 concatenation function requires importing and compiling against all of codice_23.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7392",
"title": "Class (computer programming)",
"section": "Section::::Design and implementation.:The concept of class interface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Every class \"implements\" (or \"realizes\") an interface by providing structure and behavior. Structure consists of data and state, and behavior consists of code that specifies how methods are implemented. There is a distinction between the definition of an interface and the implementation of that interface; however, this line is blurred in many programming languages because class declarations both define and implement an interface. Some languages, however, provide features that separate interface and implementation. For example, an abstract class can define an interface without providing implementation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "896657",
"title": "Class-based programming",
"section": "Section::::Critique of class-based models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Class-based languages, or, to be more precise, typed languages, where subclassing is the only way of subtyping, have been criticized for mixing up implementations and interfaces—the essential principle in object-oriented programming. The critics say one might create a bag class that stores a collection of objects, then extend it to make a new class called a set class where the duplication of objects is eliminated. Now, a function that takes an object of the bag class may expect that adding two objects increases the size of a bag by two, yet if one passes an object of a set class, then adding two objects may or may not increase the size of a bag by two. The problem arises precisely because subclassing implies subtyping even in the instances where the principle of subtyping, known as the Liskov substitution principle, does not hold. Barbara Liskov and Jeannette Wing formulated the principle succinctly in a 1994 paper as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1639470",
"title": "Loose coupling",
"section": "Section::::In programming.:Other forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Computer programming languages having notions of either functions as the core module (see Functional programming) or functions as objects provide excellent examples of loosely coupled programming. Functional languages have patterns of Continuations, Closure, or generators. See Clojure and Lisp as examples of function programming languages. Object-oriented languages like Smalltalk and Ruby have code blocks, whereas Eiffel has agents. The basic idea is to objectify (encapsulate as an object) a function independent of any other enclosing concept (e.g. decoupling an object function from any direct knowledge of the enclosing object). See First-class function for further insight into functions as objects, which qualifies as one form of first-class function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163024",
"title": "First-class function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "In computer science, a programming language is said to have first-class functions if it treats functions as first-class citizens. This means the language supports passing functions as arguments to other functions, returning them as the values from other functions, and assigning them to variables or storing them in data structures. Some programming language theorists require support for anonymous functions (function literals) as well. In languages with first-class functions, the names of functions do not have any special status; they are treated like ordinary variables with a function type. The term was coined by Christopher Strachey in the context of \"functions as first-class citizens\" in the mid-1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7392",
"title": "Class (computer programming)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "In object-oriented programming, a class is an extensible program-code-template for creating objects, providing initial values for state (member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions or methods). In many languages, the class name is used as the name for the class (the template itself). The name for the default constructor of the class (a subroutine that creates objects), and as the type of objects generated by instantiating the class; these distinct concepts are easily conflated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cc1m32
|
What technological breakthroughs between 15th century to the 19th century were required for the creation of pistols and rifles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depending on the specific cutoff date you've got, I'd argue that smokeless gunpowder in 1886 is the single most important breakthrough. Smokeless powder paved the way for firearms as we know them today. Smokeless powder burns slightly differently than black powder (rapid burn rather than low explosive) and is significantly cleaner on firing. Although the immediate effect is apparent in the name - less smoke means it's easier to see on the battlefield - the more significant benefit was the significantly cleaner result of firing, meaning guns no longer had to be designed around regular cleaning after fewer than a hundred rounds. This in turn allowed bores and bullets to decrease in size (as the utility of large bores with respect to getting more shots between having to clean was gone) while velocities went up, allowing for flatter-shooting, longer-ranged weapons. Smokeless powder also proved far more conducive to autoloading systems thanks to higher pressures and cleaner burns, which made machineguns a truly viable weapon on the battlefield.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nPrior to that, percussion caps and brass drawing were very important steps. Percussion caps at first allowed for a quicker and more convenient way to prime a gun compared to a flint lock, but they ultimately provided the foundation for the primers in every modern cartridge. Meanwhile, brass drawing provided an effective and consistent means to contain cartridges that could be mass-produced. Unlike paper cartridges, they left no residue in the chamber after firing, and unlike rolled brass cartridges, they were sturdier and easier to produce.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20074",
"title": "Machine pistol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "During World War I, the Austrians introduced the world's first machine pistol the Steyr Repetierpistole M1912/P16. The Germans also experimented with machine pistols, by converting various types of semi-automatic pistols to full-auto, leading to the development of the first practical submachine gun. During World War II, machine pistol development was more or less ignored as the major powers were focused on mass-producing submachine guns. After the war, machine pistols development was limited and only a handful of manufacturers would develop new designs, with varying degrees of success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11966",
"title": "Firearm",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The first primitive firearms were invented about 1250 AD in China when the man-portable fire lance (a bamboo or metal tube that could shoot ignited gunpowder) was combined with projectiles such as scrap metal, broken porcelain, or darts/arrows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1333845",
"title": "Henry Deringer",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In 1825 he designed the first of the large caliber, short barreled pistols that would lead to considerable wealth and fame for himself. Using the basic flintlock action in common usage at the time, the pistols were muzzle loading single shots, or in some cases, double barreled in an over-under manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1054508",
"title": "Minigun",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background: electrically driven Gatling gun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "The ancestor to the modern minigun was a hand cranked mechanical device invented in the 1860s by Richard Jordan Gatling. Gatling later replaced the hand-cranked mechanism of a rifle-caliber Gatling gun with an electric motor, a relatively new invention at the time. Even after Gatling slowed down the mechanism, the new electric-powered Gatling gun had a theoretical rate of fire of 3,000 rounds per minute, roughly three times the rate of a typical modern, single-barreled machine gun. Gatling's electric-powered design received U.S. Patent #502,185 on July 25, 1893. Despite Gatling's improvements, the Gatling gun fell into disuse after cheaper, lighter-weight, recoil and gas operated machine guns were invented; Gatling himself went bankrupt for a period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19690",
"title": "Machine gun",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The first successful machine-gun designs were developed in the mid-19th century. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly mechanical loading, first appeared in the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons were still powered by hand; however, this changed with Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also experimented with electric-motor-powered models; this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375767",
"title": "Semi-automatic firearm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher produced the first successful design for a semi-automatic rifle in 1885, and by the early 20th century, many manufacturers had introduced semi-automatic shotguns, rifles and pistols. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1838545",
"title": "Horace Smith (inventor)",
"section": "Section::::Smith & Wesson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "In 1857, Smith and Wesson formed another Smith & Wesson company, this time to produce a pistol with interchangeable parts, a repeating action, a revolving magazine, metallic cartridges, and an open cylinder. They developed more firearms using their own patents along with patents and licenses bought from other gunsmiths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9zcc6n
|
What was the impact of the Albigensian Crusade on the centralization of France ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi there - unfortunately we have had to remove your question, because [/r/AskHistorians isn't here to do your homework for you](_URL_0_). However, our rules DO permit people to ask for help with their homework, so long as they are seeking clarification or resources, rather than the answer itself. \n\nIf you have indeed asked a homework question, you should consider resubmitting a question more focused on finding resources and seeking clarification on confusing issues: tell us what you've researched so far, what resources you've consulted, and what you've learned, and we are more likely to approve your question. Please see this [Rules Roundtable](_URL_1_) thread for more information on what makes for the kind of homework question we'd approve. Additionally, if you're not sure where to start in terms of finding and understanding sources in general, we have a six-part series, \"[Finding and Understanding Sources](_URL_2_)\", which has a wealth of information that may be useful for finding and understanding information for your essay. Finally, other subreddits are likely to be more suitable for help with homework - try looking for help at /r/HomeworkHelp. \n\nAlternatively, if you are not a student and are not doing homework, we have removed your question because it resembled a homework question. It may resemble a common essay question from a prominent history syllabus or may be worded in a broad, open-ended way that feels like the kind of essay question that a professor would set. Professors often word essay questions in order to provide the student with a platform to show how much they understand a topic, and these questions are typically broader and more interested in interpretations and delineating between historical theories than the average /r/AskHistorians question. If your non-homework question was incorrectly removed for this reason, we will be happy to approve your question if you **wait for 7 days** and then ask a less open-ended question on the same topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "84381",
"title": "Albigensian Crusade",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "As a result of the Albigensian Crusade, there were only a small number of French recruits for the Fifth and Sixth crusades. Strayer argues that the Albigensian Crusade increased the power of the French monarchy and made the papacy more dependent on it. This would eventually lead to the Avignon Papacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22987465",
"title": "Christianity in the 13th century",
"section": "Section::::Crusades.:Albigensian Crusade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (the south of modern-day France). It was a decade-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1000232",
"title": "Genocides in history",
"section": "Section::::Pre–World War I.:1490 to 1914.:Europe.:13th-century extermination of the Cathars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "The Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in southern France. The Crusade was primarily prosecuted by the French crown and it promptly took on a political flavour, resulting not only in a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, but also in a realignment of the County of Toulouse in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the Counts of Barcelona.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79596",
"title": "Louis VIII of France",
"section": "Section::::As King Louis VIII.:The Albigensian Crusade and Conquest of Languedoc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The Albigensian Crusade had begun in 1209, ostensibly against the Cathar heretics of southern France and Languedoc in particular, though it soon became a contest between lords of northern France and those of Occitania in the south. The first phase from 1209 to 1215 was quite successful for the northern forces, but this was followed by a series of local rebellions from 1215 to 1225 that undid many of these earlier gains. There followed the seizure of Avignon and Languedoc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55171881",
"title": "Siege of Minerve",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by the Kingdom of France at the behest of Pope Innocent III. Its purpose was to squash the growing Cathar movement, which flourished mainly in the Languedoc region of southern France. The immediate cause was the killing of the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau. The Crusaders set out in the summer of 1209. After several military victories, they were able to capture many towns without a fight before arriving at Minerve. After the fall of Carcassonne, papal legate Arnaud Amalric, who had led troops during the Massacre at Béziers, was replaced as commander of the Crusader force by Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, although Amalric continued to accompany the army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84381",
"title": "Albigensian Crusade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229; , ) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in southern France. The Crusade was prosecuted primarily by the French crown and promptly took on a political flavour, resulting in not only a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, but also a realignment of the County of Toulouse in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the Counts of Barcelona.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83900",
"title": "Languedoc",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "In the 13th century, the spiritual beliefs of the area were challenged by the See of Rome and the region became attached to the Kingdom of France following the Albigensian Crusade (1208–1229). This crusade aimed to put an end to what the Church considered the Cathar heresy, and enabled the Capetian dynasty to extend its influence south of the Loire. As part of this process, the former principalities of Trencavel (the Viscounty of Albi, Carcassona, Besièrs, Agde and Nimes) were integrated into the Royal French Domain in 1224. The Counts of Toulouse followed them in 1271. The remaining feudal enclaves were absorbed progressively up to the beginning of the 16th century; the County of Gévaudan in 1258, the County of Melgueil (Mauguiò) in 1293, the Lordship of Montpellier in 1349 and the Viscounts of Narbonne in 1507.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cb47eh
|
How do Historians recognize/rule out humor or sarcasm from historical texts?
|
[
{
"answer": "To answer this, I'm going to first start with an example and work through why the historical account is contested. One of the most infamous cases of this is probably Caligula, the \"depraved\" Roman Emperor. In pop culture (e.g. things like the series *I, Claudius*) he's portrayed as a truly despicable human being. He murdered people for no reason, openly slept with married women, wasted money, claimed he was divine, and slept with his sisters (he eats his sister's fetus in *I, Claudius*...there are no historical accounts of that happening).\n\nThese stories are from a variety of stories. The main two who were contemporaries of Caligula were Philo of Alexandria (in his work *Flaccus* where he discusses Caligula's treatment of Jews...Caligula claimed to be a god and they refused to worship him) and Seneca the Younger (whose analysis of anger in *De Ira* is considered a thinly-veiled critique of Caligula...though he does not mention Caligula by name). They paint the picture of someone unstable and crazy (considering himself a god and punishing the Jews for not worshiping him) and unstable and full of rage (challenging the gods to fight and lashing out at all those around him).\n\nThe other two sources, and all of the \"juicy\" stuff that people remember come from Suetonius (in his work *De Vita Caesarum* - The Twelve Caesars) and Cassius Dio (in *Historia Romana*). These are where the accusations of incest, wasteful spending, and the desire to appoint his horse a consul of Rome. The important thing to note here is that Suetonius was born almost 30 years after Caligula died and Cassius Dio was born over *100* years after Caligula's death.\n\nSo, that leads us to our first clue: the truly \"juicy\" stories don't come from his contemporaries but from people who were born decades after Caligula's death. Suetonius' work is, essentially, a massive piece of hearsay. Interesting for sure, but ultimately problematic when compared with previous writings on Caligula. It's possible they had access to sources that have since been lost but this isn't the only reason to be skeptical.\n\nThe other major reason that these stories are suspect is that Caligula was...not well liked by some powerful people. The Senate in particular hated him. In the end, he was assassinated by members of his own Praetorian guard. These same people would have a vested interest in painting Caligula in the worst possible light and spread scandalous stories about him to make the assassination seem more \"justified\".\n\nSo, to sum up, there are a number of things historians look for. Consistency in accounts are particularly important. It's likely that Caligula did have a temper as both Philo and Seneca mention it. It's not likely that all of the salacious details from after his death are accurate. Contemporary accounts are also incredibly important as it's less likely the stories will be distorted over time (e.g. perhaps Caligula was not serious in his threat to make his horse a consul, it was a way to call his opponents in Rome incompetent, but that's not how it was told to Suetonius). Looking at the motivation of those writing/relaying the history is also quite important as a highly biased source is not as trustworthy.\n\nedit: noticed a couple typos\n\nedit2: I should also note, history is not as...clean as most schools before higher education tend to show. In many cases there is no one \"truth\", even for more recent events than Ancient Rome. This is where lively debate comes into play. Historians will get into - sometimes quite heated - debates about what truly happened as you will frequently have sources that either contradict each other or make outlandish claims. Historians try to create a plausible hypothesis for events based on their evidence and present their findings to the academic community.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Punctuation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 897,
"text": "Though in the English language there is no standard accepted method to denote irony or sarcasm in written conversation, several forms of punctuation have been proposed. Among the oldest and frequently attested are the percontation point—furthered by Henry Denham in the 1580s—and the irony mark—furthered by Alcanter de Brahm in the 19th century. Both of these marks were represented visually by a ⸮ backwards question mark (unicode U+2E2E). Each of these punctuation marks are primarily used to indicate that a sentence should be understood as ironic, but not necessarily designate sarcasm that is not ironic. By contrast, more recent proposals, such as the snark mark, or the use of a following tilde are specifically intended to denote sarcasm rather than irony. A bracketed exclamation point or question mark as well as scare quotes are also sometimes used to express irony or ironic sarcasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21514028",
"title": "Irony",
"section": "Section::::Punctuation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "No agreed-upon method for indicating irony in written text exists, though many ideas have been suggested. For instance, an irony punctuation mark was proposed in the 1580s, when Henry Denham introduced a rhetorical question mark or percontation point, which resembles a reversed question mark. This mark was also advocated by the French poet Marcel Bernhardt at the end of the 19th century, to indicate irony or sarcasm. French writer Hervé Bazin suggested another \"pointe d'ironie\": the Greek letter \"psi\" with a dot below it, while Tom Driberg recommended that ironic statements should be printed in italics that lean the other way from conventional italics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21514028",
"title": "Irony",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Comic irony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Irony is often used in literature to produce a comic effect. This may also be combined with satire. For instance, an author may facetiously state something as a well-known fact and then demonstrate through the narrative that the fact is untrue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162595",
"title": "Tactical frivolity",
"section": "Section::::History of humour in political protest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The study of humour by social historians did not become popular until the early 1980s and the literature on this subject studying periods before the 20th century is relatively sparse. An exception is the frequently cited Rabelais and His World by Mikhail Bakhtin, a Russian scholar considered by some to be the most important thinker of the 20th century. The work discusses the life and times of the writer and satirist François Rabelais with emphases on what the author considers to be the powerful role of humour in medieval and early times. Carnivals, Satire and the French folk custom of Charivari were discussed as mediums that allowed the lower classes to use humour to highlight unjust behaviour by the upper classes. These humorous protests were generally tolerated by the ruling authorities. Examples of the use of humour for political protest even from Classical times, such as the play Lysistrata by ancient Greek dramatist Aristophanes, have been described as \"Rabeleisan protest\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26791",
"title": "Satire",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Literary satire is usually written out of earlier satiric works, reprising previous conventions, commonplaces, stance, situations and tones of voice. Exaggeration is one of the most common satirical techniques. Contrarily diminution is also a satirical technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6866615",
"title": "Seppo Telenius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "\"...I found irony and the further I found the further I went towards the end of the manuscript [Auringolla ratsastajat] also a great deal of grotesque. In fact, you seem to have control over quite a big arsenal of different sorts of parody and satire that enrich your story with just the right spices. You do have control over cultural historical code, terms and dealings in such an amount that in between also my own knowledge of the field was put to a tough test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26791",
"title": "Satire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—\"in satire, irony is militant\"—but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This \"militant\" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2p4tdd
|
why does the box of my ps4 say it comes with 500 gb when it only comes with 407.2 gb?
|
[
{
"answer": "Technically it does come with a 500gb hard drive but the ps4's firmware and updates need a bunch of that space. Doesn't matter though, they still provided you with a 500gb drive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "GB can technically mean 2 different things. One is the computer definition. That works off binary and powers of 2. So, there are 8 bits in 1 byte. Then we start counting bytes by doubling 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 and 1024. 1024 bytes is a kilobyte (KB). If you do the same thing, counting KB, 1024 KB is a megabyte (MB). If you do the same thing, counting MB, 1024 MB is a gigabyte (GB) and so on to terabytes (TB), etc.\n\nNow, in non-computer contexts, the prefixes kilo, mega, giga, tera all mean a thousand, a million and a billion. So, while computers themselves use the first system to count up space, the manufacturers can use the definition of \"a billion bytes\" for GB on the packaging without the FTC coming down on them for lying in their advertising.\n\nThe bigger the hard drives get, the bigger the difference between the 2 methods of calculation get. \n\nAnd, because this went to court a couple of times a while back, you'll find that the packaging itself usually has fine print explaining this in legalese.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40316052",
"title": "PlayStation 3 models",
"section": "Section::::Super Slim model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "CECH-4000B consoles (those with hard drives) weigh approximately , while the CECH-4000A weighs approximately . Both are roughly 25% smaller and about 20% lighter than the original PS3 Slim. This version has a sliding disc cover rather than the slot-loading drive found on previous PlayStation 3 consoles (Similar to the Sony BRAVIA KDL22PX300, which includes a built in PlayStation 2).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13119627",
"title": "Archos AV series",
"section": "Section::::Products.:AV400.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The unit is sold in many hard drive sizes, 20, 40, 60, & 80 GB and the AV4100 which is 100 GB in size. The actual size of the unit depends on the capacity, the AV420 (20 GB) was smaller than all of the other models and also has a smaller screen size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1467755",
"title": "Drive bay",
"section": "Section::::Form factors.:2.5″.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "For \"2.5″\" bays, actual dimensions are wide, between and high, and deep. However, most laptops have drive bays smaller than the 15 mm specification. 2.5″ hard drives may range from 7 mm to 15 mm in height, there are two sizes that appear to be prominent. 9.51 mm size drives are predominantly used by laptop manufacturers, however at present 2.5″ Velociraptor and some higher capacity drives (above 1 TB), are 15 mm in height. The greater height of the 15 mm drives allow more platters and therefore greater data capacities. Many laptop drive bays are designed to be removable trays in which the drives are mounted, to ease removal and replacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24951",
"title": "PlayStation 3",
"section": "Section::::History.:\"Super Slim\" model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1860,
"text": "In September 2012 at the Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced that a new, slimmer PS3 redesign (CECH-4000) was due for release in late 2012 and that it would be available with either a 250 GB or 500 GB hard drive. Three versions of the \"Super Slim\" model were revealed: one with a 500 GB hard drive, a second with a 250 GB hard drive which is not available in PAL regions, and a third with a 12 GB flash storage that was available in PAL regions, and in Canada. The storage of 12 GB model is upgradable with an official standalone 250 GB hard drive. A vertical stand was also released for the model. In the United Kingdom, the 500 GB model was released on September 28, 2012; and the 12 GB model was released on October 12, 2012. In the United States, the PS3 Super Slim was first released as a bundled console. The 250 GB model was bundled with the \"Game of the Year\" edition of \"\" and released on September 25, 2012; and the 500 GB model was bundled with \"Assassin's Creed III\" and released on October 30, 2012. In Japan, the black colored Super Slim model was released on October 4, 2012; and the white colored Super Slim model was released on November 22, 2012. The Super Slim model is 20 percent smaller and 25 percent lighter than the Slim model and features a manual sliding disc cover instead of a motorized slot-loading disc cover of the Slim model. The white colored Super Slim model was released in the United States on January 27, 2013 as part of the \"Instant Game Collection Bundle\". The \"Garnet Red\" and \"Azurite Blue\" colored models were launched in Japan on February 28, 2013. The \"Garnet Red\" version was released in North America on March 12, 2013 as part of the \"\" bundle with 500 GB storage and contained \"God of War: Ascension\" as well as the \"God of War Saga\". The \"Azurite Blue\" model was released as a GameStop exclusive with 250GB storage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38151849",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy S4",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Critics noted that about half of the internal storage on the S4's 16 GB model was taken up by its system software, using 1 GB more than the S III and leaving only 8.5 to 9.15 GB for the storage of other data, including downloaded apps (some of which cannot be moved to the SD card). Samsung initially stated that the space was required for the S4's new features, but following a report regarding the issue on the BBC series \"Watchdog\", Samsung stated that it would review the possibility of optimising the S4's operating system to use less local drive space in a future update. Storage optimizations were brought in an update first released in June 2013, which frees 80 MB of internal storage and restores the ability to move apps to the device's microSD card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6036786",
"title": "List of Xbox 360 accessories",
"section": "Section::::Storage.:Detachable hard drives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "Initially, 250 GB hard drives were only available through third-party manufacturers or through the purchase of a special-edition Xbox 360 console bundle, but from 2010, it was being sold as a separate accessory in Japan, North America, and the UK. Currently, the 320 GB hard drive is only available as part of either limited/special edition Xbox 360 S bundles or as a separate purchase for Xbox 360 S consoles; it is not available for original Xbox 360 models. Of the total storage capacity, approximately 6 GB is reserved for system use; around 4 GB of that portion is reserved for game title caching and other hard drive-specific elements in games that support the hard drive and an additional 2 GB is reserved for use by the Xbox 360 backwards-compatibility software. This leaves users with approximately 14, 54, 114, 244, or 314 GB (displayed as 14, 52, 107, 228, or 292 GiB) of free space on the drive. Depending on the market, the hard drive comes preloaded with content, such as videos and Xbox Live Arcade games or demos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33667887",
"title": "Nook Tablet",
"section": "Section::::Comparison.:8 GB version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "On February 22, 2012, Barnes & Noble released the Nook Tablet 8 GB at US $199 to compete with the Kindle Fire. The differences from the 16 GB model are: 512 MB RAM and 8 GB of internal storage, of which 5 GB is available for user content and 1 GB is reserved for NOOK Store content. On August 12, 2012, Barnes & Noble lowered the price to $179. On November 4, 2012, the price was further reduced to US $159.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gl482
|
Why didn't the Germans bombard southern England with artillery?
|
[
{
"answer": "They did, to an extent. The Germans had quite a bit of cross-channel artillery at Calais, which they used to fire on Kent for years. Economically though, it probably wasn't all that useful. The German guns and their barrels and ammunition probably cost more than the damage they did to anything on land. The firing rate of the German guns was often less than one round per hour, and obviously they didn't have any spotters to help them zero in on targets.\n\nOn the other hand, the cross-channel guns were highly useful for attacking British shipping passing through the straits of Dover. The Germans had radar there, and anything passing through the straits could expect to be fired upon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They could [and did](_URL_0_). Dover and surrounding towns, as well as Dover Strait and shipping lanes through the Channel were under continuous bombardment from 1940-44. The British installed their own guns along the coast to counter the German shellfire...the first two were nicknamed Winnie and Pooh. \n\n > This gunnery duel, along with heavy German shelling and bombing of Dover strait and the Dover area, led to this stretch of the Channel being nicknamed Hellfire Corner and led to 3,059 alerts, 216 civilian deaths, and damage to 10,056 premises in the Dover area and much damage to shipping. Much British shipping, perforce, had to pass through the bottleneck of Dover strait to transport essential supplies, particularly coal. \n\nSo coastal artillery did quite a bit of damage, though it wasn't nearly as effective as the Blitz (which killed tens of thousands) in terms of terrorizing the civilian population. It was a far bigger threat to shipping, particularly since counterbattery fire only managed to silence the majority of the coastal batteries by 1944. \n\nThe reasons why it wasn't effective as a tool for bombarding British cities & military installations have to do with the cost and complexity of extreme-range artillery.\n\nAfter the sheer cost of huge coastal guns, [Fire control](_URL_2_) was probably the biggest impediment to long-range cross-channel artillery. Launching a ballistic shell and hitting a target 40 miles away is far more complex than simply punching in a map coordinate & elevation. Even if the target is stationary, like, say, the Port of Dover, the shell might have to traverse one or more weather systems, wind patterns, even temperature gradients, any one of which could alter the trajectory of the shell. Time-of-flight for a shell traveling 40 miles is in the neighborhood of 160 seconds, which means that even more exotic factors have to be included (Coriolis effect, muzzle wear in the artillery piece, etc.). Naval artillery is firing from a moving platform, and so the ship's direction, speed and roll also has to be accounted for. Coastal & naval guns used mechanical computers [to calculate firing solutions based on all of this information](_URL_1_). \n\nHitting a moving target, like a ship or train, requires even more calculations and a spotter for target acquisition. Since you're basically aiming at where the target's going to be 60 seconds or more in the future, you need a radar signature (I don't know if they used radar targetting in WWII), or better yet a trained artillery spotter team for target acquisition, and to send back speed & direction information. This was dangerous work for aircraft, and extremely dangerous for agents working behind enemy lines on both sides of the channel. \n\nArtillery spotting had to be one of the most dangerous jobs in the war. Think about it: you're either a French citizen working with the Resistance, or you're a British citizen working with the Wehrmacht. In order to relay target information, you're probably using a portable teletype machine, and using cryptographic code to transmit details that are probably going to get some of your neighbors killed along with soldiers, police, etc. The Gestapo is listening in, so you have to hope they aren't close enough to triangulate your signal. You have to hope the Germans haven't been able to break the code Whitehall gave you. Then hope if you get captured that you'll be able to hold out under torture long enough for the people you're going to implicate to make plans to be elsewhere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On a tangentially related note to OP's question:\n\nDid Germany ever plan a D-day style invasion of Southern England?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides the already mentioned - there were also plans to attack London with artillery ([see V3 cannon](_URL_0_)), however that never happened due to problems with the development of those guns. And by the time they more or less ready it was already too late. \n\nThough in 1944 two smaller versions were used on the western front to attack Luxembourg which alreaddy had been liberated... with not so great results. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mainly the fact that the Germans bombarded targets in England with concentrated bombing attacks and once the English fought off the Blitz and formed their defenses, those attacks stopped and couldnt be made effectively with artillery.\n\nAlso that artillery at that range is beyond the visual guidance of the gunners and it requires forward observers in place to guide the fire, not being able to cross the channel and have observers in place on the ground in England would have made artillery useless, just would have been pounding random coastline and countryside. Considering that at even its narrowest point at the Pa De Calais the channel is 19 miles wide and just to far and limiting for effective bombardment of any viable targets.\n\nThe fact that the allies would have to counter that fire with their own counterbattery fire, bombing attacks and naval gun fire from the channel, it simply would have been pointless and impossible to attack England with artillery in any effective manner.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1026131",
"title": "First day on the Somme",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Tactical developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1289,
"text": "Artillery bombardments were to be co-ordinated with infantry attacks, with various types of artillery given suitable targets for the cumulative destruction of field defences and the killing of German infantry. Heavy artillery and mortars were to be used for the destruction of field fortifications, howitzers and light mortars for the destruction of trenches, machine-gun and observation posts; heavy guns and mortars to destroy fortified villages and concrete strong points. Longer-range guns were to engage German artillery with counter-battery fire, to deprive German infantry of artillery support during the attack, when French infantry were at their most vulnerable. Wire cutting was to be performed by field artillery, firing high explosive (HE) shells and supported by specialist wire-cutting sections of infantry, which would go out the night before an attack. During the attack, the field artillery would fire a linear barrage on trenches and the edges of woods and villages. Infantry tactics were to be based on reconnaissance, clear objectives, liaison with flanking units and the avoidance of disorganisation within attacking units. General attacks would need to be followed by the systematic capture of remaining defences for jumping-off positions in the next general attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39943953",
"title": "Capture of Fricourt",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Tactical developments.:1916.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The British method of attack by 1916 was to fire an intense bombardment on the German front trenches just before zero hour, then lift the bombardment to the next trench, then the next according to a timetable. Before the barrage lifted, infantry were to creep as close as possible to the bombardment, considered to be from the trench and to attack as soon as the shellfire lifted. The destructive effect of the bombardment was said by Haig and Rawlinson, to be such that nothing could live in the target area and that infantry would only have to occupy the ground,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30762896",
"title": "Strategic bombing during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "In May 1917 the Germans began using heavy bombers against England using Gotha G.IV and later supplementing these with \"Riesenflugzeuge\" (\"giant aircraft\"), mostly from the Zeppelin-Staaken firm. The targets of these raids were industrial and port facilities and government buildings, but few of the bombs hit military targets, most falling on private property and killing civilians. Although the German strategic bombing campaign against Britain was the most extensive of the war, it was largely ineffective, in terms of actual damage done. Only 300 tons of bombs were dropped, resulting in material damage of £2,962,111 damage, 1,414 dead and 3,416 injured, these figures including those due to shrapnel from the anti-aircraft fire. In the autumn of 1917, however, over 300,000 Londoners had taken shelter from the bombing, and industrial production had fallen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49091191",
"title": "March 1915",
"section": "Section::::March 4, 1915 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- The third German attempt to bomb England using airships failed when a lone naval Zeppelin encountered a gale over the North Sea and was blown out of control over Nieuwpoort, Belgium where Belgian antiaircraft gunners shot her down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326213",
"title": "Technology during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Air warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "German strategic bombing during World War I struck Warsaw, Paris, London and other cities. Germany led the world in Zeppelins, and used these airships to make occasional bombing raids on military targets, London and other British cities, without great effect. Later in the war, Germany introduced long range strategic bombers. Damage was again minor but they forced the British air forces to maintain squadrons of fighters in England to defend against air attack, depriving the British Expeditionary Force of planes, equipment, and personnel badly needed on the Western front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43956143",
"title": "Air force",
"section": "Section::::History.:The world wars.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Germany was the first country to organize regular air attacks on enemy infrastructure with the Luftstreitkräfte. In World War I, it used its zeppelins (airships) to drop bombs on British cities. At that time, Britain did have aircraft, though her airships were less advanced than the zeppelins and were very rarely used for attacking; instead, they were usually used to spy on German U-boats (submarines).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45331674",
"title": "1st Durham Engineers",
"section": "Section::::First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Although the coastal towns of NE England were bombarded by the German Navy on 16 December 1914 (Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby) and by Zeppelins in January and June 1915, it became clear that a fullscale German invasion of Britain was unlikely, while the armies in the field required large numbers of engineers. The Fortress Engineer units therefore began organising field companies for overseas service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
z2k0a
|
What is chemically happening when pasta sauce stains tupperware?
|
[
{
"answer": "Without having a source I would rather say that there is nothing happening on a chemical level\n\nIt is just the Carotine (rather the Lycopin) that makes tomatos red, that is stuck to the plastic.\n\nSince Carotine is liposoluble, you should try to rub it out with oil (just normal cooking oil). I learned that this hould help.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18735",
"title": "Lycopene",
"section": "Section::::Structure and physical properties.:Staining and removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Lycopene is the pigment in tomato-containing sauces, turning plastic cookware orange, and is insoluble in water. It can be dissolved only in organic solvents and oils. Because of its nonpolarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, including most plastics. To remove this staining, the plastics can be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of household bleach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56643734",
"title": "Alkaline pasta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The addition of alkaline materials to such dishes as pasta makes them feel slippery in the mouth and on the fingers; they also develop a yellow color and are more elastic than ordinary noodles. Various flours such as ordinary all-purpose white flour, bread flour, and semolina flour can be used, with somewhat varying results. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26496776",
"title": "Mole sauce",
"section": "Section::::Preparation and consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The resulting powder or paste is mixed with water, or more often broth, and simmered until it is pungent and very thick. It is most often prepared in a \"cazuela\" () or a thick heavy clay cauldron and stirred almost constantly to prevent burning. The thickness of the sauce has prompted some, such as Mexican-food authority Patricia Quintana, to claim it is too substantial to be called a sauce. However, like a sauce, it is always served over something and never eaten alone. \"Mole poblano\" is most traditionally served with turkey, but it and many others are also served with chicken, pork, or other meats (such as lamb).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23871",
"title": "Pasta",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Impact of processing on physical structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Before the mixing process takes place, semolina particles are irregularly shaped and present in different sizes. Semolina particles become hydrated during mixing. The amount of water added to the semolina is determined based on the initial moisture content of the flour and the desired shape of the pasta. The desired moisture content of the dough is around 32% wet basis and will vary depending on the shape of pasta being produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50404581",
"title": "Pasta processing",
"section": "Section::::Drying.:Short pasta drying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Short pasta pieces fall on the shaker conveyor and powerful hot air is blown to them immediately after the extrusion. This reduces the moisture content by 5% and prevents the pieces from sticking and flattening. Shaker then carries the product through tiers with dry hot air and buckets collect the pasta and spread them on the upper tier of the multi-tier drying unit. This unit has four areas which periods of intense moisture extraction alternately followed by periods of rest occur at eight drying/stabilizing cycle in total. Process ends in cold air chamber for stabilizing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426522",
"title": "Carbonara",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The pasta is cooked in moderately salted boiling water. The guanciale is briefly fried in a pan in its own fat. A mixture of raw eggs (or yolks), grated Pecorino (or a mixture with Parmesan), and a good amount of ground black pepper is combined with the hot pasta either in the pasta pot or in a serving dish, but away from direct heat, to avoid curdling the egg. The fried guanciale is then added, and the mixture is tossed, creating a rich, creamy sauce with bits of meat spread throughout. Although various shapes of pasta can be used, the raw egg can only cook properly with a shape that has a sufficiently large ratio of surface area to volume, such as the long, thin types fettucine, linguine, or spaghetti.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27711",
"title": "Starch",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Starch becomes soluble in water when heated. The granules swell and burst, the semi-crystalline structure is lost and the smaller amylose molecules start leaching out of the granule, forming a network that holds water and increasing the mixture's viscosity. This process is called starch gelatinization. During cooking, the starch becomes a paste and increases further in viscosity. During cooling or prolonged storage of the paste, the semi-crystalline structure partially recovers and the starch paste thickens, expelling water. This is mainly caused by retrogradation of the amylose. This process is responsible for the hardening of bread or staling, and for the water layer on top of a starch gel (syneresis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13u6zk
|
Wouldn't a diver get serious hearing damage if he was to swim close to the pistol shrimp?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's important to note that that 218 dB is at a distance of 4 cm, and is relative to 1 µPa. Now, first off, by convention the source level you quoted for a jet is equivalent to a measurement at a distance of 1 m. Taking that into account, the source level of the shrimp drops to 190 dB. Moreover, it's important to consider that dB is a relative scale of pressure. Sound Pressure Level and pressure are related through the reference pressure, by the equation P=Pref*10^SPL/20, where SPL is the sound pressure level in dB, and Pref is the standard underwater pressure reference of 1 µPa. Sound levels in air, on the other hand, are measured with respect to 20 µPa. If we make the appropriate conversion, we find that the appropriate sound pressure level should be 164 dB re 20 µPa @ 1 m.\n\nThat's still pretty high, right? Well, that's because we're talking about pressures. The thing that really matters is intensity, which is the amount of power per unit area of the wave. Well, since water and air have different acoustic impedances, even if the pressures are the same, the intensities will be different. If we take that effect into account, the level of the shrimp will be further reduced to SIL=128 dB re 10^-12 W/m^2. So, the shrimp is quieter than a jet engine, but still pretty loud.\n\nTo take this a step further, the sound generated by a jet is a consistent sound, while the sound of a pistol shrimp is a loud POP. What if we compared this sound to a similar loud POP, like a gun? From wikipedia, the M1 Garand Rifle has a source level of 168 dB at a distance of 1 m. 128 dB, in comparison, carries about 1/10000th of the energy. So, while it would be loud, it wouldn't be instant deafness.\n\nSo, despite the very large looking number of 200 dB for a pistol shrimp, the actual amount of sound they put out is not excessively dangerous to nearby swimmers. \n\n*Edit: A colleague pointed out that the 128 dB is actually rather close to the sound level of a balloon popping, which [this Express Letter from the Acoustical Society of America by Patynen](_URL_0_) found to range from 120-138, depending on the size of the balloon. It should be noted that the way the pistol shrimp actually stun their prey is with the shockwave that is generated by the bubble cavitation. This shockwave only has a very short range.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2791810",
"title": "Anti-frogman techniques",
"section": "Section::::Anti-frogman weapons.:Attack on the surface or onshore.:Police-type or riotsquad-type non-lethal weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "BULLET::::- Stunning may be a fairly safe means of arrest on land, but underwater would likely make the diver lose his mouthpiece and drown (unless he has a fullface mask or some sorts of strapped-in mouthpiece), or lose control of depth with consequent barotrauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2791810",
"title": "Anti-frogman techniques",
"section": "Section::::Anti-frogman weapons.:Depth charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Divers, however, are far less vulnerable to damage by underwater explosion than common sense would dictate. Since the tissues of the body tend to transmit the shock waves with much the same characteristics as the water around, large distant shocks have little impact on divers. For this reason, the most effective \"depth charge\" for use against a diver is the common hand-grenade, tossed within a few feet of the diver. The resulting gas cavitation and shock-front-differential over the width of the body is effective in stunning or killing the diver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "945775",
"title": "Earplug",
"section": "Section::::Types and use cases.:Protection from water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Jacques-Yves Cousteau warned that earplugs are harmful to divers, especially scuba divers. Scuba divers breathe compressed air or other gas mixtures at a pressure matching the water pressure. This pressure is also inside the ear, but not between the eardrum and the earplug, so the pressure behind the eardrum will often burst the eardrum. Skin divers have less pressure inside the ears, but they also have only atmospheric pressure in the outer ear canal. The PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) advises in the \"Open Water Diver Manual\" that only vented earplugs designed for diving should be used in diving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2791810",
"title": "Anti-frogman techniques",
"section": "Section::::Anti-frogman weapons.:Attack on the surface or onshore.:Police-type or riotsquad-type non-lethal weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "BULLET::::- Mace (spray) and pepper spray and teargas may make an unequipped surface swimmer drown, and are useless against a swimmer with a diving mask and breathing set whether he is in or out of the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871736",
"title": "Otitis externa",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "BULLET::::- After prolonged swimming, a person prone to external otitis can dry the ears using a small battery-powered ear dryer, available at many retailers, especially shops catering to watersports enthusiasts. Alternatively, drops containing dilute acetic acid (vinegar diluted 3:1) or Burow's solution may be used. It is especially important NOT to instrument ears when the skin is saturated with water, as it is very susceptible to injury, which can lead to external otitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490901",
"title": "Catch and release",
"section": "Section::::Deep sea fishing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Most deep sea fish species suffer from the sudden pressure change when wound to the surface from great depths; these species cannot adjust their body's physiology quickly enough to follow the pressure change. The result is called \"barotrauma\". Fish with barotrauma will have their enormously swollen swim-bladder protruding from their mouth, bulging eyeballs, and often sustain other, more subtle but still very serious injuries. Upon release, fish with barotrauma will be unable to swim or dive due to the swollen swim-bladder. The common practice has been to deflate the swim bladder by pricking it with a thin sharp object before attempting to release the fish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488005",
"title": "Underwater hockey",
"section": "Section::::Injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "Since this is an underwater sport, surface spectators may be unaware of just how physical underwater hockey is. Although it is a limited-contact sport, there is a significant risk of injury. Many injuries are typical sports injuries such as sprains, torn muscles and light scratches. More major injuries might include deeper cuts, broken fingers, impacts to the head causing concussion or dental trauma, and there is also a minor risk of life-threatening injury from being struck on the head with the possibility of a major concussion or blackout underwater. There is an obvious risk of drowning if knocked unconscious underwater but the players are under observation by the referees during competition, and players in any case tend to be very aware of what their teammates are doing or not doing; in practice an unconscious or seriously injured player is likely to be noticed and assisted or rescued very promptly. Personal protective equipment is available to reduce injury risks and the published rules make items such as gloves, mouthguards and earguards mandatory. There is a risk of pulmonary capillary stress failure (Hemoptysis) in some players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3am0gy
|
why my dog loves his collar so much?
|
[
{
"answer": "It probably feels odd to have it off. If he wears it all the time it would be like having a necklace on all the time, you'd notice when it wasn't there and feel a bit 'off'. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you always use a leash when you walk him? The leash is attached to the collar, so he might be able to associate the collar with going out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2446559",
"title": "Bandog",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "William Harrison, in his description of England during 1586, describes the type as: “... Mastiff, tie dog, or band dog, so called because many of them are tied up in chains and strong bonds in the daytime, for doing hurt abroad, which is a huge dog, stubborn, uglier, eager, burthenouse of bodie, terrible and fearful to behold and often more fierce and fell than any Archadian or Corsican cur ...”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1710257",
"title": "Dog collar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "A dog collar is a piece of material put around the neck of a dog. A collar may be used for restraint, identification, fashion, or protection. Identification tags and medical information are often placed on dog collars. Collars are often used in conjunction with a leash for restraining a dog. A better alternative to a dog collar is a dog harness, as collars are purely around the neck, causing a dog restrained in a collar to have severe pressure put on its trachea when it pulls, and slip out easier if it is too loose, yet collars are still the more common form of directing dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38018133",
"title": "The Snowman and the Snowdog",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Upon arriving home, Billy opens his present. It is a dog collar, which he politely places round the Snowdog's neck. The Snowdog turns into a real live dog that matches the one that Billy asked for. They both bid the Snowman a fond farewell and retire for the night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25450348",
"title": "Bob the Railway Dog",
"section": "Section::::Other \"Bobs\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Patsy Adam-Smith suggests that the couplet on Bob's collar may not be unique. She notes that correspondence in an \"Adelaide paper\" recalled seeing an 18th-century book which described a dog working with a fire brigade. The picture notes a similar couplet, \"Stop me not but onward let me jog, for I am Bob, the London Firemans Dog.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13275842",
"title": "Wolf collar",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "A wolf collar is normally made out of metals such as iron. The length of the spikes can be quite long, but styles differ in different places. The dogs that normally wore the collars were ones used to protect livestock from attack by wolves. The purpose of the collar is to protect the dog wearing it when it has to fight the wolves. The collar base protects the dog's throat and carotid arteries, while the spikes are intended to deter bites to the neck or even injure wolves trying to do so. There are some tales that suggest that dogs were only given them after they had killed their first wolf; however, these are normally considered to be inaccurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3405495",
"title": "Arriva Yorkshire",
"section": "Section::::Discrimination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "A widely reported case in 2008 concerned a gothic couple, Dani Graves and his fiancée Tasha Maltby, who wears a dog collar and lead. A driver had refused them travel and made comments to them, allegedly saying \"We don't let freaks and dogs like you on.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036801",
"title": "Arnolfini Portrait",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation and symbolism.:Other objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The little dog symbolizes fidelity (fido), loyalty, or can be seen as an emblem of lust, signifying the couple's desire to have a child. Unlike the couple, he looks out to meet the gaze of the viewer. The dog could also be simply a lap dog, a gift from husband to wife. Many wealthy women in the court had lap dogs as companions. So, the dog could reflect the wealth of the couple and their position in courtly life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lz4uo
|
When I was in the USA I noticed the First World War memorials were dedicated to soldiers who died in The Great War of 1917-18. Why is it not described as 1914-18?
|
[
{
"answer": "This seems too obvious, but wouldn't it be because the United States only joined the war in 1917?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US didn't enter WW1 until 1917.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does the related WW2 memorial only list from 1941-45? Curious if this an inconsistency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34915981",
"title": "World War I memorials",
"section": "Section::::Second World War and Post-War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "The Second World War that broke out in 1939 consumed the attention of a new generation. Across most of the theatres of conflict, the participants attempted to respect the memorials to World War I. After the Second World War there was no equivalent mass construction of memorials to the war dead; instead, often local World War I memorials were adapted for use instead: additional names might be inscribed to the existing lists. In some cases, this resulted in memorials losing their exclusive focus on World War I. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, for example, was expanded in 1950s to include corpses from the Second World War and Korea War, broadening the memorial's remit to commemorate most modern wars. In other cases, such as the Australian War Memorial, begun in the inter-war years but only opened in 1941, an essentially new memorial was formed to honour the multiple conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54415948",
"title": "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the American Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Creation of the memorial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Several events during the 1920s influenced the creation of this memorial to an Unknown of the American Revolution. One was the memorialization of soldiers who had died in World War I and remained unidentified. On the second anniversary of the signing of the treaty that ended World War I, Armistice Day 1920, memorials to unknown soldiers were dedicated in Great Britain and France. The United States dedicated its memorial to an unknown soldier of that war at Arlington National Cemetery on November 11, 1921. The sarcophagus-style monument that now sits atop the burial vault of the Tomb of the Unknowns was added in 1932.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26579234",
"title": "List of Confederate monuments and memorials",
"section": "Section::::History.:Monument building and dedications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "A small number of memorializations were made during the war, mainly as ship and place names. After the war, Robert E. Lee said on several occasions that he was opposed to any monuments, as they would, in his opinion, \"keep open the sores of war\". Nevertheless, monuments and memorials continued to be dedicated shortly after the American Civil War. Many more monuments were dedicated in the years after 1890, when Congress established the first National Military Park at Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and by the turn of the twentieth century, five battlefields from the Civil War had been preserved: Chickamauga-Chattanooga,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196700",
"title": "Bunyip, Victoria",
"section": "Section::::History.:1900-1950.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Following World War I the Soldiers' Memorial Stone was erected in 1921 to commemorate those townfolk who had been killed. The names of those who fell in World War II and the Vietnam War were subsequently added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1915491",
"title": "Military history of Birmingham",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Finally, 60 years after the end of the Second World War, a memorial is now in place by the new Bull Ring to commemorate the civilians who died during air raids, naming all those who were killed or gave up their lives protecting the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "396500",
"title": "Willenhall",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Two war memorials were erected in the town after World War I to commemorate the hundreds of men from the town who lost their lives in the conflict. The memorial park was opened in 1922 in honour of those killed in World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977757",
"title": "Military art",
"section": "Section::::Art forms.:Sculpture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1772,
"text": "The huge losses of the American Civil War saw the first really large group of sculptural war memorials, as well as many monuments for individuals. Among the most artistically outstanding is the Memorial to Robert Gould Shaw and the all-black 54th Regiment by Augustus Saint-Gaudens in Boston, with a second cast in the National Gallery of Art, Washington. The even larger losses of World War I led even small communities in most nations involved to raise some form of memorial, introducing the widespread use of the form to Australia, Canada and New Zealand, the sudden increase in demand leading to a boom for sculptors of public art. Even more than in painting, the war brought a crisis in style, as much public opinion felt the traditional heroic styles inappropriate. One of the most successful British memorials is the starkly realist Royal Artillery Memorial in London, the masterpiece of Charles Sargeant Jagger, who had been wounded three times in the war and spent most of the next decade commemorating it. In the defeated nations of Germany and Austria controversy, which had a political aspect, was especially fierce, and a number of memorials considered excessively modern were removed by the Nazis, whose own memorials, such as the Tannenberg Memorial were removed after World War II. Other solutions were to make memorials more neutral, as in the repurposed Neue Wache in Berlin, since rededicated to different groups several times, and the dignified architectural forms of the Cenotaph in London (widely imitated) and the German Laboe Naval Memorial; tombs of the Unknown Warrior and eternal flames were other ways of avoiding controversy. Some, like the Canadian National War Memorial, and most French memorials, were content to update traditional styles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d4rd1
|
Ionization Question - Ionization Energy
|
[
{
"answer": "for electrons on atoms, the electrons are either bound or unbound depending on their total energy relative to the potential well ([a morse potential](_URL_0_)). if the electron in question has total energy less than the dissociation energy (the ionization energy), then the energy is quantized to discrete states (your E1, E2, E3, for example). as energy increases closer to the dissociation energy, the density of states (literally, the number of states per amount energy increased) increases dramatically, and there are many states near the dissociation energy. beyond the dissociation energy, the energy levels are so close together that they form a continuum of states, in which an electron can exist with any amount of energy. because of this, **a photon that can impart any amount of energy to make the total energy of the electron greater than the dissociation energy will lead to dissociation.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An atom doesn't just have a fixed number of energy levels. They actually have an \"infinite\" number of energy levels. However, the energy difference between the energy levels approaches zero as you go higher up, to the point where there _is_ a fixed amount of energy required to \"eject\" an electron out of an atom. That is the ionization energy.\n\nIf a photon has more than that amount of energy, the excess energy must be accounted for, be it another photon being emitted, or in the form of kinetic energy of the ejected electron.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8372004",
"title": "Periodic trends",
"section": "Section::::Ionization energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "The ionization potential is the minimum amount of energy required to remove one electron from each atom in a mole of isolated, neutral and gaseous atom. The \"first ionization energy\" is the energy required to remove the first electron, and generally the \"nth ionization energy\" is the energy required to remove the atom's \"n\"th electron, after the (\"n\"−1) electrons before it has been removed. Trend-wise, ionization energy tends to increase while one progresses across a period because the greater number of protons (higher nuclear charge) attract the orbiting electrons more strongly, thereby increasing the energy required to remove one of the electrons. Ionization energy and ionization potentials are completely different. The potential is an intensive property and it is measured by \"volt\"; whereas the energy is an extensive property expressed by \"eV\" or \"kJ/mole\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25017774",
"title": "Photoelectrochemical process",
"section": "Section::::Photoionization.:Multi-photon ionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Above threshold ionization (ATI) is an extension of multi-photon ionization where even more photons are absorbed than actually would be necessary to ionize the atom. The excess energy gives the released electron higher kinetic energy than the usual case of just-above threshold ionization. More precisely, the system will have multiple peaks in its photoelectron spectrum which are separated by the photon energies, this indicates that the emitted electron has more kinetic energy than in the normal (lowest possible number of photons) ionization case. The electrons released from the target will have approximately an integer number of photon-energies more kinetic energy. In intensity regions between 10 W/cm and 10 W/cm, each of MPI, ATI, and barrier suppression ionization can occur simultaneously, each contributing to the overall ionization of the atoms involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23053",
"title": "Periodic table",
"section": "Section::::Periodic trends and patterns.:Ionization energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom, the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom, and so on. For a given atom, successive ionization energies increase with the degree of ionization. For magnesium as an example, the first ionization energy is 738 kJ/mol and the second is 1450 kJ/mol. Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal requires increasingly more energy. Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1231776",
"title": "Photoionization",
"section": "Section::::Multi-photon ionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Above-threshold ionization (ATI) is an extension of multi-photon ionization where even more photons are absorbed than actually would be necessary to ionize the atom. The excess energy gives the released electron higher kinetic energy than the usual case of just-above threshold ionization. More precisely, The system will have multiple peaks in its photoelectron spectrum which are separated by the photon energies, this indicates that the emitted electron has more kinetic energy than in the normal (lowest possible number of photons) ionization case. The electrons released from the target will have approximately an integer number of photon-energies more kinetic energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59613",
"title": "Ionization energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In physics and chemistry, ionization energy (American English spelling) or ionisation energy (British English spelling), denoted \"E\", is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron, the valence electron, of an isolated neutral gaseous atom or molecule. It is quantitatively expressed as \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59613",
"title": "Ionization energy",
"section": "Section::::Analogs of ionization energy to other systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "While the term ionization energy is largely used only for gas-phase atomic or molecular species, there are a number of analogous quantities that consider the amount of energy required to remove an electron from other physical systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59613",
"title": "Ionization energy",
"section": "Section::::Values and trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Ionization energy is also a periodic trend within the periodic table organization. Moving left to right within a period, or upward within a group, the first ionization energy generally increases, with some exceptions such as aluminum and sulfur in the table above. As the nuclear charge of the nucleus increases across the period, the atomic radius decreases and the electron cloud becomes closer towards the nucleus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
91u76b
|
why is china airlines from taiwan? why not call it taiwan airlines instead?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because Taiwan's official name is the Republic of China (ROC).\n\nAlso, China Airlines was founded back when the Taiwanese government still considered itself the government of China (though exiled)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "China had a civil war between the communists and the nationalists. The communists won and the nationalists had to flee to Taiwan, but both of them still claim to be the sole legitimate government of China. Because of that, Taiwan's official name is actually the Republic of China, not the Republic of Taiwan or anything like that. And if they called themselves (or their airlines) \"Taiwanese\", it would mean that they'd be tacitly giving up their claim to the mainland.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The exact legal status of Taiwan has never really been settled after WWII.\n\nThis goes back to the Chinese Civil War. You had two sides: The Communists and the Nationalists. WWII screwed everything up and, after the war, the Communists ended up in more or less complete control, except for the island of Taiwan, which was controlled by the Nationalists. The United States, seeking to contain Communism, backed the Nationalists in Taiwan enough that the Communists couldn’t/wouldn’t invade and that’s basically where things have stood for 50 years now.\n\nEach side considers themselves the *real* China and the *other* China to be in rebellion against their *legitimate* authority.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "124485",
"title": "China Airlines",
"section": "Section::::History.:Change of logo and livery (1995–2010).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "As Republic of China (Taiwan)'s flag carrier, China Airlines has been affected by disputes over the political status of Republic of China (Taiwan), and under pressure from the Communist Party of China, was barred from flying into a number of countries maintaining diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (\"China\"). As a result, in the mid-1990s, China Airlines subsidiary Mandarin Airlines took over some of its Sydney and Vancouver international routes. Partly as a way to avoid the international controversy, in 1995 China Airlines unveiled its \"plum blossom\" logo, replacing the national flag, which had previously appeared on the tail fins (empennage), and the aircraft livery from the red-white-blue national colors on the fuselage of its aircraft. The plum blossom (\"Prunus mume\") is Taiwan's National Flower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29704582",
"title": "International tourism advertising",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Travel services advertising.:China Airways and Air China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "China Airlines is the official flag carrier airline of Taiwan. The Taiwanese government refers to its state as the Republic of China and considers itself to be the legitimate, non-Communist leadership-in-exile of all of China since the Communist overthrow in the mid-1950s. The name of the airline carries the message of the long-lasting and ongoing cultural and political conflict between Communist \"mainland\" China (PRC) and Taiwan, that the Republic of China is the \"true\" China and that the state commonly referred to as \"China\" is illegitimate and usurped control of the country from the rightful leadership. Similarly, the PRC counters this message by having named one of its largest international carriers \"Air China\" to reinforce the PRC's claim to be the legitimate of the \"two Chinas.\" The implicit conflict between the two states is likely lost on the majority of the general public outside the immediate region, such as the United States and Europe, but the strategic use of using advertising and targeting the international community through tourism is apparent on both sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "124485",
"title": "China Airlines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "China Airlines (CAL) () is the national carrier of Taiwan (officially the Republic of China, hence the \"China\" name), and one of its two major airlines along with EVA Air. It is headquartered in Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport and operates over 1400 flights weekly (including 91 pure cargo flights) to 102 cities across Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. Carrying over 19 million passengers and 5700 tons of cargo in 2017, the carrier was the 33rd and 10th largest airline in the world in terms of passenger revenue per kilometer (RPK) and freight RPK, respectively. China Airlines has three airline subsidiaries: China Airlines Cargo, a member of SkyTeam Cargo, operates a fleet of freighter aircraft and manages its parent airline's cargo-hold capacity; Mandarin Airlines operates flights to domestic and low-demand regional destinations; Tigerair Taiwan is a low-cost carrier established by China Airlines and Singaporean airline group Tigerair Holdings, but is now wholly owned by China Airlines Group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297958",
"title": "Air China",
"section": "Section::::Destinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Regular flights between Mainland China (PRC) and Taiwan (ROC) started in July 2009. Due to the political status of Taiwan, all Air China airframes that operate flights to and from Taiwan are required to cover the flag of the People's Republic of China on the fuselage, including a number of Airbus A320s, A330s, A340s, Boeing 777-200s, and Boeing 747-400BDSFs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3090510",
"title": "British Asia Airways",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "This was due to political sensitivities, as national airlines operating flights to the People's Republic of China were not permitted to fly to Taiwan. Similar arrangements were made by other airlines, such as Japan Airlines and Qantas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10402528",
"title": "Cross-Strait charter",
"section": "Section::::2005 Charters.:Flight records.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The six mainland Chinese airlines originated in three cities in Mainland China: Beijing (Air China, Hainan Airlines), Shanghai (China Eastern Airlines), and Guangzhou (China Southern Airlines, Xiamen Airlines). All Air China's flight are operated by Shandong Airlines' aircraft to avoid Air China's livery which features the \"Five Star Red Flag\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30777774",
"title": "China Airlines Group",
"section": "Section::::Subsidiaries.:China Airlines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "China Airlines is Republic of China's (Taiwan) largest airline, operating regular flights to over 90 destinations worldwide. China Airlines features full passenger and dedicated cargo operations to North America, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17s3be
|
Planets revlove in an ellipsoid trajectory around the sun - but what are the foci?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the foci is, strictly, the centre of mass of the system, rather than the centre of the Sun itself, but effectively the difference is minute. The other focus doesn't have any astronomical meaning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's consider what a two-body system with gravitational attraction can do.\n\nFirst, lets assume one of the bodies (the Sun) to be so massive as to effectively be the center of mass for the system. This is the only unnecessary step I'll take, but it's convenient to picture. With the Sun fixed, the only degrees of freedom we'll have to worry about are those of the planet. This gives us 6: three for position, three for momentum. (We're not looking at rotational degrees of freedom for the planet itself now.)\n\nNext, the gravitational attraction is isotropic, it has no preferred direction. This means that the orbital angular momentum is preserved and does not change throughout time. This fixes 3 degrees of freedom. Energy is conserved as well, that leaves us with only 2 degrees of freedom left. This corresponds to the position and velocity on a closed curve in a plane.\n\nBut what is that closed curve? It turns out - and this is not trivial at all - that there is another symmetry, and another conserved quantity in such a system, specific to the gravitational interaction. I won't bother you with the details, because they provide little insight, but it locks another degree of freedom. You can use all this to transform the problem into that of the planet on a one-dimensional potential as a function of planet-sun distance. And what does the planet do? It oscillates inside that potential, back and forth, getting closer to the Sun, then getting further away from the Sun again. Back, and forth, back and forth. That's the ellipse. The planet moves to its aphelion, then to its perihelion and back again. And what's the special case? The planet is at rest at the bottom of this potential well, its distance to the Sun stays constant. It's on a circle.\n\nHow does an elliptic orbit relate to having 6 degrees of freedom?\n\n1.) The energy determines whether a planet is captured in a closed orbit, or simply passes through in a glancing blow. It also determines the size of the orbit. Higher energy = further out.\n\n2,3,4.) The angular momentum determines the shape of the orbit and its orientation in space. High angular momentum makes a very elliptic orbit.\n\n5.) The position of the perihelion (and thus also the aphelion) ties down the exact orientation of the ellipse in space. This is undetermined in a circular orbit.\n\n6.) The position of the planet itself on the orbit is time-dependent, yet predictable for all times. Its velocity is also perfectly predictable, it's highest at the perihelion, lowest at the aphelion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48381",
"title": "Celestial coordinate system",
"section": "Section::::Coordinate systems.:Ecliptic system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The heliocentric ecliptic system describes the planets' orbital movement around the Sun, and centers on the barycenter of the solar system (i.e. very close to the center of the Sun). The system is primarily used for computing the positions of planets and other solar system bodies, as well as defining their orbital elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372608",
"title": "Milankovitch cycles",
"section": "Section::::Earth's movements.:Apsidal precession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "In addition, the orbital ellipse itself precesses in space, in an irregular fashion, completing a full cycle every 112,000 years relative to the fixed stars. Apsidal precession occurs in the plane of the ecliptic and alters the orientation of the Earth's orbit relative to the ecliptic. This happens primarily as a result of interactions with Jupiter and Saturn. Smaller contributions are also made by the sun's oblateness and by the effects of general relativity that are well known for Mercury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72576",
"title": "Axial precession",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "In addition to lunisolar precession, the actions of the other planets of the Solar System cause the whole ecliptic to rotate slowly around an axis which has an ecliptic longitude of about 174° measured on the instantaneous ecliptic. This so-called planetary precession shift amounts to a rotation of the ecliptic plane of 0.47 seconds of arc per year (more than a hundred times smaller than lunisolar precession). The sum of the two precessions is known as the general precession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24714",
"title": "Precession",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.:Apsidal precession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The orbits of planets around the Sun do not really follow an identical ellipse each time, but actually trace out a flower-petal shape because the major axis of each planet's elliptical orbit also precesses within its orbital plane, partly in response to perturbations in the form of the changing gravitational forces exerted by other planets. This is called perihelion precession or apsidal precession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143608",
"title": "Deferent and epicycle",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "In both Hipparchian and Ptolemaic systems, the planets are assumed to move in a small circle called an \"epicycle\", which in turn moves along a larger circle called a \"deferent\". Both circles rotate clockwise and are roughly parallel to the plane of the Sun's orbit (ecliptic). Despite the fact that the system is considered geocentric, each planet's motion was not centered on the Earth but at a point slightly away from the Earth called the \"eccentric\". The orbits of planets in this system are similar to epitrochoids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15032003",
"title": "Exoplanetology",
"section": "Section::::Orbital parameters.:Periastron precession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Periastron precession is the rotation of a planet's orbit within the orbital plane, i.e. the axes of the ellipse change direction. In the Solar System, perturbations from other planets are the main cause, but for close-in exoplanets the largest factor can be tidal forces between the star and planet. For close-in exoplanets, the general relativistic contribution to the precession is also significant and can be orders of magnitude larger than the same effect for Mercury. Some exoplanets have significantly eccentric orbits, which makes it easier to detect the precession. The effect of general relativity can be detectable in timescales of about 10 years or less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27228915",
"title": "Nodal precession",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The direction of precession is opposite the direction of revolution. For a typical prograde orbit around Earth (that is, in the direction of primary body's rotation), the longitude of the ascending node decreases, that is the node precesses westward. If the orbit is retrograde, this increases the longitude of the ascending node, that is the node precesses eastward. This nodal progression enables heliosynchronous orbits to maintain a nearly constant angle relative to the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c02y6c
|
how does tidal energy not break conservation of energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "In short, the moon is constantly slowing the rotation of the earth. Eventually the moon and earth will always be facing each other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The energy from the tides actually comes from the kinetic energy of the moon. the tides are slowing down the moon and thus slowly pushing it away from earth very slowly and also slowly slowing down the earth's rotation and making the day slightly longer.\n\nThe moon uses to rotate at a different speed than it down now but the tidal forces have slowed it down enough so that it now shows the same side to earth all the time. It has become tidal locked. If earth wasn't so much more massive than the moon than eventually it would become tidal locked to the moon too. As it is now it seems that Sun will likely expand to eat both of them before that can happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1378862",
"title": "Electricity sector in India",
"section": "Section::::Renewable energy.:Tidal power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. The potential of tidal wave energy becomes higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving, funnelling, reflection and resonance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55834764",
"title": "Renewable energy in Vietnam",
"section": "Section::::Tidal energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "This type of energy does not produce waste that is harmful to the environment and does not require high maintenance. Unlike the solar and wind energy models, tidal energy is quite stable because the tide of the day can be accurately predicted. The disadvantage of this type of energy is that it requires a large amount of investment in equipment and construction and at the same time changes the natural conditions of a very large area. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325060",
"title": "Tidal power",
"section": "Section::::Issues and challenges.:Cost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Tidal Energy has an expensive initial cost which may be one of the reasons tidal energy is not a popular source of renewable energy. It is important to realize that the methods for generating electricity from tidal energy is a relatively new technology. It is projected that tidal power will be commercially profitable within 2020 with better technology and larger scales. Tidal Energy is however still very early in the research process and the ability to reduce the price of tidal energy can be an option. The cost effectiveness depends on each site tidal generators are being placed. To figure out the cost effectiveness they use the Gilbert ratio, which is the length of the barrage in metres to the annual energy production in kilowatt hours (1 kilowatt hour = 1 KWH = 1000 watts used for 1 hour).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325060",
"title": "Tidal power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal energy has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9273237",
"title": "World energy resources",
"section": "Section::::Renewable resources.:Wave and tidal power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Another physical limitation is the energy available in the tidal fluctuations of the oceans, which is about 0.6 EJ (exajoule). Note this is only a tiny fraction of the total rotational energy of the Earth. Without forcing, this energy would be dissipated (at a dissipation rate of 3.7 TW) in about four semi-diurnal tide periods. So, dissipation plays a significant role in the tidal dynamics of the oceans. Therefore, this limits the available tidal energy to around 0.8 TW (20% of the dissipation rate) in order not to disturb the tidal dynamics too much. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1841288",
"title": "Outline of energy",
"section": "Section::::Physics of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "BULLET::::- Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into useful forms of power - mainly electricity, dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons, tidal barrages\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325060",
"title": "Tidal power",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon and Sun and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy resource. Movement of tides causes a loss of mechanical energy in the Earth–Moon system: this is a result of pumping of water through natural restrictions around coastlines and consequent viscous dissipation at the seabed and in turbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation of the earth (length of a day) has increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours; in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While tidal power will take additional energy from the system, the effect is negligible and would only be noticed over millions of years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2e559f
|
does putting "i do not own this song" on youtube videos actually prevent it from getting taken down from the record label?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nope! Some people think it's polite though, which is kind of strange, because the people are pretty much saying \"Yes, I knowingly violated the copyright on your product, but at least I'm not claiming it's mine\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, for two reasons. The first is that, in most cases, the video is still violating copyright law. Whether they know or admit to it or not is irrelevant, because it's still illegal.\n\nNow, in some cases they're not actually in violation of the law under Fair Use clauses, but that's also irrelevant. It's not the government taking the videos down as a matter of criminal punishment, it's Google taking them down out of fear of a lawsuit. It doesn't matter if the video is actually legal, because any potential legal action will be a pain to deal with, even if Google wins the case. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4954494",
"title": "Darren Watson",
"section": "Section::::\"Planet Key\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Watson chose to remove the song from the iTunes Store, claiming the commission's advice was censorship. John Key commented that the song and its music video was, \"quite professionally done. It was anti-us but as a parody it was okay.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10772",
"title": "Fair use",
"section": "Section::::Fair use in particular areas.:Internet publication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1864,
"text": "In August 2008, Judge Jeremy Fogel of the Northern District of California ruled in \"Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.\" that copyright holders cannot order a deletion of an online file without determining whether that posting reflected \"fair use\" of the copyrighted material. The case involved Stephanie Lenz, a writer and editor from Gallitzin, Pennsylvania, who made a home video of her thirteen-month-old son dancing to Prince's song Let's Go Crazy and posted the video on YouTube. Four months later, Universal Music, the owner of the copyright to the song, ordered YouTube to remove the video under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Lenz notified YouTube immediately that her video was within the scope of fair use, and she demanded that it be restored. YouTube complied after six weeks, rather than the two weeks required by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Lenz then sued Universal Music in California for her legal costs, claiming the music company had acted in bad faith by ordering removal of a video that represented fair use of the song. On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that a copyright owner must affirmatively consider whether the complained of conduct constituted fair use before sending a takedown notice under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, rather than waiting for the alleged infringer to assert fair use. 801 F.3d 1126 (9th Cir. 2015). \"Even if, as Universal urges, fair use is classified as an 'affirmative defense,' we hold—for the purposes of the DMCA—fair use is uniquely situated in copyright law so as to be treated differently than traditional affirmative defenses. We conclude that because 17 U.S.C. § 107 created a type of non-infringing use, fair use is \"authorized by the law\" and a copyright holder must consider the existence of fair use before sending a takedown notification under § 512(c).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26012082",
"title": "(I Can't Make It) Another Day",
"section": "Section::::Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The song had not been intended for release and Jackson's record label Sony Music Entertainment gained the support of the late entertainer's estate and its lawyers in their endeavor to have the track removed from the Internet on the basis of copyright infringement. Some of their attempts at removal were successful, though individuals continued to upload the audio, one clip garnering 20,000 views within hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58440381",
"title": "Content ID (algorithm)",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "An independent test in 2009 uploaded multiple versions of the same song to YouTube, and concluded that while the system was \"surprisingly resilient\" in finding copyright violations in the audio tracks of videos, it was not infallible. The use of Content ID to remove material automatically has led to controversy in some cases, as the videos have not been checked by a human for fair use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33629639",
"title": "Stop Online Piracy Act",
"section": "Section::::Impact on websites.:Users uploading illegal content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "An aide to Rep. Smith said, \"This bill does not make it a felony for a person to post a video on YouTube of their children singing to a copyrighted song. The bill specifically targets websites dedicated to illegal or infringing activity. Sites that host user content—like YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter—have nothing to be concerned about under this legislation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2399872",
"title": "Music licensing",
"section": "Section::::Home video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "If the process of clearing the rights to the song is prohibitively expensive for the home video distributor, or clearance is refused by the copyright holders of the original song, the affected song is either replaced with a similar one, or the footage containing the copyrighted song is edited out. In a few cases, television shows, with extensive use of copyrighted music whose cost of \"after-market\" licensing is high, are withheld from release on DVD; notable examples include \"The Wonder Years\", \"WKRP in Cincinnati\", \"Third Watch\" (beyond its first two seasons), and \"Cold Case\", some of which were eventually released after long delays. Sony Entertainment cancelled the planned October 2007 DVD release of \"Dark Skies\" for that reason, but it was eventually released on January 18, 2011 through Shout! Factory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6600777",
"title": "Don't Download This Song",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "\"Don't Download This Song\" references several court cases related to the RIAA and copyright infringement of music. Among these are lawsuits against \"a grandma\" (presumably Gertrude Walton, who was sued for copyright infringement six months after dying) and a \"7-year-old girl\" (presumably a reference to Tanya Andersen's daughter sued at age 10 for alleged copyright infringements made at the age of 7), as well as Lars Ulrich's strong stance against copyright infringement of music in the days of Napster. The song also challenges the RIAA's claim that file sharing prevents the artists from profiting from their work, as the song argues that they are still very financially successful via their recording contracts: (\"Don't take away money from artists just like me/How else can I afford another solid-gold Humvee?\"). Mention is also made of Tommy Chong's time spent in prison.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sgxdf
|
what damage can be done if someone gets access to your wi-fi password?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are definitely a few guides out there detailing how to beef up your network's security, check them out when you have a chance (on mobile, can't link any at the moment).\n\nThere are a few implications when someone has access to your network:\n\n* If they're doing something bandwidth-heavy (gaming, streaming HD, etc.), it can slow down the connection for other devices on the network.\n* If they're doing illegal things, you are the first person your ISP will come after or warn. \n* There is software out there that allows people to \"sniff\" the traffic of other people on the same network that is being sent back and forth from the device to the network. They can't explicitly see what you're doing, but the software can glimpse at the data being sent back and forth and steal cookies, passwords, and other data being transferred.\n\nELI5 Version:\n\n* You start taking a shower on the first floor, but only have lukewarm water because someone else in your house has been running the hot water in the shower on the second floor for the past hour.\n* I stole something with your name on it, started beating people with it, and left the object with your name on it behind as the initial piece of evidence.\n* You snuck into a dark closet with your friend, shut the door, and told them who your crush is. But before you came in, someone else snuck in, hid, and overhead you telling your friend who you have a crush on. They now have your sensitive information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15693143",
"title": "Legality of piggybacking",
"section": "Section::::Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1211,
"text": "On April 28th, 2017 the Tokyo District Court ruled that accessing a wireless LAN network without authorization is not a crime, even if the network is protected with a password. In a case brought before the court involved a man named Hiroshi Fujita, who was accused of accessing a neighbors wi-fi network without authorization and sending virus-infected emails, and then using that to steal internet banking information and send funds to his own bank account without authorization. Hiroshi was found guilty of most of what he was accused of and sentenced to 8 years in prison. Regarding the unauthorized access of wireless networks, prosecutors argued that wi-fi passwords fall under the category of \"secrets of wireless transmission\" (無線通信の秘密) and that therefore obtaining and using passwords without permission of the network operator would fall under the category of unauthorized use of wireless transmission secrets, which is prohibited by law. However, the court ruled that the defendant is not guilty, stating in their ruling that wi-fi passwords do not fall under that category and therefore the unauthorized obtainment of passwords and subsequent accessing of protected wireless networks is not a crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7398",
"title": "Computer security",
"section": "Section::::Systems at risk.:Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyber attacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat. If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58574904",
"title": "Evil maid attack",
"section": "Section::::Vulnerable interfaces.:Any unattended device.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Any unattended device can be vulnerable to a network evil maid attack. If the attacker knows the victim's device well enough, they can replace the victim's device with an identical model with a password-stealing mechanism. Thus, when the victim inputs their password, the attacker will instantly be notified of it and be able to access the stolen device's information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10027043",
"title": "Comparison of privilege authorization features",
"section": "Section::::Security considerations.:Fake authentication dialogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Another security consideration is the ability of malicious software to spoof dialogs that look like legitimate security confirmation requests. If the user were to input credentials into a fake dialog, thinking the dialog was legitimate, the malicious software would then know the user's password. If the Secure Desktop or similar feature were disabled, the malicious software could use that password to gain higher privileges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30500317",
"title": "Mobile security",
"section": "Section::::Attacks based on communication.:Attacks based on communication networks.:Attacks based on Wi-Fi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "An attacker can try to eavesdrop on Wi-Fi communications to derive information (e.g. username, password). This type of attack is not unique to smartphones, but they are very vulnerable to these attacks because very often the Wi-Fi is the only means of communication they have to access the internet. The security of wireless networks (WLAN) is thus an important subject. Initially, wireless networks were secured by WEP keys. The weakness of WEP is a short encryption key which is the same for all connected clients. In addition, several reductions in the search space of the keys have been found by researchers. Now, most wireless networks are protected by the WPA security protocol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47564307",
"title": "Wi-Fi deauthentication attack",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "An attacker can send a deauthentication frame at any time to a wireless access point, with a spoofed address for the victim. The protocol does not require any encryption for this frame, even when the session was established with Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) for data privacy, and the attacker only needs to know the victim's MAC address, which is available in the clear through wireless network sniffing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29388939",
"title": "Firesheep",
"section": "Section::::Countermeasures.:Wireless network security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1234,
"text": "Local Wi-Fi networks may be configured with varying levels of security enabled. Using a Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) password, the attacker running Firesheep must have the password, but once this has been achieved (a likely scenario if a coffee shop is asking all users for the same basic password) they are able to decrypt the cookies and continue their attack. In addition, the WEP protocol has been proven to have severe flaws which allow attackers to decrypt WEP traffic very quickly, even without the password. However, using Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA or WPA2) encryption offers individual user isolation, preventing the attacker from using Firesheep from decrypting cookies sent over the network even if the Firesheep user has logged into the network using the same password. An attacker would be able to manually retrieve and decrypt another user's data on a WPA-PSK connection, if the key is known and the attacker was present at the time of the handshake, or if they send a spoofed de-authenticate packet to the router, causing the user to re-authenticate and allow the attacker to capture the handshake. This attack would not work on WPA-Enterprise networks as there is no single password (the 'Pre Shared Key' in PSK).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
46gqgg
|
why do politicians and the media never just call people liars?
|
[
{
"answer": "They do, often. Have you not seen any of the presidential candidate's debates this season?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that can be considered defamatory, leading the person to file, and win, a lawsuit against you. This will have the effect of making them look like a victim, and making you look like an asshole while paying them a bunch of money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You didn't watch the GOP debate last week did you?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Most people in the media are journalists. Journalism has a certain code of ethics based around objectivity and reserving judgement. They like to just put out the facts and let the viewer make the jump of judging the person as a liar. Ex. there is no ethical problem with putting out a story saying \"Donald Trump said the war in Iraq was a good idea in 2005, but then said it was always a bad idea in 2016\", but there is a problem if (as a journalist) you say \"Donald trump flip-flopped on his beliefs about the war in Iraq. He is a liar.\" Also, there is the possibility of lawsuits for defamation, but this generally is not a problem if you are being truthful and is not the sole reason for avoiding calling people liars. \n\n2. Politicians regularly call people liars. As an example, look at last weeks debate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Politicians rely on the media to forward their careers, and the media need politicians to give them stories. Neither side is eager to piss on their chips.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49869582",
"title": "Liars Table",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The practice is not always referred to as a \"liars table,\" but that term appears across the United States, including Alabama, Florida, Iowa, Maine, Mississippi, Texas, and Ohio. The word \"liars\" refers to the idea that the men are lying or gossiping about local social or political happenings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151848",
"title": "Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)",
"section": "Section::::Basic HUMINT operations.:Planning the initial interview.:Attitudes of the subject.:Hostile and antagonistic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "\"Showing some subjects up as liars is the very worst thing to do, because their determination not to lose face will only make them stick harder to the lie. For these it is necessary to provide loopholes by asking questions which let them correct their stories without any direct admission to lying\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39327843",
"title": "Political opportunism",
"section": "Section::::Assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "If \"there is no such thing as an honest politician\", this need not mean that all politicians are liars, but just that they are often not in a position to know or reveal the \"complete picture\" and thus express \"selected\" truths relevant to their actions, rather than all possible truths that could be told. In that sense, it is quite possible to be a \"principled\" politician – if that was not so, then (arguably) \"all\" politicians are opportunists. Yet if all politicians are opportunists—as many cynics believe—it becomes difficult to explain a politician's professional \"motivations\" . Namely, if their purpose is based \"only\" or \"primarily\" on self-interest—disregarding higher principles, which is the hallmark of opportunism—then politics is \"the least likely vocation\", since it requires that politicians serve a collective interest or cause bigger than themselves. They would then be better off in a line of business where they can just pursue their own interest to the full. If they are able to be politicians, they could easily do so. The question is then why they don't, if indeed only out to serve themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16517046",
"title": "Norbert Schwarz",
"section": "Section::::Categorization and Judgment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Therefore, by manipulating a given piece of information as either included within the target or compared against, the same information can have different consequences for judgments. For example, thinking of a politician involved in a scandal (such as Eliot Spitzer) may make people believe that politicians in general are more corrupt because the corrupt exemplar is information that is included within the representation of \"politicians\". In short, people would be left thinking \"they are all like Spitzer\". Paradoxically, at the same time every individual politician that is rated may seem more honest, because for these judgments, the exemplar is used as the standard of comparison. In this case, people are left thinking \"he (or she) is not as bad as Spitzer\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324888",
"title": "Rational ignorance",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:In politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "This does not mean that voters make poor and biased decisions: rather that in carrying out their everyday responsibilities (like working and taking care of a family), many people do not have the time to devote to researching every aspect of a candidate's policies. So many people find themselves making rational decisions meaning they let others who are more versed in the subject do the research and they form their opinion based on the evidence provided. They are being rationally ignorant not because they don't care but because they simply do not have the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229723",
"title": "Lie",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "In \"Lying\", neuroscientist Sam Harris argues that lying is negative for the liar and the person who's being lied to. To say lies is to deny others access to reality, and often we cannot anticipate how harmful lies can be. The ones we lie to may fail to solve problems they could have solved only on a basis of good information. To lie also harms oneself, makes the liar to distrust the person who's being lied to. Liars generally feel bad for it and sense a loss of sincerity, authenticity, integrity. Harris defends that honesty allows you to have deeper relationships, and to bring all dysfunction in one's life to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45498969",
"title": "We Were Liars",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "\"We Were Liars\" focuses on the theme of self-acceptance, family morals, and the possibly-deadly consequences of one's mistakes. It is centered on the wealthy, seemingly perfect Sinclair family, who spend every summer gathered on their private island. However, not every summer is the same—when something happens to Cadence during the summer of her fifteenth year, the four \"Liars\" (Cadence, Johnny, Gat and Mirren) re-emerge two years later to prompt Cadence to remember the incident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3qjhq1
|
string theory and m-theory
|
[
{
"answer": "String theory: everything in the universe is connected by invisible strings and can be interacted with through the forces of nature.\n\nI can't even imagine how someone would explain M theory to a five year old...\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24639265",
"title": "Six-dimensional space",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:String theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In physics string theory is an attempt to describe general relativity and quantum mechanics with a single mathematical model. Although it is an attempt to model our universe it takes place in a space with more dimensions than the four of spacetime that we are familiar with. In particular a number of string theories take place in a ten-dimensional space, adding an extra six dimensions. These extra dimensions are required by the theory, but as they cannot be observed are thought to be quite different, perhaps compactified to form a six-dimensional space with a particular geometry too small to be observable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28305",
"title": "String theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "String theory is a broad and varied subject that attempts to address a number of deep questions of fundamental physics. String theory has been applied to a variety of problems in black hole physics, early universe cosmology, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics, and it has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Because string theory potentially provides a unified description of gravity and particle physics, it is a candidate for a theory of everything, a self-contained mathematical model that describes all fundamental forces and forms of matter. Despite much work on these problems, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of its details. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16924116",
"title": "Introduction to M-theory",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1111,
"text": "Speaking at the string theory conference at the University of Southern California in 1995, Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study suggested that the five different versions of string theory might be describing the same thing seen from different perspectives. He proposed a unifying theory called \"M-theory\", in which the \"M\" is not specifically defined but is generally understood to stand for \"membrane\". The words \"matrix\", \"master\", \"mother\", \"monster\", \"mystery\" and \"magic\" have also been claimed. M-theory brought all of the string theories together. It did this by asserting that strings are really one-dimensional slices of a two-dimensional membrane vibrating in 11-dimensional spacetime. Vibrations of higher-dimensional objects (as in three-dimensional vibrating blob or sphere or even more possible dimensions) are certainly a part of M-theory, but the basic theory of branes is still in progress. Higher-dimensional objects are much harder to mathematically calculate than a point in classical physics or a one-dimension string in string theory or two-dimensional membranes in M-theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28305",
"title": "String theory",
"section": "Section::::Phenomenology.:Particle physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "String theory has been used to construct a variety of models of particle physics going beyond the standard model. Typically, such models are based on the idea of compactification. Starting with the ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime of string or M-theory, physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions. By choosing this shape appropriately, they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics, together with additional undiscovered particles. One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. Such compactifications offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory. Other similar methods can be used to construct realistic or semi-realistic models of our four-dimensional world based on M-theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20406",
"title": "M-theory",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Quantum gravity and strings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics. In string theory, the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other. In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. In this way, all of the different elementary particles may be viewed as vibrating strings. One of the vibrational states of a string gives rise to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "Section::::Beyond the Standard Model.:String theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "String theory is a model of physics where all \"particles\" that make up matter are composed of strings (measuring at the Planck length) that exist in an 11-dimensional (according to M-theory, the leading version) or 12-dimensional (according to F-theory) universe. These strings vibrate at different frequencies that determine mass, electric charge, color charge, and spin. A string can be open (a line) or closed in a loop (a one-dimensional sphere, like a circle). As a string moves through space it sweeps out something called a \"world sheet\". String theory predicts 1- to 10-branes (a 1-brane being a string and a 10-brane being a 10-dimensional object) that prevent tears in the \"fabric\" of space using the uncertainty principle (e.g., the electron orbiting a hydrogen atom has the probability, albeit small, that it could be anywhere else in the universe at any given moment).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28305",
"title": "String theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. It describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. Thus string theory is a theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s1exv
|
How brutal was the USSR to the people in Nazi territory when it helped beat the Third Reich in World War II?
|
[
{
"answer": "Soldiers of Waffen SS when captured by frontline troops were shot on spot. If they got lucky and were captured by 'trophy company' or by MPs, they will be put in POW camps. Many survived - there's a book in preparation (in russian) with recent interviews of former POWs, many from Waffen SS. So, despite all supposed horrors of russian POW camps many are still alive. \n\nIn general, advancing russian soldiers didn't have much time to interact with local civilians. They were in hurry to end the war. In 2-3 days at most - all populated places were controlled by military police (*военная комендатура* - at a time), which was supported also by NKVD troops. There were strict orders from all Front Commanders in Germany proper to minimize interactions with local populace which stated that anybody found harming german civilians will be punished - up to death penalty for serious crimes. \n\nNow, I'm not saying there were no instances of civilian abuse at hands of soviet soldiers, and I would say that amount of abuse was unexpectedly high for Stavka - that's why there was a special orders, specifically spelling out punishments and conduct guidelines. \n\nMany incidents have happened in small window of lawlessness - when frontline troops moved away, but MP didn't moved in yet. And perpetrated by support troops, which did not have strong chain of command, while their senior CO being far away.\n\nHere's one visual example of purported abuse I've came across recently (it doesn't involve murder or rape):\n\n* Ever seen the photo of bike which is [pulled from hands of a woman by a russian soldier](_URL_5_)? Seems very clear what is going on here - a marauding soldier is taking away property of civilians.\n\n* Now let's see the same photo, [published on The Life magazine cover](_URL_0_). Note the lines below photo: *A Russian soldier involved in a misunderstanding with a German woman in Berlin, over a bicycle he wished to buy from her.* Now it seems not as clear-cut as before.\n\n* But here's [the original from the archive](_URL_1_). One more sentence added to the description: *After giving her money for the bike, the soldier assumes the deal has been struck. However the woman doesn't seem convinced.* Wow - now scene goes from dramatic to comic. Note also how image was cropped more and more.\n\nMoving on to the favorite source about Soviet Army brutality - Beevor's book *\"Battle of Berlin\"*:\n\n* anonymous account from a cog of Goebbels machine (talking about *\"A Woman in Berlin\"*) cannot be taken at face value without scrutiny. Sadly, Beevor did not scrutinize it properly. He just say \"oh, she was OK, it's all must be true\" - without any verification of details.\n\n* another reason why I cannot seriously consider Beevor to be accurate: he never mentioned a practice of *sex for food* and never takes it into account in his calculations. Which is really strange, since it mentioned quite often in memoirs of russian soldiers.\n\nHere's detailed criticism of Beevor - [What is the basis of Russian criticism of Antony Beevor's work?](_URL_3_)\n\n**Sources** \n\n1. [Nikolai Litvin - 800 Days on the Eastern Front: A Russian Soldier Remembers World War II](_URL_6_) . That's memoirs of a driver from support troops. Boring - you won't find glorious battles, but if you want to know day-to-day routine of soldiers - read it.\n\n2. [From Stalingrad to Pillau: A Red Army Artillery Officer Remembers the Great Patriotic War](_URL_4_). Memoirs of jewish gun commander. Frontline troops. Very critical at times and does not hesitate to poke at observed issues.\n\n3. [Sex for food - memoirs of Prussian women](_URL_2_). Unflattering and rather biased against soviet soldiers, but at least with some verifiable facts.\n\n\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4584893",
"title": "Revolutions of 1989",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Development of the Eastern Bloc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "In the early stages of World War II, both Nazi Germany and the USSR invaded and occupied the countries of Eastern Europe after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Germany then turned against and invaded the USSR: the battles of this Eastern Front were the largest in history. The USSR joined with the Allies and in conferences at Tehran and Yalta, the Allies agreed that Central and Eastern Europe would be in the \"Soviet sphere of political influence.\". The USSR fought the Germans to a standstill and finally began driving them back, reaching Berlin before the end of the war. Nazi ideology was violently anti-communist, and the Nazis brutally suppressed communist movements in the countries it occupied. Communists played a large part in the resistance to the Nazis in these countries. As the Soviets forced the Germans back, they assumed temporary control of these devastated areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46201864",
"title": "Formation of the Eastern Bloc",
"section": "Section::::Property relocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "By the end of World War II, most of Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union in particular, suffered vast destruction. The Soviet Union had suffered a staggering 27 million deaths, and the destruction of significant industry and infrastructure, both by the Nazi \"Wehrmacht\" and the Soviet Union itself in a \"scorched earth\" policy to keep it from falling in Nazi hands as they advanced over 1,000 miles to within 15 miles of Moscow. Thereafter, the Soviet Union physically transported and relocated east European industrial assets to the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3498598",
"title": "Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II",
"section": "Section::::The Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "On 22 June 1941 Nazi Germany attacked the USSR. The Soviet Union had already been a part of World War II with its occupation of eastern Poland, its attack on Finland and its occupation of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. During the attack some ROVS, especially the Cossack \"émigré\" generals Pyotr Krasnov and Andrei Shkuro, asked Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels' permission to fight alongside Nazi Germany against Communist Russia. Goebbels welcomed this idea, and by 1942 Gen. Krasnov and Gen. Shkuro had mustered a Cossack force--mostly from Red Army POWs captured by the Wehrmacht--who would be under the command of Gen. Helmuth von Pannwitz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465971",
"title": "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "World War II, known as \"the Great Patriotic War\" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR, with about one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union. After World War II, the Soviet Union's armies occupied Eastern Europe, where they established or supported Communist puppet governments. By 1949, the Cold War had started between the Western Bloc and the Eastern (Soviet) Bloc, with the Warsaw Pact (created 1955) pitched against NATO (created 1949) in Europe. After 1945, Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. He continued his totalitarian rule until his death in 1953.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14115",
"title": "History of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union (1922–1991).:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary) and had devastated the Soviet economy in the struggle. Some 1,710 towns and 70,000 settlements were destroyed. The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation and deportations of slave labor by Germany. Thirteen million Soviet citizens became victims of the repressive policies of Germany and its allies in occupied territories, where people died because of mass murders, famine, absence of elementary medical aid and slave labor. The Nazi Genocide of the Jews, carried out by German \"Einsatzgruppen\" along with local collaborators, resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Jewish population over the entire territory temporarily occupied by Germany and its allies. During the occupation, the Leningrad region lost around a quarter of its population, Soviet Belarus lost from a quarter to a third of its population, and 3.6 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21437139",
"title": "The Holocaust in Russia",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 3663,
"text": "Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary) and had devastated the Soviet economy in the struggle. Some 1,710 towns and 70 thousand settlements were destroyed. The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation and deportations of slave labor in Germany. Thirteen million Soviet citizens became victims of a repressive policy of Germans and their allies in occupied territory, where they died because of mass murders, famine, absence of elementary medical aid and slave labor. The Nazi Genocide of the Jews carried by German \"Einsatzgruppen\", and \"Wehrmacht\" along with local collaborators resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Jewish population over the entire territory temporary occupied by Germany and its allies. During occupation, Russia's Leningrad, now Saint Petersburg, region lost around a quarter of its population. 3.6 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps. British historian Martin Gilbert used a similar approach in his \"Atlas of the Holocaust,\" but arrived at a number of 5.75 million Jewish victims, since he estimated higher numbers of Jews killed in Russia and other locations. Lucy S. Dawidowicz used pre-war census figures to estimate that 5.934 million Jews died. In October 1943, 600 Jewish and Russian prisoners attempted an escape at the Sobibór extermination camp. About 60 survived and joined the Belarusian partisans. In Eastern Europe, many Jews joined the ranks of the Soviet partisans: throughout the war, they faced antisemitism and discrimination from the Soviets and some Jewish partisans were killed, but over time, many of the Jewish partisan groups were absorbed into the command structure of the much larger Soviet partisan movement. Soviet partisans were not in a position to ensure protection to the Jews in the Holocaust. The fit Jews were usually welcomed by the partisans (sometimes only if they brought their own weapons); however women, children, and the elderly were mostly unwelcome. Eventually, however, separate Jewish groups, both guerrilla units and mixed family groups of refugees (like the Bielski partisans), were subordinated to the communist partisan leadership and considered as Soviet assets. Even as some assisted the Germans, a significant number of individuals in the territories under German control also helped Jews escape death (\"see Righteous Among the Nations\"). During World War II, Léon Poliakov established the Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation (1943) and after the war, he assisted Edgar Faure at the Nuremberg Trial. By 1944, the Germans had been pushed out of the Soviet Union onto the banks of the Vistula River, just east of Prussia. With Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov attacking from Prussia, and Marshal Konev slicing Germany in half from the south the fate of Nazi Germany was sealed. It is estimated that up to 1.4 million Jews fought in Allied armies; 40% of them in the Red Army. In total, at least 142 500 Soviet soldiers of Jewish nationality lost their lives fighting against the German invadors and their allies Salomon Smolianoff was selected for Operation Bernhard, transferred to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1944, and eventually to the Ebensee site of the Mauthausen camp network, where he was liberated by the US Army on 6 May 1945. Without changing its official anti-Zionist stance, from late 1944 until 1948 Joseph Stalin had adopted a \"de facto\" pro-Zionist foreign policy, apparently believing that the new country would be socialist and would speed the decline of British influence in the Middle East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4118624",
"title": "Crimea Germans",
"section": "Section::::Nazi invasion, deportation and exile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In late 1941, following the Axis invasion of the western regions of the USSR, Soviet authorities forcibly removed almost 53,000 native Germans of Crimea eastwards to Siberia and Central Asia on entirely spurious allegations that they were spies for the Third Reich. Consequently, many died in transit, although later they could not be seriously blamed for Nazi crimes in the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tqgeu
|
Was Bohemia very bohemian?
|
[
{
"answer": "hell yeah dude, it was pretty much all bohemians! ... with a bunch of germans thrown in\n\non a more serious note, these threads are probably what you are looking for: \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "373672",
"title": "Bohemianism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or anti-establishment political or social viewpoints, which often were expressed through free love, frugality, and—in some cases—simple living or voluntary poverty. A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as \"haute bohème\" (literally \"high Bohemia\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60485933",
"title": "Lincoln Arcade",
"section": "Section::::Construction and early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "An Australian-born poet, Louis Esson, was one of the first to label this melange a Bohemia. In 1916, he wrote a friend to say, \"We have deserted Greenwich Village and the haunts of the Bohemians and have landed near the centre of Broadway (between 65th and 66th streets). As a matter of fact, our present abode is much more Bohemian than Washington Square; at least it is New York's Bohemia. We have a big room in the Lincoln Square Arcade, with steam-heat, electric light, piano, bath, ice-box, elevator, etc.\" In October of that year, an article in the \"New York Times\" contrasted the downtown Bohemia in Greenwich Village with an unexpected Bohemia uptown that was both new and \"perhaps more democratic.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373672",
"title": "Bohemianism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The term bohemianism emerged in France in the early 19th century when artists and creators began to concentrate in the lower-rent, lower class, Romani neighborhoods. \"Bohémien\" was a common term for the Romani people of France, who were mistakenly thought to have reached France in the 15th century via Bohemia (the western part of modern Czech Republic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11824851",
"title": "Bohemian glass",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Bohemia, currently a part of the Czech Republic, became famous for its beautiful and colourful glass during the Renaissance. The history of Bohemian glass started with the abundant natural resources found in the countryside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6255487",
"title": "Bohemian style",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "In modern use, the term \"Bohemian\" is applied to people who live unconventional, usually artistic, lives. The adherents of the \"Bloomsbury Group\", which formed around the Stephen sisters, Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf in the early 20th century, are among the best-known examples. The original \"Bohemians\" were travellers or refugees from central Europe (hence, the French \"bohémien\", for \"gypsy\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4716",
"title": "Bohemian",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "A Bohemian () is a resident of Bohemia, a region of the Czech Republic or the former Kingdom of Bohemia, a region of the former Crown of Bohemia (lands of the Bohemian Crown). In English, the word \"Bohemian\" was used to denote the Czech people as well as the Czech language before the word \"Czech\" became prevalent in the early 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373672",
"title": "Bohemianism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:American bohemianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "San Francisco journalist Bret Harte first wrote as \"The Bohemian\" in \"The Golden Era\" in 1861, with this persona taking part in many satirical doings, the lot published in his book \"Bohemian Papers\" in 1867. Harte wrote, \"Bohemia has never been located geographically, but any clear day when the sun is going down, if you mount Telegraph Hill, you shall see its pleasant valleys and cloud-capped hills glittering in the West...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7w2922
|
why do most foods, drinks etc have to be refrigerated after one use? what happens to the contents after just one use?
|
[
{
"answer": "For some products, they are packaged in a environment and method so that the package is sealed, and pathogens are not present. This results in a product with a long shelf life when unopened. Once the package is opened, it is no longer sealed from the environment, and it is possible that bacteria may come in contact and grow rapidly in a warm setting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In many cases, the contents have been pasteurized. So they're \"clean\" and \"free\" of bacteria sealed as they are. The second you open it, they become exposed to bacteria. Refrigeration slows the growth of bacteria.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Opening it has introduced microbes from the air, your mouth, or hands into the bottle, which will now reproduce and release toxic wastes (food poisoning) into the drink or food. So you have to refrigerate the food or drink to slow them down. The food or drink was pasteurized during packaging which killed the microbes inside, but opening the container recontaminated the food or drink.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What happens is bacteria, spores, and other contaminants get inside the packaging. Most food producers take great care to have exceptionally clean facilities, and many packaged foods are frozen, pasteurized, or otherwise treated to kill bacteria after the package is sealed. This keeps them fresh, until you open the package. After they're re-exposed to contaminants they need to be refrigerated to inhibit the growth of bacteria/mold/etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It comes into contact with the air and all the various contaminants that are in it. Within its packaging it has been sterilize or close to it so will not grow bacteria. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Take an example of a sealed bottle of apple juice. When the juice was bottled, it was sealed and pasteurized. So any harmful bacteria that might have been in the bottle or juice was killed during pasteurization and vacuum sealing prevents any harmful pathogens or oxygen from reaching the product. \n\nOnce opened, any bacteria that might have been on the bottle lid, or in the air can reach the product inside. Refrigeration keeps the product cold, and slows down the growth of bacteria/yeast. \n\n40 F - 140 F is called the \"danger zone\" in food safety, that's the temp range where bacteria can rapidly grow and multiply. So that bottle of apple juice that you took a sip from has been contaminated with bacteria in your mouth/lips/saliva, and any that settled in from the air. Kept in on the counter, it's basically a giant petri dish with an all you can eat buffet. \n\nA fridge should be colder than 40 F, often set to 37F, so out of the danger zone, bacteria can still grow, but slowly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You broke the seal and now bacteria and mold got into what was a (relatively) sterile environment.\n\nNow you have to refrigerate it to slow the growth of all the nasties you just let in.\n\nHate to sound jaded but is this not something you learn by the time you're 2-3?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How does something so easily googleable get so high on the list but if I posted this it would be 5 trolls telling me to google it or it would be closed because its been asked already...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TLI5 (try like i'm 5) experiment:\n\nBuy some cheap jam. Open it. Lick a spoon and stir the jam a few times with it. Close it and leave it somewhere at roomtemperature for a week. Open it and look at it. You now know why it would have been better kept in the fridge.\n\nOthers have explained it well enough, but this can easily be made visible with a very cheap experiment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many packages have what is considered 'modified atmosphere' with a lower oxygen level than normal air. These packages are gas flushed with a mixture of CO2 and Nitrogen to remove oxygen. This extends the product's shelf life because it reduces oxidation of fats. When the package is opened this modified atmosphere escapes and normal air enters, starting a more rapid oxidation and spoilage process, so refrigeration is suggested to reduce the spoilage rate for further usage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2263904",
"title": "Carbon footprint",
"section": "Section::::Ways to reduce personal carbon footprint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "This can also be done by using reusable items such as thermoses for daily coffee or plastic containers for water and other cold beverages rather than disposable ones. If that option isn't available, it is best to properly recycle the disposable items after use. When one household recycles at least half of their household waste, they can save 1.2 tons of carbon dioxide annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4065672",
"title": "Reuse",
"section": "Section::::Addressing issues of repair, reuse and recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "One way to address this is to increase product longevity; either by extending a product’s first life or addressing issues of repair, reuse and recycling. Reusing products, and therefore extending the use of that item beyond the point where it is discarded by its first user is preferable to recycling or disposal, as this is the least energy intensive solution, although it is often overlooked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Defrosting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1076482",
"title": "Oloroso",
"section": "Section::::Storing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Because Oloroso Sherries have already been through years of oxidative aging, they can be safely stored for years before opening. Once opened, Oloroso will begin to slowly lose some of its aroma and flavor but can be kept, corked and refrigerated, for up to two months after opening. The older the Oloroso, the longer it will stay perfect for consumption, as much as 12 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "934835",
"title": "Savers",
"section": "Section::::Business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Items deemed resellable are displayed for purchase in stores. Savers also has a recycling program and attempts to recycle any reusable items that cannot be sold at the stores, as well as any items that do not sell over a period of time to make room for fresh merchandise. Savers has buyers for its recyclables throughout the world and attempts to keep as much donated product out of the waste stream as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58876063",
"title": "Evaporative cooling chambers",
"section": "Section::::Best Practices for Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The vegetables that need storage should be carefully considered, since not all produce can be stored together because some release ethylene, which can accelerate ripening or reduce postharvest quality. Like any device for storing food, the ECCs should be kept clean. The surface of the interior cooling space should be sponged off regularly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1923494",
"title": "Material efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Reusing Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Reusing current materials uses even less energy than recycling. Reusing is preferred to recycling because it eliminates the cost of transport to a recycling plant, sorting, re-manufacturing, distributing, and there are no wages needed to be paid to employees for doing these tasks. Reusable containers only have to be manufactured once for hundreds or thousands of uses (such as a water bottle used every day for years), and the energy cost between uses is approximately that of cleaning the container with soap and water, a negligible expense compared to sorting, melting down, and pouring the material into a mold again, for example. Reusing containers could, in theory, replace recyclable containers and one-use containers, if made out of a durable enough material. There are inconveniences that go along with reusing materials however. Some of these inconveniences include having to clean the containers between uses, carrying around full or empty containers, and they require a time commitment due to having to hold on to them instead of throwing them away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9ytv3i
|
how can people sell video game merch or art on etsy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some companies don’t bother with the costs of a lawsuit because it would mean too much cost for little payback. A good lawyer will probably cost way more than a % of the profit a Etsy artist makes ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s not legal for sure, but they probably aren’t making enough to be on anyone’s radar. There is also the slim chance that they are doing really well for themselves and managed to get some sort of license. \n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49153005",
"title": "Drawception",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Players can optionally purchase cosmetic color palettes and tools from the game's virtual store. They are purchased with ducks, a virtual currency that they get from other players or with microtransactions, which, once made, gives the player access to Drawception Gold. Which gives the ability to create Draw First games and award ducks to others as a way to reward helpful players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40843740",
"title": "ArtFido",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "artFido is an online auction and shopping website in which people and businesses buy and sell works of art worldwide. In addition to its auction-style listings, the website also includes ordinary fixed-price shopping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9602207",
"title": "GameTZ.com",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "GameTZ.com is an online trading community established in late 1996 which allows people to trade video games, books, music, movies, and other items through negotiating with other traders from countries worldwide. Once a trade is completed, a record is created on the site for future reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42753154",
"title": "Art Ludique",
"section": "Section::::Exhibitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "• The Art in Video Games - French inspiration: the exhibition opened on September 25, 2015. It showcases the work of artists from French video game studios, such as Ubisoft, Spiders, Arkane, Osome, and Swing Swing Submarine, presenting more than 800 artworks: drawings and preparatory sketches, watercolors, sculptures and digital paintings. Emmanuel Ethis, in his contribution to the Nouvel Observateur, says that \"a video game is indeed a Total Art, because if it is ludique by nature, it also carries the sovereign ambition of being recorded in a connotated History, rich in correspondences and references to all art forms that preceded it, that we discover thanks to Jean-Jacques Launier, curator of the exhibition dedicated to French inspiration in the Art in the video games.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22944502",
"title": "Playerauctions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "PlayerAuctions is an online platform for players of massively multiplayer online games (MMO) to buy, sell and trade digital assets such as in-game currency, items, accounts, and power leveling services. The site is a neutral marketplace that supports player-to-player trading for popular MMOs such as \"RuneScape\", \"Old School RuneScape\", \"World of Warcraft\", \"CSGO\", \"PUBG\", \"Path of Exile\", \"League of Legends\" and over 400 other games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37720626",
"title": "Game-Art-HQ",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "While Fan Art is mostly used for drawn art, Game Art HQ also considers cosplay, sculptures and crafts as artworks relevant for the site. Additionally, there are interviews with Game Producers, Artists and Cosplay Models done from time to time. The website aims to promote art by video game companies as well as helping independent artists to get more exposure. While there are many Communities supporting and showing fan art, there are strong guidelines and quality standards on Game Art HQ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34121400",
"title": "StreetPass Mii Plaza",
"section": "Section::::Preloaded games.:\"Puzzle Swap\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 714,
"text": " is a game in which players aim to complete a 3D animated picture of a Nintendo video game by gathering its pieces. If a player encountered on StreetPass possesses any pieces the player does not have, the player can choose one of their pieces to add to their own. The player may also use Play Coins to buy random pieces for their existing panels, although it won't always be a new piece. After the December 2011 update, new puzzles became available which included four or eight pink squares in the center. Pink pieces are distributed to players via SpotPass and can only be gathered via StreetPass; they cannot be bought using Play Coins. Some puzzles have more pieces than others, making them harder to complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zruiy
|
What are the ergonomic effects of sleeping without a pillow?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this was linked before when this topic came up. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12226249",
"title": "Orthopedic pillow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Orthopaedic pillows are regarded as therapeutic pillows based on claims that they can help relieve various conditions including sleep apnoea, snoring, insomnia, breathing difficulty, blood circulation problems, acid reflux, gastroesophageal reflux disease, lower back pain, sciatica pain, neck pain, whiplash, rotator cuff injury, amongst others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706020",
"title": "Pillow",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Activities.:Pillow fighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Pillow fights are known to occur during children's sleepovers. Since pillows are usually soft, injuries rarely occur. The heft of a pillow can still knock a young person off balance, especially on a soft surface such as a bed, which is a common venue. In earlier eras, pillows would often break, shedding feathers throughout a room. Modern pillows tend to be stronger and are often filled with a solid block of artificial filling, so breakage occurs far less frequently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530098",
"title": "Pillow fight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Many times pillow fights occur during children's sleepovers. Since pillows are usually soft, injuries rarely occur. The heft of a pillow can still knock a young person off balance, especially on a soft surface such as a bed, which is a common venue. In earlier eras, pillows would often break, shedding feathers throughout a room. Modern pillows tend to be stronger and are often filled with a solid block of artificial filling, so breakage occurs far less frequently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28689721",
"title": "Sachet",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Certain herbs used in these type sachet \"sleep pillows\", like hops, have a soporific and a slight narcotic effect. These herb filled sachets are even called \"dreamtime pillows\". There are formulas using rosemary seeds to fill sachets and these are to be hung in a bedroom to promote sleep. The traditional method to treat insomnia with herb filled sachets of hops or lavender is to place them in, under or near your sleeping pillow. The \"dream pillow\" or \"sleep pillow\" sachet concept has been used for decades to help overcome sleeplessness. These \"sleep pillows\" have a therapeutic effect and hops as an ingredient to this type of sachet are considered best at inducing sleep. One type of \"sleep pillow\" sachet recipe by herb and flower author Penny Black calls for violets, rose petals, rosemary, tonka bean, vanilla bean, and a drop of lemon oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706020",
"title": "Pillow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "A pillow is a support of the body at rest for comfort, therapy, or decoration. Pillows are used by many species, including humans. Some types of pillows include throw pillows and decorative pillows. Pillows that aid sleeping are a form of bedding that supports the head and neck. Other types of pillows are designed to support the body when lying down or sitting. There are also pillows that consider human body shape for increased comfort during sleep. Decorative pillows used on beds, couches or chairs are sometimes referred to as cushions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53265936",
"title": "Sleep and emotions",
"section": "Section::::Dreaming as a Mood-Regulation System.:Dreams after Stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "In a study conducted with depressed and healthy adults and were able to show that in healthy subjects, dreaming was a way to positively influence mood and cope with stress at night. Dreams of depressed persons, however, might deteriorate their mood further. This study's interesting results are limited in generalizability due to the small sample and the lack of reported dreams by depressed patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706020",
"title": "Pillow",
"section": "Section::::History.:Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The earliest recorded use of the modern human device dates back to the civilizations of Mesopotamia around 7,000 BC. During this time, only the wealthy used pillows. The number of pillows symbolized status so the more pillows one owned the more affluence they held. Pillows have long been produced around the world in order to help solve the reoccurring problem of neck, back, and shoulder pain while sleeping. Besides for comfort, the pillow was also used for keeping bugs and insects out of people's hair, mouth, nose, and ears while sleeping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39wapz
|
why can websites appear to be down for me but be online for everyone else?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unless a website has different servers for different people (very unlikely if it's within the same region) this should not happen ever. If you experience a website that is down and others don't, the problem is on your end and could be your internet connection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33932515",
"title": "Social cue",
"section": "Section::::In Internet communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Along with proximity and time, physical appearance is another factor about the internet that is of no importance. Like previously mentioned in the anonymity paragraph, people are unable to see the physical characteristics of the person or persons that they are interacting with on the internet. This allows people to talk to others that they would normally not talk to if they had actually seen the person face to face. As a result, people are able to connect on a more meaningful level and are able to create closer relationships that are not just about physical attraction. This is also considered to be a very positive aspect about the internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2000128",
"title": "Online identity",
"section": "Section::::Identity management infrastructures.:Reputation management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "An online reputation is the perception that one generates on the Internet based on their digital footprint. Digital footprints accumulate through all of the content shared, feedback provided and information that created online. Due to the fact that if someone has a bad online reputation, he can easily change his pseudonym, new accounts on sites such as eBay or Amazon are usually distrusted. If an individual or company wants to manage their online reputation, they will face many more difficulties. This is why a merchant on the web having a brick and mortar shop is usually more trusted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241154",
"title": "Cross-site scripting",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Persistent (or stored).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "For example, suppose there is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233009",
"title": "Reputation",
"section": "Section::::Online.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "An online reputation is the perception that one generates on the Internet based on their digital footprint. Digital footprints accumulate through all of the content shared, feedback provided and information that is created online. Due to the fact that if someone has a bad online reputation, he can easily change his pseudonym, new accounts on sites such as eBay or Amazon are usually distrusted. If an individual or company wants to manage their online reputation, they will face many more difficulties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33932515",
"title": "Social cue",
"section": "Section::::In Internet communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Anonymity is a major feature that internet communication can provide. Not only are you not able to see the person's face that you are emailing and or communicating with, but they are also not able to see your face. This can be a very positive feature for those that are socially anxious and or have a social anxiety disorder because it eliminates the idea of being publicly humiliated and or embarrassed, which is something that most people who are socially anxious are very worried about. As a result, people with social anxiety are more inclined to open up, which allows them to get closer and form more relationships with others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8223796",
"title": "Internet safety",
"section": "Section::::Personal safety.:Obscene/offensive content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Various websites on the internet contain material that some deem offensive, distasteful or explicit, which may often be not of the user's liking. Such websites may include internet, shock sites, hate speech or otherwise inflammatory content. Such content may manifest in many ways, such as pop-up ads and unsuspecting links.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48131220",
"title": "Hreflang",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Many websites are targeted at audience with different languages and localized for different countries. This can cause a lot of duplicate content or near duplicate content, as well as targeting issues with users from search engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9rfc82
|
why is it that if you drop something electrical into a pool it affects the whole pool, but if you drop something electrical into the ocean, it dosent electrocute the whole ocean
|
[
{
"answer": "The pool is ≠ the ocean, in any way.\n\nThe electrical thing you throw in the pool doesn't affect the whole pool either. Electricity is very, very good at finding the path of least resistance and following that. It's almost never through a human or a fish. Those metal drains and grounded lights are just a better path.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply - it does affect the whole ocean, but the effects at any distance from the device would be very small.\n\nWhen an electric device falls in water, electricity flows from the high-voltage live parts inside the device to the low voltage grounded parts. Now, most of it will flow almost straight across, because that is the shortest and easiest route. But the electricity will take all routes, including long, looping ones. But as it has to travel a long way, it is hard for the electricity to follow that path, so not much does.\n\nSo some of that power following a longer, looping path would reach a person swimming nearby, and as the insides of them are salty and conduct electricity more easily than fresh water would, it would then flow through them. And it doesn't take much electric current to kill a person, or stun a fish.\n\nBut the further the electricity would have to flow, the less electricity flows. By the time the loops are many meters long, the amount of power flowing is very small, and no longer has any effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Besides boats and dockside power hookups, several other potential causes exist. Lightning strikes over or near water have caused electric shock drownings. Faulty hydroelectric generators or damaged underwater power lines can cause leakage currents, potentially creating a hazard. In general, anything electrically active that comes in contact with water has the potential to create leakage currents and contribute to this type of safety hazard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "There is no visible warning to electrified water. Swimmers will be able to feel the electricity if the current is substantial. If the swimmers notice any unusual tingling feeling or symptoms of electrical shock, it is highly likely that stray currents exist and everyone needs to get out. Swimmers should always swim away from the suspected current source. In most cases this means swimming away from docks and boats and toward another safer portion of the shoreline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11513302",
"title": "Stray voltage",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Persons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Electric shock drownings are most commonly caused by improper electrical connections on boats and docks. By law, all connections near water are required to have working ground fault circuit interruption technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34006224",
"title": "Electrocommunication",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Physical properties of signals.:Active space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "When transmitting electric signals in aquatic environment, the physical and chemical nature of the surroundings can make big differences to signal transmission. Environmental factors that might impose influences include solute concentration, temperature, and background electrical noise (lightning or artificial facilities), etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3581689",
"title": "Kelvin water dropper",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The discussion above is in terms of charged droplets falling. The inductive charging effects occur while the water stream is continuous. This is because the flow and separation of charge occurs already when the streams of water approach the rings, so that when the water passes through the rings there is already net charge on the water. When drops form, some net charge is trapped on each drop as gravity pulls it toward the like-charged container.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1484457",
"title": "Atmospheric focusing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "This effect operates similarly to the patterns made by sunlight on the bottom of a pool, the difference is that the light is bent at the contact point with the water while the shock wave is distorted by density variations (e.g. due to temperature variations) in the atmosphere. Variations of wind can cause a similar effect. This will disperse the shock wave at some places and focus it at others. For powerful shock waves this can cause damage farther than expected; the shock wave energy density will decrease beyond expected values based on uniform geometry falloff for weak shock or acoustic waves, as expected at large distances).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mch15
|
how does the current "competitive healthcare market" benefit the patient?
|
[
{
"answer": "The idea is that the insurance companies will compete with each other and this will cause lower prices for the patient. Sort of like the cell phone companies (Sprint, Verizon, AT & T, etc...). Unfortunately, this hasn't really happened, and I'm unsure if it ever will. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hasn't happened in my experience. Too much collusion in a mandated and regulation captured market in the U.S. (What competition?) Instead most prices and the passing on of costs not covered by insurance appears to have increased since the ACA.\n\nReally needs further reform with caps set on some things and opening the market to imported pharmaceuticals to lower costs along with requiring insurers to fully cover certain costs in order to qualify under the mandated program.\n\nEurope and Canada have the much better deal even given what they pay in taxes. And if anyone has been paying attention, their public healthcare hasn't been exclusive. If you're willing to pay, private healthcare is still available if you want it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "349319",
"title": "Healthcare industry",
"section": "Section::::Delivery of services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Improving access, coverage and quality of health services depends on the ways services are organized and managed, and on the incentives influencing providers and users. In market-based health care systems, for example such as that in the United States, such services are usually paid for by the patient or through the patient's health insurance company. Other mechanisms include government-financed systems (such as the National Health Service in the United Kingdom). In many poorer countries, development aid, as well as funding through charities or volunteers, help support the delivery and financing of health care services among large segments of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27553159",
"title": "Health care in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Spending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1206,
"text": "Free-market advocates claim that the health care system is \"dysfunctional\" because the system of third-party payments from insurers removes the patient as a major participant in the financial and medical choices that affect costs. The Cato Institute claims that because government intervention has expanded insurance availability through programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, this has exacerbated the problem. According to a study paid for by America's Health Insurance Plans (a Washington lobbyist for the health insurance industry) and carried out by PriceWaterhouseCoopers, increased utilization is the primary driver of rising health care costs in the U.S. The study cites numerous causes of increased utilization, including rising consumer demand, new treatments, more intensive diagnostic testing, lifestyle factors, the movement to broader-access plans, and higher-priced technologies. The study also mentions cost-shifting from government programs to private payers. Low reimbursement rates for Medicare and Medicaid have increased cost-shifting pressures on hospitals and doctors, who charge higher rates for the same services to private payers, which eventually affects health insurance rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35757264",
"title": "Prescriptive analytics",
"section": "Section::::Applications in healthcare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Multiple factors are driving healthcare providers to dramatically improve business processes and operations as the United States healthcare industry embarks on the necessary migration from a largely fee-for service, volume-based system to a fee-for-performance, value-based system. Prescriptive analytics is playing a key role to help improve the performance in a number of areas involving various stakeholders: payers, providers and pharmaceutical companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "532491",
"title": "Primary care",
"section": "Section::::Primary care by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Primary healthcare results in better health outcomes, reduced health disparities and lower spending, including on avoidable emergency department visits and hospital care. With that being said, primary care physicians are an important component in ensuring that the healthcare system as a whole is sustainable. However, despite their importance to the healthcare system, the primary care position has suffered in terms of its prestige in part due to the differences in salary when compared to doctors that decide to specialize. In a 2010 national study of physician wages conducted by the UC Davis Health System found that specialists are paid as much as 52 percent more than primary care physicians, even though primary care physicians see far more patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7304558",
"title": "Consumer-driven healthcare",
"section": "Section::::Price and quality transparency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Healthcare markets are known for a lack of price transparency, which affects the health care prices in the United States. Consumers are unable to make health care decisions based on cost due to a lack of free market, a system in which price transparency is essential. CDHPs cannot effectively decrease health care costs without the ability for consumers to compare prices prior to use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5032403",
"title": "Alain Enthoven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Enthoven has argued that integrated delivery systems — networks of health care organizations under a parent holding company that provide a continuum of health care services — align incentives and resources better than most healthcare delivery systems, leading to improved medical care quality while controlling costs. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15093500",
"title": "Intelligent Nation 2015",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.:Healthcare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "An integrated healthcare delivery system will give individuals the ability to better manage their health and access high quality clinical care. It will provide cost-effective healthcare, excellence in service and support strong clinical research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
71wgtt
|
How can Burning wood (carbon) generate UV radiation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you expect a lot of UV for some reason?\n\nThe thermal emission will contain tiny amounts of UV. In principle chemical reactions can directly lead to UV emissions as well but I'm not aware of specific reactions that would occur in a wood fire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Found my own answer. \nThe question should be different. \nAt which temperature does something emit uv radiation. \n\n[blackbody radiation](_URL_2_) \n\nTypical bonfire temp exceeds 1000C\n[source](_URL_1_) \n\nWood can burn op to 1900 Celcius\n[wood fire temp](_URL_0_) \n\nWhich is between 1400-2150 kelvin\n\nWhich based on the first link does not emit UV light. \n\nANSWER: to emit UV light your fire temp needs to exceed 3500-4000 Kelvin = 3700 Celcius. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5980",
"title": "Carbon sink",
"section": "Section::::Artificial sequestration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "For instance, upon harvesting, wood (as a carbon-rich material) can be immediately burned or otherwise serve as a fuel, returning its carbon to the atmosphere, \"or\" it can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "580277",
"title": "Wood fuel",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impacts.:Harvesting operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The environmental impact of using wood as a fuel depends on how it is burnt. Higher temperatures result in more complete combustion and less noxious gases as a result of pyrolysis. Some may regard the burning of wood from a sustainable source as carbon-neutral. A tree, over the course of its lifetime, absorbs as much carbon (or carbon dioxide) as it releases when burnt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4959054",
"title": "FAPAR",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FAPAR, sometimes also noted fAPAR or fPAR) is the fraction of the incoming solar radiation in the Photosynthetically Active Radiation spectral region that is absorbed by a photosynthetic organism, typically describing the light absorption across an integrated plant canopy. This biophysical variable is directly related to the primary productivity of photosynthesis and some models use it to estimate the assimilation of carbon dioxide in vegetation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53265902",
"title": "Brown carbon",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Influence on Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Black carbon particles (a component of soot) originating from combustion processes have been known for some time to absorb sunlight and warm the atmosphere, and pollution controls have been put into place to reduce their emissions and their effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53265902",
"title": "Brown carbon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Black carbon is primarily released by high-temperature combustion and brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion. These two are the two most important light absorbing substances in the atmosphere. The climate and radiative transfer are highly impacted by the absorptive properties of these substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38949621",
"title": "Storage water heater",
"section": "Section::::Wood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "As fossil fuels, burning wood causes greenhouse effect gases. However, wood is a renewable source of energy. A sustainable heat system would be to use solar heat in the summer, and the minimum of wood in the winter, thanks to maximum insulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407233",
"title": "Global dimming",
"section": "Section::::Probable causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (such as diesel) and wood releases black carbon into the air. Though black carbon, most of which is soot, is an extremely small component of air pollution at land surface levels, the phenomenon has a significant heating effect on the atmosphere at altitudes above two kilometers (6,562 ft). Also, it dims the surface of the ocean by absorbing solar radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ffpbt
|
james holmes killed 12 people and injured 70, but is charged with 24 counts of first degree murder and 140 counts of attempted first degree murder. why does he has 2 charges for every murder/attempted murder he did?
|
[
{
"answer": "From a ways down that page:\n\n > For each person killed in the shooting, Holmes was charged with one count of murder with deliberation and one count of murder with extreme indifference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He also probably got 1 count of attempted murder for each person in the room that he didn't kill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36488815",
"title": "2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting",
"section": "Section::::Court proceedings.:Verdict and sentencing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "On July 16, after jury deliberations, Holmes was found guilty of twenty-four counts of first-degree murder, 140 counts of attempted first-degree murder, one count of possessing illegal explosives, and a sentence enhancement of a crime of violence. The two murder convictions for each death were first-degree murder or attempted murder after deliberation, and first-degree murder or attempted murder with extreme indifference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36488815",
"title": "2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Holmes confessed to the shooting but pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. Arapahoe County prosecutors sought the death penalty for Holmes. The trial began on April 27, 2015. On July 16, he was convicted of 24 counts of first-degree murder, 140 counts of attempted first-degree murder, and one count of possessing explosives. On August 7, he was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. On August 26, he was given twelve life sentences, one for every person he killed; he also received 3,318 years for the attempted murders of those he wounded and for rigging his apartment with explosives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36491954",
"title": "James Holmes (mass murderer)",
"section": "Section::::Legal proceedings.:Verdict and sentencing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "On July 16, after deliberating for over twelve hours, the jurors found Holmes guilty on all twenty-four counts of first-degree murder, 140 counts of attempted first-degree murder, one count of possessing explosives, and a sentence enhancement of a crime of violence. They began deciding his sentence on July 22. The court expected the sentencing phase to last for one month. Holmes declined to make an allocution statement. On July 23, the jury ruled that Holmes acted in a cruel manner, was lying in wait, and ambushed his victims during the shooting, which constitute as aggravating factors. However, the jurors decided that Holmes did not intend to kill children when he opened fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47003507",
"title": "Ronald Appleton",
"section": "Section::::Notable trials.:Arbuckle Murder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Thomas Roundtree, Ernest Bell and William Duncan were all found not guilty for the Capital Murder of Victor Arbuckle, however 1 week later they were found guilty of armed offences carrying sentences ranging from 6 to 10 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44497716",
"title": "Frank Geyer",
"section": "Section::::The Holmes–Pitezel Case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Holmes was found guilty of four counts of murder in the first degree and six counts of attempted murder and executed in May 1896 at the age of 34. His total number of victims has been estimated at around 200. However Erik Larson, who wrote extensively about Holmes in \"The Devil in the White City\" (2003), thought this was a gross exaggeration. Holmes himself confessed to 27 murders, unquestionably he killed nine times. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36491954",
"title": "James Holmes (mass murderer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Holmes was arrested shortly after the shooting and was jailed without bail while awaiting trial. Following this, he was hospitalized after attempting suicide several times while in jail. Holmes entered a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity, which was accepted. His trial began on April 27, 2015, and on August 24 he was sentenced to 12 consecutive life sentences plus 3,318 years without parole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1800091",
"title": "Murder of Anita Cobby",
"section": "Section::::Perpetrators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The five men charged, who later all pleaded guilty or were convicted of the murder, had over fifty prior convictions for offences including armed robbery, assault, larceny, car theft, breaking and entering, drug use, escaping lawful custody, receiving stolen goods and rape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j00ei
|
What is the current state of knowledge on the long-term effects of caffeine on productivity/well-being?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would like to know this also so upvote.\n\nAnecdotal tidbit: Nikola Tesla said in his biography that he had heart problems until he realised it was the cup of coffee he consumed each day. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Coffee and Health: A Review of Recent Human Research](_URL_0_) (2006)\n\nEdit: in the same journal, there’s an other review appeared this year, but the access is not free. I hope that this one, still fairly recent, will satisfy you curiosity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you mean by long-term effects on productivity and well-being? There are tons of studies on the long-term biological effects of chronic caffeine consumption. Some of them say caffeine can be good, others say caffeine can be bad. It depends on the area/system of the body, and it depends on the methodology/outcome measures used. Caffeine also has a lot of metabolites, and numerous factors (tobacco use, alcohol use, liver health, etc) make a big difference in the biproducts produced during caffeine metabolism. \n\nAs for long-term effects on productivity and well-being? Those are really broad terms and the answer really depends on what exactly you're asking. There are a host of studies showing that caffeine improves performance on certain tasks requiring working memory, selective and sustained attention, memory encoding, and processing speed (mostly cognitive abilities in the immediate moment). There are many other studies suggesting that caffeine could disrupt more long term memory consolidation and retrieval, and could have a negative impact on some language functions (namely, word retrieval). \n\nThe thing to remember is that caffeine is a nonselective adenosine antagonist. While it's half life is typically between 4-6 hours in a healthy adult (LOTS of other factors play into speed of metabolism, and this number can be much higher in some people), there are some studies suggesting the actual effect on cognitive alertness and attention may be much shorter, on the order of 15 minutes or so. This is why drugs that mimic the adenosine antagonistic properties of caffeine haven't been used in treating ADHD. \n\nHope this helps somewhat. If you clarify your question, perhaps I can provide more information. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Looks to me like there's a huge data set for human productivity just begging to be used in a research paper.\n\nIt'd be interesting to compare the financials of those companies who provide free coffee to their employees to others in their sector who don't.\n\nThough in the tech industry, it may be hard to find one that doesn't. (hmm... does that by itself suggest that caffeine probably has productivity benefits)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I realized today that a lot of people in this subreddit need to read [this](_URL_0_) book, as the pervasiveness of lore and hokum in this thread is alarming.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312294",
"title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
"section": "Section::::Short-term memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The effects of caffeine on short-term memory (STM) are controversial. Findings are inconsistent, as many effects of caffeine sometimes impair short-term and working memory, whereas the other studies indicate enhancing effects. Increasing our capacities of STM and working memory only seem to have beneficial impacts upon our daily lives. Increasing our memory capacities would result in retaining more information for extended periods of time and encoding information from STM to long-term memory. However, the research consensus indicates an inhibitory effect, reducing the capacity of our short-term memory and working memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312294",
"title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
"section": "Section::::Long-term memory.:Positive effects of caffeine on long-term memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1647,
"text": "Positive effects of caffeine on long-term memory have been shown in a study analyzing habitual caffeine intake of coffee or tea in addition to consuming other substances. Their effect on cognitive processes was observed by performing numerous cognitive tasks. Words were presented and delayed recall was measured. Increased delayed recall was demonstrated by individuals with moderate to high habitual caffeine intake (mean 710 mg/week) as more words were successfully recalled compared to those with low habitual caffeine intake (mean 178 mg/week). Therefore, improved performance in long-term memory was shown with increased habitual caffeine intake due to better storage or retrieval. A similar study assessing effects of caffeine on cognition and mood resulted in improved delayed recall with caffeine intake. A dose-response relationship was seen as individuals were able to recall more words after a period of time with increased caffeine. Improvement of long-term memory with caffeine intake was also seen in a study using rats and a water maze. In this study, completion of training sessions prior to performing numerous trials in finding a platform in the water maze was observed. Caffeine was consumed by the rats before and after the training sessions. There was no effect of caffeine consumption before the training sessions; however, a greater effect was seen at a low dosage immediately afterward. In other words, the rats were able to find the platform faster when caffeine was consumed after the training sessions rather than before. This implies that memory acquisition was not affected, while increases in memory retention were.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312294",
"title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
"section": "Section::::Long-term memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Caffeine has been shown to have positive, negative, and no effects on long-term memory. When studying the effects of this and any drug, potential ethical restraints on human study procedures may lead researchers to conduct studies involving animal subjects in addition to human subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21312294",
"title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
"section": "Section::::Age differences.:Effects on the middle aged.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "As previously stated, the most pronounced effect of caffeine on memory appears to be on middle-aged subjects (26-64). None of the studies provide reasoning for why this group would be most affected, but one could hypothesize that because of cognitive decline due to age, caffeine has a powerful effect on brain chemistry (although this would suggest the older the person, the stronger the effect of caffeine). Furthermore, this age group is most likely to be the largest consumer of caffeine. The main studies reporting this finding show that at low, acute doses of caffeine consumption, working memory only slightly affects those in this age group, while no effect is observed for younger or older subjects. The authors conclude that larger doses may be needed to produce results that are supported by previous literature, and this is an avenue for further research. Furthermore, it is argued that consumption of caffeine generally aids cognitive performance for this age group, as long one does not exceed the recommended dose of 300 mg per day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6868",
"title": "Caffeine",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45588500",
"title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Long-term health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "When consumed in moderation, caffeine can have many beneficial effects. However, over the course of several years, chronic caffeine consumption can produce various long-term health deficits in individuals, \"including permanent changes in brain excitability\". As previously stated, long-term effects are most often seen in adolescents who regularly consume excess amounts of caffeine. This can affect their neuroendocrine functions and increase the risk of anxiety-disorder development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9972157",
"title": "Dexatrim",
"section": "Section::::Active Ingredients: Weight Loss Efficacy & Potential Side Effects.:Caffeine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The caffeine content in the daily recommended dose of Dexatrim products ranges from 50–400 mg per day. There are a number of studies showing that caffeine has a short-term stimulatory effect on basal metabolic rate. However, in 1992, in a double-blind placebo controlled study, caffeine (at a dose of 200 mg daily) was found to be no more effective in promoting weight loss as compared to a placebo. Potential side effects of caffeine may include insomnia, anxiety, gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, headaches and abnormal heart beat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2a98k7
|
Was there a particular flag that the Union used during the American Civil War other than the traditional 34-star flag?
|
[
{
"answer": "I assume you're asking was there a flag that didn't have stars representing the Confederate States? In that case, no, not officially. Even when West Virginia broke away from Virginia, the official flag gained a [35th star](_URL_1_) (which still included Virginia and all the other rebelling states). In the view of the US, you can't actually secede from the Union (there was a [Supreme Court Case](_URL_0_) affirming this). They viewed the Confederacy as a group of rebelling states rather than an actual nation. Creating a flag without those states could be seen as official acknowledgment that they were in fact their own country, which as you said, would be a little counter-intuitive on their part.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were unofficial flags made called \"[exclusionary flags](_URL_3_)\" that only had stars for the states that were still in the Union. Generally the number was in the mid-to-low 20s. This was carried over from an [earlier abolitionist practice of making flags which only had stars for free states](_URL_0_). The same technique was later used by [suffragists](_URL_2_) and [proponents of marriage equality](_URL_1_).\n\nOfficially there was no distinct flag for the North, and the government discouraged people from removing stars for the reasons captmonkey has said.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7023",
"title": "Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::National flags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 265,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 265,
"end_character": 1426,
"text": "The first official flag of the Confederate States of America – called the \"Stars and Bars\" – originally had seven stars, representing the first seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. As more states joined, more stars were added, until the total was 13 (two stars were added for the divided states of Kentucky and Missouri). During the First Battle of Bull Run, (First Manassas) it sometimes proved difficult to distinguish the Stars and Bars from the Union flag. To rectify the situation, a separate \"Battle Flag\" was designed for use by troops in the field. Also known as the \"Southern Cross\", many variations sprang from the original square configuration. Although it was never officially adopted by the Confederate government, the popularity of the Southern Cross among both soldiers and the civilian population was a primary reason why it was made the main color feature when a new national flag was adopted in 1863. This new standard – known as the \"Stainless Banner\" – consisted of a lengthened white field area with a Battle Flag canton. This flag too had its problems when used in military operations as, on a windless day, it could easily be mistaken for a flag of truce or surrender. Thus, in 1865, a modified version of the Stainless Banner was adopted. This final national flag of the Confederacy kept the Battle Flag canton, but shortened the white field and added a vertical red bar to the fly end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497271",
"title": "Flag of Tennessee",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "As the American Civil War was approaching, a flag was initially proposed for the state. It was modeled after the first flag of the Confederate States, albeit with the seal in the canton in lieu of stars representing the states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47125227",
"title": "Modern display of the Confederate battle flag",
"section": "Section::::The vernacular \"Confederate flag\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Designed by William Porcher Miles, the chairman of the Flag and Seal Committee of the Confederate Provisional Congress, the flag now generally known as the \"Confederate flag\" was initially proposed, and rejected, as the national flag in 1861. The design was instead adopted as a battle flag by the Army of Northern Virginia (ANV) under General Robert E. Lee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422019",
"title": "White flag",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "In 1863, the Confederate States of America adopted a new flag that played on the popularity of the Confederate Battle Flag, using a pure white field with the Battle Flag displayed in a canton in a position equivalent to the stars on the Flag of the United States. The design lasted until March 1865, when concerns about its being mistaken for a flag of truce when the flag was not completely flying necessitated the addition of a broad red band on the fly edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189155",
"title": "Flags of the Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::Second flag: the \"Stainless Banner\" (1863–1865).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "During the solicitation for a second Confederate national flag, many different types of designs were proposed, nearly all based on the battle flag, which by 1863 had become well-known and popular among those living in the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress specified that the new design be a white field \"...with the union (now used as the battle flag) to be a square of two-thirds the width of the flag, having the ground red; thereupon a broad saltire of blue, bordered with white, and emblazoned with mullets or five-pointed stars, corresponding in number to that of the Confederate States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206736",
"title": "Flag of Georgia (U.S. state)",
"section": "Section::::History.:1879 flag.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The 1879 flag was introduced by Georgia state senator Herman H. Perry and was adopted to memorialize Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War. Perry was a former colonel in the Confederate army during the war, and he presumably based the design on the First National Flag of the Confederacy, commonly known as the Stars and Bars. Over the years the flag was changed by adding and altering a charge on the vertical blue band at the hoist. The original 1879 design featured a solid blue band with no additional emblems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189155",
"title": "Flags of the Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::Other flags.:Naval jacks and ensigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The second national flag was later adapted as a naval ensign, using a shorter 2:3 ratio than the 1:2 ratio adopted by the Confederate Congress for the national flag. This particular battle ensign was the only example taken around the world, finally becoming the last Confederate flag lowered in the Civil War; this happened aboard CSS \"Shenandoah\" in Liverpool, England on November 7, 1865.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
102yj2
|
If you were on a spaceship in the absolute black void of space, how could you measure your speed without any points of reference?
|
[
{
"answer": "You couldn't, using only local measurement. That is the whole point of relativity - there is no difference in local physics based on how fast you are moving (no preferred frame of reference).\n\nYou could measure the *difference* in your speed by keeping track of your instantaneous acceleration and integrating that. \n\nFor external references, you could use Doppler shift of spectral lines in the distant stars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you weren't accelerating, you wouldn't have any defined speed without a reference point. (You could use yourself as a reference point; then your speed would be zero.) If you accelerate, you can measure the amount of acceleration and from that deduce your change in speed. So if you say your initial speed was zero, you can find your speed relative to that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can't.\n\nI suppose you could make really precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background to try to figure out your speed relative to its dipole anisotropy frame.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Without any immediate point of reference, is there a way to measure your speed?\n\nWithout some sort of reference point, the very concept of \"speed\" is undefined.\n\nIf you're accelerating, you can find out your change in velocity, and thus determine what your speed is relative to your pre-accelerated state, in which case your initial speed is your point of reference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All speed measurements must me made in regards to a reference frame. [All measurements are relative.](_URL_0_) There is no \"true\" velocity. All velocities measured in inertial frames are equally valid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "86868",
"title": "Joseph Kittinger",
"section": "Section::::Project Excelsior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "There's no way you can visualize the speed. There's nothing you can see to see how fast you're going. You have no depth perception. If you're in a car driving down the road and you close your eyes, you have no idea what your speed is. It's the same thing if you're free falling from space. There are no signposts. You know you are going very fast, but you don't feel it. You don't have a 614-mph wind blowing on you. I could only hear myself breathing in the helmet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Proper speeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "If a spaceship travels to a planet one light-year (as measured in the Earth's rest frame) away from Earth at high speed, the time taken to reach that planet could be less than one year as measured by the traveller's clock (although it will always be more than one year as measured by a clock on Earth). The value obtained by dividing the distance traveled, as determined in the Earth's frame, by the time taken, measured by the traveller's clock, is known as a proper speed or a proper velocity. There is no limit on the value of a proper speed as a proper speed does not represent a speed measured in a single inertial frame. A light signal that left the Earth at the same time as the traveller would always get to the destination before the traveller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16277069",
"title": "The Theory of Interstellar Trade",
"section": "Section::::Related theories and publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "In 2004, Espen Gaarder Haug published a theory he titled \"SpaceTime-Finance\" in \"Wilmott\" magazine to show how a series of finance calculations had to be adjusted to avoid arbitrage when hypothetically traveling at very high velocities relative to other observers (traders). He illustrated how such necessary adjustments already could be measurable at the speed of the space shuttle, but also that such calculations and adjustments were of little or no practical relevance today since we all are moving at the nearly same speed relative to the enormous speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1447921",
"title": "Pp-wave spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In particular, the physical experience of an observer who whizzes by a gravitating object (such as a star or a black hole) at nearly the speed of light can be modelled by an \"impulsive\" pp-wave spacetime called the Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26594936",
"title": "The Amazing Race: China Rush 1",
"section": "Section::::Race summary.:Leg 12 (Guangdong → Shanghai).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 200,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 200,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the test track, teams had to drive one lap around the track while obeying three different speed limits. If they went 3 km/h over or under the limit, they would have to start again. The twist was that only the team member \"not\" driving would be able to see the speedometer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20092646",
"title": "Battenberg course indicator",
"section": "Section::::Mark V.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The rear of the device had a separate rotating calculator, where if the ship's speed was set against the 60-minute guide mark, then the distance travelled at any time 0–60 minutes could be read off against the logarithmic time scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612440",
"title": "Heteroscedasticity",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "BULLET::::- Imagine you are watching a rocket take off nearby and measuring the distance it has traveled once each second. In the first couple of seconds your measurements may be accurate to the nearest centimeter, say. However, 5 minutes later as the rocket recedes into space, the accuracy of your measurements may only be good to 100 m, because of the increased distance, atmospheric distortion and a variety of other factors. The data you collect would exhibit heteroscedasticity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ak51x8
|
how do different antibiotics target different parts of the body?
|
[
{
"answer": "The thing about antibiotics is that they only effect bacteria, which are very different from your cells (if you’re 16:bacteria are prokaryotes and your cells are eukaryotes). So as previous reply said, the antibiotics disperse throughout your body and attack the bacteria... all of them. Including the good ones in your gut. That’s why a common side effect of antibiotics is the runs (the poops, the scoots, diarrhea, etc)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you swallow an antibiotic tablet, it passes into your stomach and then your small intestine. At some point, depending on the drug, it is taken into the blood stream. The blood carries it to the liver and then throughout the body. \n\nAt this point it’s easiest to imagine that the drug then leaks out through the blood vessels into all the tissues of the body. Skin, muscle, bone, lungs etc. It acts on your entire body, hopefully killing (bactericidal antibiotic) or preventing growth of (bacteriostatic) the bacteria causing infection.\n\nIn the case of a kidney or bladder infection, after the antibiotic has gone all around the body, it is then excreted by the kidney and passes into the bladder. \n\nDifferent antibiotics have different chemical structures and characteristics. This makes the drug more likely to target certain areas. For example if you have a brain infection, you will need an antibiotic that can cross over from the blood into the brain through the “blood brain barrier”. If you have pneumonia, you will need a drug that is likely to spread into the fluid that lines the lungs. Certain areas of the body have different acidity levels, different protein concentrations and different blood flow arrangements, allowing them to be more accurately targeted rather than the shotgun approach I explained above. \n\nAn injection is just a way to get the antibiotic into the bloodstream, bypassing the digestive tract.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In general, oral antibiotics don't target different parts. But different parts of the body are prone to infection by different types of organisms, which respond to different antibiotics.\n\nThere are targeted antibiotics which are not oral, like ointments, eye drops, ear drops, wound-packing materials impregnated with antibiotics (I'm not sure how much clinical use this last one sees), etc. \n\nThere are also antibiotics that don't get absorbed when ingested, and are usually given by injection, but which can be given orally if the goal is to treat the gut itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Protein synthesis inhibitors (macrolides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. \"Narrow-spectrum\" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as gram-negative or gram-positive, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142549",
"title": "Peritonitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "BULLET::::- Antibiotics are usually administered intravenously, but they may also be infused directly into the peritoneum. The empiric choice of broad-spectrum antibiotics often consist of multiple drugs, and should be targeted against the most likely agents, depending on the cause of peritonitis (see above); once one or more agents grow in cultures isolated, therapy will be target against them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18605046",
"title": "List of antibiotics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The following is a list of antibiotics. The highest division is between antibiotics is bactericidal and bacteriostatic. Bactericidals kill bacteria directly, whereas bacteriostatics prevent them from dividing. However, these classifications are based on laboratory behavior. In practice, both can effectively treat a bacterial infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1308,
"text": "There are many different routes of administration for antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth. In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated systemic infections, antibiotics can be given intravenously or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given topically in the form of eye drops onto the conjunctiva for conjunctivitis or ear drops for ear infections and acute cases of swimmer's ear. Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including acne and cellulitis. Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local hypersensitivity reactions or contact dermatitis occurring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9028799",
"title": "Bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with other organisms.:Pathogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria, or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin, which inhibit the bacterial ribosome, but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth, where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilising the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilised to prevent contamination by bacteria. Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305387",
"title": "Cholecystitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Antibiotics are often not needed. If used they should target enteric organisms (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae), such as \"E. coli\" and \"Bacteroides\". This may consist of a broad spectrum antibiotic; such as piperacillin-tazobactam, ampicillin-sulbactam, ticarcillin-clavulanate (Timentin), a third generation cephalosporin (e.g.ceftriaxone) or a quinolone antibiotic (such as ciprofloxacin) and anaerobic bacteria coverage, such as metronidazole. For penicillin allergic people, aztreonam or a quinolone with metronidazole may be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15464966",
"title": "Pathogenic bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. For example, the antibiotics chloramphenicol and tetracyclin inhibit the bacterial ribosome but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome, so they exhibit selective toxicity. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth. Both uses may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Phage therapy can also be used to treat certain bacterial infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1okmm8
|
Does a positive correlation exist between the length of a gestational period and the intelligence of the birthed animal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your comparison of a fish to an elephant is a little broad. But generally I would say no, the gestational period does not translate to inherent intelligence. The length of 'childhood' or child rearing may be a better indicator of intelligence. Certain animals have a long gestational period and hit the ground running (literally). Certain creatures are helpless when they are born and can only persist when taught proper environmental and cultural skills and behaviors. \nI promise you, that if you investigate, you will see that species that child rear display more complex or 'intelligent' behaviors than those that don't. You can also expect, as a general trend, the longer that child-rearing period, the more complex the behaviors will be. Remember though, time does not scale evenly for all species.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most basic mammal brain started off with just three neuron clumps: a hindbrain to connect with the spinal column, a midbrain, and a forebrain to connect to the sensory organs. Over time, more complex bodies and behaviors evolved in mammals and the brain kept building outward to the front, away from the spinal column. The forebrain developed a new outer shell, which included the hypothalamus to control basic motivation, hippocamus for memory, and the amygdala for emotional learning and responding. These structures constitute the limbic system, latin for border, because they wrap around the rest of the brain, forming a border. \n\nAs social mammals replaced dinosaurs, a new layer of neural tissue developed and spread around the old limbic system, creating the neocortex, latin for new covering. Of particular interest is the frontal cortex, which instead of being dedicated to specific tasks, this area is available to make new associations and to engage in thinking, planning, and decision making, mental processes which you might consider as a measure of \"intelligence\" in an animal. \n\nTo bring this all back to your question, this expansion of the cranial reason is cited as the cause of the cessation of gestation for the human at 9 months. An extended period creates a scenario in which the cranium no longer can fit through the birth canal. So it would seem by gaining intelligence, the human has actually forced a shorter gestation period, creating a negative correlation between gestation period and intelligence. Your example fails to consider the many evolutionary factors that may play a far greater role in the matter. In many egg-laying animals, rapid gestation may be required to avoid predation. In elephants a voluminous birth canal may allow for longer gestation periods, increasing the survival chances of young. \n\nIn short, your answer is no. There are many factors that contribute to gestation period and the need for development isolated from the external environment underlies all of them. However in many species, much of the development of the frontal cortex takes place after birthing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Smartest Animals and their gestational periods:\nChimpanzee: 8-9 months\nPigs: 4 months\nDolphin: Approx 12 months\nParrots: (incubation) 35 days\nElephant: 2 years\nOctopus: Approx 7 months\nCrow: (incubation) 18 days\n\nAs you can see, even though many of these animals are highly intelligent their gestation periods are highly variable, inferring that there is no direct correlation between gestation period and intelligence. However, in an evolutionary sense, one particular advantage of keeping a baby inside for longer is to allow for greater development. There becomes an interesting problem though, where, for humans in particular, the gestation period actually shortened because human baby's heads were too large to fit.\n\nAfter reading everybody else's response the answer seems to be that in a broad evolutionary sense a longer gestational period may allow for a greater development of traits associated with intelligence but it's in no way a direct correlation and doesn't work on either a species-specific or a general sense.\n\nMy personal favorite example of this would be the Tuatara which, after mating, will take almost 2 years to hatch their babies. Their lineage is so ancient they are reptiles but not lizards despite their massive number of physical similarities. But they also possess no marked intelligence. Despite their massively long incubation period they are no more intelligent than your average (though still distantly related) lizard cousins. In fairness, every monitor lizard will have a much shorter gestation period but be measurably more intelligent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49399",
"title": "XY sex-determination system",
"section": "Section::::Influences.:Maternal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The time at which insemination occurs during the oestrus cycle has been found to affect the sex ratio of the offspring of humans, cattle, hamsters, and other mammals. Hormonal and pH conditions within the female reproductive tract vary with time, and this affects the sex ratio of the sperm that reach the egg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23496",
"title": "Pregnancy (mammals)",
"section": "Section::::Gestation periods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Various other factors can come into play in determining the duration of gestation. For humans, male fetuses normally gestate several days longer than females and multiple pregnancies gestate for a shorter period. Ethnicity in humans is also a factor that may lengthen or shorten gestation. In dogs there is a positive correlation between a longer gestation time and a small litter size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865543",
"title": "Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation",
"section": "Section::::Sex-typed behavior.:Prenatal maternal stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "As of 2006 results from studies in humans had found conflicting evidence regarding the effect of prenatal exposure to hormones and psychosexual outcomes; Gooren noted in 2006 that studies in subprimate mammals are invalid measures of human sexual differentiation, as sex hormones follow a more \"on-off\" role in sex-typed behavior than is found in primates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802065",
"title": "Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Long-term management of CAH.:Psychosexual development and issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Nearly all mammals display sex-dimorphic reproductive and sexual behavior (e.g., lordosis and mounting in rodents). Much research has made it clear that prenatal and early postnatal androgens play a role in the differentiation of most mammalian brains. Experimental manipulation of androgen levels in utero or shortly after birth can alter adult reproductive behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28332061",
"title": "Prenatal cocaine exposure",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Animal models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "However, differences between species' physiology and gestation times mean findings in animals may not apply to humans. Mice, rats, and rabbits have shorter gestational times, so experimenters must continue giving drugs after they are born to more closely model human gestation; however this introduces more differences. Animals and humans metabolize drugs at different rates, and drugs that are highly teratogenic in animals may not be in humans and vice versa. Animals cannot be used to measure differences in abilities such as reasoning that are only found in humans. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39300801",
"title": "Sexual selection in mammals",
"section": "Section::::Precopulatory mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Precopulatory mechanisms determine who father an offspring prior to sex. Male-male competition is the biggest precopulatory mechanism in mammals. Sexual dimorphism is a result of male-male competition that is easily seen in species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36960506",
"title": "Fertility factor (demography)",
"section": "Section::::Factors of no or uncertain effect.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The relationship between fertility and intelligence has been investigated in many demographic studies; there is no conclusive evidence of a positive or negative correlation between human intelligence and fertility rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3rb6y5
|
" A small splinter group of the Muslim army crossed the Pyrenees and was defeated by Charles Martel near Tours in 732, a minor incident in this whole story and, in no way, the turning point in European history as it has sometimes been portrayed"
|
[
{
"answer": "I think it depends largely on what perspective you are viewing this from, and I would love to hear a comment from a European medievalist on how this was viewed at the time in France or Europe, but I think the line you quoted is broadly in line with the thinking of historians of the Arab conquests.\n\nThat's largely because the broad conclusion is that the Islamic empire was incapable of expanding very far beyond its borders in 732 and that had the Arabs won at Tours it would not actually have changed the situation very much.\n\nThat sounds like a counterfactual but it has some good supporting evidence, namely: \n\n1. In 750 the Ummayad dynasty was replaced as rulers of the Arab/Islamic empire in the Abbasid revolution. The internal violence of this revolution, within a matter of decades, led to some significant fracturing of the empire, especially at the periphery in North Africa and in Islamic Spain. The survivors of the Ummayad dynasty escaped the slaughter of the Abbasid Caliph al-Saffah and established their rule in an independent Islamic Spain, which would have been the logical jumping off point for any renewed expansion into Europe. In fact they proved incapable of doing so and as a peripheral kingdom of Islamdom they could not muster the kind of forces that were available to the Abbasids. And if the Abbasids wanted to expand in that direction (which they did not) they could only have done so by going through the Ummayads, not to mention the other independent dynasties that would pop up in North Africa. \n\n2. Contrast the loss at Tours in 732 to the *victory* at Talas in 751. Despite crushing the Chinese army of the Song dynasty, the result of the battle was not massive civilizational change or Islamicization of China, rather it was the consolidation of Arab/Islamic control over their central Asian territories.\n3. Given the above, and the eventual reconquista of Spain, it strains credulity that an Islamic conquest of France, let alone all of Western Europe, was ever possible. \n\nI think the conclusion is that that Tours was important as a high water mark, but a high water mark *that was going to turn back somewhere or other*. If the Arabs had won at Tours, it's difficult to imagine them continuing their victories for much longer, and nearly impossible to imagine that they would somehow have wiped out European civilization or something (not that the Europeans were very civilized at this point, but that's a separate issue!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding onto this, would you say that the sieges of Constantinople in 674 (although I've read claims that there was no siege in 674...) and later the 2nd siege in 717 was a bigger battle in terms of containing Islamic conquests? Since if Constantinople fell the Islamic armies would have definitely crossed the Bosphorus",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Had Martel lost, the important question is whether the Umayyads could have continued pressure into France. This becomes more likely if Martel had died in battle.\n\nHad Martel died at Tours, that would leave Carloman and Pepin leading the Franks at around 20-26 and 18, rather than 15 years later when Martel actually died. \n\nIf Pepin doesn't keep power as Mayor of the Palace and Carloman doesn't retire to a monastery early, it's possible Charlemagne never rules. **That** completely changes the long term power balance in the area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1465190",
"title": "List of military disasters",
"section": "Section::::Medieval era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Battle of Tours in 732. The Muslim Moors marched into France meeting no foes, until encountering the Christian Frankish forces led by Charles Martel at Tours. Despite the Moorish advantage over the Franks militarily, they were defeated decisively by the Franks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31593",
"title": "Tours",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "In 732 AD, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi and a large army of Muslim horsemen from Al-Andalus advanced deep into France, and were stopped at Tours by Charles Martel and his infantry igniting the Battle of Tours. The outcome was defeat for the Muslims, preventing France from Islamic conquest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34740",
"title": "8th century",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- 732: Battle of Tours. Near Poitiers, France, leader of the Franks Charles Martel and his men defeat a large army of Moors under the governor of Cordoba, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, who is killed during the battle. The Battle of Tours halts the advance of Islam into Western Europe and establishes a balance of power between Western Europe, Islam and the Byzantine Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45552121",
"title": "Mercedes, Catbalogan",
"section": "Section::::History.:About Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "In 711 D.D.the Moslems under Tariq entered Spain from Africa and within a few years completed the conjugation of the country. They even pushed farther than the Pyrenees towards France. In 732 A.D. the Franks led by Charles Martel, defeated them at Tours, thus preventing the further expansion of Islam in Southern Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28909581",
"title": "Battle of Piedra Pisada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "on the road south from Naval to El Grado. The battle was a minor engagement of the ongoing \"Reconquista\" of Aragon, the process by which the riverine valleys of the southern slopes of the Pyrenees were gradually conquered and returned, after centuries of Muslim rule, to the control of Christian princes. The ruler of Aragon, who personally led his men in battle at Piedra Pisada, Sancho Ramírez, also ruled Kingdom of Navarre and was a major figure in the contemporary \"Reconquista\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "693507",
"title": "Kingdom of Navarre",
"section": "Section::::Early historic background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "However, while moving through the Pyrenees on 15 August 778, the rearguard of the Frankish army, led by Roland was attacked by the Basque tribes in a confrontation that came to be known as the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. Roland was killed and the rearguard scattered. As a response to the attempted Frankish seizure of Zaragoza, the Córdoba Emir retook the city of Pamplona and its surrounding lands. In 781 two local Basque lords, \"Ibn Balask\" (\"son of Velasco\"), and \"Mothmin al-Akra\" (\"Jimeno \"the Strong\"\") were defeated and forced to submit. The next mention of Pamplona is in 799, when Mutarrif ibn Musa, thought to have been a governor of the city and a member of the muwallad Banu Qasi family, was killed there by a pro-Frankish faction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13082245",
"title": "Al-Hurr ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi",
"section": "Section::::Governorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "Al-Hurr also turned his attention to the Aquitanians (referred in most Arabic chronicles as \"Franks\") across the Pyrenees. Sources suggest he was enticed by the treasure hoarded in the convents and churches, or maybe chasing refugees, or taking advantage of the civil war going on between the chief officers of the Merovingian court with the involvement of Odo the Great, duke of Aquitaine. None of al-Hurr's predecessors had attempted to cross the Pyrenees, and in 717, he attempted to do just that. He led a small expedition across the range into still Gothic Septimania, the first of which was likely to just reconnoiter the region. Several attempted raids later, all of which proved unsuccessful, al-Hurr was deposed by the caliph, who appointed Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani in 718 as his replacement. Al-Samh continued expeditions into present-day France, reaching as far as the Rhône, but would be killed in the Battle of Toulouse in 721.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
o1fc2
|
If I urinated on an electrified fence, would it shock me?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yeah.. it would fucking shock you",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you can get close enough to produce a steady stream then yes, you would get shocked by the fence, because urine is electrically conductive, but you have to avoid 'fragmentation' of your urine. \n \n[Here's](_URL_1_) a vid of a guy doing it, and [here's](_URL_0_) a Mythbusters vid of the same effect but using the 3rd rail instead of a fence. I know it's not a scientific paper or anything, but I hope it sufficiently demonstrates what's happening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53855893",
"title": "Electric shock drowning",
"section": "Section::::Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "There is no visible warning to electrified water. Swimmers will be able to feel the electricity if the current is substantial. If the swimmers notice any unusual tingling feeling or symptoms of electrical shock, it is highly likely that stray currents exist and everyone needs to get out. Swimmers should always swim away from the suspected current source. In most cases this means swimming away from docks and boats and toward another safer portion of the shoreline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6826328",
"title": "Pet fence",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Underground fence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "An \"underground fence\" is an electronic system to prevent pets from leaving a yard. A buried wire around the area to be used is energized with coded signals. A shock collar on the pet receives these signals. When the pet approaches the buried fence line, the collar makes a warning sound and then gives the pet a harmless electric shock. One popular brand claims more than three million installations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1920222",
"title": "Electric fence",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Its disadvantages include the potential for the entire fence to be disabled due to a break in the conducting wire, shorting out if the conducting wire contacts any non-electrified component that may make up the rest of the fence, power failure, or forced disconnection due to the risk of fires starting by dry vegetation touching an electrified wire. Other disadvantages can be lack of visibility and the potential to shock an unsuspecting human passer-by who might accidentally touch or brush the fence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1920222",
"title": "Electric fence",
"section": "Section::::Design and function.:Fence energizers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Most modern fences emit pulses of high voltage at a given interval of time, and don't take into account whether there is an animal or person touching the conductive wires, except for the voltage multiplier based electric fence charger that stores high voltage potential and dumps its charges as soon as a conductive load (grounded animal/person) touches the wires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1920222",
"title": "Electric fence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "An electric fence is a barrier that uses electric shocks to deter animals and people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from discomfort to death. Most electric fences are used today for agricultural fencing and other forms of animal control, although they are frequently used to enhance the security of sensitive areas, such as military installations, prisons, and other security sensitive places; places exist where lethal voltages are used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205325",
"title": "High voltage",
"section": "Section::::Power lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Unauthorized persons climbing on power pylons or electrical apparatus are also frequently the victims of electrocution. At very high transmission voltages even a close approach can be hazardous, since the high voltage may arc across a significant air gap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211889",
"title": "Electrical injury",
"section": "Section::::Deliberate uses.:Law enforcement and personal defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Electric fences are barriers that uses electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from uncomfortable, to painful or even lethal. Most electric fencing is used today for agricultural fencing and other forms of animal control purposes, though it is frequently used to enhance security of restricted areas, and there exist places where lethal voltages are used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
58v1zd
|
how do we make extremely, extremely high frame-per-second cameras?
|
[
{
"answer": "The sensors in most cameras are perfectly capable of capturing at a higher frame rate than what they are normally being used for, but the challenge is getting the data and putting it somewhere fast enough. If your storage subsystem is too slow, you won't be able to ingest the flood of incoming data fast enough. Some of the fastest high-speed cameras have ridiculous amounts of RAM to initially capture the video, and then they take a minute or two to dump that to a slower hard drive or SSD afterwards.\n\nAnother issue with super extreme high speed cameras is light sensitivity of the pixels, as well as cooling of the sensor. When you get into the *really* high speed territory, the individual pixels in the sensor have less time to gather light before the next frame, so you have to use extremely bright external lighting, or even sunlight to get a usable video. The sensors that are capable of such fast frame rates require additional cooling which makes the cameras bulky and loud.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What will the potential upper limit be? Could it get to \"plank time\"? What's the upper limit currently?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How researchers made a [1,000,000,000,000 FPS CAMERA](_URL_0_)\n\nStarts at about 5 minutespeed\n\nTL;DW: Film the same experiment many times with a normal high speed camera, then use software to compile the data into a composite super high speed film",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1070737",
"title": "High-speed camera",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "In 2010 researchers built a camera exposing each frame for two trillionths of a second (picoseconds), for an effective frame rate of half a trillion fps (femto-photography). Modern high-speed cameras operate by converting the incident light (photons) into a stream of electrons which are then deflected onto a photoanode, back into photons, which can then be recorded onto either film or CCD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428991",
"title": "Photo finish",
"section": "Section::::Method of capture.:Strip photography.:Digital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Digital cameras use a 1-dimensional array sensor to take 1-pixel-wide sequential images of the finish line. Since only a single line of the CCD is read out at a time, the frame rates can be very high (up to 10,000 frames per second). Unlike a film based photo finish, there is no delay from developing the film, and the photo finish is available immediately. They may be triggered by a laser or photovoltaic means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38767094",
"title": "2014 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 490,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 490,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "BULLET::::- The world’s fastest receive-only 2-D camera has been demonstrated, capturing up to 100 billion frames per second. It is hoped this new system will improve the understanding of very fast biological interactions and chemical processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5469928",
"title": "Four Flies on Grey Velvet",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "A high-speed camera equipment (capable of producing 1000 frames a second) was used to shoot possibly the first known instance (in feature films) of following a bullet's trajectory with high-speed cameras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34896688",
"title": "HTC One X",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.:Camera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The rear-facing camera has an 8-megapixel back-illuminated sensor with a maximum aperture of f/2, autofocus, an LED flash dubbed HTC Smart Flash with three levels of brightness (determined by distance from the subject), and a dedicated imaging chip. With a startup time of 0.7 seconds and 0.2 seconds per shot, it beats even the Samsung Galaxy Nexus in camera speed. The camera can record 1080p video at 24 frames per second and 10 megabit/s in h.264 with the baseline profile. It can take four photos per second while recording video. It also has slow motion video capture and playback (768 × 432 pixels). Shooting modes include High Dynamic Range (HDR) and panorama. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14703615",
"title": "Burst mode (photography)",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1073,
"text": "Cameras capable of high continuous shooting rates are much desired when the subjects are in motion, as in sports photography, or where the opportunities are brief. Rather than anticipate the action precisely, photographers can simply start shooting from right before they believe the action will occur, giving a high chance of at least one frame being acceptable. Most modern digital SLR cameras have continuous shooting rates of between 3 and 8 frames per second, although very high end cameras such as the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II are capable of 14 frames per second with full autofocus, or 16 frames per second when in mirror lock-up mode. The Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH2 is capable of recording 40 still images per second in burst mode, at a slightly reduced resolution. In March 2014, Nikon claims its Nikon 1 V3 mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera has the world's fastest burst mode of 20fps Auto Focus tracking and 60fps at the first shot autofocus, both in 18.4MP full resolution. The claim is among digital cameras with interchangeable lenses (including (its) DSLR).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52797",
"title": "Digital camera",
"section": "Section::::Conversion of film cameras to digital.:Digital camera backs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Most modern digital camera backs use CCD or CMOS matrix sensors. The matrix sensor captures the entire image frame at once, instead of incrementing scanning the frame area through the prolonged exposure. For example, Phase One produces a 39 million pixel digital camera back with a 49.1 x 36.8 mm CCD in 2008. This CCD array is a little smaller than a frame of 120 film and much larger than a 35 mm frame (36 x 24 mm). In comparison, consumer digital cameras use arrays ranging from 36 x 24 mm (full frame on high end consumer DSLRs) to 1.28 x 0.96 mm (on camera phones) CMOS sensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vrdik
|
why are most (not all) military personnel right wing and anti-obama/universal anything if they are part of a government run, universal healthcare providing, free almost everything military?
|
[
{
"answer": "The majority of America's military volunteers come from regions in the US that are majority conservative. That gives way to a majority conservative military. That being said, I've met plenty of liberals who served in the military, who are pro-gun, pro-gay, and anti-war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it is not the same as a pure universal system.\n\nThey only get free housing because it is a necessity so that they can live where they are ordered to work. Many of the lower ranking soldiers can not afford to live in apartments and own homes.\n\nThey do not get free healthcare. Soldiers pay premiums like everyone else in the country. The premiums are just typically much lower. It is also a job benefit because of the high hazard work. Soldiers are at very high risks of injury and are offered a benefits package like you would get at places in the private sector.\n\nFree food is typically only applied to people living in barracks and is hardly universal. The same applies for the other \"free services.\"\n\ntl;dr - there is nothing universal and/or free about what the military gets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My hypothesis: because they see themselves as putting their lives on the line for their benefits while the rest of the population doesn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "None of those things are \"free\" it's part of their salary package. They earn them. Being in the military is a 24/7 job.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32022",
"title": "Economy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Health care.:Coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "The American system is a mix of public and private insurance. The government provides insurance coverage for approximately 53 million elderly via Medicare, 62 million lower-income persons via Medicaid, and 15 million military veterans via the Veteran's Administration. About 178 million employed by companies receive subsidized health insurance through their employer, while 52 million other persons directly purchase insurance either via the subsidized marketplace exchanges developed as part of the Affordable Care Act or directly from insurers. The private sector delivers healthcare services, with the exception of the Veteran's Administration, where doctors are employed by the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38853402",
"title": "Health care finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "The American system is a mix of public and private insurance. The government provides insurance coverage for approximately 53 million elderly via Medicare, 62 million lower-income persons via Medicaid, and 15 million military veterans via the Veteran's Administration. About 178 million employed by companies receive subsidized health insurance through their employer, while 52 million other persons directly purchase insurance either via the subsidized marketplace exchanges developed as part of the Affordable Care Act or directly from insurers. The private sector delivers healthcare services, with the exception of the Veteran's Administration, where doctors are employed by the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41949830",
"title": "Commissary (store)",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Military commissaries serve to provide discounted groceries and household goods to many members within the Department of Defense regardless of which country they are located in. Eligible patrons include active-duty personnel in all services, retirees of all services, Guard and Reserve personnel, and immediate family members of service personnel. Beyond providing members with discounted pricing, commissaries also provide employment for many family members of service personnel. This is especially significant in overseas locations where acquiring a job could prove difficult for U.S. citizens. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "811714",
"title": "Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States",
"section": "Section::::Government involvement.:Health insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In the US, direct government funding of health care is limited to Medicare, Medicaid, and the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), which cover eligible senior citizens, the very poor, disabled persons, and children. The federal government also runs the Veterans Administration, which provides care directly to retired or disabled veterans, their families, and survivors through medical centers and clinics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15343730",
"title": "Health insurance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public health care coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "Public programs provide the primary source of coverage for most seniors and also low-income children and families who meet certain eligibility requirements. The primary public programs are Medicare, a federal social insurance program for seniors (generally persons aged 65 and over) and certain disabled individuals; Medicaid, funded jointly by the federal government and states but administered at the state level, which covers certain very low income children and their families; and CHIP, also a federal-state partnership that serves certain children and families who do not qualify for Medicaid but who cannot afford private coverage. Other public programs include military health benefits provided through TRICARE and the Veterans Health Administration and benefits provided through the Indian Health Service. Some states have additional programs for low-income individuals. In 2011, approximately 60 percent of stays were billed to Medicare and Medicaid—up from 52 percent in 1997.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637136",
"title": "Surgeon general",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "In the United States, the chief public health officer is the Surgeon General of the United States and many states have their own state surgeons general. Moreover, three of the U.S. military services have their own surgeon general, namely the Surgeon General of the United States Army, Surgeon General of the United States Navy, and Surgeon General of the United States Air Force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855199",
"title": "Two-tier healthcare",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The United States has a two-tier health system, but most of the population cannot gain access to the public provision tiers. Healthcare provided directly by the government is limited to military and veteran families and to certain Native American tribes. Certain cities and towns also provide free care directly but only to those who cannot afford to pay. Medicare, Medicaid, and the State Children's Health Insurance Program pay for health care obtained at private facilities but only for the elderly, disabled, and children in poor families. Since enacting the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in 2010, Medicaid has been substantially expanded, and federal subsidies are available for low- to middle-income individuals and families to purchase private health insurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zwr9x
|
Is there archaeological support for the stereotype of Roman infanticide as sex selection?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't speak for Roman society generally, but I am familiar with one specific case of sex-selective infanticide from Tel Ashkelon, Israel. We excavated a Roman/Byzantine bathhouse in Grid 38, (you can read the publication report for free at _URL_2_, just download the massive PDF of volume 1 and you can find some descriptions of the \"baby drain\" on page 295, and the publication of the DNA analysis on page 537), and found literally hundreds of infant skeletons in a drain underneath the bathhouse. Why were hundreds of dead babies thrown into the drain of a bathhouse? Why were they nearly all male? (Answer, it may have also been an illegal brothel). I have sat on this drain to do paperwork many times, and am excellent friend with the person who oversaw the excavation of the infant remains. Part of the drain is actually still there, it being made of Roman concrete and all. [This](_URL_1_) is a picture of the drain as it was excavated. [This](_URL_0_) is a picture of it basically as it is today, taken by one of my colleagues. The drain is the concrete thing that all the people are standing on, they are standing on the same thing the guy is standing on in the other picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15474",
"title": "Infanticide",
"section": "Section::::Explanations for the practice.:Sex selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Sex selection may be one of the contributing factors of infanticide. In the absence of sex-selective abortion, sex-selective infanticide can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The biologically normal sex ratio for humans at birth is approximately 105 males per 100 females; normal ratios hardly ranging beyond 102–108. When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is significantly higher or lower than the biological norm, and biased data can be ruled out, sex selection can usually be inferred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53366480",
"title": "Infanticide in primates",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses for infanticide.:Parental Manipulation.:Maternal Infanticide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Maternal infanticide differs from other varieties of infanticide in that the resource competition and sexual selection hypotheses (see other sections) must be rejected. Resource competition and sexual selection are ruled out because it is the mother that is performing the infanticide, not another female.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567130",
"title": "Female infanticide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Female infanticide is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. In countries with a history of female infanticide, the modern practice of sex-selective abortion is often discussed as a closely related issue. Female infanticide is a major cause of concern in several nations such as China, India and Pakistan. It has been argued that the low status in which women are viewed in patriarchal societies creates a bias against females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12202186",
"title": "Infanticide (zoology)",
"section": "Section::::Infanticide involving sexual conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "This form of infanticide represents a struggle between the sexes, where one sex exploits the other, much to the latter's disadvantage. It is usually the male who benefits from this behavior, though in cases where males play similar roles to females in parental care the victim and perpetrator may be reversed (see Bateman's principle for discussion of this asymmetry).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "764891",
"title": "Concealed ovulation",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary hypotheses.:Reduced infanticide hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "This hypothesis suggests the adaptive advantage for women who had hidden estrus would be a reduction in the possibility of infanticide by men, as they would be unable to reliably identify, and kill, their rivals' offspring. This hypothesis is supported by recent studies of wild Hanuman langurs, documenting concealed ovulation, and frequent matings with males outside their fertile ovulatory period. Heistermann et al. hypothesize that concealed ovulation is used by women to confuse paternity and thus reduce infanticide in primates. He explains that as ovulation is always concealed in women, men can only determine paternity (and thus decide on whether to kill the woman's child) probabilistically, based on his previous mating frequency with her, and so he would be unable to escape the possibility that the child might be his own, even if he were aware of promiscuous matings on the woman's part.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15474",
"title": "Infanticide",
"section": "Section::::Explanations for the practice.:Psychological.:Evolutionary psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Evolutionary psychology has proposed several theories for different forms of infanticide. Infanticide by stepfathers, as well as child abuse in general by stepfathers, has been explained by spending resources on not genetically related children reducing reproductive success (See the Cinderella effect and Infanticide (zoology)). Infanticide is one of the few forms of violence more often done by women than men. Cross-cultural research has found that this is more likely to occur when the child has deformities or illnesses as well as when there are lacking resources due to factors such as poverty, other children requiring resources, and no male support. Such a child may have a low chance of reproductive success in which case it would decrease the mother's inclusive fitness, in particular since women generally have a greater parental investment than men, to spend resources on the child.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25201056",
"title": "Infanticide in rodents",
"section": "Section::::Parental infanticide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The occurrence of infanticide seems to vary within rodent species between parents. For example, male meadow voles and house mice can be classed as either 'infanticidal' or 'non-infanticidal' depending on their history with other litters they have sired, although studies have shown that females do not discriminate between these classes when choosing a mate. Furthermore, recent studies in rodents have shown that infanticide is influenced by various hormones such as: prolactin, corticosterone, and progesterone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xlur2
|
how do courts decide who to send to white collar prison?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a point system that takes into account a number of things (age, gender, crime committed, whether the person is an escape risk, and whether they have violent tendencies). The more points the convict gets, the higher level of prison security they get.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22640244",
"title": "Black jails",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "According to human rights groups, black jails are a growing industry. The system includes so-called \"interceptors\" (截访者, literally \"inquiry-stopper\"), or \"black guards\", often sent by local or regional authorities, who abduct petitioners and hold them against their will or bundle them onto a bus to send them back to where they came from. Non-government sources have estimated the number of black jails in operation to be between 7 and 50. The facilities may be located in state-owned hotels, hostels, hospitals, psychiatric facilities, residential buildings, or government ministry buildings, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22640244",
"title": "Black jails",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Allegedly, local officials, with the tolerance of public security authorities, establish the black jails as a way to ensure that complainants are detained, punished, and sent home so that these officials will not suffer demerits under rules that impose bureaucratic penalties when there is a large flow of petitioners from their areas. Black jails are used to protect government officials at the county, municipal, and provincial levels from financial and career advancement penalties. Unpublished local government documents describe penalties levied against local officials who fail to take decisive action when petitioners from their geographical area seek legal redress in provincial capitals and Beijing. The operators of black jails allegedly receive from those local-level governments daily cash payments of 150 yuan (US$22) to 200 yuan (US$29) per person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4599624",
"title": "Hat puzzle",
"section": "Section::::Prisoners and hats puzzle.:Five-Hat Variant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The three prisoners are ordered to stand in a straight line facing the front, with A in front and C at the back. They are told that there will be two black hats and three white hats. One hat is then put on each prisoner's head; each prisoner can only see the hats of the people in front of him and not on his own. The first prisoner that is able to announce the color of his hat correctly will be released. No communication between the prisoners is allowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4599624",
"title": "Hat puzzle",
"section": "Section::::Prisoners and hats puzzle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The jailer seats three of the men into a line. B faces the wall, C faces B, and D faces C and B. The fourth man, A, is put behind a screen (or in a separate room). The jailer gives all four men party hats. He explains that there are two black hats and two white hats, that each prisoner is wearing one of the hats, and that each of the prisoners see only the hats in front of him but neither on himself nor behind him. The fourth man behind the screen can't see or be seen by any other prisoner. No communication among the prisoners is allowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25200973",
"title": "Black jail",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "The black jail is a U.S. military detention camp established in 2002 inside Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan. Distinct from the main prison of the Bagram Internment Facility, the \"Black Jail\" is run by the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency and U.S. Special Operations Forces. There are numerous allegations of abuse associated with the prison, including beatings, sleep deprivation and forcing inmates into stress positions. U.S. authorities refuse to acknowledge the prison's existence. The facility consists of individual windowless concrete cells, each illuminated by a single light bulb glowing 24 hours a day. Its existence was first reported by journalist Anand Gopal and confirmed by many subsequent investigations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22640244",
"title": "Black jails",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Black jails have no official or legal status, differentiating them from detention centers, the criminal arrest process, or formal sentencing to jail or prison. They are in wide use in Beijing, in particular, and serve as holding locations for the many petitioners who travel to the central Office of Letters and Calls to petition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217487",
"title": "Human rights in China",
"section": "Section::::Torture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "In May 2010, the PRC authorities officially passed new regulations in an attempt to nullify evidence gathered through violence or intimidation in their official judicial procedures, and to reduce the level of torture administered to prisoners already in jails. Little is known, however, about whether or how procedures were modified in black jails, which are not officially part of the judicial system. The move came after a public outcry following the revelation that a farmer, convicted for murder based on his confession under torture, was in fact innocent. The case came to light only when his alleged victim was found alive, after the defendant had spent ten years in prison. International human rights groups gave the change a cautious welcome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1u1krl
|
How have small speakers (cellphones, beats pill) improved in quality so much recently?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not an expert on small speaker design, but here's the best I can come up with.\n\nFirst off, let's split up the question into \"mini-speakers\" like the beats pill, and \"micro-speakers\" that one might find in a mobile phone.\n\nMini-speakers are not all that different from normal loudspeakers, and making them sound better largely comes down to intelligently designing the enclosure to work with the drivers. If I had to venture an educated guess, I would say that companies like beats are designing their own drivers, and not just using the cheapest thing on the shelf.\n\nMicro-speakers, on the other hand, are usually fighting hard against their own fragility. Because their membranes are thin and delicate, pushing the membranes too hard can cause them to warp or tear. This is made more difficult because the drivers heat up when being run, and the temperature changes their response. Thus, monitoring the temp and adaptively adjusting the gain to manage the incoming signal helps to run the micro-speakers at max volume without damage or clipping. I would assume that advances in that sector mostly comes from better adaptive gain control algorithms, more durable membrane materials, and possibly creating more room in the phone itself for larger speakers (since bigger is better in terms of generating acoustic volume velocity). Of course, the move towards larger screens has the side benefit of making more room for acoustics.\n\nThat said, those are just my educated guesses as someone involved in acoustics, but I would welcome any thoughts from someone with more first-hand knowledge of portable speaker design!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hoffman's iron law of speaker design/performance dictates that you can only pick 2 out of the following three things:\n\nSmall enclosure size, High efficiency, deep bass. \n\n\nThat means that in order to chase deep bass in a tiny enclosure, phone and mobile speaker makers have most likely sacrificed speaker electrical efficiency. Given the impressive gains in class D amplification efficiency and technology (which would offset the reduction of speaker/driver efficiency) over the last decade or so, this doesn't seem that implausible. The other side of the equation is that power handling and excursion of a small speaker must also improve, which can be overcome with good driver design, smart equalization, and materials science. \n\n\nNow Hoffman's Iron Law is not hard cast - it's slightly malleable/ductile and can be stretched using several shortcuts such as passive radiators (which are functionally the same as vents/reflex, but have much smaller volume requirements), BMR and other high tech drivers, virtual bass and other DSP algorithms. \n\n\nI would say that the biggest driver of everything going on here is simply consumer dollars - people want better sound from their mobile devices, and large manufacturers are now willing to spend good money in R & D and engineering talent trying to achieve differentiation (as opposed to side projects by independent speaker builders with limited resources). \n\n\nWhatever the driver is, consumers are the beneficiary. I personally recommend the UE mini boom and the UE Boombox as my goto mobile bluetooth speakers - they have the hardest hitting bass in their respective classes. ",
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},
{
"answer": "One interesting thing I noticed while disassembling an iPhone 4 (and I'm sure other manufacturers use the same trick) is that the speaker was not oriented like you might expect. Instead of using a tiny speaker pointing toward the bottom grille they laid it flat. The speaker was facing the front of the device enclosed in a little chamber which had an opening facing the bottom grille. This allows for a much larger speaker than the other configuration. You can get a sense of what I mean [here](_URL_0_). This doesn't explain any advances in speaker technology but is rather a trick for getting better sound out of a small space.\n\nI also remember that in the case of earbuds, the seal they make in the ear make a lot of difference in terms of bass response when using a speaker that small. I do not have the technical details of this and maybe somebody else can explain why, but it is something I remember from some basic research on this topic in the past.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42234060",
"title": "High-resolution audio",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Business magazine \"Bloomberg Businessweek\" suggests that caution is in order with regard to high-resolution audio: \"There is reason to be wary, given consumer electronics companies’ history of pushing advancements whose main virtue is to require everyone to buy new gadgets.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4672934",
"title": "Gainclone",
"section": "Section::::Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Most designs produce high quality sound, even though some audiophiles consider chip-based amplifiers to be inferior to their discrete counterparts. The chips have been designed to incorporate a number of desirable features, including excellent power supply rejection ratio, fast response, accurate bias current, over-temperature protection and short circuit protection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28361390",
"title": "Julian Hirsch",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Hirsch helped draft the Institute of High Fidelity standards that made it easier for consumers to compare audio equipment. Bob Ankosko, an editor-in-chief at \"Sound & Vision\", said \"Julian Hirsch was one of the most influential writers ever in consumer electronics.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40622277",
"title": "Beats Pill",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "With the new Pill+ however, reviewers show better favor to the sound quality of the speaker. The Verge has called it a \"refinement on the recognizable Beats Pill look\" instead of a \"radical redesign\". It also says that the new Pill+ is the best sounding speaker from the Pill lineup. Similarly, \"Wired\" magazine points out that the sound of the new speaker is \"much, much improved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5836024",
"title": "Totem Acoustic",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Vince valued excellence in products and found those that lasted functionally beyond its supposed designated lifespan, and continued to excel, were particularly endearing. And while he vowed that he would only develop superior, premium speakers, he adamantly wanted to provide this quality at affordable prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11219342",
"title": "D&b audiotechnik",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Their claimed unique sales proposition is that they augment the volume, or hearability, of a speaker or musician, but not the quality of the sound. They supposedly achieve this flat response through digital signal processing (DSP) so that profile changes introduced by loud speakers and other audio components are compensated for and thus eliminated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167079",
"title": "Smartphone",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Some audio quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long distance calls. Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi. Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
56vqit
|
At what point and location did the English language split among the use of the article "the" before "hospital"?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is not a historical development, as such. Though nor is it usage which may be explained with a hard and fast rule, as there is some dialectal variation with respect to it. \n \nWhat we are observing, essentially, is that English nouns require an article where they are countable, singular and concrete (“I found *a* quarter”, but not “I found quarter”) and do *not* require an article where they are abstract and uncountable (“the boy has spirit” is acceptable), or countable and plural (“the boy has legs” is acceptable). \n \nBut the prior category can give way to the latter in particular in cases where what is otherwise or previously a count noun is treated in an abstract fashion which construes it as uncountable. The extreme case of this is word such as “heaven” or “hell” which for conceptual reasons, cannot be enumerated in a given cultural context. One goes “to heaven” rather than “to the heaven”, as to qualify *which* heaven one is referring to, or how many, would be nonsensical (in a majority of English Christian contexts), making a countable use of the word impossible, and the interpretation of the word as uncountable the natural development. And indeed, in a less extreme case, when we say we go “to church”, we are implying our attending the uncountable abstraction of the church concept, rather than a specific edifice which is therefore countable. Though in this case, both approaches coexist, as they often do. Which nouns conventionally see this usage or these changes in countability is, however, as I say, subject to dialectal variation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks to Google Ngrams, you can see this historical development for yourself. [Here](_URL_2_) for British usage. [Here](_URL_1_) for American. And [here](_URL_0_) for all books written in English worldwide.\n\nSaying \"going to hospital\" arose in British usage around 1850, becoming more popular between 1920 and 1960. It has declined since then. It never became a thing in the US. Why some British writers started using this in 1850 is a point for an historical linguist.\n\n > In other words, did Shakespeare ever write of 'going to the hospital?' Or did George Washington ever write that a soldier must 'go to hospital?'\n\nShakespeare never wrote \"the hospital\". Washington never wrote just \"hospital\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994221",
"title": "Hospital",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The grammar of the word differs slightly depending on the dialect. In the United States, \"hospital\" usually requires an article; in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, the word normally is used without an article when it is the object of a preposition and when referring to a patient (\"in/to the hospital\" vs. \"in/to hospital\"); in Canada, both uses are found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301671",
"title": "Trotula",
"section": "Section::::The Medieval legacy of the \"Trotula\".:Medieval vernacular translations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "The trend toward using vernacular languages for medical writing began in the 12th century, and grew increasingly in the later Middle Ages. The many vernacular translations of the \"Trotula\" were therefore part of a general trend. The first known translation was into Hebrew, made somewhere in southern France in the late 12th century. The next translations, in the 13th century, were into Anglo-Norman and Old French. And in the 14th and 15th centuries, there are translations in Dutch, Middle English, French (again), German, Irish, and Italian. Most recently, a Catalan translation of one of the \"Trotula\" texts has been discovered in a 15th-century medical miscellany, held by the Biblioteca Riccardiana in Florence. This fragmentary translation of the \"De curis mulierum\" is here collated by the copyist (probably a surgeon making a copy for his own use) with a Latin version of the text, highlighting the differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6652431",
"title": "Medical dictionary",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, Henry wrote in 1905 that \"It is the first edition of the first medical dictionary.\" By the time of Antonio Guaineri and Savonarola, this work was used alongside others by Oribasius, Isidore of Seville, Mondino dei Liuzzi, Serapion, and Pietro d'Abano. Then, as now, writers struggled with the terminology used in various translations from earlier Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Arabic works. Later works by Jacques Desparts and Jacopo Berengario da Carpi continued building on the \"Synonyma\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344148",
"title": "History of English",
"section": "Section::::Modern English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The first authoritative and full-featured English dictionary, the \"Dictionary of the English Language\", was published by Samuel Johnson in 1755. To a high degree, the dictionary standardized both English spelling and word usage. Meanwhile, grammar texts by Lowth, Murray, Priestly, and others attempted to prescribe standard usage even further.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41493263",
"title": "Hospitals in medieval Scotland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "Hospitals in medieval Scotland can be dated back to the 12th century. From c. 1144 to about 1650 many hospitals, bedehouses and \"Maisons Dieu\" were built in Scotland. There are many terms that apply to, or describe a \"Hospital\". The origin of the English term, \"Hospital\", is probably from the French or Latin. English and European terms for Hospital appear to have a common root. \"Hospital\" - from the Latin – \"a place of rest for guests\". Other terms are recognized. Almshouse; Bede House; Chantry ; God's House ; Infirmary ; Spital ; Domus hopitalis Sancti Spiritus (Lat) ; Gasthuis (Ger) ; Godshuis (Dut) ; Hôpital (Fr) ; Hôtel-Dieu (Fr) ; Krankenhaus(Ger) ; Maison Dieu (Fr) ; Ospedale (It) ; Sjukhus(Swe) ; Xenodochium(Gk). Records provide evidence of more than 180 Hospitals in Scotland. The term \"spit(t)al\" or \"temple/ templar\" may also indicate land endowed by churches or monasteries as well as sites associated with the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitallers. Many hospitals were in the north east of Scotland in the cities of Dundee, Old Aberdeen and Aberdeen and across Aberdeenshire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8881",
"title": "Doctor (title)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Doctor is an academic title that originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb \"\" 'to teach'. It has been used as an academic title in Europe since the 13th century, when the first Doctorates were awarded at the University of Bologna and the University of Paris. Having become established in European universities, this usage spread around the world. Contracted \"Dr\" or \"Dr.\", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a Doctorate (e.g. PhD). In many parts of the world it is also used by medical practitioners, regardless of whether or not they hold a doctoral-level degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53819",
"title": "A Dictionary of the English Language",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "In 1598 an Italian–English dictionary by John Florio was published. It was the first English dictionary to use quotations (\"illustrations\") to give meaning to the word; in none of these dictionaries so far were there any actual definitions of words. This was to change, to a small extent, in schoolmaster Robert Cawdrey's \"Table Alphabeticall\", published in 1604. Though it contained only 2,449 words, and no word beginning with the letters \"W\", \"X\", or \"Y\", this was the first monolingual English dictionary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
3vrtho
|
Did the reforms of the Gracchi Brothers actually influence Rome?
|
[
{
"answer": "TL:DR Yes, absolutely. At least in aristocratic memory.\n\nWho is Jeremy Corbin?\n\nFirst of all, the Gracchi were one step in a line of \"trouble-making\" tribunes. Lily Ross-Taylor wrote an important article \"The Forerunners of the Gracchi,\" in *JRS* 52 (1962) if you can get it. She challenged the traditional narrative that the Tribunes had been subverted by the Senate and shows there were basically always Tribunes who used the powers of the Tribune to subvert Senatorial control. So they weren't all that strange; and about a generation later you get M. Livius Drusus, who was REALLY radical (and perhaps a direct consequence of the Gracchi's activities, but more on that later).\n\nAll the sources report that Tiberius was concerned about the gr owing urban poor and the collection of land among a few very wealthy land holders. Rosenstein at OSU (*Rome at War* I think is the title of the book) has fairly recently (10 years ago?) challenged this narrative - his argument is that there was no dearth of small farmers; they just didn't want to enlist in the army anymore, but since the question is about the Gracchi's influence, let's stick to the narrative the Romans told themselves. The aristocrats were gathering up huge tracks of land owned by the state meant to be rented in amounts no larger than 500 jugera/citizen (don't ask me to translate that into acres- I am not up to math at the moment and I have no idea anyway). According to Plutarch, Ti.'s plan was to seize public land illegally held and redistribute that land to the urban poor. The poor would have land, the state would have soldiers, and everything would be great.\n\nThis required a survey though, to find out who held too much land and to redistribute it in the appropriate amounts to the right people. To this end Ti. passed a law to form a commission of three to conduct the survey etc. after some politicking, but the Senate refused to fund the commission. At this point Attalus, king of Pergamon, died and willed his state and fortune to Rome. Ti. proposed a law to use this money to fund the commission, and after more politicking, got himself lynched by a mob of angry senators. However, the land commission went ahead with a new commissioner.\n\nGaius, Ti.'s little brother, was a member of the land comcimission, and in adjudicating the redistribution of land managed accidentally to redistribute land that was not Roman public land, but both properly held private land and land belonging to the Allies (this is from Appian, *BC* 1). The Allies, not being Roman citizens, could not represent themselves in court, and got Scipio Aemilianus to represent them, But he died under mysterious circumstances in 129 BCE. Gaius also ended up getting himself assassinated for politicking shenanigans.\n\nThe land problem was left open for about 30 years after C.'s death. Rome's relationship with the Allies turned increasingly sour. in 91 the Tribune M. Livius Drusus tried to pass a law granting the Allies citizenship, and ended up stabbed to death on his front porch. The Allies snapped and fought a very nasty war against Rome which Rome very nearly lost, and only ended when Rome extended (or imposed - the question is still up for debate) the citizenship to (or on) the Allies. That war left Sulla in command of an army, as Consul elect, and directly set up his conflict with Marius for the Pontus command, which in turn led to Sulla's dictatorship and set the pattern for Roman politics until Augustus.\n\nSo, yeah, the Gracchi influenced Roman politics. They were not original in using their position to mess with the Senate, but they took it further and forced the Senate further than anyone else, and demonstrated the power the people had to oppose the Senate when organized properly. This proto-communist stuff I'm not so sure about; they didn't seem, to my eyes at least, to have an ideological commitment to social equality, but instead sought to address specific problems (lack of solders, urban poor) and, according to their enemies, use those that benefited from these reforms to further their own careers.\n\nThis is the story that all the surviving sources give us, from Cicero to Cassius Dio. Much of this has or is being questioned by modern scholars. [EDIT: a sentence dropped out before my coffee this morning: You don't have to believe the revisionists.] Not everyone believes Rosenstein, for instance. But as far as what Romans themselves thought, yes, the Gracchi did have significant influence on the course of Roman history.",
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"answer": "I'd add to what /u/LegalAction said that, on the subject of the Gracchi being \"the first socialists,\" the current balance of opinion is that such a claim is pretty ridiculous, the Gracchi were no such thing. There's a perception for some reason that politicians who appealed to popular support were necessarily in favor of popular reforms, and during the late Republic that's not necessarily true in the least. Gaius Gracchus, for example, actually limited the powers of the tribunate, by preventing tribunes from vetoing the assignment of consular provinces, a law that the OCD points out \"shows how far he was from being a 'democrat.'\" Tatum points out, which /u/LegalAction sort of mentioned when talking about Tiberius Gracchus' intended replenishment of the military classes, that the Gracchi's reforms were generally decidedly in favor of the status quo, particularly the maintenance of the property classes. In a speech preserved by Gellius (which, genuine or not, is still useful to our point here), Gaius Gracchus declares openly that nobody approaches the Roman people without the hope of getting something from them--in this very speech Gracchus hopes to raise the taxes on Roman citizens! And even the Romans didn't necessarily see the Gracchi as opposed to the aristocracy at all. Plutarch mentions that Gaius Gracchus' land reforms included a provision that the recipients pay rent to the public treasury, something not too different from the current state of affairs, whereas Livius' released them from lease payments entirely. Gaius Gracchus' planned colonies were to be settled by \"the most respectable of the citizens\" (τοὺς χαριεστάτους τῶν πολιτῶν), a term that brings Cicero's *boni* to mind--Plutarch places this in opposition to Livius' intention to found twelve colonies and settle them with the urban poor (τῶν ἀπόρων). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12615",
"title": "Gracchi",
"section": "Section::::Gracchi reforms.:Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The emergence of new forces of urban factions, rural voters, and others, engaging in continued conflict with each other for their own interests, meant that the problem of effective governance awaited resolution. The reforms of the Gracchi had come to an end by violence; and this provided a brutal precedent that would be followed by many future rulers of Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1123369",
"title": "Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Theories and explanations of a fall.:Transformation.:Henri Pirenne.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1402,
"text": "Henri Pirenne continued this idea with the \"Pirenne Thesis\", published in the 1920s, which remains influential to this day. It holds that even after the barbarian invasions, the Roman way of doing things did not immediately change; barbarians came to Rome not to destroy it, but to take part in its benefits, and thus they tried to preserve the Roman way of life. The Pirenne Thesis regards the rise of the Frankish realm in Europe as a continuation of the Roman Empire, and thus validates the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor as a successor of the Roman Emperors. According to Pirenne, the real break in Roman history occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries as a result of Arab expansion. Islamic conquest of the area of today's south-eastern Turkey, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, Spain and Portugal ruptured economic ties to western Europe, cutting the region off from trade and turning it into a stagnant backwater, with wealth flowing out in the form of raw resources and nothing coming back. This began a steady decline and impoverishment so that by the time of Charlemagne western Europe had become almost entirely agrarian at a subsistence level, with no long-distance trade. Pirenne's view on the continuity of the Roman Empire before and after the Germanic invasion has been supported by recent historians such as François Masai, Karl Ferdinand Werner, and Peter Brown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1589136",
"title": "Italian literature",
"section": "Section::::Early medieval Latin literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Italians who were interested in theology gravitated towards Paris. Those who remained were typically attracted by the study of Roman law. This furthered the later establishment of the medieval universities of Bologna, Padua, Vicenza, Naples, Salerno, Modena and Parma. These helped to spread culture, and prepared the ground in which the new vernacular literature developed. Classical traditions did not disappear, and affection for the memory of Rome, a preoccupation with politics, and a preference for practice over theory combined to influence the development of Italian literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650667",
"title": "Mos maiorum",
"section": "Section::::Tradition and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "After the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and ascension of the various Barbarian kingdoms, the old Roman mores were then either superseded by or synthesized with the traditions of the Germanic elite and subsequent feudal values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252905",
"title": "Classical antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Political revivalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The Renaissance idea that the classical Roman virtues had been lost under medievalism was especially powerful in European politics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Reverence for Roman republicanism was strong among the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Latin American revolutionaries; the Americans described their new government as a \"republic\" (from \"res publica\") and gave it a \"Senate\" and a \"President\" (another Latin term), rather than make use of available English terms like \"commonwealth\" or \"parliament\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28650662",
"title": "Bevilacqua dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "The Bevilacqua dynasty governed parts of northern Italy between the 10th and 12th centuries. Their rise to prominence began in 962 when Otto I the Great, the first Holy Roman Emperor, appointed Antonio Bevilacqua as Governor of Lazise. The family remained loyal to the Emperors until they later allied themselves with Matilda of Tuscany; they were granted a Principality at Bevilacqua in 1059, and acquired other territories in the areas of Verona and Ferrara. During the 12th-century conflicts between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Bevilacqua led the victorious Ghibellines of Verona. They later supported the Canossa family of the Lombard League against Frederick Barbarossa, and in recognition received the church of San Salvaro in Verona.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53739",
"title": "Marcian",
"section": "Section::::Reign.:Rise to throne.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "The election of Marcian in 450 resulted in large changes to eastern imperial policy: The eunuch and \"spatharios\" (guard of the imperial chambers) Chrysaphius, who had exercised much influence over the young Theodosius, was killed by either murder or execution; and Marcian took a much tougher stance against the Huns and a more direct role in ecclesiastical affairs. For these reasons, some historians consider him the strongest, or at least most independent, Eastern Roman emperor, although the fact that both Pulcheria and Flavius Zeno were opposed to Chrysaphius' influence, may have influenced Marcian's actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bvq81k
|
How was the iconography of the Confederacy reframed into something that's treated as honorable/worthy of obsession?
|
[
{
"answer": "Civil War memory is something I write a lot about, so I'd point you to [this older answer of mine](_URL_0_) which focuses more on the evolution of Confederate statuary than the Lost Cause itself, but I think does speak well to your question, although I'm of course happy to do my best with any follow-ups you may have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54728411",
"title": "Robert E. Lee (Coppini)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Controversy and removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54704853",
"title": "Jefferson Davis (Coppini)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Controversy and relocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54728606",
"title": "John H. Reagan (sculpture)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Controversy and removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54728565",
"title": "Albert Sidney Johnston (Coppini)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Controversy and removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54728456",
"title": "James Stephen Hogg (Coppini)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Controversy, removal, and relocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54728330",
"title": "Woodrow Wilson (Coppini)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Controversy, removal, and relocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3742552",
"title": "Littlefield Fountain",
"section": "Section::::History.:Statue and inscription controversy and removals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Beginning in 2015 and accelerating in 2017, a national controversy grew over the prominent positions of monuments and memorials to the Confederacy in many public spaces across the United States, and particularly in the American South. In this context, the statues of Confederate notables along the university's South Mall that Coppini had designed for the Littlefield Fountain attracted increased public criticism, as did a dedication inscribed on a wall along the west edge of the fountain complex, which honored the Confederate cause along with American participation in World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
827fob
|
What happens to the body when your cortisol levels are constantly too high?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a really broad question, since excessive cortisol in the human body can have a lot of implications. I'll just talk about one of them.\n\nOne area of your brain that has a lot of cortisol receptors is the hippocampus. There is some evidence that excess cortisol can cause the hippocampus to be damaged in various ways. Individuals with excess cortisol have been show to have smaller hippocampi, suggesting that certain cells called pyramidal cells in the hippocampus likely atrophy due to cortisol activity. Another idea is that cortisol in the hippocampus suppresses neurogenesis, or the formation of new neurons. Both of these are likely causes of depression, and SSRIs both work to reverse these effects of excess cortisol in the hippocampus.\n\nExtremely high cortisol in a short time can also impair memory. This is why individuals often can't remember times where they're extremely emotional.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer is this condition exists in a genetic form known as [Cushing's Disease.](_URL_0_) This leads to a well established pathology of [insulin resistance](_URL_1_) and all the complications that comes along with excess insulin exposure to include:\n\nWeight Gain\n\nHigh Blood Pressure\n\nMemory issues\n\nHeart Disease\n\nCancer\n\nEtc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "92373",
"title": "Cushing's syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Pseudo-Cushing's syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Elevated levels of total cortisol can also be due to estrogen found in oral contraceptive pills that contain a mixture of estrogen and progesterone, leading to Pseudo-Cushing's syndrome. Estrogen can cause an increase of cortisol-binding globulin and thereby cause the total cortisol level to be elevated. However, the total free cortisol, which is the active hormone in the body, as measured by a 24-hour urine collection for urinary free cortisol, is normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233082",
"title": "Burn",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years. This is associated with increased cardiac output, metabolism, a fast heart rate, and poor immune function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4561837",
"title": "Adrenocortical hormone",
"section": "Section::::Stress and immunity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Another study found that physical stress caused increased cortisol:DHEAS (dehydroepianodrosterone sulphate) molar ratios which may contribute to reduced immunity, especially in the elderly for whom cortisol:DHEAS ratios are already increased. This is because DHEAS levels decrease with age while cortisol levels do not. This high ratio was found to suppress the activity of neutrophils and raise susceptibility for infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33541115",
"title": "Saliva testing",
"section": "Section::::Uses in behavioral research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "In more specific studies looking at the link between cortisol levels and psychological phenomena, it has been found that chronic stressors such as life-threatening situations (example: diseases), depression, and social or economic hardship correlate with significantly higher cortisol levels. In situations where a subject undergoes induced anxiety, high cortisol levels correspond with experiencing more physiological symptoms of nervousness, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and skin conductance. Additionally, a negative correlation was discovered between baseline levels of cortisol and aggression. Salivary cortisol levels can thus provide insight into a number of other psychological processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39337193",
"title": "Stress in medical students",
"section": "Section::::Physical effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Stress can cause high levels of the following hormones: norepinephrine, leptin, NPY, nitrite, ACTH and adrenomedullin. Elevated levels of adenosine, adrenaline, cortisol and dopamine in the blood can produce fatigue, depression, behavior changes, heart disease, weight problems, diabetes, and skin diseases. It also decreases the immune response, which can lead to heartburn and stomach ulcers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "717845",
"title": "Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 17α-hydroxylase deficiency",
"section": "Section::::17,20-Lyase deficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Normal cortisol level can be explained by the strong negative feedback mechanism of cortisol on hypothalamus-pituitary axis system. That is, in the beginning, 17,20-lyase deficiency will block synthesis of sex steroid hormones, forcing the pathways to produce more cortisol. However, the initial excess of cortisol is rapidly corrected by negative feedback mechanism—high cortisol decreases secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from zona fasciculata of adrenal gland. Thus, there is no mineralocorticoid overproduction. Also, there is no adrenal hyperplasia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34141047",
"title": "Alcohol and cortisol",
"section": "Section::::Cortisol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Cortisol is a stress hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, which makes up part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. It is typically released at periods of high stress designed to help the individual cope with stressful situations. Cortisol secretion results in increased heart rate and blood pressure and the temporary shut down of metabolic processes such as digestion, reproduction, growth, and immunity as a means of conserving energy for the stress response. Chronic release of cortisol over extended periods of time caused by long-term high stress can result in: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4i99pg
|
how do electromagnetic pulses (emp) destroy electronics and is it possible to deploy it in bombs for warfare?
|
[
{
"answer": "it is basically a very strong signal that is capable of frying weaker systems. It can be used for warfare, but its use is some what limited by the fact that military hardware is tough and most known systems are not big enough or thorough enough to take down civilians areas with any effectiveness. Either would take a nuclear sized blast to get anywhere, and by that point your already nuking them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17346957",
"title": "Nuclear holocaust",
"section": "Section::::Effects of nuclear war.:Electromagnetic pulse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "An electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a burst of electromagnetic radiation. Nuclear explosions create a pulse of electromagnetic radiation called a nuclear EMP or NEMP. Such EMP interference is known to be generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment. If a single nuclear weapon \"designed to emit EMP were detonated 250 to 300 miles up over the middle of the country it would disable the electronics in the entire United States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244601",
"title": "Effects of nuclear explosions",
"section": "Section::::Indirect effects.:Electromagnetic pulse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the ionosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13782970",
"title": "Radiofrequency MASINT",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic pulse MASINT.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Nuclear and large conventional explosions produce radio frequency energy. The characteristics of the EMP will vary with altitude and burst size. EMP-like effects are not always from open-air or space explosions; there has been work with controlled explosions for generating electrical pulse to drive lasers and railguns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "453420",
"title": "Directed-energy weapon",
"section": "Section::::History.:Iraq War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "During the Iraq War, electromagnetic weapons, including high power microwaves, were used by the U.S. military to disrupt and destroy Iraqi electronic systems and may have been used for crowd control. Types and magnitudes of exposure to electromagnetic fields are unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50265069",
"title": "Electromagnetic attack",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Electromagnetic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "In the case of electromagnetic side-channel attacks, attackers are often looking at electromagnetic radiation emitted by computing devices, which are made up of circuits. Electronic circuits consist of semiconducting materials upon which billions of transistors are placed. When a computer performs computations, such as encryption, electricity running through the transistors create a magnetic field and electromagnetic waves are emitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21785",
"title": "Nuclear weapon",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "During the Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a nuclear electromagnetic pulse. This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations against that enemy. Because the effect is produced by high altitude nuclear detonations, it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41097",
"title": "Nuclear electromagnetic pulse",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "An energetic EMP can temporarily upset or permanently damage electronic equipment by generating high voltage and high current surges; semiconductor components are particularly at risk. The effects of damage can range from imperceptible to the eye, to devices literally blowing apart. Cables, even if short, can act as antennas to transmit pulse energy to equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7bps5m
|
why do headphones sound tinny until you put them on?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bass waves travel the least amount of distance, while higher pitched waves will reach your ears. Your ears are best at picking up and discerning those higher pitched sounds because they are most like the sounds you would normally be hearing. All of this considering the headphone speakers are very small and produce a relatively small decibel level.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the sound is tiny relatively. Normally when you hear things they are pretty far from your ears. If you took your tv for example would be a comfortable listening volume while sitting on say a couch would be painful if you were forced to hold your ear right to the speakers. Also if they aren't on your head then the speakers are likely being aimed away from you which might make them sound even smaller. The whole point of headphones is to have tiny speakers that produce tiny sound but sound normal because they are in close proximity to your ears and oriented specifically for the purpose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Ear-fitting headphones.:In-ear headphones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The outer shells of in-ear headphones are made up of a variety of materials, such as plastic, aluminum, ceramic and other metal alloys. Because in-ear headphones engage the ear canal, they can be prone to sliding out, and they block out much environmental noise. Lack of sound from the environment can be a problem when sound is a necessary cue for safety or other reasons, as when walking, driving, or riding near or in vehicular traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Supra-aural.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Supra-aural headphones or on-ear headphones have pads that press against the ears, rather than around them. They were commonly bundled with personal stereos during the 1980s. This type of headphone generally tends to be smaller and lighter than circumaural headphones, resulting in less attenuation of outside noise. Supra-aural headphones can also lead to discomfort due to the pressure on the ear as compared to circumaural headphones that sit around the ear. Comfort may vary due to the earcup material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Ambient noise reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "Active noise-cancelling headphones use a microphone, amplifier, and speaker to pick up, amplify, and play ambient noise in phase-reversed form; this to some extent cancels out unwanted noise from the environment without affecting the desired sound source, which is not picked up and reversed by the microphone. They require a power source, usually a battery, to drive their circuitry. Active noise cancelling headphones can attenuate ambient noise by 20 dB or more, but the active circuitry is mainly effective on constant sounds and at lower frequencies, rather than sharp sounds and voices. Some noise cancelling headphones are designed mainly to reduce low-frequency engine and travel noise in aircraft, trains, and automobiles, and are less effective in environments with other types of noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208732",
"title": "Dell XPS",
"section": "Section::::Laptops.:Gen 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 272,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 272,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "This model also suffers from a whine on the headphone and microphone jacks that are located on the left of the unit. This is because of shared space with the leftmost fan, and the spinning of said fan causes interference. There is no known fix than to otherwise use a USB, FireWire/1394 or PCMCIA-based audio device or card for sound output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Open or closed back.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Open-back headphones have the back of the earcups open. This leaks more sound out of the headphone and also lets more ambient sounds into the headphone, but gives a more natural or speaker-like sound, due to including sounds from the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44731820",
"title": "AudioQuest",
"section": "Section::::Effects of cable quality on analog audio quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Electrostatic and piezoelectric noise can also become an issue in exotic headphone systems, if the headphones have a relatively high input impedance compared to traditional speakers which have a nominal impedance of 8 Ohms. This is where a careful choice of insulating materials can make a difference. This type of noise is often perceived as snap, crackle and pop when mechanically manipulating or handling the headphone cord. It is often hard to tell, without actual measurements if the source of this noise is electronic or mechanical in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "These early headphones used moving iron drivers, with either single-ended or balanced armatures. The common single-ended type used voice coils wound around the poles of a permanent magnet, which were positioned close to a flexible steel diaphragm. The audio current through the coils varied the magnetic field of the magnet, exerting a varying force on the diaphragm, causing it to vibrate, creating sound waves. The requirement for high sensitivity meant that no damping was used, so the frequency response of the diaphragm had large peaks due to resonance, resulting in poor sound quality. These early models lacked padding, and were often uncomfortable to wear for long periods. Their impedance varied; headphones used in telegraph and telephone work had an impedance of 75 ohms. Those used with early wireless radio had more turns of finer wire to increase sensitivity. Impedance of 1000 to 2000 ohms was common, which suited both crystal sets and triode receivers. Some very sensitive headphones, such as those manufactured by Brandes around 1919, were commonly used for early radio work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
z5h8p
|
Were Serbs exceptionally effective in the war against Austria during WWI?
|
[
{
"answer": "Serbia's army had experience from the [Balkan Wars](_URL_0_), unlike the Austrians who were quite green. Austrian troops were better equipped, but had far less patriotism due to the fact that most of them weren't Austrian, but Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, etc. The Serbians also could match the Austrians in terms of numbers, since the bulk of Austria's army was engaged with Russia for most of the war. The land itself isn't exactly a bunch of flat open plains, and favored the defender. All-in-all, it isn't a surprise that Serbia performed how they did.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2167279",
"title": "Battle of Kolubara",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "The Serbs beat back an Austro-Hungarian invasion in August, at the Battle of Cer. It marked the first Allied victory over the Central Powers in World War I. Potiorek was humiliated by the defeat and was determined to resume the assault against the Serbs. He was given permission in September to launch another invasion of Serbia provided that he \"[did not] risk anything that might lead to a further fiasco.\" Under pressure from the Russians to launch their own offensive and keep as many Austro-Hungarian troops as possible away from the Eastern Front, the Serbs invaded Bosnia in September with the help of Chetnik irregulars but were repulsed after a month of fighting in what came to be known as the Battle of the Drina. Bojović was wounded during the battle and was replaced by Živojin Mišić as commander of the Serbian 1st Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35001680",
"title": "Home front during World War I",
"section": "Section::::Balkans.:Serbia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In late 1915, however, German generals were given control and invaded Serbia with Austrian and Bulgarian forces. The Serbian army hastily retreated west but only 70,000 made it through, and Serbia became an occupied land. Disease was rampant, but the Austrians were pragmatic and paid well for food supplies, so conditions were not harsh. Instead Austria tried to depoliticize Serbia, to minimize violence, and to integrate the country into the Empire. Nevertheless, Serbian nationalism remained defiant and many young men slipped out to help rebuild the Serbian army in exile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2198871",
"title": "Allies of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Affiliated state combatants.:Kingdom of Serbia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The exact role played by Serbian officials in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is still debated but despite complying with most of their demands, Austria-Hungary invaded on 28 July 1914. While Serbia successfully repulsed the Austro-Hungarian army in 1914, it was exhausted by the two Balkan Wars and unable to replace its losses of men and equipment. In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and by the end of the year, a combined Bulgar-Austrian-German army occupied most of Serbia. Between 1914–1918, Serbia suffered the greatest proportional losses of any combatant, with over 25% of all those mobilised becoming casualties; including civilians and deaths from disease, over 1.2 million died, nearly 30% of the entire population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2117647",
"title": "July Crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "Austria-Hungary viewed the irredentist movements of South Slavs, as promoted by Serbia, to be a threat to the unity of the nation. Following the assassination, Austria sought to inflict a military blow on Serbia to demonstrate strength and so Serbia would be more cautious about supporting Yugoslav nationalism. However, it was wary of the reaction of the Russian Empire, who were a major supporter of Serbia, so sought a guarantee from its ally Germany that it would support Austria in any conflict. Germany guaranteed its support, but urged Austria to attack quickly, while world sympathy for the murdered heir was high, in order to localize the war and avoid drawing in Russia. Some German leaders believed that growing Russian economic power would change the balance of power between the two nations, that a war was inevitable, and that Germany would be better off if a war happened soon. However, rather than a quick attack with available military forces, Austrian leaders deliberated into mid-July before deciding that it would give Serbia a harsh ultimatum on 23 July and would not attack without a full mobilisation of its army that could not be accomplished before 25 July 1914.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764461",
"title": "World War I",
"section": "Section::::Progress of the war.:Opening hostilities.:Serbian campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia's defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. The campaign saw the very first use of medical evacuation by the Serbian army in autumn of 1915 and anti-aircraft warfare in the spring of 1915 after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318008",
"title": "Causes of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Polarization of Europe, 1887–1914.:Balkan Wars, 1912–13: Growth of Serbian and Russian power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The Balkan Wars strained the German/Austro-Hungarian alliance. The attitude of the German government to Austrian requests of support against Serbia was initially both divided and inconsistent. After the German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912, it was clear that Germany was not ready to support Austria-Hungary in a war against Serbia and her likely allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55463472",
"title": "Sliven prisoner of war camp",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1230,
"text": "The 28 June 1914 assassination of Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive Archduke Franz Ferdinand precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia. The conflict quickly attracted the involvement of all major European countries, pitting the Central Powers against the Entente coalition and starting World War I. After the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers (November 1914), the decisive factor in the Balkans became the attitude of Bulgaria. Bulgaria occupied a strategically important position on the Serbian flank and its intervention on either side of the belligerents would be decisive. Bulgaria and Serbia had fought each continuously in the previous thirty years: following the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 hostilities continued in the form of an undeclared war during the Macedonian Struggle. The area of north-western Macedonia then belonging to the Ottoman Empire became the arena of the ethnic violence between the ethnic Serb population represented by the Serbian Chetnik Organization and ethnic Bulgarians from the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO). IMRO also engaged in hostilities with ethnic Greeks and their supporters in the rest of Macedonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s4gx7
|
the d & d alignment system, particularly the distinction between "neutral good/evil" and "chaotic good/evil."
|
[
{
"answer": "It helps to just view the alignments one axis at a time -- lawful, neutral, chaotic; good, neutral evil.\n\nLawful means you will follow certain rules.\nChaotic means everything is random -- rules are made to be broken.\nNeutral is somewhere in between these two; really, most people you meet with in real life would fall in the neutral spectum.\n\nGood means you put others above yourself.\nEvil means you willingly harm others, either for your own good or because you have been told to.\nNeutral will generally not kill innocents, but certainly will not sacrifice themselves for others.\n\nNeutral good would be someone who puts others above themselves, but isn't following a set pattern to it -- not helping others because their god said to, just because they want to. Neutral evil would be similar -- not killing just for the heck of it, but not killing just to obey a higher order.\n\nChaotic good is a character who is out for the greater good, but feels \"the man\" gets in the way, so (s)he will buck the rules constantly. Chaotic evil is one of those who just wants to watch the world burn.\n\nCheck the [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) page; it gives a pretty good overview of each of the nine types.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always broke it down this way: the suffix of good/neutral/evil has to do with how they interact socially. Good = \"for the common good with self-sacrifice,\" evil = \"for myself, damn everyone else\" and neutral = \"no set sense of self,\" which is why a lot of non-intelligent creatures are set as \"true neutral.\" Chaotic, lawful, and neutral as a prefix is how this is delivered. Chaotic=\"no set plan,\" lawful = \"structured plan\", and neutral is \"either/or.\" \n\nSo a neutral good/evil person approaches how they act according to whim, but sides for either good of others or selfishness. Chaotic good/evil is someone who truly believes in their cause, but never plans anything. Take Star Wars:\n\n- Neutral good: Han Solo. He thinks mostly about the moment, but basically a good guy. Becomes more chaotic good as the series progresses.\n- Neutral evil: Jabba the Hutt. Nothing personal, it's just business... you dick. He might be lawful neutral, but he does kill a lot of people.\n\n- Chaotic Good: Luke Skywalker. Intergalactic boy wonder.\n- Chaotic Evil: Count Duku. This guy is fucked up, completely taken by the dark side.\n\nDarth Vader and the Emperor are more lawful evil because of all the pre-planning he does.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\n\n**Lawful Good:** Yoda (* Believes in order and in good*)\n\n**Neutral Good:** Obi Wan (*Good, but also sarcastic and adventurous*)\n\n**Chaotic Good:** Luke ( *Roguish, lone wolf, good above all*)\n\n**Lawful Neutral:** Stormtroopers (* Follow orders above anything else*)\n\n**True Neutral**: Boba Fett ( *No affiliation to anything except himself*)\n\n**Chaotic Neutral:** Han Solo ( *Outside the law and selfish, becomes CG*)\n\n**Lawful Evil:** Darth Vader ( *Follows orders but believes in evil*)\n\n**Neutral Evil:** The Emperor (* Pure evil* )\n\n**Chaotic Evil:** Jabba the Hutt (* Murderous crime lord*)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lawful good characters believe in the rule of law for the good of society. They follow the law and advocate using the power of the law to help people.\n\nNeutral good characters believe in altruistic actions and outcomes, whether allowed by the law or not.\n\nChaotic good characters believe that maximizing individual liberty will produce the greatest benefit for society. \n\nThere are two types of lawful neutral characters. The first values the rule of law over altruism and selfishness; this kind of person would rather live in a society where the law is firmly enforced, whether or not for a \"good\" or \"evil\" purpose or outcome. The second type is a follower of a traditional moral code; much like the first type of lawful neutral person, whether the moral code is altruistic or selfish is less important than it being traditional.\n\nTrue neutral characters also fall into two types. The first, and most common, are people who are a roughly equal mixture of altruism and selfishness, law-abidingness and individualism. They don't put much thought into morality and often act according to peer pressure or their needs at the moment. The second type, which is more rare, believes in striving to maintain a balance between law and individuality and altruism and selfishness. The first type is somewhat apathetic about morality; the second type is very active and generally has some kind of religious motivation for seeking a balance.\n\nChaotic neutral characters favor the freedom to act over any good or evil outcome.\n\nLawful evil characters favor using the power of the state for their personal advantage or to persecute their enemies.\n\nNeutral evil characters favor selfishness and personally-beneficial outcomes, whether by law or illegally.\n\nChaotic evil characters disregard rules and seek selfish outcomes and complete freedom to act. Psychopaths are an example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "904826",
"title": "Alignment (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "\"D&D\" 4th Edition, released in 2008, reduced the number of alignments to five: lawful good, good, evil, chaotic evil, and unaligned. In that edition, \"good\" replaced neutral good and did not encompass chaotic good; \"evil\" replaced neutral evil and did not encompass lawful evil; \"unaligned\" replaced true neutral and did not encompass lawful neutral and chaotic neutral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "677762",
"title": "Eberron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Alignment is slightly more muddied than in other official settings. Evil beings of traditionally good races and good beings of traditionally evil races are encouraged; but alignment definition remains true to D&D standards, with good and evil retaining their meanings. However, the situation often arises in the campaign world that oppositely aligned characters will side with each other briefly if a threat looms over all, and also both good and evil characters will infiltrate each other's organizations for purposes of espionage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904826",
"title": "Alignment (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Axes.:Good vs. evil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The conflict of good versus evil is a common motif in \"D&D\" and other fantasy fiction. Although player characters can adventure for personal gain rather than from altruistic motives, it is generally assumed that the player characters will be opposed to evil and will tend to fight evil creatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904826",
"title": "Alignment (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The \"D&D\" alignment system is occasionally referenced as a system of moral classification in other contexts. \"Salon\" television critic Heather Havrilesky, while reviewing the HBO television series \"True Blood\", analyzed the program's characters in terms of \"D&D\" alignments and identified protagonist Sookie Stackhouse as chaotic good, her vampire boyfriend Bill Compton as lawful neutral, Eric Northman as lawful evil, and Lafayette Reynolds as chaotic neutral. In \"Hostiles and Calamities\", the 11th episode of season 7 of \"The Walking Dead\" television series, the character Eugene Porter makes a reference to the \"D&D\" alignment system when describing himself as \"...not good. I’m not lawful, neutral, or chaotic.\" The alignment chart Internet meme humorously categorizes various items in a three-by-three grid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1673523",
"title": "Grimlock (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.:\"Dungeons & Dragons\" v3.5.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "When the rules for Third Edition \"D&D\" were updated to version 3.5, the grimlock again appeared in the first \"Monster Manual\" source book, but its description, abilities and illustration were reprinted verbatim from Third Edition, with the only exception being that their Alignment was changed from \"Always neutral evil\" to \"Often neutral evil\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904826",
"title": "Alignment (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "\"AD&D 2nd Edition\", released in 1988, retained the two-axis system. In that edition, a character who performs too many actions outside their alignment can find their alignment changed, and is penalized by losing experience points, making it harder to reach the next level. \"D&D\" 3rd Edition, released in 2000, kept the same alignment system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "904826",
"title": "Alignment (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The 1977 release of the \"Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set\" introduced a second axis of good, implying altruism and respect for life, vs evil, implying selfishness and no respect for life. As with the law-vs-chaos axis, a neutral position exists between the extremes. Characters and creatures could be lawful and evil at the same time (such as a tyrant), or chaotic but good (such as Robin Hood).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pjo5p
|
why can my dog eat shit and be fine, but not grapes or chocolate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because dog shit doesn't contain a compound (Theobromine) that is toxic to dogs. It *may* contain pathogens that make them sick, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3303843",
"title": "Dog anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Senses.:Taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 230,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 230,
"end_character": 1336,
"text": "Dogs have around 1,700 taste buds compared to humans with around 9,000. The sweet taste buds in dogs respond to a chemical called furaneol which is found in many fruits and in tomatoes. It appears that dogs do like this flavor and it probably evolved because in a natural environment dogs frequently supplement their diet of small animals with whatever fruits happen to be available. Because of dogs' dislike of bitter tastes, various sprays, and gels have been designed to keep dogs from chewing on furniture or other objects. Dogs also have taste buds that are tuned for water, which is something they share with other carnivores but is not found in humans. This taste sense is found at the tip of the dog's tongue, which is the part of the tongue that he curls to lap water. This area responds to water at all times, but when the dog has eaten salty or sugary foods the sensitivity to the taste of water increases. It is proposed that this ability to taste water evolved as a way for the body to keep internal fluids in balance after the animal has eaten things that will either result in more urine being passed or will require more water to adequately process. It certainly appears that when these special water taste buds are active, dogs seem to get an extra pleasure out of drinking water, and will drink copious amounts of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346939",
"title": "Carob",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Food.:Animal feed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "While chocolate contains the chemical compound theobromine in levels that are toxic to some mammals, carob contains none, and it also has no caffeine, so it is sometimes used to make chocolate-like treats for dogs. Carob pod meal is also used as an energy-rich feed for livestock, particularly for ruminants, though its high tannin content may limit this use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12436",
"title": "Grape",
"section": "Section::::Health claims.:Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs. Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop acute renal failure (the sudden development of kidney failure) with anuria (a lack of urine production) and may be fatal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3858681",
"title": "List of dog diseases",
"section": "Section::::Poisons and overdoses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 255,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 255,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chocolate is a common cause of poisoning in dogs. The toxic principles in chocolate are theobromine and caffeine. Baker's Chocolate is the most dangerous form since it contains higher concentrations of these drugs, followed by semi-sweet, dark, and then milk chocolate. Signs include vomiting, diarrhea, tremors, difficulty walking, seizures, and heart problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2540987",
"title": "Dog health",
"section": "Section::::Toxic substances.:Dangerous foods.:Grapes and raisins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Grapes and raisins can cause acute kidney failure in dogs (see also grape and raisin toxicity in dogs). The exact mechanism is unknown, nor is there any means to determine the susceptibility of an individual dog. While as little as one raisin can be toxic to a susceptible dog, some other dogs have eaten as much as a pound of grapes or raisins at a time without ill effects. The affected dog usually vomits a few hours after consumption and begins showing signs of kidney failure three to five days later. A mycotoxin is suspected to be involved, but one has not been found in grapes or raisins ingested by affected dogs. The reason some dogs develop kidney failure following ingestion of grapes and raisins is not known. The most common pathological finding is proximal renal tubular necrosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9487904",
"title": "Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs. Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop acute kidney injury (the sudden development of kidney failure) with anuria (a lack of urine production). The phenomenon was first identified by the Animal Poison Control Center (APCC), run by the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). Approximately 140 cases were seen by the APCC in the one year from April 2003 to April 2004, with 50 developing symptoms and seven dying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27767967",
"title": "Health effects of chocolate",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1072,
"text": "A typical dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a dog. Of course, baking chocolate is rarely consumed directly due to its unpleasant taste, but other dark chocolates' canine toxicities may be extrapolated based on this figure. Given access, dogs frequently consume chocolate at toxic levels because they like the taste of chocolate products and are capable of finding and eating quantities much larger than typical human servings. There are reports that mulch made from cacao bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7yr4kn
|
Why didn't the overthrow and regicide of Charles I prompt massive retaliation from other monarchs the way Louis XVI's did?
|
[
{
"answer": "For much of the time of the English Civil War(s) Europe was still involved in the Thirty Years War. And the concurrent Franco-Spanish War, which blurred with the Thirty Years War but lasted longer. For the Holy Roman Empire and Spain the Thirty Years War was a much more pressing threat against their power than an English squabble. For France the potential shifts in continental power was a much more important and interesting situation.The Thirty Years War was over around 1648 and Charles lost his head in 1649. And France and Spain continued to be at war until 1659. So, there wasn't a lot of money or interest in mounting another major invasion. \n\nCharles, who could be very competent in other areas, had also made a bit of a mess of foreign policy prior to the civil wars. He would, of course, blame this on not being funded by Parliament. But he made a poorly advised attempt at war with France while, at the same time, being at war with Spain. He did come to peace with both and had a fragile alliance with Spain. But he hadn't done much to endear himself to those powers. \n\nThe very nature of the wars was also not very well understood at the time or, honestly, still. As has already been discussed, it was not the overthrow of all vestiges of authority as the later stages of the French Revolution came to be (and remember much of Europe didn't intervene in France until it got to the stage or even later.) The tensions between royal authority and parliamentary authority were absolutely at stake. But there was also a strong religious component to the wars. With the royalists being associated with Laudianism and the parliamentarians being associated with puritanism. The reality was more complex but Europe wasn't itching to get involved in another religious war, at this point, either. \n\nAnd the English (or at least the nobility) seemed to have a nasty habit of rebelling against and killing their kings. It's funny to think of now with the UK being one of the few monarchies left. But Edward II, Richard II, Henry VI, and Richard III were all killed and that's not counting Edward V. Only Richard III in a proper battle. King John, Henry III and Edward II all faced serious rebellions by barons concerning their rights and privileges and the Parliamentary forces intentionally mimicked the stances of those fights. (I leave out the revolt against Richard II, War of the Roses and rebellions under the Tudors because in many ways those were about succession and/or the fitness of the ruler but the earlier conflicts were about limits of royal power and the \"traditional\" rights of the barons.) In some ways, this was framed as a very English conflict fighting over ancient grudges. And it was very intentionally presented this way by the Parliament even when they were going far beyond the traditional rights of the institution. It wasn't something obviously and markedly different the way the French Revolution became in its final stages. Now, with the benefit of hindsight, we see it as something distinct from all of those conflicts. They didn't necessarily, at the time. \n\nAnd I know that is an absurd thing to claim because a king was not only killed but he wasn't replaced. Oliver Cromwell was not a king. Nor did he have any even plausible birth claim to the throne. That's a huge change from the past. And that can't be ignored. But from the outside little had really changed radically under Cromwell despite his title. Also Spain had been fighting protestant insurgents in the Netherlands for decades so the existence of powerful protestant uprisings wasn't a foreign concept. Despite wars between nations through out the century, Europe in the late 18th century was in many ways a more settled place than Europe in the mid-17th century. So, the occurrence of such an uprising was more of a shock to the system. \n\nAll that being said, it is not as though other kingdoms did *nothing*. France did take in Charles's family. Although France eventually allied with the Cromwell government, they did so because they needed allies against Spain in their continuing war. Spain made an alliance with Charles II and gave him some money for troops. The Battle of the Dunes had English royalists on the Spanish side and Cromwell's forces on the French side. (The French won.) Charles II was just never given enough money to invade England, which would have been a massive undertaking. Neither France nor Spain condoned killing a sovereign monarch. They were just consumed with each other and not in a position to do all that much about it. Other powers of Europe were devastated by war and not as close to England's orbit. \n\nLong story short, there were plenty of wars going on on the continent to distract the major powers of Europe. And, at the same time, the English Civil War was not as monumental a shift in power as the French Revolution eventually became. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45109",
"title": "Marie Antoinette",
"section": "Section::::Events leading to the abolition of the monarchy on 10 August 1792.:Louis XVI's trial and execution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Charged with undermining the First French Republic, Louis XVI was separated from his family and tried in December. He was found guilty by the Convention, led by the Jacobins who rejected the idea of keeping him as a hostage. On 15 January 1793, by a majority of one vote, that of Philippe Égalité, he was condemned to death by guillotine and executed on 21 January 1793.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45265915",
"title": "Paris in the 18th century",
"section": "Section::::Revolutionary Paris (1789–1799).:The Convention and the Reign of Terror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 1422,
"text": "The Convention put the King on trial, and after two months, voted by a majority of a single vote, for his execution. On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined on the \"Place de la Révolution\" (former \"Place Louis XV\", now Place de la Concorde. Following the King's execution, rebellions against the government broke out in many regions of the country, particularly Brittany and Angevin. The Minister of Defense of the Commune, Dumouriez, tried without success to persuade his soldiers to march on Paris to overthrow the new government, and ended up defecting to the Austrians. To deal with these new threats, real or imagined, on 6 April 1793 the Convention established a Committee of Public Safety, to hunt for enemies and watch over the actions of the government. New decrees were issued for the arrest of families of émigrés, aristocrats and refractory priests, and the immunity from arrest of members of the Convention was taken away. On 10 March the Convention created a revolutionary Tribunal, located in the Palace of Justice. Verdicts of the Tribunal could not be appealed, and sentences were to be carried out immediately. Marie Antoinette was beheaded on 16 October 1793, and Jean Sylvain Bailly, the first elected mayor of Paris, was executed on 12 November 1793. The property of the aristocracy and of the Church was confiscated and declared \"Biens nationaux\" (national property); the churches were closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6743221",
"title": "Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil",
"section": "Section::::Varennes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "His attempts were ultimately in vain. The Bourbon monarchy in France was overthrown in 1792, followed by massacres of many Royalists in Paris. In January 1793, Louis XVI was executed. In October, Marie Antoinette met a similar fate. In 1795, their son, Louis XVII died in prison.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62531",
"title": "Charles X of France",
"section": "Section::::Crisis and French Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Necker's dismissal provoked the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. At the insistence of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, Charles and his family left France three days later, on 17 July, along with several other courtiers, including the Duchess of Polignac, the queen's favourite. His flight has historically been largely attributed to personal fears for his own safety. However recent research indicates that the King approved in advance of his brother's departure, seeing it as a means of ensuring that one close relative would be free to act as a spokesman for the monarchy after Louis himself had been removed from Versailles to Paris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28704180",
"title": "French Royal Army (1652–1830)",
"section": "Section::::History.:First Bourbon restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Louis XVI was guillotined in 1793. By 1800, the First Republic, at war with much of Europe, had adopted a weak form of government that was overthrown by General Napoleon Bonaparte, who later proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. When British, Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies invaded France in 1814, Napoleon, whose empire had once extended all the way to Moscow abdicated. The dead king's brother, the Count of Provence, was declared King Louis XVIII. Under Louis XVIII, no major changes were made to the army, beyond the recreation of several regiments of the pre-revolutionary \"maison militaire du roi\". However, when Napoleon returned from exile in 1815, the army, for the most part, went over to his side, and Louis fled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62182",
"title": "Jean-Paul Marat",
"section": "Section::::The National Convention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined, which caused political turmoil. From January to May, Marat fought bitterly with the Girondins, whom he believed to be covert enemies of republicanism. Marat’s hatred of the Girondins became increasingly heated which led him to call for the use of violent tactics against them. The Girondins fought back and demanded that Marat be tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal. After attempting to avoid arrest for several days Marat was finally imprisoned. On 24 April, he was brought before the Tribunal on the charges that he had printed in his paper statements calling for widespread murder as well as the suspension of the Convention. Marat decisively defended his actions, stating that he had no evil intentions directed against the Convention. Marat was acquitted of all charges to the riotous celebrations of his supporters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24046134",
"title": "List of heirs to the French throne",
"section": "Section::::Capetian heirs by Salic succession II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Following the abolition of the monarchy of France by the French National Convention, Louis XVI and his family were held in confinement. Louis XVI was found guilty by the Convention of treason against the state, and was executed on 21 January 1793. The Dauphin Louis–Charles was thereafter proclaimed \"Louis XVII of France\" by French royalists, but was kept confined and never reigned. He died of illness on 8 June 1795.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24ib45
|
how credits were added to film
|
[
{
"answer": "Assuming you are talking about the older days before computers, credits where often printed onto a a sheet which was attached to two rollers, kinda like a treadmill. Then they could just film it.\n\nThey could also layer films over one another to superimpose credits on a live action scene.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5661915",
"title": "Film title design",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Then, early in the 1930s, the more progressive motion picture studios started to change their approach in presenting their screen credits. The major studios took on the challenge of improving the way they introduced their movies. They made the decision to present a more complete list of credits to go with a higher quality of artwork to be used in their screen credits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9284300",
"title": "Motion picture credits",
"section": "Section::::Closing credits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Credits for motion pictures often include the name of any locales (i.e., cities, states, and countries if outside of the US) used to film scenes, as well as any organizations not related to the production (e.g., schools, government entities, military bases, etc.) that played a role in the filming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34509089",
"title": "Across the Plains (1911 film)",
"section": "Section::::Cast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Film credits were almost universally unheard of in 1910 and 1911, because the film's actors were unidentified fans would often come up with their own names for prominent actors. Film studios were reluctant to credit the actors because other studios might hire or the actors could demand a higher wage. Due to public demand and interest, studios began adding credits to their film lists in later productions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34157309",
"title": "Frank Comstock",
"section": "Section::::The Warner Brothers years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Unlike today's independently produced movies where on-screen credits are given to any and all participants, the sparse credits of \"big-studio\" films of the post-war period were usually limited to famous actors, music composers and studio executives. Even so, Comstock's work for Warner Brothers was notable enough to garner credits for many of his movies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "494174",
"title": "Opening credits",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Up until the 1970s, closing credits for films usually listed only a reprise of the cast members with their roles identified, or even simply just said \"The End,\" requiring opening credits to normally contain the details. For instance, the title sequence of the 1968 film \"Oliver!\" runs for about three-and-a-half minutes, and while not listing the complete cast, does list nearly all of its technical credits at the beginning of the film, all set against a background of what appear to be, but in fact are not, authentic 19th-century engravings of typical London life. The only credit at film's end is a listing of most of the cast, including cast members not listed at the beginning. These are set against a replay of some of the \"'Consider Yourself\" sequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21555729",
"title": "Film",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "The \"credits,\" or \"end credits,\" is a list that gives credit to the people involved in the production of a film. Films from before the 1970s usually start a film with credits, often ending with only a title card, saying \"The End\" or some equivalent, often an equivalent that depends on the language of the production. From then onward, a film's credits usually appear at the end of most films. However, films with credits that end a film often repeat some credits at or near the start of a film and therefore appear twice, such as that film's acting leads, while less frequently some appearing near or at the beginning only appear there, not at the end, which often happens to the director's credit. The credits appearing at or near the beginning of a film are usually called \"titles\" or \"beginning titles.\" A post-credits scene is a scene shown after the end of the credits. \"Ferris Bueller's Day Off\" has a post-credit scene in which Ferris tells the audience that the film is over and they should go home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698415",
"title": "Credit (creative arts)",
"section": "Section::::Credit in the arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "In the creative arts, credits are an acknowledgement of those who participated in the production. They are often shown at the end of movies and on CD jackets. In film, video, television, theater, etc., \"credits\" means the list of actors and behind-the-scenes staff who contributed to the production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
56s0ym
|
Sources on pre-modern/medieval arms race
|
[
{
"answer": "You are entirely right that much internet information on weapons is fragmentary and contradictory. Part of this is because a lot of the information out there is by enthusiasts of different knowledge levels and there are a lot of old sources and bad scholarship mixed in with good sources and sound methods.\n\nBut part of this is because the entire history of weapons and armour is a vast topic and any summary will be fragmentary and contradictory by necessity. Weapons and armour do not exist in a vacuum - they are not simply better or worse than each other, but exist within a tactical, technological and economic context. Weapons do not necessarily fall out of favor because they are inferior - often it is because the manner of war changes. The form of weapons is not just dictated by how efficiently they are shaped for attacking - it is also dictated by how weapons are produced, and the technology available to produce them. We cannot understand weapons and armour without understanding how these factors shaped them. And this is hard, because it requires us to study military history, the history of technology, art history and social/economic history.\n\nAll of this is to say that the history of a few weapons or a specific type of armour in a single period is a complicated topic. The history of weapons and armour and the way they interacted throughout history is a massive topic, too big for a single scholar, since it requires too much background knowledge. This is really why historians specialize in general - acquiring in-depth knowledge of a period is itself a full time job - acquiring in-depth knowledge of thousands of years is not possible in a human lifetime. This is why my flair area covers one region and only 350 years.\n\nZeroing in on the period that I know about, the later Middle Ages in Western Europe, all the factors that I mention mean that the development of weapons and armour is more complex than better weapons driving the creation of better armour. Plate armour was partly, perhaps, a response to crossbows and other weapons, but it was also the product of an increasingly sophisticated steel making process in Medieval Europe - larger blooms from bloomeries could be turned into larger plates (allowing the forcing of large iron plates like breastplates), while waterwheels powered the bellows of the bloomeries and blast furnaces, the drip hammers that pounded the blooms into sheets, and the polishing wheels that polished the finished armour. Similarly the form of swords was dictated not just by their use in battle but also the state of metallurgy - the all-steel one-piece sword blades of the late middle ages could be formed into shapes that would not have been possible in the early Middle Ages. Similarly, we need to place armour and weapons in the context of how they were used - Italian knightly armour and weapons of the 15th century (armour that includes many overlapping and layered plates, a heavy lance, a lance rest mounted high on the breastplate) is well suited to heavy cavalry combat, but not well suited to fighting on foot. As soldiers change how they fight, their tools change to fit the task. Ultimately full plate armour wasn't simply rendered obsolete by stronger and stronger guns, but it stopped -making sense- on the late 16th century battlefield, for a number of reasons. I deal with this more in [this answer](_URL_0_). In general, the development of armour and weapons in the Middle Ages is not a two-sided arms race of more powerful weapons against stronger armour, but a multi-faceted story involving many causes.\n\nSo with that said there are some books to recommend that deal with the development of weapons and armour - heavier on the armour than the weapons.\n\n*The Knight and the Blast Furnace* by Alan Williams is a history of plate armour in medieval and early modern Europe, as told through its metallurgy. This book deals heavily with the technological developments that made plate armour possible, and looks at how it developed over time. Partially in response to different weapons (mostly firearms), partially as a result of changing industrial processes and economic/social forces. *The Sword and the Crucible* by the same author deals with swords. Currently I am reading it.\n\nTobias Capwell's *Armour of the English Knight 1400-1450* is a hyper-focused text (the first of two volumes covering only 15th century England) that shows just how the form of armour is developed to suit the purposes it is used for - the way that people fight.\n\nI should point out that all the books mentioned here are massive - folio-sized. Both The Sword and the Crucible and 'Armour of the English Knight' approach 400 pages or exceed it. The Knight and the Blast Furnace is 900 pages long. And there is still so much to be said about these topics.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13610",
"title": "Heraldry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the various arms attributed to the Nine Worthies and the Knights of the Round Table. These too are now regarded as a fanciful invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35504154",
"title": "Battle of the Nations (Medieval Tournament)",
"section": "Section::::Main provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "The heraldry, however, reflects the modern competition teams, rather than necessarily historically correct heraldic device that may have been worn by combatants in the medieval period. The first tournament was held at the Khotyn Fortress in Ukraine in 2010. The combatants depict armoured fighters from the 12th - 15th century. A number of different forms of combat take place, including some involving individuals, 5 a side or 21 on each side. Over 200 armoured men at arms take place in the competition, and in addition to melee/hand-to-hand weapons, archery is also featured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13630818",
"title": "Gelre Armorial",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The armorial was compiled before 1396 by one Claes Heinenzoon (or Heynen, fl. 1345−1414) who was a herald in the service of the Duke of Guelders and also the creator of the Beyeren Armorial. The book displays some 1,800 coats-of-arms from all over Europe, in color, and is one of the most important sources for medieval heraldry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3273332",
"title": "Grand Master of the Teutonic Order",
"section": "Section::::Before the Reformation.:Grand Masters of the Order, 1198–1525.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Several armorials of the 15th and early 16th century depict the coat of arms of the grand masters. These include the \"Chronica\" by Ulrich Richenthal, an armorial of St. Gallen kept in Nuremberg, an armorial of southwest Germany kept in Leipzig and the Miltenberg armorial. Conspicuously absent from these lists are three grand masters, Gerhards von Malberg (1241-1244) and his successors Heinrich von Hohenlohe (1244-1249) and Gunther von Wüllersleben (1250-1252), so that pre-modern historiographical tradition has a list of 34 grand masters for the time before 1525 (as opposed to 37 in modern accounts).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16363784",
"title": "Attributed arms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Attributed arms are Western European coats of arms given retrospectively to persons real or fictitious who died before the start of the age of heraldry in the latter half of the 12th century. Arms were assigned to the knights of the Round Table, and then to biblical figures, to Roman and Greek heroes, and to kings and popes who had not historically borne arms (Pastoreau 1997a, 258). Each author could attribute different arms for the same person, but the arms for major figures soon became fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16363784",
"title": "Attributed arms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Notable arms attributed to biblical figures include the arms of Jesus based on the instruments of the Passion, and the shield of the Trinity. Medieval literature attributed coats of arms to the Nine Worthies, including Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and King Arthur. Arms were given to many kings predating heraldry, including Edward the Confessor and William I of England. These attributed arms were sometimes used in practice as quarterings in the arms of their descendants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2943150",
"title": "Roll of arms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "\"Siebmachers Wappenbuch\" of 1605 was an early instance of a printed armorial. Medieval armorials usually include a few hundred coats of arms, in the late medieval period sometimes up to some 2,000. In the early modern period, the larger armorials develop into encyclopedic projects, with the \"Armorial général de France\" (1696), commissioned by Louis XIV of France, listing more than 125,000 coats of arms. In the modern period, the tradition develops into projects of heraldic dictionaries edited in multiple volumes, such as the \"Dictionary of British Arms\" in four volumes (1926–2009), or \"J. Siebmacher's großes Wappenbuch\" in seven volumes (1854–1967).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36rom5
|
If light has properties of waves, would it be possible to phase-cancel two laser beams? If yes, what would happen? If no, why not?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. This is called interference and is a property of all waves. The prime apparatus that demonstrates laser beam interference is a Michelson interferometer. Basically, a laser beam is split into two different laser beams (so that they are coherent because significant interference requires coherence) which travel along different paths and then using mirrors are recombined and then hit a camera or a screen. One of the paths is a different length or through a different material so that one of the laser beams acquires a phase lag. On the screen, you get a series of dark and light rings (called an interference pattern). The dark rings are where the two laser beams are out of phase and cancel each other (called destructive interference). However, energy is not destroyed. Rather, energy is redirected to the areas with constructive interference (the bright rings). \n\nAnother approach is the double-slit setup. You send a single laser beam through two slits, which turns it into two coherent laser beams. These laser beams interfere, producing a pattern of light and dark bars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! But if you're wondering if you could cancel out the two beams entirely, the answer is generally no. In practice, you'll never actually achieve a perfect plane wave, like you see in textbooks. There are always effects due to diffraction etc. that mean you cannot get a perfect plane wave, so that when you do try to do a phase-cancelling you'll cancel it in some places, but end up increasing the amplitude of the light somewhere else.\n\nNature has a nasty habit of always finding a way to balance the books.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the time, phase cancellation of light is something that you're so used to that you don't notice it. The phase cancellation of light is a fundamental part of quantum electrodynamics, which is a theory that explains most of the things that happen to us on a day-to-day basis.\n\nThe most familiar 'special' application of phase cancellation of laser beams is probably holography. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44017873",
"title": "Negative energy",
"section": "Section::::Quantum field effects.:Squeezed light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "It is possible to arrange multiple beams of laser light such that destructive quantum interference suppresses the vacuum fluctuations. Such a squeezed vacuum state involves negative energy. The repetitive waveform of light leads to alternating regions of positive and negative energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "625318",
"title": "Photorefractive effect",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "For example, in the case of a hologram, illuminating the grating with just the reference beam causes the reconstruction of the original signal beam. When two coherent laser beams (usually obtained by splitting a laser beam by the use of a beamsplitter into two, and then suitably redirecting by mirrors) cross inside a photorefractive crystal, the resultant refractive index grating diffracts the laser beams. As a result, one beam gains energy and becomes more intense at the expense of light intensity reduction of the other. This phenomenon is an example of two-wave mixing. In this configuration, Bragg diffraction condition is automatically satisfied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112",
"title": "Wave interference",
"section": "Section::::Optical interference.:Light source requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "A laser beam generally approximates much more closely to a monochromatic source, and it is much more straightforward to generate interference fringes using a laser. The ease with which interference fringes can be observed with a laser beam can sometimes cause problems in that stray reflections may give spurious interference fringes which can result in errors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4432469",
"title": "Interference lithography",
"section": "Section::::Coherence requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "For interference lithography to be successful, coherence requirements must be met. First, a spatially coherent light source must be used. This is effectively a point light source in combination with a collimating lens. A laser or synchrotron beam are also often used directly without additional collimation. The spatial coherence guarantees a uniform wavefront prior to beam splitting. Second, it is preferred to use a monochromatic or temporally coherent light source. This is readily achieved with a laser but broadband sources would require a filter. The monochromatic requirement can be lifted if a diffraction grating is used as a beam splitter, since different wavelengths would diffract into different angles but eventually recombine anyway. Even in this case, spatial coherence and normal incidence would still be required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17556",
"title": "Laser",
"section": "Section::::Laser physics.:Gain medium and cavity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "If the gain (amplification) in the medium is larger than the resonator losses, then the power of the recirculating light can rise exponentially. But each stimulated emission event returns an atom from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the gain of the medium. With increasing beam power the net gain (gain minus loss) reduces to unity and the gain medium is said to be saturated. In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the applied pump power is too small, the gain will never be sufficient to overcome the cavity losses, and laser light will not be produced. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the \"lasing threshold\". The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons in a spatial mode supported by the resonator will pass more than once through the medium and receive substantial amplification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227877",
"title": "Mode-locking",
"section": "Section::::Mode-locking theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "If instead of oscillating independently, each mode operates with a fixed phase between it and the other modes, the laser output behaves quite differently. Instead of a random or constant output intensity, the modes of the laser will periodically all constructively interfere with one another, producing an intense burst or pulse of light. Such a laser is said to be 'mode-locked' or 'phase-locked'. These pulses occur separated in time by , where \"τ\" is the time taken for the light to make exactly one round trip of the laser cavity. This time corresponds to a frequency exactly equal to the mode spacing of the laser, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21723",
"title": "Nonlinear optics",
"section": "Section::::Example uses.:Optical phase conjugation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "It is possible, using nonlinear optical processes, to exactly reverse the propagation direction and phase variation of a beam of light. The reversed beam is called a \"conjugate\" beam, and thus the technique is known as optical phase conjugation (also called \"time reversal\", \"wavefront reversal\" and is significantly different from \"retroreflection\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2khy1d
|
Do all terrestrial bodies which experience a planetary wobble and orbit a star have four seasons?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Earth's wobble (precession of the equinoxes) doesn't cause the seasons. The seasons are due to the axial tilt and the orbit of the Sun.\n\n\"Seasons\" isn't an astronomical term. Any planet whose axis of rotation is tilted with respect to its orbital plane will have solstices and equinoxes. If you wanted to, you could define four seasons between those solstices and equinoxes. That's not quite the same thing as \"the four seasons we experience\", though, since the seasons (in terms of weather and biosphere) don't have to follow the equinoxes and solstices. Also, a planet with only very slight axial tilt will have only very slight changes in insolation throughout the year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is an illustration of how the seasons are determined by the Earth's tilt. In the summer (for the man in the northern hemisphere), the sun is much higher in the sky, days are longer, and thus the temperature is generally warmer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18412841",
"title": "Stability of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Overview and challenges.:Predictability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The planets' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, in such a way that the whole Solar System possesses a Lyapunov time in the range of 2–230 million years. In all cases this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer become uncertain), but in some cases the orbits themselves may change dramatically. Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity, with some planets' orbits becoming significantly more—or less—elliptical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490148",
"title": "Perturbation (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Periodic nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The orbits of many of the minor bodies of the Solar System, such as comets, are often heavily perturbed, particularly by the gravitational fields of the gas giants. While many of these perturbations are periodic, others are not, and these in particular may represent aspects of chaotic motion. For example, in April 1996, Jupiter's gravitational influence caused the period of Comet Hale–Bopp's orbit to decrease from 4,206 to 2,380 years, a change that will not revert on any periodic basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48908",
"title": "Apparent retrograde motion",
"section": "Section::::Apparent motion.:From Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The more distant planets retrograde more frequently, as they do not move as much in their orbits while Earth completes an orbit itself. The center of the retrograde motion occurs when the body is exactly opposite the sun, and therefore high in the ecliptic at local midnight. The retrogradation of a hypothetical extremely distant (and nearly non-moving) planet would take place during a half-year, with the planet's apparent yearly motion being reduced to a parallax ellipse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072751",
"title": "Circumstellar habitable zone",
"section": "Section::::Determination.:Extrasolar extrapolation.:Other considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "A planetary object that orbits a star with high orbital eccentricity may spend only some of its year in the CHZ and experience a large variation in temperature and atmospheric pressure. This would result in dramatic seasonal phase shifts where liquid water may exist only intermittently. It is possible that subsurface habitats could be insulated from such changes and that extremophiles on or near the surface might survive through adaptions such as hibernation (cryptobiosis) and/or hyperthermostability. Tardigrades, for example, can survive in a dehydrated state temperatures between and . Life on a planetary object orbiting outside CHZ might hibernate on the cold side as the planet approaches the apastron where the planet is coolest and become active on approach to the periastron when the planet is sufficiently warm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:Long-term stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "In all cases this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer become uncertain), but in some cases the orbits themselves may change dramatically. Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity, with some planets' orbits becoming significantly more—or less—elliptical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "171867",
"title": "Heraclides Ponticus",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Like the Pythagoreans Hicetas and Ecphantus, Heraclides proposed that the apparent daily motion of the stars was created by the rotation of the Earth on its axis once a day. This view contradicted the accepted Aristotelian model of the universe, which said that the Earth was fixed and that the stars and planets in their respective spheres might also be fixed. Simplicius says that Heraclides proposed that the irregular movements of the planets can be explained if the Earth moves while the Sun stays still.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18478320",
"title": "Future of an expanding universe",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Degenerate Era.:Planets fall or are flung from orbits by a close encounter with another star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Over time, the orbits of planets will decay due to gravitational radiation, or planets will be ejected from their local systems by gravitational perturbations caused by encounters with another stellar remnant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rlp1l
|
why do japanese swords only have one edge?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two advantages of a single edge is that with a thicker back the greater the stiffness than a comparable double-edged sword, which in turn greatly improves the blade's thrusting capability.\n\nAlso with a thick and flat back edge it is better for defending a strike from your enemy. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Japanese swordfighting styles are suited to slashing with a sharp, curved edge to negate the style of armour (or non-armor) popular at the time. European, medieval styled swords are double edged with a point to infiltrate the heavy, plated armour that was used. Thick armour, but many joints and separations can be penetrated by a point and heavier, \"blunt\" strikes.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The katana is a slashing weapon, curved to cut through the layered armour of warriors wore. The edge is a hard steel, meant to retain it's edge and hold up to wear and tear. The spine of the blade is a softer steel to lend it flexibility, again to improve the durability of the blade. This is why you see the temper line (hamon) as the two metals of the blade meet. Having only one edge allows the blade to be curved as it is to improve a dragging slash technique when cutting, eg when cutting the you both swing and pull the blade back with your wrists. blocking is done mostly with the flat of the blade because edge on edge contact with serious strikes results in chipping and ruts along the cutting edge.\n\nInterestingly this curve is achieved when the blade is cooled during forging and the spine steel shrinks, pulling the bonded edge with it. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "By having only one cutting edge, it means you can leave the opposite edge, the dull side, thicker. This adds both to mechanical strength of the blade, as well as increased weight, allowing for more momentum during a slashing motion. Here's an image of the [cross-section](_URL_0_) of the blades.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Katanas were designed primarily as slashing weapons. It turns out that curved blades with a wedge-shaped cross section work really well for that. The stereotypical Western sword was more of a multipurpose weapon that could be used for stabbing or slashing in a variety of ways--the arms manuals of the medieval period show a great diversity of techniques and fighting styles. There are also numerous Western sword types that are more similar to the katana in their design, such as cavalry sabers, cutlasses, falchions and (adding in the Middle East) scimitars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's already been said, but the difference in the metals (blade and spine) provides greater durability. Also, the curvature of the blade means it can slice things with greater ease. They use to rate how well a blade was made by how many prisoners it could cut through in a single blow. The curvature also allows an easier extension of the arm. You can still stab with the katana, but it's meant for slicing. A katana could hold up rather well to the medieval armor, so long as they went for weak points or a straight stab. You have to remember, different areas had different ways of fighting. You may protect yourself one way for one occasion, but another attack from someone else foreign could prove fatal. Most swordplay is motion/circular based. The curve helps with this as after the initial cut, there is still more blade going along the same path the cut deeper. European swords being double edged gave them the advantage that if one side dulled the other was still good to use. You could use most katanas and double bladed swords with one hand, but a lot used both hands for greater control. Katanas are a very unique sword and highly regarded as one of the best created. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For much the same reason as scimitars (Western) and falchions (Middle Eastern). It adds more mass to the sword whilst allowing a thin profile, thus making a slash far more effective. \nDoesn't matter how sharp a sword is. If it has no mass it won't penetrate very far. Think a razor. Swing it hard at someone, you might give a nasty cut, but it won't actually be very deep. You could actually cut deeper with a steel-ruler. All down to mass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7528817",
"title": "Japanese swordsmithing",
"section": "Section::::Traditional methods.:Construction.:Geometry (shape and form).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Over time, however, the curved single-edged sword became so dominant a style in Japan that \"tou\" and \"ken\" came to be used interchangeably to refer to swords in Japan and by others to refer to Japanese swords. For example, the Japanese typically refer to Japanese swords as 日本刀 \"nihontō\" (\"Japanese \"tou\"\" i.e. \"Japanese (single-edged) blade\"), while the character \"ken\" 剣 is used in such terms as kendo and kenjutsu. Modern formal usage often uses both characters in referring to a collection of swords, for example, in naming the Japanese Sword Museum 日本美術刀剣博物館.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519666",
"title": "Japanese kitchen knife",
"section": "Section::::Design and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 658,
"text": "Unlike western knives, Japanese knives are often only single ground, meaning that they are sharpened so that only one side holds the cutting edge. As shown in the image, some Japanese knives are angled from both sides, while others are angled only from one side with the other side of the blade being flat. It was traditionally believed that a single-angled blade cuts better and makes cleaner cuts, though requiring more skill to use than a blade with a double-beveled edge. Generally, the right-hand side of the blade is angled, as most people use the knife with their right hand. Left-handed models are rare and must be specially ordered and custom made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16860",
"title": "Japanese sword",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Carrying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Japanese swords were carried in several different ways, varying throughout Japanese history. The style most commonly seen in \"samurai\" movies is called \"buke-zukuri\", with the katana (and \"wakizashi\", if also present) carried edge up, with the sheath thrust through the \"obi\" (sash).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16860",
"title": "Japanese sword",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1584,
"text": "The legitimate Japanese sword is made from Japanese steel \"Tamahagane\". The most common lamination method the Japanese sword blade is formed from is a combination of two different steels: a harder outer jacket of steel wrapped around a softer inner core of steel. This creates a blade which has a hard, razor sharp cutting edge with the ability to absorb shock in a way which reduces the possibility of the blade breaking when used in combat. The \"hadagane\", for the outer skin of the blade, is produced by heating a block of raw steel, which is then hammered out into a bar, and the flexible back portion. This is then cooled and broken up into smaller blocks which are checked for further impurities and then reassembled and reforged. During this process the billet of steel is heated and hammered, split and folded back upon itself many times and re-welded to create a complex structure of many thousands of layers. Each different steel is folded differently, in order to provide the necessary strength and flexibility to the different steels. The precise way in which the steel is folded, hammered and re-welded determines the distinctive grain pattern of the blade, the \"jihada\", (also called \"jigane\" when referring to the actual surface of the steel blade) a feature which is indicative of the period, place of manufacture and actual maker of the blade. The practice of folding also ensures a somewhat more homogeneous product, with the carbon in the steel being evenly distributed and the steel having no voids that could lead to fractures and failure of the blade in combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "523808",
"title": "Kodachi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A , literally translating into \"small or short \"tachi\" (sword)\", is one of the traditionally made Japanese swords (\"nihontō\") used by the samurai class of feudal Japan. Kodachi are from the early Kamakura period (1185–1333) and are in the shape of a tachi. Kodachi are mounted in tachi style but with a length of less than 60 cm. They are often confused with wakizashi, due to their length and handling techniques. However, their construction is what sets the two apart, as kodachi are a set length while wakizashi are forged to complement the wielder's height or the length of their katana. As a result, the kodachi was too short to be called a sword properly but was also too long to be considered a dagger, thus it is widely considered a primary short sword, unlike the tantō or the Wakizashi which would act as a secondary weapon that was used alongside a longer blade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "16860",
"title": "Japanese sword",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Japanese swords were often forged with different profiles, different blade thicknesses, and varying amounts of grind. \"Wakizashi\", for instance, were not simply scaled-down versions of \"katana\"; they were often forged in \"hira-zukuri\" or other such forms which were very rare on other swords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "703444",
"title": "Swordsmanship",
"section": "Section::::Asian swordsmanship.:Japanese.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The sword has long held a significance in Japanese culture from the reverence and care that the samurai placed in their weapons. The earliest swords in Japan were straight, based on early Chinese \"jian\". Curved blades became more common at the end of the 8th century, with the importation of the curved forging techniques of that time. The shape was more efficient when fighting from horseback. Japanese swordsmanship is primarily two-handed wherein the front hand pushes down and the back hand pulls up while delivering a basic vertical cut. The samurai often carried two swords, the longer \"katana\" and the shorter \"wakizashi\", and these were normally wielded individually, though use of both as a pair did occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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] | null |
3zcy8r
|
how does professional poker work?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am not a professional poker player, but I do know three pros personally. They are not big name pros, but they do earn a modest living ((think mid-five figures) playing poker.\n\nOne of them got his start by making the final table of a large multi-table tournament at a casino with a smallish ($200 or so) entry fee. He then ran that 25k up quickly and has settled into a routine playing $2-$5 hold'em, 2-5 Pot Limit Omaha, and slightly larger games when they are available at his home casino.\n\nThe other one saved his money working an 8-5 job until he had a decent amount of money to make a go at it (he said it was $10,000) and then ran that money up playing similar limits live and online.\n\nThey also invest their poker profits in other players that they know are above average.\n\nYou mention elimination in your question. I think you may be referring to tournament poker, which is only one of many, many forms of poker. Tournament poker is definitely one way to make money when playing poker professionally, but the pros that I am aware of make most of their money playing \"cash\" or \"ring\" games where you sit at a table with set limits on starting cash (typically at least 100 times the small and big blinds) and play against other players. So a 2-5 table might have a $200 minimum requirement and a $500 maximum, though many casinos do raise the maximum requirement to as much as twice that.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I will answer your questions in reverse order.\n\n > How can it be considered a sport?\n\nProfessional poker players are always calculating the chances of the card they ned coming up in the hand. They also have to calculate the return on their investment (bet). Ok, grranted, it ain't a physical sport, but it is as much a mental sport as baseball or football. \n\n > How does elimination work? \n\nIn tourneyment play, each player is allowed a certain \"buy-in.\" That is how much the value of their chips are at the start of the tourneyment. When all of a player's chips are lost in a tourneyment the player is eliminated. The saying, \"A chip and a chair is all it takes\" has a lot of meaning to the pros. \n\n > Do they have to bet with their own money?\n\nMost do. Some don't. Some of the pros will need corporate sponsorship. Some will win their way in and not have to play with their own money. Some elite touneyments may require $1M buy-in. If you ain't got that kind of money, but you got a good history, you may find a sponsor to put up that money for you. Then if the sponsored player wins, he may have to pay the sponsor say half of the winnings. The other way to get in without your own money is to win a few lesser tourneyments and with a win, you get to play in a higher stakes touneyment. There was a guy a few years ago who entered in a free play tourney and kept winning until he won the World Series of Poker with never having invested a cent of his own money. \n\n\n > How does a person become involved in professional poker?\n\nSame as you do in any other career field. Give up any other source of income and make your living playing poker. \n\nJust so you know, I played Hold 'em and I got good. Not good enough to win titles, but enough to know that I would never make it past the minor leagues and be able to go pro. If you like doing math problems for fun, you may be able to be a poker pro. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23729097",
"title": "Poker strategy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Poker is a popular card game that combines elements of chance and strategy. There are various styles of poker, all of which share an objective of presenting the least probable or highest-scoring hand. A poker hand is usually a configuration of five cards depending on the variant, either held entirely by a player or drawn partly from a number of shared, community cards. Players bet on their hands in a number of rounds as cards are drawn, employing various mathematical and intuitive strategies in an attempt to better opponents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5360",
"title": "Card game",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Casino or gambling card games.:Poker games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Poker is a family of gambling games in which players bet into a pool, called the pot, value of which changes as the game progresses that the value of the hand they carry will beat all others according to the ranking system. Variants largely differ on how cards are dealt and the methods by which players can improve a hand. For many reasons, including its age and its popularity among Western militaries, it is one of the most universally known card games in existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23014",
"title": "Poker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 451,
"text": "Poker is a family of card games that combines gambling, strategy, and skill. All poker variants involve betting as an intrinsic part of play, and determine the winner of each hand according to the combinations of players' cards, at least some of which remain hidden until the end of the hand. Poker games vary in the number of cards dealt, the number of shared or \"community\" cards, the number of cards that remain hidden, and the betting procedures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6166516",
"title": "Poker run",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "A poker run is an organized event in which participants, usually using motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles, boats, snowmobiles, horses, on foot or other means of transportation, must visit five to seven checkpoints, drawing a playing card at each one. The object is to have the best poker hand at the end of the run. Having the best hand and winning is purely a matter of chance. The event has a time limit, however the individual participants are not timed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "75691",
"title": "Betting in poker",
"section": "Section::::Table stakes rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "All casinos and most home games play poker by what are called table stakes rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and plays that deal with that stake. A player may not remove money from the table or add money from their pocket during the play of a hand. In essence, table stakes rules creates a maximum and a minimum buy-in amount for cash game poker as well as rules for adding and removing the stake from play. A player also may not take a portion of their money or stake off the table, unless they opt to leave the game and remove their entire stake from play. Players are not allowed to hide or misrepresent the amount of their stake from other players and must truthfully disclose the amount when asked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1300927",
"title": "Texas hold 'em starting hands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 597,
"text": "In the poker game of Texas hold 'em, a starting hand consists of two \"hole cards\", which belong solely to the player and remain hidden from the other players. Five community cards are also dealt into play. Betting begins before any of the community cards are exposed, and continues throughout the hand. The player's \"playing hand\", which will be compared against that of each competing player, is the best 5-card poker hand available from his two hole cards and the five community cards. Unless otherwise specified, here the term \"hand\" applies to the player's two hole cards, or \"starting hand\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366663",
"title": "Body language",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Detecting deceit.:Poker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The game of poker involves not only an understanding of probability, but also the competence of reading and analyzing the body language of the opponents. A key component of poker is to be able to \"cheat\" the opponents. To spot these cheats, players must have the ability to spot the individual \"ticks\" of their opponents. Players also have to look out for signs that an opponent is doing well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
6iavqm
|
Is there a difference between the chubby and skinny Buddha?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, you may be interested in some earlier threads on this question. See this answer by /u/Notamacropus, and follow the links for more\n\n* [Given that Siddhartha was likely very thin, when and why did depictions of the Buddha come to be fat?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Similar to \"what race was Jesus,\" Buddha has different versions depending on what country you're in or what time period. Also, while there is one, original Buddha, there are also many other Buddhas, people who have achieved enlightenment and become immortalized in statue form.\n\nIn Japan, there are examples of monks who would starve themselves in a self-mummification ritual and then be built into a statue. I saw an example of this at the Tokyo National Museum and I *thought* I had taken a picture of it but I can't find it, so I think it's in the \"no photo\" gallery. I *believe* it was [this statue here](_URL_8_), but I can't be 100% sure. [Here is an image](_URL_15_) from Discover magazine of a similar statue that originated in China, [with a brief story](_URL_14_) on the history of such practices.\n\nI've got a few different photos of Japanese Buddhas to share. [This Buddha](_URL_18_) is from 8^th century Nara Japan. Nara was based in the southwest of Honshu and their Buddhas share many common traits with Korean and Chinese examples. [This multi-armed Buddha](_URL_9_) is from the 14^th century Nanbokucho period, also from the southwest region. You can compare these Buddhas to [this one from Seokguram, Gyeongju Korea](_URL_11_) and notice that they share a lot of similarities - the almond shaped eyes with a tiny slit, the fairly narrow nose (although the Nara Buddha has a bit wider and flatter nose), the same hair style (even on the Nanbochuko Buddha, the little heads above the main one share the hair). [This Korean statue](_URL_3_) from the 8th century Silla dynasty again shows similar features - almond eyes, hair, and a wide nose, ala Nara Buddha - and [this Buddha statue](_URL_0_) from the 14^th century Goryeo dynasty shows a more Chinese influence - rounded face, different hairstyle. It should be noted that the Silla kingdom was based in Gyeongju, a stones throw from the southeast coast of Korea. Also, the Silla and Paekche kingdoms fought with the Paekche losing and many of the Paekche upper-class fled to Japan. Furthermore, China, Japan, and Korea all traded across the southern Korean coast with Korea frequently acting as an intermediary, so it is no surprise that the Buddhas are similar. Goryeo, on the other hand, encompassed all of modern South Korea and most of North Korea and they based their capital in the Seoul region. They had more contact with the Chinese at that point. These last two statues I mentioned were both stolen from Tsushima Island Japan a few years ago by Korean patriots/art thieves/opportunists and brought back to Korea. It's been claimed that Japan plundered them and a court recently ruled that the standing Buddha must be returned to Japan since no one in Korea was claiming it, but a temple in Seosan claimed the seated Buddha. Earlier this year the court ruled that that statue would stay in Korea, but it's been going through the legal system with a hearing before the Supreme Court just this March.\n\n[Here is a photo of the Buddha at Bongeunsa Temple](_URL_7_) in Seoul. I know I've got photos of this one, I've been here dozens of times but I just can't seem to find any. [Here's a funny commercial regarding this statue and the origins of pizza.](_URL_13_) Anyway, note the large ears on this guy. [Here is a Buddha statue at Seoraksan National Park](_URL_10_) - again, note the giant ears. This one also has his eyes slightly open, at least more-so than any of the others I've shown have had. This particular Buddha was built in the 90's, [being finished in 1997](_URL_2_). [A statue at Beobjusa Temple](_URL_5_) in Chungcheongbuk-do South Korea is the tallest standing bronze Buddha in the world. Again, note his large ears. This statue was finished in 1989. [At Donghwasa temple in Daegu](_URL_17_), a 30 meter tall Buddha was finished in 1992 and his ears make Dumbo's look tiny. [At Mangbolsa temple in Gyeongsangbuk-do](_URL_19_), you can see two Buddhas with big ears. They also have [the Buddha I think you're talking about](_URL_1_).\n\nThis statue represents Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. It was said that he exercised and starved himself in an effort to overcome the minds desires and that when he finally sat down beneath a tree to meditate, he was so emaciated that this was what he looked like. These statues are supposed to show the dangers of being too extreme and to show that transformation is possible.\n\nThere are a couple of different chubby or laughing buddhas. [Here is one from Jogye Temple](_URL_6_) in downtown Seoul. Then there's [Budai](_URL_12_) who was not actually a Buddha, but the incarnation of Maitreya, a future Buddha.\n\nSo to sum up, there are many different Buddhas - there is the original Buddha who founded the religion and then anyone else who has achieved enlightenment. Depending on the time and place, each Buddha can be depicted differently. While I made a point of noting that Korean Buddhas have large ears, it should be pointed out many other countries Buddhas have them too. However, Korean Buddhas tend to have all around large ears whereas other versions tend to only have elongated lobes. You can also see the similarities between Buddhas in regions that share a common Buddhist history, i.e. China, Korea, and Japan. So to answer your main question, you're seeing two different Buddhas from specific points in their histories. Budai is only one form of Maitreya - [he could look like this Chinese carved Budai](_URL_4_) or [like this Korean made Maitreya](_URL_16_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Arts and culture.:Religion.:Buddhism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- The historical Buddha was not obese. The \"chubby Buddha\" or \"laughing Buddha\" is a 10th-century Chinese folk hero by the name of Budai. In Chinese Buddhist culture, Budai came to be revered as an incarnation of Maitreya, the Bodhisattva who will become a Buddha to restore Buddhism after the teachings of the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, have been forgotten.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "36824535",
"title": "Thina",
"section": "",
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"end_character": 490,
"text": "Thīna (Sanskrit, Pāli: \"थीन thīna\") is a Buddhist term that is translated as \"sloth\". \"Thīna\" is defined as sluggishness or dullness of mind, characterized by a lack of driving power. In the Theravada tradition, \"thīna\" is said to occur in conjunction with middha (\"torpor\"), which is defined as a morbid state that is characterized by unwieldiness, lack of energy, and opposition to wholesome activity. The two mental factors in conjunction are expressed as thīna-middha (\"sloth-torpor\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3107725",
"title": "Churel",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The true form of a Churel is described as extremely ugly with saggy breasts, a black tongue, and thick rough lips although sometimes she is reported to have no mouth at all. She may have a pot belly, claw-like hands, and scruffy, long pubic-like hair. They are also described to have pig faces with large fangs or human-like faces with sharp tusks and long, wild hair. She is sometimes described as having a white front and a black back but she invariably has her feet turned backward and sometimes, she roams naked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "983690",
"title": "Dīpankara Buddha",
"section": "Section::::Iconography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Dīpankara is generally represented as a sitting Buddha, but his depictions as a standing Buddha are common in China, Thailand, and Nepal; with the right hand he generally forms a protection mudra (\"abhaya mudra\"), and often he forms it with both hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174976",
"title": "Buddhahood",
"section": "Section::::Nature of the Buddha.:Buddha as a supreme human.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In the Pāli Canon, Gautama Buddha is known as being a \"teacher of the gods and humans\", superior to both the gods and humans in the sense of having nirvana or the greatest bliss, whereas the devas, or gods, are still subject to anger, fear and sorrow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1889306",
"title": "Buddha Jumps Over the Wall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Buddha Jumps Over the Wall, also known as Buddha's Temptation (), is a variety of shark fin soup in Fujian cuisine. Since its creation during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the dish has been regarded as a Chinese delicacy known for its rich taste, and special manner of cooking. The dish's name is an allusion to the dish's ability to entice the vegetarian monks from their temples to partake in the meat-based dish. It is high in protein and calcium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5865836",
"title": "Chin",
"section": "Section::::Cleft chin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The terms cleft chin, chin cleft, dimple chin, or chin dimple, refer to a dimple on the chin. It is a Y-shaped fissure on the chin with an underlying bony peculiarity. Specifically, the chin fissure follows the fissure in the lower jaw bone that resulted from the incomplete fusion of the left and right halves of the jaw bone, or muscle, during the embryonal and fetal development. For other individuals, it can develop over time, often because one half of the jaw is longer than the other, leading to facial asymmetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d4qwkd
|
how do completely torn ligaments such as atfl heal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fairly complicated, the simple answer is that cells communicate. A cell can tell other cells where is it, what type of cell it is, and if it’s in some kind of “distress”. There is also a 3 step response when tissue tears, and the first step is basically inflammation. In this step, a ton of different cell types (tissue, stem, blood, immune, etc.) rush to the site of trauma and they all have different jobs. This is where a lot of communicating occurs, and your body is essentially trying to figure out what happened and how it can best be fixed.\n\n\nCells that make up what’s left of the ligament will communicate, and with the help of other cell types, will slowly undergo mitosis and other cellular processes to repair the ligament.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "306900",
"title": "Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction, also known as Tommy John surgery (TJS), is a surgical graft procedure where the ulnar collateral ligament in the medial elbow is replaced with either a tendon from elsewhere in the patient's body, or with one from a dead donor. The procedure is common among collegiate and professional athletes in several sports, particularly in baseball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37576463",
"title": "Ligament (bivalve)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "The ligament is an uncalcified elastic structure comprised in its most minimal state of two layers: a lamellar layer and a fibrous layer. The lamellar layer consists entirely of organic material (a protein and collagen matrix), is generally brown in color, and is elastic in response to both compressional and tensional stresses. The fibrous layer is made of aragonite fibers and organic material, is lighter in color and often iridescent, and is elastic only under compressional stress. The protein responsible for the elasticity of the ligament is abductin, which has enormous elastic resiliency: this resiliency is what causes the valves of the bivalve mollusk to open when the adductor muscles relax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596320",
"title": "Equine anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Ligaments and tendons.:Ligaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Ligaments attach bone to bone or bone to tendon, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34609402",
"title": "Ulnar collateral ligament injury of the elbow",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "A slow and chronic deterioration of the ulnar collateral ligament can be due to repetitive stress acting on the ulna. At first, pain can be bearable and can worsen to an extent where it can terminate an athlete’s career. The repetitive stress placed on the ulna causes micro tears in the ligament resulting in the loss of structural integrity over time. The acute rupture is less common compared to the slow deterioration injury. The acute rupture occurs in collisions when the elbow is in flexion such as that in a wrestling match or a tackle in football. The ulnar collateral ligament distributes over fifty percent of the medial support of the elbow. This can result in an ulnar collateral ligament injury or a dislocated elbow causing severe damage to the elbow and the radioulnar joints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12493167",
"title": "Skeletal system of the horse",
"section": "Section::::Ligaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Ligaments attach bone to bone, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1263226",
"title": "Rotator cuff tear",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Repair of a complete, full-thickness tear involves tissue suture. The method currently in favor is to place an anchor in the bone at the natural attachment site, with resuture of torn tendon to the anchor. If tissue quality is poor, mesh (collagen, Artelon, or other degradable material) may be used to reinforce the repair. Repair can be performed through an open incision, again requiring detachment of a portion of the deltoid, while a mini-open technique approaches the tear through a deltoid-splitting approach. The latter may cause less injury to muscle and produce better results. Contemporary techniques now use an all arthroscopic approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5877449",
"title": "Coracoacromial ligament",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The ligament is sometimes described as consisting of two marginal bands and a thinner intervening portion, the two bands being attached respectively to the apex and the base of the coracoid process, and joining together at the acromion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mp006
|
How do you continue studying history after graduation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Keep up with the big journals, and go to some of the big conferences. You'll stay up-to-date with the most recent research, and get to keep interacting with people who hold a similar academic interest. \n\nOnce you have your JD, there's always the option of (potentially) writing academically on classical law on the side. Additionally, if you have the option for electives, take some on ancient law if they're available to you.\n\nHope this helps a little. Happy reading!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few years ago in Seattle there was an unaccredited language academy that taught Latin and Greek for only a couple of hundred a course, instead of the $4gs the UW charged. It was really more like a book club than anything else. I don't know if it's still operating. You might look for something like that. And do try to get on the mailing list of your local Classics department. Talks are usually open to anyone who wants to attend. Another option: there is a local pastor in my town who occasionally sits in on ancient Christianity classes with one of my professors. Not all professors will be cool with that, but it can't hurt to ask if something runs that you're interested in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3402144",
"title": "Biomedical scientist",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "Initially, graduate students usually rotate through the laboratories of several faculty researchers, after which the student commits to joining a particular laboratory for the remainder of his or her education. The remaining time is spent conducting original research under the direction of the principal investigator to complete and publish a dissertation. Unlike undergraduate and professional schools, there is no set time period for graduate education. Students graduate once a thesis project of significant scope to justify the writing of their dissertation has been completed, a point that is determined by the student's principal investigator as well as his or her faculty advisory committee. The average time to graduation can vary between institutions, but most programs average around 5–6 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31417835",
"title": "Vineland High School",
"section": "Section::::Curriculum.:Requirements for graduation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Courses required to be taken in order to graduate are four years of English, three years of mathematics, two years of United States history, one year of world history/geography; three years of science; one year of fine, practical and/or performing arts, 1/2 year of digital technology, 1/2 year of financial literacy, one year of a business, life science, or vocational course, two years of a World Language, and four years of physical education/health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43232619",
"title": "Yenching Academy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Competition.:Programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Upon graduation, graduates will receive one of the following degrees: Master of Law (Politics & International Relations, Law & Society); Master of Economics (Economics & Management); Master of History (History & Archaeology); Master of Literature (Literature and Culture); or Master of Philosophy in China Studies (Philosophy & Religion)The first cohort of scholars have taken a range of paths. Roughly 30% continued to Ph.D. level studies at esteemed universities, while others are employed by Goldman Sachs, McKinsey & Company, Google, J.P. Morgan & Co., the Associated Press, the Boston Consulting Group, General Electric, HNA Group, NEO blockchain, Bank of Korea, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce, and more. All Yenching Scholars write a Master's thesis under the guidance of an adviser and defend it orally before an academic committee. In addition to a fully funded scholarship, scholars also receive a monthly stipend of $500 and round-trip airfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11109213",
"title": "Oakcrest School",
"section": "Section::::Academics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "To graduate, all students complete four years each of Upper School-level English, Mathematics, Science, and History and three years of a single foreign language. Students are also required to take Music and Arts Appreciation, Logic and Rhetoric, three years of Theology, one year of Philosophy and four semesters of Physical Education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12635006",
"title": "Shulamith School for Girls",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Post graduation, students have pursued professional careers in law, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, business, and others. Graduates pursued their advanced education at some of the most recognized universities across the nation including Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, Princeton, Yale, New York University, Yeshiva University, SUNY colleges, CUNY colleges, etc. Most graduates spend a year studying in Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4318006",
"title": "Vineland Senior High School South",
"section": "Section::::Curriculum.:Requirements for Graduation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Courses required to be taken in order to graduate are 4 years of English, 3 years of mathematics, 2 years of United States history, 1 year of world history/geography; 3 years of science; 1 year of fine, practical and/or performing arts, 1 year of digital technology, 1 year of business, life science, vocational course, 2 years of a World Language, 4 years of physical education/health, and 1/2 year of career exploration or development. All students must pass the State High School Proficiency Assessment called HSPA to graduate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47927044",
"title": "Catholic University of Croatia",
"section": "Section::::Academic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The first academic year began in 2010/2011 when 40 students enrolled in the first year of the study program of history. In October 2011, the University started its programs in psychology and sociology. First graduates of the undergraduate study program in history were promoted in 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cxfm3
|
Aside from the obvious (algebra, chess, etc.), how did Western science benefit from encounters with Islam and the Middle East during the Crusades?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know if you mean strictly science, but after encountering civilization that payed much attention to every-day life comfort and hygiene, westerners began equipping their homes with furniture. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my understanding that old idea of information transmitted through the Christian East has been rather debunked. Most of the things that the Islamic World transmitted to the West came through Spain, not Syria and Palestine. The eastern contacts were more important for economic reasons, moving goods into the Mediterranean that originated in the Far and Middle Easts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2106879",
"title": "Medicine in the medieval Islamic world",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Medieval Islam's receptiveness to new ideas and heritages helped it make major advances in medicine during this time, adding to earlier medical ideas and techniques, expanding the development of the health sciences and corresponding institutions, and advancing medical knowledge in areas such as surgery and understanding of the human body, although many Western scholars have not fully acknowledged its influence (independent of Roman and Greek influence) on the development of medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11453823",
"title": "Byzantine science",
"section": "Section::::Byzantine and Islamic science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "During the Middle Ages, there was frequently an exchange of works between Byzantine and Islamic science. The Byzantine Empire initially provided the medieval Islamic world with Ancient and early Medieval Greek texts on astronomy, mathematics and philosophy for translation into Arabic as the Byzantine Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region at the beginning of the Middle Ages. Later as the Caliphate and other medieval Islamic cultures became the leading centers of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as Gregory Choniades, who had visited the famous Maragheh observatory, translated books on Islamic astronomy, mathematics and science into Medieval Greek, including for example the works of Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Ibn Yunus, Al-Khazini (who was of Byzantine Greek descent but raised in a Persian culture), Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (such as the \"Zij-i Ilkhani\" and other Zij treatises) among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32946085",
"title": "Greek contributions to Islamic world",
"section": "Section::::Byzantine and Islamic science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "During the Middle Ages, there was frequently an exchange of works between Byzantine and Islamic science. The Byzantine Empire initially provided the medieval Islamic world with Ancient and early Medieval Greek texts on astronomy, mathematics and philosophy for translation into Arabic as the Byzantine Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region at the beginning of the Middle Ages. Later as the Caliphate and other medieval Islamic cultures became the leading centers of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as Gregory Choniades, who had visited the famous Maragheh observatory, translated books on Islamic astronomy, mathematics and science into Medieval Greek, including for example the works of Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Ibn Yunus, Al-Khazini (who was of Byzantine Greek descent but raised in a Persian culture), Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (such as the \"Zij-i Ilkhani\" and other Zij treatises) among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406253",
"title": "Astrology in medieval Islam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1185,
"text": "The medieval Muslims took a keen interest in the study of astrology: partly because they considered the celestial bodies to be essential, partly because the dwellers of desert-regions often travelled at night, and relied upon knowledge of the constellations for guidance in their journeys. After the advent of Islam, the Muslims needed to determine the time of the prayers, the direction of the Kaaba, and the correct orientation of the mosque, all of which helped give a religious impetus to the study of astronomy and contributed towards the belief that the heavenly bodies were influential upon terrestrial affairs as well as the human condition. The science dealing with such influences was termed astrology (Arabic: علم النجوم \"Ilm an-Nujūm\"), a discipline contained within the field of astronomy (more broadly known as علم الفلك \"Ilm al-Falak\" 'the science of formation [of the heavens]'). The principles of these studies were rooted in Arabian, Persian, Babylonian, Hellenistic and Indian traditions and both were developed by the Arabs following their establishment of a magnificent observatory and library of astronomical and astrological texts at Baghdad in the 8th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19725260",
"title": "University",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antecedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Some scholars, including Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East during the Crusades. Norman Daniel, however, views this argument as overstated. Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara have recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24997796",
"title": "Islamic influences on Western art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "In the early centuries of Islam the most important points of contact between the Latin West and the Islamic world from an artistic point of view were Southern Italy and Sicily and the Iberian peninsula, which both held significant Muslim populations. Later the Italian maritime republics were important in trading artworks. In the Crusades Islamic art seems to have had relatively little influence even on the Crusader art of the Crusader kingdoms, though it may have stimulated the desire for Islamic imports among Crusaders returning to Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2106879",
"title": "Medicine in the medieval Islamic world",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Islamic medicine preserved, systematized and developed the medical knowledge of classical antiquity, including the major traditions of Hippocrates, Galen and Dioscorides. During the post-classical era, Islamic medicine was the most advanced in the world, integrating concepts of ancient Greek, Roman and Persian medicine as well as the ancient Indian tradition of Ayurveda, while making numerous advances and innovations. Islamic medicine, along with knowledge of classical medicine, was later adopted in the medieval medicine of Western Europe, after European physicians became familiar with Islamic medical authors during the Renaissance of the 12th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jn2dw
|
Are artificial food dyes different than dyes used in craft supplies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dyes that are approved for use in food or hygiene products have undergone testing to various degrees in order to ensure that they are non-toxic in the quantities you'd find in those products. Crafts supplies have no such regulations in place, and there is no telling what materials are present in the dyes or pigments used. The best guarantee you can hope for is that they aren't toxic merely by being in their presence. For example, the glass containers you can buy for dirt cheap at a craft store are often full of lead, and they will usually say that they are not meant for the storage of food or drinks. \n\nUnfortunately, we are a long way off from knowing what the specific effect of food dyes on children with ADHD is. The state of the field is that researchers are still trying to establish that there even is a reproducible link between food dyes and hyperactivity. If that research is successful in nailing down a precise link, other scientists can begin work on figuring out exactly how that effect comes about. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Red 40 is one of several food colourings that have been linked to ADHD in children, however the precise nature of the reaction has yet to be determined. It should be noted that the American FDA has disputed these findings, although its dispute seems to be somewhat semantic: as far as I can tell the FDA is relying on the fact that no link has been established between behavioural changes and grown ups.\n\nRed 40 is what chemists call an azo-dye. Many, but not all, of the dyes that have been linked to ADHD in children are azo-dyes. It is likely these dyes are broken down into something that affects behaviour. Establishing a definite biological pathway and dose-response link will take some time and is difficult because there is no chemical test for hyperactivity.\n\nThe dyes in question are all reds and yellows. I recommend feeding your child only blue foods from now on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1080236",
"title": "Dyeing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The primary source of dye, historically, has been nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. Since the mid-19th century, however, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors and to render the dyes more stable to washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to complete garments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164956",
"title": "Food coloring",
"section": "Section::::History of artificial food colorants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives. Some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a diazonium compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that efficiently absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum, i.e. they are deeply colored. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, and other attributes can be engineered by the design of the specific dyestuff. The color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide. Red colors are often azo compounds. The pair indigo and indigo carmine exhibit the same blue color, but the former is soluble in lipids, and the latter is water-soluble because it has been fitted with sulfonate functional groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8179",
"title": "Dye",
"section": "Section::::Food dyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "One other class that describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the food dye. Because food dyes are classed as food additives, they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by legislation. Many are azo dyes, although anthraquinone and triphenylmethane compounds are used for colors such as green and blue. Some naturally occurring dyes are also used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48624104",
"title": "Dichroic dyes, electronic dyes, liquid crystalline dyes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "In order to achieve dyes with sufficient order parameter, researchers have synthesized novel dyes which themselves are liquid crystalline in character to function as display ingredients. The challenges that researchers face are : (1) high purity (2) small quantities and (3) high efficiency. A few companies have overcome these challenges, such as Mitsui Toatsu in Japan and Merck in the U.K.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8179",
"title": "Dye",
"section": "Section::::Natural vs synthetic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The majority of natural dyes are derived from plant sources: roots, berries, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. Most dyes are synthetic, i.e., are man-made from petrochemicals. Other than pigmentation, they have a range of applications including organic dye lasers, optical media (CD-R) and camera sensors (color filter array).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71234",
"title": "Orange (colour)",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Food colourings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The United States Government and the European Union certify a small number of synthetic chemical colourings to be used in food. These are usually aromatic hydrocarbons, or azo dyes, made from petroleum. The most common ones are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246442",
"title": "Allura Red AC",
"section": "Section::::Studies on safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The UK FSA commissioned a study of six food dyes (tartrazine, Allura red, Ponceau 4R, Quinoline Yellow, sunset yellow, carmoisine (dubbed the \"Southampton 6\")), and sodium benzoate (a preservative) on children in the general population, who consumed them in beverages. The study found \"a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity\" in the children; the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations, the results could not be extrapolated to the general population, and further testing was recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3l5vg6
|
How does the UV Catastrophe relate to the quantization of energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "The basic problem can be thought of like this: in classical thermodynamics there is the [equipartition theorem](_URL_0_) which means that each mode has the same (finite) average energy. The electromagnetic field has an infinity of modes, hence the problem.\n\nedit: corralled some runaway words ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "218320",
"title": "Ultraviolet catastrophe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The term \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" was first used in 1911 by Paul Ehrenfest, but the concept originated with the 1900 statistical derivation of the Rayleigh–Jeans law. The phrase refers to the fact that the Rayleigh–Jeans law accurately predicts experimental results at radiative frequencies below 10 GHz, but begins to diverge with empirical observations as these frequencies reach the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the first appearance of the term, it has also been used for other predictions of a similar nature, as in quantum electrodynamics and such cases as ultraviolet divergence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218320",
"title": "Ultraviolet catastrophe",
"section": "Section::::Problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The ultraviolet catastrophe results from the equipartition theorem of classical statistical mechanics which states that all harmonic oscillator modes (degrees of freedom) of a system at equilibrium have an average energy of formula_1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191123",
"title": "Planck's law",
"section": "Section::::History.:Subsequent events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "The colourful term \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" was given by Paul Ehrenfest in 1911 to the paradoxical result that the total energy in the cavity tends to infinity when the equipartition theorem of classical statistical mechanics is (mistakenly) applied to black-body radiation. But this had not been part of Planck's thinking, because he had not tried to apply the doctrine of equipartition: when he made his discovery in 1900, he had not noticed any sort of \"catastrophe\". It was first noted by Lord Rayleigh in 1900, and then in 1901 by Sir James Jeans; and later, in 1905, by Einstein when he wanted to support the idea that light propagates as discrete packets, later called 'photons', and by Rayleigh and by Jeans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic spectrum.:Ultraviolet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called photoionisation. The energy required for this is always larger than about 10 electron volt (eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called \"extreme UV.\" Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218320",
"title": "Ultraviolet catastrophe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The ultraviolet catastrophe, also called the Rayleigh–Jeans catastrophe, was the prediction of late 19th century/early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body (also blackbody) at thermal equilibrium will emit radiation in all frequency ranges, emitting more energy as the frequency increases. By calculating the total amount of radiated energy (i.e., the sum of emissions in all frequency ranges), it can be shown that a blackbody is likely to release an arbitrarily high amount of energy. This would cause all matter to instantaneously radiate all of its energy until it is near absolute zero - indicating that a new model for the behaviour of blackbodies was needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1871740",
"title": "Ultraviolet index",
"section": "Section::::Technical definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1099,
"text": "The UV Index is a number linearly related to the intensity of sunburn-producing UV radiation at a given point on the earth's surface. It cannot be simply related to the irradiance (measured in W/m) because the UV of greatest concern occupies a spectrum of wavelength from 295 to 325 nm, and shorter wavelengths have already been absorbed a great deal when they arrive at the earth's surface. Skin damage from sunburn, however, is related to wavelength, the shorter wavelengths being much more damaging. The UV power spectrum (expressed as watts per square metre per nanometre of wavelength) is therefore multiplied by a weighting curve known as the erythemal action spectrum, and the result integrated over the whole spectrum. This gave Canadian scientists a weighted figure (sometimes called Diffey-weighted UV irradiance, or DUV, or erythemal dose rate) typically around 250 mW/m in midday summer sunlight. So, they arbitrarily divided by 25 mW/m to generate a convenient index value, essentially a scale of 0 to 11+ (though ozone depletion is now resulting in higher values, as mentioned above).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "701496",
"title": "Ultraviolet divergence",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "The name comes from the earliest example of such a divergence, the \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" first encountered in understanding blackbody radiation. According to classical physics at the end of the nineteenth century, the quantity of radiation in the form of light released at any specific wavelength should increase with decreasing wavelength—in particular, there should be considerably more ultraviolet light released from a blackbody radiator than infrared light. Measurements showed the opposite, with maximal energy released at intermediate wavelengths, suggesting a failure of classical mechanics. This problem eventually led to the development of quantum mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
puth7
|
Is it possible to condition your own bladder to hold more liquid?
|
[
{
"answer": "The feeling of needing to urinate stems from mechanoreceptors in the bladder, it's certainly possible to learn to develop tolerance to the desire to urinate and as such increase the length of time between urinating. Drugs such as Tolterodine and various bladder training techniques have been shown to help increase the volume stored within the bladder but these were patients with over-active bladders.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481757",
"title": "Desert tortoise",
"section": "Section::::Lifecycle.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Emptying the bladder is one of the defense mechanisms of this tortoise. This can leave the tortoise in a very vulnerable condition in dry areas, and it should not be alarmed, handled, or picked up in the wild unless in imminent danger. If it must be handled, and its bladder is emptied, then water should be provided to restore the fluid in its body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "460801",
"title": "Buoyancy compensator (diving)",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Wraparound buoyancy BCs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Wraparound bladders are favored by some divers because they make it easier to maintain upright attitude on the surface. However, some designs have a tendency to squeeze the diver's torso when inflated, and they are often bulky at the sides or front when fully inflated. Back inflation BCs are less bulky at the sides but may have a tendency to float the diver tilted forward on the surface depending on weight and buoyancy distribution, which presents a possible hazard in an emergency if the diver is unconscious or otherwise unable to keep his or her head above the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "460801",
"title": "Buoyancy compensator (diving)",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "BULLET::::- Redundant bladders may be inadvertently filled, either by unintended action of the diver, or by malfunction of the filling mechanism, and if the failure is not recognized and dealt with promptly, this may result in a runaway uncontrolled ascent, with associated risk of decompression sickness. There is a risk that the diver will not recognise which bladder is full and attempt to dump from the wrong one. The risk can be reduced by ensuring that the filling mechanisms are clearly distinguishable by both feel and position, and not connecting a low pressure supply hose to the reserve until needed, so it is impossible to add gas by accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26804277",
"title": "Overflow incontinence",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "If an incontinence is due to overflow incontinence, in which the bladder never empties completely, or if the bladder cannot empty because of poor muscle tone, past surgery, or spinal cord injury, a catheter may be used to empty the bladder. A catheter is a tube that can be inserted through the urethra into the bladder to drain urine. Catheters may be used once in a while or on a constant basis, in which case the tube connects to a bag that is attached to the leg. If a long-term (or indwelling) catheter is used, urinary tract infections may occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44913298",
"title": "Doing It Right (scuba diving)",
"section": "Section::::Equipment and configuration.:Buoyancy control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Dual bladder buoyancy compensators are considered both unnecessary and unsafe. Unnecessary in that there are alternative methods available to a correctly rigged diver to compensate for a defective BC, and unsafe in that there is no obvious way to tell which bladder is holding air, and a leak into the secondary bladder may go unnoticed until the buoyancy has increased to the extent that the diver is unable to stop the ascent, while struggling to empty the air from the wrong bladder. Monitoring the air content of two bladders is unnecessary additional task loading, which distracts attention from other matters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725923",
"title": "Hydration system",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Between fillings.:Drying systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Means of holding the bladder walls apart to encourage drying between uses are available, such as a plastic frame that collapses to pass through the fill opening, but expands inside the bladder to hold the sides apart even near the corners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331951",
"title": "Fish anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Internal organs.:Swim bladder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The swim bladder (or gas bladder) is an internal organ that contributes to the ability of a fish to control its buoyancy, and thus to stay at the current water depth, ascend, or descend without having to waste energy in swimming. The bladder is found only in the bony fishes. In the more primitive groups like some minnows, bichirs and lungfish, the bladder is open to the esophagus and doubles as a lung. It is often absent in fast swimming fishes such as the tuna and mackerel families. The condition of a bladder open to the esophagus is called physostome, the closed condition physoclist. In the latter, the gas content of the bladder is controlled through a rete mirabilis, a network of blood vessels effecting gas exchange between the bladder and the blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cjf4ug
|
Why were the Anglo-Saxons one of the only Germanic groups who didn’t assimilate into the cultures they conquered?
|
[
{
"answer": "Who says that they didn't? Robin Fleming argues in *Britain After Rome* that the idea of the Anglo-Saxons as a purely Germanic culture is misguided and not supported by the evidence that we have available through archaeology. She points to the blend of clothing and jewelry styles that emerged following \"Anglo-Saxon\" migration to Britain as evidence that these two cultures were assimilating into something difference from either that came before. She views this process as more or less a peaceful one. While they was some endemic violence inherent to the time period, she does not see evidence for the mass violence that is often assumed to have accompanied the Germanic migration into Britain.\n\nHowever Peter Heather offers another explanation that is worth mentioning. He posits that due to the fragmented and small scale nature of migration into Britain, combined with a fluid cultural identity for the native British there was little reason for the native British to hang onto their culture in certain parts of Britain so the population assimilated into the new Germanic one.\n\nAlso worth bearing in mind is that the label of \"Anglo-Saxon\" as applied to the migrators themselves is misleading. While many of the Germanic people who came to England did come from Jutland or Saxony, others came from Norway, Frisia, Ireland (not even Germanic people!), and Sweden. Also that the process of assimilation was not as smooth in some of these places as you might imagine. For example, Frankish Law (or Salic Law) maintained legal distinctions between Franks and Romans for centuries following Frankish control over northern Gaul. Even though the populations \"assimilated\" in the end, we should not imagine that this process was quick, easy, or assumed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1252",
"title": "Arianism",
"section": "Section::::Among medieval Germanic tribes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons were unlike the other Germanic peoples in that they entered the Western Roman Empire as Pagans and were forcibly converted to Chalcedonian Christianity by their kings, Clovis I and Æthelberht of Kent (see also Christianity in Gaul and Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England). The remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the remnants were dispersed to the fringes of the empire and became lost to history. The Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals. Following their final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, the Ostrogoths went back north and (re)settled in south Austria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34142436",
"title": "North Germanic peoples",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "The southward expansion of the East Germanic tribes pushed many other Germanic and Iranian peoples towards the Roman Empire, spawning the Marcomannic Wars in the 2nd century AD. Another East Germanic tribe were the Herules, who according to 6th century historian Jordanes were driven from modern-day Denmark by the Danes, who were an offshoot of the Swedes. The migration of the Herules is thought to have occurred around 250 AD. The Danes would eventually settle all of Denmark, with many its former inhabitants, including the Jutes and Angles, settling Britain, becoming known as the Anglo-Saxons. The Old English story Beowulf is a testimony to this connection. Meanwhile, Norway was inhabited by a large number of North Germanic tribes and divided into a score of petty kingdoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4267183",
"title": "Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "The Anglo-Saxons were a mix of invaders, migrants and acculturated indigenous people. Even before the withdrawal of the Romans, there were Germanic people in Britain who had been stationed there as \"foederati\". The migration continued with the departure of the Roman army, when Anglo-Saxons were recruited to defend Britain; and also during the period of the Anglo-Saxon first rebellion of 442. They settled in small groups covering a handful of widely dispersed local communities, and brought from their homelands the traditions of their ancestors. There are references in Anglo-Saxon poetry, including Beowulf, that show some interaction between pagan and Christian practices and values. There is enough evidence from Gildas and elsewhere that it is safe to assume some continuing form of Christianity survived. The Anglo-Saxons took control of Sussex, Kent, East Anglia and part of Yorkshire; while the West Saxons founded a kingdom in Hampshire under Cerdic, around 520.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130298",
"title": "English society",
"section": "Section::::Early medieval society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "The Anglo-Saxons' arrival is the most hotly disputed of events, and the extent to which they killed, displaced, or integrated with the existing society is still questioned. What is clear is that a separate Anglo-Saxon society, which would eventually become England with a more Germanic feel, was set up in the south east of the island. These new arrivals had not been conquered by the Romans but their society was perhaps similar to that of Britain. The main difference was their pagan religion, which the surviving northern areas of non-Saxon rule sought to convert to Christianity. During the 7th century these northern areas, particularly Northumbria, became important sites of learning, with monasteries acting like early schools and intellectuals such as Bede being influential. In the 9th century Alfred the Great worked to promote a literate, educated people and did much to promote the English language, even writing books himself. Alfred and his successors unified and brought stability to most of the south of Britain that would eventually become England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12446",
"title": "Germanic peoples",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-migration ethnogeneses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "More broadly, early Medieval Germanic peoples were often assimilated into the \"walha\" substrate cultures of their subject populations. Thus, the Burgundians of Burgundy, the Vandals of Northern Africa, and the Visigoths of France and Iberia, lost some Germanic identity and became part of Romano-Germanic Europe. For the Germanic Visigoths in particular, they had intimate contact with Rome for two centuries before their domination of the Iberian Peninsula and were accordingly permeated by Roman culture. Likewise, the Franks of Western Francia form part of the ancestry of the French people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12446",
"title": "Germanic peoples",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-migration ethnogeneses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "The various Germanic peoples of the Migrations period eventually spread out over a vast expanse stretching from contemporary European Russia to Iceland and from Norway to North Africa. The migrants had varying impacts in different regions. In many cases, the newcomers set themselves up as overlords of the pre-existing population. Over time, such groups underwent ethnogenesis, resulting in the creation of new cultural and ethnic identities (e.g., the Franks and Gallo-Romans becoming the French). Thus, many of the descendants of the ancient Germanic peoples do not speak Germanic languages, as they were to a greater or lesser degree assimilated into the cosmopolitan, literate culture of the Roman world. Even where the descendants of Germanic peoples maintained greater continuity with their common ancestors, significant cultural and linguistic differences arose over time, as is strikingly illustrated by the different identities of Christianized Saxon subjects of the Carolingian Empire and pagan Scandinavian Vikings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21389619",
"title": "British Latin",
"section": "Section::::Extinction as a vernacular.:Lowland zone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The demise of Vulgar Latin in the face of Anglo-Saxon settlement is very different from the fate of the language in other areas of Western Europe which were subject to Germanic migration, like France, Italy and Spain, where Latin and the Romance languages continued. The likely reason is that in Britain there was a greater collapse in Roman institutions and infrastructure, leading to a much greater reduction in the status and prestige of the indigenous Romanised culture; and so the indigenous people were more likely to abandon their languages, in favour of the higher-status language of the Anglo-Saxons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tb10p
|
why do my muscles hurt after using them?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are literally damaging them on the cellular level. That's what prompts them to rebuild and become stronger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lactic acid build up within the muscle may cause pain. Muscle tightness also may cause pain in the muscle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Teeny tiny tears in your muscle that repair themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "805912",
"title": "Delayed onset muscle soreness",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Repeated-bout effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "As a result of this effect, not only is the soreness reduced, but other indicators of muscle damage, such as swelling, reduced strength and reduced range of motion, are also more quickly recovered from. The effect is mostly, but not wholly, specific to the exercised muscle: experiments have shown that some of the protective effect is also conferred on other muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "805912",
"title": "Delayed onset muscle soreness",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The mechanism of delayed onset muscle soreness is not completely understood, but the pain is ultimately thought to be a result of microtrauma – mechanical damage at a very small scale – to the muscles being exercised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2018023",
"title": "Equine exertional rhabdomyolysis",
"section": "Section::::Causes and process of ER.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The pain is caused by the inadequate blood flow to the muscle tissue, the inflammation from the resulting cell damage, and the release of cell contents. Muscle spasms, caused by the lack of blood to the muscle tissue, are also painful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "805912",
"title": "Delayed onset muscle soreness",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Possible function as a warning sign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Soreness might conceivably serve as a warning to reduce muscle activity to prevent injury or further injury. With delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) caused by eccentric exercise (muscle lengthening), it was observed that light concentric exercise (muscle shortening) during DOMS can cause initially more pain but was followed by a temporary alleviation of soreness – with no adverse effects on muscle function or recovery being observed. Furthermore eccentric exercise during DOMS was found to not exacerbate muscle damage, nor did it have an adverse effect on recovery – considering this, soreness is not necessarily a warning sign to reduce the usage of the affected muscle. However it was observed that a second bout of eccentric exercise within one week of the initial exercise did lead to decreased muscle function immediately afterwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1053949",
"title": "Spinal cord injury",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1638,
"text": "In the long term, the loss of muscle function can have additional effects from disuse, including atrophy of the muscle. Immobility can lead to pressure sores, particularly in bony areas, requiring precautions such as extra cushioning and turning in bed every two hours (in the acute setting) to relieve pressure. In the long term, people in wheelchairs must shift periodically to relieve pressure. Another complication is pain, including nociceptive pain (indication of potential or actual tissue damage) and neuropathic pain, when nerves affected by damage convey erroneous pain signals in the absence of noxious stimuli. Spasticity, the uncontrollable tensing of muscles below the level of injury, occurs in 65–78% of chronic SCI. It results from lack of input from the brain that quells muscle responses to stretch reflexes. It can be treated with drugs and physical therapy. Spasticity increases the risk of contractures (shortening of muscles, tendons, or ligaments that result from lack of use of a limb); this problem can be prevented by moving the limb through its full range of motion multiple times a day. Another problem lack of mobility can cause is loss of bone density and changes in bone structure. Loss of bone density (bone demineralization), thought to be due to lack of input from weakened or paralysed muscles, can increase the risk of fractures. Conversely, a poorly understood phenomenon is the overgrowth of bone tissue in soft tissue areas, called heterotopic ossification. It occurs below the level of injury, possibly as a result of inflammation, and happens to a clinically significant extent in 27% of people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "395477",
"title": "Exercise physiology",
"section": "Section::::Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17893008",
"title": "Eric Owens (table tennis)",
"section": "Section::::Life After Table Tennis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Owens states that chronic pain remains to be one of the most common among medical complaints. Delos Therapy focuses on the principle that with repetitive motion and wear and tear of muscle tissue, the muscles become tight and fibrotic, causing common symptoms of pain, stiffness, and weakness. This fibrosis is not visible on conventional imaging, such as, MRIs or X-rays; and the fibrosis is getting missed diagnostically by mainstream medicine. Conventional treatments for such tightness and pain include stretching, strengthening, and/or medication management with opioids. Although beneficial in some cases, Owens believes this is not a complete therapy and is largely focused on symptoms rather than the root cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
534uvf
|
Why does my vision change when I focus intently on anything around me?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you [stabilize an image on your retina](_URL_1_) for a long time, you adapt to portions of the image and stop noticing / seeing them. The auditory equivalent is when you do not notice the hum of a light or a fan until you pay attention to it again. Normally, your eyes are moving many times a second, even when you are fixating on something, in order to provide some change in the sensory input to a portion of your retina. This is called a [microsaccade](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958509",
"title": "Attentional shift",
"section": "Section::::Overt vs. covert attention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "Changes in spatial attention can occur with the eyes moving, overtly, or with the eyes remaining fixated, covertly. Within the human eye only a small part, the fovea, is able to bring objects into sharp focus. However, it is this high visual acuity that is needed to perform actions such as reading words or recognizing facial features, for example. Therefore, the eyes must continually move in order to direct the fovea to the desired goal. Prior to an overt eye movement, where the eyes move to a target location, covert attention shifts to this location. However, it is important to keep in mind that attention is also able to shift covertly to objects, locations, or even thoughts while the eyes remain fixated. For example, when a person is driving and keeping their eyes on the road, but then, even though their eyes do not move, their attention shifts from the road to thinking about what they need to get at the grocery store. The eyes may remain focused on the previous object attended to, yet attention has shifted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38442646",
"title": "Gain-field encoding",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "A similar effect is found when people track moving objects with their eyes. The changing retinal image is referenced with the muscle movements of the eye resulting in the same type of retinal/body-centered alignment. This is one more process that helps the brain properly encode the relationships needed to deal with our changing perception, and also serves as a verification that the proper physical movements are being made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3407720",
"title": "Exotropia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The brain's ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can \"control\" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek \"exo\" meaning \"outward\" and \"trope\" meaning \"a turning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700",
"title": "Arthur Schopenhauer",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Theory of perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object; that turns the upside down impression, and that adds depth to make from the planimetrical data stereometrical perception with distance between objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74836",
"title": "Corrective lens",
"section": "Section::::Optical quality.:Lens induced oblique astigmatism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "As the eye shifts its gaze from looking through the optical center of the corrective lens, the lens-induced astigmatism value increases. In a spherical lens, especially one with a strong correction whose base curve is not in the best spherical form, such increases can significantly impact the clarity of vision in the periphery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1550,
"text": "The visual system in the brain is too slow to process that information if the images are slipping across the retina at more than a few degrees per second. Thus, to be able to see while we are moving, the brain must compensate for the motion of the head by turning the eyes. Another specialisation of visual system in many vertebrate animals is the development of a small area of the retina with a very high visual acuity. This area is called the fovea, and covers about 2 degrees of visual angle in people. To get a clear view of the world, the brain must turn the eyes so that the image of the object of regard falls on the fovea. Eye movement is thus very important for visual perception, and any failure can lead to serious visual disabilities. To see a quick demonstration of this fact, try the following experiment: hold your hand up, about one foot (30 cm) in front of your nose. Keep your head still, and shake your hand from side to side, slowly at first, and then faster and faster. At first you will be able to see your fingers quite clearly. But as the frequency of shaking passes about 1 Hz, the fingers will become a blur. Now, keep your hand still, and shake your head (up and down or left and right). No matter how fast you shake your head, the image of your fingers remains clear. This demonstrates that the brain can move the eyes opposite to head motion much better than it can follow, or pursue, a hand movement. When your pursuit system fails to keep up with the moving hand, images slip on the retina and you see a blurred hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1070221",
"title": "Human eye",
"section": "Section::::Vision.:Optokinetic reflex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "For example, when looking out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a moving train for a short moment (by stabilizing it on the retina), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At this point, the eye is moved back to the point where it first saw the train (through a saccade).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sjd79
|
what is going to make future 5g internet, faster than current 4g networks?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, there was a mobile network CEO or tech apecialist recently that described how the 5g network will work. It will be closer to skynet in terms of the net will be smarter, faster, more organized, and better equipped with newer generation technology that enables up to gigabit. There will be bigger, thicker cables to every cell tower so that connectivity will be wider spread and more reliable. The network will be smarter in the sense that it can tell when your battery is low and it'll start pinging your phone less, and more organized since there will likely be a prioritization system set up that deals with making business lines have a higher priority than our own commercial lines. Generally, the network will be smarter and more efficient for every cent spent on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60721382",
"title": "Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "5G succeeds 4G LTE wireless technology; developments have been focused on enabling low-latency communications, and promises of a minimum peak network speed of 20 gigabits per/second (20 times faster than the equivalent on 4G LTE networks), and uses within Internet of things and smart city technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12840543",
"title": "Internet in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Broadband.:Mobile broadband.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "A new \"mobile broadband\" technology emerging in the United Kingdom is 4G which hopes to replace the old 3G technology currently in use and could see download speeds increased to 300Mbit/s. The company EE have been the first company to start developing a full scale 4G network throughout the United Kingdom. This was later followed by other telecommunications companies in the UK such as O2 (Telefónica) and Vodafone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1245539",
"title": "History of mobile phones",
"section": "Section::::4G – Native IP networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8500",
"title": "Dar es Salaam",
"section": "Section::::Media.:Internet access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Installation of a trans-Indian Ocean backbone cable in 2009 has, in theory, made Internet access much more readily available in Dar in particular and in East Africa in general. However, roll-out to end-users is slow, partly because of spotty telephone line coverage at the moment provided by the Tanzania Telecommunications Company Limited, partly due to the substantial prices and long contracts demanded for purchase of bandwidth for small ISPs. Mobile-telephone access to the Internet via 3G and 3.75G is still relatively expensive. 4G is making its way through major cities and towns with plans to go countrywide in the advanced planning stages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27350573",
"title": "Mobile broadband modem",
"section": "Section::::History.:3G.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "3G networks have taken this approach to a higher level, using different underlying technology but the same principles. They routinely provide speeds over 300kbit/s. Due to the now increased internet speed, internet connection sharing via WLAN has become a workable reality. Devices which allow internet connection sharing or other types of routing on cellular networks are called also cellular routers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11658471",
"title": "Internet in Singapore",
"section": "Section::::Current developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "In November 2014, ViewQwest unveiled plans for a 2Gbit/s fibre broadband service for households in Singapore, offering the country's fastest internet connection in the market. In March 2015, the service was officially launched making it the world's fastest home broadband plan alongside Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15305915",
"title": "Fiber to the premises by country",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "As of 2015, the maximum plan for their connection is now at 1Gbit/s, while plans for lower speeds are scheduled for upgrades in the near future. As of 2017, they are aggressively increasing network presence in an attempt to improve internet speed and services, decried as one of the worst in Asia, apart from rivalry from other companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
155sy2
|
How was life as a Carthaginian compared to life as a Roman?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eckstein in *Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome* argued that Rome was no more militaristic than any other Mediterranean state. He was bucking the traditional claim that Rome was super-militaristic, but I think he's convincing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So there's this incident where Claudius is headed to what is now England in a ship. He gets spotted by a Carthaginian ship, and it's one group of rowers against the other. Claudius argues the reason his rowers won (and escaped) was that they were free men, while the Carthaginian rowers were slaves. But that was much later, and we're talking a very different Carthage than the one during the Punic wars.\n\nNot only that, to believe the argument, you have to trust the ancient sources, and the modern one (Graves, in this case). For your basic question, \"Was Rome really militaristic,\" the answer can only be yes. Was Carthage a democracy? that's a modern question, which may not actually be relevant in ancient terms.\n\nThey *did* have election of kings, but we would describe it as an oligarchy. Look up \"Tribunal of 104\" if you're interested. Your average Carthaginian citizen was more interested in trade than fighting, so they depended heavily on mercenaries from subjugated provinces for their military. The struggles for power would have been familiar to any Roman: political murders, bought offices, intrigue and deceit. Both systems thought of themselves as republics.\n\nOne other problem: most of the writers we base our view on were actually foreigners, in many cases hostile foreigners. It's difficult, under such circumstances, to make real assertions. But some basic things are clear: Rome had a plunder economy, while Carthage was based slightly more on trade. Land power vs. sea power. Citizen military vs. mercenaries. All those are oversimplifications, but have some truth to them. The modern concept of freedom can't be said to apply.\n\nI haven't researched the \"rage on the TW forums,\" but if they're pro-Rome, they're probably misreading. Arguing that the Romans were a positive influence is another modern simplification. They made life suck for any non-Roman area (such is the nature of a plunder economy), and for the majority of Romans themselves. Their whole system was based on the idea that \"We're going to kick your ass and take all your stuff.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suspect the CA guys were being intentionally provocative to counteract the widespread perception of Carthaginians as sinister, debauched baby murderers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a related question, do was have any of the Punic language around? I know Hebrew and can sometimes figure out inscriptions of other Canaanite languages when they're transcribed into Hebrew letters, and I'm curious.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From my understanding, the Carthaginians lived under a mercantile timocracy (not a democracy). The Roman Republic, although not as democratic as some of the governments of Greece, gave each property owning free male a stake in government and involvement in war. This resulted in what Victor Davis Hanson has called \"civic militarism,\" essentially explaining how the Romans were able to fill their ranks after losing between 50 and 75 thousand men at Cannae. Hanson contrasts the Roman \"citizen soldier\" with the Carthaginian mercenary. To say that Rome was \"militaristic\" at the time of Punic Wars is not a very precise or enlightening statement. It was more nuanced than simple \"militarism.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're interested in Carthage, you might be interested in [this previous AMA about Carthage](_URL_0_).\n\nAs for Rome... it was also democratic. Possibly more so than Carthage. Theoretically, every Roman citizen could vote for the magistrates every year (even if not all tribes actually got to vote in any given year). Romans were extremely free. They lived in a much less regulated society than most modern \"free\" democracies. \n\nAnd, in terms of militarism... At the time of the war with Carthage, service in the Roman military was entirely voluntary but expected (if that makes sense). While there was no law *requiring* men to join the army, there was an expectation that all men who owned property (and therefore had something to defend) would join any military attempt to defend that property. Also, men in the army of that period were not paid (this came later), and were expected to provide their own weapons and equipment. The Roman military at this time was considered purely defensive, and was an honourable duty required of the propertied classes. However, the instant that any threat was removed, the army disbanded, and the soldiers went back to their normal lives as senators or merchants or farmers.\n\nSo, it looks like the Creative Assembly developers have over-simplified these two cultures to the point of inaccuracy.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're looking for a fairly comprehensive book on the subject I would recommend \"Carthage Must Be Destroyed\" by Richard Miles",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15468138",
"title": "Ancient Rome and wine",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The Punic Wars with Carthage had a particularly marked effect on Roman viticulture. In addition to broadening the cultural horizons of the Roman citizenry, Carthaginians also introduced them to advanced viticultural techniques, in particular the work of Mago. When the libraries of Carthage were ransacked and burned, among the few Carthaginian works to survive were the 26 volumes of Mago's agricultural treatise, which was subsequently translated into Latin and Greek in 146 BC. Although his work did not survive to the modern era, it has been extensively quoted in the influential writings of Romans Pliny, Columella, Varro and Gargilius Martialis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6555",
"title": "Carthage",
"section": "Section::::Ancient history.:Punic Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest-lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean. Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally, Rome, which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War. The Carthaginians were Phoenician settlers originating in the Mediterranean coast of the Near East. They spoke Canaanite, a Semitic language, and followed a local variety of the ancient Canaanite religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14099",
"title": "History of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Carthage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "The Carthaginians were rivals to the Greeks and Romans. Carthage fought the Punic Wars, three wars with Rome: the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC), over Sicily; the Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC), in which Hannibal invaded Europe; and the Third Punic War (149 to 146 BC). Carthage lost the first two wars, and in the third it was destroyed, becoming the Roman province of Africa, with the Berber Kingdom of Numidia assisting Rome. The Roman province of Africa became a major agricultural supplier of wheat, olives, and olive oil to imperial Rome via exorbitant taxation. Two centuries later, Rome brought the Berber kingdoms of Numidia and Mauretania under its authority. In the 420's AD, Vandals invaded North Africa and Rome lost her territories. The Berber kingdoms subsequently regained their independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6555",
"title": "Carthage",
"section": "Section::::Constitution of state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "\"Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution; the Carthaginians have never had any rebellion worth speaking of, and have never been under the rule of a tyrant.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9046912",
"title": "Battle of Geronium",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:Minucius in command.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1194,
"text": "While the Carthaginians had been busy at Geronium, Fabius had left Minucius in charge of the Roman army with instructions to follow the ‘Fabian Strategy’ and journeyed to Rome to observe religious duties. He possibly also had engaged in political bickering because of his unpopularity among the Roman citizens. Minucius, who had always advocated a more forward strategy against Hannibal, moved down from the hills after a few days and set up a new camp in the plain of Larinum to the north of Geronium. The Romans then began harassing the Carthaginian foragers from their new camp as Minucius sought to provoke Hannibal into battle. Hannibal in response moved near the Roman camp from Geronium with two thirds of his army, built a temporary camp, and occupied a hill overlooking the Roman camp with 2,000 Libyphoenician pikemen. The mobility of the Carthaginians was restricted at this time as their cavalry horses were being rested. This had also deprived Hannibal of his best weapon against the Romans, a fact which would come into play soon. Minucius promptly attacked with his light infantry, driving back the pikemen posted on the hill, and moved his camp to the top of the captured hill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2718730",
"title": "Ruspina",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The Carthaginian town came under Roman hegemony after the Punic Wars. In 46, the town was the first in Africa to ally itself with Julius Caesar during his civil war. The same year, the Battle of Ruspina was a victory for Pompey's ally T. Labienus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468676",
"title": "Battle of the Aegates",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.:Carthage Cornered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The Carthaginians were totally unprepared for Rome's actions. The garrisons of Lilybaeum, Drepana and Hamilcar’s army at Eryx held fast, but without supplies from Carthage they could not hold out indefinitely. Now that Rome had seized the initiative with a battle ready fleet blockading Carthaginian holdings in Sicily, without warships the unescorted Carthaginian supply ships would fall prey to the Romans. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cua55
|
How did the United States of America arrive at their valuation of Greenland in 1946? Could the area have been worth the cost of purchase in terms of economic output, or was the value purely strategic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Initially, America very much wanted it for strategic reasons. The GIUK Gap was hugely important. Specifically, it was important to the Soviet Union's submarine fleet.\n\nIf you look at the terms of the [Montreux Convention](_URL_2_), it was impossible to \"sneak\" a submarine through Turkish waters. If you look at a map of the Baltic Sea, or more specifically the [waters around Denmark](_URL_0_), it's similarly unlikely that you could ever sneak a submarine past even a semi-aware detection network. Denmark, of course, was one of the founding dozen of NATO.\n\nThis means that if the Soviets actually want to conduct any submarine operations with any degree of stealth, they need to be based out of Murmansk in the White Sea or somewhere in East Asia (Vladivostok, Petropavlovsk on Kamchatka, Magadan, or Sovetskaya Gavan. Realistically, if the Soviets wanted to have their submarines remain undetected, they really could only use those five ports. And if you wanted to operate in the Atlantic, you weren't going to put your HQ on the northwestern coast of the Pacific. You were going to put it in Murmansk.\n\nThis, effectively, meant that any ships the Soviets sent to the Atlantic had to pass through the GIUK Gap. And it would be relatively easy to detect (and subsequently track or shadow) them if you had assets in the area beforehand. And it's kind of hard to be all sneaky and such when the USN is dropping [practice depth charges on you](_URL_4_). They couldn't do any meaningful damage, of course, but it's an implicit threat: the USN was basically saying, \"we could sink you at any time.\" \n\nAs for the overall economic value of Greenland: that's up in the air. We [already see](_URL_1_) Greenland being exploited for hydrocarbons. The USGS released a review of hydrocarbons in the region [here](_URL_3_). I believe they described it as \"a genuinely stupid amount of dead dead plants buried in the sea floor.\" (Okay, that wasn't their exact phrasing.) (._.)\n\nTheoretically, yes, Greenland would've paid for itself. Eventually. If the estimates actually pan out. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15982704",
"title": "Denmark–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Greenland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Following World War II, the United States developed a geopolitical interest in Greenland, and in 1946 the United States offered to buy Greenland from Denmark for $100,000,000, but Denmark refused to sell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12118",
"title": "Greenland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Home rule and self-rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Following World War II, the United States developed a geopolitical interest in Greenland, and in 1946 the United States offered to buy the island from Denmark for $100,000,000. Denmark refused to sell it. In the 21st century, the United States, according to WikiLeaks, remains highly interested in investing in the resource base of Greenland and in tapping hydrocarbons off the Greenlandic coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "475488",
"title": "51st state",
"section": "Section::::Use internationally.:North America.:Greenland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "During World War II, when Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany, the United States briefly controlled Greenland for battlefields and protection. In 1946, the United States offered to buy Greenland from Denmark for $100 million ($1.2 billion today) but Denmark refused to sell it. Several politicians and others have in recent years argued that Greenland could hypothetically be in a better financial situation as a part of the United States; for instance mentioned by professor Gudmundur Alfredsson at University of Akureyri in 2014. One of the actual reasons behind U.S. interest in Greenland could be the vast natural resources of the island. According to WikiLeaks, the U.S. appears to be highly interested in investing in the resource base of the island and in tapping the vast expected hydrocarbons off the Greenlandic coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54190006",
"title": "Louisiana Purchase Sesquicentennial half dollar",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "The Louisiana Purchase gave the United States over a million square miles of previously French territory for the price of $15 million. The Purchase was ratified by the U.S. Senate on October 20, 1803, and the new land subsequently doubled the size of the United States and opened the door to a new period of westward expansion. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt signed a bill to subsidize the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, which would become known as the St. Louis World Fair of 1904. Of the $5 million paid to the fair by the government, $250,000 was in the form of commemorative gold dollar coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1266010",
"title": "Fore River Shipyard",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "1962 brought about the construction of , which was the largest commercial vessel built in the United States at the time, and became the first ship to transit the Northwest Passage to the Alaska North Slope oil fields. The Bainbridge was launched in that year, but not without accusations from the government that Bethlehem overcharged the Navy, as the costs increased from almost $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) in 1959 to a negotiated $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) three years later, down from an estimate of $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) before then, although there was a $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) discrepancy in the yard. After the end of the strike mentioned above, the yard was accused by the government of overcharging for the first nuclear frigate, and the Long Beach. The shipyard later made up for the losses of $ (equivalent to $ in today's dollars) by crediting on other contracts that were being offered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42514009",
"title": "History of Virginia on stamps",
"section": "Section::::New Nation.:Growth of the nation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "BULLET::::- Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial was commemorated with a 37-cent stamp issued on April 30, 2003, in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Purchase doubled the size of the United States, it became one of the largest countries in the world, and the most fertile lands of the continent were opened to American settlement. It is often called the greatest real estate deal in history, \"with a stroke of a pen\". The stamp was designed by Richard Sheaff and illustrated by Garin Baker. Sennett Security Products printed the stamp in gravure process in pressure-sensitive panes of twenty; 54 million were issued. An image of the stamp is available at Arago online at the link in the footnote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2555166",
"title": "Dutch Americans",
"section": "Section::::Dutch influence on the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Louisiana Purchase of 1803, also known as the \"Great Land Acquisition\", is often seen as one of the most important events in American history after the Declaration of Independence. At the time it had a total cost of $15 million, and it was financed in three ways. First by a down payment of $3 million, in gold by the U.S. government, followed by two loans, one by the London-based Barings Bank, and one by the Amsterdam-based Hope Bank. The original receipt still exists and is currently property of the Dutch ING Group, which has its headquarters in Amsterdam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yj1wt
|
has the physiological damage caused by trauma been the same through out history?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. Trauma has been present with humanity throughout our history. The difference is that nowadays, we are allowed to actually speak about our traumas, and help them heal, whereas in the past there was mostly an attitude of 'why are you acting like this, stop it'. Or if it was mentioned, it was mentioned in vague terms that do not always translate well to modern ears. The deadly sin sloth, for example, initially didn't really refer to simple laziness. It was meant for apathy and loss of interest in life, exactly the sort of symptoms commonly associated with depression (potentially due to former trauma). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah, no, it wasn't nearly as common as you seem to think. Why do you think things like the Salem Witch Trials or the Spanish Inquisition are such a big deal in history books a century later? People only get tortured and raped by every other guy on the street in the movies.\n\nThe fact of the matter is, by the time it got to torture, most people didn't survive it. And those who did, well... we don't know how damaged they were, because it almost always ended with them confessing to something they were going to be executed for anyway. As far as rape goes, depending on what part of the world you were in, you could either be killed for being raped, or forced to marry your attacker - there's no record of what women suffered under those conditions because no one cared. That does not remotely begin to mean they were okay.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21217",
"title": "Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary issues.:Trauma.:Historical trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 234,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 234,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Historical trauma is described as collective emotional and psychological damage throughout a person's lifetime and across multiple generations. Examples of historical trauma can be seen through the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, where over 200 unarmed Lakota were killed, and the Dawes Allotment Act of 1887, when American Indians lost four-fifths of their land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24764596",
"title": "Historical trauma",
"section": "Section::::Manifestation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Historical Trauma (HT), or Historical Trauma Response (HTR), can manifest itself in a variety of psychological ways. However, it is most commonly seen through high rates of substance abuse, alcoholism, depression, anxiety, suicide, domestic violence, and abuse within afflicted communities. The effects and manifestations of trauma are extremely important in understanding the present-day conditions of afflicted populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "740746",
"title": "Adult neurogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Implications.:Traumatic Brain Injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 1224,
"text": "Traumatic brain injuries vary in their mechanism of injury, producing a blunt or penetrating trauma resulting in a primary and secondary injury with excitotoxicity and relatively wide spread neuronal death. Due to the overwhelming number of traumatic brain injuries as a result of the War on Terror, tremendous amounts of research have been placed towards a better understanding of the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injuries as well as neuroprotective interventions and possible interventions prompting restorative neurogenesis. Hormonal interventions, such as progesterone, estrogen, and allopregnanolone have been examined heavily in recent decades as possible neuroprotective agents following traumatic brain injuries to reduce the inflammation response stunt neuronal death. In rodents, lacking the regenerative capacity for adult neurogenesis, the activation of stem cells following administration of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist, PNU-282987, has been identified in damaged retinas with follow-up work examining activation of neurogenesis in mammals after traumatic brain injury. Currently, there is no medical intervention that has passed phase-III clinical trials for use in the human population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10333114",
"title": "Childhood trauma",
"section": "Section::::Health outcomes.:Epigenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Survivors of war trauma or childhood maltreatment are at increased risk for trauma-spectrum disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In addition, traumatic stress has been associated with alterations in the neuroendocrine and the immune system, enhancing the risk for physical diseases. Traumatic experiences might even affect psychological as well as biological parameters in the next generation, i.e. traumatic stress might have trans generational effects. So currently there is a new field trying to explain how epigenetic processes, which represent a pivotal biological mechanism for dynamic adaptation to environmental challenges, might contribute to the explanation of the long-lasting and intergenerational effects of trauma. In particular, epigenetic alterations in genes regulating the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis as well as the immune system have been observed in survivors of childhood and adult trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11213661",
"title": "Trauma triad of death",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The trauma triad of death is a medical term describing the combination of hypothermia, acidosis and coagulopathy. This combination is commonly seen in patients who have sustained severe traumatic injuries and results in a significant rise in the mortality rate. Commonly, when someone presents with these signs, damage control surgery is employed to reverse the effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32204428",
"title": "Political violence",
"section": "Section::::Trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Scholarship and data suggests that violence has declined. Since World War II, there has been a decline in battle deaths and since the Cold War, there has been a decline in conflict. Recently, scholars have started to question this long-held belief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24764596",
"title": "Historical trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Historical trauma, and its manifestations, are seen as an example of Transgenerational trauma (though the existence of transgenerational trauma itself is disputed). For example, a pattern of maternal abandonment of a child might be seen across three generations, or the actions of an abusive parent might be seen in continued abuse across generations. These manifestations can also stem from the trauma of events, such as the witnessing of war, genocide, or death. For these populations that have witnessed these mass level traumas (e.g., war, genocide, colonialism), several generations later these populations tend to have higher rates of disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g5fna
|
Why was the USS Indianapolis sailing without an escort when she was sunk?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's normal for a cruiser to operate alone without destroyer escort in some circumstances. A heavy cruiser is an important asset, but it's not a capital ship that will shift the balance of naval power if lost. Destroyers were always in high demand for various roles in world war two and there were usually not enough to go around. A cruiser task force going in to action might normally include some destroyers, but not each individual cruiser on a non-combat mission.\n\nAnti-submarine weaponry in World War Two was generally only effective *after* the submarine was detected. An escorting destroyer would not have been able to detect the submarine and prevent the Indianapolis's loss, (high speed reduces the ability of surface ships to detect submarines) although it may have meant a ship was present to rescue survivors or counterattack the submarine. A heavy cruiser is much faster than a submarine (surfaced or submerged) and a fast speed and zig-zag pattern course (which the Indianapolis should have been following but wasn't) will generally provide as much protection as possible against the submarine's first salvo of torpedoes.\n\nThe main reason to avoid including destroyers as escorts to a heavy cruiser is range. Destroyers have a much shorter operating range than cruisers, especially at high speeds, and the voyage from Honolulu to the Marianas would be too close for safety to the maximum operating range of a WWII destroyer. Destroyers accompanying major task forces have to periodically refuel from supply ships or larger warships, which is time consuming and creates a moment of vulnerability.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3318183",
"title": "Castaway",
"section": "Section::::Real occurrences.:USS \"Indianapolis\" (CA-35).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "USS \"Indianapolis\" (CL/CA-35) was a heavy cruiser of the United States Navy. At 00:15 on 30 July 1945, she was struck on her starboard side by two Type 95 torpedoes, one in the bow and one amidships, from the Japanese submarine , captained by Commander Mochitsura Hashimoto, who initially thought he had spotted the . The explosions caused massive damage. \"Indianapolis\" took on a heavy list, (the ship had a great deal of added armament and gun firing directors added as the war went on and was top heavy) and settled by the bow. Twelve minutes later, she rolled completely over, then her stern rose into the air, and she plunged down. Some 300 of the 1,195 crewmen went down with the ship. With few lifeboats and many without lifejackets, the remainder of the crew was set adrift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1532675",
"title": "W. Graham Claytor Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Career.:World War II — USS \"Indianapolis\" tragedy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The \"Indianapolis\" had been on a secret mission, and due to a communications error, had not been reported as overdue (or missing). An estimated 900 men survived the sinking, but spent days floating in life jackets trying to fight off sharks. While only 317 were rescued out of a crew of 1199 who were aboard the \"Indianapolis\", Claytor's actions were widely credited by survivors with preventing an even greater loss of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31934",
"title": "USS Indianapolis (CA-35)",
"section": "Section::::Sinking.:McVay's record cleared.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "In 1996, sixth-grade student Hunter Scott began his research on the sinking of \"Indianapolis\" for a class history project, an assignment which eventually led to a United States Congressional investigation. In October 2000, the United States Congress passed a resolution that Captain McVay's record should state that \"he is exonerated for the loss of \"Indianapolis\"\"; President Bill Clinton signed the resolution. The resolution noted that, although several hundred ships of the US Navy were lost in combat during World War II, McVay was the only captain to be court-martialed for the sinking of his ship. In July 2001, the United States Secretary of the Navy ordered McVay's official Navy record cleared of all wrongdoing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197110",
"title": "USS Indiana (BB-58)",
"section": "Section::::Service history.:Pacific Theater operations.:Battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Kwajalein.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "\"Indiana\" thereafter withdrew to escort the carrier task force overnight. While operating off the islands in the early hours of 1 February, \"Indiana\" collided with \"Washington\". The ships were blacked out to prevent Japanese observers from spotting them, and in the darkness, \"Indiana\" turned in front of \"Washington\". \"Indiana\" was badly damaged, with the starboard propeller shaft destroyed and significant damaged inflicted on the belt armor and torpedo defense system. The ship had some of armor plating torn from her hull, and \"Washington\" had a section of her bow ripped away and lodged into \"Indiana\"s side. The accident killed three men and injured another six aboard \"Indiana\", one of whom later died. A subsequent inquiry into the accident placed the blame on \"Indiana\", faulting her crew for failing to inform the other ships in the unit about her course changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188590",
"title": "Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Midway.:Sinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Shortly thereafter, the fires broke through the flight deck and heat and smoke made the ship's bridge unusable. At 10:46, Admiral Nagumo transferred his flag to the light cruiser . \"Akagi\" stopped dead in the water at 13:50 and her crew, except for Captain Taijiro Aoki and damage-control personnel, was evacuated. She continued to burn as her crew fought a losing battle against the spreading fires. The damage-control teams and Captain Aoki were evacuated from the still floating ship later that night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31934",
"title": "USS Indianapolis (CA-35)",
"section": "Section::::Sinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "At 00:15 on 30 July, \"Indianapolis\" was struck on her starboard side by two Type 95 torpedoes, one in the bow and one amidships, from the Japanese submarine , captained by Commander Mochitsura Hashimoto, who initially thought he had spotted the . The explosions caused massive damage. \"Indianapolis\" took on a heavy list (the ship had had a great deal of armament and gun-firing directors added as the war went on, and was therefore top-heavy) and settled by the bow. Twelve minutes later, she rolled completely over, then her stern rose into the air, and she plunged down. Some 300 of the 1,195 crewmen aboard went down with the ship. With few lifeboats and many without life jackets, the remainder of the crew was set adrift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31934",
"title": "USS Indianapolis (CA-35)",
"section": "Section::::Discovery of the wreck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "The wreck of \"Indianapolis\" is in the Philippine Sea. In July–August 2001, an expedition sought to find the wreckage through the use of side-scan sonar and underwater cameras mounted on a remotely operated vehicle. Four \"Indianapolis\" survivors accompanied the expedition, which was not successful. In June 2005, a second expedition was mounted to find the wreck. \"National Geographic\" covered the story and released it in July. Submersibles were launched to find any sign of wreckage. The only objects ever found, which have not been confirmed to have belonged to \"Indianapolis\", were numerous pieces of metal of varying size found in the area of the reported sinking position (this was included in the National Geographic program \"Finding of the USS \"Indianapolis\"\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x45w6
|
What adaptations do humans have that allow them to remain balanced without a tail?
|
[
{
"answer": "During the time our tails were disappearing (and they still are, if you look at our skeletons), we began to evolve a sense called Equilibrioception—or balance.\n\nEquilibrioception makes use of a variety of sensory input to keep us from falling over while walking or standing:\n\n1. Visual cues, like the horizon and the horizontal angle of local references (e.g. flat surfaces, the level of other's eyes).\n\n2. Vestibular system—there are specialized, liquid-filled canals in our ears that contain super-sensitive hairs that can track the internal movement of the liquid when the head changes position. This gives us information on the angular and rotational movements of our head, much like a smartphone's accelerometer.\n\n3. Proprioception—the body's own perception of where it is in space, made possible by special nerves located within joints and muscles attached to our skeletal system. These nerves allow our limbs and joints a general idea of relative distance to each other, and also clue them in on some motion/acceleration information by sensing the physical effort currently being exerted by muscles (e.g. during running, jumping, etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145672",
"title": "Manx cat",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.:Tail (or lack thereof).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Manx (and other tail-suppressed breeds) do not exhibit problems with balance, Balance is controlled primarily by the inner ear. In cats, dogs and other large-bodied mammals, balance involves but is not dependent upon the tail (contrast rats, for whom the tail is a quite significant portion of their body mass).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2260429",
"title": "Tail",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Animal tails are used in a variety of ways. They provide a source of locomotion for fish and some other forms of marine life. Many land animals use their tails to brush away flies and other biting insects. Some species, including cats and kangaroos, use their tails for balance; and some, such as New World monkeys and opossums, have what are known as prehensile tails, which are adapted to allow them to grasp tree branches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19338049",
"title": "Leptictida",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Their forelegs were shortened, but their hind legs were elongated. While this anatomy is reminiscent of small kangaroos and jerboas, suggesting a jumping locomotion, the structure of the tarsal bones hints at a specialization for terrestrial running. Perhaps these animals were capable of both modes of locomotion; running slowly in search for food, and jumping quickly to avoid threats. Additionally, the Messel specimens feature a surprisingly long tail, unique among modern placental mammals, formed by 40 vertebrae and probably used for balance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39595",
"title": "Human leg",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "Evolution has provided the human body with two distinct features: the specialization of the upper limb for visually guided manipulation and the lower limb's development into a mechanism specifically adapted for efficient bipedal gait. While the capacity to walk upright is not unique to humans, other primates can only achieve this for short periods and at a great expenditure of energy. The human adaption to bipedalism is not limited to the leg, however, but has also affected the location of the body's center of gravity, the reorganisation of internal organs, and the form and biomechanism of the trunk. In humans, the double S-shaped vertebral column acts as a great shock-absorber which shifts the weight from the trunk over the load-bearing surface of the feet. The human legs are exceptionally long and powerful as a result of their exclusive specialization for support and locomotion — in orangutans the leg length is 111% of the trunk; in chimpanzees 128%, and in humans 171%. Many of the leg's muscles are also adapted to bipedalism, most substantially the gluteal muscles, the extensors of the knee joint, and the calf muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Anatomy and physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Humans, like most of the other apes, lack external tails, have several blood type systems, have opposable thumbs, and are sexually dimorphic. The comparatively minor anatomical differences between humans and chimpanzees are a result of human bipedalism. One difference is that humans have a far faster and more accurate throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances. Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "942048",
"title": "Adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Trade-offs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they can't scratch their backs; mammals' hair helps temperature, but offers a niche for ectoparasites; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4210",
"title": "Bipedalism",
"section": "Section::::Bipedal animals.:Mammals.:Primates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely. Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ayjco
|
"Rubbing Alcohol" is the main ingredient in most skin care (and other) products but we've all been told to basically not use it for anything except an antiseptic. Why?
|
[
{
"answer": "If I remember correctly, there are two big reasons for this:\n\nWhen the skin dries up, it flakes off and ends up in the pores which will cause more blemishes then when you originally started.\n\nSecond, because it dries up so much, your skin will try to regain a balance and then overproduce oils, creating a longterm problem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alcohol is used in these things to solubilize the other ingredients. As it's able to dissolve organic and polar substances. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "267787",
"title": "Rubbing alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "All rubbing alcohols are unsafe for human consumption: isopropyl rubbing alcohols do not contain the ethyl alcohol of alcoholic beverages; ethyl rubbing alcohols are based on denatured alcohol, which is a combination of ethyl alcohol and one or more bitter poisons that make the substance toxic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267787",
"title": "Rubbing alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Warnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Product labels for rubbing alcohol include a number of warnings about the chemical, including the flammability hazards and its intended use only as a topical antiseptic and not for internal wounds or consumption. It should be used in a well-ventilated area due to inhalation hazards. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or consumption of rubbing alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267787",
"title": "Rubbing alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Rubbing alcohol refers to either isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) or ethanol based liquids, or the comparable British Pharmacopoeia defined surgical spirit, with isopropyl alcohol products being the most widely available. Rubbing alcohol is undrinkable even if it is ethanol based, due to the bitterants added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267787",
"title": "Rubbing alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "They also have many industrial and household uses. The term \"rubbing alcohol\" has become a general non-specific term for either isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) or ethyl alcohol (ethanol) rubbing-alcohol products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993825",
"title": "Liquid",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Surfactants are commonly found in soaps and detergents. Solvents like alcohol are often used as antimicrobials. They are found in cosmetics, inks, and liquid dye lasers. They are used in the food industry, in processes such as the extraction of vegetable oil. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267787",
"title": "Rubbing alcohol",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The term \"rubbing alcohol\" came into prominence in North America in the mid-1920s. The \"original\" rubbing alcohol was literally used as a liniment for massage; hence the name. This original rubbing alcohol was rather different from today's precisely formulated surgical spirit; in some formulations it was perfumed and included different additives, notably a higher concentration of methyl salicylate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Alcohol-based hand rubs are extensively used in the hospital environment as an alternative to antiseptic soaps. Hand-rubs in the hospital environment have two applications: hygienic hand rubbing and surgical hand disinfection. Alcohol based hand rubs provide a better skin tolerance as compared to antiseptic soap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5m2l4c
|
When did the US Government begin doubting that China/Taiwan would ever retake the Chinese mainland?
|
[
{
"answer": "The US was never really under any illusions that the nationalists would somehow turn things around in the Civil War after they retreated to Taiwan. Even before the end of WW2 there had been multiple American observers and experts in China who had reported the Communists enjoyed much broader popularity than the Nationalists, and by 1949 the GMD was very obviously overwhelmed.\n\nBefore the Chinese entered the Korean War, the US was expecting an invasion by the mainland to finish things off, and the US government had diplomatically indicated that they weren't going to do anything about it. Only when the Chinese entered the Korean War did the US send the 7th Fleet to the Strait of China to prevent the invasion. They also began to provide the Taiwanese military with equipment and weapons.\n\nAfter the war the US certainly hoped that the CCP would crumble, but their support of Taiwan was based on denying the CCP territory, and especially on keeping China's UN security council vote out of the hands of the Communists. There was no real belief that Taiwan could attack the CCP.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "247668",
"title": "Kaohsiung Incident",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "On 16 December 1978, U.S. President Jimmy Carter announced that the U.S. would sever its official relationship with the Republic of China as of 1 January 1979. It was the most serious challenge to the Taiwan government since it lost its seat at the United Nations to the People's Republic of China in 1971. President Chiang Ching-kuo immediately postponed all elections without a definite deadline for its restoration. Tangwai, which had won steadily expanding support, was strongly frustrated and disappointed about Chiang's decision since it suspended the only legitimate method they could use to express their opinions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5162951",
"title": "Exclusive mandate",
"section": "Section::::Mainland China and Taiwan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "Since the end of the Chinese civil war in 1949, the Republic of China was limited to Taiwan (taken from Japan in 1945, ceded by Qing China in 1895 - although renounced in 1952) and a few islands near Fujian, while the People's Republic of China controlled mainland China, and since 1950 also the island of Hainan. Both Chinese governments claimed sovereignty over all of China, and regard the other government as being in rebellion. Until 1971, the Republic of China was a permanent member of the UN Security Council with veto power. Since then, however, it was excluded in favor of the People's Republic of China, and since 1972, it was also excluded from all UN-subcommittees. Since the death of Chiang Kai-shek in 1975, Republic of China no longer aggressively asserts its exclusive mandate and most of the world's nations have since broken their official diplomatic ties with Republic of China (except for 21 nations including Holy See as of 2008). Nevertheless, most nations, as well as the People's Republic government, continue to maintain unofficial relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277880",
"title": "China–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:The People's Republic of China and the United States.:Origins of the People's Republic of China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The United States did not formally recognize the People's Republic of China (PRC) for 30 years after its founding. Instead, the US maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China government on Taiwan, recognizing it as the sole legitimate government of China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951908",
"title": "Treaty of Taipei",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with the San Francisco Treaty.:Dates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Moreover, Japan formally surrendered its claim to sovereignty over Taiwan on 28 April 1952, thus calling into serious doubt the authority of Japan to formally make such an assignment regarding the status of Taiwan over three months later on 5 August 1952. Indeed, British and American officials did not recognize any transfer of Taiwan's sovereignty to \"China\" in either of the post-war treaties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12243680",
"title": "Aftermath of the Korean War",
"section": "Section::::People's Republic of China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "On the other hand, this meant China lost the opportunity to reunify Taiwan. Initially, the United States had abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to Beijing anyway, so the basic U.S. policy was to \"wait and see\" on the assumption that Taiwan's fall to Communist China was inevitable. However, the North Korean invasion of South Korea, in the context of the Cold War, meant U.S. President Truman intervened again and dispatched the Seventh Fleet to \"neutralize\" the Formosa (Taiwan) Strait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15996902",
"title": "Taiwan–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:ROC on Taiwan.:Beiyang and Nationalist era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "During the Pacific War, the United States and China were allies against Japan. In October 1945, a month after Japan's surrender, representatives of Chiang Kai-shek, on behalf of the Allied Powers, were sent to Formosa to accept the surrender of Japanese troops. However, during the period of the 1940s, there was no recognition by the United States Government that Taiwan had ever been incorporated into Chinese national territory. Chiang continued to remain suspicious of America's motives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992678",
"title": "Retrocession Day",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "BULLET::::- Taiwanese historian pointed out: After World War II ended, Republic of China officials went to Taiwan to accept the surrender of Japanese forces on behalf of the Allied Powers. Although they claimed that it was \"Taiwan Retrocession\", it was actually a provisional military occupation and was not a transfer of territories of Taiwan and Penghu. A transfer of territory requires a conclusion of an international treaty in order to be valid. But before the government of the Republic of China was able to conclude a treaty with Japan, it was overthrown by the Chinese Communist party and fled its territory. Consequently, that attributed to the controversy of the \"Undetermined Status of Taiwan\" and the controversy over \"Taiwan Retrocession\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ky24g
|
How do physics and astronomy undergrad majors differ?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are very similar, but you'd do better to get a degree in physics if you're really interested in high level astronomy. Astronomy degrees can focus too much on what may or may not be relevant to your interests. It's better to get a broad understanding of physics, rather than an astronomical based understanding of it. Your appreciation and understanding of astronomy will only benefit.\n\nIf you plan on going to grad school, many people recommend a math degree with either a duel degree in physics, or at least a minor. Almost everyone regrets not taking more math.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are very similar, but you'd do better to get a degree in physics if you're really interested in high level astronomy. Astronomy degrees can focus too much on what may or may not be relevant to your interests. It's better to get a broad understanding of physics, rather than an astronomical based understanding of it. Your appreciation and understanding of astronomy will only benefit.\n\nIf you plan on going to grad school, many people recommend a math degree with either a duel degree in physics, or at least a minor. Almost everyone regrets not taking more math.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711029",
"title": "Physics education",
"section": "Section::::Physics education in American universities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "The courses for physics major have much higher level than those two case that had been talked above. At the beginning of the college. Their courses have few difference with the physics courses for the general education of science major. After the first year, the physics majors need to go up and study many deeper knowledge. The first change of the course is that the scale of the courses is much more smaller than before due to the different major of students in high grade. And for the content of the course, the quantitative analysis is really important. Meanwhile, there is usually a solid of homework. The grades of the students are largely decided by the homework and exams. The non-academic part, such as particitation, discussion, would have little weight. Each year, there are some specific required courses. But students usually can make some change due to their own ability. Students who are enthusiastic can take the graduate level course in senior year. There are also some purely lab courses, which teach students how to do the advanced experiment and write the lab report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7395641",
"title": "Israel Arts and Science Academy",
"section": "Section::::Academics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Students may major in either natural sciences, music, visual arts, or humanities, though they study most subjects (those which are not related to their area of interest) in mixed classes. The science students choose one main subject, such as physics, chemistry, or biology, and they must also learn computer science and/or another subject.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23269",
"title": "Physicist",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics, electricity and magnetism, non-relativistic quantum mechanics, optics, statistical mechanics and thermodynamics, and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics (calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, complex analysis, etc.), and in computer science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6250722",
"title": "MIT Physics Department",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Undergraduate academics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "There are two paths to earning a bachelor's degree (SB) in physics from MIT. The first, \"Course 8 Focused Option\", is for students intending to continue studying physics in graduate school. The track offers a rigorous education in various fields in fundamental physics including classical and quantum mechanics, statistical physics, general relativity, electrodynamics, and higher mathematics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12696",
"title": "GRE Physics Test",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "United States undergraduate physics curriculum, since many students who plan to continue to graduate school apply during the first half of the fourth year. It consists of 100 five-option multiple-choice questions covering subject areas including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, wave phenomena and optics, thermal physics, relativity, atomic and nuclear physics, quantum mechanics, laboratory techniques, and mathematical methods. The table below indicates the relative weights, as asserted by ETS, and detailed contents of the major topics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711029",
"title": "Physics education",
"section": "Section::::Physics education in American universities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Undergraduate physics curricula in American universities includes courses for students choosing an academic major in physics, as well as for students majoring in other disciplines for whom physics courses provide essential prerequisite skills and knowledge. The term \"physics major\" can refer to the academic major in physics or to a student or graduate who has chosen to major in physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29871880",
"title": "Georgia Institute of Technology School of Physics",
"section": "Section::::Degrees offered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The School of Physics offers a bachelor's degree in both pure and Applied Physics plus both master's and doctoral degrees in several fields. These degrees are technically granted by the School's parent organization, the Georgia Tech College of Sciences, and often awarded in conjunction with other academic units within Georgia Tech. The graduate program was initiated under Joseph Howey's leadership and the undergraduate program grew in stature to become one of the larger departments in the United States. Howey remained at the helm of the School of Physics for 28 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
252kku
|
how do octopuses avoid giving themselves brain damage?
|
[
{
"answer": "They don't really have a localized brain, like we do. Rather, it is spread throughout their body, with a lot of neural tissue in the tentacles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22780",
"title": "Octopus",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Nervous system and senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The octopus (along with cuttlefish) has the highest brain-to-body mass ratios of all invertebrates; it is also greater than that of many vertebrates. It has a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localised in its brain, which is contained in a cartilaginous capsule. Two-thirds of an octopus's neurons are found in the nerve cords of its arms, which show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organised in their brain via an internal somatotopic map of its body, instead using a nonsomatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22780",
"title": "Octopus",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1114,
"text": "A benthic (bottom-dwelling) octopus typically moves among the rocks and feels through the crevices. The creature may make a jet-propelled pounce on prey and pull it towards the mouth with its arms, the suckers restraining it. Small prey may be completely trapped by the webbed structure. Octopuses usually inject crustaceans like crabs with a paralysing saliva then dismember them with their beaks. Octopuses feed on shelled molluscs either by forcing the valves apart, or by drilling a hole in the shell to inject a nerve toxin. It used to be thought that the hole was drilled by the radula, but it has now been shown that minute teeth at the tip of the salivary papilla are involved, and an enzyme in the toxic saliva is used to dissolve the calcium carbonate of the shell. It takes about three hours for \"O. vulgaris\" to create a hole. Once the shell is penetrated, the prey dies almost instantaneously, its muscles relax, and the soft tissues are easy for the octopus to remove. Crabs may also be treated in this way; tough-shelled species are more likely to be drilled, and soft-shelled crabs are torn apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10129055",
"title": "Common octopus",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Habitat and demands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Primarily, the octopus situates itself in a shelter where a minimal amount of its body is presented to the external water, which would pose a problem for an organism that breathes solely through its skin. When it does move, most of the time it is along the ocean or sea floor, in which case the underside of the octopus is still obscured. This crawling increases metabolic demands greatly, requiring they increase their oxygen intake by roughly 2.4 times the amount required for a resting octopus. This increased demand is met by an increase in the stroke volume of the octopus' heart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50558073",
"title": "Pain in cephalopods",
"section": "Section::::Research findings.:Peripheral nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "A science-based report from the University of British Columbia to the Canadian Federal Government has been quoted as stating \"The cephalopods, including octopus and squid, have a remarkably well developed nervous system and may well be capable of experiencing pain and suffering.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50558073",
"title": "Pain in cephalopods",
"section": "Section::::Research findings.:Behavioural responses.:Avoidance learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Avoidance learning in octopuses has been known since 1905. Noxious stimuli, for example electric shocks, have been used as \"negative reinforcers\" for training octpuses, squid and cuttlefish in discrimination studies and other learning paradigms. Repeated exposure to noxious stimuli can have long-term effects on behaviour. It has been shown that in octopuses, electric shocks can be used to develop a passive avoidance response leading to the cessation of attacking a red ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13001588",
"title": "Animal consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Octopuses are highly intelligent, possibly more so than any other order of invertebrates. The level of their intelligence and learning capability are debated, but maze and problem-solving studies show they have both short- and long-term memory. Octopus have a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localized in their brain. Two-thirds of an octopus' neurons are found in the nerve cords of their arms. Octopus arms show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organized in their brain using an internal somatotopic map of their body, instead using a non-somatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates. Some octopuses, such as the mimic octopus, move their arms in ways that emulate the shape and movements of other sea creatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4906482",
"title": "Vicious Circle (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Members.:Octopus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Octopus remained in prison until the Martian invasion decimated much of Chicago and allowed CyberFace to assert control. The police tried to get Octopus to help them bring down CyberFace but he escaped and gathered up the remains of his former pawn when his unstable body blew up. Octopus took this disembodied head and attached it to the body of BrainiApe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q1dai
|
why did we go from round headphone wires to flat ones?
|
[
{
"answer": "i'm not sure what you mean. all headphones i've bought in the past few years have round wires. can you give an example of these \"flat\" wires?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Flat wires do have a harder time getting tangled. Also some prefer them for aesthetic reasons. That's pretty much it. It's worth noting though that the conductors inside most \"flat\" wires are still round. Just the insulation is molded to look flat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51118813",
"title": "Coil winding technology",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Owing to the fact that a round wire will create air gaps that are not electrically used, the fill factor is always smaller than one. In order to achieve higher fill factors, rectangular or flat wire can be used. This can be wound on flat or upright.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2615047",
"title": "Speaker wire",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Early speaker cable was typically stranded copper wire, insulated with cloth tape, waxed paper or rubber. For portable applications, common lampcord was used, twisted in pairs for mechanical reasons. Cables were often soldered in place at one end. Other terminations were binding posts, terminal strips, and spade lugs for crimp connections. Two-conductor ¼-inch tip-sleeve phone jacks came into use in the 1920s and '30s as convenient terminations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2919766",
"title": "AS/NZS 3112",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "One of the reasons behind the adoption of that particular design was that it was cheap to make, with the flat pins being able to be easily stamped out of sheet brass, in contrast to round pins or thicker rectangular ones used in other countries. This was also a consideration when the Chinese authorities officially adopted the design in relatively recent times, despite the considerable inroads the British plug had made, because of its use in Hong Kong. The Chinese socket is normally mounted with the earth pin at the top. This is considered to offer some protection should a conductive object fall between the plug and the socket. The Chinese CPCS-CCC (Chinese 10 A/250 V) plugs and socket-outlets are almost identical, differing by only 1 mm longer pins and installed \"upside down\". Though AS 3112 plugs will physically connect, they may not be electrically compatible to the Chinese 220 V standards. Originally there was no convention as to the direction of the earth pin. Often it was facing upwards, as socket-outlets in China now do but it could also be downwards or horizontal, in either direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258959",
"title": "Phone connector (audio)",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Less common.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "A short-barrelled version of the phone plug was used for 20th century high-impedance mono headphones, and in particular those used in World War II aircraft. These have become rare. It is physically possible to use a normal plug in a short socket, but a short plug will neither lock into a normal socket nor complete the tip circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6771511",
"title": "Jewelry wire",
"section": "Section::::Wire shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Historically, all wire was round. Advances in technology now allow the manufacture of jewelry wire with different cross-sectional shapes, including circular, square, and half-round. Half round wire is often wrapped around other pieces of wire to connect them. Square wire is used for its appearance: the corners of the square add interest to the finished jewelry. Square wire can be twisted to create interesting visual effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243731",
"title": "Trimline telephone",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "First introduced in 1965, the Trimline included a lighted dial and was encased in a sleek, curved plastic housing that took up much less space than earlier Western Electric telephones. However, the glass-smooth and shallowly-curved plastic handset proved difficult to retain between cheek and shoulder for hands-free communication without slipping, and this problem was never corrected over the life of the model line. Cushioned clamp-on adaptors were manufactured and sold by third parties to make it easier to cradle the handset, but these add-ons would greatly compromise the aesthetic appearance of the telephone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6800207",
"title": "History of the telephone",
"section": "Section::::Early commercial instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Disadvantages of single wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from nearby AC power wires had already led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long distance telephones, four-wire circuits. Users at the beginning of the 20th century did not place long distance calls from their own telephones but made an appointment to use a special sound proofed long distance telephone booth furnished with the latest technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3spya0
|
who was the last living person to hold the position (however ceremonial) of a roman senator? When was the last time the Roman senate met?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Roman Senate continued to meet throughout the first part of the sixth century, and even enjoyed a renaissance of sorts under the barbaric rulers beginning with Odoacer and especially under Theodoric the Great. The Gothic Wars, though, devastated Italy in the mid-sixth century, and Rome was no exception. In 536, it was recaptured by the Eastern Romans; a siege began shortly thereafter in March 537 and lasted for a year; sacked in 546 by Totila (during the siege of which, a famine haunted the city); captured again in 550 by Totila; and finally captured for good by the Eastern Roman General Narses in 552. \n\nNonetheless, the Roman Senate did survive all these events, albeit in diminished form. We know that they continued to meet in some fashion because they pleaded Emperor Tiberius II Constantine for help against the Lombards in 578, sending an envoy to Constantinople with 3,000 pounds of gold. (The Emperor returned the gold, saying there were no troops to spare and instead advised the Senate to spend it on using it to secure support from Lombard and Frankish rulers)\n\nBut by 593, Pope Gregory I wrote the following in his Homilies on Ezekial (essentially a reflection on the dire state of the world):\n\n > Where is the senate? Where are the people? The senate is vanished, the people have perished... Rome is empty and yet Rome is burning.\n\nBy 593, Rome of course was not empty, and was probably a city of some 30,000 - 50,000, making it still one of the largest cities in Europe at the time even though it was a shadow of its former self. So what he said should not be taken literally, but it's indicative of the decline of the Roman Senate.\n\nThe last time the Senate is mentioned though is in 603 in the Gregorian Register, in which it is noted as having acclaimed new statues of Emperor Phocas and Empress Leontia. But, it's referenced in the register as, \"by the whole clergy and the senate.\" Moreover, the Pope ordered the statues to be moved to the chapel of the Imperial Palace on the Palatine. So it seems clear that in whatever form the Senate existed by 603, it was clearly no longer a significant body. After that time, there's no more references to the Senate, and we know that in 630, its meeting place (the Julia Curia) was converted to a church.\n\nI think it's worth quickly noting though that the Eastern Roman Senate continued to meet in Constantinople for hundreds of years afterward. It was mostly a ceremonial body during this time, although it did have some influence (in 1197, they exempted Constantinople, and thus themselves, from a special tax that the Emperor had specifically convened them to approve). \n\nAs for the last person to hold the position, I have no idea. Boethius is probably the last well-known Roman Senator (don't take my word for that), but the Senate continued to function for decades after his death in 524. The last consul was Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius in 541. After him, the title was added to the Imperial title until Emperor Leo VI got rid of it altogether in the late 9th century. \n\nSome sources:\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "378612",
"title": "Equites",
"section": "Section::::Augustan equestrian order (Principate era).:Differentiation of the senatorial order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The senate as a body was formed of sitting senators, whose number was held at around 600 by the founder of the \"principate\", Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – AD 14) and his successors until 312. Senators' sons and further descendants technically retained equestrian rank unless and until they won a seat in the senate. But Talbert argues that Augustus established the existing senatorial elite as a separate and superior order \"(ordo senatorius)\" to the \"equites\" for the first time. The evidence for this includes:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308602",
"title": "Princeps senatus",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "After the fall of the Roman Republic, the \"princeps senatus\" was the Roman Emperor, and during the period of the Principate, no other individual is believed to have held the office (see also: princeps). However, in the emperor's absence, it is possible that a Senator was granted the privilege of holding this role when the Senate met; the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta claimed that during the Crisis of the Third Century, some others held the position; in particular, it stated that the future emperor Valerian held the office in 238, during the reigns of Maximinus Thrax and Gordian I, and he continued to hold it through to the reign of Decius. The same source also makes the same claim about Tacitus when the Senate acclaimed him emperor in AD 275.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308602",
"title": "Princeps senatus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The princeps senatus (plural \"principes senatus\") was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate. Although officially out of the \"cursus honorum\" and owning no \"imperium\", this office brought conferred prestige on the senator holding it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1041766",
"title": "David Croll",
"section": "Section::::Federal politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "He remained an active senator until his death, even taking his seat in the \"Red Chamber\" a few hours before his death. He died of heart failure in the Château Laurier Hotel, a few hours after attending an afternoon senate session on June 11, 1991. At the time, he was the oldest serving senator, as he was appointed at a time when appointments to the senate were for life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28413",
"title": "Septimius Severus",
"section": "Section::::Early life.:Public service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "Around 162 Septimius Severus sought a public career in Rome. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, Emperor Marcus Aurelius () granted him entry into the senatorial ranks. Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the \"cursus honorum\" and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties. It is likely that he served as a \"vigintivir\" in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate. At the time of Marcus Aurelius he was the State Attorney (\"Advocatus fisci\"). However, he omitted the military tribunate from the \"cursus honorum\" and had to delay his quaestorship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25. To make matters worse, the Antonine Plague swept through the capital in 166.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16685964",
"title": "Roman Senate",
"section": "Section::::History.:Senate of the Roman Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The senate is said to have been created by Rome's first king, Romulus, initially consisting of 100 men. The descendants of those 100 men subsequently became the patrician class. Rome's fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosen from the minor leading families, and were accordingly called the \"patres minorum gentium\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378612",
"title": "Equites",
"section": "Section::::Augustan equestrian order (Principate era).:Differentiation of the senatorial order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "BULLET::::- Senators' sons followed a separate \"cursus honorum\" (career-path) to other \"equites\" before entering the senate: first an appointment as one of the \"vigintiviri\" (\"Committee of Twenty\", a body that included officials with a variety of minor administrative functions), or as an \"augur\" (priest), followed by at least a year in the military as \"tribunus militum laticlavius\" (deputy commander) of a legion. This post was normally held before the tribune had become a member of the senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5pmhiw
|
American and Russian submarines during WW2
|
[
{
"answer": "During WWII the United States Navy used the Mark 14 torpedo. The torpedo had a speed of 46 knots. Now it is unclear what class of Soviet submarine was being used but I can assure you that it would have been hopelessly outmatched in terms of submerged speed. From what I found the submerged top speed of most submarines of that era top out at around 10-14 knots. And actually that torpedo would be able to catch the fastest submarine in the world, the Soviet K-222 which had a top speed of 44.7 knots and was commissioned in 1969.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4551386",
"title": "History of submarines",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Post-War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. This continues today, on a much-reduced scale. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: \"K-129\" was lost in 1968 (which the CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship named Glomar Explorer), \"K-8\" in 1970, \"K -219\" in 1986 (subject of the film \"Hostile Waters\"), and \"Komsomolets\" (the only Mike class submarine) in 1989 (which held a depth record among the military submarines—1000 m, or 1300 m according to the article K-278). Many other Soviet subs, such as \"K-19\" (first Soviet nuclear submarine, and first Soviet sub at North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The United States lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS \"Thresher\" and \"Scorpion\". The Thresher was lost due to equipment failure, and the exact cause of the loss of the Scorpion is not known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28825",
"title": "Submarine",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:Cold-War military models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "During the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union lost at least four submarines during this period: was lost in 1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship \"Glomar Explorer\"), in 1970, in 1986, and in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—). Many other Soviet subs, such as (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: due to equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and due to unknown causes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40142800",
"title": "List of specifications of submarines of World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Submarines of World War II represented a wide range of capabilities with many types of varying specifications produced by dozens of countries. The principle countries engaged in submarine warfare during the war were Germany, Italy, Japan, the United States, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The Italian and Soviet fleets were the largest. While the German and US fleets fought anti-shipping campaigns (in the Atlantic and Pacific respectively), the British and Japanese submarines were mostly engaged against enemy warships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12130165",
"title": "American Holland-class submarine",
"section": "Section::::Operational service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "During World War I, the Russian subs operated together with the British submarine flotilla in the Baltic against the German Navy. This all changed with the October Revolution and the Finnish Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12130165",
"title": "American Holland-class submarine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The American Holland-class submarines, also AG class or A class, were Holland 602 type submarines used by the Imperial Russian and Soviet Navies in the early 20th century. The small submarines participated in the World War I Baltic Sea and Black Sea theatres and a handful of them also saw action during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188136",
"title": "Anti-submarine weapon",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.:Pacific Theater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Japan, the United States, Great Britain, The Netherlands, and Australia all employed anti-submarine forces in the Pacific Theater during World War II. Because the Japanese Navy tended to utilize its submarines against capital ships such as cruisers, battleships and aircraft carriers, U.S. and Allied anti-submarine efforts concentrated their work in support of fleet defense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26515164",
"title": "Hunter-killer Group",
"section": "Section::::Cold War preparations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "As Cold War tensions increased, the United States Navy formed modernized hunter-killer groups in anticipation of potential use of Soviet submarines to intercept North American shipping to European NATO allies. As modern anti-submarine aircraft became too large to operate from escort carriers, s were reclassified as anti-submarine warfare carriers (CVS). Some second world war destroyers were reclassified as escort destroyers (DDE) with guns and torpedoes replaced by RUR-4 Weapon Alpha or hedgehog. Operational doctrine anticipated each CVS would be accompanied by eight DDEs. Four DDEs would provide a close screen for the CVS while the other four attacked submarines detected by aircraft. The cost of Vietnam War combat operations prevented replacement of these ASW ships when they reached the end of their design life. Newly operational SOSUS and shore-based Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft assumed the mid-ocean ASW search and attack role of the disappearing CVS hunter-killer groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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