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1iyb1z
|
How was construction in ancient cities prioritized?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dur Sharrukin was a brand new capital city built by Sargon II from 716 BC to 706 BC. The outer walls measured 1.76 km x 1.635 km, had 157 towers and seven gates. There was a large barracks, built in the south west quarter of the city. The palace and three important temples were built on a terrace on the northern edge of the city. There was a small working class residential district near the cerimonial core of the city. However, more than eighty percent of the land inside the city wall remained undeveloped. Sargon II soon died, and the Assyrian court, which had just recently moved into Dur Sharrukin, moved to another capital city. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "79204",
"title": "Architecture of Mesopotamia",
"section": "Section::::Urban planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The construction of cities was the end product of trends which began in the Neolithic Revolution. The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic. Planning is evident in the walls, high temple district, main canal with harbor, and main street. The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the spatial limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with regular features. Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the urban growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46187086",
"title": "History of urban planning",
"section": "Section::::Pre-classical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "The pre-Classical and Classical periods saw a number of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were characteristic of the Minoan, Mesopotamian, Harrapan, and Egyptian civilisations of the third millennium BC (see Urban planning in ancient Egypt). The first recorded description of urban planning appears in the Epic of Gilgamesh: \"Go up on to the wall of Uruk and walk around. Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinise the brickwork. Testify that its bricks are baked bricks, And that the Seven Counsellors must have laid its foundations. One square mile is city, one square mile is orchards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the open ground of Ishtar's temple.Three square miles and the open ground comprise Uruk. Look for the copper tablet-box, Undo its bronze lock, Open the door to its secret, Lift out the lapis lazuli tablet and read.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52685",
"title": "Ancient Roman architecture",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and Colosseum. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centers, as did the use of slave labor, both skilled and unskilled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8938191",
"title": "Architecture of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Roman period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Architecture developed significantly in the 2nd century BC with the arrival of the Romans, who called the Iberian Peninsula Hispania. Conquered settlements and villages were often modernised following Roman models, with the building of a forum, streets, theatres, temples, baths, aqueducts and other public buildings. An efficient array of roads and bridges was built to link the cities and other settlements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46212943",
"title": "Urban planning",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1759,
"text": "There is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan, and Egyptian civilizations in the third millennium BCE. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it. Beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal (or grid-like) plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities. City planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning. As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center. Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But in the following centuries some newly created towns were built according to preconceived plans, and many others were enlarged with newly planned extensions. From the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which theoretical questions are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities. During the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9309233",
"title": "Architecture of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to go discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5391",
"title": "City",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "Cities, characterized by population density, symbolic function, and urban planning, have existed for thousands of years. In the conventional view, civilization and the city both followed from the development of agriculture, which enabled production of surplus food, and thus a social division of labour (with concomitant social stratification) and trade. Early cities often featured granaries, sometimes within a temple. A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing), to use as communal seasonal shelters, to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization, or to their inherent economic function. Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as Alexander the Great founded and created them with zeal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xxynm
|
why do most unknown calls i receive on my home phone end up having no one on the other end?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're usually from call centres where they have a machine automatically call numbers on a pre-assigned list. Then, when a voice is detected on your end, someone is connected on their end to talk to you. It saves them time, even if it does result it people going \"Huh. No one there\" and hanging up before they get a chance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "940774",
"title": "Telephone numbers in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Length of numbers.:10 digit numbers.:Area codes (市外局番 \"shigai-kyokuban\") of selected major cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Many of these towns have in fact refused to merge, leaving callers with more digits to dial when making local calls. This is partially balanced by not having to dial an area code for the neighboring city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2930079",
"title": "Special information tone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Because the SIT is well known in many countries, callers can understand that their call has failed, even though they do not understand the language of the recorded announcement (e.g., when calling internationally) instead of assuming the recording is voicemail or some other intended function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10761731",
"title": "Pocket dialing",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Accidental calls are often cited as being one of the more annoying consequences of cell phone usage. Given the haphazard nature of inadvertent dialing, most actual misconnections do not result from the selection of random numbers. Instead, pocket dialing frequently triggers the \"recently dialed\" and \"contact\" lists that are contained within modern cell phones. The caller is frequently unaware that the call has taken place, whereas the recipient of the call often hears background conversation and background noises such as the rustling of clothes. Due to the dialing of common numbers, the recipient is likely to know the caller, and may overhear conversations that the caller would not want them to hear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23943222",
"title": "Evil Things",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "The phone rings again with no answer, and then the line is cut. No one can get a signal on their cell phones. The group decide to leave but when they run out to the car they see that it is missing. A van pulls up in the driveway, scaring the group back into the house. As everyone tries to get a signal on their phones again, all the power in the house goes out. Miriam finally gets a signal on her phone and dials 9-1-1, but the call drops out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44844",
"title": "Deixis",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Traditional categories.:Spatial deixis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Despite its common usage to address people who call with no one answering the phone, the \"here\" here is semantically contradictory to one's absence. Nevertheless, this is considered normal for most people as speakers have to project themselves as answering the phone when in fact they are not physically. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7898095",
"title": "Rodger Young Village",
"section": "Section::::Living conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Few families had telephones, relying instead on phone booths located about 100 feet apart. When a phone call would come, whoever was closest at the moment would answer, while the neighborhood children would run to see who the call was for, then pass the word to that person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10761731",
"title": "Pocket dialing",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "In addition to the inconvenience and embarrassment that may result from an erroneously dialed number, the phenomenon can have other consequences including using up a phone user's airtime minutes. Accidental calls, if not hung up immediately, tie up the recipient's phone line. If this is a landline, the recipient may have difficulty in disconnecting the call in order to use the phone, as networks sometimes define a timeout period between the recipient hanging up and the call actually being cleared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fl30u
|
Why is Zeta(0) equal to -1/2?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is because the zeta function is not defined to be equal to that sum on the entire complex plane; it is only given by the sum you're looking at when Re(s) > 1. The Riemann Zeta function is actually defined to be the analytic continuation of the function given by the sum in the half plane Re(s) > 1.\n\nThere isn't one very easy proof of the fact that Re(0) = -1/2 without first developing some tools about the zeta function. If you're willing to assume some equations, then [Wikipedia has a clean proof](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19344125",
"title": "Riemann hypothesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The Riemann zeta function ζ(\"s\") is a function whose argument \"s\" may be any complex number other than 1, and whose values are also complex. It has zeros at the negative even integers; that is, ζ(\"s\") = 0 when \"s\" is one of −2, −4, −6, ... These are called its \"trivial zeros\". However, the negative even integers are not the only values for which the zeta function is zero. The other ones are called \"non-trivial zeros\". The Riemann hypothesis is concerned with the locations of these non-trivial zeros, and states that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490303",
"title": "Basel problem",
"section": "Section::::The Riemann zeta function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The Riemann zeta function is one of the most significant functions in mathematics because of its relationship to the distribution of the prime numbers. The zeta function is defined for any complex number with real part greater than 1 by the following formula:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8908740",
"title": "Occurrences of Grandi's series",
"section": "Section::::Dirichlet series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "where ζ is the Riemann zeta function. Keeping Grandi's series in mind, this relation explains why ζ(0) = −⁄; see also 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + · · ·. The relation also implies a much more important result. Since \"η\"(\"z\") and (1 − 2) are both analytic on the entire plane and the latter function's only zero is a simple zero at \"z\" = 1, it follows that ζ(\"z\") is meromorphic with only a simple pole at \"z\" = 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "115742",
"title": "Zeta distribution",
"section": "Section::::Moments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Note that the ratio of the zeta functions is well defined, even for \"n\" \"s\" − 1 because the series representation of the zeta function can be analytically continued. This does not change the fact that the moments are specified by the series itself, and are therefore undefined for large \"n\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166763",
"title": "Zeta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Zeta (uppercase Ζ, lowercase ζ; , , classical or \"zē̂ta\"; \"zíta\") is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 7. It was derived from the Phoenician letter zayin . Letters that arose from zeta include the Roman Z and Cyrillic З.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34471935",
"title": "Arithmetic zeta function",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In mathematics, the arithmetic zeta function is a zeta function associated with a scheme of finite type over integers. The arithmetic zeta function generalizes the Riemann zeta function and Dedekind zeta function to higher dimensions. The arithmetic zeta function is one of the most-fundamental objects of number theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406952",
"title": "Hurwitz zeta function",
"section": "Section::::Relation to Dirichlet \"L\"-functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "At rational arguments the Hurwitz zeta function may be expressed as a linear combination of Dirichlet L-functions and vice versa: The Hurwitz zeta function coincides with Riemann's zeta function ζ(\"s\") when \"q\" = 1, when \"q\" = 1/2 it is equal to (2−1)ζ(\"s\"), and if \"q\" = \"n\"/\"k\" with \"k\" 2, (\"n\",\"k\") 1 and 0 \"n\" \"k\", then\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28ij4p
|
Why does the metal from meteorites have such a distinctive zig-zag pattern?
|
[
{
"answer": "That pattern, called a [Widmanstatten pattern](_URL_1_) is due to the crystallization of iron and nickel minerals in the meteorite cooling very slowly. Here, 'very slowly' means a few hundred or thousand degrees C every *million years*. This slow cooling allows for large crystals of these minerals to form. They are actually interlaced crystals of two different alloys of iron and nickel. One type basically grows within the other type. [Here's an excellent review that explains the formation](_URL_0_).\n\nThe patterns are visible when meteorites are cut, polished, and etched using nitric acid or ferric chloride. These chemicals dissolve different minerals at different rates so you can eat away at one of the alloys more than the other, giving contrast to the two regions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1447255",
"title": "Widmanstätten pattern",
"section": "Section::::Structures in non-meteoritic materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "When an iron meteorite is forged into a tool or weapon, the Widmanstätten patterns remain, but become stretched and distorted. The patterns usually cannot be fully eliminated by blacksmithing, even through extensive working. When a knife or tool is forged from meteoric iron and then polished, the patterns appear in the surface of the metal, albeit distorted, but they tend to retain some of the original octahedral shape and the appearance of thin lamellae criss-crossing each other. Pattern-welded steels such as Damascus steel also bear patterns, but they are easily discernible from any Widmanstätten pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144979",
"title": "Meteora",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "This type of rock formation and weathering process has happened in many other places locally and throughout the world, but what makes Meteora's appearance special is firstly, the uniformity of the sedimentary rock constituents deposited over millions of years leaving few signs of vertical layering, and secondly, the localised abrupt vertical weathering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15318146",
"title": "Allende meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The meteorite was formed from nebular dust and gas during the early formation of the Solar System. It is a \"stony\" meteorite, as opposed to an \"iron,\" or \"stony iron,\" the other two general classes of meteorite. Most Allende stones are covered, in part or in whole, by a black, shiny crust created as the stone descended at great speed through the atmosphere as it was falling towards the earth from space. This causes the exterior of the stone to become very hot, melting it, and forming a glassy \"fusion crust.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19937",
"title": "Meteorite",
"section": "Section::::Fall phenomena.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "As meteoroids are heated during atmospheric entry, their surfaces melt and experience ablation. They can be sculpted into various shapes during this process, sometimes resulting in shallow thumbprint-like indentations on their surfaces called regmaglypts. If the meteoroid maintains a fixed orientation for some time, without tumbling, it may develop a conical \"nose cone\" or \"heat shield\" shape. As it decelerates, eventually the molten surface layer solidifies into a thin fusion crust, which on most meteorites is black (on some achondrites, the fusion crust may be very light colored). On stony meteorites, the heat-affected zone is at most a few mm deep; in iron meteorites, which are more thermally conductive, the structure of the metal may be affected by heat up to below the surface. Reports vary; some meteorites are reported to be \"burning hot to the touch\" upon landing, while others are alleged to have been cold enough to condense water and form a frost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1447255",
"title": "Widmanstätten pattern",
"section": "Section::::Lamellae formation mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The crystalline patterns become visible when the meteorites are cut, polished, and acid etched, because taenite is more resistant to the acid. In the picture shown, the broad white bars are \"kamacite\" (dimensions in the mm-range), and the thin line-like ribbons are \"taenite\". The dark mottled areas are called \"plessite\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3930637",
"title": "Count Alois von Beckh Widmanstätten",
"section": "Section::::Thomson structure (Widmanstätten pattern) discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In 1808, he independently discovered some metallographic patterns, now called Widmanstätten patterns in iron meteorites, by flame-heating a slab of Hraschina meteorite. The different iron alloys of meteorites oxidized at different rates during heating, causing color and luster differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18417982",
"title": "Seymchan (meteorite)",
"section": "Section::::Composition and classification.:Specimens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Due to the heterogeneous structure of Seymchan, there are two types of specimens: with or without olivine crystals. It is worthy to note that the specimen pictured to the left shows an interesting, seldom seen feature of iron meteorites. The Widmanstätten pattern on the left hand side of the specimen is visibly bent. This is caused by the shearing of the meteorite as it broke up during atmospheric entry and serves as testimony of the violent experience a meteor is subject to as it falls through the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m4hkw
|
How does parasitism between a host and a parasite of different domains work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They aren't really tinkering with the code so much as producing an enviornment that induces the host to do something. It's more like instigating a pearl to form using a bead than genetic engineering (though the analogy isn't perfect).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > This might be a senseless question but I cannot wrap my head aroud a concept that organisms so different like an animal and a plant, or a fungus and an animal etc, are able to tinker with the genetic code af an almost completely alien life form to their advantage.\n\nI have objections to two assumptions that seem implicit to that question.\n\nThe first is that animals, plants, and fungi aren't really that alien on a cellar level. All eukaryoes share the same type of ribosomes, and thus translate DNA into proteins the same way. This is even similar enough to prokaryote ribosomes that bacterial RNA can often also be transcribed.\n\nAll eukaryoes have mitochondrea that differ in little more than genetic drift.\n\nSure, there are many novel proteins in any species and the cell wall results in rather different cell division in plants, but overall plants and animals are more similar than different on a cellular level.\n\nThe second issue is that parasitism (outside of viruses) rarely involves direct modification of existing genetic code. It is usually accomplished by comparably indirect manipulation of its enzymatic expression which exploits vulnerabilities and shortcomings in cellular regulation that don't arise under normal circumstances. This is usually accomplished by the introduction of a foreign chemical substance that disrupts those regulatory processes.\n\nAn example of such a disruptive chemical would be the botulinum toxin (commonly known as botulism or botox) produced by the bacteria of the same name which degrades proteins needed for neuron functionality, leading to paralysis and sometimes death. Most parasitism similarly just prevents or perverts the functionlity of normal biological processes, rather than rewrite them entirely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know about wasps (and it seems like the mechanism is generally unknown), but other organisms--such as bacteria, fungi, and worms--manipulate the plant's own growth systems to induce gall formation. \n\nIn plants, growth is regulated by hormones which spread throughout the plant. Two important ones that control vertical and lateral growth are auxin and cytokinin. Invading gall-forming species often cause the plant to produce more of these hormones so that normal growth is disrupted and galls form. \n\nMany parasites don't change the genomic makeup of the plant. Some organisms produce chemicals that influence the plant to produce more hormone, and others go ahead and produce more of the hormone itself. The dramatically increased local concentration of the hormone induces gall formation. \n\nHowever, some parasitic gall-forming bacteria do change the genomic makeup of the plant host. A bacterium widely used in plant genetic engineering is named Agrobacterium. When it infects, the plant, it causes the cells to take up its bacterial DNA. Its bacterial DNA contains genes that code for increased auxin production. When the plant cell incorporates the genes, the genes are expressed and auxin is locally produced in much higher concentrations. This causes gall formation. So in short, the bacteria have genes that have a product they want the plant to produce, so they just essentially stick their genes in the plant. They don't actively change the plant cell's DNA, however. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43937",
"title": "Parasitism",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary strategies.:Basic concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Parasitism is a kind of symbiosis, a close and persistent long-term biological interaction between a parasite and its host. Unlike commensalism and mutualism, the parasitic relationship harms the host, either feeding on it or, as in the case of intestinal parasites, consuming some of its food. However, parasites are different from saprophytes. Because parasites interact with other species, they can readily act as vectors of pathogens, causing disease. Predation is by definition not a symbiosis, as the interaction is brief, but the entomologist E. O. Wilson has characterised parasites as \"predators that eat prey in units of less than one\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214053",
"title": "Host (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Hosts to parasites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Parasites follow a wide variety of evolutionary strategies, placing their hosts in an equally wide range of relationships. Parasitism implies host–parasite coevolution, including the maintenance of gene polymorphisms in the host, where there is a trade-off between the advantage of resistance to a parasite and a cost such as disease caused by the gene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73592",
"title": "Toxoplasmosis",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Parasitology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "As it forces its way into the host cell, the parasite forms a parasitophorous vacuole (PV) membrane from the membrane of the host cell. The PV encapsulates the parasite, and is both resistant to the activity of the endolysosomal system, and can take control of the host's mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43937",
"title": "Parasitism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "In evolutionary biology, parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson has characterised parasites as \"predators that eat prey in units of less than one\". Parasites include protozoans such as the agents of malaria, sleeping sickness, and amoebic dysentery; animals such as hookworms, lice, mosquitoes, and vampire bats; fungi such as honey fungus and the agents of ringworm; and plants such as mistletoe, dodder, and the broomrapes. There are six major parasitic strategies of exploitation of animal hosts, namely parasitic castration, directly transmitted parasitism (by contact), trophically transmitted parasitism (by being eaten), vector-transmitted parasitism, parasitoidism, and micropredation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240244",
"title": "Biological interaction",
"section": "Section::::Symbiosis: long-term interactions.:Parasitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The parasite either feeds on the host, or, in the case of intestinal parasites, consumes some of its food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51046084",
"title": "Social immunity",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:In insects.:Inhibiting parasite uptake into the nest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "A parasite may be passively transported into a nest by a group member or may actively search for the nest; once inside, parasite transmission can be vertical (from mother to daughter colony into the next generation) or horizontally (between/within colonies). In eusocial insects, the most frequent defence against parasite uptake into the nest is to prevent infection during and/or after foraging, and a wide range of active and prophylactic mechanisms have evolved to this end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39626",
"title": "Symbiosis",
"section": "Section::::Parasitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "In a parasitic relationship, the parasite benefits while the host is harmed. Parasitism takes many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host's body to ectoparasites and parasitic castrators that live on its surface and micropredators like mosquitoes that visit intermittently. Parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life; as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Moreover, almost all free-living animal species are hosts to parasites, often of more than one species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pmz1a
|
We all used to eats boogers: what effect could/did that have?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unfortunately I can't find the study, but a while ago (2-3 years ago) I ran across an article suggesting that eating boogers was a pseudo-vaccination, killing whatever got caught and allowing the inert form to be ingested to create antibodies. However, due to the levels of pollution in most places, it's probably not too healthy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You swallow the mucus that holds boogers together all the time. The mucus is made in the nose and skin lining the breathing passages, and naturally drains down your throat. It has proteins in it, so they can be re-digested and used. They boogers, as you call them, are trapped particles like pollen and dust (nose hair and cilia, which are \"cell hairs\", also trap or move mucus and particles) caught up in the mucus to protect your lungs from infection. Your stomach and digestive tract are much more resistant to infection by things you breathe in, so by swallowing the mucus naturally (I'm not saying boogers here, because that's an esthetic/social issue) you pretty much neutralize its potential danger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3390671",
"title": "Cribbing (horse)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Boredom, stress, habit and addiction are all possible causes of cribbing and wind-sucking. It was proposed in a 2002 study that the link between intestinal conditions such as gastric inflammation or colic and abnormal oral behavior was attributable to environmental factors. There is evidence that stomach ulcers may be correlated to a horse becoming a cribber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25182036",
"title": "Eating mucus",
"section": "Section::::Possible reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Mucophagy has also been referred to as a \"tension phenomenon\" based on children's ability to function in their environment. The different degrees of effectively fitting in socially may indicate psychiatric disorders or developmental stress reactions. However, most parents view these habits as pathological issues. Moreover, Andrade and Srihari cited a study performed by Sidney Tarachow of the State University of New York which reported that people who ate their boogers found them \"tasty.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26534334",
"title": "Anorexia nervosa",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "BULLET::::- Purging: May use laxatives, diet pills, ipecac syrup, or water pills to flush food out of their system after eating or may engage in self-induced vomiting though this is a more common symptom of bulimia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8484755",
"title": "Open Season (2006 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "When Boog becomes sick from eating too many candy bars, events quickly spiral out of control, as the two raid the town's grocery store. Elliot escapes before Boog is caught by a friend of Beth's, police officer Gordy. At the nature show, Elliot being chased by Shaw, sees Boog, which \"attacks\" him. This causes the whole audience to panic. Shaw attempts to shoot Boog and Elliot, but Beth sedates them both with a tranquilizer gun just before Shaw fires his gun. Shaw flees before Gordy can arrest him for shooting a gun in the town. The two troublemakers are banned from the town and into the Timberline National Forest, only three days before open season starts, but they are relocated above the waterfalls, where they will be safe from the hunters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25182036",
"title": "Eating mucus",
"section": "Section::::Possible reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Stefan Gates in his book \"Gastronaut\" discusses eating dried nasal mucus, and says that 44% of people he questioned said they had eaten their own dried nasal mucus in adulthood and said they liked it. As mucus filters airborne contaminants, eating it could be thought to be unhealthy; Gates comments that \"our body has been \"built\" to consume snot\", because the nasal mucus is normally swallowed after being moved inside by the motion of the cilia. Friedrich Bischinger, a lung specialist at Privatklinik Hochrum in Innsbruck, says that nose-picking and eating could actually be beneficial for the immune system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20328570",
"title": "Dried nasal mucus",
"section": "Section::::Eating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Stefan Gates in his book \"Gastronaut\" discusses eating dried nasal mucus, and says that 44% of people he questioned said they had eaten their own dried nasal mucus in adulthood and said they liked it. As mucus filters airborne contaminants, eating it could be thought to be unhealthy; Gates comments that \"our body has been \"built\" to consume snot\", because the nasal mucus is normally swallowed after being moved inside by the motion of the cilia. Friedrich Bischinger, a lung specialist at Privatklinik Hochrum in Innsbruck, says that nose-picking and eating could actually be beneficial for the immune system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38857340",
"title": "Amphistomiasis",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "Adult flukes are known to be quite harmless, as they do not attack on the host tissue. It is the immature flukes which are most damaging as they get attached to the intestinal wall, literally and actively sloughing off of the tissue. This necrosis is indicated by haemorrhage in faeces, which in turn is a sign of severe enteritis. Under such condition the animals become anorexic and lethargic. It is often accompanied by pronounced diarrhoea, dehydration, oedema, polydipsia, anaemia, listlessness and weight loss. In sheep profuse diarrhoea usually develops two to four weeks after initial infection. If infection is not properly attended death can ensue within 20 days, and in a farm mortality can be very high. In fact there are intermittent reports of mortality as high as 80% among sheep and cattle. Sometimes chronic form is also seen with severe emaciation, anaemia, rough coat, mucosal oedema, thickened duodenum and oedema in the sub maxillary space. The terminally sick animals lie prostrate on the ground, completely emaciated until they die. In buffalos, severe haemorrhage was found to be associated with liver cirrhosis and nodular hepatitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hjgas
|
when you jump into a cold lake (say 60°f or ~15°c) why does the water no longer feel cold after about 5 minutes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your body has mechanisms in place to warm you up should you be in a cold environment. Dilated blood vessels provide a flush of warmth, and shivering also produces warmth. By doing this, your body can increase its internal temperature and keep you a bit more comfortable. Stay in too long though, and your vessels will end up constricting, because your body deems it's too cold and ends up preserving heat for your vital organs.\n\nHowever, if you're staying in that cold water for too long, it'll cool your blood and by association, the rest of your body and that's how hypothermia happens. Stay comfortable, but stay warm. Old people can die of hypothermia simply by falling onto a cold floor without getting help getting up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4886790",
"title": "Winter swimming",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Winter swimming can be dangerous to people who are not used to swimming in very cold water. After submersion in cold water the cold shock response will occur, causing an uncontrollable gasp for air. This is followed by hyperventilation, a longer period of more rapid breathing. The gasp for air can cause a person to ingest water, which leads to drowning. As blood in the limbs is cooled and returns to the heart, this can cause fibrillation and consequently cardiac arrest. The cold shock response and cardiac arrest are the most common causes of death related to cold water immersion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219367",
"title": "Drowning",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Cold water immersion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474931",
"title": "Diving physics",
"section": "Section::::Physical phenomena of interest to divers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "BULLET::::- Water at near-freezing temperatures is less dense than slightly warmer water - maximum density of water is at about 4°C - so when near freezing, water may be slightly warmer at depth than at the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3543130",
"title": "Underwater diving",
"section": "Section::::Physiological constraints on diving.:Exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives the initial minute after falling into cold water can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they do not drown. The ability to stay afloat declines substantially after about ten minutes as the chilled muscles lose strength and co-ordination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24027000",
"title": "Properties of water",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Water, ice, and vapor.:Density of water and ice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is vital to life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the very cold water at the surface of lakes and other water bodies would sink, the lake could freeze from the bottom up, and all life in them would be killed. Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer. The layer of ice that floats on top insulates the water below. Water at about 4 °C (39 °F) also sinks to the bottom, thus keeping the temperature of the water at the bottom constant (see diagram).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54637386",
"title": "Physiology of underwater diving",
"section": "Section::::Exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives the initial minute of trauma after falling into icy water can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they don't drown. However, the ability to perform useful work like staying afloat declines substantially after ten minutes as the body protectively cuts off blood flow to \"non-essential\" muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4886790",
"title": "Winter swimming",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Care should be taken when winter swimming in swimming pools and seas near the polar regions. The chlorine added to water in swimming pools and the salt in seawater allow the water to remain liquid at sub-zero temperatures. Swimming in such water is significantly more challenging and dangerous. The experienced winter swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh swam near the North Pole in water and suffered a frostbite injury in his fingers. It took him four months to regain sensation in his hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4px5ja
|
what's the difference between nuclear and thermonuclear?
|
[
{
"answer": "Usuaully Nuclear weapons are basic uranium or plutonium based 1 stage nuclear bombs that function by triggering a single fission reaction which causes a highly radioactive material to \"break\" apart and release large ammounts of energy. \n\nThermonuclear is used to describe Fusion devices which usualy fuse Hydrogen in to helium and release energy that way, a Thermonuclear weapon uses an initial fission explosion to \"kickstart\" a 2nd stage fusion explosion. thats why Hydrogen bombs are usualy refered to as \"Thermonuclear bombs\"\n\nTL;DR\n\n- Nuclear = Fission = Breaks apart atoms to generate energy \n- Thermonuclear = Fusion = Joins Atoms from element A in to Element B to generate energy. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A nuclear fission reaction (as in a nuclear power plant and every nuclear bomb) can happen at any temperature range, since all that happens is that a neutron hits an atom of a nuclear fuel (like Pu-239), and causes a fission reaction. Nuclear bombs and powerplants work by making it more likely for neutrons to hit nuclear fuel instead of something else, and thus creating a chain reaction. A real world analogy would be a landslide or avalanche.\n\nA *thermo*nuclear fusion reaction doesn't rely on neutrons, but happens spontaneously if pressure and temperature is high enough, and the atoms are so close to one another that they can react. A thermonuclear bomb creates this condition by using a conventional nuclear bomb in a way that it squeezes the fusion fuel between two layers of uranium. It has some similarity to the way spontaneous combustion is used in a diesel engine: You expend energy to compress the air so much that it can ignite the injected diesel fuel, in the process creating far more energy than you used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2269463",
"title": "Thermonuclear weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "A thermonuclear weapon, or fusion weapon, is a second-generation nuclear weapon design. Its greater sophistication over pure fission weapons may afford it vastly greater destructive power than first-generation atomic bombs, a more compact size, a lower mass or a combination of these benefits. Characteristics of nuclear fusion reactions make possible the use of non-fissile depleted uranium as the weapon's main fuel, thus allowing more efficient use of scarce fissile material (U-235 and Pu-239).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34761780",
"title": "Nuclear power in space",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Fission systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Nuclear thermal propulsion systems (NTR) are based on the heating power of a fission reactor, offering a more efficient propulsion system than one powered by chemical reactions. Current research focuses more on nuclear electric systems as the power source for providing thrust to propel spacecraft that are already in space. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2269463",
"title": "Thermonuclear weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above , virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the five nuclear-weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller–Ulam design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57674689",
"title": "List of nuclear power systems in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "This list of nuclear power systems in space includes nuclear power systems that were flown to space, or launched in an attempt to reach space. Examples of nuclear power systems include radioisotope heater units (RHU), Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG), thermionic converters, and fission reactors. Initial total spacecraft power is provided as electrical energy (We) or thermal energy (Wt), depending on the intended application.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10373265",
"title": "Timeline of the North Korean nuclear program",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Compared to fission weapons, thermonuclear designs are exceedingly complex, and staged weapons in particular are so complex that only five countries (USA, Russia, France, UK, China) have created them in more than 70 years of research. The fuels for an H-bomb are also far more difficult to create. Several countries with long-standing nuclear weapons programs, such as India and Pakistan, are suspected of striving towards a hybrid or \"boosted\" design instead, which is easier. Since both fusion weapons and hybrid designs can at times be referred to as \"hydrogen bombs\", it cannot be said with certainty at present, what type of weapon North Korea may have been referring to in any given test. At present, analysts are skeptical of the 2016 test being a staged thermonuclear design, while noting that the most recent test, in 2017, was considerably more powerful. In 2018, North Korea had offered and was reportedly preparing for inspections at nuclear and missile sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172911",
"title": "Nuclear weapon design",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear reactions.:Tritium production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Of the four basic types of nuclear weapon, the first, pure fission, uses the first of the three nuclear reactions above. The second, fusion-boosted fission, uses the first two. The third, two-stage thermonuclear, uses all three.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47628",
"title": "Bomb",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Nuclear fusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "A thermonuclear weapon is a type of nuclear bomb that releases energy through the combination of fission and fusion of the light atomic nuclei of deuterium and tritium. With this type of bomb, a thermonuclear detonation is triggered by the detonation of a fission type nuclear bomb contained within a material containing high concentrations of deuterium and tritium. Weapon yield is typically increased with a tamper that increases the duration and intensity of the reaction through inertial confinement and neutron reflection. Nuclear fusion bombs can have arbitrarily high yields making them hundreds or thousands of times more powerful than nuclear fission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p7cxq
|
Do electric motors in cars have a limited lifespan?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not forever. Ac motors have bearings which will need periodic replacement, windings with relatively delicate insulation over many turns of thin wire, and a metal cage with a rotor. Stick all this in a bouncy box that accelerates and brakes constantly. Sure must of these issues can be minimized with good engineering but they are still issues. I've seen motors last many years but a car is a pretty tough environment with pretty harsh and variable demands. Motors will fail. I'd say ten to fifteen years of a trouble free running motor will be a good and attainable result. \n\nThis is just the motor I'm talking about all the rest of the running gear (suspension, cv's, etc) will have the same issues as a car with an internal combustion engine. \n\nSource: electrician. Been working with AC motors and speed controllers for years. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Longer lifespan costs money, in a high volume business like commercial automobiles parts are built to survive a specific age with some certainty. In my niche industry (electronics for automotive safety) the target is 20 years. Saving even a few cents per vehicle amounts to millions of dollars in mass production.\n\nThe other side of the equation is that the products usually have requirements in the form of must live for at least 20 years with less than 50% failure rate. If you use an exponential model for lifetime (common for electronics) this means that the mean time between failure is around 30 years.\n\nThe requirements and models are of course more complicated then what I describe, but that is the gist of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know the details of the Tesla, or theLeaf, but most electrical motors are pretty durable, and the biggest point of failure is the bearings on the shaft. But these are usually cartridge bearings, so , replace them.\nI think the electric (pure electric) car will have a much larger lifespan than internal combustion cars.\nInternal combustion is so much more complicated. Taking a liquid fuel, mixing it with air, just right combination, and having a timed controlled explosion in a finely machined engine, made of blocks of metal, held together with gaskets in between. The fuel, the explosion, the exhaust, oil to lubricate the device, and even coolant to keep the thing under control. And most of these things can't mix, or the engine gets ruined, smokes, etc.\nSo, you don't say \"Hey, I'll just put in a new piston ring on number 3 cylinder\", because putting the machined parts together is a lot of labor. Again, not familiar with the specifics of Teslas, etc, but putting a cartridge bearing on an electric motor isn't so complicated. It's not running as hot, it doesn't have all those fluids being pumped through it like gas engines.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8340209",
"title": "Alternative fuel vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Multiple fuel source.:Hybrids.:Pedal-assisted electric hybrid vehicle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "In very small vehicles, the power demand decreases, so human power can be employed to make a significant improvement in battery life. Two such commercially made vehicles are the Sinclair C5 and TWIKE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41834",
"title": "Uninterruptible power supply",
"section": "Section::::Other designs.:Rotary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Its life cycle is usually far greater than a purely electronic UPS, up to 30 years or more. But they do require periodic downtime for mechanical maintenance, such as ball bearing replacement. In larger systems redundancy of the system ensures the availability of processes during this maintenance. Battery-based designs do not require downtime if the batteries can be hot-swapped, which is usually the case for larger units. Newer rotary units use technologies such as magnetic bearings and air-evacuated enclosures to increase standby efficiency and reduce maintenance to very low levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16105186",
"title": "Electric car",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration. Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking. Efficiency increases when renewable electricity is used\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3676405",
"title": "Aston Martin Rapide",
"section": "Section::::Models.:RapidE.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The two electric motors will have a combined power output of and of torque. The car will have claimed acceleration figures of in a sub 4.0 seconds time and in 1.5 seconds, along with a top speed of . Maximum performance will be accessible regardless of battery charge. A prototype was tested at the Nurbürgring to ensure that the car delivers linear power despite hard usage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53528300",
"title": "Environmental aspects of the electric car",
"section": "Section::::Lower operating and maintenance costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "All-electric have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. Electric cars do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5760445",
"title": "Tesla Roadster (2008)",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Battery system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Tesla said in February 2009 that the ESS had expected life span of seven years/, and began selling pre-purchase battery replacements for about one third of the battery's price today, with the replacement to be delivered after seven years. Tesla says the ESS retains 70% capacity after five years and of driving, assuming driven each year. A July 2013 study found that after , Roadster batteries still had 80%–85% capacity and the only significant factor is mileage (not temperature).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852451",
"title": "General Motors EV1",
"section": "Section::::Driving experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Thanks to the on-demand torque output of the electric motor, the EV1 could accelerate from in 6.3 seconds, and from in eight seconds. The car's top speed was electronically limited to . At the time of release, the lead-acid battery-equipped EV1 was the only electric car produced which met all of the United States Department of Energy's EV America performance goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27stld
|
Were white British (and Dominion) troops' relationships with non-white troops from the colonies generally positive?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've read a decent amount lately about how the UK/Dominion troops and populations didn't take too well to the American forces' practice of segregation.\n\nI am curious as to how this was reconciled with the fact that the UK maintained a far flung empire at the time that was not necessarily progressive in its treatment of the native populations of its colonies and dependencies (though, from what I understand, relatively more progressive than other European powers who had overseas territories).\n\nI'm also assuming that there had to be a decent amount of colonial troops stationed in the UK before D-Day, though I could be overestimating their presence.\n\nThis isn't meant try to force some sort of moral equivalency, just an honest inquiry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quite a few from the West Indies served as aircrew\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nIt should be noted, that these aircrew didnt serve in segregated squadrons and they would often be the only non-white person in their crew, let alone the squadron. For example:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nOtherwise it should be noted that many colonial troops like the Indian Army, Kings African Rifles and Gurkhas had been in existance for an extended period of time and had developed their own set of loyalties and traditions. In this sense, their attitiude towards white troops (and vice versa) would have been no different to business as usual.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nActually the only major full scale mutiny by colonial troops was the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and even then substantial numbers of colonial troops remained loyal (mainly Sikhs)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "199857",
"title": "Rhineland Bastard",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "All World War I belligerents with colonial possessions went to great lengths to recruit soldiers from their colonies. Germany was the only one of the Central Powers with substantial overseas possessions; it used numerous non-white troops to defend her colonies. Regardless of German attitudes toward the indigenous inhabitants of German colonies, Germany's lack of control of the sea lanes would have made it nearly impossible for the German Army to bring any substantial number of colonial troops to European battlefields. Notwithstanding the exact circumstances, most Germans quickly came to view non-white Allied troops with disdain and were contemptuous of the Allies' willingness to use these troops in Europe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38822502",
"title": "Southern Rhodesia in World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Though it was one of the few combatant territories not to raise fighting men through conscription, proportional to white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more manpower to the British war effort than any other dominion or colony, and more than Britain itself. White troops numbered 5,716, about 40% of white men in the colony, with 1,720 of these serving as commissioned officers. The Rhodesia Native Regiment enlisted 2,507 black soldiers, about 30 black recruits scouted for the Rhodesia Regiment, and around 350 served in British and South African units. Over 800 Southern Rhodesians of all races lost their lives on operational service during the war, with many more seriously wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2558355",
"title": "South Asians in Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::History.:Indian Army in Hong Kong.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1754,
"text": "Soldiers of the East-India Company, British Raj and Princely States in the Indian subcontinent were crucial in securing and defending Hong Kong as a crown colony for Britain. Examples of troops from the Indian sub-continent include the 1st Travancore Nair Infantry, 59th Madras Native Infantry, 26th Bengal Native Infantry, 5th Light Infantry, 40th Pathans, 6th Rajputana Rifles, 11th Rajputs, 10th Jats, 72nd Punjabis, 12th Madras Native Infantry, 38th Madras Native Infantry, Indian Medical Service, Indian Hospital Corps, Royal Indian Army Service Corps, etc. Large contingents of troops from India were garrisoned in Hong Kong right from the start of British Hong Kong and until after World War II. Contributions by the Indian military services in Hong Kong suffer from the physical decay of battle-sites, destruction of documentary archives and sources of information, questionable historiography, conveniently lopsided narratives, unchallenged confabulation of urban myths and incomplete research within academic circles in Hong Kong, Britain and India. Despite high casualties among troops from the British Raj during the Battle of Hong Kong, their contributions are either minimised or ignored. The use of generic words such as \"Allied\", \"British\", \"Commonwealth\" fails to highlight that a significant number of soldiers who defended Hong Kong were from India. Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Sai Wan War Cemetery references the graves of Indian troops as \"Commonwealth\" soldiers. War office records about the Battle of Hong Kong are yet to be fully released online. Transcripts of proceedings from war tribunals held in Hong Kong from 1946 to 1948 by British Military Courts remain mostly confined to archives and specialised museums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18739320",
"title": "African military systems after 1900",
"section": "Section::::Impact of World War I and World War II.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The British colonies deployed fewer numbers of black African troops. Thousands of white South Africans and Rhodesians saw service in the Middle East and the Mediterranean, while black soldiers generally were assigned to logistics formations. Some black regiments however did see combat, such as the King's African Rifles in the conquest of Madagascar from Vichy France in 1942, and the thousands of men of two West African divisions that fought with the British 14th Army against the Japanese in Burma. World War II was to have a profound effect on attitudes and developments in the African colonies. As various colonial reports note:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38822502",
"title": "Southern Rhodesia in World War I",
"section": "Section::::End of the war, aftermath and statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Proportional to white population, Southern Rhodesia had contributed more personnel to the British armed forces in World War I than any of the Empire's dominions or colonies, and more than Britain itself. About 40% of white males in the colony, 5,716 men, put on uniform, with 1,720 doing so as commissioned officers. Black Southern Rhodesians were represented by the 2,507 soldiers who made up the Rhodesia Native Regiment, the roughly 350 who joined the British East Africa Transport Corps, British South Africa Police Mobile Column and South African Native Labour Corps, and the few dozen black scouts who served with the 1st and 2nd Rhodesia Regiments in South-West and East Africa. Southern Rhodesians killed in action or on operational duty numbered over 800, counting all races together—more than 700 of the colony's white servicemen died, while the Rhodesia Native Regiment's black soldiers suffered 146 fatalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38441175",
"title": "Hugh Lyle Carmichael",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Carmichael is noted for recognising the value and usefulness of incorporating native Caribbean troops into the British Army. In 1797, he wrote that they were not only critical militarily, but their strength and stamina had been proven by their having to carry British soldiers through the heat and over the rocks at the Battle of Grenada. He campaigned for the right of slave soldiers to give evidence at Military tribunals. White and black soldiers alike were brutally flogged for violating military rules, but Carmichael found a more humane method to be equally as effective: During his eleven years as Lieutenant-Colonel of the 2nd West India Regiment, Carmichael instead demoted native offenders to a position resembling that of a common field slave – deprived of weapons and appointments and employed only on fatigue duties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25045057",
"title": "Military history of Australia during the Second Boer War",
"section": "Section::::Arrival of the Australians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Although they were in the Cape Colony at the time, no units from the Australian colonies were involved in the Black Week between 10–17 December, in which Britain suffered three successive defeats at the Battle of Stormberg, the Battle of Magersfontein, and the Battle of Colenso. The Boers knew that Empire forces would be sent to reinforce the British positions, and so sought to strike quickly against them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6en6ta
|
the science of coffee
|
[
{
"answer": "Coffee is a solution - in the same way that mixing salt with water gives you salt water, coffee is bits of coffee mixed in with water.\n\nWhen you grind a coffee bean, there are some parts of the bean that can dissolve in hot water, and other parts that can't. What you're tasting, then, is the bits that *can* dissolve into water leaving the bits that can't dissolve behind in the filter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unroasted, \"green\" coffee beans look a bit like a pale green peanut. These beans can keep for years. Once roasted, though, the clock is ticking. Flavorful compounds are fragile and decompose, they're sensitive to heat and light, or they gas out with the copious amounts of CO2 the roasted beans produce. These compounds also readily oxidize, turning into bitter compounds. You can slow down the aging by storing your roasted coffee in a vacuum container, but you can't stop it - you'll even discover your vacuum is lost as the gassing process continues. Pre-grinding coffee only accelerates the process by creating a large surface area for light, heat, and oxygen to attack.\n\nCoffee peaks at 11 hours after roasting, and is dead after a week.\n\nThe soluble compounds also oxidize at an accelerated rate when introduced to hot water, so an extended steep will start turning flavorful compounds into bitter and sour compounds. This is falsely attributed to over extraction, which is also a real thing - after all the desirable compounds are extracted, a prolonged steep will start extracting undesirable compounds. This is why a proper coffee house will brew to order instead of preparing jugs ahead of time. Even if they have something like a large coffee urn, they'll change it out after an hour.\n\nTime. Time is your enemy. Time hates your coffee, and by extension hates you. Buy your coffee from a roaster. If your roaster can't tell you when your beans were roasted, if it's not on the bag, they're too old. Get whole beans. Store them in a cool, dry, dark, air-tight container. Grind before you brew, and brew small batches. Experiment with grind sizes appropriate for the brewing method - this is why bur grinders are popular - control will lead to a consistent cup, and dialing it in will help make a better cup. Too small or too large can lead to improper extraction. If you don't like \"strong\" coffee, error on the side of using too many beans, because over-extraction from too few will lead to a bitter cup. Regardless of your brewing method, it all starts with the beans. You can buy the fanciest, most expensive whatever you want, but if you started with stale beans, you're going to end with a bad cup. And you can't make espresso at home without spending $1k for an entry level machine. There are things that make something similar to espresso, but it isn't espresso. Go to a coffee house.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18838119",
"title": "Centre of Full Employment and Equity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "CofFEE states that it seeks to undertake and promote research into the goals of full employment, price stability and achieving an economy that delivers equitable outcomes for all. Its main focus is on macroeconomics, labour economics, regional development and monetary economics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30714509",
"title": "Robert W. Thurston",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography of books published.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "\"Coffee: A Comprehensive Guide to the Bean, the Beverage, and the Industry\", senior editor and contributor, Rowman and Littlefield, 2013. The book won a prize from Gourmand Magazine as the best published on coffee in the U.S. in 2013. Named by Library Journal as one of the best reference works of 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7984",
"title": "Drink",
"section": "Section::::Types of drink.:Hot drinks.:Coffee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreen shrub of the genus \"Coffea\". The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded \"Coffea arabica\", and the \"robusta\" form of the hardier \"Coffea canephora\". Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries. Once ripe, coffee \"berries\" are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25101599",
"title": "The Birth of Coffee",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The Birth of Coffee is a transmedia project which includes a book of words and images, a photographic exhibit, and a website. It focuses on the people worldwide who grow and produce coffee. The project illustrates how coffee – combined with the volatile locations where it grows and labor-intensive growing processes – often shapes those people's lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25259078",
"title": "The Image Expedition",
"section": "Section::::Projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Research for their second project, The Birth of Coffee, began in 1996. The aim of this project is to help the average coffee-drinker to be aware of the difficult process that laborers must endure in order to grow and produce coffee. A book of their findings from this expedition, \"The Birth of Coffee\", was published by Random House in 2001.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41936356",
"title": "List of coffee chemicals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "There are more than 1,000 chemical compounds in coffee, and their molecular and physiological effects are areas of active research in food chemistry. There are a large number of ways to organize coffee compounds. The major texts in the area variously sort by effects on flavor, physiology, pre- and post-roasting effects, growing and processing effects, botanical variety differences, country of origin differences, and many others. Interactions between compounds also is a frequent area of taxonomy, as are the major organic chemistry categories (Protein, carbohydrate, lipid, etc.) that are relevant to the field. In the field of aroma and flavor alone, Flament gives a list of 300 contributing chemicals in green beans, and over 850 after roasting. He lists 16 major categories to cover those compounds related to aroma and flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27403236",
"title": "CoffeeScript",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "CoffeeScript is a programming language that transcompiles to JavaScript. It adds syntactic sugar inspired by Ruby, Python and Haskell in an effort to enhance JavaScript's brevity and readability. Specific additional features include list comprehension and pattern matching.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28llls
|
Does anyone have examples of national anthems that were later abolished/replaced?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe the German National Anthem was during the Nazi era. \n\nThe Soviet anthem had the words replaced, but kept the rather stirring melody.\n\nS. Africa replaced \"Die Stem van Suid-Afrika\", but kept a verse of it in the new anthem.\n\nCanada stopped using God Save the Queen.\n\nCzechoslovakia's anthem was split (like everything else) right down the middle, but this is a weak example as it was originally two songs that were fused together (like everything else). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234540",
"title": "National anthem",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Adoption of national anthems prior to the 1930s was mostly by newly formed or newly independent states, such as the First Portuguese Republic (\"A Portuguesa\", 1911), the Kingdom of Greece (\"Hymn to Liberty\", 1865), the First Philippine Republic (\"Marcha Nacional Filipina\", 1898), Lithuania (\"Tautiška giesmė\", 1919), Weimar Germany (\"Deutschlandlied\", 1922), Republic of Ireland (\"Amhrán na bhFiann\", 1926) or Greater Lebanon (\"Lebanese National Anthem\", 1927).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1544167",
"title": "Wien Neêrlands Bloed",
"section": "Section::::The changed version.:Official Versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The national anthem had two official versions. The original version which was in use from 1815 to 1898 was written to honor a king. The second version which was in use from 1898 to 1932 was rewritten and used to honor Queen Wilhelmina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88822",
"title": "Du gamla, du fria",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Despite the belief that it was adopted as the national anthem in 1866, no such recognition has ever been officially accorded. A kind of official recognition came in 1893, when King Oscar II rose in honor when the song was played. In 2000 a Riksdag committee rejected as \"unnecessary\" a proposal to give the song official status. The committee concluded that the song has been established as the national anthem by the people, not by the political system, and that it is preferable to keep it that way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385688",
"title": "National Anthem of Peru",
"section": "Section::::History.:Arrangements and modifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The last attempts to change the anthem were first during the administration of General Juan Velasco Alvarado who attempted to change the second and third stanzas. In similar form to previous attempts, it was imposed during official ceremonies and in schools and during the administration of General President Francisco Morales Bermudez the last stanza was sung instead of the first. But these attempts also had no success and the original anthem was once again sung when his successor Fernando Belaunde Terry became President in 1980.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251118",
"title": "Brazilian National Anthem",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1869,
"text": "Due to the fact that the traditional vocal adaptation composed by Alberto Nepomuceno for Joaquim Osorio Duque Estrada's lyrics of the national anthem was made official in 1971, other vocal arrangements (as well as other instrumental arrangements departing from the one recognized in law) are unofficial. Because of that, for the remainder of the Military Regime era (that lasted until 1985), the playing of the anthem with any artistic arrangement that departed from the official orchestration and vocal adaptation was prohibited, and there was strict vigilance regarding the use of the National Symbols and the enforcement of this norm. Since the redemocratization of the country, far greater artistic liberty has been allowed regarding renderings of the national anthem. Singer Fafá de Belém's interpretation of the national anthem (initially criticized during the final days of the Military Regime, but now widely accepted), is an example of that. In any event, although the use of different artistic arrangements for the anthem is now permitted (and although the statutory norms that prohibited such arrangements are no longer enforced, on the grounds of constitutional freedom of expression), a rendering of the national anthem is only considered fully official when the statutory norms regarding the vocal adaptation and orchestration are followed. However, the traditional vocal adaptation composed by Alberto Nepomuceno was so well established by the time it became official that the interpretations of the national anthem that depart from the official orchestration or from the official vocal adaptation are few. Indeed, although other arrangements are now allowed, the traditional form tends to prevail, so that, with few exceptions, even celebrity singers tend to only lend their voices to the singing of the official vocal adaptation by Alberto Nepomuceno.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234540",
"title": "National anthem",
"section": "Section::::Creators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Most of the best-known national anthems were written by little-known or unknown composers such as Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, composer of \"La Marseillaise\" and John Stafford Smith who wrote the tune for \"The Anacreontic Song\", which became the tune for the U.S. national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner.\" The author of \"God Save the Queen\", one of the oldest and most well known anthems in the world, is unknown and disputed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13665893",
"title": "1969 Rhodesian constitutional referendum",
"section": "Section::::Adoption of new constitution.:Legal and heraldic changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Although \"God Save The Queen\" ceased to be played at official occasions, no replacement was adopted or used as a national anthem immediately after the declaration of a republic. It was only in 1974 that \"Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia\", sung to the tune of \"Ode to Joy\", was adopted as the national anthem, after unsuccessful attempts to find an original melody.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ohm3e
|
During the Waco standoff in 1993, why did large segments of the American population rally around the leader of a doomsday cult who was sexually abusing young girls, rather than their own government?
|
[
{
"answer": "You said during, so I'll try to keep the focus as contemporary as possible to the siege. Nevertheless, I only found one opinion poll taken from before the lethal ending to the Waco Siege and that only polled Waco residents, a small and obviously not-representative sample of the US population. Further, in [this series of polls](_URL_0_), it's interesting to see how radically public opinion shifted against the government as the nineties progressed.\n\nTo clarify the \"large segment\" who supported David Koresh and the Branch Davidians, I found three opinion polls taken from April 1993. \n\n70% of people polled supported the government's actions at Waco, versus 27% who opposed it according to [the ABC Poll from 1993](_URL_0_). \n\n[A poll from the New York Times](_URL_3_) found 8 out of 10 Americans believed David Koresh was responsible for the deaths at Waco.\n\nAnd finally, a poll taken from the [Waco Tribune Herald (footnote 5)](_URL_1_) has only fifty percent of locals supporting government action against the Branch Davidians, though 82% supported the government's ending of the siege.\n\nAs detailed in both the CBS poll and Gore Vidal's *Decline and Fall of the American Empire* those who opposed the actions of the FBI and ATF were largely hostile to what they perceived as government overreach. They saw the Branch Davidians as harmless, \"minding their own business,\" and not doing anything that should provoke the violent repression meted out by the federal besiegers. The fact that it was families pitted against heavily armed troopers with armored personnel carriers and tanks made for pretty poor optics regardless of whose side one took. \n\nThe first, ostensible reason given by the Clinton Administration for infiltrating the BD Compound was to seize illegally held arms, a stick in the eye for Americans who hold the Second Amendment dear. When the agents assigned to this mission were repulsed and the situation began to heat up, George Stephanopoulos, the White House Communications Director changed the narrative to one of trying to save the children sequestered with their families. Against this claim, Pastor Robert McCurry points out that [this was an illegitimate use of federal force](_URL_2_) given that child protection falls under state jurisdiction. McCurry, well attuned to the limits of legitimate force, rails against what he sees as a monstrous attack by the government against its people. \n\nRemember, this is less than a year after the \"[Ruby Ridge Massacre](_URL_4_)\" during which a shootout between government agents and a family fleeing the law left a US Marshal, a mother, and a son killed. That event garnered quite a bit of sympathy for the family caught in the crossfire and among certain people, predisposed them against the kind of government \"repression\" that occurred at Waco. Both Ruby Ridge and Waco were precipitated by Firearms charges and involvement by the ATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms). Given the Second Amendment and the mythology of private gun ownership enabling the American Revolution and protecting \"Liberty,\" the federal government's perceived use of violence to monopolize its control of domestic firearms in these two instances rattled certain segments of the population. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I will attempt to explain a similar situation in a broad sense, that may illuminate why puzzling public support occurs; there are a LOT of specifics to the Waco standoff that I'm obviously not addressing; I'm just showing a related example and what was learned from it. Mods; if I'm going off the rails I will not be offended if you delete my comments.\n\nMy area of study is left-wing European terrorism of the 1970s era. The dominant group active in Europe of this time was the Red Army Faction; commonly called \"The Baader-Meinhof Group.\"\n\nTheir stated goal was to be the vanguard of a violent revolution, dedicated to retaking the German state on behalf of the people, and ushering in an era of pure socialism. Early in the history of the group they were associated with violence; the serious injury of an elderly library shot when co-leader Andreas Baader was broken out of police custody, weapons training in a Palestinian camp, shootouts with police offers.\n\nAnd while this was going on, the group was pilloried, along with most leftists, by the conservative Springer Press. Founded by ~~Lord~~ Axel Springer, the Springer Press newspapers were, far and away, the most dominant news outlets in the country, surpassing 50% newspaper readership on Sunday alone. In many ways they were the 1970s German equivalent of the Rupert Murdoch's media empire, only with a much, much larger reach.\n\nSo in June of 1971 the [Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach](_URL_1_), a very well respected market research and public opinion organization, asked Germans their thoughts on the Baader-Meinhof Group.\n\nRemember, this is a group that has injured people with guns, engaged in shootouts with German police, and spoke openly of their coming violent Revolutionary War in West Germany.\n\nThe results were remarkable. 20 percent of Germans under 30 expressed \"a certain sympathy with the group,\" and one in ten young Germans said they'd be willing to shelter a group member for the night. If you tally up all the results, 14 percent of Germans said they'd either be willing to shelter a group member or would be willing to consider it. Essentially 8 million people out of a population of 60 million were either willing to materially support a violent group with the stated goal of revolution, or were willing to consider it.\n\nNow one year later, after the group began their \"war\" in earnest, killing four US soldiers, and maiming several dozen civilians, police officers, and other soldiers over a one month period, that public support essentially ceased to exist (the entire leadership was caught over the next few weeks and imprisoned).\n\nSo what was the deal? How could so many people support this group that was so clearly embraced deadly violence? Were people truly supportive of violent revolution?\n\nMy research shows that no, people weren't necessarily supportive of violent revolution in practice. But many Germans had an extremely strong belief in Socialism. The upheavals in university campuses during the 1960s across the globe were especially notable in Germany. Students were extremely well-versed in Marxist theory. The dominant left-leaning party, the SPD, had socialist revolution a part of their party platform well into the 1950s. My point is that you had a significant part of the population where the nebulous notion of \"revolution\" was a vague end goal. So when this group comes along saying \"we will be the vanguard of this revolution,\" it was easy to express a certain support of their work, despite their occasional violence. Because this portion of the population had been primed to support the vague goal of Revolution, when asked about this group that was taking baby steps trying to fight for that revolution in the real world, it would have perhaps been more a surprise had they NOT expressed support.\n\nSo my takeaway, and how I relate this to the Waco situation (though again, this is NOT my area of study), is that at the time of the Waco standoff, it essentially was a completely unknown situation to the general public prior to the initial deadly shootings that killed several ATF agents and several Branch Davidians. Much like in Germany there was a sizable portion of the US population predisposed to opposition to the US government, the ATF, the FBI, and other agencies; particularly in light of the tragic events at Ruby Ridge the year earlier. So on the news comes word of a standoff, between a group of people, several now dead, who claim they just want to be left alone, and government agents telling stories of meth labs (later shown to be false), unlawful weapons, and stories of child sexual abuse... the people inclined to support the Davidians were just as inclined to discount any information provided by the government.\n\nAnother interesting thing happened in Germany; after the bombing campaign of May 1972--their public support completely ceased. BUT... in the coming years many of their original supporters \"returned to the fold\" to an extent. They wouldn't publicly support violence or bombings, but their support morphed into an opposition to how the government was treated the imprisoned terrorists (and the government DID treat many of the terrorists truly terribly).\n\nHow I relate this Waco is this: during the siege it was likely VERY easy to discount anything the government was saying, if you were so inclined to disbelieve them. But certainly at some point even the most hardened of these folks likely accepted that Koresh was leading a group where he and others had engaged in sexual abuse of children. But because the government had managed to kill so many of the Davidians, and because the siege was handled so poorly, it trumped any concerns they had about sexual abuse. It's not that they were dismissive of it (though likely many did feel the accusations were made up); it's just that everything else felt so much more important to them.\n\nI talked about this a bit more here: _URL_0_\n\nFurther Reading:\n\nAust, Stefan. \"The Baader-Meinhof Complex\" 1988, updated 2007\n\nEDIT: Downgraded Axel Springer from Nobleman status; thanks u/LBo87 !",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5532250",
"title": "Puerto Rican Day Parade",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "During recent years, the presence of gangs such as the Latin Kings, the Bloods and the Crips have been recorded at the event. Following the parade on June 11, 2000, a number of women were harassed, robbed and sexually assaulted by mobs of young men in and about Central Park. The attacks, which were videotaped by onlookers, led to the arrest and prosecution of many of those involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "116456",
"title": "Ellicott City, Maryland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Incorporation and disincorporation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "In 1879, political gangs controlled the polling locations, shooting and wounding African American Ellicott City voters. The deputy sheriff declined to arrest the leaders for fear of his life and further outbreaks of violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "127287",
"title": "Farmingville, New York",
"section": "Section::::Immigrant workers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "In the summer of 2000, two Mexican immigrants were lured into the basement of an abandoned building in Shirley, NY and beaten by two white supremacists. Then, in 2003, four teenagers were arrested for firebombing the home of a Mexican family. The group, Sachem Quality of Life Organization, was formed in response to the influx of illegal immigrants. The dispute was the subject of a 2004 documentary, \"Farmingville\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60585469",
"title": "North Woods and North Meadow",
"section": "Section::::History.:Restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "The area gained notoriety in April 1989 due to the Central Park jogger case. A white female jogger was badly beaten and raped at night in the North Woods, when 30-32 youths from East Harlem were known to have been roaming through the park, and accosting and sometimes assaulting eight other persons. According to \"The New York Times\", the attack was \"one of the most widely publicized crimes of the 1980s\". A group of four black and one Hispanic teenagers, who became known as the \"Central Park Five\", were convicted of this and another assault, and sentenced to years in prison. Their convictions were vacated after another man confessed to the crime in 2002, his DNA matched that found in semen at the scene, and the DA's office conducted an investigation of other elements of the evidence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34809322",
"title": "Good Ol' Boys Roundup",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The Good Ol' Boys Roundup was an annual whites only event run by agents of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms in southern Tennessee from 1980-1996. A senior manager at the Knoxville U.S. Attorney's Office warned personnel not to attend due to reports of \"heavy drinking, strippers, and persons engaging in extramarital affairs\". After allegations emerged that a \"Ku Klux Klan attitude\" pervaded the event a Senate Judiciary Committee was formed to investigate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173634",
"title": "Sexual slavery",
"section": "Section::::Historical cases.:White slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "A subsequent scare occurred in the United States in the early twentieth century, peaking in 1910, when Chicago's U.S. attorney announced (without giving details) that an international crime ring was abducting young girls in Europe, importing them, and forcing them to work in Chicago brothels. These claims, and the panic they inflamed, led to the passage of the United States White-Slave Traffic Act of 1910, generally known as the \"Mann Act\". It also banned the interstate transport of females for immoral purposes. Its primary intent was to address prostitution and immorality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46363145",
"title": "Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching",
"section": "Section::::Strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "In addition to speaking with law enforcement, the women of ASWPL talked to church groups all over the South about lynchings. They also created a network of women who were able to find out about lynchings before they happened and report the possible attacks to law enforcement, or even, in some cases, \"go themselves to stop the lynchings.\" Later, the ASWPL sought ways to work with local newspapers to publicize potential lynchings so that those involved could not keep their activities secret.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1upe0s
|
How did calibers in uneven numbers come about? Like 152mm, 37mm and 76mm?
|
[
{
"answer": "The general reason for these odd numbers is that they are conversions from before the metric system. 37mm is about 1.5 inches, 76mm is about 3 inches, 88mm is about 3.5 inches, 152mm is about 6 inches. Early tank and anti-tank guns are particularly prone because many were adopted from naval guns like the [US WWII 76mm] (_URL_0_). However, every country has a different specific reason for specific weapons keeping the old non-metric calibers, and I don't know enough to explain why the Soviets or Germans, for example, kept the odd calibers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm unclear about the question. Of the two examples you give, two of them *are* even numbers. Only 37 is odd. And the examples you give of *even* numbers include one odd number...\n\nAs near as I can tell, what you mean by \"odd\" is number that are strange, and not rounded off to the nearest five or ten? Is that correct?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "337004",
"title": "Shell (projectile)",
"section": "Section::::Sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Gun calibers have standardized around a few common sizes, especially in the larger range, mainly due to the uniformity required for efficient military logistics. Shells of 105 and 155 mm for artillery and 105mm and 120 mm for tank guns in NATO. Artillery shells of 122, 130 and 152 mm, and tank gun ammunition of 100, 115, or 125 mm caliber remain in use in Eastern Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa, and Eastern Asia. Most common calibers have been in use for many years, since it is logistically complex to change the caliber of all guns and ammunition stores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13308315",
"title": "Line (unit)",
"section": "Section::::In use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Gunsmiths and armament companies also employed the -inch line (the \"decimal line\"), in part owing to the importance of the German and Russian arms industries. These are now given in terms of millimeters, but the seemingly arbitrary 7.62 mm caliber was originally understood as a 3-line caliber (as with the 1891 Mosin–Nagant rifle). The 12.7 mm caliber used by the M2 Browning machine gun was similarly a 5-line caliber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175965",
"title": "Caliber",
"section": "Section::::Metric and US customary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The following table lists some of the commonly used calibers where both metric and US customary are used as equivalents. Due to variations in naming conventions, and the whims of the cartridge manufacturers, bullet diameters can vary widely from the diameter implied by the name. For example, a difference of 0.045 in (1.15 mm) occurs between the smallest and largest of the several cartridges designated as \".38 caliber\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29006763",
"title": "Project Abakan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The 1960s ushered a new generation of assault rifles with the introduction of smaller calibers. U.S. military analysis of combat during the Second World War showed that a greater volume of fire at shorter ranges was more significant than long range accuracy. They decided that a smaller caliber would be more effective in most conditions, because the soldier could carry more ammunition. In 1963, United States adopted the M16 Rifle and the smaller 5.56×45mm cartridge to replace the M14 Rifle and larger 7.62×51mm. In 1980, NATO adopted the 5.56mm as the standard issue rifle cartridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50509381",
"title": "7\"/44 caliber gun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The 7\"/44 caliber gun Mark 1 (spoken \"seven-inch-forty-four--caliber\") and 7\"/45 caliber gun Mark 2 (spoken \"seven-inch-forty-five--caliber\") were used for the secondary batteries of the United States Navy's last generation of pre-dreadnought battleships, the and . The caliber was considered, at the time, to be the largest caliber weapon suitable as a rapid-fire secondary gun because its shells were the heaviest that one man could handle alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25456",
"title": "Rifle",
"section": "Section::::Technical aspects.:Caliber.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The standard calibers used by the world's militaries tend to follow worldwide trends. These trends have significantly changed during the centuries of firearm design and re-design. Muskets were normally chambered for large calibers, such as .50 or .59, with the theory that these large bullets caused the most damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636702",
"title": "Metrication in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current use.:Firearms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Historically, ammunition rounds designed in the United States were denoted by their caliber in inches (e.g., .45 Colt and .270 Winchester.) Two developments changed this tradition: the large preponderance of different cartridges using an identical caliber and the international arms trade bringing metric calibers to the United States. The former led to bullet diameter (rather than caliber) often being used to describe rounds to differentiate otherwise similar rounds. A good example is the .308 Winchester, which fires the same .30-caliber projectile as the .30-06 Springfield and the .300 Savage. Occasionally, the caliber is just a number close to the diameter of the bullet, like the .220 Swift, .223 Remington and .222 Remington Magnum, all of which actually have .22 caliber or bullets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4if0lg
|
if the majority of people are right handed, why does the fork go on the left when setting a table?
|
[
{
"answer": "What are the origins of that being the case?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The knife requires more dexterity compares to the fork which works an anchor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you want to be manipulating the sharp, dangerous, pointy knife with your dominant hand. Which is why the dinner knife is on the right, and that leaves the fork to be on the left. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you are expected to pick up the fork with your left and the knife (to the right of the plate, edge in) in your right; you then pierce/hold the food with the fork while you cut with the knife.\n\nTraditions then divert depending on where you are from.\n\nSome countries you then simply place the cut morsel in your mouth with the left hand, while other countries you put down the knife, shift the fork to your right hand, then put the food in your mouth. The fork then is used further in the right hand for non-cut-needing food or is shifted back to the left for more cutting work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fork is held in the left hand when you're cutting with the knife. You cut with your right hand for a couple of reasons:\n\n1. if you're righty, then you'd embarrass the hell out of yourself when cutting with the knife using your left hand.\n\n2. someone long ago thought we ought create social rules to help people from embarrassing themselves, but really were concerned about being embarrassed _by you_. \n\nSo..after you cut using the fork to steady the food you're cutting and the knife to actually cut it, you then put your knife down, transfer the fork to your right hand and eat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a left-handed person, I find it generally inconsequential whether I use my fork in my left or right hand. I pretty much always use my left hand for knives though, because I'd prefer not to cut myself trying to use a sharp object in my non-dominant hand and risk seasoning my food with my own blood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The last two threads](_URL_0_) seem to agree with most of the replies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3780915",
"title": "Table manners",
"section": "Section::::North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The fork may be used in the American style (in the left hand while cutting and in the right hand to pick up food) or the European Continental style (fork always in the left hand). (See Fork etiquette) The napkin should be left on the seat of a chair only when leaving temporarily. Upon leaving the table at the end of a meal, the napkin is placed loosely on the table to the left of the plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72465",
"title": "Tributary",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the \"handedness\" is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream. For instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56320236",
"title": "Pointing",
"section": "Section::::Cultural variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In much of the world, pointing with the index finger is considered rude or disrespectful, especially pointing to a person. Pointing with the left hand is taboo in some cultures. Pointing with an open hand is considered more polite or respectful in some contexts. In Nicaragua, pointing is frequently done with the lips in a \"kiss shape\" directed towards the object of attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221536",
"title": "Right-hand rule",
"section": "Section::::Cross products.:Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The right hand rule is in widespread use in physics. A list of physical quantities whose directions are related by the right-hand rule is given below. (Some of these are related only indirectly to cross products, and use the second form.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30048655",
"title": "Proper right and proper left",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Proper right and proper left are conceptual terms used to unambiguously convey relative direction when describing an image or other object. The \"proper right\" hand of a figure is the hand that would be regarded by that figure as its right hand. In a frontal representation, that appears on the left as the viewer sees it, creating the potential for ambiguity if the hand is just described as the \"right hand\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56320236",
"title": "Pointing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Pointing is a gesture specifying a direction from a person's body, usually indicating a location, person, event, thing or idea. It typically is formed by extending the arm, hand, and index finger, although it may be functionally similar to other hand gestures. Types of pointing may be subdivided according to the intention of the person, as well as by the linguistic function it serves. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30533724",
"title": "Bias against left-handed people",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "A left-handed individual may be known as a southpaw, particularly in a sports context. It is widely accepted that the term originated in the United States, in the game of baseball. Ballparks are often designed so that batters are facing east, so that the afternoon or evening sun does not shine in their eyes. This means that left-handed pitchers are throwing with their south-side arm. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" lists a non-baseball citation for \"south paw\", meaning a punch with the left hand, as early as 1848, just three years after the first organized baseball game, with the note \"(orig. U.S., in Baseball).\" A left-handed advantage in sports can be significant and even decisive, but this advantage usually results from a left-handed competitor's unshared familiarity with opposite-handed opponents. Baseball is an exception since batters, pitchers, and fielders in certain scenarios are physically advantaged or disadvantaged by their handedness. Some baseball players like Christian Yelich of the Milwaukee Brewers bat left-handed and throw right-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4l4wn6
|
why do some people leak pee when they sneeze?
|
[
{
"answer": "The release of your bladder is controlled by muscles. Those muscles can, for a variety of reasons, be weakened. If those muscles are weak, a sudden jolt like a sneeze can dislodge them for a moment, releasing a small amount of pee.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4176408",
"title": "Photic sneeze reflex",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1062,
"text": "There is much debate about the true cause and mechanism of the sneezing fits brought about by the photic sneeze reflex. Sneezing occurs in response to irritation in the nasal cavity, which results in an afferent nerve fiber signal propagating through the ophthalmic and maxillary branches of the trigeminal nerve to the trigeminal nerve nuclei in the brainstem. The signal is interpreted in the trigeminal nerve nuclei, and an efferent nerve fiber signal goes to different parts of the body, such as mucous glands and the thoracic diaphragm, thus producing a sneeze. The most obvious difference between a normal sneeze and a photic sneeze is the stimulus: normal sneezes occur due to irritation in the nasal cavity, while the photic sneeze can result from a wide variety of stimuli. Some theories are below. There is also a genetic factor that increases the probability of photic sneeze reflex. The C allele on the rs10427255 SNP is particularly implicated in this although the mechanism is unknown by which this gene increases the probability of this response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232411",
"title": "Sneeze",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Sexuality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Some people may sneeze during the initial phases of sexual arousal. Doctors suspect that the phenomenon might arise from a case of crossed wires in the autonomic nervous system, which regulates a number of functions in the body, including \"waking up\" the genitals during sexual arousal. The nose, like the genitals, contains erectile tissue. This phenomenon may prepare the vomeronasal organ for increased detection of pheromones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9204714",
"title": "Snuff (tobacco)",
"section": "Section::::Sneezing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "When sniffed, snuff often causes a sneeze, though this is often seen by snuff-takers as the sign of a beginner. This is not uncommon; however, the tendency to sneeze varies with the person and the particular snuff. Generally, drier snuffs are more likely to do this. For this reason, sellers of snuff often sell handkerchiefs. Slapstick comedy and cartoons have often made use of snuff's sneeze-inducing properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39110552",
"title": "List of Regular Show characters",
"section": "Section::::Villains.:Peeps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Peeps (voiced by Richard McGonagle) is a giant floating eyeball who apparently runs the surveillance company that's named after him. Benson bought his products to keep Mordecai and Rigby from slacking off, but they manage to constantly evade him, causing Benson to accidentally summon him to the park to watch over everybody and as a result, he cannot leave until they die (due to the contract that Benson signed without even reading it). After spooking everyone with his gazes, Mordecai challenges him to a staring contest in which Peeps must leave if Mordecai wins, but if Peeps wins, he will harvest their eyes. However, Peeps cheats using numerous eyes but Rigby cheats back using a laser light that causes him to lose the staring contest, setting him on fire and crashing into the lake. He is blinded in the process, and is last seen taken to the hospital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2712118",
"title": "Tashiro",
"section": "Section::::Slang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In Japan, \"Tashiro\" is a slang word. Tashiro refers to acts of peeping and taking sneak shots. Origin of the term derives from Masashi Tashiro, a famous celebrity who was prosecuted for filming up a woman's skirt in addition to later being arrested for peeping through the bathroom window of a man's house.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32833705",
"title": "Modes of mechanical ventilation",
"section": "Section::::Spontaneous breathing and support settings.:Positive end-expiratory pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "PEEP is a pressure that an exhalation has to bypass, in effect causing alveoli to remain open and not fully deflate. This mechanism for maintaining inflated alveoli helps increase partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood, and an increase in PEEP increases the PaO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232411",
"title": "Sneeze",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Sneezing typically occurs when foreign particles or sufficient external stimulants pass through the nasal hairs to reach the nasal mucosa. This triggers the release of histamines, which irritate the nerve cells in the nose, resulting in signals being sent to the brain to initiate the sneeze through the trigeminal nerve network. The brain then relates this initial signal, activates the pharyngeal and tracheal muscles and creates a large opening of the nasal and oral cavities, resulting in a powerful release of air and bioparticles. The powerful nature of a sneeze is attributed to its involvement of numerous organs of the upper body – it is a reflexive response involving the face, throat, and chest muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
1c1ug0
|
I'd want to understand how and why Scandinavia became Christianized.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll yield to better historians, but my understanding was that it had more to do with trade and politics than natural spiritual inclinations. By the time it happened, Scandinavia had been increasingly in contact with Christian Europe and needed commercial contacts. The era of plunder and conquest was ending as more of the Christian kingdoms became better defended from attack. It became more politically expedient to join them than beat them. \n\nIt's not as if this has no precedent in history. Christianity and Islam were sprung from pagan converts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many very powerful kingdoms in Europe was Christian. The Scandinavians especially the magnates probably saw with envy on the Frankish kingdoms and Constantinople. I don't think they saw the good of Constantinople as \"weak\". \nIf you are polytheist it is usually easier to add one more god than it is for a monotheist. Maybe they saw it as they allied them self with yet another powerful god when they became Christians. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7135314",
"title": "Christianization of Scandinavia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The Christianization of Scandinavia, as well as other Nordic countries and the Baltic countries, took place between the 8th and the 12th centuries. The realms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Sweden is an 11th or 12th century merger of the former countries Götaland and Svealand) established their own Archdioceses, responsible directly to the Pope, in 1104, 1154 and 1164, respectively. The conversion to Christianity of the Scandinavian people required more time, since it took additional efforts to establish a network of churches. The Sami remained unconverted until the 18th century. Newer archaeological research suggests there were Christians in Götaland already during the 9th century, it is further believed Christianity came from the southwest and moved towards the north.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "621178",
"title": "Christianization",
"section": "Section::::Christianization of Europe (7th-15th centuries).:Scandinavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The Christianization of Scandinavia started in the 8th century with the arrival of missionaries in Denmark and it was at least nominally complete by the 12th century, although the Samis remained unconverted until the 18th century. In fact, although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian, it would take considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to establish themselves among the people. The old indigenous traditions that had provided security and structure since time immemorial were challenged by ideas that were unfamiliar, such as original sin, the Immaculate Conception, the Trinity and so forth. Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of Lovön near modern-day Stockholm have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150–200 years, and this was a very central location in the Swedish kingdom. Thirteenth-century runic inscriptions from the bustling merchant town of Bergen in Norway show little Christian influence, and one of them appeals to a Valkyrie. At this time, enough knowledge of Norse mythology remained to be preserved in sources such as the Eddas in Iceland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "627183",
"title": "Old Norse religion",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Christianisation and decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1248,
"text": "The Nordic world first encountered Christianity through its settlements in the (already Christian) British Isles and through trade contacts with the eastern Christians in Novgorod and Byzantium. By the time Christianity arrived in Scandinavia it was already the accepted religion across most of Europe. It is not well understood how the Christian institutions converted these Scandinavian settlers, in part due to a lack of textual descriptions of this conversion process equivalent to Bede's description of the earlier Anglo-Saxon conversion. However, it appears that the Scandinavian migrants had converted to Christianity within the first few decades of their arrival. After Christian missionaries from the British Isles—including figures like St Willibrord, St Boniface, and Willehad—had travelled to parts of northern Europe in the eighth century, Charlemagne pushed for Christianisation in Denmark, with Ebbo of Rheims, Halitgar of Cambrai, and Willeric of Bremen proselytizing in the kingdom during the ninth century. The Danish king Harald Klak converted (826), likely to secure his political alliance with Louis the Pious against his rivals for the throne. The Danish monarchy reverted to Old Norse religion under Horik II (854 – c. 867).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119964",
"title": "History of Scandinavia",
"section": "Section::::Viking Age.:Christianization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Christianity in Scandinavia came later than most parts of Europe. In Denmark Harald Bluetooth Christianized the country around 980. The process of Christianization began in Norway during the reigns of Olaf Tryggvason (reigned 995 AD–c.1000 AD) and Olaf II Haraldsson (reigned 1015 AD–1030 AD). Olaf and Olaf II had been baptized voluntarily outside of Norway. Olaf II managed to bring English clergy to his country. Norway's conversion from the Norse religion to Christianity was mostly the result of English missionaries. As a result of the adoption of Christianity by the monarchy and eventually the entirety of the country, traditional shamanistic practices were marginalized and eventually persecuted. Völvas, practitioners of seid, a Scandinavian pre-Christian tradition, were executed or exiled under newly Christianized governments in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49018408",
"title": "History of Christianity in Denmark",
"section": "Section::::Towards conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Scandinavian individuals came into contact with Christianity already before the fall of the Roman Empire, but historian Ian N. Wood writes that the \"Christianisation of Scandinavia took the Church into relatively unknown areas\". According to Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon monk, Willibrord, who had proselytized among the Frisians, tried to convert Ongendus, King of the Danes, in the early , but failed. From the 820s, the Frankish monarchs tried to take advantage of internal strifes to increase their influence in Denmark. After being dethroned and exiled from Denmark, King Harald Klak sought refugee in the Carolingian Empire and agreed to be baptised in 826. Harald Klak returned to Denmark, accompanied by Ansgar, a Frankish monk from the Corbie Abbey. During the next two years, Ansgar carried out missionary activities in Denmark. He even bought young boys to teach them for missionary work. However, Harald Klak was again dethroned in 827, and Ansgar left Denmark. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150695",
"title": "Olaf II of Norway",
"section": "Section::::Problems of Olaf as Christianising king.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Anders Winroth, in his book \"The Conversion of Scandinavia\", tries to make sense of this problem by arguing that there was a \"long process of assimilation, in which the Scandinavians adopted, one by one and over time, individual Christian practices.\" Winroth certainly does not say that Olaf was not Christian, but he argues that we cannot think of any Scandinavians as quickly converting in a full way as portrayed in the later hagiographies or sagas. Olaf himself is portrayed in later sources as a saintly miracle-working figure to help support this quick view of conversion for Norway, although the historical Olaf did not act this way, as seen especially in the skaldic verses attributed to him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70665",
"title": "Church of Sweden",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "While some Swedish areas had Christian minorities in the 9th century, Sweden was, because of its geographical location in northernmost Europe, not Christianized until around AD 1000, around the same time as the other Nordic countries, when the Swedish King Olof was baptized. This left only a modest gap between the Christianization of Scandinavia and the Great Schism, however there are some Scandinavian/Swedish saints who are venerated eagerly by many Orthodox Christians, such as St. Olaf. However, Norse paganism and other pre-Christian religious systems survived in the territory of what is now Sweden later than that; for instance the important religious center known as the Temple at Uppsala at Gamla Uppsala was evidently still in use in the late 11th century, while there was little effort to introduce the Sami of Lapland to Christianity until considerably after that.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
93r4g2
|
I discovered this seemingly well-researched video on Christopher Columbus, and why he wasn't as bad as everyone thinks he was. How accurate is it?
|
[
{
"answer": "I suspect everyone who watches this will see different things. I'll defer to experts on Columbus regarding the content in the first 2/3 but can point to some red flags in the last third related to how he talks about the people indigenous to North America that make me deeply suspicious of his work. When assessing the accuracy of someone's historical claims, it's helpful to start with how they frame issues. \n\nHow he talks about \"genocide\" is an indicator that his work may be not accurate or trustworthy. His suggestion that it's a simple linguistic issue regarding intent, and not a complicated matter that speaks to power, colonization, and patterns, ignores volumes of writing, especially by Indigenous authors and historians. [Parenthetical note that Zimmerman wasn't found \"innocent.\" The jury returned not guilty verdicts on all counts.] [This](_URL_0_) explores the different arguments about the use of the word and despite 6 minutes of earnest talking-into-the-camera by what appears to be a Columbus truther, cannot be simplified it into a yes/no question. That said, the creator of the term \"genocide\" cited European interactions with North American Indigenous people as an example of the term. From the piece linked above: \n\n > Lemkin applied the term to a wide range of cases including many involving European colonial projects in Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and the Americas. A recent investigation of an unfinished manuscript for a global history of genocide Lemkin was writing in the late 1940s and early 1950s reveals an expansive view of what Lemkin termed a “Spanish colonial genocide.” He never began work on a projected chapter on “The Indians of North America,” though his notes indicate that he was researching Indian removal, treaties, the California gold rush, and the Plains wars.\n\nThe second red flag is how he presents the words and images of Native Americans. Saying it's \"weird\" to hate on Columbus immediately after showing images of Native Americans expressing their opinions about the man is troublesome. More to the point, I feel confident in concluding he did little or no research on the history of renaming the holiday, or if he did, elected to ignore what he found in order to advance his central claim. Given he establishes his ancestors didn't immigrant to America until the 20th century, he's clearly not speaking as an Indigenous person. (Which isn't required for writing about Native American history, but double-checking and researching statements when writing about historically marginalized groups is basic decency and good scholarship. And his statements wouldn't be less troublesome were he Indigenous, but a native identity would shed a different light on how he uses Native Americans' words.) Had he researched the movement, he would have easily discovered the efforts to rename the holiday came from Indigenous people and that they explicitly picked the date as a way to draw attention to their [actions](_URL_1_). He also would have discovered there is an [International Day of the World’s Indigenous People](_URL_2_) on August 9th. In effect, the Indigenous activists working to rename the date are using Columbus as a proxy for the colonization of their ancestral lands by Europeans. None of the other \"worse\" men that he mentioned have a day that's recognized as a federal holiday.\n\nFinally, Columbus didn't \"discover\" America. Every time he repeats that, even when saying it's untrue, he's undercutting any historical bona fides he may have earned earlier in the video. And no. We don't need to talk about how \"primitive or not primitive\" Native Americans were.\n\nNote: I just watched about ten minutes of the video he cites as his source for \"Native American Genocide\" which contains not only terrible history practices but straight up racism. Which doesn't bode well for the rest of the history in his video.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5635",
"title": "Christopher Columbus",
"section": "Section::::Physical appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The most iconic image of Columbus is a portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, which has been reproduced in many textbooks. It agrees with descriptions of Columbus in that it shows a large man with auburn hair, but the painting dates from 1519 and cannot, therefore, have been painted from life. Furthermore, the inscription identifying the subject as Columbus was probably added later, and the face shown differs from other images, including that of the \"Virgin of the Navigators.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1141137",
"title": "Santa María (ship)",
"section": "Section::::The name and provenience of the Santa Maria.:Master of the Santa Maria.:The problem of the identity of Juan de la Cosa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "There is no record of any such proceedings. Moreover, the \"Life of Columbus\" by his son, who surely possessed Columbus' journal. is strangely lacking in references to Juan de la Cosa by name. Even in the shipwrecking incident, the son reports only that\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43224217",
"title": "Dawn of America",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The film was made by the largest Spanish studio CIFESA. The production was conceived as a response to the 1949 British film \"Christopher Columbus\". The British film had attempted a realist depiction of Columbus (portraying him as only partly successful, and his achievements being in spite of the Spanish monarchy). The Spanish response portrayed Columbus as a single-minded adventurer whose discovery led to the greater glory of the Spanish monarchy and the Catholic Church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7374488",
"title": "Origin theories of Christopher Columbus",
"section": "Section::::Genoese origin.:Documents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1710,
"text": "Another doubt remains to be settled: can we be sure that all of the documents cited concern the Christopher Columbus who was later to become \"Cristóbal Colón\", admiral of the Ocean Sea in Spanish territory? The list of contemporary ambassadors and historians unanimous in the belief that Columbus was Genoese could suffice as proof, but there is something more: a document dated 22 September 1470 in which the criminal judge convicts Domenico Colombo. The conviction is tied to the debt of Domenico — together with his son Christopher (explicitly stated in the document) — toward a certain Girolamo del Porto. In the will dictated by Admiral Christopher Columbus in Valladolid before he died, the authentic and indisputable document which we have today, the dying navigator remembers this old debt, which had evidently not been paid. There is, in addition, the act drawn in Genoa on 25 August 1479 by a notary, Girolamo Ventimiglia. This act is known as the \"Assereto document\", after the scholar who found it in the State Archives in Genoa in 1904. It involves a lawsuit over a sugar transaction on the Atlantic island Madeira. In it, young Christopher swore that he was a 27-year-old Genoese citizen resident in Portugal and had been hired to represent the Genoese merchants in that transaction. Here was proof that he had relocated to Portugal. It is important to bear in mind that at the time when Assereto traced the document, it would have been impossible to make an acceptable facsimile. Nowadays, with modern chemical processes, a document can be \"manufactured\", made to look centuries old if need be, with such skill that it may be difficult to prove it is a fake. In 1960, this was still impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "121439",
"title": "Columbus Day",
"section": "Section::::Opposition to Columbus celebrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1336,
"text": "Journalist and media critic Norman Solomon reflects, in \"Columbus Day: A Clash of Myth and History\", that many people choose to hold on to the myths surrounding Columbus. He quotes from the logbook Columbus's initial description of the American Indians: \"They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance... They would make fine servants... With 50 men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.\" Solomon states that the most important contemporary documentary evidence is the multi-volume \"History of the Indies\" by the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas, who observed the region where Columbus was governor. In contrast to \"the myth,\" Solomon quotes Las Casas, who describes Spaniards driven by \"insatiable greed\"—\"killing, terrorizing, afflicting, and torturing the native peoples\" with \"the strangest and most varied new methods of cruelty\" and how systematic violence was aimed at preventing \"[American] Indians from daring to think of themselves as human beings.\" The Spaniards \"thought nothing of knifing [American] Indians by tens and twenties and of cutting slices off them to test the sharpness of their blades,\" wrote Las Casas. \"My eyes have seen these acts so foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1052431",
"title": "Martín Alonso Pinzón",
"section": "Section::::Voyage with Columbus.:Separation in the Caribbean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Nonetheless, much of the testimony in the \"pleitos colombinos\", as well as part of the specialized historiography and investigators, does not agree that these things happened in this manner, nor is there any accusation against Pinzón in Columbus's Letter on the First Voyage, which Columbus wrote during his return.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31728112",
"title": "Columbus on Trial",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Columbus on Trial is a film directed by Lourdes Portillo in 1992. The 18-minute film, acted and co-written by the comic trio Culture Clash, acts out a simulated trial that Christopher Columbus is put in as they lived through the 500th anniversary of his discovery. The film commences by portraying a variety of journalists and reporters questioning Columbus's motives. They bombard him with all the questions that have arisen over the previous 500 years in regards to the controversy of whether he really did discover the New World for the betterment of the people. This meaning that he introduced European customs and beliefs as a way to improve the lives of the natives already residing in it, or whether he simply invaded these territories in order to impose his own culture and destroy theirs. In this film specifically, Portillo depicts Columbus as a man charged with slaughter against the natives living in the New World. With this film, Portillo supports the reconsideration of “official history”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
}
] | null |
ehqnmn
|
topology/topological manifold
|
[
{
"answer": "Topology: the study of the geometric properties of a space/surface and which properties are affected by changing that shape/space through a continuous deformation (i.e. no rips/tears and no gluing); or the rules governing a specific topological space or manifold. \n\nTopological Manifold: A surface (or group of surfaces) with given properties (such as a metric, a specific number of holes/openings, etc.) \n\nFor example, a doughnut and a coffee mug belong to the same manifold (a solid with a single hole) which can be deformed from one to the other without changing some properties. A topologist would then look at what happens during the transformation to things like distance between points and any changes to a circle (does it get bigger smaller etc.)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "29954",
"title": "Topology",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Manifolds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "While topological spaces can be extremely varied and exotic, many areas of topology focus on the more familiar class of spaces known as manifolds. A \"manifold\" is a topological space that resembles Euclidean space near each point. More precisely, each point of an -dimensional manifold has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to the Euclidean space of dimension . Lines and circles, but not figure eights, are one-dimensional manifolds. Two-dimensional manifolds are also called surfaces, although not all surfaces are manifolds. Examples include the plane, the sphere, and the torus, which can all be realized without self-intersection in three dimensions, and the Klein bottle and real projective plane, which cannot (that is, all their realizations are surfaces that are not manifolds).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "621774",
"title": "Low-dimensional topology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 469,
"text": "In mathematics, low-dimensional topology is the branch of topology that studies manifolds, or more generally topological spaces, of four or fewer dimensions. Representative topics are the structure theory of 3-manifolds and 4-manifolds, knot theory, and braid groups. This can be regarded as a part of geometric topology. It may also be used to refer to the study of topological spaces of dimension 1, though this is more typically considered part of continuum theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29954",
"title": "Topology",
"section": "Section::::Topics.:Geometric topology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Geometric topology is a branch of topology that primarily focuses on low-dimensional manifolds (i.e. spaces of dimensions 2, 3, and 4) and their interaction with geometry, but it also includes some higher-dimensional topology. Some examples of topics in geometric topology are orientability, handle decompositions, local flatness, crumpling and the planar and higher-dimensional Schönflies theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2119193",
"title": "Topological manifold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 863,
"text": "In topology, a branch of mathematics, a topological manifold is a topological space (which may also be a separated space) which locally resembles real \"n\"-dimensional space in a sense defined below. Topological manifolds form an important class of topological spaces with applications throughout mathematics. All manifolds are topological manifolds by definition, but many manifolds may be equipped with additional structure (e.g. differentiable manifolds are topological manifolds equipped with a differential structure). When the phrase \"topological manifold\" is used, it is usually done to emphasize that the manifold does not have any additional structure, or that only the \"underlying\" topological manifold is being considered. Every manifold has an \"underlying\" topological manifold, gotten by simply \"forgetting\" any additional structure the manifold has.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8562",
"title": "Differential topology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential geometry and together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30450",
"title": "Topological space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "In topology and related branches of mathematics, a topological space may be defined as a set of points, along with a set of neighbourhoods for each point, satisfying a set of axioms relating points and neighbourhoods. The definition of a topological space relies only upon set theory and is the most general notion of a mathematical space that allows for the definition of concepts such as continuity, connectedness, and convergence. Other spaces, such as manifolds and metric spaces, are specializations of topological spaces with extra structures or constraints. Being so general, topological spaces are a central unifying notion and appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics. The branch of mathematics that studies topological spaces in their own right is called point-set topology or general topology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973446",
"title": "Geometry",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- Topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
3sus9d
|
When did the concept of "refugees" arise? It seems that in the past if your country was at war and you were a male of fighting age you would stay. When did men start leaving their country's conflicts? Is this a modern concept or are there examples of this happening throughout history?
|
[
{
"answer": "This depends on your definition of 'refugees'.\n\nIn 1951, a convention was held in Geneva to give an official definition to the term, and from henceforth it was possible to declare whether a person was a refugee or not. [source: [UNHCR official site](_URL_0_) ]\n\nHowever, before that there were already large population movements caused by war, famine and other forms of destruction which would cause the peoples' homeland to be inhospitable to them.\n\nIn China, one of the earliest records of such a wide scale immigration would be during the spring autumn period, when the Yue 越 king Gou Jian 勾践 destroyed the Wu 吴 kingdom. Due to the demeaning treatment that he had suffered under the Wu king previously, Gou Jian was determined to eliminate Wu utterly. Therefore the Wu people were forced to cross the sea to the Eastern islands, which is now modern day Japan. Future contact between the Han dynasty and the Japanese islands state that the Wa 倭 people claimed direct descent from king Taibo 泰伯 of Wu, and often spoke with a Wu accent and adhered to Wu customs, further supporting the theory of them being former refugees of the Chinese Wu. [source: *the Book of Han* 汉书, *Discourse on Balance* 论衡]",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Although the term refug*ee* isn't used, there are a number of places where peoples 'seeking cities / lands of refuge' are referenced in the Bible - whether that has merit as a historically accurate source or not, it is still a historic text in terms of age, and definitely alludes to the concept of refugees.\n\nHere is one example (to fit more in with the common modern concept of refugee, I have selected an example of *mass* movement of peoples due to war / civil instability):\n\n > Exodus 12:37-39\n > \"Now the sons of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children. A mixed multitude also went up with them, along with flocks and herds, a very large number of livestock. They baked the dough which they had brought out of Egypt into cakes of unleavened bread. For it had not become leavened, since they were driven out of Egypt and could not delay, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves.\"\n\nI think this qualifies, since your question is phrased to the *concept* of refugee, and not 'the first historically bulletproof accounts of actual refugee events'. :)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "2929122",
"title": "Displaced persons camps in post-World War II Europe",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As the war ended, these people found themselves facing an uncertain future. Allied military and civilian authorities faced considerable challenges resettling them. Since the reasons for displacement varied considerably, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force classified individuals into a number of categories: evacuees, war or political refugees, political prisoners, forced or voluntary workers, Organisation Todt workers, former forces under German command, deportees, intruded persons, extruded persons, civilian internees, ex-prisoners of war, and stateless persons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45547",
"title": "Refugee",
"section": "Section::::Legal definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The first modern definition of international refugee status came about under the League of Nations in 1921 from the Commission for Refugees. Following World War II, and in response to the large numbers of people fleeing Eastern Europe, the UN 1951 Refugee Convention adopted (in Article 1.A.2) the following definition of \"refugee\" to apply to any person who: \"owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28994106",
"title": "The Lost People",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "After the Second World War, some British soldiers are guarding a theatre in Germany containing various refugees and prisoners trying to work out what to do with them. However, the displaced people, after uniting against fascism for five years, begin to disintegrate into their own ancient feuds: Serb against Croat, Pole against Russian, resistance fighter against collaborator and everyone against the Jews. Two people, Jan and Lily, begin a romance and decide to wed. However, one of the refugees is diagnosed with bubonic plague.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47821293",
"title": "Evacuation in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Evacuation of civilians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1343,
"text": "The word evacuation or \"evakuatsiia\" in 1941 was a somewhat new word that some described as \"terrible and unaccustomed\". For others, it was simply not used. \"Refugee\" or \"bezhenets\" was far too familiar given the country's history of war. During World War II refugee was replaced by evacuees.The shift in wording showed the government's resignation to the displacement of its citizens. The reasons for controlling the displaced population varied. Despite some preferring to consider themselves evacuees the term referred to different individuals. Some were of the “privileged elite\" class. Those who fell under this category were scientists, specialized workers, artists, writers and politicians. These elite individuals were evacuated to the rear of the country. The other portion of the evacuated were met with a suspicious eye. The evacuation process despite the Soviets best efforts, was far from organized. The state considered the majority of those heading east as suspicious. Since a large majority of the population were self evacuees they had not been assigned a location for displacement. Officials feared the disorder made it easy for deserters to flee. Evacuees who did not fall under the “privileged elite” title were are also suspected of potentially contaminating the rest of the population both epidemically and ideologically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477535",
"title": "Forced displacement",
"section": "Section::::Overview and distinctions between the terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "BULLET::::- The term displaced person (DP) was first widely used during World War II and the resulting refugee outflows from Eastern Europe, when it was used to specifically refer to one removed from their native country as a refugee, prisoner or a slave laborer. Most of the victims of war, political refugees and DPs of the immediate post-Second World War period were Ukrainians, Poles, other Slavs, as well as citizens of the Baltic states – Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians, who refused to return to Soviet-dominated eastern Europe. A.J. Jaffe claimed that the term was originally coined by Eugene M. Kulischer. The meaning has significantly broadened in the past half-century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45547",
"title": "Refugee",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "The term \"refugee\" sometime applies to people who might fit the definition outlined by the 1951 Convention, were it applied retroactively. There are many candidates. For example, after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685 outlawed Protestantism in France, hundreds of thousands of Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Switzerland, South Africa, Germany and Prussia. The repeated waves of pogroms that swept Eastern Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries prompted mass Jewish emigration (more than 2 million Russian Jews emigrated in the period 1881–1920). Beginning in the 19th century, Muslim people emigrated to Turkey from Europe. The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 caused 800,000 people to leave their homes. Various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45547",
"title": "Refugee",
"section": "Section::::History.:1933 (rise of Nazism) to 1944.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "The conflict and political instability during World War II led to massive numbers of refugees (see World War II evacuation and expulsion). In 1943, the Allies created the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to provide aid to areas liberated from Axis powers, including parts of Europe and China. By the end of the War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. UNRRA was involved in returning over seven million refugees, then commonly referred to as displaced persons or DPs, to their country of origin and setting up displaced persons camps for one million refugees who refused to be repatriated. Even two years after the end of War, some 850,000 people still lived in DP camps across Western Europe. DP Camps in Europe Intro, from: \"DPs Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951\" by Mark Wyman After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Israel accepted more than 650,000 refugees by 1950. By 1953, over 250,000 refugees were still in Europe, most of them old, infirm, crippled, or otherwise disabled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2umaj6
|
In the US Civil War, how realistic is the idea that if the south had won a decisive military victory like capturing Washington, Britain and France could have been tempted to intervene on the side of the south, possibly causing a peace settlement?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, the idea that the Confederacy could ever have successfully captured Washington by storm or siege is utterly unrealistic. By 1862 Washington was likely one of the most heavily defended cities in the world, by 1864 it was the most heavily fortified city in the world. Any attempt to take it by storm would have resulted in wholesale slaughter akin to Grant's Cold Harbor battle, but in reverse, and likely much more one sided. Besieging it would have been impossible since it can be resupplied by sea if absolutely necessary and the Confederates have no way of stopping such an avenue of resupply even assuming they could encircle the city.\n\nBut I digress, your main point is about the idea of foreign intervention and assuming a hypothetical southern victory on northern soil. This would greatly depend on what year your talking. If 1862, it's possible, France did want to intervene on the side of the Confederates and intimated as much to the diplomats Davis sent. However, they were unwilling to act without a British declaration of war, and it is difficult to gauge how likely such an intervention ever was. Had they won Antietam, it is possible, but following that defeat they never had a realistic chance of achieving foreign support until victory for the Confederacy was certain and by that point what need would they have for such support. \n\nYou might be wondering why I don't include Gettysburg or anything following 1862 in my belief and that's rather simple. Had the Confederacy won at Gettysburg consider the situation on July 4, yes you've just won a \"victory\", but you've also lost 25,000 men, you're still outnumbered, and you can't possibly assail northern cities. To the north you're blocked by a river and the difficulties of crossing such a river. To the south you have only Washington and if you couldn't besiege it when you had 75,000 men you certainly can't now. You've lost a 1/3 of your army and remain deep in enemy territory, now what. Wait, hope the Union after 2 1/2 years just gives in, cause Lincoln wouldn't have and he was still president no matter public opinion. Oh, and about that, you're victory is about to be tempered by the fact that on the same day you won Vicksburg and some 35,000 Confederates just surrendered and the South out in the West is in full retreat. So the situation from your perspective, or even Union newspapers, hysterical at the loss and the mystique of Lee may not change. But in the eyes of the world you won a major battle and then lost a major battle and in doing so lost 60,000 men that you could not afford to lose. The public opinion in England was never high, why would it change now that you just went 1-1 in major battles, from their perspective all you did was just offset by what Grant just did and from a purely strategical sense to the military minds of England, Grant's victory was far more significant. Everyone in the South knew it too and Lee's loss, far from being the injury was merely the salt in the wound. It's also uncertain whether immediate intervention by the British or French would have caused an immediate peace settlement. It takes time to mobilize your forces and get ready for a war, the U.S. even after a loss at Gettysburg would have had a 6 month window before having to worry about British or French troops. In that time the South's fortunes out west got worse not better. Ultimately even as early as 62 such an idea was relatively unlikely, by 63 it was far fetched, and by 64 it was bordering on delusional.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1666581",
"title": "Maryland campaign",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Military situation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "There were secondary reasons as well. The Confederate invasion might be able to incite an uprising in Maryland, especially given that it was a slave-holding state and many of its citizens held a sympathetic stance toward the South. Some Confederate politicians, including Jefferson Davis, believed the prospect of foreign recognition for the Confederacy would be made stronger by a military victory on Northern soil, but there is no evidence that Lee thought the South should base its military plans on this possibility. Nevertheless, the news of the victory at Second Bull Run and the start of Lee's invasion caused considerable diplomatic activity between the Confederate States and France and the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1889137",
"title": "Hampton Roads Conference",
"section": "Section::::Overtures for peace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "In 1864, pressure mounted for both sides to seek a peace settlement to end the long and devastating Civil War. Several people had sought to broker a North–South peace treaty in 1864. Francis Preston Blair, a personal friend of both Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis, had unsuccessfully encouraged Lincoln to make a diplomatic visit to Richmond. Blair had advocated to Lincoln that the war could be brought to a close by having the two opposing sections of the nation stand down in their conflict, and reunite on grounds of the Monroe Doctrine in attacking the French-installed Emperor Maximilian in Mexico. Lincoln asked Blair to wait until Savannah had been captured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49057014",
"title": "List of fictional United States presidencies of historical figures (C–D)",
"section": "Section::::D.:Thomas E. Dewey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the alternate history novella \"Bring the Jubilee\" by Ward Moore, a Confederate victory in the War of Southron Independence is generally disastrous for the United States. In domestic politics, it results in rampant political corruption and the replacement of the Democratic and Republican parties with the right-leaning Whigs and the left-leaning Populists; the former accepts the status quo, wishing to turn the United States into neo-colony for the world's great powers, while the latter wish to undo the harsher aspects of the US economy such as indentures and the clauses of the 1864 Treaty of Reading, the American-Confederate peace agreement. The Whig candidate for the 1940 Presidential Election is Thomas E. Dewey who defeats his Populist rival Jennings Lewis; however, due to political corruption, the presidency has diminished in power in comparison to the House Majority Speaker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4948586",
"title": "John Dooly",
"section": "Section::::Terrible Scenario.:The American Comeback.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1248,
"text": "The American army in the South would make a decisive comeback under Gen. Nathanael Greene. His professional army, in cooperation with partisans, over the next two years drove the British from the South and started the string of events that directly resulted in the decisive Franco-American victory at Yorktown. Elijah Clarke and other Georgia frontiersmen played significant roles in those battles and campaigns. The former Wilkes County militiamen who had served under John Dooly participated in the major victory at King's Mountain and played critical roles in the American success at the Battle of Cowpens. Emistisiguo's fate also became intertwined with the final days of the Revolution. He had led warriors in attacks on settlers in modern Kentucky and Tennessee who had come to the aid of the American cause at King's Mountain and in Wilkes County. On July 24, 1782, in his final act for his British patrons, he died in hand-to-hand combat with Gen. Anthony Wayne while leading a Creek war party and Loyalists in a desperate but successful effort to break through to the garrison at Savannah. The Creek headman thus joined John Dooly and so many other leaders of their conflicted and conflicting societies in failing to survive the war.(n57)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29974",
"title": "Total war",
"section": "Section::::18th and 19th centuries.:American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Union Army General William Tecumseh Sherman's 'March to the Sea' in November and December 1864 destroyed the resources required for the South to make war. General Ulysses S. Grant and President Abraham Lincoln initially opposed the plan until Sherman convinced them of its necessity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14087216",
"title": "USS Reindeer (1863)",
"section": "Section::::Civil War service.:Opening of the Confederate waterways to Union Navy control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "To counter this strategy, Southern generals attempted to deprive the North of the use of these vital rivers. Lacking a powerful naval arm to challenge Federal forces afloat, the South resorted to guerrilla raids and cavalry forays against Union bases along the riverbanks and on supply ships which plied the rivers bringing Mr. Lincoln's soldiers food, clothing, ammunition, and the other necessities of war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "760776",
"title": "History of the British Isles",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:1801 to 1837.:Napoleonic Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "A stepped-up war effort that year brought about some successes such as the burning of Washington, D.C., but the Duke of Wellington argued that an outright victory over the U.S. was impossible because the Americans controlled the western Great Lakes and had destroyed the power of Britain's Indian allies. A full-scale British invasion was defeated in upstate New York. Peace was agreed to at the end of 1814, but unaware of this, Andrew Jackson won a great victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815 (news took several weeks to cross the Atlantic before the advent of steam ships). The Treaty of Ghent subsequently ended the war with no territorial changes. It was the last war between Britain and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jubj4
|
Violations of the equivalence principle?
|
[
{
"answer": "Spammy is a grumpy old man who has a taste for good submissions. He eats them up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Is this credible?\n\nYes, quite. It's a nice paper.\n\n > What does it mean if the equivalence principle really is violated?\n\nAbsolutely nothing. The equivalence principle rests on the principle of locality, and it holds whenever that principle is in effect. But the principle of locality is an approximation; it's violated by certain phenomena in both ordinary \"first quantisation\" mechanics and in \"second quantisation\" field theory. If locality doesn't hold, the equivalence principle doesn't either … which is less a *violation* of equivalence as it is a demonstration of the fact that equivalence depends on locality, which we knew already.\n\nNo, the interesting thing about this paper isn't that equivalence is violated when locality is violated. The interesting thing is that it's possible to *restore equivalence* even without locality. As the gravitational field gets stronger — that is, as you get closer to the event horizon of a black hole *that's only present in the paper to be the source of a gravitational field of arbitrary strength so please let's not turn this into another godawful black hole party* — the apparent violation of equivalence vanishes. *That's* interesting, and serves as yet more evidence in favour of the notion that quantum field theory and general relativity already, separately, comprise a compete quantum theory of gravity; we just have to work out the details.\n\nInsultingly condescending summary: The violation of equivalence is expected. The *restoration* of equivalence in the strong-field limit isn't expected, and comes as a pleasant surprise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only minimally coupled **scalar** matter falls along geodesics, which is what the equivalence principle claims. Even fermions which were minimally coupled would not follow geodesics, because they \"feel\" the curvature (technically: they couple to the spin connection and end up moving according to the Papapetrou equation, which includes spin). Same story for vector fields.\n\nNon-minimally coupled matter definitely doesn't satisfy the equivalence principle.\n\nNow, think about what unification means: gravity is part of something bigger. That bigger thing must symmetry-break to yield gravity and particles/fields. Therefore you expect some direct coupling between gravity and some of those particles/fields. That's what happens in electroweak symmetry breaking: the W bosons are coupled to the photon. So unification naturally suggests that there are non-minimally coupled matter fields.\n\nSo we expect equivalence principle violation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Spammy is a grumpy old man who has a taste for good submissions. He eats them up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Is this credible?\n\nYes, quite. It's a nice paper.\n\n > What does it mean if the equivalence principle really is violated?\n\nAbsolutely nothing. The equivalence principle rests on the principle of locality, and it holds whenever that principle is in effect. But the principle of locality is an approximation; it's violated by certain phenomena in both ordinary \"first quantisation\" mechanics and in \"second quantisation\" field theory. If locality doesn't hold, the equivalence principle doesn't either … which is less a *violation* of equivalence as it is a demonstration of the fact that equivalence depends on locality, which we knew already.\n\nNo, the interesting thing about this paper isn't that equivalence is violated when locality is violated. The interesting thing is that it's possible to *restore equivalence* even without locality. As the gravitational field gets stronger — that is, as you get closer to the event horizon of a black hole *that's only present in the paper to be the source of a gravitational field of arbitrary strength so please let's not turn this into another godawful black hole party* — the apparent violation of equivalence vanishes. *That's* interesting, and serves as yet more evidence in favour of the notion that quantum field theory and general relativity already, separately, comprise a compete quantum theory of gravity; we just have to work out the details.\n\nInsultingly condescending summary: The violation of equivalence is expected. The *restoration* of equivalence in the strong-field limit isn't expected, and comes as a pleasant surprise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only minimally coupled **scalar** matter falls along geodesics, which is what the equivalence principle claims. Even fermions which were minimally coupled would not follow geodesics, because they \"feel\" the curvature (technically: they couple to the spin connection and end up moving according to the Papapetrou equation, which includes spin). Same story for vector fields.\n\nNon-minimally coupled matter definitely doesn't satisfy the equivalence principle.\n\nNow, think about what unification means: gravity is part of something bigger. That bigger thing must symmetry-break to yield gravity and particles/fields. Therefore you expect some direct coupling between gravity and some of those particles/fields. That's what happens in electroweak symmetry breaking: the W bosons are coupled to the photon. So unification naturally suggests that there are non-minimally coupled matter fields.\n\nSo we expect equivalence principle violation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4249442",
"title": "Constraint logic programming",
"section": "Section::::Constraint handling rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Equivalence allows for simplifying the constraint store by replacing some constraints with simpler ones; in particular, if the third constraint in an equivalence rule is codice_93, and the second constraint is entailed, the first constraint is removed from the constraint store. Inference allows for the addition of new constraints, which may lead to proving inconsistency of the constraint store, and may generally reduce the amount of search needed to establish its satisfiability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39228396",
"title": "Equivalence principle (geometric)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The above-mentioned variants of the equivalence principle aim to guarantee the transition of General Relativity to Special Relativity in a certain reference frame. However, only the particular \"weakest\" and \"weak\" equivalence principles are true. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39228396",
"title": "Equivalence principle (geometric)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The equivalence principle is one of the corner-stones of gravitation theory. Different formulations of the equivalence principle are labeled \"weakest\", \"weak\", \"middle-strong\" and \"strong.\" All of these formulations are based on the empirical equality of inertial mass, gravitational active and passive charges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "Section::::History of gravitational theory.:Equivalence principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The equivalence principle, explored by a succession of researchers including Galileo, Loránd Eötvös, and Einstein, expresses the idea that all objects fall in the same way, and that the effects of gravity are indistinguishable from certain aspects of acceleration and deceleration. The simplest way to test the weak equivalence principle is to drop two objects of different masses or compositions in a vacuum and see whether they hit the ground at the same time. Such experiments demonstrate that all objects fall at the same rate when other forces (such as air resistance and electromagnetic effects) are negligible. More sophisticated tests use a torsion balance of a type invented by Eötvös. Satellite experiments, for example STEP, are planned for more accurate experiments in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2855241",
"title": "XL (programming language)",
"section": "Section::::Rule of equivalence, equivalence breakdown.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The \"rule of equivalence\" is verified when the code behavior matches the original concept. This equivalence may break down in many cases. Integer overflow breaks the equivalence between the mathematical integer concept and the computerized approximation of the concept.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857235",
"title": "Equivalence principle",
"section": "Section::::Development of gravitational theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The equivalence principle was properly introduced by Albert Einstein in 1907, when he observed that the acceleration of bodies towards the center of the Earth at a rate of 1\"\"g\"\" (\"g\" = 9.81 m/s being a standard reference of gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface) is equivalent to the acceleration of an inertially moving body that would be observed on a rocket in free space being accelerated at a rate of 1\"g\". Einstein stated it thus:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5906036",
"title": "Optical equivalence theorem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The optical equivalence theorem in quantum optics asserts an equivalence between the expectation value of an operator in Hilbert space and the expectation value of its associated function in the phase space formulation with respect to a quasiprobability distribution. The theorem was first reported by George Sudarshan in 1963 for normally ordered operators and generalized later that decade to any ordering. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3osfy2
|
how come most 3d games render at 60 fps while it takes a few seconds to render a textureless cube in blender?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer depends on what you're doing in Blender. Most likely, it's because you are using a different kind of rendering. When rendering a scene, there are a bunch of computations that *can* be done. 3D games have a (mostly) fixed set of computations they perform, and they're tuned for efficiency. Graphics software like Blender allows you to do a lot of other computations - and the defaults are usually tuned for resulting image quality, not efficiency.\n\nYou won't notice much difference in the quality of the output when you're looking at a textureless cube, but that doesn't mean that Blender can skip all of the computations (though it can certainly skip some).\n\nAnother part of the delay can be in startup time. 3D games load a bunch of resources before you get to play. Blender may be doing similar loading when you tell it to render the scene.\n\nThere are a lot of \"may\" answers here because software is complex, and it depends on what games you're comparing to - and on the current implementation details of Blender.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "There are two ways to render graphics on the screen. \n\n[Rasterization](_URL_0_) - Which is used in video games. The very simple version of this is the world is made up of triangles and all you have to do is figure out if a triangle is visible and if a pixel is in the triangle or not. Many graphics cards have electronics deigned to do this over and over again very quickly. Compare this with...\n\n[Ray Tracing](_URL_3_) - Which is used for static 3D rendering. This **calculates the path light travels for every pixel on your screen** back to the light source. The objects don't have to be triangles and are often expressed as mathematical solids. This gives you, for all intents an purposes, unlimited resolution and detail depending on how much time and CPU power you want to throw at it. Because ray tracers use complex math, the CPU brute-forces the tracing calculations. In fact, with bender, when doing ray tracing, you don't use any of the 3D capability of your graphics card at all. \n\nUpshot:\n\nRasterizer: \"Hey 3D card, draw and fill 532 triangles the make that make up this [isohedron](_URL_2_) and texture it to make it look like sphere \n\nRay Tracer: \"Hey CPU calculate how light will reflect on a [sphere](_URL_1_) of a volume of 4/3*πr^3\"\n\nOne take much more time then the other, but it also make it much more realistic at infinite scales.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I have very limited knowledge in this but I know a thing or two. I have used blender for 3 years and read up on articles. Think about it. If you looked at renders vs how games look, you can see that renders have better quality where as games tend to be faster. The game engine was built more for speed while the rendering engine was built more for quality. Games are pre-calculated while renders have much, much, much more things to put into the scene, such as lighting, global illumination, if animation, then physics. Also, games, instead of having more hi-detailed models, they \"bake\" the extra details to textures to make it faster but it has lower quality. \nHere are some good articles: _URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nSo in conclusion, games render more faster because of pre-calculated geometry and use techniques to achieve faster and mediocre render while 3D rendering software uses an engine that renders everything and doesn't have these techniques since it gives lower quality, thus the quality is better but longer in 3D rendering software. \n\n**Edit**:This is also why renders look SOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO much better!!!!!!!!! Seriously search up 3d Renders. Also, when you talk about a texture-less cube, that's simply due to lighting, reflection and you graphics card. Even though you graphics card is good at rendering games, it may not be good at rendering 3D objects in 3D modelling software. Another article on graphics card for games vs render: _URL_0_ \n\n*Note: I would highly recommend reading the article links instead of taking my word for it :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While others have answered, I'll simplify it a bit more for Eli5.\n\nVideogames take a LOT of shortcuts in lighting, use a lot smaller and simpler textures and filters and models. A lot of textures are pre-shaded for ambient occlusion, for example. Ambient occlusion is not so much a shadow, but when things are closer together and without a direct light source(eg a cloudy day) they're darker, this is very resource heavy and you don't typically see much actual occlusion in video games, and when you do it is quite rough or simple.\n\nIf you want to make a comparison to music, it would be a kazoo vs a symphony.\n\nIn the case of the blank cube and blender, you're also dealing with what is likely a much older render technique that puts a lot of effort into an accurate shadow cast upon a different object. Your shadows are going to be born of light sources in a way that more closely resembles reality by quite a bit.\n\nA lot of what video games do is just enough to deliver the impression, and the difference between them and a good 3d render really show up under scrutiny.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "912444",
"title": "Skybox (video games)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Processing of 3D graphics is computationally expensive, especially in real-time games, and poses multiple limits. Levels have to be processed at tremendous speeds, making it difficult to render vast skyscapes in real-time. Additionally, real-time graphics generally have depth buffers with limited bit-depth, which puts a limit on the amount of details that can be rendered at a distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6604",
"title": "Rendering (computer graphics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In the case of 3D graphics, rendering may be done slowly, as in pre-rendering, or in realtime. Pre-rendering is a computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation, while real-time rendering is often done for 3D video games which rely on the use of graphics cards with 3D hardware accelerators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4364033",
"title": "3D rendering",
"section": "Section::::Real-time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Rendering for interactive media, such as games and simulations, is calculated and displayed in real time, at rates of approximately 20 to 120 frames per second. In real-time rendering, the goal is to show as much information as possible as the eye can process in a fraction of a second (a.k.a. \"in one frame\": In the case of a 30 frame-per-second animation, a frame encompasses one 30th of a second).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3157091",
"title": "Pre-rendering",
"section": "Section::::Advantage and disadvantage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "The advantage of pre-rendering is the ability to use graphic models that are more complex and computationally intensive than those that can be rendered in real-time, due to the possibility of using multiple computers over extended periods of time to render the end results. For instance, a comparison could be drawn between rail-shooters \"Maximum Force\" (which used pre-rendered 3D levels but 2D sprites for enemies) and \"Virtua Cop\" (using 3D polygons); \"Maximum Force\" was more realistic looking due to the limitations of \"Virtua Cop's\" 3D engine, but \"Virtua Cop\" has actual depth (able to portray enemies close and far away, along with body-specific hits and multiple hits) compared to the limits of the 2D sprite enemies in \"Maximum Force\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43981985",
"title": "Vaa3D",
"section": "Section::::3D visualization of 3D, 4D, and 5D image data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Vaa3D is able to render 3D, 4D, and 5D data (X,Y,Z,Color,Time) quickly. The volume rendering is typically at the scale of a few gigabytes and can be extended to the scale of terabytes per image set. The visualization is made fast by using OpenGL directly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2452768",
"title": "Rave Racer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "It was the first game to feature high resolution 3D texture mapping, a feature which was not seen on other platforms until the Dreamcast over three years later. \"Rave Racer\" ran at a resolution of 640x480 and 60 frames per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "937074",
"title": "S3 ViRGE",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "When performing basic 3D-rendering with only texture mapping and no other advanced features, ViRGE's pixel throughput was somewhat faster than the best software-optimized (host-based CPU) 3D-rendering of the era, and with better (16bpp) color fidelity. But when additional rendering operations were added to the polygon load (such as perspective-correction, Z-depth fogging, and bilinear filtering), rendering throughput dropped to the speed of software-based rendering on an entry-level CPU. 3D-rendering on the high-end VRAM based ViRGE/VX (988) was even slower than the less expensive ViRGE/325, due to the VX's slower core and memory clock rates. The upgraded ViRGE/DX and ViRGE/GX models did improve 3D rendering performance, but by the time of their introduction they were still unable to distinguish the ViRGE family in an already crowded 3D market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ajfcq
|
how do lithium ion batteries work?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lithium ion battery uses charged lithium particles (ions) to move electricity from one end of the battery to another. As energy leaves the battery, these lithium ions move from the negative side of the battery to the positive side, forming a conductive lithium layer that releases electricity. When all the ions are on the positive side of the battery, the battery is spent and no longer releases electricity. When the battery is put in a charger, the sides flip temporarily, and the addition of electrical energy to the lithium causes the ions to move back to the negative side of the battery, making the battery ready for use again.\n\nBecause of these properties, lithium ion batteries are among the more common rechargeable batteries for home electronic use. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19236411",
"title": "Thin film lithium-ion battery",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Lithium-ion batteries store chemical energy in reactive chemicals at the anodes and cathodes of a cell. Typically, anodes and cathodes exchange lithium (Li+) ions through a fluid electrolyte that passes through a porous separator which prevents direct contact between the anode and cathode. Such contact would lead to an internal short circuit and a potentially hazardous uncontrolled reaction. Electric current is usually carried by conductive collectors at the anodes and cathodes to and from the negative and positive terminals of the cell (respectively).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201485",
"title": "Lithium-ion battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications. It was developed by John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino in the 1980s, building on a concept proposed by M Stanley Whittingham in the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35508054",
"title": "Aluminium-ion battery",
"section": "Section::::Lithium-ion comparison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Today’s lithium ion batteries have high power density (fast discharge) and high energy density (hold a lot of charge). It can also develop dendrites, similar to splinters, that can short-circuit a battery and lead to a fire. Aluminum also transfers energy more efficiently. Inside a battery, atoms of the element — lithium or aluminum — give up some of their electrons, which flow through external wires to power a device. Because of their atomic structure, lithium ions can only provide one electron at a time; aluminum can give three at a time. Aluminum is also more abundant than lithium, lowering material costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19236411",
"title": "Thin film lithium-ion battery",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Renewable energy storage devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The thin film lithium ion battery can serve as a storage device for the energy collected from renewable sources with a variable generation rate, such as a solar cell or wind turbine. These batteries can be made to have a low self discharge rate, which means that these batteries can be stored for long periods of time without a major loss of the energy that was used to charge it. These fully charged batteries could then be used to power some or all of the other potential applications listed below, or provide more reliable power to an electric grid for general use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24429024",
"title": "Lithium–air battery",
"section": "Section::::Design and operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "In general lithium ions move between the anode and the cathode across the electrolyte. Under discharge, electrons follow the external circuit to do electric work and the lithium ions migrate to the cathode. During charge the lithium metal plates onto the anode, freeing at the cathode. Both non-aqueous (with LiO or LiO as the discharge products) and aqueous (LiOH as the discharge product) Li-O batteries have been considered. The aqueous battery requires a protective layer on the negative electrode to keep the Li metal from reacting with water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201485",
"title": "Lithium-ion battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "In the batteries lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in a non-rechargeable lithium battery. The batteries have a high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells) and low self-discharge. They can however be a safety hazard since they contain a flammable electrolyte, and if damaged or incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires. Samsung were forced to recall Galaxy Note 7 handsets following lithium-ion fires, and there have been several incidents involving batteries on Boeing 787s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41476230",
"title": "Lithium-ion flow battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A lithium-ion flow battery is a flow battery that uses a form of lightweight lithium as its charge carrier. The flow battery stores energy separately from its system for discharging. The amount of energy it can store is determined by tank size; its power density is determined by the size of the reaction chamber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22hkqx
|
i turned on my old guitar amp with nothing plugged in and it started playing a radio station. how is this happening?
|
[
{
"answer": "Radio waves are stupid easy to pick up on any basic consumer amplifier. I've picked up radio stations on PC speakers before. Somewhere along the lines, the radio signal is inadvertently translated to an electrical signal that your system can amplify. You don't need a loose wire; just an unshielded system.\n\nAdding to that, I think the FCC mandates that consumer electronics must accept radio interference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Radios have amplifiers as part of how they convert radio waves to sound via a speaker. Unshielded amplifiers can be excited (made to produce a signal) due to a strong RF signal passing through them. wires leading to an amplifier stage or even the amp circuitry itself can act as the antenna in this case. What has likely happened is either you have moved to a location closer to a transmitter (radio tower) or a transmitter near to your location has either upped its power since last you used this unit or perhaps it is operating on a new frequency. Any cheap AM/FM radio in a house near a transmitter will play the signal of a nearby powerful transmitter. As will cordless phones and other items with amplifiers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "OP, your question makes me want to build a radio. I haven't played with a soldering iron in six or seven years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interference, My father had (has?) a very cheap clock radio that picked aeroplane radio traffic as it flew overhead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To convert high frequency Radio Waves to frequencies that you can hear, you need a \"Detector\". \n\nThe simplest Detector is a Diode of some kind. Years ago people built Crystal sets that used a piece of Galena and a fine wire (called a Cat's Whisker) as a Detector.\n\nAny well designed electronic equipment is relatively immune to radio waves, but some cheap gear can pick it up because it is poorly shielded and something inside is acting as a Detector.\n\nWhen CB radio first came out, Radio Interference was a nightmare because there was so much rubbish electronic gear around, especially early TV sets. These days the manufactures are much more aware of the problem and tend to not cut corners so much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50873213",
"title": "Turning Up the Radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "\"Turning Up the Radio\" is a song by the American rock band Weezer from their studio album \"Death to False Metal\". Its genesis came about in 2008 when Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo used YouTube to source ideas for creating a song using video submissions from other users of the platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8545945",
"title": "Highway Hi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The players themselves were manufactured by CBS Electronics. According to the official Chrysler press release of September 12, 1955, \"Highway Hi-Fi plays through the speaker of the car radio and uses the radio's amplifier system. The turntable for playing records, built for Chrysler by CBS-Columbia, is located in a shock-proof case mounted just below the center of the instrument panel. A tone arm, including sapphire stylus and ceramic pick up, plus storage space for six long-play records make up the unit.\" A button controlled whether you listened to the radio or the records. A proprietary 0.25-mil (i.e., or a quarter of a \"thou\") stylus was used with an unusually high stylus pressure of to prevent skipping or skating despite normal car vibrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956410",
"title": "Hugh Padgham",
"section": "Section::::The \"gated drum\" sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "The whole thing came through the famous \"listen mic\" on the SSL console. The SSL had put this massive compressor on it because the whole idea was to hang one mic in the middle of the studio and hear somebody talking on the other side. And it just so happened that we turned it on one day when Phil [Collins] was playing his drums. And then I had the idea of feeding that back into the console and putting the noise gate on, so when he stopped playing it sucked the big sound of the room into nothing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22167050",
"title": "There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "\"There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio\" is a moderate up-tempo novelty song. In it, the male narrator describes how old and run-down his car is but explains that he continues to drive it because \"there ain't nothin' wrong with the radio\" — specifically, \"there ain't a country station that [he] can't tune in\". The song features electric guitar and fiddle accompaniments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2785329",
"title": "Radio pack",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "A radio pack is mainly used for musicians such as guitarists and singers for live performances. It is a small radio transmitter that is either placed in the strap or in the pocket. The receiver is connected to an amp or PA system and the user simply connects the transmitter into the instrument. This means that there is no wires in the way. By using a wireless system, musicians are free to move around the stage. This has meant that more elaborate stage shows are now possible, with musicians performing a long way from the amplifier or speakers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31017407",
"title": "Scarlet Fever (band)",
"section": "Section::::Live performances.:2011 concert tours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Sharon Aguilar reminisced, “Plugged [my guitar] right into the amp; no time for a pedalboard… no fancy in-ear monitors or anything like that… More energy… it ended up being probably my favorite live show that we’ve ever done.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22167050",
"title": "There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "\"There Ain't Nothin' Wrong with the Radio\" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Aaron Tippin. It was released in February 1992 as the first single from his album \"Read Between the Lines\". The song is not only his first Number One hit on the country music charts but also his longest-lasting at three weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d1eos8
|
what happens with the intellectual properties of a company when they close down?
|
[
{
"answer": "It gets sold off/liquidated, like physical assets (to take your example further, Disneylands, corporate headquarters, and other things like that).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rights, like intellectual property rights, only really matter if there is someone to assert them. If no one purchases the rights, then they might as well be in the public domain, as no one will have any standing to file lawsuits or other actions against any infringers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12963496",
"title": "Business failure",
"section": "Section::::After Closing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "After closing a business may be dissolved and have its assets redistributed after filing articles of dissolution. A business that operates multiple locations may continue to operate, but close some of its locations that are under-performing, or in the case of a manufacturer, cease production of some of its products that are not selling well. Some failing companies are purchased by a new owner who may be able to run the company better, and some are merged with another company that will then take over its operations. Some businesses save themselves through bankruptcy or bankruptcy protection, thereby allowing themselves to restructure. There are several consequences towards the owners/shareholders, such as limited liability, the finance and the continuity (if a shareholder does not want to continue in the business).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13249958",
"title": "The Modern Corporation and Private Property",
"section": "Section::::Book I, Property in Flux.:I Property in transition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "“has destroyed the unity that we commonly call property - has divided ownership into nominal ownership and the power formerly joined to it. Thereby the corporation has changed the nature of profit-seeking enterprise.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1054527",
"title": "Corporate law",
"section": "Section::::Matters affecting the continuation of the Corporate form.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Events such as mergers, acquisitions, insolvency, or the commission of a crime will adversely affect the corporation in its current form. At the end of the corporate lifecycle, a corporation may be \"wound up\" and enter into bankruptcy liquidation. This often arises when the corporation is unable to discharge its debts in a timely manner. Comparatively, a merger or acquisition can often mean the altering or extinguishing of the corporation. In addition to the creation of the corporation, and its financing, these events serve as a transition phase into either dissolution, or some other material shift. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47558547",
"title": "Loans in Japan",
"section": "Section::::The 2010 Money Lending Business Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Due to this act, many small companies on the edge of the market went to bankruptcy. Many other were sold according to decreasing profitability of the business. For example, GE was selling Lake, their consumer-credit division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "396723",
"title": "Diseconomies of scale",
"section": "Section::::Solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Solutions to the diseconomies of scale for large firms may involve splitting the company into smaller organisations. This can either happen by default when the company is in financial difficulties, sells off its profitable divisions and shuts down the rest; or can happen proactively, if the management is willing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51256915",
"title": "Criminal responsibility in French law",
"section": "Section::::Persons responsible: the principle of responsibility for personal actions.:Responsibility of leaders and deciders.:RPPM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The disappearance of the corporation naturally puts an end to prosecution, this even in the case of merger or acquisition. The principle of responsibility for personal actions runs counter to the acquiring entity or person of responsibility for infractions committed by the acquired business (Crim. 14 octobre 2003).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14086866",
"title": "Dark Energy Digital",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "On March 19, 2012, the company suffered due to not having enough money, went broke and was ultimately put into administrative control. It is in the process of selling IP and assets, most notably the \"Hydrophobia\" series and the Hydroengine.3\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
51crhp
|
why do you see so many saabs and other out of production cars in movies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those brands are/were all owned by GM, and GM has made it a point of pride that their vehicles have been showcased in many motion pictures. What you're seeing is product placement coupled with favorable rental rates for fleet vehicles to achieve that effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "362059",
"title": "Hill Valley (Back to the Future)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Many of the cars that appear in the 2015 scenes are either modified for the film or concept cars. Examples include Ford Probe, Saab EV-1, Citroën DS 21, Pontiac Banshee Concept, Pontiac Fiero and Volkswagen Beetle. Cars reused from other science fiction films include the \"Star Car\" from \"The Last Starfighter\" (1984) and a \"Spinner\" from \"Blade Runner\" (1982). Griff's car is a modified BMW 633 (which was notably never in the convertible form seen in the film).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15656621",
"title": "Fast & Furious (2009 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The film was announced in July 2007. Vin Diesel, Paul Walker, and the rest of the cast of the original film all reprised their roles. Filming began in 2008. The movie cars were built in Southern California's San Fernando Valley. Around 240 cars were built for the film. However, the replica vehicles do not match the specifications they were supposed to represent. For example, the replica version of \"F-Bomb\", a 1973 Chevrolet Camaro built by Tom Nelson of NRE and David Freiburger of \"Hot Rod\" magazine, included a 300 hp crate V8 engine with a 3-speed automatic transmission, whereas the actual car included a twin-turbo 1,500 hp engine and a 5-speed transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5731328",
"title": "Ta Ra Rum Pum",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The cars used in racing scenes were provided by Andy Hillenburg, who purchased Rockingham Speedway months after its release and provided the stunt drivers, as many ARCA Re/Max Series drivers participated in the filming (ARCA Re/Max Series stickers can be found on the cars in the movie; Hillenberg trained stunt drivers, along with letting some film stars take turns driving). Some cars that can be seen in \"Ta Ra Rum Pum\" display high resemblance to cars specifically created for Will Ferrell's \"\" (except featuring modified sponsorship decals) as Hillenburg provided cars for that movie as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18954135",
"title": "Alan Mann Racing",
"section": "Section::::Film work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "They also built three cars with 'futuristic' appearance, based on Ford Zephyr running gear and aluminium gullwing door bodyshells, for Gerry Anderson and the 1969 film 'Doppelgänger'. These were re-painted and re-used for the much better known UFO TV series of 1970. The cars were infamously unfinished, underpowered and unreliable. Ed Straker’s car was later owned by DJ Dave Lee Travis, who hated it. Little survives of these cars, except for enough remains to build a modern replica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "719436",
"title": "Olsen Gang",
"section": "Section::::Norwegian films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Several elements recur in the films series. As the Japanese carmaker Toyota was usually the main sponsor of the film series, most cars, including the villain's cars, the security cars, the police cars, the gang's car, civilian cars parked on the sidewalks, etc. was supplied by the company. Models include the Crown as taxis, Toyota Cressida as police cars, Hiace as security vans and money transports, and so on. There have been exceptions, notably \"Olsenbandens aller siste kupp\" (\"The Olsen-Gangs Very Last Coup\") from 1982, which was sponsored by Datsun. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6871276",
"title": "Eleanor (automobile)",
"section": "Section::::Screen-used vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Depending on the source, either eleven or twelve cars were built by Cinema Vehicle Services for the film (not including CVS's creation of one additional Eleanor clone - with a Ford 428 - for producer Bruckheimer). Nine were shells, and three were built as fully functional vehicles. Seven were reported to have \"survived the filming [and] made it back to Cinema Vehicle Services\" according to research by Mustangandfords.com.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2696740",
"title": "Curious George (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "CG supervisor Thanh John Nguyen states that they tried to duplicate the look of the cars in the book, which Executive Producer Ken Tsumura describes as bearing the look of the 1940s and 1950s; according to production designer Yarrow Cheney, the filmmakers also partnered with Volkswagen to design the red car that Ted drives, simplifying it a bit and rounding the edges. Cheney also said that prior to this they had based some of the models on Volkswagens due to their suitability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ahsaz5
|
how does a bike stay up when at faster speeds but will fall over when not going fast enough?
|
[
{
"answer": "The gyroscopic forces created by the wheels mass cause the wheel to fix itself on a plane in turn overcoming to forces of gravity stopping it just falling over",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally bikes have handlebars which have a centre of mass infront of their pivot. Meaning if you lean the bike to the left the handlebars will turn left. This has the effect of making the bike turn left and when it turns left the body of the bike is thrown outside of the turn just like in a car when going round a corner. Then it leans to the right and the cycle repeats. Then your brain helps a bit too. If you push your bike fast with no one on it will go upright for a while however if you tie the handle bars so they can't turn it will fall over just as fast as if you just let it go stationary. \n\n\nAnother interesting fact is this causes your steering to be inverted when going at speed. If you can cycle with no hands you can try this by cycling with no hands and using one finger to push your handlebars to the left you'll find the bike will lean over to the right and turn right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Forward speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The rider applies torque to the handlebars in order to turn the front wheel and so to control lean and maintain balance. At high speeds, small steering angles quickly move the ground contact points laterally; at low speeds, larger steering angles are required to achieve the same results in the same amount of time. Because of this, it is usually easier to maintain balance at high speeds. As self-stability typically occurs at speeds above a certain threshold, going faster increases the chances that a bike is contributing to its own stability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Although longitudinally stable when stationary, bikes often have a high enough center of mass and a short enough wheelbase to lift a wheel off the ground under sufficient acceleration or deceleration. When braking, depending on the location of the combined center of mass of the bike and rider with respect to the point where the front wheel contacts the ground, bikes can either skid the front wheel or flip the bike and rider over the front wheel. A similar situation is possible while accelerating, but with respect to the rear wheel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Gyroscopic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "At low forward speeds, the precession of the front wheel is too quick, contributing to an uncontrolled bike’s tendency to oversteer, start to lean the other way and eventually oscillate and fall over. At high forward speeds, the precession is usually too slow, contributing to an uncontrolled bike’s tendency to understeer and eventually fall over without ever having reached the upright position. This instability is very slow, on the order of seconds, and is easy for most riders to counteract. Thus a fast bike may feel stable even though it is actually not self-stable and would fall over if it were uncontrolled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Lateral motion theory.:Modes.:Capsize.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "For most bikes, depending on geometry and mass distribution, capsize is stable at low speeds, and becomes less stable as speed increases until it is no longer stable. However, on many bikes, tire interaction with the pavement is sufficient to prevent capsize from becoming unstable at high speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23624095",
"title": "DW-link",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "However, neither of these solutions are ideal as they hinder the suspension's ability to absorb small bumps or low-speed impacts while the bicycle is coasting (Note: \"low-speed\" does not refer to the velocity at which the vehicle is traveling, but the speed at which the suspension is compressed). In the case of excessive compression damping, this problem is known as overdamping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343488",
"title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Lateral motion theory.:Modes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Bikes, as complex mechanisms, have a variety of modes: fundamental ways that they can move. These modes can be stable or unstable, depending on the bike parameters and its forward speed. In this context, \"stable\" means that an uncontrolled bike will continue rolling forward without falling over as long as forward speed is maintained. Conversely, \"unstable\" means that an uncontrolled bike will eventually fall over, even if forward speed is maintained. The modes can be differentiated by the speed at which they switch stability and the relative phases of leaning and steering as the bike experiences that mode. Any bike motion consists of a combination of various amounts of the possible modes, and there are three main modes that a bike can experience: capsize, weave, and wobble. A lesser known mode is rear wobble, and it is usually stable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1581009",
"title": "Track stand",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "A cyclist executing a basic track stand holds the bicycle's cranks in a horizontal position, with his or her dominant foot forward. Track stands executed on bicycles with a freewheel usually employ a small uphill section of ground. The uphill needs to be sufficient to allow the rider to create backward motion by relaxing pressure on the pedals, thus allowing the bike to roll backwards. Once the track stand is mastered, even a very tiny uphill section is sufficient: e.g. the camber of the road, a raised road marking, and so on. Where no such uphill exists, or even if the gradient is downhill, a track stand can be achieved on a freewheeling bicycle by using a brake to initiate a backwards movement. If a fixed-gear bicycle is being used, an uphill slope is not needed since the rider is able to simply back pedal to move backwards. In both cases forward motion is accomplished by pedalling forwards. The handlebars are held at approximately a 45 degree angle, converting the bike's forward and back motion into side-to-side motion beneath the rider's body. This allows the rider to keep the bike directly below their center of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
698zak
|
what is infrasound and how can it cause panic attacks in humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "Human hearing works for tones in the frequency range of 20hz-20000hz. Everything below that is called infrasound, everything above is called ultrasound. \n\nThe resonant frequencies of a lot of human organs happen to be in the infrasound range, so a loud/powerful enough tone can cause them to vibrate strongly, resulting in discomfort and nausea. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12999450",
"title": "History of emerging infectious diseases",
"section": "Section::::20th-century discoveries.:\"Cyclospora\" (1995).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "Cyclospora is a gastrointestinal pathogen that causes fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and severe weight loss. Outbreaks of the disease occurred in Chicago in 1989 and other areas in the United States. But investigation by the Center for Disease Control could not identify an infectious cause. The discovery of the cause was made by Mr. Ramachandran Rajah, the head of a medical clinic's laboratory in Kathmandu, Nepal. Mr. Rajah was trying to discover why local residents and visitors were becoming ill every summer. He identified an unusual looking organism in stool samples from patients who were sick. But when the clinic sent slides of the organism to the Center for Disease Control, it was identified as blue-green algae, which is harmless. Many pathologists had seen the same thing before, but dismissed it as irrelevant to the patient's disease. Later, the organism would be identified as a special kind of parasite, and treatment would be developed to help patients with the infection. In the United States, Cyclospora infection must be reported to the Center for Disease Control according to the CDC's Reportable Disease Chart\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34118956",
"title": "Perception of infrasound",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Infrasound is sound at frequencies lower than the low frequency end of human hearing threshold at 20 Hz. It is known, however, that humans can perceive sounds below this frequency at very high pressure levels. Infrasound can come from many natural as well as man-made sources, including weather patterns, topographic features, ocean wave activity, thunderstorms, geomagnetic storms, earthquakes, jet streams, mountain ranges, and rocket launchings. Infrasounds are also present in the vocalizations of some animals. Low frequency sounds can travel for long distances with very little attenuation and can be detected hundreds of miles away from their sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "948990",
"title": "Ecchymosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "An ecchymosis is a subcutaneous spot of bleeding with diameter larger than . It is similar to (and sometimes indistinguishable from) a hematoma, commonly called a bruise, though the terms are not interchangeable in careful usage. Specifically, bruises are caused by trauma whereas ecchymoses, which are the same as the spots of purpura except larger, are not \"necessarily\" caused by trauma, often being caused by pathophysiologic cell function, and some diseases such as Marburg virus disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39040942",
"title": "Mobilida",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Mobilida is a group of parasitic or symbiotic peritrich ciliates, comprising more than 280 species. Mobilids live on or within a wide variety of aquatic organisms, including fish, amphibians, molluscs, cnidarians, flatworms and other ciliates, attaching to their host organism by means of an aboral adhesive disk. Some mobilid species are pathogens of wild or farmed fish, causing severe and economically damaging diseases such as trichodinosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6164872",
"title": "Latrodectism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Latrodectism is the illness caused by the bite of \"Latrodectus\" spiders (the black widow spider and related species). Pain, muscle rigidity, vomiting, and sweating are the symptoms of latrodectism. Contrary to popular conception, latrodectism is very rarely fatal for humans, though domestic cats have been known to die due to convulsions and paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1123708",
"title": "Hurler syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Hurler syndrome, also known as mucopolysaccharidosis Type IH (MPS-IH), Hurler's disease, and formerly gargoylism, is a genetic disorder that results in the buildup of large sugar molecules called glycosaminoglycans (AKA GAGs, or mucopolysaccharides) in lysosomes. The inability to break down these molecules results in a wide variety of symptoms caused by damage to several different organ systems, including but not limited to the nervous system, skeletal system, eyes, and heart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2198728",
"title": "Surra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Surra (from the Marathi \"sūra\", meaning the sound of heavy breathing through nostrils, of imitative origin) is a disease of vertebrate animals. The disease is caused by protozoan trypanosomes, specifically \"Trypanosoma evansi\", of several species which infect the blood of the vertebrate host, causing fever, weakness, and lethargy which lead to weight loss and anemia. In some animals the disease is fatal unless treated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dxl1yc
|
what would happen to a person when they cannot afford payment to a loan/debt.
|
[
{
"answer": "In the US, they may be able to file for bankruptcy protection, discharging the debt if the person has no way of paying the debt (except for selling off essential assets).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This varies widely by what state you live in and what kind of debt.. Business debt, mortgages and other standard loans can usually be handled through bankruptcy. Student loans will haunt you until you die and then dig you up and demand payment. Go murica.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They default on a loan which means they can't pay it back, they may have to declare bankruptcy. Their credit gets ruined and for most loans the credit bereau is told to basically just forget about the loan and take the loss. This is worst case\n\n\nIf you just miss a payment on a loan then you get a ding to your credit for non-payment however a single non-payment from a late payment won't be too damaging and can even potentially removed from your credit history in some circumstances.\n\n\nIn general, credit bereaus will try to work with people to have lower payments that they can afford because they would rather have a loan take longer to be repaid than to take the loss.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33239102",
"title": "South African contract law",
"section": "Section::::Breach of contract.:Forms of breach.:\"Mora\".:\"Mora creditoris\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 599,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 599,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Unless he cancels the contract, or obtains an order compelling the creditor to accept his performance, it is not clear how the debtor can discharge his debt without having to wait until the period of prescription has run, or until performance has become impossible. Consignation (payment into court with notice to the creditor) appears to have fallen into desuetude, and is in any event impossible or impracticable in many cases (as in the case where perishables are to be delivered). Whether the debtor may sell the goods for the account of the creditor is also uncertain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1345821",
"title": "Unsecured debt",
"section": "Section::::National differences.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Failure to make a payment on an unsecured debt may ultimately result in reporting the delinquent debt to a credit reporting agency or legal action. However, a nongovernmental unsecured creditor cannot seize any of your assets without a court judgment in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146738",
"title": "Interest",
"section": "Section::::Market interest rates.:Default interest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "From the borrower's perspective, this means failure to make their regular payment for one or two payment periods or failure to pay taxes or insurance premiums for the loan collateral will lead to substantially higher interest for the entire remaining term of the loan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "934442",
"title": "Debtor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "It is not a crime to fail to pay a debt. Except in certain bankruptcy situations, debtors can choose to pay debts in any priority they choose. But if one fails to pay a debt, they have broken a contract or agreement between them and a creditor. Generally, most oral and written agreements for the repayment of consumer debt - debts for personal, family or household purposes secured primarily by a person's residence - are enforceable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152835",
"title": "Debt",
"section": "Section::::Terms.:Default provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "If the debt was secured by specific collateral, such as a car or home, the creditor may seek to repossess the collateral. In more serious circumstances, individuals and companies may go into bankruptcy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16345409",
"title": "Mortgage Forgiveness Debt Relief Act of 2007",
"section": "Section::::Meaning of “Cancellation of Debt”.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "If you’ve borrowed money and your lender cancels/terminates or forgives the outstanding loan balance owed to you at a later stage, then you, as per the Internal Revenue Service will be liable to file an income tax return on the forgiven debt amount with respect to the corresponding situations. At the time of loan origination, the loan money that you received weren’t considered as an income because you made an agreement to pay back the borrowed sum to the lender, i.e., it was your obligation to repay the loan amount as per the signed contract’s terms and conditions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35683295",
"title": "Civil procedure in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Post-litigation.:Debt collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 682,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 682,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "As noted by Sachs J in \"Coetzee\", the small debtor without means will no longer be faced with imprisonment, from which he can only be rescued by family or friends. Further, creditors will no longer be able to extend credit on the basis that the debt can be exacted through fear of imprisonment. Credit should be extended only to those who are creditworthy, and to those who provide proper security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60r3vt
|
how can a tiny amount of toxic chemical affect a person's entire body?
|
[
{
"answer": "Toxicity is determined by the dose and the rout of administration. Some substances are highly toxic in small quantities (like ricin and cyanide) while others take large quantities to have negative physiological effects (like table salt or even water). A substance doesn't need to be toxic to all tissues in the body, just enough tissues to cause problems. Cyanide, for example, interrupts cellular respiration (basically the creation of ATP, or the energy cells use to function). By blocking this, the cells deplete their energy quickly and die off. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's do some math. Methanol is lethal at a dose of 1-2 mL/kg. So for an 80kg person, say 2mL/kg dose to be on the safe side (or dangerous, as it were) and that gives a dose of 160mL or 5.4 oz. This dose contains 2.38 x 10^24 molecules of methanol. If you have millions of cells, that's still on the order of 10^18 molecules per cell or billions of billions.\n\nEDIT: There are roughly 3.72 trillion (human) cells in the body, so that bumps it down from billions of billions to only trillions of molecules per cell.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3001891",
"title": "Toxicophore",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Most toxic substances exert their toxicity through some interaction (e.g., covalent bonding, oxidation) with cellular macromolecules like proteins or DNA. This interaction leads to changes in the normal cellular biochemistry and physiology and downstream toxic effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32997782",
"title": "Developmental toxicity",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity effects.:Epigenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Most toxicants are known to affect only a fraction of exposed population. This is due to the differences in the genetic makeup of the organisms which affects toxicant metabolism and clearance from the body. Effect of developmental toxicants depends on the genetic makeup of the mother and fetus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170567",
"title": "Toxicity",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Health hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The types of toxicities where substances may cause lethality to the entire body, lethality to specific organs, major/minor damage, or cause cancer. These are globally accepted definitions of what toxicity is. Anything falling outside of the definition cannot be classified as that type of toxicant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170567",
"title": "Toxicity",
"section": "Section::::Factors influencing toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Toxicity of a substance can be affected by many different factors, such as the pathway of administration (whether the toxicant is applied to the skin, ingested, inhaled, injected), the time of exposure (a brief encounter or long term), the number of exposures (a single dose or multiple doses over time), the physical form of the toxicant (solid, liquid, gas), the genetic makeup of an individual, an individual's overall health, and many others. Several of the terms used to describe these factors have been included here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170567",
"title": "Toxicity",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "BULLET::::- Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples include coal dust, asbestos fibers or finely divided silicon dioxide, all of which can ultimately be fatal if inhaled. Corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but they're not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in extremely high doses because the concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically if there's too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, not chemically toxic gases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39392026",
"title": "Modes of toxic action",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Specific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Toxicants that at low concentrations modify or inhibit some biological process by binding at a specific site or molecule have a specific acting mode of toxic action. However, at high enough concentrations, toxicants with specific acting modes of toxic actions can produce narcosis that may or may not be reversible. Nevertheless, the specific action of the toxicant is always shown first because it requires lower concentrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24008546",
"title": "Iatrogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Causes and consequences.:Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Certain drugs are toxic in their own right in therapeutic doses because of their mechanism of action. Alkylating antineoplastic agents, for example, cause DNA damage, which is more harmful to cancer cells than regular cells. However, alkylation causes severe side-effects and is actually carcinogenic in its own right, with potential to lead to the development of secondary tumors. In a similar manner, arsenic-based medications like melarsoprol, used to treat trypanosomiasis, can cause arsenic poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fhbspc
|
why the rear wheel in buses and trucks is close to centre?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's to increase manouverability. The further back the rear wheels are, the longer the wheelbase of the vehicle is, and therefore the wider any turns it will make will be. \n\nIf you move the rear wheels towards the front of the bus, then the bus can swing into tighter turns. The tradeoff is the back end of the bus can swing out now, whereas if the wheels are at the back, that can't happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The longer the wheelbase, the wider the turning circle. A wider turning circle makes negotiating corners harder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1378669",
"title": "Portal axle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "They are also used in railways and low floor buses although, in the case of buses, the device is engineered in the opposite way to those fitted to off-road vehicles - the axle is below the center of the wheel. Thus, the inverted portal axle allows the floor of the bus to be lowered, easing access to the bus and increasing the available cabin height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "816355",
"title": "Rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In automotive design, an RR, or rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout places both the engine and drive wheels at the rear of the vehicle. In contrast to the RMR layout, the center of mass of the engine is between the rear axle and the rear bumper. Although very common in transit buses and coaches due to the elimination of the drive shaft with low-floor bus, this layout has become increasingly rare in passenger cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1143433",
"title": "O-Bahn Busway",
"section": "Section::::Buses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "The guide-wheel, which protrudes just ahead of the front wheels, is the most important part of the bus when travelling on the O-Bahn. It is connected directly to the steering mechanism, and steers the bus by running along the raised edge of the track. While it is not strictly necessary for drivers to hold the steering wheel when travelling on the O-Bahn because of the guide-wheel, safety procedures require the driver to be alert to their circumstances at all times. A rumble strip before stations is a reminder that they need to resume control. The guide-wheel is the most delicate part of the system and is designed to snap off upon sharp impact; before the O-Bahn was in place, a number of buses were fitted with guide-wheels for their ordinary routes to test their durability. Drivers were forced to be more cautious on their normal trips after numerous guide-wheel-to-curb impacts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15654231",
"title": "Multi-axle bus",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for multiple axles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "In some buses the rearmost axle is connected to the steering, with the rear most set steering in the opposite direction to the front axle. This steering arrangement makes it possible for the longer triple axle buses to negotiate corners with greater ease than would otherwise be the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3818851",
"title": "16th Street Mall",
"section": "Section::::FreeMallRide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "From 1982 to 1999, the MallRide fleet used front-wheel-drive and right-hand-drive buses that were custom-designed and purpose-built. The right-hand-drive gives the operators better view of passengers entering and exiting the buses from the right-hand side and to watch out for the pedestrians. These buses can travel up to on the street and must deal with the 'wandering' pedestrians on the sidewalks who get too close to the buses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44638716",
"title": "Solaris Urbino 15 LE",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "Thanks to the high floor in the rear of the vehicle, the engine and gearbox are placed in the centre for the third axle. It works with the SCR technology using AdBlue. All axles are from ZF. Due to the use of larger wheel size 295/70 tires the bus has an extended wheel arch. Behind the front axle there is a storage possibly for snow chains. Two illuminated steps provide access to the higher floor level at the rear. All seats are located on the raised floor and are equipped with safety belts, while those located on the side of the stairs have additional armrests and handles. Above the seats in the low floor part of the bus there are shelves for luggage on the ceiling. The higher door has wheelchair access. Optionally, in place of the wheelchair bay the space can be transformed for four additional passenger seats. The ventilation of the interior of the bus has side windows and two electric sunroofs. Instead of tilting windows there can be installed an air conditioning system. There are several versions of the cab: open (open door), semi-closed (with glass door) and closed (fully built cabin). Doors used in Solaris Urbino 15 LE all open to the outside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21315079",
"title": "Gölsdorf axle",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Gölsdorf axles work in this way. Two of the five axles cannot move sideways relative to the frame because their axle boxes fix them rigidly to the frame. The other axles, however, are fitted into their bearings and attached to their drives in such a way that they can be moved sideways during curve running, depending on the sideways forces acting on them. In addition the connecting and coupling rods, through which the steam pressure and linear forces from the steam pistons are translated into the rotation of the wheels via the crank pins, also have to be able to move sideways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uqhjs
|
how do first responders or hospital personnel know who to contact if you have had an accident and are unconscious?
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe this generally sorted out only after you get to the hospital.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, in my case when I was involved in a battery and knocked unconscious; someone found my phone and got my dad's number out of my contacts and called him. \n*Edited*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I worked in an ER and to find contact info for patients who were unable to provide it, we would look in wallets and cell phones for listed emergency contacts (ICE is recognized by hospital staff). If none were listed, we would look through \"recent calls\" to get in touch with someone who might know who we should call, or through the contact list for \"mom,\" \"dad,\" etc. \n\nIt's worth mentioning that if you have a passcode on your cell phone, hospital staff can't find contact numbers in an emergency. I suggest putting a small piece of paper with emergency contact info in your wallet or purse, and including your passcode on that too. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cop here. \n\nI can't speak for all Police and Fire, but the first thing I do is check the driver's license. If they don't have an ID, I'll run the license plate on my computer and see who it comes back to (assuming it's a car accident). From there I'll find a name and start looking for contact information. \n\nIf it's not a car accident, and there is no identification on their person. Start checking cellular phones. Last numbers called and start calling and asking questions. Sometimes tattoos give a last name, or at least an identifying mark. Worst case scenario, you can't identify them and you wait for them to wake up, or if they're dead, fingerprints/DNA sometimes can help.\n\nOdds are someone is going to notice they're missing and/or had lack of contact for a while and will come forward looking for the person. It's very rare to be able to be completely anonymous these days. Another resort is putting the picture of the person on the local news for someone to identify them.\n\nAs a suggestion. A good practice is to leave your cell phone unlocked, and program all your contacts in with their first AND last name. That way if something catastrophic does happen, responders can go through the phone and see a lot of family members and know where to start with contacts. For example, if my last name is Smith. There will be a lot of Smiths in my phone. If your mother's name is Linda Smith. Program it as Linda Smith (Mom). Or just Mom.\n\nHope this helped.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3026543",
"title": "Situation awareness",
"section": "Section::::On-the-job examples.:Emergency medical call-outs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Situation awareness for first responders in medical situations also includes evaluating and understanding what happened to avoid injury of responders and also to provide information to other rescue agencies which may need to know what the situation is via radio prior to their arrival on the scene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5721",
"title": "Coma",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "When an unconscious person enters a hospital, the hospital utilizes a series of diagnostic steps to identify the cause of unconsciousness. According to Young, the following steps should be taken when dealing with a patient possibly in a coma:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29699454",
"title": "Emergency medical services in Austria",
"section": "Section::::Standards.:Dispatch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1380,
"text": "To illustrate, a call is received in the dispatch center about a possibly unconscious person. The call taker will immediately identify the call location, and will then ask further questions, in order to assess precipitating symptoms, specific location, and any special circumstances (no house number, a neighbor is calling, etc.). While this interview is occurring, the call taker will enter the command \"Bewusstlose Person\" (unconscious person) into the dispatch computer, resulting in an automatic suggestion to dispatch of a RTW (emergency ambulance) or NKTW and a NEF (emergency physician car). Upon entering the address of the patient, the computer will look for the emergency vehicles closest to this address. Now the dispatcher can send the whole package over the air and those two vehicles are alarmed, similar to Computer-assisted dispatch (CAD) in the United States. Whilst the vehicles are being alarmed by the dispatcher, the call taker may remain on the line with the caller, providing telephone advice or assistance until the EMS resources arrive on the scene. While still on the line with the caller the dispatcher is able to guide the ambulance to the scene and provide the crew with additional and more precise information about the incident. This, of course, happens without any notice of the caller and will help to get the EMS resources on scene more quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9581395",
"title": "Emergency medical services in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Dispatch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "To illustrate, a call is received in the dispatch center about a possibly unconscious person. The dispatcher will immediately identify the call location, and will then ask further questions, in order to assess precipitating symptoms, specific location, and any special circumstances (no house number, a neighbor is calling, etc.). While this interview is occurring, the dispatcher will enter the command \"Bewußtlosigkeit\" (unconsciousness) into the dispatch computer, resulting in an automatic suggestion to dispatch of a \"Rettungswagen\" (emergency ambulance) and a \"Notarzteinsatzfahrzeug\" (Doctor's Car). Upon entering the address of the patient, the computer will look for the emergency vehicles closest to this address. Now the dispatcher can send the whole package over the air and those two vehicles are alarmed, similar to Computer-assisted dispatch (CAD) in the United States. After sending the alarm, the dispatcher may remain on the line with the caller, providing telephone advice or assistance until the EMS resources arrive on the scene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2511505",
"title": "Message in a bottle",
"section": "Section::::Similar methods using other media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Certain emergency medical services urge patients to record information describing their medical conditions, medications and drug allergies, emergency contacts, as well as advance healthcare directives for when the patients are incapacitated or suffer from dementia or learning difficulties, and place the record as a special \"message in a bottle\" stored in (conventionally) a refrigerator, where paramedics can quickly locate it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14934121",
"title": "Community first responder",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "In general, first responders are sent to immediately life-threatening situations such as cardiac arrest. Some ambulance services restrict the type of calls which responders can attend, either through blanket prohibition or by more detailed call screening by the emergency dispatch centre. This is because responders do not necessarily have the levels of training or equipment available to full-time staff, and may arrive on their own, increasing risks. Types of call which responders may not be asked to attend (or be stood down if already en route) include drugs related problems, domestic violence and abusive patients as well as dangerous scenes such as traffic collisions or building sites. In some areas, responders are also not dispatched to paediatric cases, although other areas have this as a main part of their role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14621188",
"title": "Early warning score",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Within hospitals, the EWS is used as part of a \"track-and-trigger\" system whereby an increasing score produces an escalated response varying from increasing the frequency of patient's observations (for a low score) up to urgent review by a rapid response or Medical Emergency Team (MET call). Concerns by nursing staff may also be used to trigger such call, as concerns may precede changes in vital signs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49vlan
|
what ever happened to the sequestration?
|
[
{
"answer": "The simple answer is it happened and almost nothing has come of it. The people that said the sky would fall were wrong, and the people who said it would fix our deficit were wrong. That's it.\n\nSequestration is the exact prime example of why you cannot just listen to the news and \"experts\" to determine what is going on. People lie and exaggerate to get more attention. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh there was fallout... it just affected a small portion of the population. Basically what happened was this: a wide swath of federal employees were deemed \"essential\" by various cabinets. So *a lot* federal employees continued working, but were unpaid. This is why you didn't notice a huge shut down of services. There were a few exceptions, but not many. At the end of sequestration both parties agreed to go back and pay federal employees who weren't deemed \"essential\" even though they hadn't worked. Federal employees who did work through sequestration were eventually paid as well.\n\nI worked for the federal government at that time and they gave us letters to give to our landlords, credit card companies, etc explaining why we were being paid. Everyone at the time worked with me and I wasn't charged a late fee for anything. So basically I diverted all my funds to necessities like food and gas. When I got my sequestration check I paid all my bills. Everything worked out fine. I am still a little sour about federal employees who *didn't* work getting paid... that wasn't really fair to those of us who worked through it. Basically they ended up with a paid vacation and we didn't get jack shit for showing up like good little government drones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38648190",
"title": "United States budget sequestration in 2013",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The budget sequestration in 2013 refers to the automatic spending cuts to United States federal government spending in particular categories of outlays that were initially set to begin on January 1, 2013, as a fiscal policy as a result of Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA), and were postponed by two months by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 until March 1 when this law went into effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37566400",
"title": "Budget sequestration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "The term \"budget sequestration\" was first used to describe a section of Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Deficit Reduction Act of 1985 (GRHDRA). The hard caps were abandoned and replaced with a PAYGO system by the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990, which was in effect until 2002. Sequestration was later included as part of the Budget Control Act of 2011, which resolved the debt-ceiling crisis; the bill set up a Congressional debt-reduction committee and included the sequestration as a disincentive to be activated only if Congress did not pass deficit reduction legislation. However, the committee did not come to agreement on any plan, activating the sequestration plan. The sequestration was to come into force on January 1, 2013 and was considered part of the fiscal cliff, but the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 delayed it until March 1 of that year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38648190",
"title": "United States budget sequestration in 2013",
"section": "Section::::Legislative history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The sequestration became a major topic of the fiscal cliff debate. The debate's resolution, the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (ATRA), eliminated much of the tax side of the dispute but only delayed the budget sequestrations for two months, thus reducing the original $110 billion to be saved per fiscal year to $85 billion in 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37566400",
"title": "Budget sequestration",
"section": "Section::::Budget Control Act era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "In 2011, sequestration was used in the Budget Control Act of 2011 (Pub. L. 112-25) as a tool in federal budget control. This 2011 act authorized an increase in the debt ceiling in exchange for $2.4 trillion in deficit reduction over the following ten years. This total included $1.2 trillion in spending cuts identified specifically in the legislation, with an additional $1.2 trillion in cuts that were to be determined by a bipartisan group of Senators and Representatives known as the \"Super Committee\" or officially as the United States Congress Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. The Super Committee failed to reach an agreement. In that event, a trigger mechanism in the bill was activated to implement across-the-board reductions in the rate of increase in spending known as \"sequestration\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37566400",
"title": "Budget sequestration",
"section": "Section::::Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Budget sequestration was first authorized by the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 (BBEDCA, Title II of Pub. L. 99-177). This is known as the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Act. They provided for automatic spending cuts (called \"sequesters\") if the deficit exceeded a set of fixed deficit targets. The process for determining the amount of the automatic cuts was found unconstitutional in the case of \"Bowsher v. Synar,\" and Congress enacted a reworked version of the law in 1987. Gramm-Rudman failed, however, to prevent large budget deficits. The Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 supplanted the fixed deficit targets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243545",
"title": "Bob Woodward",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Sequester dispute with Obama administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "On February 22, 2013, shortly before the United States federal budget sequester took effect, \"The Washington Post\" published a column by Woodward in which he criticized the Obama administration for their statements in 2012 and 2013 that the sequester had been proposed by Republicans in Congress; Woodward said his research showed that the sequester proposal had originated with the White House. Press Secretary Jay Carney confirmed, \"The sequester was something that was discussed, and as has been reported, it was an idea that the White House put forward.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37566400",
"title": "Budget sequestration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Budget sequestration is a procedure in United States law that limits the size of the federal budget. Sequestration involves setting a hard cap on the amount of government spending within broadly defined categories; if Congress enacts annual appropriations legislation that exceeds these caps, an across-the-board spending cut is automatically imposed on these categories, affecting all departments and programs by an equal percentage. The amount exceeding the budget limit is held back by the Treasury and not transferred to the agencies specified in the appropriation bills. The word sequestration was derived from a legal term referring to the seizing of property by an agent of the court, to prevent destruction or harm, while any dispute over said property is resolved in court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zaf6x
|
What effect does machine generated wind (i.e. a fan) have on sound waves?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sound travels at a speed relative to the medium it's in (the air). For example, in the cockpit of a fighter jet, no matter how fast you're going, sound will always travel away from you when you speak at about 340m/s (depending on air temperature/pressure etc) because the air is moving with the jet, but the sound that the jet creates from its engines and emits out into the atmosphere can only travel at about 340m/s relative to the stationary air the jet is flying through, and so the plane zooms passed the sound as soon as its emitted. So all the sound piles up and makes a shock wave and a sonic boom, but that's a different story.\n\nSo when you have sound travelling through air that's being blown by your fan, it will be travelling a little bit faster/slower relative to the room (depending on which direction the fan was pointing) than if the fan was turned off.\n\nHowever, the speed of sound is huge compared to the speed of the air blown by your fan, so the difference is pretty much negligible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The human hearing system detects individual sounds based on energy in focused frequency bands. Sources of broad band noise (like a fan) mask other sound sources by masking and blurring the frequency bands of other sounds. Despite the overall amplitude being higher, the sound of the music is less likely to be registered, and thus less likely to be a nuisance, when masked by broad band noise. So yes, a fan (or running water, or other white noise source) will usually make your noise less irritating to your neighbors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4228409",
"title": "Wind machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The wind machine (also called aeoliphone) is a friction idiophone, which is a class of instrument which produces sound through vibrations within the instrument itself. It is a specialist musical instrument used to produce the sound of wind in orchestral compositions and musical theater productions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4228409",
"title": "Wind machine",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The wind machine is played by rotating the crank handle, which is attached to the cylinder, to create friction between the wooden slats and the material covering that touches the cylinder but does not rotate as the crank handle is turned. This friction between the wood and the material covering creates the sound of rushing wind. The volume and pitch of the sound is controlled by the rate at which the crank is turned. The faster the handle is turned, the higher the resulting pitch and the louder the sound. The slower the handle is turned, the lower the pitch and the softer the volume. The sound of the wind machine can also be controlled by the tightness of the fabric covering the cylinder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152778",
"title": "Organ (music)",
"section": "Section::::Other organ types.:Steam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The wind can also be created by using pressurized steam instead of air. The steam organ, or calliope, was invented in the United States in the 19th century. Calliopes usually have very loud and clean sound. Calliopes are used as outdoors instruments, and many have been built on wheeled platforms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4228409",
"title": "Wind machine",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The wind machine is constructed of a large cylinder made up of several wooden slats which measures approximately 75–80 centimeters in diameter. The cylinder body of the instrument rests upon a stand and is typically covered with silk, canvas, or other material which is in a fixed position. A crank handle, used by the player to rotate the cylinder and create the sound, is attached to the cylinder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "642896",
"title": "Thermoacoustics",
"section": "Section::::Thermoacoustic systems.:Travelling-wave systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Just like in the case of the standing-wave system, the machine \"spontaneously\" produces sound if the temperature \"T\" is high enough. The resulting pressure oscillations can be used in a variety of ways, such as in producing electricity, cooling, and heat pumping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314652",
"title": "Square wave",
"section": "Section::::Origin and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "In musical terms, they are often described as sounding hollow, and are therefore used as the basis for wind instrument sounds created using subtractive synthesis. Additionally, the distortion effect used on electric guitars clips the outermost regions of the waveform, causing it to increasingly resemble a square wave as more distortion is applied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12877572",
"title": "Fan (machine)",
"section": "Section::::Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Fans generate noise from the rapid flow of air around blades and obstacles causing vortexes, and from the motor. Fan noise has been found to be roughly proportional to the fifth power of fan speed; halving speed reduces noise by about 15 dB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
64dj5x
|
why does 101 mean the basics of something rather than just 1 or 001?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's based on a standard for how college classes are numbered. All the first-level classes are 1XX, second level are 2XX, etc. \nBased on that model, the basic beginner class on any subject would be *Subject 101*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a college curriculum, courses are numbered to indicate both the level (100-level courses are more basic than 200-level courses) and, frequently but not always, the sequence of courses (you have to take Biology 101 before you can take Biology 102). \n\nA course with a number of 101 is typically the first introductory-level course offered in a discipline. \n\nWhy isn't it 100, though? Well, first, it's the sequency. If you have to take 101 before 102, it's easier to understand and remember that 10***1*** is *1st* and 10***2*** is **2nd** that it would be to remember that 100 is 1st and 101 is 2nd. \n\nAlso, at some institutions, the number 100 is reserved for remedial courses. So as a typical first-year student at a US university, you would be likely to take English 101 in the fall and English 102 in the spring ... but that assumes that you have the basic skills in reading and writing from high school. If testing shows that you aren't quite ready for the college-level English courses, you might have to take an English 100 class to brush up those skills before moving on to 101 and 102. That's only at some institutions, though, and not as consistent as the 101, 102 style numbering. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In college, within a department, first year courses start with a 1, second year with a 2, third year with a 3, etc.\n\nThe *first* first year course you take often *ends* with a 1. A new freshman in their first semester might be taking Psychology 101, Chemistry 101, and Economics 101. The second semester general courses would be 102, and a second year course would be 201. As courses get more specific and electives become involved, the courses are no longer sequential. Child Psychology might be 335, while Abnormal Psychology might be 470.\n\nNote that this system is not universal, and most colleges today use 4 digit class codes.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the same reason hotel rooms often start at 101, because it's helpful to attach 1 to the number to indicate first (floor/year) so as to not later mess it up later. If the rooms on the Hotel's first floor were 1, 2, 3, the second floor would be 101, 102, 103 (or even worse, 45, 46, 47 if we just straight up count). Similarly by attaching 1 to the beginning to indicate first year courses as \"101\" we can indicate that they're first year courses and \"201\" or \"250\" are second year courses and \"301\" and \"375\" are advanced/third year courses.\n\n100 is usually reserved as a pre-101 course that is somewhat remedial in nature (e.g, for a person who is capable but for whatever reason isn't familiar, like a returning student who hasn't taken math in 20 years), with numbers from 95-100 being *really* remedial (I had a friend who had to take Math 97 their first semester of college, which was like high school freshman-level algebra)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233408",
"title": "Glossary of American terms not widely used in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::0–9.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- 101: (pronounced 'one o one') used to indicate basic knowledge; e.g., \"Didn't you learn to sweep the floor in housework 101?\" (from the numbering scheme of educational courses where 101 would be the first course in a sequence on the subject).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407354",
"title": "101 (number)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "It is variously pronounced \"one hundred and one\" / \"a hundred and one\", \"one hundred one\" / \"a hundred one\", and \"one oh one\". As an ordinal number, 101st (one hundred [and] first), rather than 101th, is the correct form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175502",
"title": "How-to",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "A similar concept can be seen in many of the \"[topic] For Dummies\" series of tutorials and also in many other introductory surveys entitled with the suffix \"101\" (based on academic numberings of entry-level courses).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241267",
"title": "12-hour clock",
"section": "Section::::Related conventions.:Informal speech and rounding off.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Instead of meaning 5:30, the \"half five\" expression is sometimes used to mean 4:30, or \"half-way to five\", especially for regions such as the American Midwest and other areas that have been particularly influenced by German culture. This meaning follows the pattern choices of many Germanic and Slavic languages, including Croatian, Dutch, Danish, Russian and Swedish, as well as Hungarian and Finnish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11168",
"title": "Fortran",
"section": "Section::::History.:FORTRAN.:Fixed layout and punched cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "10101 DO 101 I = 1, 101 because the zero in column 6 is treated as if it were a space (!), while 101010DO101I=1.101 was instead 10101 DO101I = 1.101, the assignment of 1.101 to a variable called DO101I. Note the slight visual difference between a comma and a period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238686",
"title": "Binary number",
"section": "Section::::Binary arithmetic.:Division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Thus, the quotient of 11011 divided by 101 is 101, as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 10. In decimal, this corresponds to the fact that 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25666591",
"title": "Sony CDP-101",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The model name CDP-101 was chosen by Nobuyuki Idei, who headed Sony's Audio Division. \"101\" represents the number 5 in binary notation and was chosen because Idei considered the model to be of \"medium class\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5d217t
|
I've read that in the 1800's, US military officers were drawn from the upper class. If so, was it possible that a lower class citizen could perform well in school, go to college and be commissioned regardless of his prior social status?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, it was possible. The prototypical example would be Andrew Jackson, the son of recent Irish immigrants (his older siblings were actually born in Ireland - that's how recent his parents had immigrated before his birth). Jackson rose to the rank of Major General in the Army and, of course, eventually reached the highest office in the land in 1828 (inaugurated 1829). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was certainly possible... Take a look at the lists of graduates of the United States Military Academy at West Point. Though many of the cadets were of course from the upper classes, they included among their ranks many from less well-to-do backgrounds, including that of Henry Ossian Flipper, who was the first black to graduate from the Academy and be commissioned-- he was born a slave.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1599626",
"title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "BULLET::::- Officers who had fought in the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the United States in the suppression of the Rebellion, or enlisted men who had so served and were subsequently commissioned in the regular forces of the United States, constituted the \"Original Companions of the First Class.\" The eldest direct male lineal descendants of deceased Original Companions or deceased eligible officers could be admitted as \"hereditary Companions of the First Class.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17743855",
"title": "British Army during the Napoleonic Wars",
"section": "Section::::Recruitment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Only a small proportion of officers were from the nobility; in 1809, only 140 officers were peers or peers' sons. A large proportion of officers came from the Militia, and a small number had been gentlemen volunteers, who trained and fought as private soldiers but messed with the officers and remained as such until vacancies (without purchase) for commissions became available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29693246",
"title": "175th Infantry Regiment (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Revolutionary War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "At least two of their colonels, Williams and Howard, were considered as the best officers of their grade in the army. Gunby, Hall, Smith, Stone, and Ramsey, and the lamented Ford, who dies gallantly at the head of his regiment, were equal to any others in the whole continental service.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38106943",
"title": "Highland Fencible Corps",
"section": "Section::::Assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "For officers, the fencible, like the militia regiments, presented both advantages and disadvantages. For many young men those formations formed a kind of stepping-stone to get into the regular army. Others, again, who passed too many years in them, gained no rank, spent their daily pay, and acquired little professional knowledge, beyond the parade and drill exercise; and when, at the end of six, eight, or ten years, they thought of looking out for some permanent means of subsistence, or some military commission that might secure them rank and a future provision, they found themselves to have no more seniority than the first day they entered the service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56136698",
"title": "Social background of officers and other ranks in the British Army, 1750–1815",
"section": "Section::::Rankers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "About ten percent of the officers had first served in the ranks before being commissioned. This was a substantially larger proportion than during the rest of the nineteenth century, when the officer corps obtained the character of a closed caste. The background of the rankers can be summarised into three different categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56136698",
"title": "Social background of officers and other ranks in the British Army, 1750–1815",
"section": "Section::::Officers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "Officers in the infantry and cavalry came from a fairly broad social spectrum, although socially dominated by the aristocracy and the gentry; albeit holding only about a quarter of all commissions in the eighteenth century, half of the colonels and generals belonged to these classes. Many sons of officers, including many Huguenots, also become officers; lacking the social status, economic security and connections enjoyed by the sons of the aristocracy and the gentry, their advancement was slower and needed the patronage of superiors from the social elite. Rankers rarely reached beyond subaltern ranks. The majority of the officers were competent professionals with long time in service, without private means, living on their pay. The lifestyle required of an officer with the King's commission meant, however, that the living costs often exceeded the income, with permanent money problems and indebtedness as a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483112",
"title": "February 26 Incident",
"section": "Section::::Background.:The \"young officers\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Army officers were divided between those whose education had ended at the Army Academy (a secondary school) and those who had advanced on to the prestigious Army War College. The latter group formed the elite of the officer corps, while officers of the former group were effectively barred by tradition from advancement to staff positions. A number of these lesser-privileged officers formed the army's contribution to the young, highly politicized group often referred to as the .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3106yu
|
Did the discovery of the Higgs particle actually prove or disprove either Super-symmetry or the Multiverse theories?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nope. It confirmed a prediction of the [Standard Model of Particle Physics](_URL_0_).\n\nThe Standard Model doesn't say anything about supersymmetry (often abbreviated to SuSy) or the multiverse.\n\nSuSy is a hypothetical extension to the Standard Model. It's a pretty extension, but to date there is absolutely no experimental evidence for it. In fact, the Large Hadron Collider has substantially constrained the properties of SuSy - but has not disproved it.\n\nThe multiverse is a prediction of string theory, which is currently so far beyond the realm of detection by any imaginable experiment as to place it almost outside the bounds of science.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24038774",
"title": "1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers",
"section": "Section::::History.:Consequences of the papers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The resulting electroweak theory and Standard Model have correctly predicted (among other discoveries) weak neutral currents, three bosons, the top and charm quarks, and with great precision, the mass and other properties of some of these. Many of those involved eventually won Nobel Prizes or other renowned awards. A 1974 paper in \"Reviews of Modern Physics\" commented that \"while no one doubted the [mathematical] correctness of these arguments, no one quite believed that nature was diabolically clever enough to take advantage of them\". By 1986 and again in the 1990s it became possible to write that understanding and proving the Higgs sector of the Standard Model was \"the central problem today in particle physics.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339050",
"title": "Peter Higgs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "In the 1960s, Higgs proposed that broken symmetry in electroweak theory could explain the origin of mass of elementary particles in general and of the W and Z bosons in particular. This so-called Higgs mechanism, which was proposed by several physicists besides Higgs at about the same time, predicts the existence of a new particle, the Higgs boson, the detection of which became one of the great goals of physics. On 4 July 2012, CERN announced the discovery of the boson at the Large Hadron Collider. The Higgs mechanism is generally accepted as an important ingredient in the Standard Model of particle physics, without which certain particles would have no mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Higgs mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Although these ideas did not gain much initial support or attention, by 1972 they had been developed into a comprehensive theory and proved capable of giving \"sensible\" results that accurately described particles known at the time, and which, with exceptional accuracy, predicted several other particles discovered during the following years. During the 1970s these theories rapidly became the Standard Model of particle physics. There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs field existed, but even without proof of the field, the accuracy of its predictions led scientists to believe the theory might be true. By the 1980s the question of whether or not the Higgs field existed, and therefore whether or not the entire Standard Model was correct, had come to be regarded as one of the most important unanswered questions in particle physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19376148",
"title": "Stephen Hawking",
"section": "Section::::Career.:2000–2018.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawking had emphatically argued, and bet, that the Higgs boson would never be found. The particle was proposed to exist as part of the Higgs field theory by Peter Higgs in 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008, with Higgs criticising Hawking's work and complaining that Hawking's \"celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have.\" The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERN following construction of the Large Hadron Collider. Hawking quickly conceded that he had lost his bet and said that Higgs should win the Nobel Prize for Physics, which he did in 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Identification and study of 2012 particle as a candidate Higgs boson.:Premature media reports of confirmation as a Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "In late 2012, \"Time\", Forbes, \"Slate\", \"NPR\", and others announced incorrectly that the existence of the Higgs boson had been confirmed. Numerous statements by the discoverers at CERN and other experts since July 2012 had reiterated that a particle was discovered but it was not yet confirmed to be a Higgs boson. It was only in March 2013 that it was announced officially. This was followed by the making of a documentary film about the hunt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "This confirmed answer proved the existence of the hypothetical Higgs field—a field of immense significance that is hypothesised as the source of electroweak symmetry breaking and the means by which elementary particles acquire mass. Symmetry breaking is considered proven but confirming exactly \"how\" this occurs in nature is a major unanswered question in physics. Proof of the Higgs field (by observing the associated particle) validates the final unconfirmed part of the Standard Model as essentially correct, avoiding the need for alternative sources for the Higgs mechanism. Evidence of its properties is likely to greatly affect human understanding of the universe and open up \"new\" physics beyond current theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37891767",
"title": "Tejinder Virdee",
"section": "Section::::Research career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The possibility of discovering a Higgs-like boson played a crucial role in the conceptual design of CMS, and served as a benchmark to test the performance of the experiment. In 1990 Virdee and a colleague, Christopher Seez, carried out the first detailed simulation studies of the most plausible way to detect the SM Higgs boson in the low-mass region in the environment of the LHC: via its decay into two photons. Understanding that dense scintillating crystals offer arguably the best possibility of achieving excellent energy resolution, Virdee made a compelling case for the use of lead tungstate scintillating crystals (PbWO4) for the electromagnetic calorimeter of CMS and then led the team that proved the viability of this technique, a technique that has played a crucial role in the discovery of the new heavy boson, in July 2012. Virdee was deeply involved in this search for the Higgs boson, especially via its two-photon decay mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iszqc
|
why are arabs and people from north africa (egypt, libya, morocco, tunisia, etc.) labeled as "white" or "caucasian" in the us census?
|
[
{
"answer": "Race is a construct. There was a time when Russians, Irish and Italians weren't considered white themselves. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Though race is a social construct, and colloquial speech generally equates \"Caucasian\" with \"white\", Caucasian includes people from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian sub-continent. Since race doesn't really mean anything genetically, it really doesn't matter if you're \"Caucasian\" versus \"sub-Saharan African\". As for why you're not viewed as \"white\" even if you are \"Caucasian\", that goes into the historical and social matter of whiteness, institutionalized racism, immigration, and much more. For a while, \"white people\" were only a very small portion of Europeans, excluding many people we'd now considered white like the Irish, Italians and Russians, (and possibly Ashkenazi Jews), but they were over time, subsumed into the \"white\" race. But racists in the US and Europe still didn't consider people from the Mideast and North Africa to be white. This racism still informs our culture, even if we are not ourselves racists, and that's why you, as an Arab Egyptian, are not socially viewed as \"white.\" \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35103794",
"title": "North African Arabs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "North African Arabs ( \"‘Arab Shamal Ifriqiya\") or Maghrebi Arabs ( \"al-‘Arab al-Maghariba\") are the inhabitants of the North African Maghreb region whose native language is a dialect of Arabic and identify as Arab. This ethnic identity is a product of the Arab conquest of North Africa during the Arab–Byzantine wars and the spread of Islam to Africa. The migration of Arab tribes to North Africa in the 11th century was a major factor in the linguistic and cultural Arabization of the Maghreb region, mainly Beni Hassan, Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2162835",
"title": "Racism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Middle Eastern and South Asian Americans.:Arab Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Non-Arab and non-Muslim Middle Eastern people, as well as South Asians of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs) have been stereotyped as \"Arabs\" and racialized in a similar manner. The case of Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh who was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist for \"looking like an Arab terrorist\" (because of the turban, a requirement of Sikhism), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for \"being Muslims\" have achieved prominence and criticism following the September 11 attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36889398",
"title": "Race and ethnicity in censuses",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 260,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 260,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The 2020 United States Census might allow Middle Easterners and North Africans to write in their ethnicity/race instead of merely marking them as White. Right now, and in the past, Arabs have been marked in the U.S. Census as White. This began in the early twentieth century when Arabs coming to the United States successfully petitioned to be marked as White in order to avoid entry quotas and have a greater chance of achieving success and avoiding discrimination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65786",
"title": "Anti-Arabism",
"section": "Section::::Definition of Arab.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "There are prominent Arab non-Muslim minorities in the Arab world. These minorities include the Arab Christians in Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq and Kuwait, among other Arab countries. There are also sizable minorities of Arab Jews, Druze, and nonreligious. Most Arabs are Caucasian. Exceptions are Mauritanian, Sudanese, Eritrean, Somali, and Comoran Arabs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2495537",
"title": "White Americans",
"section": "Section::::Historical and present definitions.:U.S. Census definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The characterization of Middle Eastern and North African Americans as white has been a matter of controversy. In the early 20th century, peoples of Arab descent were sometimes denied entry into the United States because they were characterized as nonwhite. In 1944, the law changed, and Middle Eastern and North African peoples were granted white status. The U.S. Census is currently revisiting the issue, and considering creating a separate racial category for Middle Eastern and North African Americans in the 2020 Census. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3609552",
"title": "Arabized Berber",
"section": "Section::::Berberists and linguistic Arabization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "It is a response from Berber activists to those Algerians and Moroccans who self-identify as \"Arab\" because of their Arabic tongue. North Africa was gradually Arabized with the spread of Islam in the 7th century AD, when the liturgical language Arabic was first brought to the Maghreb. However, the identity of northwestern Africa remained Berber for a long time thereafter. Additionally, even though the process of Arabization began with these early invasions, many large parts of North Africa were only recently Arabized like the Aurès (Awras) mountains in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although, the fertile plains of North Africa seem to have been (at least partly) Arabized in the 11th century with the emigration of the Banu Hilal tribes from Arabia. The mass education and promotion of Arabic language and culture through schools and mass media, during the 20th century, by the Arabist governments of North Africa, is regarded as the strongest Arabization process in North Africa ever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14630942",
"title": "Christianity in the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::Emigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The majority of self-identifying Arab Americans are Eastern Rite Catholic or Orthodox Christian, according to the Arab American Institute. On the other hand, most American Muslims are black (African Americans or Sub-Saharan Africans) or of South Asian (Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi) origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ilran
|
why do older tvs have a weird screen effect while being viewed on another camera?
|
[
{
"answer": "because the refresh rate of the TV screen collides with the frame rate of the video resulting in an \"animation\" of said refresh rate - the line moving up or down the screen. It's similar to the way rims on a car often look like they are going on the wrong direction on film, or how in a strobe environment water droplets look like they are travelling up instead of down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1485789",
"title": "Overscan",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Early analogue televisions varied in the displayed image because of manufacturing tolerance problems. There were also effects from the early design limitations of power supplies, whose DC voltage was not regulated as well as in later power supplies. This could cause the image size to change with normal variations in the AC line voltage, as well as a process called blooming, where the image size increased slightly when a brighter overall picture was displayed due to the increased electron beam current causing the CRT anode voltage to drop. Because of this, TV producers could not be certain where the visible edges of the image would be. In order to compensate, they defined three areas:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2648712",
"title": "Eye strain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "A CRT computer monitor with a low refresh rate (<70Hz) or a CRT television can cause similar problems because the image has a visible flicker. Aging CRTs also often go slightly out of focus, and this can cause eye strain. LCDs do not go out of focus but are also susceptible to flicker if the backlight for the LCD uses PWM for dimming. This causes the backlight to turn on and off for shorter intervals as the display becomes dimmer, creating noticeable flickering which causes eye fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1660031",
"title": "Safe area (television)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Older televisions can display less of the space outside of the safe area than ones made more recently. Flat panel screens, plasma displays and liquid crystal display (LCD) screens generally can show most of the picture outside the safe areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1165590",
"title": "Viewing angle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The image may seem garbled, poorly saturated, of poor contrast, blurry or too faint outside the stated viewing angle range, the exact mode of \"failure\" depends on the display type in question. For example, some projection screens reflect more light perpendicular to the screen and less light to the sides, making the screen appear much darker (and sometimes colors distorted) if the viewer is not in front of the screen. Many manufacturers of projection screens thus define the viewing angle as the angle at which the luminance of the image is exactly half of the maximum. With LCD screens, some manufacturers have opted to measure the contrast ratio, and report the viewing angle as the angle where the contrast ratio exceeds 5:1 or 10:1, giving minimally acceptable viewing conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105823",
"title": "Degaussing",
"section": "Section::::Monitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible \"thunk\" or loud hum, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are switched on. Visually, this causes the image to shake dramatically for a short period of time. A degauss option is also usually available for manual selection in the operations menu in such appliances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17932",
"title": "Liquid-crystal display",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "BULLET::::- As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display, which makes the screen flicker more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people. Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM. This problem is worse on many LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13876732",
"title": "Minolta 9xi",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The display system, while innovative with its projected information directly in the image, unfortunately, made the viewfinder darker due to the LCD overlay. The LCD elements were not lit, so it was impossible to see the LCD overlay—including focus areas—in the dark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9e4h4l
|
why do some offices have a pc connected to a virtual machine?
|
[
{
"answer": "In my organization, we dealt with a large amount of sensitive data. SSNs, DOBs, Names, Addresses etc. We are laptop heavy and our rules stated that we were never allowed to work with that type of data on our local machine, and must be signed into a remote server.\n\nThe idea behind that is to ensure that no sensitive material is stored on the actual machine in case of theft or breach. The remote server machine is much more secure.\n\nAdditionally, it's two step credentialing. One log in for the local machine, a separate username and pw for the remote machine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For my firm, working from a virtual server means that updates are significantly easier. Having to update a program individually on 600+ computers would be an IT nightmare (for obvious security reasons, workers do not have the rights to install programs themselves). Working on a virtual machine allows IT to update much more quickly and smoothly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We have a certain number of licenses for very expensive software that only exist on virtual machines. We are a global company so folks on one side of the world are using the very expensive software while the other side of the world sleeps and then vice versa. We don't have to buy a license for everyone in the company to have this software locally, just enough to support the folks working at any given time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the user connects a VM is spun up using a copy of IT's VM template. IT can control the VM template, to patch it or whatever, without any pesky users. If something goes wrong, or some malware gets in the VM - poof it gets blown away when the user logs out and a new VM is made from the template when they log in again. This ends persistent malware.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because you can use **any** PC to connect to that **same** VM.\n\nYou get the same desktop whether you are in your office, at home or at a remote worksite. If you spill coffee on your laptop, you don't have to worry about the last time you backed up, everything is backed up at once on the VM server. The *real* machines are locked up in a data center and babysat by experts, so you don't have to care so much about the other ones. You can also get away with giving everyone cheaper, less powerful hardware. \n\nThere are security and support advantages as well. Laptop get stolen? Stupid employees put malware on their machines? Need to install a crucial security patch **right now**? The VM acts as a firewall, giving the company complete control of the important parts will leaving the employees with a lot of flexibility.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46630",
"title": "Embedded system",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:User interface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial (e.g. RS-232, USB, I²C, etc.) or network (e.g. Ethernet) connection. This approach gives several advantages: extends the capabilities of embedded system, avoids the cost of a display, simplifies BSP and allows one to build a rich user interface on the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded web server running on an embedded device (such as an IP camera) or a network router. The user interface is displayed in a web browser on a PC connected to the device, therefore needing no software to be installed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236556",
"title": "Small form factor",
"section": "Section::::SFF types.:Computer-on-module.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "A computer-on-module (COM) is a complete computer built on a single circuit board. They are often used as embedded systems due to their small physical size and low power consumption. Gumstix is one manufacturer of COMs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249402",
"title": "Computer terminal",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contemporary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Since the advent and subsequent popularization of the personal computer, few genuine hardware terminals are used to interface with computers today. Using the monitor and keyboard, modern operating systems like Linux and the BSD derivatives feature virtual consoles, which are mostly independent from the hardware used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "746469",
"title": "Phototypesetting",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980s.:Transition to computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Some companies, such as TeleTypesetting Co. created software and hardware interfaces between personal computers like the Apple II and IBM PS/2 and phototypesetting machines which provided computers equipped with it the capability to connect to phototypesetting machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33231878",
"title": "Virtual Computer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Founded by Alex Vasilevsky, Virtual Computer is a venture-backed software company in the Boston area that produces desktop virtualization products, which combine centralized management with local execution on a hypervisor running on PCs. Virtual Computer has developed a type-1 hypervisor that runs directly on end-user PCs, delivering native PC performance and mobility. By running the workload on the PC, Virtual Computer enables companies to have centralized management without servers, storage, and networking required for server-hosted VDI. The technology supports shared image management, enabling an IT professional to manage thousands of desktops and laptops the same way that they would manage one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13856089",
"title": "History of IBM mainframe operating systems",
"section": "Section::::Technical notes.:Virtual machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Virtual machine techniques enable several operating systems (\"guest\" operating systems) or other software to run on the same computer so that each thinks it has a whole computer to itself, and each of these simulated whole computers is called a \"virtual machine\". The operating system which really controls the computer is usually called a hypervisor. Two of the major components of the hypervisor are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8031181",
"title": "Computer-on-module",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "COMs are complete embedded computers built on a single circuit board. The design is centered on a microprocessor with RAM, input/output controllers and all other features needed to be a functional computer on the one board. However, unlike a single-board computer, the COM usually lacks the standard connectors for any input/output peripherals to be attached directly to the board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48jkk7
|
how can a state be projected to be won by a candidate with only 1% of the polling reporting in?
|
[
{
"answer": "How can so many idiots ask the same question without reading the goddamn sub?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37816935",
"title": "Statewide opinion polling for the 2016 United States presidential election",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "This article is a collection of statewide polls for the 2016 United States presidential election. The polls listed here provide early data on opinion polling between the Democratic candidate, the Republican candidate, the Libertarian candidate, and the Green candidate. Prior to the parties' conventions, presumptive candidates were included in the polls. Not all states will conduct polling for the election due to various factors. States that are considered swing states usually put out more polls as more attention is given to the results. For determining a statistical tie, the margin of error provided by the polling source is applied to the result for each candidate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5372935",
"title": "National Popular Vote Interstate Compact",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "BULLET::::- State winner-take-all laws encourage candidates to focus disproportionately on a limited set of swing states (and in the case of Maine and Nebraska, swing districts), as small changes in the popular vote in those areas produce large changes in the electoral college vote. For example, in the 2016 election, a shift of 2,736 votes (or less than 0.4% of all votes cast) toward Donald Trump in New Hampshire would have produced a 4 electoral vote gain for his campaign. A similar shift in any other state would have produced no change in the electoral vote, thus encouraging the campaign to focus on New Hampshire above other states. A study by FairVote reported that the 2004 candidates devoted three quarters of their peak season campaign resources to just five states, while the other 45 states received very little attention. The report also stated that 18 states received no candidate visits and no TV advertising. This means that swing state issues receive more attention, while issues important to other states are largely ignored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "406859",
"title": "2008 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Results.:Results by state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The following table records the official vote tallies for each state for those presidential candidates who were listed on ballots in enough states to have a theoretical chance for a majority in the Electoral College. State popular vote results are from the official Federal Election Commission report. The column labeled \"Margin\" shows Obama's margin of victory over McCain (the margin is negative for states and districts won by McCain).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1878130",
"title": "Bellwether",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:United States.:States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Another way to measure how much a state's results reflect the national average is how far the state deviates from the national results. The states with the least deviation from a two-party presidential vote from 1896 to 2012 include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2005189",
"title": "1925 Chilean presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Electoral system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The election was held using the absolute majority system, under which a candidate had to receive over 50% of the popular vote to be elected. If no candidate received over 50% of the vote, a joint session of the National Congress would vote on the two candidates that received the most votes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35754764",
"title": "2017 South Korean presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Nominations.:Bareun Party.:Primary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Candidate was determined by a combination of votes from an evaluation commission based on 4 debates, held in different region of the country (40%), votes from the party members (30%), and public opinion polls (30%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5626990",
"title": "2006 Nicaraguan general election",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Electoral reforms in 2000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The required percentages to win the Presidential Election was reduced from 45 to 40 percent. The electoral law states that a participating candidate must obtain a relative majority of at least 40 percent of the vote to win a presidential election. However, a candidate may win by obtaining at least 35 percent of the vote, with at least a five percent margin over the second-place finisher. The law also established a second-round runoff election if none of the candidates won in the first round.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ggbvt
|
why is democracy the go to political system despite its inherent instability with every election. what made it a better choice than something else?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm probably paraphrasing here, but I always dug The old saying that \"Democracy is the worst form of government, followed by everything else.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is better to have a bit of instability every few years and the ability to peacefully replace the current douche with a turd than to be stuck with a nutjob that cannot be changed at all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The instability of every election is the strength of a democratic process. It means that, at least in theory, one person or group of people can't entrench themselves and turn the government into their own machine and the country into their own kingdom.\n\nThe people gets a mandatory opportunity to replace those in power every few years, again in theory meaning that if we are dissatisfied with them, we can replace them.\n\nOf course over time people who crave that kind of enduring power have created all sorts of different ways to remain in power despite the rules, either by coup or by election fraud or simply by having a dual party system where both parties talk very differently, but act very similarly, and we get to pick a different figurehead every few years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, it is not. We are a Republic. Most 'democracies' are actually republics. The difference is that we elect people to represent us and make decisions for us. This is flawed in that the person elected gets to pick and choose which things he/she does to represent the electorate and which things he/she does to represent anyone or anything that helps get reelection.\n\nBut.....the reason why this is a good thing is this: In a pure democracy, it is strict rule of the 51%. The 49% get absolutely no say in governing. Meanwhile, other forms of government tend to encourage totalitarianism and rule of an elite few at the expense of the many. A Republic lets the masses get representation in the government without having to make the lame day-to-day decisions of government and also has some safeguards in place to protect minorities from the rule of the majority.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My political professor put it in the best way: \"Democracy is inefficient and slower in putting into action compared to other governments but its the government system with the best track record in terms of longevity and stability.\" \n\nMost monarchs today turned into democracy. My opinion, is that democracy is the only form of government which citizens have a say in their government. \n\nEverything above is assuming it is actual democracy and not democracy in name. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Stability isn't the only important consideration. It's a pretty commonly-held idea that governance is only moral with the consent of the governed, and this makes democracy the most legitimate form of government.\n\n1. Autocrats are thoroughly capable of being crazy, incompetent, paranoid and/or unstable. In a mature democracy with strong institutions and checks and balances, demonstrating these traits is likely to make you unelectable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "submitting to ANY form of government requires a citizen to give up a particular degree of individual freedom in exchange for the perks that one can better obtain from a government..these perks includes social safety and security, healthcare, industry and technology, and the sense of belonging to something greater than yourself..\n\nthe best thing about democracy is it allows the people to enjoy the remaining freedoms that they have without really making them feel like they are completely rules..\nthey are still ruled by certain men/group of men, but they have the tools in their hands to dictate who those men/group of men ruling them are..\n\nthe problem with any other form of government is that\nFirst: it is predictable who gets to rule the people and the people doesnt really have a say on who that person/group of people to rule them are\nSecondly: individual freedoms are much more restricted in order for the ruling individual/party to secure their continued foothold into power\n\n(while that may sound completely bullcrap from a western democratic citizen's purview, consider viewing it from the perspective of a citizen of a third world \"democratic\" country..consider the Philippines for example..since nationhood during WW2, they have adopted democracy as their form of government..however, it is an illusion since the highest and middle levels of government is monopolized by elite families, passing on political office from parent to offspring..a lot of people have become demoralized by it over time that there have been several mutinies in the past to overthrow the system, and when it was clear nothing is going to change no matter how much blood is spilled, those who can, started fleeing the country instead, touching off an event called \"the brain drain\", where the first to flee are the educated professionals, leaving a massive shortage of skilled labour in the country..)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I disagree with the premise. Maybe I have a different definition of instability, but at least in my experience in the US, even when the outcome of the election for our highest office, President, took a significantly longer time to resolve and was surrounded by controversy, there was no governmental instability. The country still functioned the way it was supposed to. There was no confusion about who was in power. No violence. No calamity. Government services were still performed as usual. What part of that, or any other election in the US has been unstable?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7959",
"title": "Democracy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Political instability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the popular media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21418432",
"title": "Criticism of democracy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of democracy's process.:Political instability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "More recently, democracy is criticized for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tend to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the mass media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priority. However, Anthony Downs argued that the political market works much the same way as the economic market, and that there could potentially be an equilibrium in the system because of democratic process. However, he eventually argued that imperfect knowledge in politicians and voters prevented the reaching of that equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21418432",
"title": "Criticism of democracy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of democracy's process.:Political instability.:Short-termism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Democracy is also criticised for frequent elections due to the instability of coalition governments. Coalitions are frequently formed \"after\" the elections in many countries (for example India) and the basis of alliance is predominantly to enable a viable majority, not an ideological concurrence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2200186",
"title": "Law of value",
"section": "Section::::Law of value in Soviet-type societies.:Ernest Mandel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "BULLET::::- Democratic decisions are not necessarily any better-made or more efficient, than bureaucratic or entrepreneurial ones; at most, democracy allows for errors to be corrected more easily, and permits bad managers to be ousted more easily, instead of bad managers becoming entrenched in positions of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53872280",
"title": "Democracy and economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Effects of democracy on economic growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "The positive changes of democracy to economic growth such as delegation of authority and regulations of social conflicts heavily outweigh the negative and restrictive effects, especially when compared to autocracy. One of the main reasons for this is that society, i.e. voters are able to support difficult trade offs and changes when there is no perceived alternative. This is primarily true in countries with a higher level of education. So it ties the development level of a country as one of the decisive factors to undergo positive democratic changes and reforms. Thus, countries that embark in democratization at higher levels of education are more likely than not to continue their development under democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21418432",
"title": "Criticism of democracy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of democracy's process.:Susceptibility to propaganda.:Lack of political education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Voters may not be educated enough to exercise their democratic rights prudently. Politicians may take advantage of voters' irrationality, and compete more in the field of public relations and tactics, than in ideology. While arguments against democracy are often taken by advocates of democracy as an attempt to maintain or revive traditional hierarchy and autocratic rule, many extensions have been made to develop the argument further. In Lipset's 1959 essay about the requirements for forming democracy, he found that almost all emerging democracies provided good education. However, education alone cannot sustain a democracy, though Caplan did note in 2005 that as people become educated, they think more like economists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8592988",
"title": "Religious intellectualism in Iran",
"section": "Section::::Democracy, religion, and Iranian philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Democracy is one of the propositions that many religious people are afraid of approaching. According to the philosopher of religions Abdolkarim Soroush we do not have one democracy from ancient Greece to today, but many of them, hence there is a plurality of democracies in the international community. Democracy prevailed in different eras depending on the conditions of the time. What alters the hue and color of democracy is a society’s specific characteristics and elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nen8m
|
How many calories does the human brain consume in a day?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your brain requires a tenth of a calorie a minute. That's 6 calories an hour. A person thinking harder will burn up to 50% more calories. Although this is not a lot, you have to think about the relative mass of the brain compared to the rest of the body. \n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you consume 2000 calories a day, then about 400 of that goes to the brain. I have no idea if that scales or not though. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain runs around ~~10 Watts~~. 10 Watts = 10 Joules per sec. There are 4.184 Joules in a calorie (little c, not Calorie, which is 1000 calories). That's 2.39 calories per second. There are 86400 seconds in a day. 86400 x 2.39 = 206496 calories, or ~~**206.5 Calories per day.**~~\n\nEDIT: I was going off of some research that I had done about a week ago, namely [#30 in this list](_URL_0_). Being lazy as I am, I didn't read into it and just remembered the 10 watts. As several people in the comments are saying, the power is closer to 20 watts. [WolframAlpha](_URL_1_) is one source of this other wattage. So double my original estimate = 413 Calories.\n**tl;dr: 413 Cal, not 206.5**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When we're discussing biochemistry, it's important to distinguish between calories and Calories.\n\n1 Calorie = 1000 calories\n\nHopefully that will avoid some confusion. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of the original question wasn't answered, and something I've always wondered. In general does thinking more/harder change the amount of energy your brain uses? I'm sure I would have heard about it before, but is there anything you can do to make your brain burn more? (I know the question is dumb, but I also know there are plenty of five year olds asking their mommies and daddies this same question... or it's just me)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rule of thumb is that the human brain uses 20-25% of your daily calories assuming not over eating etc. This is a big piece of conversation in evolutionary biology as such a high calorie use in a brain is pretty unique to humans due to how expensive it is when you could just be an automaton and bite shit.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where does the brain get calories if you're starving?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Robert Sapolsky's (the Stanford neurobiologist) TED talk [here](_URL_0_), he says this:\n\n > You have two humans, and they are taking part in some human ritual. They are sitting there silently at a table. They make no eye contact; they’re still, except every now and then one of them does nothing more taxing than lifting an arm and pushing a little piece of wood. And if it’s the right wood and **the right chess grand masters in the middle of a tournament, they are going through 6,000 to 7,000 calories a day thinking**, turning on a massive physiological stress response simply with thought and doing the same thing with their bodies as if they were some baboon who has just ripped open the stomach of their worst rival, and it’s all with thought, and memories and emotions. And suddenly we’re in the realm of taking just plain old nuts and bolts physiology and using it in ways that are unrecognizable.\n\nCan someone explain or verify this for me? Seriously mindblowing, if true.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This high rate of metabolism is remarkably constant despite widely varying mental and motoric activity [(2).](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain uses about 20% of your body's energy, so if you eat 2,000 calories a day, about 400 are going to your brain.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain requires a tenth of a calorie a minute. That's 6 calories an hour. A person thinking harder will burn up to 50% more calories. Although this is not a lot, you have to think about the relative mass of the brain compared to the rest of the body. \n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
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"answer": "If you consume 2000 calories a day, then about 400 of that goes to the brain. I have no idea if that scales or not though. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Your brain runs around ~~10 Watts~~. 10 Watts = 10 Joules per sec. There are 4.184 Joules in a calorie (little c, not Calorie, which is 1000 calories). That's 2.39 calories per second. There are 86400 seconds in a day. 86400 x 2.39 = 206496 calories, or ~~**206.5 Calories per day.**~~\n\nEDIT: I was going off of some research that I had done about a week ago, namely [#30 in this list](_URL_0_). Being lazy as I am, I didn't read into it and just remembered the 10 watts. As several people in the comments are saying, the power is closer to 20 watts. [WolframAlpha](_URL_1_) is one source of this other wattage. So double my original estimate = 413 Calories.\n**tl;dr: 413 Cal, not 206.5**",
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{
"answer": "When we're discussing biochemistry, it's important to distinguish between calories and Calories.\n\n1 Calorie = 1000 calories\n\nHopefully that will avoid some confusion. :)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Part of the original question wasn't answered, and something I've always wondered. In general does thinking more/harder change the amount of energy your brain uses? I'm sure I would have heard about it before, but is there anything you can do to make your brain burn more? (I know the question is dumb, but I also know there are plenty of five year olds asking their mommies and daddies this same question... or it's just me)",
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"answer": "Rule of thumb is that the human brain uses 20-25% of your daily calories assuming not over eating etc. This is a big piece of conversation in evolutionary biology as such a high calorie use in a brain is pretty unique to humans due to how expensive it is when you could just be an automaton and bite shit.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "Where does the brain get calories if you're starving?",
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{
"answer": "In Robert Sapolsky's (the Stanford neurobiologist) TED talk [here](_URL_0_), he says this:\n\n > You have two humans, and they are taking part in some human ritual. They are sitting there silently at a table. They make no eye contact; they’re still, except every now and then one of them does nothing more taxing than lifting an arm and pushing a little piece of wood. And if it’s the right wood and **the right chess grand masters in the middle of a tournament, they are going through 6,000 to 7,000 calories a day thinking**, turning on a massive physiological stress response simply with thought and doing the same thing with their bodies as if they were some baboon who has just ripped open the stomach of their worst rival, and it’s all with thought, and memories and emotions. And suddenly we’re in the realm of taking just plain old nuts and bolts physiology and using it in ways that are unrecognizable.\n\nCan someone explain or verify this for me? Seriously mindblowing, if true.",
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"answer": "This high rate of metabolism is remarkably constant despite widely varying mental and motoric activity [(2).](_URL_0_)",
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{
"answer": "Your brain uses about 20% of your body's energy, so if you eat 2,000 calories a day, about 400 are going to your brain.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12102147",
"title": "Criticism of evolutionary psychology",
"section": "Section::::Empirical evidence.:Hidden hunger, female curves and intertribal trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 4775,
"text": "A number of theories in evolutionary psychology that are hinged on the assumption that sheer number of calories constitute the only important bottleneck in nutrition are challenged by research on hidden hunger, types of malnutrition in which deficits of specific essential micronutrients cause diseases or even death despite a suitable number of calories. Comparisons between species show that although human brains consume more nutrients than the brains of other species, human brains consuming roughly 20% of the body's total calory requirements in adult humans and 60% in young children, there are other organs in many other species that consume more calories than their human counterparts. This means that humans do not stand out in requirements for calories at any stage of life, though human brains stand out in requiring higher amounts of many different essential nutrients while other organs in other species may require higher amounts of two or three specific micronutrients. While studies of blood flow in the brain's dura mater in fossil humans show a negligible difference in oxygen and with it caloric requirements between Neanderthals and modern humans, the fact that some Neanderthal groups in Belgium lived exclusively of large land animal meat while other Neanderthal groups in Spain lived exclusively of plants that were present there at the time with a much narrower range of nutrients than the diets vegans eat today shows that although Neanderthals were capable of varying their diets, they could also survive off non-varied diets that would cause lethal deficits in modern humans. Since many micronutrient deficits in modern humans cause neurological symptoms, this is explainable as a result of less flexible synapses in Neanderthal brains requiring lower levels of many specific mincronutrients than the highly flexible synapses of modern humans. This contradicts the claim that human females were under unique selection pressure to evolve curvy shapes for fat storage for fetal brain development, as fat would only store calories and not micronutrients which could be stored without affecting body shape and nonhuman animals with other high fetal calory requirements do not have curvy females. The claim that human females evolved large breasts to feed infants needing many calories is also challenged, empirically citing the human example that while most asian women have small breasts, asian people do not have smaller brains than other people and that explaining it away as a \"trade-off\" would be a misuse of the term as the observation is one trait (brain size) being unaffected by a dramatic reduction of another trait (breast size) as opposed to the correct definition of \"trade-off\" which is an otherwise adaptive trait being reduced by a change of something else. The distribution of essential nutrients between different types of food varied dramatically between regions in the paleolithic before the exchange of breeding stock of domestic and feral plants and animal species over long distances at the dawn of agriculture and the many micronuitrients required in higher levels by sapiens than by archaics meant that in every region, one or more types of food became narrower bottlenecks for sapiens group size than for archaic group size though the specific bottleneck food varied from region to region. This contradicts evolutionary psychology's claim that sapiens evolved in larger group sizes and since many essential nutreients are in types of food that cannot be prevented from going rancid in short times while other essential nutrients degrade fast even if the food in which they are contained does not become rancid, trade over long distances could not address the problem. The discovery of stone tools further from the origin of the stone at sapiens sites than at archaic sites is therefore not explainable by trade between tribes, but can be explained by people moving further to eat the essential nutrients and that the same movement patterns in other sapiens groups making them less capable of consistent territorial defense than archaics were, allowing sapiens to move longer and take their tools with them. It also challenges evolutionary psychology's claim of an universal exchange value of animal versus vegetable food that would have maintained an universal division of labour between hunting men and gathering women and/or a need for stable pair bonds in a context of paying for guard services with food within the tribe, as the most valuable essential micronutrient food would have been animal in some regions yet vegetable in other regions and such differences were commonly found between different localities within the relatively large part of Africa in which Homo sapiens evolved as a number of interbreeding groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "22965409",
"title": "Mormyrinae",
"section": "Section::::Unique brain percentage of body energy consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "The range with which the adult brain in all animals regardless of body size consumes energy as a percentage of the body's energy is roughly 2% to 8%. The only exceptions of animal brains using more than 10% (in terms of O intake) are a few primates (11–13%) and humans. However, research published in 1996 in the Journal of Experimental Biology by Göran Nilsson at Uppsala University found that mormyrinae brains utilize roughly 60% of their body O consumption. This is due to the combination of large brain size (3.1% of body mass compared to 2% in humans) and them being ectothermic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726748",
"title": "Black-body radiation",
"section": "Section::::Human-body emission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The total energy radiated in one day is about 8 MJ, or 2000 kcal (food calories). Basal metabolic rate for a 40-year-old male is about 35 kcal/(m·h), which is equivalent to 1700 kcal per day, assuming the same 2 m area. However, the mean metabolic rate of sedentary adults is about 50% to 70% greater than their basal rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7617805",
"title": "Starvation response",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Magnitude and composition.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Because of the blood–brain barrier, getting nutrients to the human brain is especially dependent on molecules that can pass this barrier. The brain itself consumes about 18% of the basal metabolic rate: on a total intake of 1800 kcal/day, this equates to 324 kcal, or about 80 g of glucose. About 25% of total body glucose consumption occurs in the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27024757",
"title": "Nutritional neuroscience",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The human brain is approximately 2% of the human body mass and uses 20–25% of the total energy expenditure. Therefore, mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Insufficient intake of selected vitamins, or certain metabolic disorders, affect cognitive processes by disrupting the nutrient-dependent processes within the body that are associated with the management of energy in neurons, which can subsequently affect neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and cell survival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490620",
"title": "Human brain",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "The brain consumes up to 20% of the energy used by the human body, more than any other organ. In humans, blood glucose is the primary source of energy for most cells and is critical for normal function in a number of tissues, including the brain. The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals. Brain metabolism normally relies upon blood glucose as an energy source, but during times of low glucose (such as fasting, endurance exercise, or limited carbohydrate intake), the brain uses ketone bodies for fuel with a smaller need for glucose. The brain can also utilize lactate during exercise. The brain stores glucose in the form of glycogen, albeit in significantly smaller amounts than that found in the liver or skeletal muscle. Long-chain fatty acids cannot cross the blood–brain barrier, but the liver can break these down to produce ketone bodies. However, short-chain fatty acids (e.g., butyric acid, propionic acid, and acetic acid) and the medium-chain fatty acids, octanoic acid and heptanoic acid, can cross the blood–brain barrier and be metabolized by brain cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5391288",
"title": "Bicycle performance",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.:Energy input.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The energy input to the human body is in the form of food energy, usually quantified in kilocalories [kcal] or kiloJoules [kJ=kWs]. This can be related to a certain distance travelled and to body weight, giving units such as kJ/(km∙kg). The rate of food consumption, i.e. the amount consumed during a certain period of time, is the input power. This can be measured in kcal/day or in J/s = W (1000 kcal/d ~ 48.5 W).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5cobkg
|
Can a computer simulation create itself inside itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "A cellular automaton can simulate the rules of its own world with some slowdown. [Here's an example with Conway's Game of Life](_URL_0_). (If you aren't familiar with Conway's Game of Life, you can read [this](_URL_1_) for an intro.)\n\nA program written in a Turing-complete programming language like C is capable of interpreting itself. If you wrote a C program that implemented a C interpreter that interpreted its own source code, it would run forever with an ever-growing number of recursive levels.",
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"answer": "It depends on what exactly you mean. You can't directly have each bit of a computer mapped out by bits in the computer with a computer of finite size, but you could have it compress the data. For example, there's something called a [Quine](_URL_0_) that's a computer program that prints its own source code. Actually doing computations with it using limited space would be much more difficult, but not impossible.",
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"answer": "A computer can emulate another computer (check [this](_URL_0_) out!). A computer can, in fact, emulate a simplified version of itself. The only problem is, as the usage of the emulated computer (or CPU) approaches the maximum speed/usage of the *real* computer, the number of states that can be simulated approaches one. \n\nEventually, with the emulated computer under 100% load, the emulation will halt - unable to continue because it will require more memory and power than the *real* computer is able to provide it. /u/Begging4Bacon explained it very well:\n\n > The computer would have to be able to simulate itself in a random state. The random state would take up all the memory, leaving none for the hardware itself.",
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"answer": " > Specifically ones that would run themselves inside... themselves?\n\nHave you seen programs like VMWare and other virtual machines, that let us run a normal PC, and then have many \"virtual\" machine inside that?\n\nServer hosting companies have used it for a few years now, and once logged into one its very hard to tell you're actually running on a machine inside a machine. And although it gets slower and slower to do so, you can evening run a virtual machine inside a virtual machine, inside a virtual machine, and so on.\n\nIf we're in such a simulation I'd like to think the designers are well ahead of us, where we're doing it already for web servers and similar.",
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"answer": "What you're talking about is the Simulation Hypothesis (_URL_0_), the idea of which is that if technology continues to progress the logical conclusion is that it's impossible for reality to *not* be a simulation.\n\nIt makes a few assumptions. A) Some sentient life out there is \"post human\" technology and capable of simulating the universe and B) that sentient life has ever had the desire to run ancestry simulations and C) we're the only people exactly like us.\n\nCalled a \"trilemma\", you're basically saying that \"somebody out there can make a simulation of the universe, so they do\". Well, if they can do that, then the simulation eventually can, and that simulation eventually can, and that simulation eventually can, etc etc.\n\nYou end up with this kind of infinite loop where there's definitely a point where the loop began, but there isn't an end point. And because the simulation exactly replicates reality, it's impossible to determine whether we (current humans as we know them) are the start point.\n\nWelcome to the simulation.",
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"answer": "Any Turing-complete computer can perform any computing operation possible on any other Turing-complete computer. And as far as we know, no other computing operations exist.\n\nSince most computers are Turing-complete, this implies that a computer can in principle perform any simulation (assuming that enough memory and enough time is available). Since we are not aware of any computational operations (phenomena) in the physical world that cannot *in principle* be simulated, this means that the answer to your question is yes. \n\nAccording to our current understanding, physical reality could in principle be simulated on a computer. It would require an unfanthomably powerful computer which might not be possible to build in our universe, but as far as I know, we are not aware of any theory that precludes this.\n\nThe question of whether any organism in such a simulated universe would be conscious is currently in the realm of philosophy; our current scientific understanding cannot answer this question.",
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"answer": "No. \n \nIf a computer has limited resources i.e. limited memory, it would not be able to store a *fully* functional simulation (with the same amount of resources) of itself in it's memory. \n \nThe simulation could compress some of the parent computer's data to fit into the reduced memory resource but it would lose some functionality because some data (high entropy data ie random noise) cannot be compressed. Therefore the simulation would not be possible if the original computer's memory was full of noise.",
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"answer": "To answer this question meaningfully, we have to specify what a _computer_ first is.\n\n# Cellular automata\n---\nThe 2D block cellular automaton with two states, in which a cell becomes \"live\" only when its four predecessors have exactly two adjacent live cells, _can simulate itself_ with a factor of two slowdown and a factor of two size blowup, but is not known to be Turing complete. See The B36/S125 “2x2” Life-Like Cellular Automaton by Nathaniel Johnston.\n\n# Modern programming languages\n---\nIt is very common to write an X-in-X compiler. The process is called [bootstrapping](_URL_0_).\n\nThis is not a simulation, however. Interpreting an X-in-X compiler as it is fed into itself would need infinite input in order to not halt (technically, stuck waiting for input).\n\n# Turing machines\n---\nA Turing machine that can simulate an arbitrary Turing machine on arbitrary input is called a _universal Turing machine_. The question how \"simple\" does a TM have to be to still be a UTM is an open problem in CS.\n\nReal computers like the one I'm typing this on and the ones you're reading this on are not Turing machines - they are decidedly finite in nature. We call them _linear bounded automata_. Turing machines formalise and model (all) aspects of those.\n\nNow let's answer the question.\n\nNo, a computer cannot perfectly simulate itself in addition to something else without violating basic information theory: there exist strings which are not compressible.\n\nHere's the simplest possible proof: suppose the computer has a total of _N_ possible states, and suppose there is something outside of the computer in the universe, so the universe has at least _N+1_ possible distinct states. With zero overhead, each state of the computer can correspond to a state of the universe, but since the universe has more states than the computer, by the pigeonhole principle, some states of the universe will map to the same state of the computer, in which case the simulation will not be able to distinguish between them. QED.\n\nNext hypothesis: a computer cannot perfectly simulate itself.\n\n(not very formal) Proof: Assume the computer can simulate itself. This means the computer is running a program P which is simulating the computer running P, which is simulating the computer running P, and so on _ad infinitum_. We have reached an infinite regression, which means the computer cannot be simulating itself. QED.\n\n---\n_Addendum_ We can actually prove a computer cannot simulate itself pretty easily, like so:\n\nLet C be a linear bounded automaton, and let C take another LBA M as its input and decides whether it halts or not. It does so by simulating M, then do the opposite: C halts if M does not, and loops forever if M halts. Then C(C) demonstrates a contradiction:\n\n* if C halts, C(C) loops forever, which cannot be true\n* if C does not halt, C(C) halts, which is false\n\nQED.\n\n\nPS. I'm not saying a computer is exclusively one of these 3 things. Attribute lack of other notions of a computer to my ignorance and boredom. :-)",
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"answer": "In terms of computer science, anything that's Turing Complete can simulate anything that is Turing Complete. Since modern computers are effectively Turing Complete, it means any computer can do anything any other computer can, ignoring time and memory constraints. So if we can write an algorithm/program that simulates a computer down to the atomic level completely accurately, it can in theory simulate its own physics. \n\nOf course, Turing Machines have infinite memory and currently our computers have finite memory. With a computer that has a finite amount of memory from when it starts running the program, and depending on what level of detail you use, it's possible for adding X amount of memory to the computer requiring some Y amount of additional memory used where Y > X, which would make it impossible to ever have enough memory to store all the relevant data about the system.\n\nGiven a computer that could extend its memory bank on demand, such a system could fully simulate itself, because the primary version could have more memory than the simulated version, and by the time the simulated version expands its memory and takes more memory to represent, the primary version could have expanded further. ",
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"answer": "This may not be what you're talking about, but you may be interested to know that in the event that we were able to simulate a universe, the odds that we ourselves are in a simulation go up to being almost fact, because the odds that we are the \"base\" universe are less likely than being one of many simulations.",
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"answer": "When I read what you wrote you kind of reminded me about season 3 episode 2 of the Black Mirror series. It's a pretty good and scary episode of what could happen when running a computer simulation in your mind. Obviously it's science fiction at the moment but still worth a watch. It's on Netflix. ",
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"answer": "Although there are several solid answers already, I'd like to take a crack at this since coming up with a simple explanation is a good way to check me own understanding.\n\nConsider your mind; it's a computer. It can simulate other minds by imagining what they would do in a given situation. You can easily imagine what someone slower than you would do in a given situation, and given enough time you likely could imagine what someone more intelligent would do. In fact, writers do this all the time. But what if you were to simulate yourself?\n\nNow, for the sake of argument, you could exactly simulate yourself by simply being yourself. But let's say you want to go through the trouble of imagining an exact clone of yourself, with your exact same memories, thoughts, and mental abilities.\n\nLet's try it. Imagine yourself. Think about what you're doing right now, and imagine what you would do next, then do it. Now imagine what you would do next, now do it. It's definitely more difficult to imagine how you would react before doing things rather than simply reacting. You could probably keep this up for a while, at least until you encountered a situation where you needed to use all of your brainpower. You could handle such a situation of course, but you would take noticeably longer than normal to do so.\n\nNow there's another problem with exact simulations. That is, that they cannot fully store themselves. For this discussion, let's now imagine a box representing a computer. The volume of the box represents how much data it can store. Let's fill the box with water until it's about a third of the way full. The water represents data filling up the computer's storage. Now, imagine an identical box, equally full of water sitting next to it. The second box, being exactly the same dimensions as the first box, cannot fit into it. A given volume of storage cannot hold more than itself.\n\nBut let's imagine we work around this by squishing the second box until it fits in the first box. By decreasing the volume of the second box to only encompass the used portion of the box, we can get it to fit within the first. This is fine, unless the water in the first and second box exceeds the capacity of the first box, in which case the second box will not within the first unless we start removing water from at least one of the boxes.\n\nOverall, what we see from these thought experiments is that a given computer's ability to simulate another computer is limited. First: It is possible for the simulator to simulate a slower computer that runs as quickly as the original, but it must simulate computers that are equal in speed or faster than itself at a speed slower than the original. Second: A computer cannot store an exact copy of it's own storage space in itself, but it can store an exact copy of it's own data as long as the data occupies equal to or less than half it's storage space.\n\nThere's also an argument to be made that a computer exactly simulating itself would never run, since it would need to simulate itself simulating itself, simulating itself, and so on endlessly. This means that to figure out the first thing it would do would take an infinitely long period of time as each simulation would need to start by starting a simulation and waiting for that simulation to start its simulation, and so on.",
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"answer": "What I wonder, is how many layers deep we have gone. I guess the idea of what qualifies as a simulation may be a little bit grey. Like if we have 5 layers of computer simulations, maybe it's all still just 1 simulation on the computer and it's only our interpretation that these layers represent simulations. Like, it's hard to say any of it is a simulation at all because there are still basic laws that govern the entire thing without being broken.",
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"answer": "None of that stuff makes any sense, at all, to apply to our shared reality. Occam's Razor. Just because a person who spent his entire life working on AI and computers and simulations, thinks that all of life might, totally without evidence, be a simulation inside a computer ... might want to give that a second thought.\n\nWhen you spend your life with the chariot as the pinnacle of your technology, suddenly the explanation for the movement of the Sun is, it's pulled through the sky on a chariot. Well of course it is.",
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"answer": "Just as an aside to some of the excellent answers above, most if not all of the actual parts inside your computer have been simulated on a computer. The CPU, GPU, motherboard et al are designed in hardware-targeting programming languages like VHDL or Verilog, and simulated in software by their designers prior to hardware fabrication. This can include not just the logic itself but a simulation of the material properties of the circuit. In a piecemeal kind of way, what you're suggesting is going on all the time as the next generation of computers are being designed.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Thats exactly the theory. We play video games. The games get more advanced. We create games like the sims. \n\nSoon the game characters will have ai so advanced they believe theyre real.\n\nThe theory is that if a simulation so real is created within our existence what are the odds that we are the first to create a simulation. What are the odds that we are a simulation.\n\n Odds favor we are not real creating the first simulation but that we are a simulation which creates simulations.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem](_URL_0_) almost certainly applies here. Computer programs are \"formal systems\" in the mathematical sense. Which basically demands that the simulation must be simpler than the original so it can't completely simulate itself to 100% degree.\n\nThis probably is a form of restatement of the 2nd law of thermodynamics as well.\n\nMost common applications of Gödel are not correct but this case probably is.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "If a computer simulation can emulate itself, then it can emulate itself, emulating itself, and so on, up to a any arbitrary number of nested simulations. Somehow it has to contain knowledge how many nested simulations are currently running. We have no way to represent a number that can be any value and be unbounded. If you use an atom to store 1 bit of information (or any finite number of bits per atom, or per some particle) you will eventually run out of atoms. There is a limit to how big of a number you can represent.\n\nTherefore, a computer simulation cannot keep track of how many nested simulations of itself are running, so it cannot completely represent itself.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Ever heard of a [virtual machine?](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's not self-replicating by default, but you might be able to tweak one to create a VM that would endlessly create similar VMs inside of another VM running inside the master VM, etc.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There are a lot of technically correct responses here. But I can read between the lines - you want a fun answer. I'll keep it as non-technical as possible while still being as accurate as I can be.\n\nIn our real world, we can build hardware to support multiple software layers. After decades of developing these software layers, we have made designing games and simulations extremely accessible. In some games, the player can build computer hardware using the game rules. \n\nA perfect example would be the [redstone computers](_URL_1_) in Minecraft. Those have very basic functions, however. About as advanced as an old adding machine, though it looks like some can run stuff like Tetris (though it's ROM-only, no new games can be \"installed\" because the hardware itself must be altered to change I/O.) Nowhere near as complex as the IRL computer running the game itself. Still, it's a first step. [Moore's Law](_URL_0_) says it's not a pipe dream, but it's just a matter of time. \n\nHopefully that was a bit more \"fun\" than the correct answers about virtual machines and emulators.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Create a virtual box machine of Ubuntu, download an Ubuntu iso to the virtual box machine, install virtual box to the virtual box machine, run Ubuntu in virtual box in the virtual box machine.\nUbuntu in Ubuntu in (Windows/Linux/whatever you use to host the original virtual box).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Within the computer game Minecraft, it is possible to build computers that are programmable using combinations of Red Stone equipment. Say that a fully programmable computer is built within the Minecraft game, and that this computer has been programmed to run a game of Minecraft. So, on your desktop you have the 1st (original) Minecraft running, and within the 1st Minecraft there is a 2nd game of Minecraft running on that Red Stone computer. \"Level\" is used to describe the depth of the game, so that the 2nd game would be said to be the 2nd level simulation.\n\nSay we replicated this action of building Red Stone computers within each game so that the example goes from 2 levels to 3 levels deep, or 6, 10, up to infinity. \n\nIs this possible? What sort of speeds are we looking at? What kind of power is needed to run a game that has 3 levels to it? ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "This makes me think of the rick and Morey episode where he has a miniverse society running his spaceship engine. They go inside it to find out that that society created a miniverse to run their society, and that society was on the verge of creating one too!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is like asking if you can fit a copy of a room inside that room itself. Well, that room has walls, a roof, a floor, and other things - for a computer, there are always a number of resources available. \n\nFor simplicity's sake, let's say there's memory (storage space, or GB) and computing power (calculating speed, or MFLOPS - million floating operations per second). Disregard that I put G and M on those units, it doesn't really matter for the example.\n\nLet's say A is trying to simulate a copy of itself, A'. A has 10 GB of space and can do 10 MFLOPS. However, A needs to store its own code, and it needs to store some things in memory as well. Let's say that takes up 1 GB. But A' needs to have 10 GB of space available, so now we can't simulate A'.\n\nSimilarly, A can do 10 MFLOPS, but the program to run A' takes up some FLOPS just to run the simulation, say 1 MFLOPS. Well, now we only have 9 MFLOPS left for the A' simulation, so we can only run A' at 90% speed, so the simulation doesn't work - we could run it slower, but we can't get around the space requirement, and running slower than the world around it would potentially make A' not function properly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the universe itself is a simulation then whatever is simulating our universe may not be bound by the laws of physics as we know them and could in theory implement infinitely recursive emulations.\n\nIf it's like the computers we know and love though, it's not possible to run a perfect simulation of the simulator itself. The space of all possible states inside the simulation would have to be accounted for alongside the code to implement the simulator, meaning that by definition such a simulator would need to have enough memory to store itself PLUS more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11042797",
"title": "Dynamic simulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Simulation is also used in computer games and animation and can be accelerated by using a physics engine, the technology used in many powerful computer graphics software programs, like 3ds Max, Maya, Lightwave, and many others to simulate physical characteristics. In computer animation, things like hair, cloth, liquid, fire, and particles can be easily modeled, while the human animator animates simpler objects. Computer-based dynamic animation was first used at a very simple level in the 1989 Pixar short film \"Knick Knack\" to move the fake snow in the snowglobe and pebbles in a fish tank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20358463",
"title": "Easy Java Simulations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "A discrete computer simulation, or simply a computer simulation, is a computer program that tries to reproduce, for pedagogical or scientific purposes, a natural phenomenon through the visualization of the different states that it can have. Each of these states is described by a set of variables that change in time due to the iteration of a given algorithm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5575498",
"title": "Symbolic simulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "In computer science, a simulation is a computation of the execution of some appropriately modelled state-transition system. Typically this process models the complete state of the system at individual points in a discrete linear time frame, computing each state sequentially from its predecessor. Models for computer programs or VLSI logic designs can be very easily simulated, as they often have an operational semantics which can be used directly for simulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10957937",
"title": "Simulation software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Advanced computer programs can simulate power system behavior , weather conditions, electronic circuits, chemical reactions, mechatronics , heat pumps, feedback control systems, atomic reactions, even complex biological processes. In theory, any phenomena that can be reduced to mathematical data and equations can be simulated on a computer. Simulation can be difficult because most natural phenomena are subject to an almost infinite number of influences. One of the tricks to developing useful simulations is to determine which are the most important factors that affect the goals of the simulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1031713",
"title": "Computer experiment",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Computer simulations are constructed to emulate a physical system. Because these are meant to replicate some aspect of a system in detail, they often do not yield an analytic solution. Therefore, methods such as discrete event simulation or finite element solvers are used. A computer model is used to make inferences about the system it replicates. For example, climate models are often used because experimentation on an earth sized object is impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575963",
"title": "Scientific visualization",
"section": "Section::::Topics.:Computer simulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Computer simulation is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in physics, and computational physics, chemistry and biology; human systems in economics, psychology, and social science; and in the process of engineering and new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems, or to observe their behavior. The simultaneous visualization and simulation of a system is called visulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43444",
"title": "Simulation",
"section": "Section::::Computer simulation.:Computer science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Less theoretically, an interesting application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. In computer architecture, a type of simulator, typically called an \"emulator\", is often used to execute a program that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer (for example, a newly designed computer that has not yet been built or an obsolete computer that is no longer available), or in a tightly controlled testing environment (see \"Computer architecture simulator\" and \"Platform virtualization\"). For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, before the program is downloaded to the target machine. Since the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's operation is directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied at will.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1a9nab
|
Why does a curling rock turn the same direction the rock is spinning? Why does sweeping reduce the curl?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Why does a curling rock turn the same direction the rock is spinning?\n\nI could not find any conclusive evidence either. However, I will point out that the section in Wikipedia article mentioned several alternate explanations of increased friction as skating speed increases, including different skating techniques. I will also point out the surface of a curling sheet is not a smooth surface - it is roughened by the introduction of pebbles. This makes it behave very differently than on ice (in fact, you can't throw a stone very far on smooth ice because the stone forms a nice seal on the ice, and that has a suction effect that drastically slows down the stone).\n\nThe explanations I'm familiar with is that the quasi-liquid layer is mainly responsible for reducing friction, and this layer affects the front of the stone more than the back, because the contact pressure of a 42 pound stone will increase the thickness of that layer. This makes any friction at the back dominate over that of the front. For a clockwise curl, the back of the stone is pushing _left_ on the ice, which makes the stone curl right.\n\n > Why does sweeping reduce the curl?\n\nThe answer to this is more certain. The friction from the broom heats up and softens the pebbles on the ice, and this reduces the friction of the ice. This has the effect of extending the distance of the stone, and also reduces the curl as there is less friction on the stone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, some facts:\n\n* Curling rocks have a circular running surface that makes contact with the ice. \n* The running surface of curling rocks are sanded, but not completely smooth. \n* Curling ice isn't smooth, it's \"pebbled\" by sprinkling water onto it. This creates what you can think of as a mountain range of various-sized bumps on the ice. These bumps are then \"nipped\" by a blade, so they're all at roughly even height. \n* In curling, the rocks are generally not spun very fast; they usually only spin a few complete circles the entire way down the ice. \n\nLet's say the rock is curling to the left, so the right side is spinning \"forward,\" and the left side is spinning \"backward\" as the rock moves down the ice. This means that the right side of the rock's running surface is moving forward faster than the left side is as the rock moves forward (in other words, the relative velocity is faster on the right than it is on the left). \n\nAs the rock moves, it glides over the edges created by the nipped pebbles. The friction of the ice creates a force against the rock, slowing it down. The rock also creates a force of friction on the ice, changing it's state to be smoother and softer (and therefore less friction for the parts of the rock behind it). \n\nThe fast right side of the rock imparts more friction on the ice, changing its state and making it more slippery, as well as having an easier time just gliding right over the edges of the nipped pebbles. The left side is moving forward a lot slower (relatively), which means that the rock affects the ice less, but the rough ice pebbles are able to \"snag\" a bit more on the rock, slowing it. All in all, the left side is slowed more than the right side. Think of it like the fast side kind of swinging around in front of the slow side as it gets snagged by the ice and held back. \n\nSweeping the ice in front of the rock generates friction and makes the pebbles nice and smooth for the rock to glide over. This reduces the overall friction of the ice on the rock. It still curls, it just curls slower because the force of friction is lower on the rock. \n\nAlso, if you were to spin the rock very fast, it would curl very very little, since the relative velocities of the rock would be very similar, and therefore the friction on each side would also be close (until the rock slows down).\n\n**TL;DR:** The side that's spinning \"backwards\" is moving slower down the ice, so the ice has an easier time \"grabbing\" the rock on that side to slow it down as the \"forward\" moving side swings around it by gliding easily over the ice. Sweeping reduces the overall friction of the ice, making the rock snag on it less. \n\nSources: I graduated with a minor in research physics and I've been curling for three years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6644",
"title": "Curling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The player can induce a curved path, described as \"curl\", by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides. The path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms, who accompany it as it slides down the sheet and sweep the ice in front of the stone. \"Sweeping a rock\" decreases the friction, which makes the stone travel a straighter path (with less \"curl\") and a longer distance. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine the degree to which the stone will achieve the desired result. This gives curling its nickname of \"chess on ice\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1587735",
"title": "Glossary of curling",
"section": "Section::::P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- : When a rock's running surface travels over a foreign particle such as a hair, causing the rock to deviate from its expected path, usually by increasing friction and thereby the amount of curl\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6644",
"title": "Curling",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Sweeping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter and in some situations one of those is not desirable. For example, a stone may be traveling too fast (said to have too much weight) but require sweeping to prevent curling into another stone. The team must decide which is better: getting by the other stone but traveling too far or hitting the stone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8864159",
"title": "Molecular vibration",
"section": "Section::::Vibrational coordinates.:Internal coordinates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "In a rocking, wagging or twisting coordinate the bond lengths within the groups involved do not change. The angles do. Rocking is distinguished from wagging by the fact that the atoms in the group stay in the same plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45255953",
"title": "Morphological symptoms of plant diseases",
"section": "Section::::Abnormalities in growth.:Hyperplasia and hypertrophy.:Enlargement of leaves and fruits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Curling which is the bending of the shoot or the rolling of the leaf, is a result of over-growth on one side of an organ. Often viral diseases cause such leaf distortions due to irregular growth of the lamina. Extreme reduction of the leaf lamina brings about the symptom known as the Shoe-string effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17102553",
"title": "Curling (metalworking)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Curling is a sheet metal forming process used to form the edges into a hollow ring. Curling can be performed to eliminate sharp edges and increase the moment of inertia near the curled end. Other parts are curled to perform their primary function, such as door hinges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4512595",
"title": "Rocking stone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Rocking stones (also known as logan stones or logans) are large stones that are so finely balanced that the application of just a small force causes them to rock. Typically, rocking stones are residual corestones formed initially by spheroidal weathering and have later been exposed by erosion or glacial erratics left by retreating glaciers. Natural rocking stones are found throughout the world. A few rocking stones might be man-made megaliths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qp47b
|
Is damage of radiation linearly dependent of radiation exposure?
|
[
{
"answer": "No 10 hours today =/= 10 hours a month.\nIt's not the dose of radiation that would cause harm but the build up. \nThere is a limit to how much radiation our bodies can take before damage occurs.\n\nThat said 10 hours today will cause a significant level and can cause cell damage to chances of cancer(I put alot of stress on chances looking at you mom).\n\n10 hours over a month is not going to have the same level of radiation due to the fact your old cells would have been replaced and your body would have gotten rid of the radiation by now.\n\nso lets say 10 hours today is 10 units, 10 hours over a month is 1 unit per hour - 1 unit per day without exposure.\nso if both end today the 10 hours today will have 10 units while the sparce exposure will be 0~1 units.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a difficult question to answer, but for the purposes of radiation protection, cancer risk is considered proportional to dose and is not time dependent, in accordance with the [Linear No-Threshold model](_URL_0_). Now that is certainly not true with biological damage in general. For instance, the spreading out of the UV dose will prevent you from getting sunburned. Radiation-based cancer treatments are usually spread out over the course of multiple days or weeks to allow for normal (non-tumor) tissue recovery. But for *cancer risk specifically*, yes, with caveats you can look up in the Wikipedia entry.\n\nInterestingly, some folks think that very small doses of radiation may actually REDUCE your cancer risk (hormesis). But there's not enough evidence to support that at this point, so we still use the linear no-threshold to predict excess cancer risk from radiation. And excessively high doses, well, that will kill you, so I guess at that point it's not really linear anymore...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, these exposures are not at all the same. \n\nThe key is that cells have a tremendous capacity to repair DNA in the hours just after exposure. If it has a chance to repair damage after a small exposure before more piles on, the success rate will be higher.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202522",
"title": "Ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "The most common impact is stochastic induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. For example, ionizing radiation is the sole cause of chronic myelogenous leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If this linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35993194",
"title": "Radiation-induced cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Exposure to ionizing radiation is known to increase the future incidence of cancer, particularly leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If the linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155823",
"title": "Sievert",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Deterministic effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The deterministic (acute tissue damage) effects that can lead to acute radiation syndrome only occur in the case of acute high doses (≳ 0.1 Gy) and high dose rates (≳ 0.1 Gy/h) and are conventionally not measured using the unit sievert, but use the unit gray (Gy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13347268",
"title": "Radiobiology",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Stochastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Its most common impact is the stochastic induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. If this linear model is correct, then natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4155456",
"title": "Effects of the Chernobyl disaster",
"section": "Section::::Controversy over human health effects.:Other studies and claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "BULLET::::- The application of the linear no threshold model to predict deaths from low levels of exposure to radiation was disputed in a BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) \"Horizon\" documentary, broadcast on 13 July 2006. It offered statistical evidence to suggest that there is an exposure threshold of about 200 millisieverts, below which there is no increase in radiation-induced disease. Indeed, it went further, reporting research from Professor Ron Chesser of Texas Tech University, which suggests that low exposures to radiation can have a protective effect. The program interviewed scientists who believe that the increase in thyroid cancer in the immediate area of the explosion had been over-recorded, and predicted that the estimates for widespread deaths in the long term would be proved wrong. It noted the view of the World Health Organization scientist Dr Mike Rapacholi that, while most cancers can take decades to manifest, leukemia manifests within a decade or so: none of the previously expected peak of leukemia deaths has been found, and none is now expected. Identifying the need to balance the \"fear response\" in the public's reaction to radiation, the program quoted Dr Peter Boyle, director of the IARC: \"Tobacco smoking will cause several thousand times more cancers in the [European] population.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151196",
"title": "Acute radiation syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "According to the linear no-threshold model, any exposure to ionizing radiation, even at doses too low to produce any symptoms of radiation sickness, can induce cancer due to cellular and genetic damage. Under the assumption, survivors of acute radiation syndrome face an increased risk of developing cancer later in life. The probability of developing cancer is a linear function with respect to the effective radiation dose. In radiation-induced cancer, the speed at which the condition advances, the prognosis, the degree of pain, and every other feature of the disease are not believed to be functions of the radiation dosage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151196",
"title": "Acute radiation syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:DNA damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "High radiation doses can cause DNA damage. If left unrepaired, this damage can create serious and even lethal chromosomal aberrations. Ionizing radiation can produce reactive oxygen species, which are very damaging to DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17qijj
|
Flat or disc-shaped planet
|
[
{
"answer": "The shape of the object doesn't matter. There's no aerodynamics in space because there's no air. However, a naturally formed planet can't be any other shape due to the laws of gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Shape makes absolutely no difference in space. There's no air to push against anything in space. Have you seen the lunar lander? Would you call that aerodynamic? Either way a planet shaped any way other than a sphere would be unstable and pull itself into a sphere eventually.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "839262",
"title": "Alderson disk",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "A disk-shaped planet similar to an Alderson disk (though far smaller) served as the home world of the fantasy \"Aysle\" setting (or \"cosm\") of West End Games' \"Torg\" roleplaying game. In contrast with the Alderson disk, the Aysle \"diskworld\" works according to fantasy physics, including a \"gravity plane\" that bisects the disk laterally, so that opposite sides \"fall\" towards the plane. The diskworld of Aysle had a bobbing Sun and multiple inner layers. Both sides of the disk were inhabited, as were the internal layers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22579173",
"title": "Flatness (liquids)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Flatness refers to the shape of a liquid's free surface. On planet Earth, the flatness of a liquid is a function of the curvature of the Earth, and from trigonometry, can be found to deviate from true flatness by approximately 19.6 nanometers over an area of 1 square meter, a deviation which is dominated by the effects of surface tension. This calculation using the Earth's mean radius at sea level, however a liquid will be slightly flatter at the poles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48444540",
"title": "Biconcave disc",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A biconcave disc — also referred to as a discocyte — is a geometric shape resembling an oblate spheroid with two concavities on the top and on the bottom. It is meta-stable, and involves the continuous adjustment of the asymmetric transbilayer lipid distribution, which is correlated with ATP depletion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31138696",
"title": "Disc Installation",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The shape, three-dimensional convex circles, derived from the dot pieces. Irwin wanted them to be circular in order to avoid the corners a square or rectangle would produce. But instead of being flat it needed to be convex to deemphasize the edge. The disc was painted where the disc bulges out (point closest to the viewer) the same color as the wall (point furthest away from the viewer) to give it a floating effect. But the combination of convexity and color made it so the viewer had a difficult time determining whether the disc was convex, concave, or flat. (Originally he painted the discs with dots, but the way they turned out was unsatisfactory. He resorted to a spray painting technique, which allowed for the effect that minimized the visibility of the edge.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331755",
"title": "Transitional fossil",
"section": "Section::::Prominent examples.:\"Amphistium\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Pleuronectiformes (flatfish) are an order of ray-finned fish. The most obvious characteristic of the modern flatfish is their asymmetry, with both eyes on the same side of the head in the adult fish. In some families the eyes are always on the right side of the body (dextral or right-eyed flatfish) and in others they are always on the left (sinistral or left-eyed flatfish). The primitive spiny turbots include equal numbers of right- and left-eyed individuals, and are generally less asymmetrical than the other families. Other distinguishing features of the order are the presence of protrusible eyes, another adaptation to living on the seabed (benthos), and the extension of the dorsal fin onto the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48625218",
"title": "Pebble accretion",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1457,
"text": "Pebbles ranging in size from centimeters up to a meter in size are accreted at an enhanced rate in a protoplanetary disk. A protoplanetary disk is made up of a mix of gas and solids including dust, pebbles, planetesimals, and protoplanets. Gas in a protoplanetary disk is pressure supported and as a result orbits at a velocity slower than large objects. The gas affects the motions of the solids in varying ways depending on their size, with dust moving with the gas and the largest planetesimals orbiting largely unaffected by the gas. Pebbles are an intermediate case, aerodynamic drag causes them to settle toward the central plane of the disk and to orbit at a sub-keplerian velocity resulting in radial drift toward the central star. The pebbles frequently encounter planetesimals as a result of their lower velocities and inward drift. If their motions were unaffected by the gas only a small fraction, determined by gravitational focusing and the cross-section of the planetesimals, would be accreted by the planetesimals. The remainder would follow hyperbolic paths, accelerating toward the planetesimal on their approach and decelerating as they recede. However, the drag the pebbles experience grows as their velocities increase, slowing some enough that they become gravitationally bound to the planetesimal. These pebbles continue to lose energy as they orbit the planetesimal causing them to spiral toward and be accreted by the planetesimal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11593",
"title": "Flat Earth",
"section": "Section::::History.:Alternate or mixed theories.:South Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The medieval Indian texts called the Puranas describe the Earth as a flat-bottomed, circular disk with concentric oceans and continents. This general scheme is present not only in the Hindu cosmologies but also in Buddhist and Jain cosmologies of South Asia. However, some Puranas include other models. For example, the fifth canto of the \"Bhagavata Purana\", includes sections that describe the Earth both as flat and spherical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1oi99s
|
why more recently than ever do webpages refresh and not actually go back when you hit the back button?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is more and more common mispractice to include a 0 second redirect in a site, which as soon as you load a page, redirects you to a slightly different page they actually want you to see. So far, this isn't a bad thing, it helps site design. The problem is, if you hit the back button on most browsers, it will take you back to the page with the instant redirect instead of back PAST that page to the page you came from. It is bad design, and SHOULD be easy to avoid, but some web designers are idiots.\n\nSource: I'm a web developer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some common elements can be stored on your computer depending on your cache size. But there are alot with dynamic content that is constantly changing such as posts on an image board or forum that need to be updated every couple of minutes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I also have this issue. I use chrome, and also adblock and adblock plus. I read the other day that it's something to do with adblock that is the problem. If you don't use any of these, then I have no idea\n [Source] (_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1753130",
"title": "Meta refresh",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- If a page redirects too quickly (less than 2-3 seconds), using the \"Back\" button on the next page may cause some browsers to move back to the redirecting page, whereupon the redirect will occur again. This is bad for usability, as this may cause a reader to be \"stuck\" on the last website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556",
"title": "Meta element",
"section": "Section::::Redirects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Many web design tutorials also point out that client-side redirecting tends to interfere with the normal functioning of a Web browser's \"back\" button. After being redirected, clicking the back button will cause the user to go back to the redirect page, which redirects them again. Some modern browsers seem to overcome this problem however, including Safari, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636686",
"title": "URL redirection",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:JavaScript redirects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Normally JavaScript pushes the redirector site's URL to the browser's history. It can cause redirect loops when users hit the back button. With the following command you can prevent this type of behaviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636686",
"title": "URL redirection",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Redirect loops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Sometimes a mistake can cause a page to end up redirecting back to itself, possibly via other pages, leading to an infinite sequence of redirects. Browsers should stop redirecting after a certain number of hops and display an error message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727988",
"title": "HP LaserJet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Evolution of control panel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Also, the \"Online\" button is actually a toggle switch, such that if the printer is already online, pressing Online makes the printer go offline and can be used to stop a runaway print job. Pressing Shift-Reset will then reset the printer, clearing the remainder of the unwanted document from the printer's memory, so that it will not continue to print it when brought back on line. (Before resetting the printer, it is necessary to make the computer stop sending data for the print job to the printer, if it hasn't already finished sending that job, through the computer's software. Otherwise, when the printer is put back online, it will start receiving the job from somewhere in the middle, which will likely cause the same runaway problem to recur.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46344668",
"title": "The Button (Reddit)",
"section": "Section::::Technical issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The Button experienced technical issues which caused it to reach zero despite users pressing it in time. This occurred multiple times and was attributed to database errors by reddit's administrators. The outages caused community discontentment and some speculation that the subreddit was being gamed by the administrators. Although The Button was revived within a day of the outages, the administrators of Reddit considered closing The Button experiment early.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16927550",
"title": "Trance.nu",
"section": "Section::::History.:End of an era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The reasoning behind this is due to the lack of time to maintain the site and that the site need a complete restart to gain its former glory. A task that unfortunately is big to undertake within a reasonable amount of time and effort. We all sincerely wish that we could revert time but unfortunately this is the position that we're at.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2y5o1b
|
why do people tie shoe laces and toss them over power lines?
|
[
{
"answer": "Three reasons:\n\n1. Gang members do it to mark their territory ([supposedly](_URL_0_)).\n\n2. Bullies steal someone's sneakers and throw them over power lines to taunt their victim.\n\n3. People take their old sneakers and throw them over power lines because they are inspired by (1.) or just think it's cool, funny, or exciting to do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From my personal experience it is a subtle way of showing that there is a drug dealer in the general vicinity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have said, usually drug dealers. Also done by skateboarders/hikers as a form of 'burying' shoes that are too beat up to keep wearing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My dad said that private school kids used to do it on the last day of school since they wouldn't need them all summer and would then get new ones next school year. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a video called \"The Mystery of Flying Kicks\" that looks at possible answers to this very question. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i work on the university of oregon campus. the kids here do it just because. idiots.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The drug dealer theory has always seemed dumb to me, at least as far as it still being true today. Maybe it was a under the radar the first few times people did it, but now that the rumor is widely known (to even police), wouldn't near those shoes be be the last place an actual drug dealer would want hang out?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always thought it was a symbol for leaving the hood",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because its funny, and fuck that guy. The stuff about drugs and gangs is nonsense.\n\nSource: lived in the hood most of my life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is like asking \"why do people draw dicks and write shitty poetry on bathroom walls?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Regardless of how it originated, it has become so common now that the meaning behind it could be anything. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's mostly has r.i.p on them a sign of respect for a Fallin friends",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to Big Fish, it's to keep you in the paradise of Spectre.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I lived on an Air Force Base, it was a superstition to throw a pair of combat boots up into a specific tree. If the boots never came down, you would never be stationed at that base again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i think Crab Man said it best...\"spontaneous combustion happens all the time. how do you think shoes get caught up in power lines?\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We used to do it just because it was something to do with your old shoes. We had a shoe tree going.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I find it extremely fascinating that so far no one has mentioned the reason I have heard (time and time again): This is something you do when you lose your virginity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always assumed this was a really awful prank. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is supposed to be symbolic of you leaving an area for a better place or life. This is why you typically see this in poorer area's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tofino BC, hundreds of pairs of shoes on wires beside skate park!\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't buy into the 'shoes over the lines' being crime related because even in the worst parts of Philly it's just kids throwing their shoes over the lines because it's fun. No one needs to advertise where to buy drugs or who's corner it is, it's always pretty obvious.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if this is accurate but someone told me its to signify leaving the hood",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I found this last year and I'm still waiting for an answer. \nNSFW\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I once saw a a pair of skates over a power line. It's Canada. It's what we do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40536338",
"title": "Reef knot",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "With both ends tucked (slipped) it becomes a good way to tie shoelaces, whilst the non-slipped version is useful for shoelaces that are excessively short. It is appropriate for tying plastic garbage or trash bags, as the knot forms a handle when tied in two twisted edges of the bag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52340430",
"title": "Self-tying shoes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Self-tying shoes (also known as \"self-lacing\" or \"power laces\") are designed to automatically tighten once the user puts them on. Such shoes were initially depicted in the 1989 science fiction film \"Back to the Future II\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30597745",
"title": "Shoelace knot",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "There are several ways to tie a shoelace knot; each starts with the tying of a half hitch, and requires attention or some habitual mechanism for arriving at a knot that is an elaboration of the reef (or square) knot rather than of the granny (or lubber's) knot. One approach is to start by taking, in each hand, the end of the lace that emerges from the uppermost eyelet on that hand's side of the shoe; then passing the \"dominant\" hand's end \"under\" the other end, from front toward back, and dropping each lace on the opposite side from where it started; and in the finishing step again grasping the lace on each side with the hand on that side (perhaps taking time to note that because each end crossed over the shoe before, the laces have switched hands—or vice versa, the hands have switched laces) and again passing the \"dominant\" hand's end \"under\" the other end, from front toward back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376100",
"title": "Shoelaces",
"section": "Section::::Shoe lacing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "This is the process of running the shoelaces through the holes, eyelets, loops, or hooks to hold together the sides of the shoe with many common lacing methods. There are, in fact, almost two trillion ways to lace a shoe with six pairs of eyelets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4952967",
"title": "Lace knitting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Knitted lace with no bound-off edges is extremely elastic, deforming easily to fit whatever it is draped on. As a consequence, knitted lace garments must be blocked or \"dressed\" before use, and tend to stretch over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1807656",
"title": "Cable tie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A cable tie (also known as a hose tie, or zip tie, and by the brand names Ty-Rap) is a type of fastener, for holding items together, primarily electrical cables or wires. Because of their low cost and ease of use, cable ties are ubiquitous, finding use in a wide range of other applications. Stainless steel versions, either naked or coated with a rugged plastic, cater for exterior applications and hazardous environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20758004",
"title": "Shoe tossing",
"section": "Section::::Dangling shoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Shoe dangling, or shoe flinging, is the practice of throwing shoes whose shoelaces have been tied together so that they hang from overhead wires such as power lines or telephone cables. Once the shoes are tied together, the pair is then thrown at the wires as a sort of bolas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hz57m
|
What is the difference between Enthalpy (H) and Heat (Q)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Enthalpy is a Legendre transform of internal energy. It's a state function, so the change in enthalpy between two states doesn't depend on the path you take between those two steps (in fancy words, it's an *exact differential*).\n\nHeat is not a state function; a system doesn't \"have\" a certain amount of heat in it (whereas a system *does* have a certain amount of enthalpy). Furthermore, the heat added or removed from a system between some initial and final state **does** depend on the path you take between those states (it's an *inexact differential*).\n\nFor a reversible process at constant pressure (like a lot of the things you do in chemistry), the differential enthalpy during some process is the same as the heat transferred into or out of the system during that process.\n\nSo that's why in chemistry you often hear terms like \"latent heat of fusion\" and \"enthalpy of fusion\" being used as if they're interchangeable, because they often *are* in chemistry.\n\nThe first law of thermodynamics says:\n\ndU = ~~d~~Q + ~~d~~W, where the strikethroughs indicate inexact differentials.\n\nAnd the (pressure-volume) work can be written as ~~d~~W = - p dV.\n\nBut maybe you want to think about energy as a function of pressure rather than volume. That way if you can keep the pressure constant (like in a laboratory environment), it'll simplify things.\n\nIf you replace the internal energy U with the enthalpy H = U + pV, you find that dH = dU + p dV + V dp.\n\nNow replacing dU with what we have above, dH = ~~d~~Q - p dV + p dV + V dp.\n\nThe two terms in the middle cancel, and all that remains is dH = ~~d~~Q + V dp. At constant pressure (dp = 0), this says that dH = ~~d~~Q.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simplest way to put it is this: heat (and work) are energy in transit, while enthalpy (and internal energy, and Gibbs energy, etc) are measures of stored energy in the system. You probably know the advantage of enthalpy is it's a state function, so enthalpy changes between two given states are always equal regardless of how the change is effected, unlike the heat or work which may vary depending on the process used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593167",
"title": "Heat",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Since the 1920s, it has been recommended practice to use enthalpy to refer to the \"heat content at constant volume\", and to thermal energy when \"heat\" in the general sense is intended, while \"heat\" is reserved for the very specific context of the transfer of thermal energy between two systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "668130",
"title": "Thermochemical equation",
"section": "Section::::Understanding Aspects of Thermochemical Equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Enthalpy (H) is the transfer of energy in a reaction (for chemical reactions it is in the form of heat) and ΔH is the change in enthalpy. ΔH is a state function. Being a state function means that ΔH is independent of the processes between initial and final states. In other words, it does not matter what steps we take to get from initial reactants to final products—the ΔH will always be the same. ΔHrxn, or the change in enthalpy of a reaction, has the same value of ΔH as in a thermochemical equation, but is in units of kJ/mol being that it is the enthalpy change per moles of any particular substance in the equation. Values of ΔH are determined experimentally under standard conditions of 1atm and 25 °C (298.15K).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4781332",
"title": "Enthalpy of sublimation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The enthalpy of sublimation, or heat of sublimation, is the heat required to change one mole of a substance from solid state to gaseous state at a given combination of temperature and pressure, usually standard temperature and pressure (STP). The heat of sublimation is usually expressed in kJ/mol, although the less customary kJ/kg is also encountered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10274",
"title": "Enthalpy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The total enthalpy, \"H\", of a system cannot be measured directly. The same situation exists in classical mechanics: only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. Enthalpy itself is a thermodynamic potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined reference point; therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy, Δ\"H\". The Δ\"H\" is a positive change in endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10274",
"title": "Enthalpy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is equal to the system's internal energy plus the product of its pressure and volume. In a system enclosed so as to prevent matter transfer, for processes at constant pressure, the heat absorbed or released equals the change in enthalpy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4218742",
"title": "Q10 (temperature coefficient)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The \"Q\" temperature coefficient is a measure of the rate of change of a biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the temperature by 10 °C. There are many examples where the \"Q\" is used, one being the calculation of the nerve conduction velocity and another being calculating the contraction velocity of muscle fibres. It can also be applied to chemical reactions and many other systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184726",
"title": "Heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal energy across a well-defined boundary around a thermodynamic system. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter \"H\", that is the sum of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i2qzn
|
Would the water pressure be the same at 100 metres under the surface, even if the water was located in a water tank on land?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes.\nThe pressure at any point in the water body depends on three things given negligible air pressure changes. Density of liquid , gravitational constant and height below the surface. Given same g and density , at same depths no matter where kept, the pressure will be same.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Almost, but not quite, yes. If you built an above-ground tank with 200m of water in it and took the pressure at the bottom, it would be marginally different than going 200m straight down into the ocean. \n\n\nThe first reason for this is air pressure: though a 200m column of air doesn't exert nearly as much force as 200m of water it's still a difference. You've got 200m more air on top of the ocean.\n\n\nThe second is gravity anomaly: if you change the location of any gravity rig you'll get some variations, can't say if it'll be a positive or negative change and by how much unless we know which two points we're talking about (except for the free air anomaly: we're definitely going to a higher elevation so that correction is easy enough).\n\n\nThere are additional complications, but each are enlightening and allow you to learn useful things about what's affecting the point of interest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305265",
"title": "Underwater environment",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Density.:Pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "The density of water causes ambient pressures that increase dramatically with depth. The atmospheric pressure at the surface is 14.7 pounds per square inch or around 100 kPa. A comparable hydrostatic pressure occurs at a depth of only ( for sea water). Thus, at about 10 m below the surface, the water exerts twice the pressure (2 atmospheres or 200 kPa) as air at surface level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33673568",
"title": "Oxygen equivalent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "It is worthwhile to note that pressures may often be expressed in units of distance such as feet when diving. For this, note that descending 33 ft in salt water or 33.9 ft in fresh water results in a change of 1 atm, so distance and pressure are used interchangeably in this context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25684865",
"title": "Pore pressure gradient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Example: For a column of fresh water of 8.33 pounds per gallon (lb/U.S. gal) standing still hydrostatically in a 21,000 feet vertical cased wellbore from top to bottom (vertical hole), the pressure gradient would be\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3783126",
"title": "Water tank",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Elevated water tank, also known as a water tower, will create a pressure at the ground-level outlet of 1 kPa per 10.2 cm or 1 psi per 2.31 feet of elevation. Thus a tank elevated to 20 metres creates about 200 kPa and a tank elevated to 70 feet creates about 30 psi of discharge pressure, sufficient for most domestic and industrial requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "461654",
"title": "Scalar potential",
"section": "Section::::Pressure as buoyant potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Since buoyant force points upwards, in the direction opposite to gravity, then pressure in the fluid increases downwards. Pressure in a static body of water increases proportionally to the depth below the surface of the water. The surfaces of constant pressure are planes parallel to the surface, which can be characterized as the plane of zero pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846175",
"title": "Dysbarism",
"section": "Section::::Ambient pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Ambient pressure is the pressure in the water around the diver (or the air, with caisson workers etc.). As a diver descends, the ambient pressure increases. At in salt water, it is twice the normal pressure than that at the surface. At 40 meters (a common recommended limit for recreational diving) it is 5 times the pressure than at sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459163",
"title": "Siphon",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1739,
"text": "In more detail, one can look at how the hydrostatic pressure varies through a static siphon, considering in turn the vertical tube from the top reservoir, the vertical tube from the bottom reservoir, and the horizontal tube connecting them (assuming a U-shape). At liquid level in the top reservoir, the liquid is under atmospheric pressure, and as one goes up the siphon, the hydrostatic pressure decreases (under vertical pressure variation), since the weight of atmospheric pressure pushing the water up is counterbalanced by the column of water in the siphon pushing down (until one reaches the maximal height of a barometer/siphon, at which point the liquid cannot be pushed higher) – the hydrostatic pressure at the top of the tube is then lower than atmospheric pressure by an amount proportional to the height of the tube. Doing the same analysis on the tube rising from the lower reservoir yields the pressure at the top of that (vertical) tube; this pressure is lower because the tube is longer (there is more water pushing down), and requires that the lower reservoir is lower than the upper reservoir, or more generally that the discharge outlet simply be lower than the surface of the upper reservoir. Considering now the horizontal tube connecting them, one sees that the pressure at the top of the tube from the top reservoir is higher (since less water is being lifted), while the pressure at the top of the tube from the bottom reservoir is lower (since more water is being lifted), and since liquids move from high pressure to low pressure, the liquid flows across the horizontal tube from the top basin to the bottom basin. Note that the liquid is under positive pressure (compression) throughout the tube, not tension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rzgfd
|
what's the possibility of puerto rico becoming the 51st state of the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a complex issue so I failed miserably at ELI5 so I did an ELI15 instead. I hope that you're OK with this.\n\n---\n\nIn order for Puerto Rico to become a state two things would need to happen.\n\n1 - Puerto Ricans would need to reach a consensus. \n\nPresidential elections are periodic events where things remain pretty much the same. Because of this the best strategy for the losing party is to wait 4 years and try again. A change in status, however, is a life changing and potentially irreversible permanent event. And if a Puerto Rican group felt that an illegitimate status definition had been imposed on them a cascade of events that would mirror the [assault on the house of representatives](_URL_0_) and the [Ponce massacre](_URL_1_) could unravel. And no American politician would want to risk that.\n\nAnd you have to keep in mind that in Puerto Rico the main political parties are tied to status definitions. (That's why Puerto Rican politicians make some noise on the subject every once in a while. They're just pandering to their voters.) In the island there is no Democratic or Republican party but a status quo political party (PPD), a statehood political party (PNP), and a minority independence political party (PIP). The status quo party and the statehood party have rougly the same number of supporters so they switch seats in the government once every few years and as a result the status of the island is in a permanent political stalemate.\n\n2 - The US government would need to reach a consensus. \n\nThe political status of Puerto Rico is a very risky political issue for any American politician. However, the US government knows about the island's political stalemate so they don't have to take any meaningful actions. But in the unlikely event that Puerto Ricans reached consensus every relevant politician would have to ask himself the two following questions:\n\na - Would a Puerto Rican state add more votes to my political party or would it benefit the competition? Keep in mind that in Puerto Rico there are no Republicans vs. Democrats although the local politicians do affiliate themselves loosely to some extent with those political parties. Republican politicians would reject a new Democratic state and vice versa.\n\nb - Would my constituents approve of adding Puerto Rico as a new state? Keep in mind that although many Americans consider Puerto Ricans to be marginalized and underrepresented American citizens others consider them to be a culturally incompatible burden for the American taxpayers.\n\nSo, even if Puerto Rico could reach a consensus the issue could remain in a stalemate in the US government forever.\n\nThere's a third option but it is very unlikely so I didn't mention it as a plausible path to statehood. The US could just force a status definition on the island like it has done many times before with many territories. But the political repercussions would be too great in this age of ubiquitous communications so unless a very dramatic series of events occurred this won't happen.\n\ntl;dr: It is very unlikely but it makes good news so you'll continue to hear about it regularly.\n\n// Disclaimer: I am a Puerto Rican",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's highly unlikely. Congress would need to approve it, and the Republicans would never support the addition of a state whose electoral votes would almost certainly go to the democrats in every presidential election.\n\nThen there's time money issue. If admitted to the US, Puerto Rico would be the poorest state in the us. Not a lot of US politicians want to take that on.\n\nAlso, just over half of Puerto Ricans approved of statehood in a 2012 vote. If the us approved statehood, you'd have quite a few Puerto Ricans actively working against it.\n\nIt might happen someday, but not anytime soon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37576626",
"title": "Proposed political status for Puerto Rico",
"section": "Section::::Options for political status.:Statehood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "If this status were granted, Puerto Rico would become the 51st state of the United States. The state would have due representation in the United States Congress with full voting rights; Puerto Rico would be represented in the Senate by two senators and the size of its delegation to the House of Representatives would be determined by its population (Connecticut, which has a similar population, currently has five representatives). Similarly, Puerto Rico would get a population-dependent number of electors to the electoral college for the Presidency (cf. Connecticut's current seven electors). Federal taxes would apply on the island. The apportionment of federal aid to the island would be handled as for other states (increased).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "475488",
"title": "51st state",
"section": "Section::::Puerto Rico.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Puerto Rico has been discussed as a potential 51st state of the United States. In a 2012 status referendum a majority of voters, 54%, expressed dissatisfaction with the current political relationship. In a separate question, 61% of voters supported statehood (excluding the 26% of voters who left this question blank). On December 11, 2012, Puerto Rico's legislature resolved to request that the President and the U.S. Congress act on the results, end the current form of territorial status and begin the process of admitting Puerto Rico to the Union as a state. On January 4, 2017, Puerto Rico's new representative to Congress pushed a bill that would ratify statehood by 2025.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37576626",
"title": "Proposed political status for Puerto Rico",
"section": "Section::::Options for political status.:Free Associated State.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "If the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose this option - and only 33% voted for it in 2012 - and if it were granted by the US Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State. This could give Puerto Rico a similar status to Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, countries which currently have a Compact of Free Association with the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509785",
"title": "Territories of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Representative Stephanie Murphy of Florida said about a 2018 bill to make Puerto Rico the 51st state, \"The hard truth is that Puerto Rico’s lack of political power allows Washington to treat Puerto Rico like an afterthought, as the federal government’s inadequate preparation for and response to Hurricane Maria made crystal clear.\" According to Governor of Puerto Rico Ricardo Rosselló, \"Because we don’t have political power, because we don’t have representatives, [no] senators, no vote for president, we are treated as an afterthought.\" Rosselló called Puerto Rico the \"oldest, most populous colony in the world\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24595451",
"title": "Statehood movement in Puerto Rico",
"section": "Section::::History.:June 2017 referendum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "If the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose Free Associated State option—only 33% voted for it in 2012—and if it were granted by the U.S. Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State—a virtually independent nation. It would have a political and economical treaty of association with the U.S. that would stipulate all delegated agreements. This could give Puerto Rico a similar status to Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, countries which currently have a Compact of Free Association (agreement) with the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325057",
"title": "Constitution of Puerto Rico",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The constitution was approved overwhelmingly by nearly 82% of the voters in a popular referendum and ratified by the United States Congress with a few amendments. The United States maintains ultimate sovereignty over Puerto Rico while giving Puerto Ricans a high degree of . Under this Constitution, Puerto Rico officially identifies as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "475488",
"title": "51st state",
"section": "Section::::Puerto Rico.:2017 referendum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "If the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose the Free Association option – and only 33% voted for it in 2012 – and if it were granted by the U.S. Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State, a virtually independent nation. It would have a political and economical treaty of association with the U.S. that would stipulate all delegated agreements. This could give Puerto Rico a similar status to Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, countries which currently have a Compact of Free Association with the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53q1r4
|
would it be possible to replace all of your bones with some sort of metal replica?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer: no. For a couple reasons.\n\nFirstly, there's all the biological functions bone has in the body - as a store of calcium, a site for red and white blood cell production, a fat storage location, and probably more I'm forgetting.\n\nSecondly, there's the material reasons - bone is an amazing natural composite, a living material. It's constantly breaking itself down and rebuilding in response to your needs, which is what makes replace parts with metal so complex. With bone, it's rare to have to deal with fatigue fractures, from years of constant cyclic loading (your leg joints take multiples of your bodyweight in load each time you take a step), as your body rebuilds the bone constantly. Metal isn't doing that, so it can eventually crack.\n\nThere's also the ways it would be held - our body knows what to do with bone, how to attach soft tissues to it, how not to attack it with the immune system - with metal (or any other material really) these things have to be taken into consideration. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3443698",
"title": "Bone tool",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "As an organic material, bone often does not survive in a way that is archaeologically recoverable. However, under the right conditions, bone tools do sometimes survive and many have been recovered from locations around the world representing time periods throughout history and prehistory. Also many examples have been collected ethnographically, and some traditional peoples, as well as experimental archaeologists, continue to use bone to make tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2518882",
"title": "Bone grafting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Bone generally has the ability to regenerate completely but requires a very small fracture space or some sort of scaffold to do so. Bone grafts may be autologous (bone harvested from the patient’s own body, often from the iliac crest), allograft (cadaveric bone usually obtained from a bone bank), or synthetic (often made of hydroxyapatite or other naturally occurring and biocompatible substances) with similar mechanical properties to bone. Most bone grafts are expected to be reabsorbed and replaced as the natural bone heals over a few months’ time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175142",
"title": "Cremation",
"section": "Section::::Modern cremation process.:Ash weight and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "Not all that remains is bone. There may be melted metal lumps from missed jewellery; casket furniture; dental fillings; and surgical implants, such as hip replacements. Breast implants do not have to be removed before cremation. Some medical devices such as pacemakers may need to be removed before cremation to avoid the risk of explosion. Large items such as titanium hip replacements (which tarnish but do not melt) or casket hinges are usually removed before processing, as they may damage the processor. (If they are missed at first, they must ultimately be removed before processing is complete, as items such as titanium joint replacements are far too durable to be ground.) Implants may be returned to the family, but are more commonly sold as ferrous/non-ferrous scrap metal. After the remains are processed, smaller bits of metal such as tooth fillings, and rings (commonly known as \"gleanings\") are sieved out and may be later interred in common, consecrated ground in a remote area of the cemetery. They may also be sold as precious metal scrap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3853380",
"title": "Stem-cell therapy",
"section": "Section::::Veterinary medicine.:Bone repair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Bone has a unique and well documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with mesenchymal stem cells and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved. Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23035006",
"title": "Artificial bone",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.:Biological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1311,
"text": "Research on artificial bone materials has revealed that bioactive and resorbable silicate glasses (bioglass), glass-ceramics, and calcium phosphates exhibit mechanical properties that similar to human bone. Similar mechanical property does not assure biocompatibility. The body's biological response to those materials depends on many parameters including chemical composition, topography, porosity, and grain size. If the material is metal, there is a risk of corrosion and infection. If the material is ceramic, it is difficult to form the desired shape, and bone can't reabsorb or replace it due to its high crystallinity. Hydroxyapatite, on the other hand, has shown excellent properties in supporting the adhesion, differentiation, and proliferation of osteogenesis cell since it is both thermodynamically stable and bioactive. Artificial bones using hydroxyapatite combine with collagen tissue helps to form new bones in pores, and have a strong affinity to biological tissues while maintaining uniformity with adjacent bone tissue. Despite its excellent performance in interacting with bone tissue, hydroxyapatite has the same problem as ceramic in reabsorption due to its high crystallinity. Since hydroxyapatite is processed at a high temperature, it is unlikely that it will remain in a stable state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21476679",
"title": "Herculaneum",
"section": "Section::::The Site.:Skeletal remains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Casts of skeletons were also produced, to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved, due to the rapid vapourization and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500 °C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed within chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples. The most significant and extensive study of a sample of the skeletal remains of the Herculaneum victims is that published by Luigi Capasso in 2001. This study which employed X rays has superseded the earlier work by Bisel \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34678382",
"title": "Douglas W. Owsley",
"section": "Section::::Professional background.:Prominent excavations and investigations.:Jeffrey Dahmer's first victim.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Thorough study of the skeletal remains lasted for over three months. Owsley was eventually able to identify the victim as 18-year-old Steven Hicks, who had disappeared in 1978. The case was particularly difficult, because the victim's body had been cut, broken, and literally chopped into several pieces. Forensics require careful identification, measuring, and matching of various sizes of bone chips, which often calls for the use of scanning electron microscopes to accurately establish the composition of the most minute chip and fragment to confirm that it is actually bone and human remains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5y4l89
|
who's in charge of coming up with street names and is there any approval by a committee? also, if you were someone that decided street names how did you come up with them?
|
[
{
"answer": "In private developments in Ohio, it's up to the discretion of the developer. For example, the development I live in AND the street I live ON are both named after the developer's grandson... who lived in the development. The development I used to live in was interesting because every street was named after a winner of the Kentucky Derby. I would guess that the county commissioners name the public streets. This is probably different in all fifty states and I'm sure it's different in other countries. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my hometown streets named by developers, but town planners can veto. Once development is done, town is responsible for maintenance. \n\nAs a rule they never permit common first or last names (\"Katie Drive\") because the street signs would just get stolen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am not sure how heavily it's enforced anymore, but I believe that here in New Zealand the type of road (Street, Avenue, Road, Lane etc) used to be (may still be?) dictated by features of the location, while the unique part at the start was up to the land owner.\n\nI've always wanted to see a place called Lois Lane",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "189904",
"title": "Mount Royal, Quebec",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "One notable feature of the town is the naming of some of its streets, and also its occasionally idiosyncratic numbering system. Some streets which pass through the town may thus bear two names (in whichever language). For example, Jean Talon Street, a large East-West thoroughfare crossing Montreal for kilometers, goes a few hundred meters through TMR under the name of Dresden Avenue, only to recover its Montreal name on the other side of the town. This situation has been recently addressed by putting the two names on the street signs. On these few hundred meters, TMR uses a house civic numbering totally different from that of Montreal on either side. This sort of change in the numbering system also occurs on smaller streets shared by both Montreal and TMR (for example, Trenton, Lockhart and Brookfield avenues, where the TMR numbering system decreases from East to West, only to jump from 2 to 2400 on the few meters of the street that still belong to Montreal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23824931",
"title": "Addresses in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Street address system.:Street names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Other streets, mainly \"-gil\", may be named after the street name it diverges from with a systematic number. There are three different types of numbering rules: basic numbering, serial numbering, and other numbering. The purpose of numbering streets is to make street names easier to predict position of it so address users find their destination streets or buildings easily on the maps or the streets. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290839",
"title": "Naming convention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "BULLET::::- Allow useful information to be deduced from the names based on regularities. For instance, in Manhattan, streets are consecutively numbered; with East-West streets called \"Streets\" and North-South streets called \"Avenues\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6525796",
"title": "Street system of Denver",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early street designations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "Street names reflected this bottom-up emergence, and street names were not coordinated from development to development, even for along the same north-south or east-west line. Some names were used more than once, by different streets across various Denver neighborhoods and surrounding towns. There was no universal system for the use of terms like \"street\", \"avenue\", etc. Later, these terms were defined such that \"street\" designated roads running north and south and aligned with the hundreds of the numbering system, with \"court\" for intermediate (non-hundreds) north-south roads and \"way\" for roads which start north-south but curve to intersect with another north-south road; \"avenue\", \"place\", and \"drive\" (respectively) are the corresponding terms for roads running east and west. Major arterials in both directions, however, are often called \"boulevards\", and \"road\" and \"parkway\" also make appearances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2551704",
"title": "Street or road name",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "A street name can also include a direction (the cardinal points east, west, north, south, or the quadrants NW, NE, SW, SE) especially in cities with a grid-numbering system. Examples include \"E Roosevelt Boulevard\" and \"14th Street NW\". These directions are often (though not always) used to differentiate two sections of a street. Other qualifiers may be used for that purpose as well. Examples: upper/lower, old/new, or adding \"extension\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "979149",
"title": "Address",
"section": "Section::::Format by country and area.:Slovakia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 259,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 259,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Street numbers can be written as orientation numbers (related to street) or descriptive numbers (unique within the town) or as a combination separated by a slash (descriptive/orientation). Descriptive numbers are also used within small villages that do not have named streets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53837",
"title": "Salt Lake City",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Though the nomenclature may initially confuse new arrivals and visitors, most consider the grid system an aid to navigation. Some streets have names, such as State Street, which would otherwise be known as 100 East. Other streets have honorary names, such as the western portion of 300 South, named \"Adam Galvez Street\" (for a local Marine corporal killed in action) or others honoring Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, Jr., César Chávez, and John Stockton. These honorary names appear only on street signs and cannot be used in postal addresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2qz1dm
|
what happens to our mind when you spin around?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing happens to your brain. You have fluid in your ear that helps your brain recognize what is up and what is down. When you spin the fluid has to re-equilibrate and while this is happening your brain is confused and the result is nausea, vertigo, and that weird effect where your eyes continue to follow whatever direction you were spinning in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The most common general symptom of having the spins is described by its name: the feeling that one has the uncontrollable sense of spinning, although one is not in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The spins (as in having \"the spins\") is an adverse reaction of intoxication that causes a state of vertigo and nausea, causing one to feel as if \"spinning out of control\", especially when lying down. It is most commonly associated with drunkenness or mixing alcohol with other psychoactive drugs such as cannabis. This state is likely to cause vomiting, but having \"the spins\" is not life-threatening unless pulmonary aspiration occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15669613",
"title": "Spinning Dancer",
"section": "Section::::Bistable perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Depending on the perception of the observer, the apparent direction of spin may change any number of times, a typical feature of so-called bistable percepts such as the Necker cube which may be perceived from time to time as seen from above or below. These alternations are spontaneous and may randomly occur without any change in the stimulus or intention by the observer. However some observers may have difficulty perceiving a change in motion at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028498",
"title": "Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The spinning sensation experienced from BPPV is usually triggered by movement of the head, will have a sudden onset, and can last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. The most common movements people report triggering a spinning sensation are tilting their heads upwards in order to look at something, and rolling over in bed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39200136",
"title": "Hans Wallach",
"section": "Section::::Psychological research.:Perception of a stable environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "When humans turn the head from left to right, the image projected on the retinas moves in the direction opposite to the head movement. Without the head turning, such an image displacement would appear as something moving; but when it is correlated with the turning of the head, no movement of the environment is seen. However, what if the image were to move in coordination with the head movement, but the extent of that movement were less (or more) than would be usual for the head movement in question? Would the anomaly be noticed?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1238189",
"title": "Cervical vertebrae",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The movement of shaking or rotating the head left and right happens almost entirely at the joint between the atlas and the axis, the atlanto-axial joint. A small amount of rotation of the vertebral column itself contributes to the movement. This movement between the atlas and axis is often referred to as the \"no joint\", owing to its nature of being able to rotate the head in a side-to-side fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Balance in the body is monitored principally by two systems, both of which are affected by alcohol sending abnormal impulses to the brain, [which tells it] that the body is rotating, causing disorientation and making the eyes spin round to compensate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
263kwo
|
why is there two ways of writing "4" and "a" ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The '4' and 'a' you see on your screen right now (unless you're using an odd font) are the technically correct glyphs, which is why they appear that way in most typefaces unless it's specifically mimicking handwriting. The \"open 4\" is use in handwriting because it's easier to distinguish from a 9. When writing quickly, those two digits can often look similar. The other way of writing 'a' is more because it's easier and faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are multiple ways to write any character. Just look at different fonts. It just so happens that in the case of a and 4, there are two popular main styles used in print which are very obviously different.\n\nOther equally obvious examples include 1, 7, g, w, l and z.\n\nIf you look at handwriting, the differences are way bigger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The \"closed 4\" comes from the arabian formation of numerals where each numeral has the [number of angles as the number](_URL_0_), the \"open 4\", as far as I can tell, comes from the [lcd display](_URL_2_).\n \nAs for *a*s you have [double-story and single story](_URL_1_) the double story is more correct and used for cursive, but the single story was easier to make for printing presses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58625298",
"title": "Ba (cuneiform)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Linguistically, it has the alphabetical usage in texts for \"b\", \"a\", or syllabically for \"ba\", and also a replacement for \"\"b\"\", by \"\"p\"\". The a is replaceable in word formation by any of the 4 vowels: \"a, e, i,\" or \"u\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59045",
"title": "NATO phonetic alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Pronunciation of code words.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "The pronunciation of the digits 3, 4, 5, and 9 differs from standard English – being pronounced \"tree\", \"fower\", \"fife\", and \"niner\". The digit 3 is specified as \"tree\" so that it is not pronounced \"sri\"; the long pronunciation of 4 (still found in some English dialects) keeps it somewhat distinct from \"for\"; 5 is pronounced with a second \"f\" because the normal pronunciation with a \"v\" is easily confused with \"fire\" (a command to shoot); and 9 has an extra syllable to keep it distinct from German \"nein\" 'no'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18940550",
"title": "Albanian language",
"section": "Section::::Phonology.:Consonants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- The letter \"ç\" is sometimes written \"ch\" due to technical limitations because of its use in English sound and its analogy to the other digraphs \"xh\", \"sh\", and \"zh\". Usually it is written simply \"c\" or more rarely \"q\" with context resolving any ambiguities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3299370",
"title": "Acrostic (puzzle)",
"section": "Section::::An example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Letters 16 and 17 form a two-letter word ending in \"P\". Since this has to be \"UP\", letter 16 is a \"U\", which can be filled into the appropriate clue answer in the list of clues. Likewise, a three-letter word starting with \"A\" could be \"and\", \"any\", \"all\", or even a proper name like \"Ann\". One might need more clue answers before daring to guess which it could be. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5200013",
"title": "C",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "C is the third letter in the English alphabet and a letter of the alphabets of many other writing systems which inherited it from the Latin alphabet. It is also the third letter of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is named \"cee\" (pronounced ) in English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053693",
"title": "American and British English spelling differences",
"section": "Section::::Latin-derived spellings (often through Romance).:\"-re\", \"-er\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 894,
"text": "The \"e\" preceding the \"r\" is kept in American inflected forms of nouns and verbs, for example, , which are respectively in British English. \"\" is an interesting example, since, according to the \"OED\", it is a \"\"word ... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation)\"\" (i.e., ), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable (). The OED third edition (revised entry of June 2016) allows either two or three syllables. The three-syllable version is listed as only the American pronunciation of \"centering\" on the Oxford Dictionaries Online website. The \"e\" is dropped for other derivations, for example, \"central\", \"fibrous\", \"spectral\". However, the existence of related words without \"e\" before the \"r\" is not proof for the existence of an \"-re\" British spelling: for example, \"entry\" and \"entrance\" come from \"enter\", which has not been spelled \"entre\" for centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25479304",
"title": "English articles",
"section": "Section::::Indefinite article.:Distinction between \"a\" and \"an\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "The form \"an\" is used before words starting with a vowel sound, regardless of whether the word begins with a vowel letter. This avoids the glottal stop (momentary silent pause) that would otherwise be required between \"a\" and a following vowel sound. Where the next word begins with a consonant sound, \"a\" is used. Examples: \"a box\"; \"an apple\"; \"an SSO\" (pronounced \"es-es-oh\"); \"a HEPA filter\" (HEPA is pronounced as a word rather than as letters); \"an hour\" (the \"h\" is silent); \"a one-armed bandit\" (pronounced \"won...\"); \"an heir\" (pronounced \"air\"); \"a unicorn\" (pronounced \"yoo-\"); \"an herb\" in American English (where the \"h\" is silent), but \"a herb\" in British English; \"a unionized worker\" but \"an unionized particle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ou24s
|
how are movies that were recorded in a lower definition able to be released in higher definitions?
|
[
{
"answer": "They were recorded on film, which isn't limited to an amount of pixels- for the most part.\n\nRemember that they were broadcast on a huge screen.\n\nAs long as you can get the original print you can re-release the movie as HD.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two reasons. One is that most movies are recorded on higher definition then they are released on. A lot of movies are recorded on film which have very high resolution. Even those scenes that are not as high resolution are still higher then the VHS and DVD releases because the movies use higher resolution film and the editing process might also reduce quality of the picture.\n\nSecondly a lot of the HD releases get a pass of post processing to artificially sharpen the picture and improve effects that could be done better with modern technology and higher standards for quality. Technicians will usually go through the movie frame by frame and add details and texture to make it look better. Sometimes entire scenes are redone if possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a lot of confusion here because \"high definition\" is a *television* standard, and movies are mostly on film. And as technology has progressed, we've been able to make television transmissions higher and higher definition.\n\nThat said: a movie camera 60 years ago produced a higher resolution product than any television you can buy today. Film has *very* high resolution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They were recorded on film and then remastered with modern techniques. A lot of people think of film and think it is low quality, but film is actually incredible when it comes to quality, standard 35mm film being better than most digital sensors today. So when a film is rereleased, it is actually being rescanned at a much higher resolution than originally, because there never used to be a need for film to be scanned at say, 4K. So it is scanned, touched up to remove any scratches and often denoised to reduce bad film grain (a lot of which is left in, but sometimes it's too much and needs cleaned up). Now you're left with a very high quality digital file, more than capable of being watched in HD. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try to give a simpler answer. They weren't recorded in low definition, they were actually recorded in hi-defintion, they were just transferred to a low definition format because old televions and vhs technology had low resolution. So they just go back and re-transfer those movies to high definition for modern tvs and blu ray players.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543683",
"title": "High-definition video",
"section": "Section::::HD content.:HD in filmmaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Depending on the year and format in which a movie was filmed, the exposed image can vary greatly in size. Sizes range from as big as 24 mm × 36 mm for VistaVision/Technirama 8 perforation cameras (same as 35 mm still photo film) going down through 18 mm × 24 mm for Silent Films or Full Frame 4 perforations cameras to as small as 9 mm × 21 mm in Academy Sound Aperture cameras modified for the Techniscope 2 perforation format. Movies are also produced using other film gauges, including 70 mm films (22 mm × 48 mm) or the rarely used 55 mm and CINERAMA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3651239",
"title": "Re-edited film",
"section": "Section::::Types of re-editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "BULLET::::- Length: Films may be shortened for television broadcasting or for use on airlines. DVD releases of films may also contain longer cuts. In a growing trend, more and more films are being released in an \"Unrated\" cut of the film. Prior to when TV airings of the film begins, a format screen appears reading, \"\"The following film has been modified from its original version. It has been formatted to fit this screen, to run in the time allotted and edited for content\"\" (see below). The end credits on TV airings of films sometimes speed up to make time for the next show or film to start, or to free up more airtime for advertisements, which has become an increasingly-common practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "551856",
"title": "16:9 aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "DVD producers can also choose to show even wider ratios such as 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 within the 16:9 DVD frame by hard matting or adding black bars within the image itself. Some films which were made in a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, such as the U.S.-Italian co-production \"Man of La Mancha\" and Kenneth Branagh's \"Much Ado About Nothing\", fit quite comfortably onto a 1.7:1 HDTV screen and have been issued as an enhanced version on DVD without the black bars. Many digital video cameras have the capability to record in 16:9.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "952407",
"title": "Long take",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "A handful of theatrically released feature films, such as \"Timecode\" (2000), \"Russian Ark\" (2002), \"PVC-1\" (2007), and \"Victoria\" (2015) are filmed in one single take; others are composed entirely from a series of long takes, while many more may be well known for one or two specific long takes within otherwise more conventionally edited films. In 2012, the art collective The Hut Project produced \"The Look of Performance\", a digital film shot in a single 360° take lasting 3 hours, 33 minutes and 8 seconds. The film was shot at 50 frames per second, meaning the final exhibited work lasts 7 hours, 6 minutes and 17 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1904897",
"title": "Special edition",
"section": "Section::::Disc products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In many cases, successful film releases have had items made in limited numbers. These \"limited editions\" usually contain the best DVD edition possible of a film with special items in a box set, sometimes containing items available only in the limited edition. Items marked thus are often (but not always) released for a shorter time and in lower quantity than common editions, often with a running number (e.g. \"13055 of 20000\") printed on the products to boost the rarity feel, as the company implies not to manufacture more. It is also common to have such items packaged with unique designs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23506",
"title": "Pan and scan",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20:1, 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.55:1, and especially 2.76:1 (\"Ben-Hur\" for example) might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. But when the DVD is \"anamorphically enhanced for widescreen\", or the film is telecast on a high-definition channel seen on a widescreen TV, the black spaces are smaller, and the effect is still much like watching a film on a theatrical wide screen. Though 16:9 (and occasionally 16:10, mostly for computers and tablets) remain standard as of 2018, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21:9 have been released to the market by multiple brands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2021545",
"title": "Open matte",
"section": "Section::::Difference between Open Matte and Pan and Scan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "If footage with taller ratios were shot (digitally or on film), for example IMAX scenes for various films, then the screen real-estate is cropped in accordance to the deliverable ratio. This helps in preserving headroom and composition for the film beyond the theatrical release. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4oapyx
|
why does the us armed forces have an army, navy, marines, and coast guard, instead of just an army and navy.
|
[
{
"answer": "Coast guard is department of homeland security. It has a shit ton of missions... Search and rescue, aids to navigation, drug and migrant interdiction, waterways management, pollution response and prevention port security etc etc etc... The navy does their thing and the coast guard does theirs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Marines (mostly) separated from the Navy when they started to be used as shock troops, and first engagement troops on mainland more often. They still operate as guards and boarding party combatants on naval ships though which is their historic role and specialization. \n\nThe Coast Guard was formed because the military is not allowed to operate on US soil or territorial waters outside of emergency or invasion. They cannot legally function as police for our water borders. They also do not have the same equipments, the coast guard does not have war vessels or nukes. \n\nThe Air Force split from the Army after the importance of air power was determined to be growing. They specialize in air defense, long distance strikes, and our missile systems. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Back when they first started making militaries, there were two kinds of fighting people:\n\n* People who fought on land. When they got around to inventing the English Language, they called them *Armies*.\n\n* People who fought on water, from ships. We call them *Navies*.\n\nNow around the time of the American Revolutionary War (late 1770s), navies fought using wooden sailing ships with lots of cannons firing solid iron balls. These guns were pretty powerful, but they were pretty inaccurate unless you got really close, and unless you got really lucky and blew up the enemy's gunpowder magazine, they couldn't really do enough damage to sink another ship quickly. \n\nSo if you were willing to sail through cannonball fire for a little bit, it was possible to get close enough to the enemy ship to board it with your own men. However, most sailors were good at sailing, and not as good at shooting or hand-to-hand fighting, so they decided to create groups of soldiers who specifically trained to fight from ships. These are called *Marines*. \n\nSome countries kept them as part of their armies or navies, but in the US, they put them specifically under the authority of the Department of the Navy, and slowly over time they gained more and various responsibilities- Presidential guard, Embassy guard, etc. Also, because they were on Navy ships all the time, they were usually the first ground troops to show up when the government was trying to flex its power overseas, so they also started doing amphibious warfare (invading beaches from ships), which is their primary mission today.\n\nAround the same time, many countries saw a need for a nautical police force. Using the Navy for that was in most cases overkill; you want to enforce tariffs and catch criminals, not blow merchant ships out of the water. So *Coast Guards* started becoming a thing, tasked with seagoing law enforcement and search and rescue. In the US, it was put under the authority of the Department of Transportation in peactime, and the department of the Navy in wartime. (there was no Department of Defense then). Recently they've been put under the Department of Homeland Security.\n\nSo, finally, years later, airplanes were invented. Immediately all the armed forces saw a use for them; mainly spotting for big guns at first (Navy battleships and Army artillery), but later they started carrying guns and bombs and torpedoes and missiles. In some countries, they managed to create a separate *Air Force* right away (the UK did this with the RAF), but in the US, the Army and Navy each handled their own aviation, arguing (accurately enough) their needs were different. So it wasn't until after World War II that the Air Force was split off from the Army into a final branch. The Army still maintains its helicopters for transport and close air support, and the Navy argues that aircraft carrier operations are too different from the land flying that Air Force personnel are used to, so they each have their own aircraft. The Coast Guard needs aircraft for long-range search and rescue. And the Marines have their own aircraft because they're supposed to be a self-contained, independent and fast-moving fighting force once the Navy drops them on the beach.\n\nAs for why they haven't merged them back? Politics, money, and tradition. There have been several attempts made--the Air Force argued in the 50's that nuclear weapons made all surface forces obsolete; the Army has tried to absorb the Marines several times; the Air Force has tried to take the Navy's planes, etc. But it seems unlikely in the near future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "161323",
"title": "Military history of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "As of 2017, the U.S. Armed Forces consists of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Air Force, all under the command of the United States Department of Defense. There also is the United States Coast Guard, which is controlled by the Department of Homeland Security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8915967",
"title": "Maritime security operations",
"section": "Section::::Who.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Along with the U.S Coast Guard, the U.S Navy is also another branch if the Unites Stated Armed forces. Unlike the Coast Guard, the Navy is a projection of force in areas beyond the U.S shores. Their operations go beyond the shores; they provide aid to military out on the sea, carry troops to other countries, strategic plans for attacks and protect the sea lanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797334",
"title": "United States Department of the Navy",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Unlike its U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force counterparts, the Department of the Navy comprises two uniformed services: the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps (sometimes collectively called the \"naval services\" or \"sea services\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8915967",
"title": "Maritime security operations",
"section": "Section::::Who.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "There are two major naval forces that conduct such operations; the United States Coast Guard and the United States Navy. Although they both have very distinct jobs from one another, one of their major jobs is to be able to provide security operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147307",
"title": "Uniformed services of the United States",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Armed Forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Five of the uniformed services make up the U.S. Armed Forces, four of which are within the U.S. Department of Defense. The Coast Guard is part of the Department of Homeland Security and has both military and law enforcement duties. Title 14 states that the Coast Guard is part of the armed forces at all times, making it the only branch of the military outside the Department of Defense. During a declared state of war, however, the President or Congress may direct that the Coast Guard operate as part of the Department of the Navy. The U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, along with the NOAA Commissioned Corps, operate under military rules with the exception of the applicability of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, to which they are subject only when militarized by executive order or while detailed to any component of the armed forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4562278",
"title": "Virginia National Guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Many states also maintain their own military forces. These forces are federally recognized, but are separate from the United States National Guard Bureau and are not meant to be federalized, but rather service the state exclusively, especially when the National Guard is deployed and unavailable. The Virginia Defense Force is the commonwealth's own all-volunteer, formal military organization that is the reserve to the Virginia National Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21533",
"title": "Navy",
"section": "Section::::Naval infantry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "In the majority of countries, the marine force is an integral part of the navy. The United States Marine Corps is a separate armed service within the United States Department of the Navy, with its own leadership structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d0enst
|
What happens to bones when a big animal like a shark or an orca eats and swallows another whole animal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sharks have a digestive system that's designed to primarily digest meat and fat, so larger bones, chunks of sea turtle shells, things like that are usually vomited back out. \n\n\nAnd orcas have a three-chambered stomach, so the food takes more times to pass through, and gives the stomach acid more time to digest everything, including bone",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "196020",
"title": "Crocodilia",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and life history.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "Crocodilians are unable to chew and need to swallow food whole, so prey that is too large to swallow is torn into pieces. They may be unable to deal with a large animal with a thick hide, and may wait until it becomes putrid and comes apart more easily. To tear a chunk of tissue from a large carcass, a crocodilian spins its body continuously while holding on with its jaws, a manoeuvre known as the \"death roll\". During cooperative feeding, some individuals may hold on to the prey, while others perform the roll. The animals do not fight, and each retires with a piece of flesh and awaits its next feeding turn. Food is typically consumed by crocodilians with their heads above water. The food is held with the tips of the jaws, tossed towards the back of the mouth by an upward jerk of the head and then gulped down. Nile crocodiles may store carcasses underwater for later consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42194964",
"title": "Feeding behaviour of Tyrannosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Scavenging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1294,
"text": "BULLET::::- Tyrannosaur teeth could crush bone, and therefore could extract as much food (bone marrow) as possible from carcass remnants, usually the least nutritious parts. Karen Chin and colleagues have found bone fragments in coprolites (fossilized feces) that they attribute to tyrannosaurs, but point out that a tyrannosaur's teeth were not well adapted to systematically chewing bone like hyenas do to extract marrow. Gregory Paul also wrote that a bone-crushing bite would also have been advantageous to a predator; providing the extreme bite force to kill prey and later consume it efficiently. Other paleontologists would also find similarities between \"Tyrannosaurus\" teeth and those of other predators. Farlow and Holtz pointed out that like \"Tyrannosaurus\", orcas and crocodiles also had broad-based teeth. Holtz noted the similarities between \"Tyrannosaurus\" teeth and those of hyaenids, but further addeds that all hyaenids are known to kill prey, with the largest (\"Crocuta crocuta\") obtaining most of its food through this means. He also notes that hyaenids mainly crunch bone with their molars and premolars. Holtz also pointed out that felids also developed thickened teeth as adaptations to resist contact with bone during prey capture or dispatch as well as during feeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4371704",
"title": "Dinosaur Park Formation",
"section": "Section::::Dinosaurs.:Theropods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In the Dinosaur Park Formation, small theropods are rare due to the tendency of their thin-walled bones to be broken or poorly preserved. Small bones of small theropods that were preyed upon by larger ones may have been swallowed whole and digested. In this context, the discovery of a small theropod dinosaur with preserved tooth marks was especially valuable. Possible indeterminate avimimid and therizinosaurid remains are known from the formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21577543",
"title": "Trimerorhachis",
"section": "Section::::Paleobiology.:Brooding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Another possible explanation for the small bones is that they were originally located in the throat and were pushed into the pharyngeal pouch during fossilization. If this was the case, \"Trimerorhachis\" may have eaten its young instead of brooding them. This type of cannibalism is widespread in living amphibians, and most likely occurred among some prehistoric amphibians as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32557",
"title": "Vulture",
"section": "Section::::Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Vultures are scavengers, meaning they eat dead animals. They rarely attack healthy animals, but may kill the wounded or sick. When a carcass has too thick a hide for its beak to open, it waits for a larger scavenger to eat first. Vast numbers have been seen upon battlefields. They gorge themselves when prey is abundant, until their crops bulge, and sit, sleepy or half torpid, to digest their food. These birds do not carry food to their young in their talons but disgorge it from their crops. The mountain-dwelling bearded vulture is the only vertebrate to specialize in eating bones, and does carry bones to the nest for the young, and it hunts some live prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1932067",
"title": "Greenland shark",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Dentition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "When feeding on large carcasses, the shark employs a rolling motion of its jaw. The 48-52 teeth of the upper jaw are very thin and pointed, lacking serrations. These upper jaw teeth act as an anchor while the lower jaw proceeds to cut massive chunks out of their prey for a quick and easy kill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "Section::::Specialization.:Physical adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Predators including big cats, birds of prey, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. Some predators such as snakes and fish-eating birds like herons and cormorants swallow their prey whole; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish-eating birds have long spear-like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast-moving and slippery prey. Fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells of molluscs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e1txf4
|
how do hooves make animals better at climbing mountains?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mountain goats have special hooves that are like a pirate's hook with soft padding to help adjust. They suck at running long distance running but are great at scaling verticle surfaces because of this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From what I’ve read the two hooves in the front of each foot has a hard edge able to grip the rocks and a soft center pad. A sort of combo of a cats claw (gripping with sharp edge) and horse hoof (soft bottom for traction) the hooves can move independently to help it climb. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If climbing and you stand on a small edge (a bit of rock sticking out that's anything from a couple of inches wide down to a few millimetres), when you put weight on it in bare feet or trainers the sole will bend as its flaubert and your weight is distributed across the whole area, most of which is unsupported.\n\nClimbing shoes And, more relevant to hooves, mountaineering boots, have much more inflexible and solid soles. Mountaineering and walking boots even have a scale of hardness/inflexibility - b1 to b3 with b3 being totally inflexible. These allow you to put a tiny area of the boot on an edge and put your weight on it.\n\nHooves are the same as in they are far more solid and inflexible than eg paws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12773567",
"title": "Arboreal locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Climbing without trees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Many animals climb in other habitats, such as in rock piles or mountains, and in those habitats, many of the same principles apply due to inclines, narrow ledges, and balance issues. However, less research has been conducted on the specific demands of locomotion in these habitats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12773567",
"title": "Arboreal locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Climbing without trees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Perhaps the most exceptional of the animals that move on steep or even near vertical rock faces by careful balancing and leaping are the various types of mountain dwelling caprid such as the Barbary sheep, markhor, yak, ibex, tahr, rocky mountain goat, and chamois. Their adaptations may include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. The snow leopard, being a predator of such mountain caprids, also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities; being able to leap up to ≈17m (~50 ft). Other balancers and leapers include the mountain zebra, mountain tapir, and hyraxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619020",
"title": "Mountain goat",
"section": "Section::::General appearance and characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The mountain goat's feet are well-suited for climbing steep, rocky slopes with pitches exceeding 60°, with inner pads that provide traction and cloven hooves that can spread apart. The tips of their feet have sharp dewclaws that keep them from slipping. They have powerful shoulder and neck muscles that help propel them up steep slopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219151",
"title": "Highland cattle",
"section": "Section::::Breed characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Their skill in foraging for food allows them to survive in steep mountain areas where they both graze and eat plants that many other cattle avoid. They can dig through the snow with their horns to find buried plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1132756",
"title": "Animal locomotion",
"section": "Section::::Terrestrial.:Brachiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such climbing animals is in trees, for example the gibbon is specialized for arboreal movement, traveling rapidly by brachiation. Another case is animals like the snow leopard living on steep rock faces such as are found in mountains. Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by adhesion using suckers. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as geckos can also perform similar feats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79522",
"title": "Himalayan tahr",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "As a member of the ungulate group of mammals, the Himalayan tahr possesses an even number of toes. They have adapted the unique ability to grasp both smooth and rough surfaces that are typical of the mountainous terrain on which they reside. This useful characteristic also helps their mobility. The hooves of the tahr have a rubber-like core which allows for gripping smooth rocks while keratin at the rim of their hooves allow increased hoof durability, which is important for traversing the rocky ground. This adaptation allows for confident and swift maneuvering of the terrain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427445",
"title": "Hoof",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Hooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but captive domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness. If not worn down enough by use, such as in the dairy industry, hooves may need to be trimmed by a farrier. However, too much wear can result in damage of the hooves, and for this reason, horseshoes and oxshoes are used by animals that routinely walk on hard surfaces and carry heavy weight. Within the equine world, the expression, \"no foot, no horse\" emphasizes the importance of hoof health. Lameness, behind infertility and mastitis, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gbpm4
|
Would phlegm be digested if swallowed?
|
[
{
"answer": "The mucous is digested further down in the gut by enzymes in the small bowel and bacteria in the large bowel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53223464",
"title": "Pharyngeal aspiration",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Pharyngeal aspiration is often performed on mice and rats. Prior to introduction of the stubstance, the animal is anesthetized and its tongue extended, preventing the animal from swallowing the material and allowing it to be aspirated into the lungs over the course of at least two deep breaths. A liquid suspension of particles in saline solution is usually used, in a typical volume of 50 μL. Sometimes the substance is introduced into the larynx instead of the pharynx to avoid contamination from food particles and other contaminants present in the mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5004226",
"title": "Globus pharyngis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Globus pharyngis is the persistent sensation of having phlegm, a pill or some other sort of obstruction in the throat when there is none. Swallowing can be performed normally, so it is not a true case of dysphagia, but it can become quite irritating. One may also feel mild chest pain or even severe pain with a clicking sensation when swallowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227167",
"title": "Dementia with Lewy bodies",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Supportive features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "From chewing to defecation, alpha-synuclein deposits affect every level of gastrointestinal function. Almost all persons with DLB have upper gastrointestinal tract dysfunction (such as delayed gastric emptying) or lower gastrointestinal dysfunction (such as constipation and prolonged stool transit time). Persons with Lewy body dementias almost universally experience nausea, gastric retention, or abdominal distention from delayed gastric emptying. Constipation can present a decade before diagnosis. Difficulty swallowing is milder than in other synucleinopathies, and presents later in the course of the disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196983",
"title": "Swallowing",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Phases.:Esophageal phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Like the pharyngeal phase of swallowing, the esophageal phase of swallowing is under involuntary neuromuscular control. However, propagation of the food bolus is significantly slower than in the pharynx. The bolus enters the esophagus and is propelled downwards first by striated muscle (recurrent laryngeal, X) then by the smooth muscle (X) at a rate of 3–5 cm/s. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes to let food pass, after which various striated constrictor muscles of the pharynx as well as peristalsis and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter sequentially push the bolus of food through the esophagus into the stomach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3101567",
"title": "Salpingopharyngeus muscle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The salpingopharyngeus is known to raise the pharynx and larynx during deglutition (swallowing) and laterally draws the pharyngeal walls up. In addition, it opens the pharyngeal orifice of the pharyngotympanic tube during swallowing. This allows for the equalization of pressure between the auditory canal and the pharynx. As the salpingopharyngeus is used to open the eustachian tubes to equalize pressure in the middle ear, the muscle can easily be stimulated by swallowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5071078",
"title": "Respiratory epithelium",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Certain parts of the respiratory tract, such as the oropharynx, are also subject to the abrasive swallowing of food. To prevent the destruction of the respiratory epithelium in these areas, it changes to stratified squamous epithelium, which is better suited to the constant sloughing and abrasion. The squamous layer of the oropharynx is continuous with the esophagus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206508",
"title": "Phagocytosis",
"section": "Section::::In protists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition which takes place by absorption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8k7ok2
|
Have there been periods of greater or lesser volcanic activity on earth, and if so, what causes this variation?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the past there have been more volcanic activities since the Earth was much hotter after accretion. The whole surface would have been a barely cooled crust covered in volcanic pustules. \n\nIt was much hotter and we have evidence of it from komatiiates which only form at higher temperatures than we see today (1). \n\nSo during the early Earth was more volcanically active but different from the volcanoes we see today. \n\nAnother thing that continues to influence volcanic activity is thought to be glacier cover. The increased pressure on the volcano from meters worth of ice can depress eruptions (2). \n\nReferences: \n1. _URL_0_\n\n2. _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, with important implications for both global tectonics and the climate system. To talk about volcanism, let's start with heat, seeing as that's what drives it all. \n\n\nAssuming that the composition of the bulk Earth is similar to that of chondritic meteorites (a standard assumption, though geochemists like to argue over the finer details), exponential decay of the heat producing isotopes of potassium, uranium and thorium suggests that total heat production was significantly greater in the early Earth. \n\n\nThe greatest uncertainties are the contribution of ⁴⁰K, because some potassium may have been lost at the time of Moon formation and the amount of heat retained from that event, as well as from initial accretion and core formation. These factors all contribute to estimating the variation of heat flow over geological time. Another important factor is the occasional contribution of heat by very high-powered impacts in the past, the largest such extraterrestrial heat delivery having been between 4100 and 3800 million years ago (the late heavy bombardment).\n\n\nDespite the difficulties in quantifying all of the above, estimates put the Earth's early heat flow between 10 and 4 times greater than at present when the first continental rocks formed 4000 Ma ago and at the end of the Archean (2500 Ma) respectively. \n\n\nArchean lavas erupted at unusually high temperatures by today's standards then, promoting a larger degree of partial melt and thus a larger volume overall. This is the time during which the 'cratons' formed - the stable interiors of the continents, which are thought to have grown rather rapidly compared to the sluggish production of continental crust today. \n\n\nBut the Archaen overall spans 2.5 billion years. If you're looking for something a bit more localised in time, then we should talk about flood basalts. \n\nAccumulations of lava flows with basaltic composition cover large parts of the Earth. Some of the statistics are impressive: India’s 66 million year old Deccan Traps cover 0.5 million km² and may have covered 1.5 million km² when first erupted. They have an average thickness of at least one kilometre. Most of their huge volume may have been erupted in less than 0.5 million years (although this is controversial) and they may consist of many hundreds of individual lava flows. On erosion, they acquire a distinctive topography resembling [flights of steps.](_URL_0_)\n\n\nIn northwestern USA, the Columbia River Province consists of 240,000 km³ of flood basalts erupted between 17 and 12 million years ago, in individual flows 20–50 m thick, covering an area of more than 200,000 km². Approximately 90% of the total volume of the province might have been erupted during a period of less than 1.5 million years between 16.5 and 15 million years ago. Work on individual eruptive units of basalt lava in the Columbia River Province has shown that > 1000 km³ could have been erupted in continuous, individual eruptions lasting a decade or longer. \n\n\nAt any given time in Earth history, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the result of the balance of fluxes between sources and sinks in the carbon cycle. If the average global flux of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from volcanoes should increase for some reason, and if that increased flux is sustained, then the carbon cycle will settle into a new equilibrium with a warmer climate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, we have some pretty good answers. If you want a discussion on glaciers and impact volcanoes post another question! It is a relatively new avenue of research.\n\nAs others have mentioned the Earth (internally) was hotter in the past and hence was more active volcanically. \n\nThe rest is a little harder to piece together. There is evidence for a series of mantle plumes shortly after Pangea broke up, deccan traps, Yellowstone hot spot, Hawaiian-emperor hotspot, Icelandic hot spot to name a few. The new oceanic crust displaced sea water on to the continents creating epeiric seas. It was definitely a time of more volcanic activity. \n\nI have not studied this directly but one theory is the super continent Pangea acted as an insulator causing heat anomalies beneath it which helped to bring about these mantle plumes. All are a similar in age. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23092516",
"title": "Atmospheric methane",
"section": "Section::::Trends in methane levels over time.:Global trends in methane levels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The 1991 spike is understood to be due to the volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June of that year. Volcanoes affect atmospheric methane emissions when they erupt, releasing ash and sulfur dioxide into the air. As a result, photochemistry of plants is affected and the removal of methane via the tropospheric hydroxyl radical is reduced. However, growth rates quickly fell due to lower temperatures and global reduction in rainfall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25498415",
"title": "Volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province",
"section": "Section::::Production and rates in volcanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1955,
"text": "There is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the past few million years. This decline in volcanic activity can be grouped into two phases. From eight to four million years ago, volcanism rates were higher than they are at present. Magma production during this volcanic phase was most active from seven to five million years ago and was related to a period of rifting along the Pacific and North American Plate boundary. Between four and three million years ago in the Pliocene epoch, a pause in volcanic activity began to happen. The most recent magmatic phase ranging from two million years ago to present resulted from nearby areas of rifting during a period of compression between the Pacific and North American plates. Volcanism rates during this volcanic phase was most active from two to one million years ago with the construction of 25 volcanic zones then decreased one million years ago with the construction of 11 volcanic zones. To date, the most recent volcanic phase has produced of volcanic material whereas the first phase produced of volcanic material. Even though the rate in volcanism throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has changed considerably, there is no correlation between the rate in magma production and the number of active volcanoes during any interval of time. The present day volcanism rate for the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is considerably lower than the Cascade Volcanic Arc and Hawaiian volcanism rates. However, geologists are aware the temporal volcanic patterns known for the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province should be looked at carefully because volcanics that pre-date the last glacial period have been eroded by glacial ice and many of the volcanics have not been directly dated or have not been dated in significant detail to identify more individual temporal patterns. Lava fountains can occur in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province roughly every 100 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61390261",
"title": "Lunar Crater volcanic field",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The volcanic field has formed on top of older, Oligocene to Miocene age volcanic rocks and calderas, but its own activity commenced only about 6 million years ago. The reasons for volcanism there are not well known. The volcanic field has produced various types of basaltic magma and also trachyte; the most recent eruption was about 38,000 years ago and renewed activity is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6854422",
"title": "Nemo Peak",
"section": "Section::::Eruptive history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Holocene volcanic activity includes the emission of tephra and lava flows with eruptions every 1,400 - 1,200 years since 3,800 years before present. The growth of a lava dome over the last 600 years was accompanied by phreatic activity. Tephrochronology suggests the occurrence of eruptions 1,350, 750 AD, 550 ± 100 BC, 1,850 BC, 3,050 BC, 5,550 BC, 7,050 BC and 7,550 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28377",
"title": "Santorini",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:Volcanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Over the past 360,000 years there have been two major cycles, each culminating with two caldera-forming eruptions. The cycles end when the magma evolves to a rhyolitic composition, causing the most explosive eruptions. In between the caldera-forming eruptions are a series of sub-cycles. Lava flows and small explosive eruptions build up cones, which are thought to impede the flow of magma to the surface. This allows the formation of large magma chambers, in which the magma can evolve to more silicic compositions. Once this happens, a large explosive eruption destroys the cone. The Kameni islands in the centre of the lagoon are the most recent example of a cone built by this volcano, with much of them hidden beneath the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15265796",
"title": "Volcanology of New Zealand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "While the land's volcanic history dates back to before the Zealandia microcontinent rifted away from Gondwana 60–130 million years ago, activity continues today with minor eruptions occurring every few years. This recent activity is primarily due to the country's position on the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific Plates, a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, and particularly the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Indo-Australian Plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28287537",
"title": "List of largest volcanic eruptions",
"section": "Section::::Large igneous provinces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "Highly active periods of volcanism in what are called large igneous provinces have produced huge oceanic plateaus and flood basalts in the past. These can comprise hundreds of large eruptions, producing millions of cubic kilometers of lava in total. No large eruptions of flood basalts have occurred in human history, the most recent having occurred over 10 million years ago. They are often associated with breakup of supercontinents such as Pangea in the geologic record, and may have contributed to a number of mass extinctions. Most large igneous provinces have either not been studied thoroughly enough to establish the size of their component eruptions, or are not preserved well enough to make this possible. Many of the eruptions listed above thus come from just two large igneous provinces: the Paraná and Etendeka traps and the Columbia River Basalt Group. The latter is the most recent large igneous province, and also one of the smallest. A list of large igneous provinces follows to provide some indication of how many large eruptions may be missing from the lists given here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3vf6ts
|
Have there ever been memes similar to the modern memes?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Kilroy was here\" is the only thing I can remember. Basically, during ww2 American soldiers would leave these marks on beaches they stormed, places they visited, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7929246",
"title": "The Meme Machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The idea of memes, and the word itself, were originally speculated by Richard Dawkins in his book \"The Selfish Gene\" although similar, or analogous, concepts had been in currency for a while before its publishing. Richard Dawkins wrote a foreword to \"The Meme Machine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938059",
"title": "Keith Henson",
"section": "Section::::Memetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Richard Dawkins, who originated the concept of memes, approvingly cites in the second edition of his book \"The Selfish Gene\" Henson's coining of the neologism \"memeoids\" to refer to \"victims who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that their own survival becomes inconsequential.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671343",
"title": "Criticism of religion",
"section": "Section::::Origin and function of religion.:Viruses of the mind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "In his 1976 book \"The Selfish Gene\", Richard Dawkins coined the term memes to describe informational units that can be transmitted culturally, analogous to genes. He later used this concept in the essay \"Viruses of the Mind\" to explain the persistence of religious ideas in human culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40505955",
"title": "Viral phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::History of terminology.:Meme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Richard Dawkins coined the term \"meme\" in his 1976 book \"The Selfish Gene\". As conceived by Dawkins, a meme is a unit of cultural meaning, such as an idea or a value, that is passed from one generation to another. When asked to assess this comparison, Lauren Ancel Meyers, a biology professor at the University of Texas, states that \"memes spread through online social networks similarly to the way diseases do through offline populations\". This dispersion of cultural movements is shown through the spread of memes online, especially when seemingly innocuous or trivial trends spread and die in rapid fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19770",
"title": "Memetics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Maturity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Susan Blackmore (2002) re-stated the definition of meme as: whatever is copied from one person to another person, whether habits, skills, songs, stories, or any other kind of information. Further she said that memes, like genes, are replicators in the sense as defined by Dawkins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6613536",
"title": "Animal culture",
"section": "Section::::What is culture?:Memes and cultural transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "Richard Dawkins argues for the existence of a \"unit of cultural transmission\" called a meme. This concept of memes has become much more accepted as more extensive research has been done into cultural behaviors. Much as one can inherit genes from each parent, it is suggested that individuals acquire memes through imitating what they observe around them. The more relevant actions (actions that increase ones probability of survival), such as architecture and craftwork are more likely to become prevalent, enabling a culture to form. The idea of memes as following a form of Natural Selection was first presented by Daniel Dennett. It has also been argued by Dennett that memes are responsible for the entirety of human consciousness. He claims that everything that constitutes humanity, such as language and music is a result of memes and the unflinching hold they have on our thought processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19770",
"title": "Memetics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "The term meme was coined in Richard Dawkins' 1976 book \"The Selfish Gene,\" but Dawkins later distanced himself from the resulting field of study. Analogous to a gene, the meme was conceived as a \"unit of culture\" (an idea, belief, pattern of behaviour, etc.) which is \"hosted\" in the minds of one or more individuals, and which can reproduce itself in the sense of jumping from the mind of one person to the mind of another. Thus what would otherwise be regarded as one individual influencing another to adopt a belief is seen as an idea-replicator reproducing itself in a new host. As with genetics, particularly under a Dawkinsian interpretation, a meme's success may be due to its contribution to the effectiveness of its host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jzy0n
|
nuclear arms race
|
[
{
"answer": "they dont just stockpile the same type of nuke, with time other nations can come up with newer and better delivery methods that cant be stopped or intercepted or your older nukes become incapable of delivering/entering the target area so they make more nukes with better technology.\n\nsometimes they upgrade previous systems , other times its complete new systems.\n\nsince those weapons dont ever get used they stock pile into the thousands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > So if X amount of nuclear weapons are enough to completely wipe a country off the map, then what changes if you get more? Nothing, right? It's redundant?\n\nRedundancy is important. The goal of a theoretical \"first strike\" is to knock out the capability of your opponent to return fire. This means a lot of nuclear weapons are targeting the launch silos of other nuclear weapons. More nuclear weapons then makes it harder for an enemy to reduce your weaponry below the threshold of acceptable losses. If you only have precisely enough weapons to destroy an enemy then anything they can destroy before they reach their target is a reduced impact, but overkill means it doesn't matter.\n\nAlso, what if a nuclear war breaks out and you \"win\"? Now all your nukes are expended and you are defenseless! There *are* other nuclear powers out there you know. You want enough nukes to destroy your enemy even if you lose a portion to unknown defenses or surprise first strikes, plus enough to protect yourself after a conflict presuming you succeed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "585704",
"title": "Nuclear arms race",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The nuclear arms race was an arms race competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36905809",
"title": "East vs. West – A Hearts of Iron Game",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- Nuclear arms race and warfare is expanded by a nuclear mapmode, uranium as a resource, factories (centrifuges) to produce enriched fission material, ICBMs that can be launched from silos, nuclear submarines, and a red button.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2078286",
"title": "Second strike",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In nuclear strategy, a second-strike capability is a country's assured ability to respond to a nuclear attack with powerful nuclear retaliation against the attacker. To have such an ability (and to convince an opponent of its viability) is considered vital in nuclear deterrence, as otherwise the other side might attempt to try to win a nuclear war in one massive first strike against its opponent's own nuclear forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2078286",
"title": "Second strike",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The crucial goal in maintaining second-strike capabilities is preventing first-strike attacks from taking out a nation's nuclear arsenal. In this manner, a country can carry out nuclear retaliation even after absorbing a nuclear attack. The United States and other countries have diversified their nuclear arsenals through the nuclear triad in order to better ensure second-strike capability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576546",
"title": "Richard Rhodes",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "In 2007, Rhodes published \"Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race\", a chronicle of the arms buildups during the Cold War, especially focusing on Mikhail Gorbachev and the Reagan administration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11881506",
"title": "Geoffrey Thomas (academic)",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- Frank Barnaby and Geoffrey Thomas, eds, \"The nuclear arms race — control or catastrophe?: proceedings of the General Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1981\" (London: Pinter, 1982).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7362323",
"title": "First strike (disambiguation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "In nuclear strategy, first strike capability is a country's ability to defeat another nuclear power by destroying its arsenal to the point where the attacking country can survive the weakened retaliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
utknx
|
Can any scientists comment on the debate in /r/science regarding a new Alzheimer's vaccine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Based on the abstract (for some reason my institution doesn't have access to the full paper) of the [Lancet Neurology paper](_URL_2_), I'm not too impressed. This was an extremely preliminary study establishing the side effect profile, as well as determining whether the vaccine actually induces an antibody response. According the abstract, they didn't even look at efficacy in their outcomes. Their overall conclusion was that 1) this vaccine does induce some sort of immune response and 2) it doesn't seem to have serious adverse effects. They listed \"Immune response, cognitive and functional assessments\" as one of their secondary outcomes on their [_URL_1_ page](_URL_0_), but don't report on it in the abstract.\n\nAs this was merely a phase I trial, the n is also very small (58 total). I think it's quite a number of steps from anything clinically useful.\n\nedited to add: the principle that they're working with is inducing antibodies against the Aβ-amyloid. I'm not convinced that this would actually be effective. Aβ-amyloid makes up the 'senile plaques' that is so characteristic, but I don't think it's very indicative of cognitive defects. I think the tau proteins (that make up the neurofibrillary tangles) are much more prognostic. I'm also not convinced that an antibody response against these plaques would be helpful, since they would have to penetrate the blood-brain barrier to reach the amyloid. Once there, it's not like the antibodies magically make them go away, since there would still need to be some mechanism of clearing them (possibly via microglia). So I guess my point is that this is an important step towards eventually possibly developing a vaccine or treatment, but there's so much that we don't know yet that it's hard to see it happening in the near future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55605044",
"title": "Ali Rezai (neurosurgeon)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alzheimer's Disease: West Virginia University's Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute has been chosen as the first site in the world to participate in phase II of a new clinical trial using ultrasound technology to help reverse the effects of Alzheimer's disease, and allow doctors access to parts of the brain affected by it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7401589",
"title": "Alzheimer Society of Ontario",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "BULLET::::- Toronto Star, June 13, 2006 - New drug offers hope against Alzheimer's - AZD-103 found by U of T researchers Shown to reverse some damage from disease Part of a research study which is a collaboration between the University of Toronto and the Alzheimer Society of Ontario, funded by both federal and provincial research organizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326913",
"title": "Maria Shriver",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Media career and advocacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Shriver executive-produced \"The Alzheimer's Project\", a four-part documentary series that premiered on HBO in May 2009 and later earned two Emmy Awards. It was described by the \"Los Angeles Times\" as \"ambitious, disturbing, emotionally fraught and carefully optimistic\". The series took a close look at cutting-edge research being done in the country's leading Alzheimer's laboratories. The documentary also examined the effects of this disease on patients and families. One of the Emmy Award-winning films, \"Grandpa, Do you Know Who I Am?\" is based on Shriver's best-selling children's book dealing with Alzheimer's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47717504",
"title": "Alzheimer's research in Australia",
"section": "Section::::McCusker Alzheimer's Research Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The foundation is currently researching and testing on various possible cures of the Alzheimer's. Tests are being conducted on diabetes drugs, turmeric, testosterone and omega 3 (being tested to prevent the beta amyloid).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41126452",
"title": "Foundation for the National Institutes of Health",
"section": "Section::::Research Programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI): The FNIH helps manage the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), a public-private partnership that has profoundly influenced the understanding of Alzheimer's disease by identifying and validating biological markers that indicate its onset and progression. The study tracks volunteers at clinical sites with normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease to create a widely-available database of imaging, biochemical and genetic data, which can lay the groundwork for Alzheimer's discoveries. By standardizing technologies and protocols, the study has improved clinical trial design and the understanding of the disease and its progression. Furthermore, ADNI's open-access data policy continues to be a model of successful data sharing in a pre-competitive environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31329785",
"title": "Chang Yi Wang",
"section": "Section::::Selected scientific publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "24. Wang CY. “Peptide vaccine for prevention and immunotherapy of dementia of the Alzheimer’s type” US Patent 9,102,752 (2015), US Patent Application 14/824,075 (2015), and WO Patent Application PCT/US13/37865 (2013).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58041220",
"title": "Christopher H. van Dyck",
"section": "Section::::Alzheimer’s disease research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "van Dyck and the Yale ADRU have tested potential Alzheimer’s therapeutics for over 20 years. They have contributed to the successful development of memantine now in use for the treatment of mid-late stage Alzheimer’s Disease, and assess potential new therapeutic strategies, e.g. antibodies that reduce amyloid pathology such as Crenezumab, and based on the work of Dr. Stephen Strittmatter, an inhibitor of fyn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s9e2l
|
how are people/groups of people legally allowed to place "bounties" on others?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're not \"bounties\" like in the Boba Fett sense. They're rewards to turn over information which would lead to arrest/prosecution. Boba Fett bounties (\"Capture and/or kill this person\") are illegal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38504838",
"title": "Vertrokken onbekend waarheen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The reasons may include neglect, but also tax evasion and/or avoiding arrest for a crime. The downside for the person is that he cannot get benefits such as (for a Dutch person) getting a passport, and for anyone still living in the country, being allowed to work and to send his children to school, getting social security, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32642",
"title": "Viz (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Other content.:Top Tips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "A more recent trend is for sarcastic tips to be offered that are observations by the readers regarding other people's behaviour, such as a barmaid who suggests male public house customers who are \"trying to get into a barmaid's knickers\" should \"pull back your tenner just as she reaches to take it when paying for a round. It really turns us on\". In a similar vein, one reader suggested \"Old people – are you worried that people in a hurry might be able to get past you on the pavement? Why not try stumbling aimlessly from side to side? That should stop them\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "423330",
"title": "Mega-City One",
"section": "Section::::Civilian population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "The citizens occupy their time with many strange and outright bizarre hobbies, such as simping (recreational stupidity), bat gliding, sky surfing and peeping (spying on people at home and in public), which is illegal when done for voyeuristic purposes, but legal when done under the authority of a Judge. If any of these ever get out of hand, and there is no legal justification for banning, the Judges simply impose a heavy tax on them, restricting them to only the few very wealthy citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2513627",
"title": "The Neanderthal Parallax",
"section": "Section::::Barast society.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Occasionally, a Barast may voluntarily remove themselves from society in order to continue work that has been deemed not meaningful or to protest when work is purposefully stopped as dangerous. This individual would move away from the community to an isolated area, and would thereafter support themselves. They would not be able to generally ask for assistance from the greater community, and would also in some cases remove their Alibi Archive implant as protest (so their life after leaving the community would not be recorded) or have it removed involuntarily (to prevent any further recording regarding dangerous work). This isolation is voluntary, and they can have visitors or opt to return to the community at any time, although returning requires that they resume providing a meaningful contribution (and cease any dangerous work, if that was the reason for leaving).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53752126",
"title": "Matilda Bickers",
"section": "Section::::Activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Bickers continues to be active in working on legislation to protect the human rights of vulnerable people and exploited workers, focusing on lobbying in the 2019 legislative session for protective legislation including: making it illegal for law enforcement to have sex with workers before arresting them; allowing workers to work together or share a space for safety reasons without being vulnerable to charges of trafficking or exploiting each other; and allowing full service sex workers to report assault without their jobs being used as evidence to prosecute them while their assaults are ignored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44426126",
"title": "Victim surcharge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "In the legal system of England and Wales, the victim surcharge is a penalty applied to people convicted of offences, in addition to a conditional discharge, a fine, or a community or custodial sentence, in order to provide compensation for the victims of crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52731546",
"title": "Guilt-Shame-Fear spectrum of cultures",
"section": "Section::::Geographical distribution.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4306vm
|
lots of people barely eat vegetables and never take multivitamins, and still seem to be in good health. how is the daily recommended amount of micronutrients calculated, and why do people seem just fine even if they don't get it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pretty much everyone in a developed country gets enough nutrients to stay reasonably healthy unless they are on some kind of super restrictive diet.\n\nThe RDA's are *very* conservative and you have to be *very* deficient for a long time before you'll start seeing serious health effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One big thing is that we have a lot of vitamin enriched foods. Rice, pasta, flour & bread - pretty much anything coming from grains - are almost always fortified with nutrients. Milk is widely fortified with vitamins A & D.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Holy fucking shit. Great minds think alike. Dude I was just gonna ask this same question TODAY I kid you not. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "622759",
"title": "Multivitamin",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Expert bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "According to the Harvard School of Public Health: \"...many people don’t eat the healthiest of diets. That’s why a multivitamin can help fill in the gaps, and may have added health benefits.\" The U.S. Office of Dietary Supplements, a branch of the National Institutes of Health, suggests that multivitamin supplements might be helpful for some people with specific health problems (for example, macular degeneration). However, the Office concluded that \"most research shows that healthy people who take an MVM [multivitamin] do not have a lower chance of diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, or diabetes. Based on current research, it's not possible to recommend for or against the use of MVMs to stay healthier longer.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "104444",
"title": "Dietary supplement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Creating an industry estimated to have a 2015 value of $37 billion, there are more than 50,000 dietary supplement products marketed just in the United States, where about 50% of the American adult population consumes dietary supplements. Multivitamins are the most commonly used product. For those who fail to consume a balanced diet, the United States National Institutes of Health states that certain supplements \"may have value.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26229",
"title": "Riboflavin",
"section": "Section::::Deficiency.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Treatment involves a diet which includes an adequate amount of riboflavin containing foods. Multi-vitamin and mineral dietary supplements often contain 100% of the Daily Value (1.3 mg) for riboflavin, and can be used by persons concerned about an inadequate diet. Over-the-counter dietary supplements are available in the United States with doses as high as 100 mg, but there is no evidence that these high doses have any additional benefit for healthy people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622759",
"title": "Multivitamin",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "In the 1999–2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 52% of adults in the United States reported taking at least one dietary supplement in the last month and 35% reported regular use of multivitamin-multimineral supplements. Women versus men, older adults versus younger adults, non-Hispanic whites versus non-Hispanic blacks, and those with higher education levels versus lower education levels (among other categories) were more likely to take multivitamins. Individuals who use dietary supplements (including multivitamins) generally report higher dietary nutrient intakes and healthier diets. Additionally, adults with a history of prostate and breast cancers were more likely to use dietary and multivitamin supplements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622759",
"title": "Multivitamin",
"section": "Section::::Products and components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Some nutrients, such as calcium and magnesium, are rarely included at 100% of the recommended allowance because the pill would become too large. Most multivitamins come in capsule form; tablets, powders, liquids, and injectable formulations also exist. In the U.S., the FDA requires any product marketed as a \"multivitamin\" to contain at least three vitamins and minerals; furthermore, the dosages must be below a \"tolerable upper limit\", and a multivitamin may not include herbs, hormones, or drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155650",
"title": "Fluoride",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Ingestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Dietary Reference Intakes, which is the \"highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects\" specify 10 mg/day for most people, corresponding to 10 L of fluoridated water with no risk. For infants and young children the values are smaller, ranging from 0.7 mg/d for infants to 2.2 mg/d. Water and food sources of fluoride include community water fluoridation, seafood, tea, and gelatin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327995",
"title": "Orthomolecular medicine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Some vitamins in large doses have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, of cancer and of death. The scientific consensus view is that for normal individuals, a balanced diet contains all necessary vitamins and minerals, and that routine supplementation is not necessary absent specific diagnosed deficiencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dkmtri
|
If gravitons exist, then is it possible for anti-gravitons to exist and would that mean that the matter they interact with will gain negative gravity?
|
[
{
"answer": "The graviton would be its own antiparticle in the same way that the photon is also its own antiparticle. No negative gravity needed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12100",
"title": "Graviton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "If it exists, the graviton is expected to be massless because the gravitational force is very long range and appears to propagate at the speed of light. The graviton must be a spin-2 boson because the source of gravitation is the stress–energy tensor, a second-order tensor (compared with electromagnetism's spin-1 photon, the source of which is the four-current, a first-order tensor). Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field would couple to the stress–energy tensor in the same way that gravitational interactions do. This result suggests that, if a massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1191031",
"title": "Graviphoton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "In gravity theories with extended supersymmetry (extended supergravities), a graviphoton is normally a superpartner of the graviton that behaves like a photon, and is prone to couple with gravitational strength, as was appreciated in the late 1970s. Unlike the graviton, however, it may provide a \"repulsive\" (as well as an attractive) force, and thus, in some technical sense, a type of anti-gravity. Under special circumstances, then, in several natural models, often descending from five-dimensional theories mentioned, it may actually cancel the gravitational attraction in the static limit. Joël Scherk investigated semirealistic aspects of this phenomenon, thereby opening up an ongoing search for physical manifestations of the mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385334",
"title": "List of particles",
"section": "Section::::Elementary particles.:Bosons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The graviton, listed separately above, is a hypothetical particle that has been included in some extensions to the standard model to mediate the gravitational force. It is in a peculiar category between known and hypothetical particles: As an unobserved particle that is not predicted by, nor required for the Standard Model, it belongs in the table of hypothetical particles, below. But gravitational force itself is a certainty, and expressing that known force in the framework of a quantum field theory requires a boson to mediate it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Properties and behaviour.:Quantum gravity, wave-particle aspects, and graviton.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "In the framework of quantum field theory, the graviton is the name given to a hypothetical elementary particle speculated to be the force carrier that mediates gravity. However the graviton is not yet proven to exist, and no scientific model yet exists that successfully reconciles general relativity, which describes gravity, and the Standard Model, which describes all other fundamental forces. Attempts, such as quantum gravity, have been made, but are not yet accepted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12100",
"title": "Graviton",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties and outstanding issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Most theories containing gravitons suffer from severe problems. Attempts to extend the Standard Model or other quantum field theories by adding gravitons run into serious theoretical difficulties at energies close to or above the Planck scale. This is because of infinities arising due to quantum effects; technically, gravitation is not renormalizable. Since classical general relativity and quantum mechanics seem to be incompatible at such energies, from a theoretical point of view, this situation is not tenable. One possible solution is to replace particles with strings. String theories are quantum theories of gravity in the sense that they reduce to classical general relativity plus field theory at low energies, but are fully quantum mechanical, contain a graviton, and are thought to be mathematically consistent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3404684",
"title": "Gravitational interaction of antimatter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In addition to uncertainty regarding whether antimatter is gravitationally attracted or repulsed from other matter, it is also unknown whether the magnitude of the gravitational force is the same. Difficulties in creating quantum gravity theories have led to the idea that antimatter may react with a slightly different magnitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12100",
"title": "Graviton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In theories of quantum gravity, the graviton is the hypothetical quantum of gravity, an elementary particle that mediates the force of gravity. There is no complete quantum field theory of gravitons due to an outstanding mathematical problem with renormalization in general relativity. In string theory, believed to be a consistent theory of quantum gravity, the graviton is a massless state of a fundamental string.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rbr9i
|
How does a globe storm glass barometer work?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is open to the atmosphere! That glass pipe off to the side is open, and when the air pressure increases it pushes down on the fluid in the pipe. Through the wonderful nature of hydraulics, the water in the globe then rises. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Water-based barometers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The weather ball barometer consists of a glass container with a sealed body, half filled with water. A narrow spout connects to the body below the water level and rises above the water level. The narrow spout is open to the atmosphere. When the air pressure is lower than it was at the time the body was sealed, the water level in the spout will rise above the water level in the body; when the air pressure is higher, the water level in the spout will drop below the water level in the body. A variation of this type of barometer can be easily made at home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1388325",
"title": "Watch glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "A watch glass is a circular concave piece of glass used in chemistry as a surface to evaporate a liquid, to hold solids while being weighed, for heating a small amount of substance and as a cover for a beaker. The latter use is generally applied to prevent dust or other particles entering the beaker; the watch glass does not completely seal the beaker, so gas exchanges still occur. When used as an evaporation surface, a watch glass allows closer observation of precipitates or crystallization, and can be placed on a surface of contrasting color to improve the visibility overall. Watch glasses are also sometimes used to cover a glass of whisky, to concentrate the aromas in the glass, and to prevent spills when the whisky is swirled. Watch glasses are named so because they are similar to the glass used for the front of old-fashioned pocket watches. In reference to this, large watch glasses are occasionally known as clock glasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27973000",
"title": "Paul DeMarinis",
"section": "Section::::Selected artworks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "BULLET::::- Helmholtz (DUO) (2015) large glass spheres act as sound resonators for low frequency noises, and various sized flames and rotating mirrors are used to show the visualization of the vibrations. There is a relationship in this piece between the histories of acoustic psychology and the physics of sound, with influence from the manometric flame apparatus and Helmholtz resonators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Aneroid barometers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "An aneroid barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. This type of barometer is common in homes and in recreational boats. It is also used in meteorology, mostly in barographs and as a pressure instrument in radiosondes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "Section::::Compensations.:Altitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Aneroid barometers have a mechanical adjustment that allows the equivalent sea level pressure to be read directly and without further adjustment if the instrument is not moved to a different altitude. Setting an aneroid barometer is similar to resetting an analog clock that is not at the correct time. Its dial is rotated so that the current atmospheric pressure from a known accurate and nearby barometer (such as the local weather station) is displayed. No calculation is needed, as the source barometer reading has already been converted to equivalent sea-level pressure, and this is transferred to the barometer being set—regardless of its altitude. Though somewhat rare, a few aneroid barometers intended for monitoring the weather are calibrated to manually adjust for altitude. In this case, knowing \"either\" the altitude or the current atmospheric pressure would be sufficient for future accurate readings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16874172",
"title": "Topographic Abney level",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "An Abney level and clinometer, is an instrument used in surveying which consists of a fixed sighting tube, a movable spirit level that is connected to a pointing arm, and a protractor scale. An internal mirror allows the user to see the bubble in the level while sighting a distant target. It can be used as a hand-held instrument or mounted on a Jacob's staff for more precise measurement, and it is small enough to carry in a coat pocket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vpfgg
|
What happens to a morbidly obese individual during hydrated starvation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Similar - and I emphasize SIMILAR things have been done, although I frankly don't know where to find the study. Googling might pull up something for you. \n\nThey took a fat dude, kept him supplied with fluids and vitamins and the like, and successfully kept him alive and relatively well. Think he lost a totally insane amount of weight, too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "215891",
"title": "Starvation",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "Early symptoms include impulsivity, irritability, and hyperactivity. Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the perception is controlled by the volume of the stomach that is empty. Individuals experiencing starvation lose substantial fat (adipose tissue) and muscle mass as the body breaks down these tissues for energy. \"Catabolysis\" is the process of a body breaking down its own muscles and other tissues in order to keep vital systems such as the nervous system and heart muscle (myocardium) functioning. The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more apathetic over time. As the starving person becomes too weak to move or even eat, their interaction with the surrounding world diminishes. In females, menstruation ceases when the body fat percentage is too low to support a fetus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215891",
"title": "Starvation",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Victims of starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and therefore become dehydrated. All movements become painful due to muscle atrophy and dry, cracked skin that is caused by severe dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi, for example, often grow under the esophagus, making swallowing painful. Vitamin deficiency is also a common result of starvation, often leading to anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43568708",
"title": "Mitochondrial optic neuropathies",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Nutritional optic neuropathies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Months of depletion are usually necessary to deplete body stores of most nutrients and a nutritional optic neuropathy may be present in a patient with or without obvious evidence of under-nutrition. An individual suffering from starvation could be easily recognized as a person who is undernourished due to their cachectic corporal appearance. However, a not so obvious individual may be the recipient of a gastric bypass surgery, a procedure that may lead to vitamin B12 deficiency from poor absorption. The optic neuropathy associated with pernicious anemia and vitamin B12 deficiency can be seen amongst individuals who obtain adequate caloric input from foods low in nutritional and micronutrient density (see Food desert).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281037",
"title": "Emaciation",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to organ systems throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood, circulatory, and urinary systems; these include hyponatremia and/or hypokalemia (low sodium and/or potassium in the blood, respectively), anemia (low hemoglobin), improper function of lymph (immune system-related white blood matter) and the lymphatic system, and pleurisy (fluid in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs) and edema (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497722",
"title": "Hyperuricemia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Mixed type.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Starvation causes the body to metabolize its own (purine-rich) tissues for energy. Thus, like a high purine diet, starvation increases the amount of purine converted to uric acid. A very low calorie diet without carbohydrate can induce extreme hyperuricemia; including some carbohydrate (and reducing the protein) reduces the level of hyperuricemia. Starvation also impairs the ability of the kidney to excrete uric acid, due to competition for transport between uric acid and ketones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42669424",
"title": "Gynecomastia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Physiologic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "When the human body is deprived of adequate nutrition, testosterone levels drop, while the adrenal glands continue to produce estrogens, thereby causing a hormonal imbalance. Gynecomastia can also occur once normal nutrition is restarted (this is known as refeeding gynecomastia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509632",
"title": "Thirst",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Continuous dehydration can cause many problems, but is most often associated with renal problems and neurological problems such as seizures. Excessive thirst, known as polydipsia, along with excessive urination, known as polyuria, may be an indication of diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
v9aqs
|
Is it possible for a planet to exist in our SS that we have yet to discover?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, any body large enough to be a real planet would leave a gravitational footprint that could be observed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was actually an idea that there might be a planet on the opposite side of the sun from the Earth, the estimated effects it would have on Mars and Venus were not observed. Various images of the sun from different angle from Earth have also given no evidence to a \"hidden planet\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is likely we will discover more [Trans-Neptunian](_URL_0_) dwarf planets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42709767",
"title": "HD 162826",
"section": "Section::::Possible planets and habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "HD 162826 has no known planets. The current state of knowledge excludes hot Jupiters and suggests that a more distant \"Jupiter\" is unlikely, but terrestrial planets are possible. A rocky terrestrial planet situated in a Mars-like orbit at about 1.525 AU could potentially be habitable. However, more studies on this star are needed in order to verify these habitability factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842359",
"title": "Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial oceans.:Extrasolar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Other possible candidates are merely speculated based on their mass and position in the habitable zone include planet though little is actually known of their composition. Some scientists speculate Kepler-22b may be an \"ocean-like\" planet. Models have been proposed for Gliese 581 d that could include surface oceans. Gliese 436 b is speculated to have an ocean of \"hot ice\". Exomoons orbiting planets, particularly gas giants within their parent star's habitable zone may theoretically have surface oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1229533",
"title": "61 Virginis",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Additional data is needed to confirm the possibility of more sub-Saturn planets between 0.5 (really, 0.3) and 30 AU from the star. An Earth-mass planet in the star's habitable zone (which would still be too small to detect with current technology) remains possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2787",
"title": "Astrobiology",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Research outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "It is possible that some exoplanets may have moons with solid surfaces or liquid oceans that are hospitable. Most of the planets so far discovered outside the Solar System are hot gas giants thought to be inhospitable to life, so it is not yet known whether the Solar System, with a warm, rocky, metal-rich inner planet such as Earth, is of an aberrant composition. Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours. For example, NASA's Kepler Mission seeks to discover Earth-sized planets around other stars by measuring minute changes in the star's light curve as the planet passes between the star and the spacecraft. Progress in infrared astronomy and submillimeter astronomy has revealed the constituents of other star systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2484254",
"title": "HD 69830",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.:Planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The outermost planet discovered appears to be within the system's habitable zone, where liquid water would remain stable (more accurate data on the primary star's luminosity will be required to know for sure where the habitable zone is). HD 69830 is the first extrasolar planetary system around a Sun-like star without any known planets comparable to Jupiter or Saturn in mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15155395",
"title": "Habitability of natural satellites",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Given the general planet-to-satellite(s) mass ratio of 10,000, Large Saturn or Jupiter sized gas planets in the habitable zone are believed to be the best candidates to harbour Earth-like moons with more than 120 such planets by 2018. Massive exoplanets known to be located within a habitable zone (such as Gliese 876 b, 55 Cancri f, Upsilon Andromedae d, 47 Ursae Majoris b, HD 28185 b and HD 37124 c) are of particular interest as they may potentially possess natural satellites with liquid water on the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11322595",
"title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar habitable zone candidates for water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The goal of current searches is to find Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone of their planetary systems (also sometimes called the \"Goldilocks zone\"). Planets with oceans could include Earth-sized moons of giant planets, though it remains speculative whether such 'moons' really exist. The Kepler telescope might be sensitive enough to detect them. There is speculation that rocky planets hosting water may be commonplace throughout the Milky Way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2emmi2
|
why do radio stations sometimes have two frequencies playing the same thing?
|
[
{
"answer": "They would probably be broadcasting from different locations, giving the station a wider range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "804074",
"title": "Two-way radio",
"section": "Section::::Two-way radio frequencies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Two-way radios can operate on many different frequencies, and these frequencies are assigned differently in different countries. Typically channelized operations are used, so that operators need not tune equipment to a particular frequency but instead can use one or more pre-selected frequencies, easily chosen by a dial, a pushbutton or other means. For example, in the United States, there is a block of 5 channels (pre-selected radio frequencies) are allocated to the Multiple Use Radio System. A different block of 22 channels are assigned, collectively, to the General Mobile Radio Service and Family Radio Service. The citizen's band radio service (\"\"CB\"\") has 40 channels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "804074",
"title": "Two-way radio",
"section": "Section::::UHF versus VHF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The most common two-way radio systems operate in the VHF and UHF parts of the radio spectrum. Because this part of the spectrum is heavily used for broadcasting and multiple competing uses, spectrum management has become an important activity of governments to regulate radio users in the interests of both efficient and non-interfering use of radio. Both bands are widely applied for different users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13701867",
"title": "StarCom21",
"section": "Section::::Trunked Radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Using the trunked radio system technology that shares and reuses radio channels, the system is capable of handling thousands of individual Talkgroups and radio ID's. Since most radios are only transmitting a small percentage of the time, the channels are shared among many users. The same radio frequency may be used at many sites throughout the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "804074",
"title": "Two-way radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "Two-way radio systems usually use a single radio channel and operate in a half-duplex mode: the user can talk, or he can listen, but not at the same time. The radio is normally in receive mode so the user can hear all other transmissions on the channel. When the user wants to talk he presses a \"push-to-talk\" button, which turns off the receiver and turns on the transmitter; when he releases the button the receiver is activated again. Multiple users on the channel must take turns talking. Other two-way radio systems operate in full-duplex mode, in which both parties can talk simultaneously. This requires either two separate radio channels or channel sharing methods such as time division duplex (TDD) to carry the two directions of the conversation simultaneously on a single radio frequency. A cell phone is an example of a full-duplex two-way radio. During a phone call, the phone communicates with the cell tower over two radio channels; an incoming one to carry the remote party's voice to the user, and an outgoing one to carry the user's voice to the remote party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "804074",
"title": "Two-way radio",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Early two-way schemes allowed only one station to transmit at a time while others listened, since all signals were on the same radio frequency – this was called \"simplex\" mode. Code and voice operations required a simple communication protocol to allow all stations to cooperate in using the single radio channel, so that one station's transmissions were not obscured by another's. By using receivers and transmitters tuned to different frequencies and solving the problems introduced by operation of a receiver immediately next to a transmitter, simultaneous transmission and reception was possible at each end of a radio link, in so-called \"full duplex\" mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "634183",
"title": "Radio spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Bands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A radio band is a small contiguous section of the radio spectrum frequencies, in which channels are usually used or set aside for the same purpose. To prevent interference and allow for efficient use of the radio spectrum, similar services are allocated in bands. For example, broadcasting, mobile radio, or navigation devices, will be allocated in non-overlapping ranges of frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15368428",
"title": "Radio",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Two way voice communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "A two-way radio is an audio transceiver, a receiver and transmitter in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication with other similar radios. An older term for this mode of communication is \"radiotelephony\". The radio link may be half-duplex, as in a walkie-talkie, using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time, so different users take turns talking, pressing a \"push to talk\" button on their radio which switches off the receiver and switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be full duplex, a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s5nyd
|
Is there any known species that can see other parts of the electro magnetic spectrum?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tarsiers and Chameleons can see in the Ultraviolet. Dragonflies can see polarized light (Not a different part of the spectrum, but still cool). The Mantis shrimp is my favorite though. It has the most complex eyes known in the animal kingdom. Like many flies the mantis shrimp has compound eyes, but each row of ommatidia have specific functions (i.e. one for light intensity, one for color, etc) Their eyes have twelve different types of color receptors (humans only have three) as well as Ultraviolet, Infrared, and polarized light. Let me also say that it doesn't necessarily help to see light in other parts of the E/M spectrum except infrared because although stars emit light from ultraviolet to radio, about 50% of the light is in the visible range and about 20% is infrared.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1506351",
"title": "Magnetoreception",
"section": "Section::::Proposed mechanisms.:Ampullae of Lorenzini.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "Another less general type of magnetic sensing mechanism in animals that has been described is electromagnetic induction used by sharks, stingrays and chimaeras (cartilaginous fish). These species possess a unique electroreceptive organ known as \"ampullae of Lorenzini\" which can detect a slight variation in electric potential. These organs are made up of mucus-filled canals that connect from the skin's pores to small sacs within the animal's flesh that are also filled with mucus. The ampullae of Lorenzini are capable of detecting DC currents and have been proposed to be used in the sensing of the weak electric fields of prey and predators. These organs could also possibly sense magnetic fields, by means of Faraday's law: as a conductor moves through a magnetic field an electric potential is generated. In this case the conductor is the animal moving through a magnetic field, and the potential induced depends on the time varying rate of flux through the conductor according to\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23467232",
"title": "Didier Sornette",
"section": "Section::::Theory of earthquakes and fault networks.:The Global Earthquake Forecasting System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "There are innumerable reports of heterogeneous types of precursory phenomena ranging from emission of electromagnetic waves from ultralow frequency (ULF) to visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) light, electric field and magnetic field anomalies of various kinds (see below), all the way to unusual animal behavior, which has been reported again and again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277295",
"title": "Magnetite",
"section": "Section::::Biological occurrences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for magnetoreception, which (in conjunction with cryptochromes in the retina) gives them the ability to sense the direction, polarity, and magnitude of the ambient magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21532646",
"title": "Lysiosquillina maculata",
"section": "Section::::Eyesight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "The class of crustaceans called Stomatopods, which includes \"Lysiosquillina maculata\" has the most complex visual receptors in the animal kingdom. Many species are thought to be able to express up to 16 different visual pigments. In addition, Stomatopods have a tripartite cornea which contains upper and lower halves, separated by a middle band made up of ommatidia. These photoreceptors include specialized receptors that can detect a wide range of visible and ultraviolet light, as well as being able to detect linearly and circularly polarized light. polarized light is used by many insects for navigation, however, in other invertebrates like cephalopods and crustaceans it is used primarily to increase visual contrast and for visual signaling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13651046",
"title": "Double layer (plasma physics)",
"section": "Section::::History of double layers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1452,
"text": "Many investigations of the magnetosphere and auroral regions have been made using rockets and satellites. McIlwain discovered from a rocket flight in 1960 that the energy spectrum of auroral electrons exhibited a peak that was thought then to be too sharp to be produced by a random process and which suggested, therefore, that an ordered process was responsible. It was reported in 1977 that satellites had detected the signature of double layers as electrostatic shocks in the magnetosphere. indications of electric fields parallel to the geomagnetic field lines was obtained by the Viking satellite, which measures the differential potential structures in the magnetosphere with probes mounted on 40m long booms. These probes measured the local particle density and the potential difference between two points 80m apart. Asymmetric potential excursions with respect to 0 V were measured, and interpreted as a double layer with a net potential within the region. Magnetospheric double layers typically have a strength formula_1 (where the electron temperature is assumed to lie in the range formula_2) and are therefore weak. A series of such double layers would tend to merge, much like a string of bar magnets, and dissipate, even within a rarefied plasma. It has yet to be explained how any overall localised charge distribution in the form of double layers might provide a source of energy for auroral electrons precipitated into the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31994185",
"title": "Sea turtle migration",
"section": "Section::::Migration methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1523,
"text": "In regards to the magnetic field hypothesis, there are three main concepts that should be considered. The concepts include electromagnetic induction, magnetic field chemical reactions, and magnetite. In regards to electromagnetic induction, it is assumed that the sea turtles have electroreceptors. Although evidence has been found in other species such as rays and sharks, no evidence has shown that there are electroreceptors in sea turtles making this hypothesis invalid. A second concept from the experimentation by Irwin involves chemical reactions which is commonly found in a variety of species of newts and birds. The strength of the magnetic field affects the chemical reactions within the bodies of the newts and birds. The final concept includes the magnetic crystals that form during the magnetic pulses from the earth's magnetic fields. These magnetic crystals formed by magnetite give the turtles directional information and guides in migration. The magnetite affects the cells of the nervous system of the sea turtle by producing a signal that references the forces of the magnetic field and the direction and magnitude that is applied. If this magnetite is used in the migration, when the earth's magnetic poles reverse at the dipole moment, the signal that the sea turtle nervous system receives will change the migration direction. Regardless of the hypothesis, hatchling turtles have the ability to determine the direction and inclination angle of which they are swimming with aide from magnetic fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8746365",
"title": "Canadian Geospace Monitoring",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The interaction is significant at sub-auroral, auroral, and polar latitudes where large regions of the magnetosphere are mapped along the magnetic field into relatively small regions of the ionosphere, and where the magnetospheric dynamics are controlled primarily by the plasma rather than the magnetic field. This organization is actually by magnetic rather than by geographic latitude (see Baker and Wing, and references therein for a description of magnetic vs. geographic coordinates). The aurora, for example, is most frequently observed at magnetic latitudes between roughly 60 and 80 degrees (see Eather). In the northern hemisphere Canada has the largest land mass at the magnetic latitudes. As a consequence of this so-called \"Canadian-advantage\", Canada has been a world-leader in ground-based auroral and ionospheric research for decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9p29l
|
why do your lips peel when you’re sick?
|
[
{
"answer": "lip skin is different than regular sin & doesn't make it's own lipid.\n\nIt comes from the skin around your lips & those pores could be clogged. As an experiment you could try AHA cream on that skin, or just get good chapstick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it may be a combo of dehydration and breathing more through your mouth if your nose is stuffy. \n\nDo you have a good chap stick? Burts Bees or something similar can be a game changer. Olive oil could also help.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061975",
"title": "Stomatitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Angular stomatitis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Inflammation of the corners (angles) of the lips is termed angular stomatitis or angular cheilitis. In children a frequent cause is repeated lip-licking, and in adults it may be a sign of underlying iron deficiency anemia, or vitamin B deficiencies (\"e.g.\", B-riboflavin, B-folate, or B-cobalamin, which in turn may be evidence of poor diets or malnutrition such as celiac disease).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55794154",
"title": "Lip licker's dermatitis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Lip licker's dermatitis, popularly known as perioral dermatitis, is an irritant contact dermatitis on and around the lips due to saliva from repetitive lip licking. Involving children more than adults, the resulting papules, scaling, erythema and occasional fissures and crusting make a well-defined ring around the lips. The rash extends as far as the tongue can reach and frequently spares the angle of the mouth. Unlike periorificial dermatitis, the vermillion border of the lip is often involved and the treatment is simple moisturisers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6703108",
"title": "Cheilitis",
"section": "Section::::Chapped lips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6703108",
"title": "Cheilitis",
"section": "Section::::Chapped lips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Chapped lips (also cheilitis simplex or common cheilitis) are characterized by cracking, fissuring, and peeling of the skin of the lips, and are one of the most common types of cheilitis. While both lips may be affected, the lower lip is the most common site. There may also be burning or the formation of large, painful cracks when the lips are stretched. Chronic cheilitis simplex can progress to crusting and bleeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24815723",
"title": "Mouth assessment",
"section": "Section::::Lips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The lips are normally symmetrical, pink, smooth, and moist. There should be no growths, lumps, or discoloration of the tissue. Abnormal findings are asymmetricality, cyanosis, a cherry-red or pale color or dryness. Diseases include mucocele, aphthous ulcer, angular stomatitis, carcinoma, cleft lip, leukoplakia, herpes simplex and chelitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74240",
"title": "Anaphylaxis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Symptoms typically include generalized hives, itchiness, flushing, or swelling (angioedema) of the afflicted tissues. Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness. Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20% of cases. Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva. The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "781661",
"title": "Ketoconazole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Common side effects when applied to the skin include redness. Common side effects when taken by mouth include nausea, headache, and liver problems. Liver problems may result in death or the need for a liver transplantation. Other severe side effect when taken by mouth include QT prolongation, adrenocortical insufficiency, and anaphylaxis. It is an imidazole and works by affecting the production of ergosterol required for the fungal cell membrane thereby slowing growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yac4f
|
Japan was separated from their Axis allies by numerous Allied countries. How did they communicate with other Axis powers?
|
[
{
"answer": "The little country is Tuva.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read somewhere that Germany gave them an Enigma machine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the most part, they didn't. Top axis and allied leaders met and hammered out agreements at conferences. The Axis leaders often didn't even tell each other which countries they were going to invade, much less had joint strategy sessions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There were plans to fly long-range versions of the Junkers JU290 to Japan. By starting in northern Finland the Junkers would just be able to reach Japanese occupied China without re-fueling.\n\nThere are some secondary sources that claim these flights did take place, both to carry messages and VIP passengers. Certainly not enough evidence to be conclusive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "- Shortwave radio. The Japanese embassy in Berlin had a \"Purple\" cipher machine, believed to be unbreakable throughout the war (this is the code that was broken by American cryptanalists helping the US prepare for the Battle of Midway). Even the Germans knew that it was probably exploited as early as 1940. They also used a cipher called \"RED\", also broken by WWII. The Japanese military (army and navy - the Navy had its own code named JN-25) did not trust the foreign office all that much and subsequently didn't tell them a lot. The Japanese also used an Enigma machine model 'T' ('Tirpitz'), as well as Enigma-C (commercial) variants. I am not sure whether these were broken. There was also a rarely used Enigma variant called \"GREEN\". The Germans used various Enigma models, as well as a cipher called \"Floradora\" (broken 1941-1942). I am not sure whether they used any Lorenz machines.\n- VLF (also frequently used to communicate with submarines at sea). [Here is an example of a Japanese transmitter](_URL_6_) that is still standing. I am unsure whether that was still used during the war.\n- Long-range cargo submarines, both Japanese and German. The Japanese [I-8](_URL_3_) and [I-52](_URL_5_), and German [U=234](_URL_4_) and [U-864](_URL_0_) were examples of these; of this list, only I-8 was successful (the wikipedia page lists others). There were several others, for example the Italian [Commandante Capellini](_URL_1_). In Japan, these missions were known as \"Yanagi\" (Willow). \n- Diplomatic staff already on location. For example, a major economic cooperation agreement was signed in 1943, fixing things like the Yen-Reichsmark exchange rate. Due to the difficulty in transporting large, bulky supplies (like steel, which the Germans were loth to part with anyway), transports were limited mainly to high-tech components, technical plans, and rare materials. [Wikipedia also mentions rising deception](_URL_2_) as each participants' war fortunes ebbed. These staff obviously had to communicate with their home country (see the other points in this list), but had a fair amount of leeway in terms of procedure and negotiations.\n- Land lines over neutral countries. Remember that Japan and the USSR only went to war in late 1945. As such, the Japanese had access to the same infrastructure used to communicate with their Moscow embassy. From there, via Turkey (the Soviet-Turkish border was never taken by the Germans, and the Soviets continued to communicate via Turkey.)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31371129",
"title": "Axis powers negotiations on the division of Asia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "As the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan cemented their military alliance by mutually declaring war against the United States by December 11, 1941, the Japanese proposed a clear territorial arrangement with the two main European Axis powers concerning the Asian continent. On December 15 they presented the Germans with a drafted military convention that would delimit the continent of Asia into two separate \"operational spheres\" (zones of military responsibility) by a dividing line along the 70th meridian east longitude, going southwards through the Ob River's Arctic estuary, southwards to just east of Khost in Afghanistan and heading into the Indian Ocean just west of Rajkot in India, to split the \"Lebensraum\" land holdings of Germany and the similar \"spazio vitale\" areas of Italy to the west of it, and the Empire of Japan (and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere) to the east of it, after a complete defeat of the Soviet Union by the Third Reich.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2055706",
"title": "Statism in Shōwa Japan",
"section": "Section::::The Axis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "In 1940, the three countries formed the Axis powers, and became closer linked. Japan imported Nazi propaganda films such as \"Ohm Krüger\" (1941), advertising them as narratives showing the suffering caused by Western imperialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183897",
"title": "Empire of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Later Shōwa (1931–1941) – expansionism and war.:Tripartite Pact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "On September 27, 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Their objectives were to \"establish and maintain a new order of things\" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence, with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in Europe, and Imperial Japan in Asia. The signatories of this alliance become known as the Axis Powers. The pact also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding the Soviet Union—and for technological and economic cooperation between the signatories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32927",
"title": "World War II",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.:Western Europe (1940–41).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy and Germany as the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary would make major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30180415",
"title": "German submarine U-1224",
"section": "Section::::Service history.:Technology Transfer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Germany and Japan were separated by great distance, and by 1944 they were increasingly cut off from each other. While neither power was able to send meaningful reinforcements or armaments through territory controlled by the Allied powers, they were able to use submarines to share some intelligence and weapons blueprints. Submarines offered security and their stealth allowed for a fair chance of success. Between 1942 and 1944, approximately 35 submarines attempted the journey from Europe to the Far East, and at least 11 attempted the journey from the Far East to Europe (ref. 4).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21532345",
"title": "German–Soviet Axis talks",
"section": "Section::::The Axis Pact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "On September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Axis Pact, which divided the world into spheres of influence and was implicitly directed at the United States. The pact contained an explicit provision (Article 5) stating that it did not concern relations with the Soviet Union. Molotov, worried that the pact contained a secret codicil pertaining specifically to the Soviet Union, attempted to extract information from the Japanese ambassador in Moscow, Togo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7321353",
"title": "Battle of Borneo (1941–42)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The Tripartite Pact—between the three Axis Powers of Germany, Japan and Italy—guaranteed mutual support, and this paid off for Japan in July 1941 when French weakness in the wake of the fall of France to Germany allowed Japan to occupy French Indo-China (now modern Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia). This blocked a supply route for the Kuomintang, against whom Japan had been fighting, since 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also gave Imperial Japan a seaboard facing Sarawak and North Borneo across the China Sea. Japan turned its eyes from the war in China and towards strategic targets in the Pacific and the Dutch East Indies. In December that year, Japan struck out against US possessions in Hawaii and the Philippines, declaring war on the US and finally precipitating Germany's official declaration of war on America according to the Pact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22hj74
|
what is the purpose of so much pollen everywhere?
|
[
{
"answer": " > So why do plants give off so much pollen?\n\nTo make sure they have enough. Way out on the edges of the most distant spread of the pollen there may be just enough for fertilization, and the ground covered increases greatly as they put more and more out there. It isn't a group effort; each tree is trying to spread its genes individually. It doesn't matter if other trees have \"enough\" pollen, it matters if they have the pollen of a given tree.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46980",
"title": "Pollen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a single flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1291577",
"title": "Bee pollen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Bee pollen is a ball or pellet of field-gathered flower pollen packed by worker honeybees, and used as the primary food source for the hive. It consists of simple sugars, protein, minerals and vitamins, fatty acids, and a small percentage of other components. Also called bee bread, or ambrosia, it is stored in brood cells, mixed with saliva, and sealed with a drop of honey. Bee pollen is harvested as food for humans, with various health claims, one of them being that the fermentation process makes it much more potent than simple flower pollen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46980",
"title": "Pollen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology, and forensics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1403777",
"title": "List of pollen sources",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "The term pollen source is often used in the context of beekeeping and refers to flowering plants as a source of pollen for bees or other insects. Bees collect pollen as a protein source to raise their brood. For the plant, the pollinizer, this can be an important mechanism for sexual reproduction, as the pollinator distributes its pollen. Few flowering plants self-pollinate; some can provide their own pollen (self fertile), but require a pollinator to move the pollen; others are dependent on cross pollination from a genetically different source of viable pollen, through the activity of pollinators. One of the possible pollinators to assist in cross-pollination are honeybees. The article below is mainly about the pollen source from a beekeeping perspective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8515344",
"title": "Filipendula rubra",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Pollination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "\"Filipendula rubra\" is known for its air-borne pollen, however pollination is only effective (can create a seed) when pollen is transferred to a different plant, due to the fact that \"F. rubra\" is self-incompatible. The vast majority of pollen will be derived from inflorescences within the same clone and thus incompatible. Pollination is aided by insects such as sweat bees spreading pollen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2855245",
"title": "Amaranthus palmeri",
"section": "Section::::As a weed.:Spread.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Pollen is most commonly spread by wind. The male produces the pollen and the female plant produces the seed. The wind carries the pollen from resistant male plants to female plants. In addition, the seed is spread by traditional means, such as harvesting, inadequate cleaning of equipment, and the spreading of infested materials, such as manure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320635",
"title": "Pollenizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "While some plants are capable of self-pollenization, \"pollenizer\" is more often used in pollination management for a plant that provides abundant, compatible, and viable pollen at the same flowering time as the pollinated plant. For example, most crabapple varieties are good pollenizers for any apple tree that blooms at the same time, and are often used in apple orchards for the purpose. Some apple cultivars produce very little pollen or pollen that is sterile or incompatible with other apple varieties. These are poor pollenizers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rg48u
|
How can a counterexample to the Collatz(3n+1) conjecture be for a sequence to go towards infinity?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can't use statistics on math. For example, half of numbers are even, but there's only one odd power of two, and only one even prime. Similarly, you might end up getting (3n+1)/2 as being odd over and over again even though it statistically shouldn't happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your argument is an example of a \"heuristic\": you reason what happens on average and that suggests what *should* happen in general. A lot of times you use a heuristic to guess at a result, but then you need a proof to make sure it really works.\n\nThe Collatz conjecture is interesting because, while it seems obvious you should always get 1 at then end, no one's been able to prove it.\n\nI'm also not sure if your probabilities are right, but I need to eat something before I write any more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever looked at the Collatz sequence when the starting number is 27 ? Here it is :\n\n27, 82, 41, 124, 62, 31, 94, 47, 142, 71, 214, 107, 322, 161, 484, 242, 121, 364, 182, 91, 274, 137, 412, 206, 103, 310, 155, 466, 233, 700, 350, 175, 526, 263, 790, 395, 1186, 593, 1780, 890, 445, 1336, 668, 334, 167, 502, 251, 754, 377, 1132, 566, 283, 850, 425, 1276, 638, 319, 958, 479, 1438, 719, 2158, 1079, 3238, 1619, 4858, 2429, 7288, 3644, 1822, 911, 2734, 1367, 4102, 2051, 6154, 3077, 9232, 4616, 2308, 1154, 577, 1732, 866, 433, 1300, 650, 325, 976, 488, 244, 122, 61, 184, 92, 46, 23, 70, 35, 106, 53, 160, 80, 40, 20, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1\n\nAs you can see, even if eventually it goes back to 1, the sequence grows for a pretty long time. There is no known obstruction that would rule out a sequence that would grow forever. \n\nYou could perhaps make your argument with probability more precise to try to prove something like \"most numbers go back to 1\". But the probability statement is not enough to prove that it's true for ALL numbers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "627501",
"title": "Littlewood conjecture",
"section": "Section::::Formulation and explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "For each of these, multiply the distance to the closest line with integer x-coordinate by the distance to the closest line with integer y-coordinate. This product will certainly be at most 1/4. The conjecture makes no statement about whether this sequence of values will converge; it typically does not, in fact. The conjecture states something about the limit inferior, and says that there is a subsequence for which the distances decay faster than the reciprocal, i.e.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37895",
"title": "Collatz conjecture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The Collatz conjecture is a conjecture in mathematics that concerns a sequence defined as follows: start with any positive integer \"n\". Then each term is obtained from the previous term as follows: if the previous term is even, the next term is one half the previous term. If the previous term is odd, the next term is 3 times the previous term plus 1. The conjecture is that no matter what value of \"n\", the sequence will always reach 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2431002",
"title": "Erdős–Straus conjecture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "If is a composite number, , then an expansion for could be found from an expansion for or . Therefore, if a counterexample to the Erdős–Straus conjecture exists, the smallest forming a counterexample would have to be a prime number, and it can be further restricted to one of six infinite arithmetic progressions modulo . Computer searches have verified the truth of the conjecture up to , but proving it for all remains an open problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2620450",
"title": "Legendre's conjecture",
"section": "Section::::Prime gaps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "If Legendre's conjecture is true, the gap between any prime \"p\" and the next largest prime would always be at most on the order of formula_1; in big O notation, the gaps are formula_2. Two stronger conjectures, Andrica's conjecture and Oppermann's conjecture, also both imply that the gaps have the same magnitude. It does not, however, provide a solution to the Riemann Hypothesis, but rather strengthens one of the implications of its correctness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16648043",
"title": "Circle packing theorem",
"section": "Section::::Relations with conformal mapping theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Thurston's conjecture was proven by . More precisely, they showed that, as \"n\" goes to infinity, the function \"f\" determined using Thurston's method from hexagonal packings of radius-1/\"n\" circles converges uniformly on compact subsets of \"A\" to a conformal map from \"A\" to \"C\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52483865",
"title": "Erdős–Ulam problem",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "If the Erdős–Ulam problem has a positive solution, it would provide a counterexample to the Bombieri–Lang conjecture and to the abc conjecture. It would also solve Harborth's conjecture, on the existence of drawings of planar graphs in which all distances are integers. If a dense rational-distance set exists, any straight-line drawing of a planar graph could be perturbed by a small amount (without introducing crossings) to use points from this set as its vertices, and then scaled to make the distances integers. However, like the Erdős–Ulam problem, Harborth's conjecture remains unproven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17395221",
"title": "Subdirect product",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "BULLET::::- The chain of natural numbers together with infinity, as a Heyting algebra, is subdirectly representable as a subalgebra of the direct product of the finite linearly ordered Heyting algebras. The situation with other Heyting algebras is treated in further detail in the article on subdirect irreducibles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7n08xw
|
What did Vikings do with all their loot? Was the loot divided equally among the raiders, given to one man, or somewhere in between?
|
[
{
"answer": "It certainly did. I recently finished my masters on these lovely individuals and while I do not have all the sources handy with me, hopefully, someone else here will. \n\nTo give you a brief, non-cited explanation, there were several places that the loot from Viking raids/expeditions had a serious effect. Towns like Dublin were completely established by Viking raiders and therefore would have been affected greatly by the influx of coinage. In addition to that, those Vikings that served in the Varangian Guard and returned to Iceland often did so as rich men. I believe there is a man named Bolli Bollason (or something similar), who serves for a time in the Varangian guard, then returns and is so wealthy he is known as Bolli the Grand. \n\nAs far as the division of loot goes that is a much harder and less studied question. There are no primary sources that give us a percentage break-down of what a raiding band would receive. Often, all we have is that the entire force was paid x pounds of silver and other such goods. In order to really find out something about how much the average Viking warrior took home would require examining graves. Even then though, it would only be a rough estimate of how much a raider could obtain over time and not be an accurate reflection of how much a particular raid earned them. \n\nI can promise you though, it is *very* unlikely that only one man received the loot, and even if he did, he soon split it up amongst his men or else paid the price. Gift giving was extremely important and played a massive role in keeping together raiding parties. \n\ntldr: very much yes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34058695",
"title": "Silverdale Hoard",
"section": "Section::::Items discovered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "The hoard consists of a variety of silver items including 27 coins, 10 arm-rings, 2 finger-rings, 14 ingots, 6 brooch fragments, a fine wire braid and 141 fragments of arm-rings and ingots which had been chopped up and turned into hacksilver, which was used as a form of currency in Viking times. Together they weigh a little over two pounds (1 kg). The hoard includes Arabic, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Viking and Viking coins. They date to around AD 900 and include coins of Alfred the Great and the Danish-ruled Kingdom of Northumbria. Some of the other items appear to have been intended for personal ornamentation, perhaps to indicate the owner's rank. The arm bands would have been given by a leader to a warrior as a reward for services rendered. One of the bands is particularly notable for its unusual combination of Irish, Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian-style decoration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12344033",
"title": "Vale of York Hoard",
"section": "Section::::Items.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The hoard had been protected by lead sheeting of some kind. The coins date from the late 9th and early 10th centuries, providing a \"terminus post quem\" for dating the hoard. The first theory as to a likely 10th-century occasion for such a careful burying was that it had belonged to a wealthy Viking leader during the unrest that followed the conquest of the Viking kingdom of Northumbria in the year 927 by the Anglo-Saxon king of a unified England, Athelstan (924–939). Another brief period of Viking rule in Northumbria also followed Athelstan's death in 939; it lasted until the expulsion and murder of the Viking king of Jórvík (modern-day York), Eric Bloodaxe, in 954.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8316659",
"title": "Strandhögg",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Strandhogg in old Norse was a Viking tactic consisting of a coastal raid with the intention of capturing livestock and indigenous peoples for the slave trade. This tactic was enhanced by Viking longships' shallow draft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60417",
"title": "Battle of Maldon",
"section": "Section::::The poem \"The Battle of Maldon\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Norse invaders and Norse raiders differed in purpose. The forces engaged by the Anglo-Saxon were raiding, or (in Old Norse) \"\"í víking\"\", to gather loot, rather than to occupy land for settlement. Therefore, if Byrhtnoth's forces had kept the Vikings off by guarding the causeway or by paying them off, Olaf would likely have sailed farther up the river or along the coast, and raided elsewhere. As a man with troops and weapons, it might be that Byrhtnoth had to allow the Vikings ashore to protect others. The poem may, therefore, represent the work of what has been termed the \"monastic party\" in Ethelred's court, which advocated a military response, rather than tribute, to all Norse attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53153691",
"title": "Molnby Hoard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Molnby Hoard is a Viking Age deposit of 163 silver coins found in Molnby, Vallentuna Municipality in Sweden in October 2016. Most of the coins come from the area around Samarkand in Central Asia and date from the 10th century. The hoard is one of the largest Viking Age hoards to have been discovered in the province of Uppland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51739215",
"title": "Sundveda Hoard",
"section": "Section::::The hoard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Judging from the age of the coins, the hoard can have been deposited at the site during the middle of the 9th century at the earliest. This would make it one of the earliest Viking Age hoards to be discovered on mainland Sweden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56969852",
"title": "Tomrair",
"section": "Section::::Epilogue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "In 1871, a Viking Age hoard of at least eleven Carolingian coins was uncovered at Mullaghboden, near Ballymore Eustace. The hoard appears to have been originally deposited as early as about 847. This could mean that it was hidden by Vikings fleeing the Battle of Sciath Nechtain in 848. The hoard itself appears to have been composed of coins looted from Aquitaine only a few years previous, a haul possibly pillaged by the Viking fleet of \"\" contemporaneously attested by the ninth–eleventh-century \"Annales Engolismenses\". This force was evidently composed of men from Vestfold, a region of eastern Norway evidently under Danish overlordship during the ninth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61qxca
|
we have a huge sea which is evapourating all the time which comes back to us in the form of rains. we can create artificial rains. why do we worry about water shortage in future?
|
[
{
"answer": "We can not create rain from nothing. We are able to seed rain clouds so that the water falls down before it normally would. The problem is that farms require water over a large area which increases evaporation before the rivers are able to get to the sea. If you were to create artificial rain over the farms to water the crops instead of using the rivers that supplies water to the downstream areas there would be less rain upstream and the rivers would still dry out.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "First of all, I'm not sure what you mean by creating \"artificial rains.\" It's possible to seed clouds and make them rain, but it costs money, and only works if there's sufficient moisture available. We can desalinate saltwater, but it's expensive and time consuming. Personally, I think that it's a really important scientific pursuit and more people should be working on the problem of how to do it cheaply, but as it stands, turning saltwater into freshwater is not easy or cheap to do at volume.\n\nSo, what we're left with, you may be surprised to hear, is 2.5% of the earth's water. That's what percentage is NOT saltwater. Of that, less than half is easily accessible (from lakes, rivers, or aquifers close enough to the surface for wells). We're talking 1% of the planet's water is not salt and available for people to reach. Now, if we let industry dump waste products into that water, we have less and less potable water for future generations, and we have to invest more and more money into cleaning up the freshwater that's available to us. \n\nNow, we're looking at a population that continues to expand. Many people are already at a disadvantage when it comes to acquiring water. They either live in arid regions where there is little freshwater to start with (that's another problem with desalinating saltwater--it's terribly expensive to ship it to people who don't have access to water) or else in places where there is little water regulation, and the \"fresh\" water available to them is dangerous to drink. \n\nEvery year, the planet's water usage increases. There are more people, more factory farms, more industry. This all decreases our available freshwater, as do the increased pollution that comes with an increased population. Now we have situations where places that already experience drought/water shortage find that industry has more right to the water than people do. We have companies like Nestle pumping water out of drinking sources, bottling it in plastic (and I'm pretty sure the plastic industry uses a lot of water, too), and selling it back to people. \n\nIf you have a good idea for taking large quantities of saltwater and purifying it quickly and inexpensively, you should get on that right away, because you will save lives and probably get rich. But don't believe, right now, that humanity has an unlimited supply of drinking water at its fingertips, because we don't. It's limited and shrinking and if corporations like Nestle have their way, water won't be a human right anymore. It will be an expensive privilege. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We cannot create artificial rain. Why do you think we can? \n\nWater shortages are about droughts at specific local levels, or consumption being higher than supply of fresh water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3305496",
"title": "MOSE Project",
"section": "Section::::Objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Floods effects are exacerbated due to greater erosion by the sea caused by human interventions to facilitate port activities (e.g. through the construction of jetties and artificial canals); establishment of the industrial Porto Marghera area; and increased wash from motorized boats, which all aggravate erosion of morphological structures and the foundations of quaysides and buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Water cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The sea plays a part in the water or hydrological cycle, in which water evaporates from the ocean, travels through the atmosphere as vapour, condenses, falls as rain or snow, thereby sustaining life on land, and largely returns to the sea. Even in the Atacama Desert, where little rain ever falls, dense clouds of fog known as the camanchaca blow in from the sea and support plant life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3290124",
"title": "Carteret Islands",
"section": "Section::::Flooding.:Cause of Carteret inundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Paul Tobasi, the atolls' district manager with Papua New Guinea's Bougainville province, and many other environmental groups have suggested that the flooding is the result of sea-level rise associated with global warming. He also stated that small storm surges were becoming more frequent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14312506",
"title": "Barotse Floodplain",
"section": "Section::::Human ecology of the plain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In the occasional very wet year such as 2005, lives and property are lost in floods on the Barotse Plain. More often, however, it is a very good example of the principle that natural annual flooding by rivers is valuable and productive for wildlife and human populations, while damming rivers to control floods, as has happened with the Kafue Flats, is potentially damaging to the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5565588",
"title": "Climate system",
"section": "Section::::Flows of energy, water and elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Water is stored in all components of the climate system, with the oceans and ice containing the most. Its movement is driven by evaporation from oceans and other water bodies as a consequence of direct and indirect sunlight from the evapotranspiration of water from plants. Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2061398",
"title": "Lake Nakuru",
"section": "Section::::Habitat and Wildlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "In recent years, there have been wide variations between the dry and wet seasons' water levels. It is suspected that this is caused by increasing watershed land conversion to intensive crop production and urbanization, both which reduce the capacity of soils to absorb water, recharge ground water and thus increase seasonal flooding. Pollution and drought destroy the flamingos' food, Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, and causing them to migrate to the nearby Lakes, more recently lakes Elmenteita, Simbi Nyaima and Bogoria. Local climate changes have also been hypothesized to contribute to the changing environmental conditions in the lakes catchment. Recent media reports indicate increasing concern among stakeholders, as mass flamingo migrations and deaths could spell doom to the tourism industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48567377",
"title": "2015 South Indian floods",
"section": "Section::::Analysis of causes.:Climate-change related.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 1415,
"text": "Union Environment and Forests Minister Javedakthar said the exact causes of the flooding – whether the result of climate change or stemming from other causes – remained in \"a grey area\" as experts had differing opinions. Regarding the current floods, he said the United Nations would not deem the evidence conclusive enough to be able to reach a judgment. \"One thing is sure, climate change brings such disasters more frequently. So [the] frequency, [the] ferocity of untimely rains increases, [along with] erratic monsoons, droughts and floods; all these are caused [by climate change].\" he said. He subsequently clarified his position on the Tamil Nadu floods in a written statement addressed to the Rajya Sabha. According to Javadekar, the recent extreme rainfall across the region was \"highly localised\" and could not be definitively attributed to the effects of climate-change. \"[The] extreme rainfall that occurred over [the] coastal districts of Tamil Nadu is part of the natural variability of the Indian monsoon system. Although some studies have reported an increase in frequency and intensity of extremes in rainfall during the past 40–50 years, their attribution to global warming is not established.\" Javadekar said the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and local assessments have indicated that extreme rainfall events will likely increase in frequency by the end of the 21st century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1n3odz
|
is artificial photosynthesis not viable?
|
[
{
"answer": "Photosynthesis (PS) involves harnessing light (photons) from the sun for energy to drive chemical reactions. Here's an abridged version of the process:\n\n1. A photon strikes an electron that is chilling in chlorophyll (or some other pigment depending on the wavelength of light the organism harvests)\n2. The electron absorbs the photon\n3. The electron gains the energy of the photon, becoming 'excited'\n4. The excited electron is chemical reactions that require a lot of energy (called 'energetically unfavorable reactions')\n5. The cool part: light is used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen and build carbohydrates from CO2\n\nWhen the excited electron forms a new chemical bond, that chemical bond stores the energy of the excited electron. That stored energy can be used to drive other energetically unfavorable reactions, many of which happen at night. These are aptly called the dark reactions (the reactions involved in harvesting light for energy are called the light reactions).\n\nWe know pretty well how PS works, but we're nowhere near technologically advanced enough to replicate the process artificially. There are tons of steps involved in harnessing that light energy - sort of like taking the stairs from the top floor instead of jumping off the roof. Each step is a separate chemical reaction facilitated by a unique protein. It's hard to build that from scratch.\n\nHere's a simple breakdown of the process: _URL_0_\n\nOne last thing: the majority of carbon fixation (utilizing atmospheric CO2) is done by microorganisms, especially marine microorganisms. Scientists are trying to genetically modify photosynthetic microorganisms so they'll take atmospheric CO2 and convert it into useful organic compounds like ethanol and other biofuels.\n\nI lied, here's the last thing:\n > Chlorophyll? More like BOREophyll!\n\n > Right?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Plants (and others) are extremely efficient!! (as are all living things/enzymes) We have a general understanding of how this process works, but have yet to do this synthetically.\n\nWe have been able to make photoactive catalysts that assist in the splitting of water, but there is still an overpotential necessary for the reaction. (overpotential: additional energy/electrical current needed)\n\nWe have also started working on catalysts that will take CO2 from the air and convert these into methane, methanol, ethanol, etc. The problem here is that catalysts that do this get \"poisoned\" by intermediates or product. \n\nMy general understanding is certain metal surfaces (Cu, Au, etc) can catalyze CO2 into hydrocarbons. But the one intermediate carbonmonoxide (CO) can bind so strongly that forward reactivity is halted, or it binds so weakly that it falls off before further reactivity can occur. And we don't want to make a bunch of CO!\n\nThere is fundamental research currently ongoing that is looking at alloys of metals and non-crystaline metals for this catalysis. The hypothesis is that certain metal surfaces are good at breaking CO2 into CO and others are good at taking CO and making it H2CO or even more complex (and useful) chemicals.\n\nHope this helps a little.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "to your point about getting rid of carbon dioxide being a generally good thing:\n\nnot really. the less co2 there is in the athmosphere the slower plants grow and the less co2 they get out of the athmosphere themselves because of this. it's like trying to evaporate all the water in the sea, it would just rain more.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The purpose of artificial photosynthesis is to produce a fuel from sunlight that can be stored conveniently and used when sunlight is not available, by using direct processes, that is, to produce a solar fuel. With the development of catalysts able to reproduce the major parts of photosynthesis, water and sunlight would ultimately be the only needed sources for clean energy production. The only by-product would be oxygen, and production of a solar fuel has the potential to be cheaper than gasoline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Artificial photosynthesis was first anticipated by the Italian chemist Giacomo Ciamician during 1912. In a lecture that was later published in Science he proposed a switch from the use of fossil fuels to radiant energy provided by the sun and captured by technical photochemistry devices. In this switch he saw a possibility to lessen the difference between the rich north of Europe and poor south and ventured a guess that this switch from coal to solar energy would \"not be harmful to the progress and to human happiness.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Another area of research within artificial photosynthesis is the selection and manipulation of photosynthetic microorganisms, namely green microalgae and cyanobacteria, for the production of solar fuels. Many strains are able to produce hydrogen naturally, and scientists are working to improve them. Algae biofuels such as butanol and methanol are produced both at laboratory and commercial scales. This method has benefited from the development of synthetic biology, which is also being explored by the J. Craig Venter Institute to produce a synthetic organism capable of biofuel production. In 2017, an efficient process was developed to produce acetic acid from carbon dioxide using \"cyborg bacteria\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Current research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Using biomimetic approaches, artificial photosynthesis tries to construct systems doing the same type of processes. Ideally, a triad assembly could oxidize water with one catalyst, reduce protons with another and have a photosensitizer molecule to power the whole system. One of the simplest designs is where the photosensitizer is linked in tandem between a water oxidation catalyst and a hydrogen evolving catalyst:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Artificial photosynthesis remained an academic field for many years. However, in the beginning of 2009, Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings was reported to be developing its own artificial photosynthesis research by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to \"create the carbon building blocks from which resins, plastics and fibers can be synthesized.\" This was confirmed with the establishment of the KAITEKI Institute later that year, with carbon dioxide reduction through artificial photosynthesis as one of the main goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Employed research techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Research in artificial photosynthesis is necessarily a multidisciplinary topic, requiring a multitude of different expertise. Some techniques employed in making and investigating catalysts and solar cells include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430539",
"title": "Artificial photosynthesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Artificial photosynthesis is a chemical process that biomimics the natural process of photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. The term artificial photosynthesis is commonly used to refer to any scheme for capturing and storing the energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of a fuel (a solar fuel). Photocatalytic water splitting converts water into hydrogen and oxygen and is a major research topic of artificial photosynthesis. Light-driven carbon dioxide reduction is another process studied that replicates natural carbon fixation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rjvhh
|
Would a handful of marbles released in empty space exert enough gravity on each other to clump together or even orbit one another?
|
[
{
"answer": "If they were released in a perfect vacuum infinitely far from any other gravitational force, so that the only force any of them experienced was from the other marbles, then yes they would clump together. Depending on their distance it may take an obscene amount of time, but lacking any resistive forces they would very slowly accelerate towards one another. Whether they'd make contact before the universe decided to end would be another matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you started them off stationary with respect to one another, they would move together and end up in a clump, because their only acceleration would be towards one another. Of course, the accelerations would be very small, and the time to clumping very large.\n\nIf you started them with velocities with respect to one another, they could enter orbit, clump together (or at least hit each other, with behaviour depending on the elasticity of the collision), or move apart forever depending on what those velocities were. My quick calculation suggests that escape velocity for a 5g marble at a distance of 5cm is about 4 microns per second.\n\nEdit: I confirmed my escape velocity calculation using [Wolfram Alpha](_URL_0_). At a distance of 5cm from a relatively heavy 5g marble, it's about 4x10^-6 metres per second. So each marble wouldn't need much velocity to escape the others.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30958710",
"title": "Cloak of Conscience",
"section": "Section::::Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "In contrast to Rachel Whiteread's procedure of making positive volumes out of negative space, Chromy constructs a negative space out of a solid volume: the human body. The marble therefore becomes a material of strength, a structural material, rather than one that engages in the illusion of weightlessness — in this way it is a different approach to Chromy's works in bronze which, like the sculptures of Ancient Greece, appear to defy gravitational forces by capturing the dynamism of the human body, many of which can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, which contains the richest collection of artifacts from Greek antiquity worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15928585",
"title": "Giovan Battista Bellaso",
"section": "Section::::Works.:A challenge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Bellaso challenged his detractors to solve some cryptograms encrypted according to his guidelines. He also furnished the following clue to help the solution of one of them: ‘‘The cryptogram contains the explanation why two balls, one in iron and one in wood, dropped from a high place will fall on the ground at the same time.’’ This is a clear statement of the law of the free-falling bodies forty years before Galileo. They were purportedly solved in 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61097",
"title": "Roche limit",
"section": "Section::::Determination.:Fluid satellites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The fluid solution is appropriate for bodies that are only loosely held together, such as a comet. For instance, comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's decaying orbit around Jupiter passed within its Roche limit in July 1992, causing it to fragment into a number of smaller pieces. On its next approach in 1994 the fragments crashed into the planet. Shoemaker–Levy 9 was first observed in 1993, but its orbit indicated that it had been captured by Jupiter a few decades prior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1273491",
"title": "Exponential stability",
"section": "Section::::Example exponentially stable LTI systems.:Real-world example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "It is important to note that in this example the system is not stable for all inputs. Give the marble a big enough push, and it will fall out of the ladle and fall, stopping only when it reaches the floor. For some systems, therefore, it is proper to state that a system is exponentially stable \"over a certain range of inputs\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1162163",
"title": "Hard spheres",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Hard spheres are widely used as model particles in the statistical mechanical theory of fluids and solids. They are defined simply as impenetrable spheres that cannot overlap in space. They mimic the extremely strong (\"infinitely elastic bouncing\") repulsion that atoms and spherical molecules experience at very close distances. Hard spheres systems are studied by analytical means, by molecular dynamics simulations, and by the experimental study of certain colloidal model systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1273491",
"title": "Exponential stability",
"section": "Section::::Example exponentially stable LTI systems.:Real-world example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "A step input in this case requires supporting the marble away from the bottom of the ladle, so that it cannot roll back. It will stay in the same position and will not, as would be the case if the system were only marginally stable or entirely unstable, continue to move away from the bottom of the ladle under this constant force equal to its weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59858954",
"title": "Jelle's Marble Runs",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "BULLET::::- Collision: All 16 teams will be placed into a tournament bracket. Marbles will collide with each other and they will be knocked down by a barrier of dominoes. If a barrier ball is triggered, then it will have the ability to knock down other marbles not affected by their opponents. There are 3 sets of barrier balls. 2 horizontal and 1 vertical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4btgkp
|
how can most low-end phone have a better processor speed than higher-end laptops?
|
[
{
"answer": "let me make this music analogy when comparing cpu's of vastly different architectures.\n\n1. cpu speed (aka mhz) is only used to synchronize the various components within a cpu. it is essentially a metronome. a faster or a slower metronome doesn't tell you anything except the beat of the music aka bpm (beats per minute)\n\n2. more cores means more people playing in the band. it doesn't mean they would get more work done or do the work faster. it only tells you how many people there are. what is important here is how skilled the people (cores) are. and that is determined by the cpu architecture. which we don't know.\n\n3. so in order to determine which is the better cpu. we have to have them perform music (aka use a benchmark). in a musical performance, not all members of the band are playing all the time, just like in a benchmark. \n\nso when you go to judge whether a band is good or not, you don't look at their music's bpm, and you don't look at how many people there are. you have them play and you listen (aka running a benchmark). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are different architectures and run different types of operating systems, they don't compare at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "number of cores and clock speed (GHz) do not necessarily indicate raw processor power. You also cannot add the GHz of multiple cores to get a number that means anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Previous answers are correct.\n\nThe gigantic cores in a laptop CPU do much more work per GHz, and per core, than the modest cores in a phone CPU. They do this using a range of tricks to ensure that at least one operation -- sometimes two or more -- will be completed nearly every time the clock ticks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is A LOT of things that are wrong with your statement, but Ill tackle the cores myth:\n\nmore cores =/= more power\n\nyou have one pregnant women, assign that task to 8 women...will they deliver the baby faster? No.\n\n**Lets deliver that baby!**\n\nIn your scenario since you have 1.3GHz(assume 8 cores), we would only use one... one super slow core.\n\nIn your laptop we will use one 2.4GHz(3.0 turbo) core, in this scenario the laptop will be faster.\n\nNot everything is coded to be divided into multiple cores. In reality most programs are run in only one, sometimes 2 cores. (2 is becoming more standard nowadays, while 4 is quite rare)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A full explanation is very complicated, but basically GHz is *not* a good way to compare processor speeds unless all kinds of other things are kept constant, and between cell phones and laptops they're *not*.\n\nFirst of all, more cores are not as good as one faster core, so your simple addition is fallacious. They're of some help (which is why they're included at all), in some situations, but it's not linear. As the joke goes \"it takes 9 months to make a baby, no matter how many women are assigned to the the task\". Likewise, more cars won't shorten your daily commute; it's only if you have to transport a lot of people that additional cars are useful.\n\nSecondly, the memory subsystem of the laptop is vastly better than the cell phone. The cell phone's processor is like a race car in city traffic; it can barely get started before it has to stop and wait for something.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "198584",
"title": "Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with desktops.:Disadvantages.:Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users. Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with a higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. This is because laptops use the mobile versions of processors to conserve power, and these lag behind desktop chips when it comes to performance. Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198584",
"title": "Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Central processing unit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "A laptop's central processing unit (CPU) has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Typically, laptop CPUs have two processor cores, although 4-core models are also available. For low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest 4-to-8-core desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest 4-core laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370320",
"title": "PowerPC 970",
"section": "Section::::Processors.:PowerPC 970FX.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "Despite intense user demand for a faster laptop CPU than the G4, Apple never used a G5 series CPU in their PowerBook laptops. The original 970 used far too much power and was never seriously viewed as a candidate for a portable computer. The 970FX reduced thermal design power (TDP) to about 30 W at 1.5 GHz, a figure which led many users to believe a PowerBook G5 might be possible. However, several obstacles prevented even the 970FX from being used in this application. At 1.5 GHz, the G5 was not substantially faster than the 1.5 and 1.67 GHz G4 processors which Apple used in PowerBooks instead. Furthermore, the northbridge chips available to interface the 970FX to memory and other devices were not designed for portable computers, and consumed too much power. Finally, the 970FX had inadequate power saving features for a portable CPU. Its minimum (idle) power was much too high, which would have led to poor battery life figures in a notebook computer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38346964",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy Grand",
"section": "Section::::Overclocking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The dual-core Cortex A9 runs at a speed of 1.2 GHz by default, but it can be overclocked to 1.3 GHz without the need of a custom kernel. This can be effected by rooting and then using a CPU clock speed modification app.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24211713",
"title": "Clarksfield (microprocessor)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "At the time of its release at the Intel Developer Forum on September 23, 2009, Clarksfield processors were significantly faster than any other laptop processor, including the Core 2 Extreme QX9300. The initial laptop manufacturers shipping products based on Clarksfield processors include MSI, Dell/Alienware, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba and Asustek.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198584",
"title": "Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with desktops.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "BULLET::::- Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20–120 W, compared to 100–800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus multiplying the potential savings, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52742",
"title": "Desktop computer",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with laptops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A desktop computer often has the advantage over a comparable laptop in computational capacity. Overclocking is often more feasible on a desktop than on a laptop; similarly hardware add-ons such as discrete graphics co-processors may only be possible to install in a desktop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2etedt
|
what's happening in my head when sound gets drowned out while falling asleep and then a minor disturbance "opens" up my ears?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think your mind slowly blocks out all common noise perceived as safe, and you wake when something unusual is heard",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your brain differentiates between expected and unexpected noises. So the hum from the fridge or the music you left on is expected, but broken glass or some other noise is unexpected and your brain wakes you up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No expert but I've read about this before. As your body goes through the 4 stages of sleep (there used to be 5 but two stages were combined recently), you become less aware of your surroundings. The first three stages are part of the NREM sleep (non- rapid eye movement), while the last stage is part of the REM sleep.\n\nNormally, your brain produces fast 'beta' waves, but as you're falling asleep, these waves become 'alpha' waves that are much slower. During this period you can feel strange and vivid sensations. This is when you might experience the feeling of falling, for example. I believe that this particular feeling stems from your organ of balance receiving less/no stimuli.\n\nThen stage 1 begins, during which the brain produces theta waves. These are extremely slow. Stage 1 lasts for about 10 minutes.\n\nStage 2 takes ~20 minutes while your brain has bursts of brain wave activity. These bursts are called 'sleep spindles'.\n\nStage three involves super slow 'delta' waves. During this stage your body is the least responsive of all stages. This is because your senses are very weak in this stage.\n\nThe last stage is the REM stage. This stage involves high brain activity but low muscle activity. This is when dreaming might occur.\n\nThen you wake up. Gotta go now so maybe someone else can further clarify.\n\n**Tl;dr:** A decrease in sensory stimuly weakens your senses. I believe that your hearing is least affected by this.\n\nEdit: alpha < > beta waves",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What people seem to be saying about unexpected noises is probably a more accurate answer to your question, but I remember learning once that, in terms of words (as opposed to sounds), every word has a \"threshold\" for being noticed. You hear everything within earshot, but your mind filters out sounds that it thinks are unnecessary/irrelevant to the task at hand. This is what happens when you \"tune out\" what people are saying around you. Depending on the threshold of a word, some words get through the filter more easily. It's different for every person, but some examples of low-threshold words are \"fire,\" your own name, or other high risk/high importance words. That means that if you're tuning out everything around you, but someone shouts \"fire,\" then it is much more likely for you to hear it than if someone said \"dog\" (unless dogs are particularly important to you for whatever reason). This effect likely continues during sleep, because if someone is sleeping, they'll wake up faster if you say their name than if you just say normal words. (Fun fact: it is [supposedly] impossible to fall asleep when someone is saying your name repeatedly.)\n\nNot sure if that answered your question at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14429491",
"title": "Occlusion effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "The occlusion effect occurs when an object fills the outer portion of a person's ear canal, and that person perceives \"hollow\" or \"booming\" echo-like sounds of their own voice. It is caused by bone-conducted sound vibrations reverberating off the object filling the ear canal. When talking or chewing, these vibrations normally escape through an open ear canal; most people are unaware of their existence. When the ear canal is blocked, the vibrations are reflected back toward the eardrum. Compared to a completely open ear canal, the occlusion effect can boost low frequency (usually below 500 Hz) sound pressure in the ear canal by 20 dB or more. This effect can be measured with a probe-tube microphone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Background activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Another cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14910292",
"title": "Seashell resonance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance to external sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19414028",
"title": "Misophonia",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Misophonia's mechanism is not known, but it appears that, like hyperacusis, it may be caused by a dysfunction of the central auditory system in the brain and not of the ears. The perceived origin and context of the sound appears to be essential to trigger a reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282020",
"title": "Hearing",
"section": "Section::::Hearing mechanism.:Neuronal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Disturbances (such as stroke or trauma) at any of these levels can cause hearing problems, especially if the disturbance is bilateral. In some instances it can also lead to auditory hallucinations or more complex difficulties in perceiving sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664363",
"title": "Consonance and dissonance",
"section": "Section::::Physiological basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dissonance sensation is a result of brain's response to unusual or rare sound perceptions (). The brain is remembering and ranking the sound patterns that usually enters the ears, and if an unusual (rare occurring) sound is listened to, a well known EEG pattern emerges (P300/P3b) indicating an oddball event. This causes slight stress in the listener, which is causing the sensation of dissonance. In the same paper, Pankovski and Pankovska show by a software simulated neural network that the brain is capable of such remembering and ranking of the sound patterns, thus perfectly reproducing the well known Helmholtz's list of two-tone intervals ordered by consonance/dissonance, for the first time in the history of studying these phenomena. As a consequence, Pankovski and Pankovska suggest that the consonance and dissonance are biologically dependent for the more consonant sounds, and culturally dependent for the more dissonant sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Sensory overload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7w1dua
|
why is e85 85% ethanol?
|
[
{
"answer": " > What makes that ratio so special?\n\nIt is about as much as every passenger vehicles can take without damaging the engine.\n\n > In fact, why don't they just sell pure ethanol and remove the reliance on petroleum all together?\n\nIn the winter you wouldn't be able to start your car. There are no passenger vehicles designed to take 100% ethanol and the utility of a fuel consumers can't use is pretty low. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "E85 has between 51 and 83% ethanol, by law (in the U.S.). Outside of the US it has 85%, and you can get 100% ethanol in some places too, mostly in warm areas.\n\nYou have to mix it because it won't ignite in cold weather without some gasoline - the exact mix of ethanol and gas is often changed depending on where you are (the weather!).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many reasons:\n\n* The higher the ethanol content, the harder the car is to start in the winter.\n\n* Ethanol makes the engine run hotter, which decreases engine life. 85% is a reasonable compromize.\n\n* Ethanol is problematic, in that it dissolves gaskets.\n\n* Ethanol also dissolves oil residue gunk in places where it isn't a problem and deposits it in places where it can be a problem. I lost a petrol engine to that (they also mix some ethanol into the petrol in Sweded), as the oil ducts clogged up and the top seized. I've heard from mechanic friends that this is starting to become a common problem.\n\n* Ethanol is extremely flammable. Petrol, while it burns spectacularly when ignited, is pretty hard to ignite, as it is picky about air/fuel mixture. Not so with ethanol. Ethanol wants nothing more than to go fireball, and will do so even from a tiny spark with a much wider range of air/fuel mixtures. Petrol tames it a bit. This, by the way, is why you can lock the trigger on the handle of a petrol or diesel pump, but not an ethanol pump. If you let go of the handle, static electricity might build up and produce a spark.\n\n* 100% ethanol would be possible to dilute with water and drink, providing a cheap and uncontrolled source of alcohol. Ethanol is the type of alcohol we drink.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155310",
"title": "Common ethanol fuel mixtures",
"section": "Section::::E85.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "E85, a mixture of 85% ethanol and ~15% gasoline, is generally the highest ethanol fuel mixture found in the United States and several European countries, particularly in Sweden, as this blend is the standard fuel for flexible-fuel vehicles. This mixture has an octane rating of 108, however, the Ethanol molecule also carries with it an Oxygen atom, -where-as Octane (A.K.A Gasoline) does not carry an Oxygen atom- effectively requiring the internal combustion engine to ingest less air per unit-volume by its' own accord, which reduces pumping losses, and further increases the exo-thermic chemical reaction. Ethanol fuel is considered -although not widely known as- a form of \"chemical supercharging\", similar to that of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) & Nitromethane (CH3NO2).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608623",
"title": "Ethanol fuel",
"section": "Section::::Engines.:Fuel economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to conventional gasoline, and even smaller (1–2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends. For E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 produces lower mileage than gasoline, and requires more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. The EPA-rated mileage of current United States flex-fuel vehicles should be considered when making price comparisons, but E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 94–96, and should be compared to premium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1905105",
"title": "Flexible-fuel vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Flexible-fuel vehicles by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol, and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor, which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel, allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle's tank. Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5902728",
"title": "E85 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 860,
"text": ", E85 is frequently sold for up to 36% lower price per quantity than gasoline. Much of this discount can be attributed to various government subsidies, and, at least in the United States, the elimination of state taxes that typically apply to gasoline and can amount to 47 cents, or more, per gallon of fuel. The US federal tax exemption that keeps ethanol economically competitive with petroleum fuel products is due to expire in 2007, but this exemption may be extended through legislative action. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the price of E85 rose to nearly on par with the cost of 87 octane gasoline in many states in the United States, and was for a short time the only fuel available when gasoline was sold out, but within four weeks of Katrina, the price of E85 had fallen once more to a 20% to 35% lower cost than 87 octane gasoline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1768543",
"title": "E85",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "In countries like Australia where E85 is always 85% ethanol (and pump fuel with varying fractions is called \"flex fuel\"), performance motoring enthusiasts and motor racing clubs/championships use E85 extensively (without the need for any FFV certification). Use of alcohol (ethanol and methanol) in motor racing history parallels the invention of the automobile, favoured due to inherent combustion characteristics such as high thermal efficiency, raised torque and with some advanced engines, better specific fuel consumption. In the United States, government subsidies of ethanol in general and E85 in particular have encouraged a growing infrastructure for the retail sale of E85, especially in corn growing states in the Midwest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29238113",
"title": "Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Technology and production.:Fuel economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. However, this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34% reduction in miles per U.S. gallon, because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine, though for E85 the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA EPA-rated mileage for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. When making price comparisons it has to be considered that E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1905105",
"title": "Flexible-fuel vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Flexible-fuel vehicles by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The American E85 flex-fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol, anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol by volume. Both fuels are mixed in the same tank, and E85 is sold already blended. In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather, the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85%. There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 (called winter E85 blend) in very cold regions, where temperatures fall below during the winter. In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cg6jsu
|
why are nitrites toxic to tank fish, but nitrates are okay?
|
[
{
"answer": "That one oxygen atom changes the shape, structure, and function.\n\nFor example Nitrates are used in many fertilizers and explosives. Nitrites are used in food preservation.\n\nNitrates form strong acids and nitrates form weaker acids.\n\nThat one extra oxygen atom in Nitrates makes a huge difference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kinda of an add on to [Fourtires3rims](_URL_0_):\n\nCO2 is not toxic but CO is toxic. Though there is only one oxygen missing. Well that oxygen changes the shape of the compound and/or its behavior.\n\nSCN is not toxic but CN is why because of the shape. Its shape allows to bond to protein (forgot, sorry) in ETC and thus does not allow your cell to use O2.\n\nThe same applies to NO2 and NO3 also another thing to note is that the charge on NO2 is 2- and NO3 is 3- and this charge difference changes what each of anions bond to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11993608",
"title": "Cured fish",
"section": "Section::::Nitrates and nitrites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1364,
"text": "Nitrates and nitrites have been used for hundreds of years to prevent botulism in fish and ensure microbial safety. Nitrates help kill bacteria, produce a characteristic flavor, and give fish a pink or red color. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when the preserved food is cooked at high temperature. However, the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing. A 2007 study by Columbia University suggests a link between eating cured meats and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nitrites were posited as a possible cause. The use of either compound is carefully regulated. For example, the FDA Code of Federal Regulations states that sodium nitrite may be safely used: \"As a color fixative in smoked cured tunafish products so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 10 parts per million (0.001 percent) in the finished product... As a preservative and color fixative, with or without sodium nitrate, in smoked, cured sablefish, smoked, cured salmon, and smoked, cured shad so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 200 parts per million and the level of sodium nitrate does not exceed 500 parts per million in the finished product.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21497",
"title": "Nitrate",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used in certain specialty curing processes where a long release of nitrite from parent nitrate stores is needed. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrates are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures. The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. The production of carcinogenic nitrosamines may be inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573054",
"title": "Niter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Because of its ready solubility in water, niter is most often found in arid environments and often in conjunction with other soluble minerals like halides, iodates, borates, gypsum, and rarer carbonates and sulphates. A major source of sodium nitrate mineral (\"Chile saltpeter\" or nitratine) is the Atacama Desert in Chile. Potassium and other nitrates are of great importance for use in fertilizers and, historically, gunpowder. Much of the world's demand is now met by synthetically produced nitrates, though the natural mineral is still mined and is still of significant commercial value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6494435",
"title": "Curing (food preservation)",
"section": "Section::::Chemical actions.:Nitrates and nitrites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1282,
"text": "The use of nitrites in food preservation is controversial due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrites are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures. The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. Nitrates and nitrites may cause cancer and the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing. Under simulated gastric conditions, nitrosothiols rather than nitrosamines are the main nitroso species being formed. The use of either compound is therefore regulated; for example, in the United States, the concentration of nitrates and nitrites is generally limited to 200 ppm or lower. While the meat industry considers them irreplaceable because of their low cost and efficacy at maintaining color, botulism is an extremely rare disease (less than 1000 cases reported worldwide per year), and almost always associated with home preparations of food storing. Furthermore, while the FDA has set a limit of 200 ppm of nitrates for cured meat, they are not allowed and not recognized as safe in most other foods, even foods that are not cooked at high temperatures, such as cheese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407615",
"title": "Sodium nitrite",
"section": "Section::::Acute toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1258,
"text": "While this chemical will prevent the growth of bacteria, it can be toxic in high amounts for animals and humans. Sodium nitrite's LD in rats is 180 mg/kg and its human LD is 71 mg/kg, meaning a 65 kg person would likely have to consume at least 4.6 g to result in death. To prevent toxicity, sodium nitrite (blended with salt) sold as a food additive is dyed bright pink to avoid mistaking it for plain salt or sugar. Nitrites are not naturally occurring in vegetables in significant quantities. However, nitrates are found in commercially available vegetables and a study in an intensive agricultural area in northern Portugal found residual nitrate levels in 34 vegetable samples, including different varieties of cabbage, lettuce, spinach, parsley and turnips ranged between 54 and 2440 mg/kg, e.g. curly kale (302.0 mg/kg) and green cauliflower (64 mg/kg). Boiling vegetables lowers nitrate but not nitrite. Fresh meat contains 0.4–0.5 mg/kg nitrite and 4–7 mg/kg of nitrate (10–30 mg/kg nitrate in cured meats). The presence of nitrite in animal tissue is a consequence of metabolism of nitric oxide, an important neurotransmitter. Nitric oxide can be created \"de novo\" from nitric oxide synthase utilizing arginine or from ingested nitrate or nitrite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6494435",
"title": "Curing (food preservation)",
"section": "Section::::Chemical actions.:Nitrates and nitrites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Nitrates and nitrites not only help kill bacteria, but also produce a characteristic flavor and give meat a pink or red color. Nitrite () is generally supplied by sodium nitrite or (indirectly) by potassium nitrate. Nitrite salts are most often used in curing. Nitrate is specifically used only in a few curing conditions and products where nitrite (which may be generated from nitrate) must be generated in the product over long periods of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8052493",
"title": "CrustaStun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "There are claims that shellfish killed with the CrustaStun taste better than those killed by boiling. Waitrose, Tesco and other major supermarkets in the United Kingdom have insisted that all shellfish products supplied to them are killed using this method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s4ml7
|
why is cancer the most common disease associated with dna mutations?
|
[
{
"answer": "Of all the things that mutations cause (that is, mutations that happen *after* a person has been born), most of them probably just end up with the mutated DNA getting repaired or removed, or the cell that contains it being destroyed through programmed cell death. Cancer is the result of a mutation that removes the cell's ability to repair or quarantine mutations. It isn't that so much of DNA is devoted to reproduction that any one mutation is likely to damage that section of the DNA. It's that, of all the mutations that happen, the ones that can survive and reproduce are necessarily the ones that alter the normal reproduction/cell death processes (and these are the mutations that cause cancer.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other mutations exist, but one cell having some odd mutation doesn't do much. Mutations that lead to uncontrolled cell division cause that one cell to become exponentially more cells. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, with cancer, what is actually happening is a few things.\n\nFirst of all its not just one mutation. Your body mutates constantly, DNA is always messed up, and even then your RNA gets spliced up and you are making faulty proteins all the time. Mutation is actually how things evolve partly.\n\nThe concept with cancer is actually different than just mutation.\n\nThink of a car. If you cut the gas, well it won't move. Sometimes DNA will mutate and your body will find it and won't make it duplicate or be transcribed during transcription.\n\nNow DNA also can actually not be picked up by \"scanners\" when it mutates sometimes. We can call this cutting the breaks. So during transcription lots of crap happens that's not supposed to, and so we just let it go inside the cell and push everything that has been made out of the nucleus to get eaten up by lysosomses (cell stomachs).\n\nNow normally for actually cancer to happen, we need about 5 breaks cut and 10 gas pedals broken. It takes a lot of DNA fuckup to actually cause cancer.\n\nAnd if it does happen, we have this awesome enzyme called p53, which Is actually one GIGANTIC and I mean FUCKING HUGE protein made to just deal with cancer. An about 5000 different enzymes to detect it and stop it.\n\nCells also realize there is cancerous cells and go about trying to kill it, but then if we cut another 5 break lines and another 4 gas pedals in that cancerous cell, it won't tell other cells its cancerous.\n\nAfter that theres a tint threshold were the cell will try to kill itself, but one more break line cut, and that's it.\n\nIts pretty hard for this process to occur. But realize mutations happen like a thousand times a minute, and the \"gas pedals\" and \"break lines\" of DNA replication, transcription, and translation, are happening all the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32706791",
"title": "Genome instability",
"section": "Section::::In cancer.:Cause of mutations in cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "The likely major underlying cause of mutations in cancer is DNA damage. For example, in the case of lung cancer, DNA damage is caused by agents in exogenous genotoxic tobacco smoke (e.g. acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide and isoprene). Endogenous (metabolically-caused) DNA damage is also very frequent, occurring on average more than 60,000 times a day in the genomes of human cells (see DNA damage (naturally occurring)). Externally and endogenously caused damages may be converted into mutations by inaccurate translesion synthesis or inaccurate DNA repair (e.g. by non-homologous end joining). In addition, DNA damages can also give rise to epigenetic alterations during DNA repair. Both mutations and epigenetic alterations (epimutations) can contribute to progression to cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35746225",
"title": "Cancer epigenetics",
"section": "Section::::DNA repair pathways.:Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "Cancers have high levels of genome instability, associated with a high frequency of mutations. A high frequency of genomic mutations increases the likelihood of particular mutations occurring that activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes, leading to carcinogenesis. On the basis of whole genome sequencing, cancers are found to have thousands to hundreds of thousands of mutations in their whole genomes. (Also see Mutation frequencies in cancers.) By comparison, the mutation frequency in the whole genome between generations for humans (parent to child) is about 70 new mutations per generation. In the protein coding regions of the genome, there are only about 0.35 mutations between parent/child generations (less than one mutated protein per generation). Whole genome sequencing in blood cells for a pair of identical twin 100-year-old centenarians only found 8 somatic differences, though somatic variation occurring in less than 20% of blood cells would be undetected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1264722",
"title": "Malignant transformation",
"section": "Section::::Common underlying factors in cancer.:Mutations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Cancers also generally have genome instability, that includes a high frequency of mutations in the noncoding DNA that makes up about 98% of the human genome. The average number of DNA sequence mutations in the entire genome of breast cancer tissue is about 20,000. In an average melanom (where melanomas have a higher exome mutation frequency) the total number of DNA sequence mutations is about 80,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30778342",
"title": "Infectious causes of cancer",
"section": "Section::::DNA damage and genome instability due to oncogenic infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "DNA damage and genomic instability appear to be the basic causes of sporadic (non-familial) cancer. While infections have many effects, infectious organisms that increase the risk of cancer are frequently a source of DNA damage or genomic instability, as discussed below for oncogenic viruses and an oncogenic bacterium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414192",
"title": "Ovarian cancer",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "Overall, the most common gene mutations in ovarian cancer occur in \"NF1, BRCA1, BRCA2, \"and \"CDK12\". Type I ovarian cancers, which tend to be less aggressive, tend to have microsatellite instability in several genes, including both oncogenes (most notably \"BRAF\" and \"KRAS\") and tumor suppressors (most notably \"PTEN\"). The most common mutations in Type I cancers are \"KRAS, BRAF, ERBB2, PTEN, PIK3CA,\" and \"ARID1A.\" Type II cancers, the more aggressive type, have different genes mutated, including \"p53, BRCA1\", and \"BRCA2\". Low-grade cancers tend to have mutations in KRAS, whereas cancers of any grade that develop from low malignant potential tumors tend to have mutations in p53. Type I cancers tend to develop from precursor lesions, whereas Type II cancers can develop from a serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma. Serous cancers that have BRCA mutations also inevitably have p53 mutations, indicating that the removal of both functional genes is important for cancer to develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32706791",
"title": "Genome instability",
"section": "Section::::In cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1073,
"text": "It is currently accepted that sporadic tumors (non-familial ones) are originated due to the accumulation of several genetic errors. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein altering mutations, of which about 3 or 4 may be \"driver\" mutations, and the remaining ones may be \"passenger\" mutations Any genetic or epigenetic lesion increasing the mutation rate will have as a consequence an increase in the acquisition of new mutations, increasing then the probability to develop a tumor. During the process of tumorogenesis, it is known that diploid cells acquire mutations in genes responsible for maintaining genome integrity (\"caretaker genes\"), as well as in genes that are directly controlling cellular proliferation (\"gatekeeper genes\"). Genetic instability can originate due to deficiencies in DNA repair, or due to loss or gain of chromosomes, or due to large scale chromosomal reorganizations. Losing genetic stability will favour tumor development, because it favours the generation of mutants that can be selected by the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70425",
"title": "Inflammation",
"section": "Section::::Inflammatory disorders.:Cancer.:Mediators and DNA damage in cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 1472,
"text": "Genome-wide analyses of human cancer tissues reveal that a single typical cancer cell may possess roughly 100 mutations in coding regions, 10-20 of which are “driver mutations” that contribute to cancer development. However, chronic inflammation also causes epigenetic changes such as DNA methylations, that are often more common than mutations. Typically, several hundreds to thousands of genes are methylated in a cancer cell (see DNA methylation in cancer). Sites of oxidative damage in chromatin can recruit complexes that contain DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), a histone deacetylase (SIRT1), and a histone methyltransferase (EZH2), and thus induce DNA methylation. DNA methylation of a CpG island in a promoter region may cause silencing of its downstream gene (see CpG site and regulation of transcription in cancer). DNA repair genes, in particular, are frequently inactivated by methylation in various cancers (see hypermethylation of DNA repair genes in cancer). A 2018 report evaluated the relative importance of mutations and epigenetic alterations in progression to two different types of cancer. This report showed that epigenetic alterations were much more important than mutations in generating gastric cancers (associated with inflammation). However, mutations and epigenetic alterations were of roughly equal importance in generating esophageal squamous cell cancers (associated with tobacco chemicals and acetaldehyde, a product of alcohol metabolism).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dbk0mw
|
why are some drink powders white but then turn a bright/deep shade after adding water
|
[
{
"answer": "Artificial food coloring is extremely concentrated. A couple of granules, hidden among the white granules that make up most of the drink mix, are all it takes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5751925",
"title": "4-Aminophenol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Reflecting its slightly hydrophilic character, the white powder is moderately soluble in alcohols and can be recrystallized from hot water. In the presence of a base, it oxidizes readily. The methylated derivatives \"N\"-methylaminophenol and \"N\",\"N\"-dimethylaminophenol are of commercial value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263156",
"title": "Ouzo",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Ouzo is a clear liquid. However, when water or ice is added, ouzo turns a milky-white colour. This is because anethole, the essential oil of anise, is completely soluble in alcohol at approximately 38% ABV and above, but not in water. Diluting the spirit causes it to separate creating an emulsion, whose fine droplets scatter the light. This process is called louching, and is also found while preparing absinthe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6102",
"title": "Cyan",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:Color of water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pure water is nearly colorless. However, it does absorb slightly more red light than blue, giving large volumes of water a bluish tint; increased scattering of blue light due to fine particles in the water shifts the blue color toward green, for a typically cyan net color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3419391",
"title": "Purple-K",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Purple-K powder has an acrid taste and odor, is free-flowing, floating on most liquids, non-abrasive, does not wet with water and is compatible with most foam concentrates. It has violet color, to distinguish it from other dry agents. Its principal component is potassium bicarbonate (78–82% by weight), with addition of sodium bicarbonate (12–15%), mica (1–3%), Fuller's earth (1–3%), amorphous silica (0.2–%), and is made hydrophobic by methyl hydrogen polysiloxane (0.2–1%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18448384",
"title": "Seidlitz powders",
"section": "Section::::Composition and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The powders were often packaged in a small envelope containing two coloured paper wraps, one white and one blue. The white packets contained tartaric acid, and the blue packets contained a mixture of 75% w/w Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) and 25% baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). The powdery contents of both packets were stirred or dissolved separately in water and then mixed, giving off carbon dioxide with a characteristic fizzing sound. The drink was described as \"a cooling, agreeable draught\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20107445",
"title": "Taurolidine",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "It is a white to off white odourless crystalline powder. It is practically insoluble in chloroform, slightly soluble in boiling acetone, ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate, sparingly soluble in water 8 at 20° and ethyl alcohol, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute sodium hydroxide, and freely soluble in N,N-dimethylformamide (at 60 °C).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14952464",
"title": "Alcohol thermometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The liquid used can be pure ethanol, toluene, kerosene or isoamyl acetate, depending on manufacturer and working temperature range. Since these are transparent, the liquid is made more visible by the addition of a red or blue dye. One half of the glass containing the capillary is usually enamelled white or yellow to give a background for reading the scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6de844
|
how and why are books like the great gatsby and of mice and men chosen for reading in english classes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Considered part of the canon of English literature (heavily read, written about, and esteemed) and are also both accessible, easy, and short compared to many classics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*Finally, my degree is useful for something!*\n\nSo educators are usually really *bad* at explaining why you read the things you read for school. The core concept to grasp here is the *literary canon*: that is, the body of works that are the foundation of [Western] literature. They are the most historically and culturally significant pieces of literature being studied currently. But how do works get added to the canon?\n\nThe surface layer is that they get into the canon because old stuffy [usually white, usually male] scholars *want* to study them, so they do, so it's expected that their students study them, so they do, so it's expected that to prepare for college you have to study them, so you do. It's not like a few Ivy League professors sat down in a dark, smokey room and discussed the future of the literary canon...but also it kind of is like that? Keep in mind, there are multiple \"sub-canons\". There is the American literature canon (featuring Anne Bradstreet, Thoreau, Emerson, Faulkner, Hemingway, Whitman, etc.); the British literature canon (Shakespeare, Geoffrey Chaucer, John Donne, Jane Austen, etc.), the poetry canon (Frost, Emerson, Whitman, Donne, Herbert, Shakespeare, etc.), the historical foundational canon (Homer, Virgil, *Beowulf*, *Gilgamesh*, etc.), the science fiction canon (Mary Shelley, Frank Herbert, Robert Heinlein, etc.). I know I'm throwing a lot of names at you; the point is that there is *the canon* and then there is \"I'm studying English poetry in the late 1800s, *these* are the people I should be reading\".\n\nWhich then **raises** the question, why do those scholars want to study those works? We have the benefit of hindsight, so *today* we might read Hemingway and [rightly] think he's boring and dry. But at the time his writing style was revolutionary. Before Hemingway, prose was all very *eloquent* and had propensity for verbosity. Hemingway wrote in a short, clean, *different* style. You may not like it, but he made it ok to *not* write in the old, stuffy way that everyone had been writing before him. That's not to say Hemingway was the first, or the best, but he was *good* and he was famous and he showed everyone that you could write in a different fashion. Suddenly everyone was writing in this new minimalist style, which in turn led to other changes in literature that allowed for the kinds of books we read today for fun. Without Hemingway, our literature today would look *very* different. Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson did the same thing for poetry. Those are some very specific examples, but I hope they can demonstrate how authors can influence literature, and sometimes they're a part of the canon for those reasons.\n\nThe very old part of the canon is in there for much the same reason, but more in the sense of *inventing literature at all*. Homer's Odyssey is the foundational work for *so much* of western literature. Literally everything you've ever read, **ever**, was influenced by the Odyssey. And Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest great work of literature - the oldest version of That Movie That Everyone Saw. It's the first ever example of real literature, which is kind of a big deal. Studying them can help you understand how storytelling evolved, by showing you how it started. I won't go into too much detail here about what, exactly, you would learn (narrative structure, framing devices...) because I don't need to give you an English lesson, eh? Suffice it to say, there's a lot there to unpack.\n\nSome works are a part of the canon because they're just easy to digest. F. Scott Fitzgerald is fairly easy to analyze and understand on a more abstract level, mostly because all of his symbolism is the same (that is, everything represents the \"unobtainable American Dream\"). It wouldn't do any good to say, \"Here kids, learn how to analyze literature by *analyzing the most difficult literature possible*\". Of course, unfortunately that's often *exactly* what English classes do. It's akin to saying, \"Here kids, let's learn how to do math. Shall we start with calculus? No? Trigonometry then...\" Which is unfortunate, because literature is awesome and there's some really cool stuff to learn...once you learn the tools you need to do it. But I digress.\n\nBut most of the canon boils down to be cultural icons of the time when they were published, or sometimes later when people rediscovered them. They can be both a window into the culture surrounding the person that wrote the works, why they wrote what they did, what symbolism they were using at the time, how they thought and viewed the world; and also a window into how that one piece of literature or author or movement changed the culture they were in, which trickled down to influence our own culture. They can also be ways to understand ourselves by analyzing our own reactions to what we're reading, and the literature in the canon often elicits strong reactions in its readers.\n\nNone of that is to say that the canon is perfect; far from it! I studied English and I hate huge chunks of the canon ([don't even get me started on *Catcher in the Rye*](_URL_0_)). But that's the idea of it: important literature that had a powerful influence on people and the times they were from, which encourages others to study that literature, which is itself a strong reaction that encourages others to study why the first people studied it, etc., so that it continues to have influence and continues to be important literature worth studying. TL;DR: The literary canon is literature that is \"worth studying\".\n\nEDIT: Important thing I totally missed. The literary canon is also supposed to be an introduction to your own national identity. When you so much as watch cartoons you'll be getting [references to cultural icons](_URL_2_). Seriously, as an adult go back and watch Animaniacs (it's on Netflix!) and see how many references you *didn't* get when you were a kid. When you read the American literary canon it's in part teaching you what it means to be an American. It helps build a unifying web of understanding, because when you make a joke about how painting a fence is \"fun\" and someone else laughs, you think *This guy also read Tom Sawyer* and you feel a connection with that person. Enough of those cultural connections help form the glue that is our national identity. It kind of sounds like indoctrination...and it kind of is. And that's not *bad* because it's teaching you about your country and how to be a citizen of that country, which is perfectly fine as long as it doesn't get out of control.\n\nEDIT: Hemingway has one m. I derped *so hard*. Thanks for the guys that caught it. EDIT: and Emerson, dammnit. I am a derp, sorry for the typos. Eventually I'll run out of names to misspell.\n\nEDIT: for the pedants: ~~begs~~ raises\n\nEDIT: Obligatory Thanks for the Gold, but [I think they misspelled Emmerson](_URL_3_). ^^/s\n\nBecause people have been asking: [This is my scifi reviews/essay blog](_URL_1_). The responses have really been really encouraging, so I'm going to try to revitalize it and get to posting there again. If you're into aquariums, [I also have a blog about aquariums](_URL_4_). I do most of my writing on Reddit, though - right here in ELI5!\n\nI have been convinced to reread *Catcher in the Rye* to see if age will give me a better perspective. I stand by my dislike of Hemingway, but if you enjoy him don't let me stop you.\n\n**TL;DR - Like the rest of this comment, the books you are assigned to read in class are probably worth reading for reasons that will be made clear if you read the rest of that book/this comment.**",
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"answer": "They are easy to teach. \n\nOf Mice and Men is packed full of figurative language and writing tools (metaphors, similes, foreshadowing, imagery, idioms and personification), which is necessary for teaching English and writing. \n\nIt is relatively short so not unreasonable to expect students to be able to read it in full in a short period of time and not expensive to print, relatively speaking. \n\nThere are lots of classic and canon books out there, but they can be too long, or the symbolism is absent or too obscure & complex for high-school teaching. \n\nAlso I love John Steinbeck so don't mind adding that it is genuinely an enjoyable and unpretentious book to read as well. \n\n(I haven't read Gatsby so no idea on that one)",
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"answer": "Most curriculum cover brit lit, or american lit, which explains certain titles of literature chosen from that time,but most always they choose from classics, specifically from what's called the \"western canon\", a selection thought to heavily shape western civilization.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "They choose the books based of Historical/cultural significance and writing quality. Basically all the books you study should be chosen based on some important theme in them - of Mice and Men is about the depression, Gatsby is about the Roaring Twenties and To Kill a Mockingbird is about racism and the Great Depression. This can inform the students about important context (especially Mockingbird) and a 'real connection' often makes books more attractive to study. \n\nThe other reason is that these books are easy to analyse. They are full of symbolism, foreshadowing and the historical context. Books like Frankenstein might be a dry read but it is a goldmine for analysis, and the deeper themes present (social commentary, (possible) homosexuality) means you can go to town on them. It is far easier to study that (and will benefit your skills more) than to go for something more enjoyable and (often) newer - which are often more readable but less deep (or restrictively long). \n\nOf Mice and Men is a really easy text to do analysis in, it's short and full of foreshadowing. Gatsby also has foreshadowing, but also themes of wealth, inequality etc. And some books can be 'read into' easily - that Nick is gay is not specific in the text but many student pick that up and believe it, it gives chances to develop skills simpler books don't have. \n\nThese make then qualify for the studying 'cannon', books like Gatsby and Of Mice and Men are chosen a lot because of the wealth of secondary literature on them, making critical opinion easy to find. ",
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"answer": "I have taught in South Central LA and I now teach in Urban Indonesia. I have yet to have one student not connect personally to Of Mice and Men. Whether they are in a gang or a billionaire (I've taught both) there is something in there for them. Part of literature and story-telling is that it unites us all. Good stories can transcend time and culture. The mythical Canon is usually made up of books that teachers believe do these things. ",
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"answer": "First off, my credentials: B.A. in English from UC Santa Barbara, M.A. in Modern Literature from Queen Mary University of London.\n\nJohn Steinbeck and F. Scott Fitzgerald are canonical American authors. Period. Full stop. Why? They were best sellers. Why? Because they captured what is known as the \"zeitgeist\" or the 'spirit of the era,' to paraphrase. They also happened to be masters of the novel form. Don't believe me? Read \"East of Eden\" and \"Tender Is the Night.\" Disagree? Go ahead. Write something better. These men wrote what is known as \"the great American novel.\" Who will be next?\n\nYou?\n\nHer?\n\nMe? \n\nWho knows?\n\nBye.",
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"answer": "They live in the sweet spot for the reading comprehension level in high school. Easy themes, short, secular,\n\nPlus they teach you valuable life lessons. Like wearing a glove full of vaseline to keep your hand soft for your fiance. ",
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"answer": "Any combination of these:\n\n(a) They're considered classics because people still enjoy them (or find value in them) long after they were published;\n\n(b) They're considered edifying, in that typically they have a strong moral message;\n\n(c) They present a full smorgasbord of things that can be studied, such as strong narrative themes, characterisation, cultural properties, historical interest, and so on. \n\n",
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"answer": "Books such as Gatsby and OMAM are chosen because they are arguably the most accurate representations of the literary philosophies of their respective time periods. Perhaps the very reason that English classes study books at all is to gain an understanding of the author and his/her perspective, but these so-called classic books give insight to the opinions and values of the masses at the time. For example, Gatsby was written by one of the prime modernist writers, F. Scott Fitzgerald, who was able to really capture the essence of early 20th century America in the novel. Because of this, students can go back and study Gatsby to gain some kind of understanding of what life may have been like during that era and possibly garner some new perspective that can be applied to their own belief systems. ",
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"answer": "Ooh ooh I got one more for this one. How are graphic stories like \"The Lottery\" allowed for children to read in English/ELA classes? I read that and the lesson was \"somethings were deemed too inappropriate\" and that was it. Had to write a book report on a stoning which could still be very possible just because of the wow factor of the story at the time of its original release, nothing of value was learned from it.",
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"answer": "When I took an Access to University course I learned so much. We studied a variety of subjects; history, psychology, English literature were my main three; and I found that they all went hand in hand.\n\nWe studied One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest by Ken Kesey, Trumpet by Jackie Kay, the poetry of Maya Angelou, , A Passageway to India and The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy. We did some Shakespeare and short stories by Roahl Dahl, The Vendetta by Guy de Maupassant, The Veldt by Ray Bradbury, Town and Country Lovers by Nadine Gordimer and poetry by the Brontë sisters.\n\nThis literature is like a snapshot of the time in which it is written. Not only do you learn about the style of writing a great deal, you also pick up knowledge of important events and themes that made me feel more well rounded as an adult. \n\nI wasn't a feminist until I was introduced to the idea through history and literature. I learned about the Suffragettes in History, read literature that illustrated examples of prejudice in action in English Lit, and studied the psychology of discrimination and prejudice in Psychology. \n\nThey expanded my knowledge of Apartheid, mental health before the 60s and how this tied in to women and the idea that both the mentally ill and women were discriminated against and locked away. \n\nI learned about Slavery and Racism, and how that tied in to feminism. And society and class, again showing the oppression of minorities and looking really at the different ways we identify ourselves and others, and how that can make us feel, both good and bad.\n\nAs I learned I realised that not only was this studying helping prepare me to learn at a higher level, I was becoming more well rounded as a person. Knowledge was not the only thing imparted, it shaped me and the way I thought. I learned more about myself on that course than in the whole of my life before it, it showed me ideas that I had never considered before, taught me how to think critically and how to express myself. \n\nWhen I looked back at the literature I studied in high school, I had a much deeper understanding of why I was taught these things. Literature was a vehicle for so much more than words on a page. It helped me to see why I studied, who I was inside, what my values were, what direction I wanted my life to go in and broadened my horizons in life. I wanted to know more about everything. \n\nI've not done my degree yet and it's been a while since I studied so forgive me if I am not entirely clear or have gotten any authors or titles wrong.",
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"answer": "There are two reasons we read these books: \n\n1. The books are part of a group of well-respected books called \"the canon.\" These are books that over the years scholars have studied again and again until they became \"classic.\"\n\n2. Out of all the books in the canon, some are easier to teach because they are more obvious in their use of literary devices (tools writers use to make their points). The Great Gatsby, for example, uses metaphors and symbolism all over the place. They're easy to point out and kids get a quick win when they recognize them. \n\nMost high school reading fulfills both of these criteria. Occasionally you'll see teachers pick books that aren't classic but have a literary device they want to teach, or you'll see books from the canon that are harder to teach but important to learn (some Shakespeare). But you'll seldom see some of the denser or more ambiguous books in the canon: I've yet to see a high school teacher try to teach Ulysses. \n\nEdit: TIL that plenty of high schools were way cooler than my kinda crappy backwater public school and taught Joyce's Ulysses. Color me jealous. ",
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"answer": "Because books like these contain many levels and layers of meaning to reflect upon. Some of those layers will be noticed by teenagers, perhaps some mostly by adults, and perhaps even some only to senior citizens. As a reader grows, evolves, and gains life experience there are new ways to look at them in addition to the teenage ways. This is why \"old, stuffy, white, or male\" readers might consider them worth rereading in the first place. If there was something about the books that continued to resonate with those readers, then that value will be available for the following generations of readers. In short, the books of the 1920's that did NOT resonate with teenage readers of subsequent generations aren't being taught in English classes. Likewise, books written in 2017 that do not resonate with subsequent generations will NOT be taught in English classes in the beginning of the 22nd century (regardless of the race or gender of the author.) It takes a long time to realize this.",
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"answer": "Classics in American literature are chosen because the story or the hero reflects an important part of U.S. culture, ideals, or history.",
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"answer": "Haha! Finally MY degree is useful here. I am a special education teacher and teach middle school high functioning autism. I also happen to teach for a cooperative, mrsningy (edit: most of my) students come from all around the area, covering multiple school districts each with their own set of expectations for student growth. I'm basically told each year \"figure something out\".\n\nNow this would be golden for most teachers who hate teaching from a required script but since I deal with students who hate school by the time they get to me, it can get tough. I'm also a veteran teacher so my admins just figure I know what I'm doing (sometimes I do sometimes I don't). I'm given a budget each year and expected to field an entire curriculum from that.\n\nAbout 4 year ago I decided that having them read science fiction and fantasy books is over. They prefer that type of story because it's more fun to read, but I hate Harry Potter and the hunger games by now, so I decided to find books that would challenge them. We now read classics iny classroom like \"Of Mice and Men\" and 'Huck Finn\", books that have far deeper meaning than anything they would ever read on their own, and books that even most middle school teachers avoid. \n\nSo for my experience, we read those books because I want them to. \n\nEdit: We read Percy Jackson each year because I can tie in Greek history and they get a kick out of that. We do read plenty of books they enjoy but I HAVE to expose them to historical literature or \"classics\" such as The Outsiders which most may not consider a classic yet. Most of my students come to me because their home schools have given up on them and can't figure out how to teach them. I have a specialized classroom designed for their needs and while it is a relaxing place I force them to challenge themselves and at times the work is far tougher than in their home school because I do have that easier environment to learn in. But they all come out better people because of it. If I don't they won't be prepared for high school and I have yet to have a student not finish a book and love it after six years in this group. Yes it's hard and yes they fight at first but once we see in there I see the light in their eyes and I know I have them hooked.",
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"answer": "As an English teacher - they're the only books the school has copies of so we get to read them. Specially true with Shakespeare. O I love him but I don't love Romeo and Juliet or Midsummer's Night Dream. I'd love to read a winter's tale or richard III. Or even a play by a different author from the same time like The Roaring Girl which is about a girl who dresses like a man and had sword fights. But the schools can't afford new books.",
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"answer": "As an English Lit grad, high school teacher and college prof, I love this post and all the discussion, passion and debate.\n\nHarold Bloom offers us his version of a western canon of 26 works and explains why they should be part of the canon.\n_URL_1_\n\nAlthough Bloom does not ELI5, it does offer us a succinct list. But it also points out that anyone can make their own canon. Although Bloom is not just anyone in scholarly circles.\nHe also makes explicit that his is a \"Western\" canon. Other canons exist, either by geography or by theme, style, gender, period, language etc. The number of canons could be endless.\n\nAn author that tops my canon is Milan Kundera, and my favourite is \"Immortality\".\nb p nichol is my favourite poet. So playful and free!\nNot sure if these make my canon, but I love reading Vonnegut, Hunter S Thompson, Chuck Palahniuk. \nI couldn't wait to share each new Harry Potter novel with my son and loved how so many of my students got turned on to reading by J K Rowling.\nWas about to submit, but can't without adding Arthur C Clarke, Robert Heinlein and even the Ender's Game series although I choke a little when I think about its author's religious and moral beliefs.\n\nKeep reading and enjoying literature!\nWho is in your canon or canons?\n\nedit: replaced book cover with blurry angel butt with alternative edition\n \n _URL_0_ ",
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"answer": "So my wife is an English teacher and she is going through the process to pick out her books for next school year right now. The teachers are limited by a number of factors. \n\nTo start, they are limited by school funding and student fees. My wife's school won't let her spend more than $12 worth of books per student, she since teaches in a poor rural Ohio school district. Because of this limit, she can only spend $3-4 per book. That limits her to only the mass market books. In truth, she wants to branch out to do different, more modern works, but just buying one would blow her entire budget and leave her without enough materials to stretch out through the entire school year. \n\nSecond, she has to choose books that fit into her student reading levels. They use lexile ranges, which are a way to measure reading levels. Lexile ranges don't necessarily correlate with grade level. She teaches 9th and 10th grades and she has students reading between 2nd and 12th grade reading levels. How does she choose novels that fit for all of them? She can't. \n\nThird, she has to deal with the administrators. Some of the administrators are very opinionated about what books are taught. \"To Kill A Mocking fits with what the 10th graders are learning in social studies, so I want to you teach that to your sophomores.\" The administrators are also much more difficult to convince the value of some of these more modern and innovative books she wants to teach. \n\nSo between all of these factors, my wife only has a handful of books to choose from. So you know what she ends up having to order? The old standards. In some cases, she doesn't mind, but she is definitely annoyed by how little room choice she has in the selections. ",
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"answer": "I remember having this same thought in school while reading one of the many short storya out of the big litarature text books. Always being asked to reflectand find meaning in the stories. I always missed the big obvious morals and made up my own whimsicle reflection.",
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"answer": "here is an alternate view of why\n\nBecause some pretentious people in the past, that invented fictitious reasons why the books were awesome, told younger people that these books were awesome...and being young some of them believed the pretentious people knew wtf they were talking about. They in turn got into positions of authority and regurgitated the same crap to more future young people. \n\nNow we and our children and our children's children are stuck reading the same boring books because some a-hole 60+ years ago thought they manufactured some hidden meaning or lesson from something that was just a book.\n\nthis is the same principle behind rich people pretending that caviar and pâté actually taste good....when in reality they both taste like crap",
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"answer": "The fact that they are short is more important than it should be. There are other reasons, but short makes books a lot easier to teach. ",
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"answer": "Books like 1984 or similar things are read in school usually to help teach critical thinking and logic.",
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"answer": "The \"great books\" don't always cover deep topics but also are considered benchmarks in the use of language. My favorite example is Moby Dick. As a book it's frankly boring, but open it to any random page and read any random paragraph and it's just perfect. Somehow Melville wrote an 800+ page epic in which every piece of it reads like poetry. Ditto Shakespeare.\n",
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"answer": "It's important that kids know what great literature is, even if it's \"forced\" on them. They may not like it when reading it at first but at least they get to know that there is more to literature than Harry Potter and the likes.\n\nIt's like when I was younger I was exposed to all that great music from my parents all the time. Even if I didn't like it and preferred my own modern music at the time, it gave me a sense of what music could be. As I got older, I learned to appreciate great classic music and different genres which I might not have developed if it wasn't for my exposure to it when I was younger.",
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"answer": "I'm a high school teacher. I teach those books because I like them. Many people who are extremely uninformed about education standards will tell you that I have to follow some formula or series of worksheets, but in reality the English standards can be easily applied to any book as long as they aren't commercial fiction. I enjoyed those books, so I get to force students to read things I like. I'm definitely not about to spend 40 weeks a year trudging through books I hate. It's hard enough to get students to do and enjoy reading, not liking the book yourself just makes it harder. ",
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"answer": "I don't know, All I remember is that in secondary 5 (Quebec french school) I had to read \"Des souris et des hommes\" in french class and \"Les miserâb\" in english litterature at the same time... a whole semester hearing \"Jean Valjean\" in english when 100% of the students were native french speakers. Teachers do whatever they want I think.",
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"answer": "When teachers see those books they think: -\n\nOh, what a cute little book. Just what I always wanted. My own little book. I will name him George, and I will hug him and pet him and squeeze him and pat him and pet him and rub him and caress him and...",
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"answer": "what I never understood is why we were forced to read Shakespeare. I had so many teachers who hated it. When you're 14 years old in ninth grade, even the spark notes version doesn't really make sense. What they should really do is strength your ability to write, so you don't end up like all the college kids in my classes who still didn't know how to use a semicolon\n\nthey focused way way too much on expository writing. They should be teaching research based more, learning how to get the facts. Technical is good too, and creative writing is a really good way to expand your mind.\n\nour public education system in America is lacking, a great example is how it is heavily based too much in the past. The world changes and so should the way we teach. The fact that not a single class I ever took in public school history went beyond the Cold War means they really don't give a shit. How are we supposed to focus on changing the future if you don't teach your kids what happened in the past 30 years, but rather what happened 600 years ago. I had three classes on the French revolution but never once learned about the Vietnam war or first or second Gulf Wars\n\nPublic education in the USA in 99% garbage. You want our kids to be successful, so you teach them nothing and then blame them for incompetence. Fuck the baby boomer generation",
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"answer": "Dale Carnegie once said that when he goes fishing, he doesnt use strawberries and cream as bait, but worms. Now he can never understand what fish find so appealing about worms, but then again, he doesnt have to.\n\nSo to answer your question, schools are fishing (teaching) with strawberries and cream (literary classics) and wondering why the fish (students) arent biting (reading).\n\nIm sure the denizens of this subreddit will downvote me to death, which is fine, but remember, teaching is about relating to the student more than getting the student to relate to you. ",
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"answer": "Ill pitch in because Im an English teacher. Usually the books we read in class are determined by what we have available in storage. There isn't a big annual budget for new books so we work with what we have. Shitty answer but true. I cant ask my students to buy their own books so short of the cost coming out of my pocket, my hands are tied.",
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"answer": "Possibly because they are great books, they challange students and deal with important political and moral issues that we often still deal with today. Like acceptance and stuff like that. That's my opinion anyways. Could be wrong. :)",
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"answer": "As a professional writer, subjecting students to the classics before they have a baseline enjoyment of the act of reading fiction really chafes me. I think a LOT of young readers are permanently turned off of prose fiction because of stuffy, obtuse, irrelevant shit they were forced to read in high school.",
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"answer": "I'm probably too late for this shindig, but there's an important component I see many people missing, and this is, in my view, the most important reason we read books like Huck Finn, The Great Gatsby, and Pride and Prejudice.\n\nYes, part of the answer here is the 'canon', i.e. there's a (possibly arbitrary) group of central texts chosen by old white dudes with Oedipus complexes. Look at other comments for answers about the canon.\n\nNow, I have a problem with the 'canon' answer because it's overly simplified, and is often used as a false comfort. 'The Canon' is the answer people want to hear if they don't understand why they're being made to read *The Great Gatsby*. That is, if you're just bored by *The Great Gatsby*, it's comforting to say, \"Well, some boring old white dudes arbitrarily decided I should read this when really it's just boring drivel that has no relevance to modern life and that's Fitzgerald's fault, not mine, let's move on to Harry Potter. Fuck the canon, it's racist.\" (The canon is, indeed, pretty racist, but let's move on)\n\n**Something I don't see people talking about, however, is literary tradition, which I see as the more significant reason to read writers like Fitzgerald and Steinbeck.**\n\nTo explain: writers read each other. Whom writers read and whom writers like will impact their own work. Toni Morrison's *Beloved* is illuminated if, afterwards, you read Faulkner. Morrison wrote a Ph.D. on Faulkner for cryin' out loud. That doesn't mean you can't read *Beloved* without *As I Lay Dying*; it simply means Beloved will be a different, and more interesting book if you do. You can't fully appreciate J.G. Ballard unless you also understand Joseph Conrad. J.G. Ballard is basically using the exact same metaphors as Conrad, just updated and less racist. He's admitted as such. If you read Virginia Woolf before you read Ursula K. Le Guin, you'll be amazed by the connections you'll make. The texts dance with each other. It doesn't matter that Le Guin writes Science Fiction and Woolf writes in the mode of Modernism--Le Guin has been heavily influenced by Woolf, and reading the two together is very enlightening.\n\nAnd then come the two giants of them all: Shakespeare and The Bible. Look, you can read literature without having read any Shakespeare or any of the Bible, but that doesn't mean you'll be erasing the ginormous impact these works have had on literature. In the most fundamental ways, the language of The Bible has seeped into the entire umbrella of English literature. Even if you don't know it as a writer, you're either adopting the ways The Bible uses words, or rebelling against it. No matter what, you're always responding to it. It doesn't even need to be purposeful on your part.\n\nSo, yes, there's an aspect of 'the canon', but the canon wasn't just chosen by stuffy old white men. It was also chosen by writers, and a writer worth their salt will have read from the canon, and will know what interests them, and what they think is missing. To track this progression can give us insight into the way dialogues in our culture develop. It isn't arbitrary that Toni Morrison is following in Faulkner's footsteps, and it certainly isn't because some old white dudes told her to and that was that.\n\nPart of the issue is that high school students don't necessarily have the perspective available to approach some of these texts, and it's often in high school where these texts are read. For example, what does an expedition down the misty Congo river have to offer to someone going into engineering, or politics, or environmental science? I think the reason a book like Conrad's *Heart of Darkness* evades us is because books like it are often taught in the wrong way.\n\nHere are some ways to rethink some of the writers you didn't appreciate in high school:\n\n**Jane Austen** is the Lena Dunham of Gentry Era fiction. She's a ruthlessly observational genius filled with radical ideas about women and romance. She's totally brutal, too. A good high school teacher will guide you to see how fucking hilarious Jane Austen is. She's a bitch, and she knows it, and she doesn't care. For example, There's a whole section in Pride and Prejudice where Mr. Bingley attempts to justify his bad handwriting by arguing that he's just really smart and thinks too quickly. Austen writes this dialogue so perfectly, so cunningly that, in the end, her character Elizabeth totally brings Mr. Bingley down to size. We've all met people like Mr. Bingley, is the thing. However, if you don't understand how Austen's humor works, it could come off as simply gentle banter. Furthermore, her legacy is still felt today.\n\n**Joseph Conrad** fathered (or at least perfected) a certain kind of thinking. His works combine intense societal critiques through the power of individual consciousness. Basically, he's one of the original \"the personal is the political\". Even if you don't like *Heart of Darkness*, you're never escaping its impact (which has been followed by many great socialist thinkers btw).\n\n**Mark Twain** basically created American literature. It was mostly very puritan before he came along to satirize the moralization and piety of American literature coming before him. There's no way in hell that some stuffy white men facilitated this. American writers like John Steinbeck, Faulkner, Don Delillo and I'd even argue Bret Easton Ellis have all learned lessons from Mark Twain. His lasting impression isn't because a couple of Harvard deans standing around in a room smoking cigars suddenly decided he's interesting. It's because he's a great writer, and writers after him have either copied him or tried to repurpose his techniques.\n\n **Shakespeare** literally somehow captured and predicted every single literary movement that has happened and probably will ever happen. If you feel a certain way, Shakespeare has written about it. If you don't like Shakespeare, it isn't because you're right. It's because you didn't have a good professor to guide you. I know that may make you feel insecure. How could one dude be so amazing? Well, he was, and you need to deal with it. Shakespeare is the only writer I can say this about with absolute confidence. With the proper introduction, he's one of the most fascinating writers (if not *the* most). But he absolutely needs a guide.\n\nThis goes into the very purpose of literature, which is this: if we want political progress, scientific progress, mathematical progress, we need to know how to redefine our own personal vocabularies. All great writers have, in some way or another, reinvigorated or dismantled the old cliches of their times to document the cultural, intellectual, and psychic changes they observed. Writers give us language we can use to explore our experiences, and reading in terms of a tradition helps us see how languages and conversations develop.\n\nIf you want to dismantle the cliches of conservative America, or SJW liberals, or Orthodox Christians, it helps tremendously to see how geniuses have done so in their own contexts.",
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"answer": "I have a BA and MA in English Lit, and I am currently studying to be a high school English teacher. I have been asking myself the same question as I try to figure out what I will be able, or required, to teach.\nI think there are three aspects to your question. I will address each briefly, sharing what I have learned so far in my own research. \n\n1. Why are books like Of Mice and Men and the Great Gatsby taught instead of other kinds of easier, more interesting books, like science fiction, fantasy, young adult fiction, or popular novels like mysteries or thrillers? This question is relatively easy to answer-literary merit and textual complexity. In ELI5 terms, the books are great but hard. Many posts have already addressed the issue of “greatness” (literary merit), and the issue of “difficulty” (textual complexity) has also been mentioned, and I don't really have anything to add. If you are interested in learning more about this aspect of your question, I recommend reading the [Common Core Standards for English Language Arts](_URL_2_), which also provides a list of “sample” books for high school English classes.\n\n2. Why are books like Of Mice and Men and The Great Gatsby commonly chosen, instead of other books that are just as great, and just as hard? This question is harder to answer, and, in my opinion, more interesting. It seems that there are a small number of books and writers commonly taught across the country-Steinbeck, Fitzgerald, Angelou, etc. Yet there are hundreds of other writers and thousands (tens of thousands) of other books that are just as great, and just as hard. California alone has identified [421 “recommended” books](_URL_0_.) that can be taught in CA high school English classes, many of which I have never heard of. I think a lot of this has to do with force of habit-one generation decides these books should be taught, so the next generation believes that these are the books that should be taught, which leads to them teaching these books to the third generation, and so on. The novelist Francine Prose makes this argument in her essay [I Know Why the Caged Bird Can’t Read](_URL_1_)(She also argues that many commonly-taught books, like Of Mice and Men and To Kill a Mockingbird, are not that great and should not be taught.).\n\n3. The \"how\" part of your question-what is the process by which books like Of Mice and Men and The Great Gatsby are chosen for high school English classes? Many posts have talked about this already. I would only add that it seems many schools use “anthologies,” (textbooks that contain poems, short stories, plays, and novels, as well as questions and assignments), and that teachers have to teach the books in the anthologies. Of course, this raises the question of why publishers include certain books in the anthologies, and why schools choose certain anthologies. These are also interesting questions. Unfortunately, I have little to share here. I will, however, predict that high schools will more and more end up teaching the same small number of writers and books because of the Common Core educational standards. The Common Core standards identify a small number of “sample” books that meet the standards, and I predict publishers will end up including these books in their anthologies, with the result that these books will end up being taught in public schools everywhere. For all I know, this is happening already. (It is also possible publishers will try to be different by choosing different books. I hope this turns out to be the case.) \nEdited for formatting.",
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"answer": "Easiest TLDR I can think of for this:\n\nYou know how stories always reference other stories? Like when the Simpsons references Rocky 5 or something?\n\n\"The Canon\" in any kind of literature are the books that all the other books reference back to. So \"The Great Gatsby\" is important beacuse almost every other book about \"the american dream\" that was made afterwards contains some kind of allusion back to that book. Shakespeare matters because later plays all referenced back to Shakespeare. Frankenstein matters because every story afterwards about \"science gone mad\" references back to it. Every fantasy novel references back to \"Lord of the Rings\", which itself references back to \"Beowulf\" and similar legends. \n\nIt's not universal or automatic, and there's always debate about which ones count, but usually books are chosen because of their importance on that level. ",
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"answer": "Follow up question: How do we benefit from Shakespeare? The language within his work is a fantasy language based of a dialect of English that's been dead for more than 2 centuries. On top of that nothing in any of the stories I read taught me anything along the lines of morals or even proper story structure. They were just a giant mess of random problems and solutions that seemed extremely pointless.\n\nNot to mention characters lacked any depth whatsoever and their intent was usually apparent within their first scene.",
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{
"answer": "Of course the answers from English teachers are multiple paragraphs long that could be summed up in just a few sentences. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Look up \"literary merit.\" Certain works of literature express literary merit usually because a number of scholars can identify profound significance (ie beyond being a good story). Whether it actually exists is another matter.\n\nOf course, this assumes a five year old can use Google.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "One factor that I haven't seen mentioned (though hinted at): a book that is public domain usually costs ten times less than a book that is still under copyright.\n\nThis means that there is also a substantial *practical* reason why many schools will restrict their classroom supplies to older works.\n\n(There is also perhaps an additional angle that it is presumably more difficult for a work to enter the canon when it is still under copyright because people are not so free to share it or reimagine it or rework it or recast it. Whenever its nature of being private-property conflicts with its nature of being culture, its nature as private-property often has legal priority.)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "And when will we start having useful ones chosen that will help with adulting?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "We had to read Fahrenheit 451 in eighth grade (I was 13) and it seriously changed a lot of my opinions and beliefs. I got super involved in class while we were reading it. Then I read The Great Gatsby when I was 15, which I also fell in love with. These classes helped me appreciate books besides teen fiction. So I'm pretty glad I was forced to read these classics. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Both are great books. Personally, I enjoyed reading them in my English classes. We also read To Kill A Mocking Bird, Lord of The Flies, The Odyssey, and Huck Finn which I think are great books as well. The way I see it, reading these books not only challenge students but also exposes them to different genres of story telling aside from Harry Potter, Hunger Games, etc.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Circling the wagons and protecting the narrative. \n\nLike if you had engineers teach English they'd cover comic books and manga. ",
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{
"answer": "I'm super late to this, but can someone tell me what are the reading requirements in American high schools? \n\nI know it differs according to the teacher or school, but I'd just like to get some examples of reading lists. I'm from Europe and every year we got a list of books we were required to read. It was a mix of national literature classics and world literature classics. I'm wondering how similar are our lists to American and other lists around the world.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "34840032",
"title": "Book censorship in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for censorship.:Examples of \"Banned\" Books.:\"Of Mice and Men\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "John Steinbeck's \"Of Mice and Men\", first published in 1937, is considered an American classic and listed as the 12th best novel of the 20th century by the Radcliffe Publishing Course. It has remained a popular choice for teaching in English curriculums because of its simplistic nature, but profound message. Regardless, the novel appeared on the ALA's top ten most frequently challenged books in 2001, 2003 and 2004. H.N. Foerstel, the author of \"Banned in the U.S.A.\", a novel documenting the cases of censorship in the United States, states that \"the censors claim to be protecting the young and impressionable from this tragic tale of crude heroes speaking vulgar language within a setting that implies criticism of our social system.\" The main reasons for censorship, as noted by the Office of Intellectual Freedom, are \"offensive language, racism, unsuited to age group, violence\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33190537",
"title": "Literature Circles in EFL",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Nowadays, nearly all EFL coursebooks compete to include the most up-to-date and interesting texts for the target age group, while on the other hand the fiction literature has a treasure of themes which, relate more to our everyday lives. All this goes against what most English language learners and many English teachers as well believe: poems, short stories, and plays do not have a major role in classrooms aimed at developing communicative competence in English, and literary texts are only for advanced learners. In reality, most students often think that the study of English literature is boring and difficult. This problematic situation might be the result of not teaching literature in the right way. Most English learners think that studying literature is definitely not the right way to develop either language skills or interest into literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62120",
"title": "Of Mice and Men",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "\"Of Mice and Men\" was Steinbeck's first attempt at writing in the form of novel-play termed a \"play-novelette\" by one critic. Structured in three acts of two chapters each, it is intended to be both a novella and a script for a play. It is only 30,000 words in length. Steinbeck wanted to write a novel that could be played from its lines, or a play that could be read like a novel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "55787762",
"title": "Essential English Library",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The Essential English Library is a series of books, some fiction and some non-fiction, intended mainly for foreign students, though it is hoped that English readers may also find them of interest. The fiction has been chosen from some of the best writers, old and new, of English novels, short stories and plays. The non-fiction consists of completely new books specially written for this series, on various aspects of English life and institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20115792",
"title": "K's Kids",
"section": "Section::::Read & Play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Established since 2001, Read & Play is a cloth activity books line created specially for children’s early stages of development from 0 to 5 years old. Read & Play activity books are not only books for learning but also books for fun. It covers wide range of children books, such as classical stories in innovative puppet format, colorful illustrations with lots of built-in activities and bath books for fun tub, etc, which aims at arousing children’s interests in reading & learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242130",
"title": "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "A 2012 survey by the University of Worcester determined that it was the second most common book that UK adults had read as children, after \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\". (Adults, perhaps limited to parents, ranked \"Alice\" and \"The Lion\" fifth and sixth as books the next generation should read, or their children should read during their lifetimes.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19199245",
"title": "Emilie Boon",
"section": "Section::::Publishing.:Collaboration with Harriet Ziefert.:Board books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Ziefert and Boon have made \"board books\" for preschoolers, which combine elements of a game and book reading to help children learn. In \"Timothy's Numbers,\" the book is packaged with \"stiff colored foam\" numbers that children insert into specific slots in the book as the illustrated rabbit, Timothy, helps them count. There is another book, \"Timothy's Shapes,\" which helps children discern shapes. The book boards are part of a trend in children's book publishing to combine merchandise and books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
r1ka1
|
sarcasm and irony
|
[
{
"answer": "Irony: \nThe use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning or an outcome of events contrary to what was, or might have been, expected.\n\nSarcasm: A sharply ironical taunt; sneering or cutting remark\n\nSo sarcasm is an ironical remark used to taunt someone.\n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_0_)",
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{
"answer": "Thanks everyone! It was very helpful!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony. But irony, or the use of expressions conveying different things according as they are interpreted, is so often made the vehicle of sarcasm ... The essence of sarcasm is the intention of giving pain by (ironical or other) bitter words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26791",
"title": "Satire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "A feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—\"in satire, irony is militant\"—but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This \"militant\" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::In psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Professionals in psychology and related fields have long looked upon sarcasm negatively, particularly noting that sarcasm tends to be a maladaptive coping mechanism for those with unresolved anger or frustrations. Psychologist Clifford N. Lazarus describes sarcasm as \"hostility disguised as humor\". While an occasional sarcastic comment may enliven a conversation, Lazarus suggests that too frequent use of sarcasm tends to \"overwhelm the emotional flavor of any conversation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Understanding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Cultural perspectives on sarcasm vary widely with more than a few cultures and linguistic groups finding it offensive to varying degrees. Thomas Carlyle despised it: \"Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the devil; for which reason I have long since as good as renounced it\". Fyodor Dostoyevsky, on the other hand, recognized in it a cry of pain: Sarcasm, he said, was \"usually the last refuge of modest and chaste-souled people when the privacy of their soul is coarsely and intrusively invaded.\" RFC 1855, a collection of guidelines for Internet communications, includes a warning to be especially careful with it as it \"may not travel well.\" Another study of sarcasm over email verifies these claims. A professional translator has advised that international business executives \"should generally avoid sarcasm in intercultural business conversations and written communications\" because of the difficulties in translating sarcasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21514028",
"title": "Irony",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Irony can be categorized into different types, including: \"verbal irony\", \"dramatic irony\", and \"situational irony\". Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth. The ironic form of simile, used in sarcasm, and some forms of litotes can emphasize one's meaning by the deliberate use of language which states the opposite of the truth, denies the contrary of the truth, or drastically and obviously understates a factual connection. Other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Distinguishing sarcasm from banter, and referring to the use of irony in sarcasm, Derek Bousfield writes that sarcasm is: The use of strategies which, \"on the surface\" appear to be appropriate to the situation, but are meant to be taken as meaning the opposite in terms of \"face management\". That is, the utterance which appears, on the surface, to maintain or enhance the face of the recipient actually attacks and damages the face of the recipient. ... \"sarcasm\" is an insincere form of politeness which is used to offend one's interlocutor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23402938",
"title": "Check My Brain",
"section": "Section::::Lyrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "There's a certain aspect of sarcasm, I guess, being a guy from Seattle who lives in L.A., ex-drug addict who lives in the belly of the beast and doesn't partake, and being totally cool with that...It's like being the bad gambler and living in Vegas. It's right there. It's just the irony of that and a little bit of sarcasm. And it's not putting this place down at all. It's just kind of like, 'Wow, you know, check my brain, wow.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20rx5r
|
Why are there tigers in Primorye and historically throughout Siberia, but none in the similar ecosystem of Alaska?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were a number of large cats that formerly inhabited North America, such as the American Lion: _URL_2_ And the Saber-toothed cat: _URL_1_\n\nThe only species to survive in North America into modern times is the Cougar. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48418443",
"title": "Siberian Tiger Introduction Project",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Siberian tigers used to be common on either side of the Amur River in Russia and China, as well as in northeastern Mongolia and South Korea. Caspian tigers lived around the Caspian sea in Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkmenistan, and also further away in Armenia, Georgia and Turkey and Kazakhstan all the way to the Altai Mountains in the East. Caspian tigers reportedly became extinct in the 1970s after many years of hunting, poaching and habitat loss. Siberian tigers lost most of their ranges in Siberia and China and became extinct in the wild of Korea and Mongolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "543466",
"title": "Siberian tiger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "The Siberian tiger (\"Panthera tigris tigris\") is a tiger population in the Russian Far East and Northeast China, and possibly North Korea. It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, north China, Russian Far East, and eastern Mongolia. Today, this population inhabits mainly the Sikhote Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade due to intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining. An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480–540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs. This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia. As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44519182",
"title": "Temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East",
"section": "Section::::Species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "The Amur region of Russia holds the last remaining habitats of the critically endangered Amur tiger, Amur leopard, and Manchurian sika deer. It has been estimated that there are less the 600 tigers. and around 40 leopards left in the wild. The area also contains populations of Asiatic black bears and Kamchatka brown bears, as the Russian Far East is the only place in the world where tigers, brown bears, and leopards coexist. This region also happens to be some of the last of habitat of the Blakiston’s fish owl (Bubo blakistoni); along with being the world’s largest owl, it is unique in the way that it eats fish (primarily Masu salmon) and relies on old growth forests along river banks to feed, nest, and breed. Common ungulates include red deer, roe deer, wild boar, Manchurian moose, and musk deer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7851193",
"title": "List of government animal eradication programs",
"section": "Section::::Tiger.:Caspian tiger.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the 1900s (decade) the Russian government declared that there is no place for tigers in Central Asia and Caucasus. The Russian army was tasked with the extermination of all tigers in the Caspian Sea area so that farmers could move in. It is unknown whether the Caspian tiger is entirely extinct since there are some reports of sightings in Afghanistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "543466",
"title": "Siberian tiger",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "The Siberian tiger once inhabited much of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and other parts of north-eastern China, the eastern part of Siberia and the Russian Far East, perhaps as far west as Mongolia and the area of Lake Baikal, where the Caspian tiger also reportedly occurred. The geographical range of the tiger in the Russian Far East stretches south to north for almost the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River. It also occurs within the Greater Xing'an Range, which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye. In both regions, peaks are generally above sea level, with only a few reaching or more. This region represents a merger zone of two bioregions: the East Asian coniferous-deciduous complex and the Taiga, resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary with elevation, topography, and history. Key habitats of the Siberian tiger are Korean pine broadleaf forests with a complex composition and structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10935907",
"title": "Wildlife of China",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Carnivores.:Cats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The Siberian tiger occurs in the Northeast, along the border with Russia and North Korea. The Caspian tiger was last seen in the Manasi River Basin of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the 1960s, where this population is now extinct. The South China tiger is an endemic population whose habitat is now confined to the mountain regions of Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong and Fujian. A few Indochinese tigers were known to live in Yunnan where six nature reserves have been established for their protection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850357",
"title": "Environment of South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Natural environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and over-hunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. Bears and Wildcats can still be found in the more remote areas, such as Jiri-san and Seorak-san. South Korea also has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer. Wild boars have been growing common in recent years, thanks to reduced hunting pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
194x8d
|
What does it mean for a substance to have 0 viscosity?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's been a few years since I last did matter at low temp, but IIRC there are a few things that characterise such a state:\n\n - Film flow: superfluids are capable of climbing out of open beakers, even against gravity. Here is a cool [video](_URL_2_)\n\n - Superleaks: Superfluids can leak through incredibly small holes which normal viscous liquids would be unable to do. So one example would be a narrow tube packed with loads of cotton wool.\n\n - Fountain effect: [video](_URL_1_) and [link](_URL_0_) will explain better than me\n\n - Also quantised vortices but I don't know enough about them, maybe someone else can fill in",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A velocity gradient of the fluid will have zero associated shear stress. (i.e the only property of the fluid that will \"resist flow\" will be the mass/density of the fluid itself)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292941",
"title": "Polyethylene terephthalate",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Intrinsic viscosity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The intrinsic viscosity of the material, found by extrapolating to zero concentration of relative viscosity to concentration which is measured in deciliters per gram (dℓ/g). Intrinsic viscosity is dependent upon the length of its polymer chains but has no units due to being extrapolated to zero concentration. The longer the polymer chains the more entanglements between chains and therefore the higher the viscosity. The average chain length of a particular batch of resin can be controlled during polycondensation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963754",
"title": "Viscosity",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Simple definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5071294",
"title": "Intrinsic viscosity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Intrinsic viscosity formula_1 is a measure of a solute's contribution to the viscosity formula_2 of a solution. It should not be confused with inherent viscosity, which is the ratio of the natural logarithm of the relative viscosity to the mass concentration of the polymer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60621440",
"title": "Liquid carbon dioxide",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.:Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "The viscosity is one of the measures of a fluid substance that is the resistance of itself. It can be described as high viscosity or low viscosity. Before the study of the viscosity of a liquid, a scientist called van der Gulik has explained how the viscosity of gas determines. He said that the increase in temperature can increase the viscosity of the gas, but it is opposite to liquid. He also proposed the influence of the molecules exerts on each other to viscosity. Another person called Brillouin also has mentioned that the concept of free path of molecules should be given up. After several ideas have been mentioned and proposed, the typical image of the viscosity of liquids is that the molecule is actively bouncing in a space that is formed by other molecules when the momentum has been exchanged as collisions. Therefore, the viscosity coefficient is measured by the efficiency of exchange and by the number of collisions per unit of time and volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56541610",
"title": "Viscosity models for mixtures",
"section": "Section::::Friction force theory.:One-parameter friction force theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 218,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 218,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Critical viscosity is seldom measured and attempts to predict it by formulas are few. For a pure fluid, or component i in a fluid mixture, a formula from kinetic theory is often used to estimate critical viscosity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38567601",
"title": "Rotational viscosity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Viscosity is usually described as the property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local momentum differences are equilibrated. Rotational viscosity is a property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local angular momentum differences are equilibrated. It is only appreciable if there are rotational degrees of freedom for the fluid particles. In the classical case, by the equipartition theorem, at equilibrium, if particle collisions can transfer angular momentum as well as linear momentum, then these degrees of freedom will have the same average energy. If there is a lack of equilibrium between these degrees of freedom, then the rate of equilibration will be determined by the rotational viscosity coefficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963754",
"title": "Viscosity",
"section": "Section::::Selected substances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Observed values of viscosity vary over several orders of magnitude, even for common substances. For instance, a 70% sucrose (sugar) solution has a viscosity over 400 times that of water, and 26000 times that of air. More dramatically, pitch has been estimated to have a viscosity 230 billion times that of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4vlhvk
|
Is there an infinite number of wavelengths on the EM spectrum between 2 wavelengths?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it's infinite. All wavelengths are allowed.\n\nPlanck's constant cannot do that, and you can deduce that without knowing the physics. The theory of photons is free quantum electrodynamics, which has only two dimensionful constants: c and hbar, respectively from relativity and QM. c has units of length/time, hbar has units mass×length^(2)/time. If you had some kind of discretization of wavelength, which has ofc units of length, the step should be a pure number times a length obtained by combination of powers of c and hbar. But as you can see, there is no way to build a length multiplying powers of c and hbar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is another argument for why any wavelength is allowed. Consider 1 inertial reference frame where you have a photon of frequency w. Since all inertial reference frames are valid, and the photon travels at c in all frames, if you go to another frame, the frequency of the photon changes due to a doppler shift. If you choose a new target frequency w', there exists a reference frame where that photon has that frequency. Therefore there are no \"special\" values of frequency, since there are no \"special\" reference frames, and in fact, all photons, even ones with different energy, are identical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24476128",
"title": "Acoustic metamaterial",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.:Electromagnetic field vs acoustic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85754",
"title": "Phonon",
"section": "Section::::Lattice dynamics.:Lattice waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "There is a minimum possible wavelength, given by twice the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than 2\"a\", due to the periodicity of the lattice. This can be thought as one consequence of Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, the lattice points are viewed as the \"sampling points\" of a continuous wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55543734",
"title": "Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission",
"section": "Section::::Preliminary desired specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "An absolute minimum continuous wavelength range is 0.4 to 1 μm, with possible short wavelength extensions down below 0.3 μm and near infrared extensions to 1.7 μm or even 2.5 μm, depending on the cost and complexity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24476128",
"title": "Acoustic metamaterial",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.:Mechanics of lattice waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "There is a \"minimum possible\" wavelength, given by the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than \"a\", due to effects similar to that in aliasing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415893",
"title": "Balmer series",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The visible spectrum of light from hydrogen displays four wavelengths, 410 nm, 434 nm, 486 nm, and 656 nm, that correspond to emissions of photons by electrons in excited states transitioning to the quantum level described by the principal quantum number \"n\" equals 2. There are several prominent ultraviolet Balmer lines with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm. The number of these lines is an infinite continuum as it approaches a limit of 364.6 nm in the ultraviolet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2191243",
"title": "Standard Reference Method",
"section": "Section::::Measurement method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The 430-nanometer wavelength corresponds to a deep blue (violet) light, and was chosen, as was the multiplier, to make values determined in the SRM system comparable to those determined using the Lovibond system in use at the time the SRM was adopted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7990890",
"title": "Long wavelength limit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "In electricity and magnetism, the long wavelength limit is the limiting case when the wavelength is much larger than the system size. This corresponds to the quasi-static case, and reduces to electrostatics and magnetostatics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6rgvis
|
how come after only a couple days of not working out, i feel and look like i'm not in good shape anymore?
|
[
{
"answer": "It takes a lot of energy to maintain muscle mass. If you aren't using it your body thinks it's better off \"eating\" it. Bodies are built for survival, not peak performance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's honestly a mental thing. If you think you look/feel good, then you will (if you're pretty healthy). I know that I feel like I'm in a funk when I don't work out for a few days. It's all in my head, though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Endorphins post workout can help boost your self-esteem and may help you feel better about your body image. Those effects can wear off after some time if you don't continue to work out. Relatively to how you felt before, you may not feel as great. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our body gets used to stretching it's muscles and having blood flow at an increased rate. After a couple of days of not working out we may feel out of shape because our body is craving exercise. We may also look slightly less bulky since we aren't pumping blood at an increased rate, but it is mostly all in our head. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its all in your head, trust me. Thats the mentality with working out is you feel you havs to keep pushing and you should always go to bed with sore arms/legs/chest or whatever you just trained, otherwise youll miss out.\n\nIf youre training for mass, youll find your muscles do take a fair while to deteriorate due to inactivity. Like up to 2 months IIRC. But your strength will decrease faster no doubt. Rest is healthy for gains but you cant do it too much or else your body will get too comfortable and soften up.\n\nConsequently thinking you look worse for missing a week or so is a mental state you enter due to feeling lazy and sluggish.\n\nTl:dr its all in your head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38014779",
"title": "Hooked: Muscle Women",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Colette Nelson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Dr. Pope said that when individuals have a regular workout regimen, but sustain an injury, they can't wait to get back to working out and that it has a psychiatric protective effect for them. He also said their instincts are to get back to work and if they allow their working out to lapse too long then bad things may start to happen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622572",
"title": "Collegiate wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Injuries and infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Is caused by overexerting. The body symptoms are fatigue, lack of motivation, losing body weight, decreased performance, depression, insomnia and immune system weakening. This can affect the athlete mentally as well as physically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12646543",
"title": "Long-term complications of standing",
"section": "Section::::Complications.:Muscle fatigue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Research has shown that the body experiences muscle fatigue after standing for five hours; this fatigue persists for more than 30 minutes after the end of the work day according to electronic measurements of fatigue. The perception of fatigue is subjective and does not necessarily correlate with the experimental indicators of fatigue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43766599",
"title": "Mallory Haldeman",
"section": "Section::::Competitive philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Haldeman stated in an article posted on Muscle Foods USA's website: \"I found fitness more by circumstance than anything else. I had an injury (2009) that resulted in my inability to walk or run for quite some time. It was recommended to me that I try weight training during this time to keep in shape and help reduces my recovery time. At the time I had zero interest in lifting weights or making a daily trip to the gym. It didn’t take long, however, until I found that I loved what resistance training can do to your body. After only a few short weeks I was hooked and started to learn everything I could about sculpting and building my physique….and although a few years have passed since then I am just as excited learning about everything health and fitness related ! It is a life style that I have completely submerged myself in!\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8784950",
"title": "Shaunaka Rishi Das",
"section": "Section::::Personal faith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Over the next few years as I tried the ‘lose-weight-without-any-change’ method, as I wore ever tighter clothes, and weighed myself to depression, I felt doomed. My lowest point was the day I weighed myself after a haircut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2530403",
"title": "Message in a Bottle (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Even work does not take the pain away. I may be diving for my own pleasure or showing others how to do so, but when I return to the shop, it seems empty without you. I stock and order as I always did, but even now, I sometimes glance over my shoulder without thinking and call for you. As I write this note to you, I wonder when, or if, things like that will ever stop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1633601",
"title": "Cam Neely",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Post-NHL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "I wish that my lungs felt as good as my hip. If I last four days (of practice) in a row and my hip's barking at me, then that's all she wrote. I know how I felt when I had to retire and I know how I'm feeling now. It's not really how I want to feel. It was fun while I was out there but each day I skated, the pain just kind of lingered a lot longer than I would have liked. I was feeling really good and had started getting some different treatment. I practiced a few times with the Bruins but after some really hard practices, realized there was just no way I could continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7j9st6
|
how and why exactly does anxiety affect your whole body? (eg. digestive system, feeling cold, etc)
|
[
{
"answer": "Stress causes your adrenal glands to release adrenaline which causes a wide range of physical symptoms. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anxiety evolved to deal with threats, so the body can respond accordingly. A lot of the physical symptoms are related to the hormones released to prepare your body to fight or flee. The reason you get digestive symptoms is because the hormones restrict blood flow to your digestive system, so there is more blood available for your muscles and other organs to use. Feeling cold is explained by blood vessels near your skin constricting to divert more blood to muscles and other important organs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For anyone with anxiety problems I recommend this Ted Talks video, it’s very informative and might really help!: \n\n_URL_0_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past. Other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns, changes in habits, increase or decrease in food intake, and increased motor tension (such as foot tapping).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8146278",
"title": "Test anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1392,
"text": "Researchers believe that feelings of anxiety arise to prepare a person for threats. In humans, anxiety symptoms are distributed along a continuum and different symptom levels of anxiety predict outcomes. Responses consist of increased heart rate, stress hormone secretion, restlessness, vigilance, and fear of a potentially dangerous environment. Anxiety prepares the body physically, cognitively, and behaviourally to detect and deal with threats to survival. As a result, a person's body begins to hyperventilate to allow more oxygen to enter the bloodstream, divert blood to muscles, and sweat to cool the skin. In individuals, the degree to which an anxiety response is developed is based on the probability of bad things happening in the environment and the individual's ability to cope with them. In the case of test taking, this might be a failing exam grade that prevents the student from being accepted to a post-secondary institution. A person's beliefs about their own competencies are a form of self-knowledge, which plays an important role in analyzing situations that might be threatening. When a person has feelings of low competence about their abilities they are likely to anticipate negative outcomes such as failure, under uncertain conditions. Thus, evaluative situations including tests and exams, are perceived as more threatening by students who have low competencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5831794",
"title": "Somatic anxiety",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Somatic anxiety is the physical symptoms of anxiety, such as butterflies in the stomach. It is also known as somatization. It is commonly contrasted with \"cognitive anxiety\", which is the mental manifestations of anxiety, or the specific thought processes that occur during anxiety, such as concern or worry. These different components of anxiety are especially studied in sports psychology, specifically relating to how the anxiety symptoms affect athletic performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The emotional effects of anxiety may include \"feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank\" as well as \"nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Stress hormones released in an anxious state have an impact on bowel function and can manifest physical symptoms that may contribute to or exacerbate IBS. Anxiety is often experienced by those with obsessive–compulsive disorder and is an acute presence in panic disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57688",
"title": "Anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "While anxiety arose as an adaptation, in modern times it is almost always thought of negatively in the context of anxiety disorders. People with these disorders have highly sensitive systems; hence, their systems tend to overreact to seemingly harmless stimuli. Sometimes anxiety disorders occur in those who have had traumatic youths, demonstrating an increased prevalence of anxiety when it appears a child will have a difficult future. In these cases, the disorder arises as a way to predict that the individual's environment will continue to pose threats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922",
"title": "Anxiety",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "Psychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms (such as suppression, repression, anticipation, regression, somatization, passive aggression, dissociation) that develop to adapt to problems with early objects (e.g., caregivers) and empathic failures in childhood. For example, persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repression/suppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress (somatization) when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individual's awareness. Such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy. While psychodynamic therapy tends to explore the underlying roots of anxiety, cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to be a successful treatment for anxiety by altering irrational thoughts and unwanted behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yh80p
|
Why was Portugal accepted into NATO?
|
[
{
"answer": "While both regimes shared very similar outlooks (Corporatist, authoritarian, conservative, anti-communist states) both had significantly different reputations after the 2nd world war. Salazar was an incredibly well regarded statesman, who had a great dislike for Hitler and who stayed neutral during the war due to a strategic issue (Anglo-Portugese alliance stayed intact as a strategic issue, as Portugal was poorly defended and the British did not need more reason to draw the Spanish into the war.) Franco had presided over an incredibly bloody civil war and had only stayed neutral in the 2nd world war because the Germans thought his conditions for Spanish military help were unfeasible (Rumor is Hitler once stated he'd rather have teeth pulled than continue to deal with Franco). \n\nFour years after the end of the 2nd world war, when the North Atlantic treaty was signed, few people had forgotten had close Spain was to becoming a full-fledged member of the Axis.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2314240",
"title": "Portuguese Colonial War",
"section": "Section::::Political context.:Post-World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "NATO's focus on preventing a conventional Soviet attack against Western Europe was to the detriment of military preparations against guerrilla uprisings in Portugal's overseas provinces that were considered essential for the survival of the nation. The integration of Portugal in NATO resulted in the formation of a military élite that were critical in the planning and implementation of operations during the Overseas War. This \"NATO generation\" ascended quickly to the highest political positions and military command without having to provide evidence of loyalty to the regime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57927278",
"title": "History of NATO",
"section": "Section::::Détente and escalation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "The membership of the organization at this time remained largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self-defence is only applicable to attacks on member state territories north of the Tropic of Cancer. On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance; Spain's membership was confirmed by referendum in 1986. At the peak of the Cold War, 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5,252,800 active military, including as many as 435,000 forward deployed US forces, under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters, organized into four echelons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294809",
"title": "Anglo-Portuguese Alliance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The alliance has served both countries throughout their respective military histories, influencing the participation of the United Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsular War, the UK's major land contribution to the Napoleonic Wars and the establishment of an Anglo-American base in Portugal. Portugal aided England (and later the UK) in times of need, for example, in the First World War. Today, Portugal and the United Kingdom are both part of NATO, a larger intergovernmental military alliance between several North American and European states that accounts for over 70% of total global military spending.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23033",
"title": "Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Government and administration.:Foreign relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is also a founding member of NATO (1949), OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the last in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which became the European Union in 1993.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56967",
"title": "Foreign relations of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::International organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Portugal was a founding member of NATO (1949), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1961), and European Free Trade Area (1960); it left the latter in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which would become the European Union (EU) in 1993. In 1996, it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). The country is a member state of the United Nations since 1955.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1359350",
"title": "Portuguese Navy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "After World War II, Portugal was one of the founding nations of NATO. In the scope of the Cold War, the Portuguese fleet actively participated in the defense of the North Atlantic against the Soviet naval threat. Inside NATO, the Portuguese Navy stands out by the development of a high proficiency in the mine and anti-submarine warfares.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17046267",
"title": "Enlargement of NATO",
"section": "Section::::Past enlargements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "NATO has added new members seven times since its founding in 1949 to include twenty-nine members. Twelve countries were part of the founding of NATO: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The early years of the Cold War saw a stark divide between Capitalist states, backed by United States, and Communist satellite states of the Soviet Union. This divide eased inclusion of Portugal under Salazar in NATO and encouraged the anti-Communist governments of Greece and Turkey to join NATO in 1952. Greece would suspend its membership in 1974, over the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, but rejoined in 1980 with Turkey's cooperation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
42asda
|
why do politicians owe favors to their donors?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's look at it at a \"before presidency thing\", first. To get to that point you have held one office or another multiple times. You would not have gotten past the first if you were known not to \"repay favours\", as you would get no donors the second time. Now, to the presidency. Let's assume you decide \"OK, I'm here, no more sucking up\". Can you get any work done? Not really because EVERYONE else needs to still suck up to those campaign funds. So you get nothing done and when your one term is over you find no jobs waiting for you on the other side. \n \nAs for evidence? It is hard to tell. Being able to \"follow the money\" in a lot of cases is difficult, although others are less so. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The concept is relatively simple, you're running for election and company X likes your stance on one or more policies, so they bung you some money to help your campaign. You win, work to enact the policies you want and company X is happy.\n\nRe-election is coming up and you need money to fund your campaign, but this time company X wants something that your constituents aren't so fond of, but if you support it they'll bung you another briefcase of money for your campaign. If you don't come out in support of it however they might go talk to the guy running against you and see if he'll be interested in a briefcase of money, something that's clearly not good for you. Clearly money is changing hands in exchange for policy support in this scenario but it's not always that obvious - until someone comes out for or against something it can be hard to pin down exactly what their position might be (and therefore whether they have changed position in response to something), and so it might look like they're in favour of something that just happens to align with the goals of one or more of their contributors. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "339302",
"title": "Campaign finance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Although the political science literature indicates that most contributors give to support parties or candidates with whom they are already in agreement, there is wide public perception that donors expect government favors in return. (such as specific legislation being enacted or defeated), so some have come to equate campaign finance with political corruption and bribery. These views have led governments to reform campaign financing in the hope of eliminating big money influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166873",
"title": "Campaign finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Impact of finance on the results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1149,
"text": "A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31383333",
"title": "Federal political financing in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Debate over the subsidies.:Composition of participation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "According to McMaster University political scientist Henry Jacek, political contributions tend to come from the wealthy, and not the poor. It is also clear from other jurisdictions in the world that political donors typically are people that have more disposable income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1213355",
"title": "Reciprocity (social psychology)",
"section": "Section::::The power of reciprocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Politics is another area where the power of reciprocity is evident. While politicians often claim autonomy from the feelings of obligation associated with gifts and favors that influence everyone else, they are also susceptible. In the 2002 election, U.S. Congress Representatives who received the most money from special interest groups were over seven times more likely to vote in favor of the group that had contributed the most money to their campaigns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13485592",
"title": "Political funding in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Associated entities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Despite the AEC publishing a yearly list of political donors, it is often difficult to ascertain who made the donation, as political parties sometimes use \"associated entities\" as front organisations to hide the source of donations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34068653",
"title": "Philanthrojournalism",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages of Philanthrojournalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Moreover, the dependence on foundations for revenue, can cause an ideological skewing towards the political orientation of their donors. The donors may also have secret propaganda agendas and aim to utilize these news networks for their own spread of knowledge. However, as mentioned earlier, this could be bypassed by increasing the number of donor sources. The centers also have to create a respectable profile to convince foundations, organizations and individuals to donate, which, in return could in increase the quality of reporting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166873",
"title": "Campaign finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Donor characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "A 2017 study found that \"only a small portion of Americans make campaign donations\" and that both Democratic and Republican donors \"are more ideologically extreme than other partisans, including primary voters. With respect to why individuals contribute, we show that donors appear responsive to their perception of the stakes in the election.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iwapf
|
How far can an ant be removed from the anthill and still find its way home?
|
[
{
"answer": "This has been asked a lot before so if you want deeper answers you can look them up. Basically if an ant doesn't know where it's trail home is it will start wandering around in random(ish) directions trying to find it. IIRC, they also have a good ability to remember landmarks, so that can help too.\n\nIf they are really far away and can't find their home then yes, then they may wander until they die. They may find another colony that they can assimilate into, but more than likely they ants their won't accept the foreigner and will attack and kill it (even if it's the same species possibly.)\n\nSo to answer your question of how far away, it depends. If they are a really long ways away, but get lucky in their random search they can find their way back. In general, I've seen estimates hover closer to 100 or less meters. It's actually a neat direct application of some of the algorithms in computer science if you want a more rigorous way to think of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59979",
"title": "Roman surface",
"section": "Section::::One-sidedness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Then let it move Northwards, over \"the hill\", then towards the Northwest so that it starts sliding down towards the \"x = 0\" axis. As soon as the ant crosses this axis it will find itself \"inside\" the Northern lobe, standing right side up. Now let the ant walk towards the North. It will climb up the wall, then along the \"roof\" of the Northern lobe. The ant is back on the third hyperbolic paraboloid, but this time under it and standing upside-down. (Compare with Klein bottle.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "832240",
"title": "Fungus-growing ants",
"section": "Section::::Farming.:Harvesting vegetation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "After following the pheromone trail to vegetation, ants climb onto leaves or grass and begin cutting off sections. To do this, they place one mandible, called the fixed mandible, onto a leaf and anchor it. Then they open the other, called the motile mandible, and place it on the leaf tissue. The ant keeps moves the motile jaw and pulls the fixed jaw behind it by closing them together until the fragment detaches. Which jaw is fixed and which is motile varies depending on the direction the ant chooses to cut a fragment in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31458503",
"title": "Acropyga acutiventris",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "This ant is found in rainforests in tropical regions of India, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Sarawak, Singapore, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea and parts of the Northern Territory and Queensland in Australia. In Australia it is not usually found above 300 metres and occupies a similar range to the weaver ant, \"Oecophylla smaragdina\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35777218",
"title": "Daneway Banks SSSI",
"section": "Section::::Site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Numerous large ant-hills are a prominent feature of the reserve. They are made by the yellow meadow ant. In some places they may be as a high as a metre. In parts of Gloucestershire the ant hills are known as \"emmet casts\", \"emmet\" being the old English word for ant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45265433",
"title": "Cataglyphis fortis",
"section": "Section::::Navigation skills and internal pedometer.:Measuring the sun's angle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "This ant ventures far from its burrow in the Sahara Desert, which has almost no identifiable features. While venturing out it periodically takes measurements of its angle in respect to the Sun. By doing this the ant can venture far from its nest in search of food. Because of the blistering heat, it can only do this for about 3–5 minutes/day (the hottest time of the day, when all its predators are in hiding from the sun). When the ant finds a dead insect it then looks at the sun and because of its periodic references to the sun's angle it knows exactly what the shortest route back to the nest is. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology have also verified that desert microhabitats have unique odour signatures that can guide the ants back to the nest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24855175",
"title": "Cephalotes atratus",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59979",
"title": "Roman surface",
"section": "Section::::One-sidedness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Imagine an ant on top of the \"third\" hyperbolic paraboloid, \"z = x y\". Let this ant move North. As it moves, it will pass through the other two paraboloids, like a ghost passing through a wall. These other paraboloids only seem like obstacles due to the self-intersecting nature of the immersion. Let the ant ignore all double and triple points and pass right through them. So the ant moves to the North and falls off the edge of the world, so to speak. It now finds itself on the northern lobe, hidden underneath the third paraboloid of Figure 3. The ant is standing upside-down, on the \"outside\" of the Roman surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
333omt
|
why do planes take what seems like huge detours instead of straight lines to the destination?
|
[
{
"answer": "The flightpath of the plane looks curved on a flat map, but since the planet is curved that line is actually the shortest path.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Airplanes take [Great Circle paths](_URL_1_), the shortest distance between two points on a globe, effectively a straight line. And when you look at the globe, they do look like straight lines. But when you flatten the globe into a map, [they get distorted](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A straight line on the surface of a sphere looks curved when you flatten the sphere out. \n\nA clearer example maybe - ever seen [a picture like this?](_URL_0_) That's what the orbit of a satellite looks like when flattened out onto a map. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They also seek out wind, ie jet streams etc. Picking up the jet stream can reduce actual flying time and increase fuel savings. A line between two points isn't exactly the shortest route. \n\nImagine you had to cross a field to get to a certain point on the other side, sure, the shortest route might be straight across the field, and the longest might be walking around the edge. Now for the 'what ifs'. \n\nWhat if I told you that the field had a hill, bushes, scrub and a drain in the middle, but around the outside it was a concrete footpath, which might be quicker then. It is exactly the same for aircraft. the straight line might look quicker, but there might be hills/mountains in the way that adversely affect weather conditions. There could be a military no fly zone in between. \n\nWhen you are flying into and out of Melbourne, AU northward. you tend to come through a cutting, all air traffic is filtered through this cutting, otherwise any traffic heading towards Sydney has to deal with issues over the Great Dividing Range which impact weather systems etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. To catch wind or jet stream to conserve fuel and more speed. \n2. Avoid crashes and military.\n3. In a sphere for planes it's sometimes faster based on rotation of planet. Exp: from Europe to US some will go near arctic and go across there because it's a small horizontal flight then and they avoid the most of earth's rotation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As someone very much in the know in the aviation industry, there's a few factors:\n \n \n1: Weather. Planes don't like flying through storms, and they also dodge areas of turbulence so passengers get a more comfortable ride. \n \n \n2. Air traffic have routes for aircraft to follow to dodge military airspace, and for a more efficient flow in and out of high volume areas. Why did you have to fly in a big circle around the city? Because there were a lot of other planes landing and taking off coming and going in all directions and that was the safest and fastest way for you to get to the runway.\n \n \nIf you're interested feel free to bombard me with questions. However I will do my best to answer them in such a way as to not give away my occupation ;)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even though modern GPS allows planes to travel point to point airlines still file flight plans that are based on \"roads in the sky.\" Over land planes fly routes based on ground transmitters that form airways. Over the ocean planes file routes that allow traffic to flow all together. This prevents crossing traffic at the same altitude. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the map you're looking at is flat, but the Earth is actually spherical.\n\nAirplanes fly on, or close to, great circle lines, which are geodesics (shortest possible lines) across the Earth's surface. If you viewed the Earth from directly above a great circle line, it would look straight. However, when you look at it from any other angle, it curves with the Earth; and if you try to project it onto a flat map, it tends to end up looking curved because the corresponding points between the Earth and the map don't match up in a way that preserves 'straight' lines. This is also the reason why, for instance, Greenland looks so big on a world map.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To travel from one place to another on the ground, you take roads. Some of those roads will be one way lanes, some roads will cross each others. When there is bad weather some roads will be flooded and wont be available. When there is construction work, some roads will not be available either. The same is true for the sky. Planes travel on imaginary roads, and will avoid lanes affected by bad weather, or 'construction works' (war affected countries, military exercises, really busy lanes]. The traffic police [air traffic control] might also choose to send you on a different road, one that is not as busy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In short, because you are squishing and stretching a round Earth onto a flat map, paths get distorted too. Also, sometimes you have to follow traffic, like a highway in the sky, or turn to go around weather. At the end, you have get in line with the other planes, and point down the runway in the correct direction.\n\nI'm actually unclear with what you mean in your question about \"huge detours\", so I'm assuming you asking about the main part of a long distance trip and why on a map the path appears curved? Let's use Los Angeles to Tokyo as an example.\n\nHere is the path for ANA 5 on April 18: _URL_2_ compared to _URL_4_\n\nYou can check this yourself with a globe (or any large enough ball, like a soccer ball or basketball) and a piece of string. If you want to go from Los Angeles to Tokyo, from just a regular map it looks like you'd want to go straight west across the Pacific, right? Take your string and put it on those points, set the string along that east-west line in the Pacific, and then pull on the string until it's tighter. The line will go north towards the North Pole.\n\nMore on the great circle stuff can be found here: _URL_1_ \n\nBut that's if you were the only airplane in the sky, and a lot of other simplifications (such as how far you can go away from an airport you can divert to if one of your two engines fails). For all the transatlantic flights, there are the [North Atlantic Tracks](_URL_0_) that are published every day depending on the wind. This is to make the flights go faster and burn less fuel by avoiding headwinds and favoring tailwinds.\n\nIn busier airspace you might have defined navigational waypoints that all planes follow from one region to another. _URL_5_\n\nFurther reading: _URL_3_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because flying over certain countries will get your plane shot out of the sky quicker than you can say \"allahu ak--\" you're dead.\n\nAlso, states and stuff have no fly zones for security that mandate circumnavigation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One item here that might have been mised. An aircraft fueling up in NYC has to pay tax for all that fuel. If they burn it over international waters or say Canada/Mexico they can file for a tax refund for the fuel expense outside of the country of purchase. Business are built on this; calculating flight plans and processing the tax return for say Delta, Dragon Air, etc.\n\nThis might make an aircraft traveling from Florida to Canada take a detour to international waters for the haul up.\n\nFiling up a 777 is costly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When i travelled to thailand we had to fly around iran. They arent fans of commercial planes using their airspace.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe I watched something saying it was to do with the rotation of the earth and also weather in short.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many of the above answers are correct. I wanted to include an example. Emirates flight EK226 flies from San Francisco to Dubai. It will take a detour around Ukraine:\n\nTo the north and east: _URL_1_\n\nTo the south and west: _URL_0_\n\nThe plane will fly over Iran rather than Iraq (active military area). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi, \n\n < atc guy\n\nThey have highways in the sky. Shit would get ugly quick if everyone just went where they wanted. Think if we didnt have stop signs or stoplights or roads even but we all had cars still.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Air traffic controller here. Basically there are navaids that give a radial (360°) and DME (distance measuring equipment) to an aircraft. Utilizing this, we have fixes mapped out in the sky at a specific radial and DME that can connect to each other much like planning out a long distance trip in a car. On top of that we have jet routs and victor routs that start at certain navaids going out at a certain radial, much like highways in the sky. This helps keep things organized in the sky along with altitude restrictions that we use to keep separation between aircraft. These are IFR, (instrument flight rules) and are used by anyone from aircarriers ie. Delta, American Airlines etc. to anyone trying to get from point A to point B in a safe, expeditious manner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone seems to forget the reason we fly waypoints and not direct routes is so you can fly fixed headings. Sure there are reasons for traffic, weather etc, but forget great circles and projections etc. Planes fly way points that map the most direct route possible with out requiring the constant heading changes. To fly the most direct route would be require infinite heading changes to compensate for the curvature of the earth.\n\nIt would be easy to fly direct if the earth was flat!\n\nEDIT, Just to clarify. The only place you can fly a great circle without constant heading changes is the equator. If you fly from north to south, each time you pass over the poles, your compass would swing from north to south. Any angle between the poles and the equator means the compass will change to follow magnetic north.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the answers in here are wrong.\n\nContrary to popular beliefs, airplanes have their own \"roads.\" We call them \"airways\". Duh. [Pics](_URL_0_)\n\nThe first picture is a simplified version of a \"chart.\" A chart is what pilots are given prior to flying. (pilot redditors, correct me if I'm wrong) It also includes other information as well, eg. fuel weight, passenger number, cargo weight, weather, etc.\n\nBack to the first pic, notice the small triangles? Those are called waypoints. They are mostly imaginary points, same with the airways, but some could be a real landmark and such. \n\nHow do pilots remember all of this? They don't. They type it (the waypoints) into an MCDU (a computer basically) prior to flight, then they set it to auto pilot. Bam! You've arrived at your destination. Easy right? You would think that wouldn't you. As you may see in a cockpit, there are so many things pilots need to know. Computers only help with the mundane and repetitive tasks. tl;dr piloting is hard. \n\nEdit: I didn't quite answer the question. Basically to avoid weather and/or air traffic. ~~ATCs (Air Traffic Controllers) will have a hard time if planes fly however they want and where ever they want to. Waypoints and airways help organize air traffic. Imagine a ten lanes highway without road traffic markings. Won't be good for your health.~~\n\nEdit2: word",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many have answered your question assuming you were talking about the curvature of the earth. I think this question is often asked more when you look at airliners flight plans, and where they are flying. The simple answer is that airways are defined to allows for the smooth, uninterrupted flow of traffic. This allows for easier traffic separation, and terrain avoidance. Far easier to guarantee than if all traffic was a free for all.\n\nIn the US, there are two sets of flight rules, visual (VFR) and instrument (IFR). All airliners use the IFR system, in which separation services are provided by air traffic control. The FAA defines these routes, and it is expected if you file an instrument flight plan that you use them. If you look at this [website here](_URL_0_) you can see the airways for yourself. If you have planes flying defined routes, you only need to worry about intersections of these routes to ensure separation. If planes are flying direct (which is a possibility when ATC allows for it) you need to worry about traffic separation at all times.\n\nA flight from Boston to NYC for example, may take the form of [this.](_URL_1_) When you are talking about longer distances, you try to keep it as straight as possible when planning, however following airways causes you to sometimes have to deviate, especially in areas where no airway may be defined in the direction of your flight. These may be the detours you are seeing.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Planes fly over the North Pole or South Pole, depending on where it starts and where it's going, because the earth's roundness means travelling over a straight line would take longer, and going to the top and down would be much shorter. This porbably explains it better than me.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots of people have explained the two parts to this answer: established air routes (which may be less direct for shorter flights, but on really long flights most segments are at least close to a great circle), and the shortest distance between two points looks non-straight on a typical mercator projection map.\n\nHere is an excellent video that visualizes both of those points, but especially the second one: the paths that looked curved on the in-flight map is actually pretty close to the shortest, straightest one possible.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Airline Pilot here and Woot ! \nLet's see *ahem clears ELi5 voice*\n\nWe use highways in the sky called Jet ways (routes) and they are individually tailored to fit airspace requirements ( avoiding restricted/military areas) and navigation performance needs (Signal coverage). These routes can be viewed as a highway, some are near a destination and some are not.\n\nThen ATC ( Air Traffic Control ) issues STARS ( Arrival routes ) that help the plane transition from the \"highway\" to local navigation points so it's easier to manage traffic to a landing runway.\n\nTherefore, LOTS OF TURNS to sequence traffic or else everyone will be packed like sardines at the destination airport mmmkkaaay? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Go to _URL_0_ and cluck the world high overlay in top right. You will see all the paths planes must follow to help with sequencing. On top of that, and what you don't see, many large airports have published approach procedures called STAR, or standard arrival, which allows the air traffic controller to assign that arrival to multiple aircraft with the same speed and essentially forget about them. You can also see on sky vector the large MOAs, which are military operating areas, that planes should go around because there are uusually jets doing high speed maneuvers and won't be looking out for you. There are also restricted areas you can't fly in, like bombing ranges or certain factories, etc.\n\nSource: I'm an AF pilot",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Planes do their best to follow straight paths from city to city. These paths might look curved on a flat piece of paper, but if you look at a curved globe, they're straight paths!\n\n Sometimes though, planes can't follow that exact path if there's either weather or other planes in the way. Planes can't fly through tornados and they definitely don't want to crash! So sometimes the planes will have to turn off of their route for a little while. \n\nBut things flying at such high speeds as these planes can't turn like you and I can on the ground. They're moving so fast that it takes a long time for them to get out of the way. That's why planes end up going so far out of their way during a trip!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Planes historically have navigated by the use of land based radio beacons.. VORs... these are scattered across the US and world and planes fly point to point with them...(VOR's have limited range).\nThis is why you often don't have a straight direct path. \n\nWith modern GPS, planes are much more capable of flying direct to a destination... but somtimes traffic flow patterns and restricted airspace prevent that.\n\nSource: airline pilot.. and yes, I didn't account for everything..and i dumbed it down quite a bit..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in the industry. There are many reasons why:\n\n* Think of the sky as containing a series of highways. Like the highways on the ground, they're never perfectly efficient for a number of reasons - radar coverage, control jurisdiction, restricted airspace, terrain, and legacy purposes. The aircraft moves based on routes and waypoints. When you file a flight plan, you must state what waypoints you will be using. You can deviate from the plan while flying, but you still need to follow waypoints.\n\n* Radar coverage. If you're in an area without primary radar coverage, the controller must be very cautious to ensure there is ample room between you and other aircraft. (There are means of using only secondary surveillance for separation, but this is relatively new - WAM and ADS-B)\n\nThe north Atlantic tracks between Gander and Shanwick are an example - this is 60 nautical mile, procedural separation - there are no radars in the middle of the ocean. There are only a handful of tracks you can take between the US and Europe. This is to ensure that each aircraft has at least 60 nautical miles (~70 miles, or ~111km) between them. The controllers don't know exactly where the planes are, they just predict/guess. Pilots radio their position every 10-15 minutes (HF or satcom) or it is reported over CPDLC ADS-C every 10-15 minutes.\n\n* In the terminal area, you must consider the current runway configuration of the airport. If the airport is doing takeoffs from 1R and landings on 1L and you're coming in from the north and it's not a tiny airport, you can't just willy-nilly say \"I'm coming from the north, give me 19R.\" (19R is the same as 1L, just the opposite side.) The pilot will have to circle to the other side of the airport and begin an approach on 1L.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I work for an airlines and one reason I was told is that planes want to be traveling over as much land mass as possible in case of an emergency. This doesn't fully answer your question, but it explains some over the water type of routes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since this is ELI5, the simplest answer is we seek the quickest time between cities, not the shortest distance. Planes consume fuel by the minute, so there are applications that calculate the most efficient route based on the wind patterns at cruise altitude. The higher we fly the more efficient we are as well, but the maximum altitude allowed varies with weight. My passenger jet gets lighter (consumes fuel) by about 100 lb per minute on average.\n\nSorry I can't link on my tablet, but search for winds aloft charts for 250mb, or roughly 36,000 ft altitude to see the air currents we deal with.\n\nThere are also set flight patterns into and out of major airports for traffic flow and to avoid certain airspace for various reasons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same reason we don't let cars go from point A to B. It would be chaos. At those speeds, there would only be enough time to say, \"What is tha...\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think another problem that planes have to deal with when taking detours would be radar. Currently planes still use ground-based radar tracking, which has a limited range. This means that they have to stay within a certain distance from the coast or simply be off the radar. This leads to things like the Malaysia Airlines disappearance, where the plane was off the radar at a certain time and then it crashed. \n\nCurrently places like the FAA in the US are trying to implement satellite based radar that will allow planes to fly in a straight line to their destination and plan their routes to avoid interference with other planes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Air Traffic Controllers need things to be organized in such a way that they can actually...control...the airspace. Thus there are often lanes/highways/whatever you want to call them where they place aircraft. This makes things more manageable. There are also rules like restricted airspace and of course adjustments for things like weather or emergencies. If you are flying somewhere that is not busy airspace, you can often receive clearance to take a more direct path.\n\nJust imagine an airspace with hundreds or even thousands of aircraft at different altitudes, flying at different speeds, and going different directions. Imagine that they have different rules for what they do in different situations (say, military aircraft vs civilian aircraft). Thinking in 3D is hard enough, this is like 3D+.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The great circles are the way to go per my son who flew\nthe C-5 in the Air Force.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a single link to an arrival routing... For flights within the continental U.S., arrival and departure routings can talk airplanes from New York to Chicago or farther without ever having followed a direct path to the destination. The [PAITN FOUR](_URL_0_) arrival begins over flint Michigan and would be used by all aircraft approaching from the northeast. If this routing experiences heavy congestion, aircraft could be re routed to the south to join with another arrival routing, adding to the apparent detours in the interest of *saving* time (like avoiding a traffic jam by taking a longer route). While some planes do fly great circle paths, this routing is usually reserved for trans oceanic flights where congestion is less, and the distances are greater; they usually will terminate with a standard instrument arrival, but a 50-100 mile detour looks much less significant after a 3,000 mile flight.\n\nEdit: aircraft also have some pretty strict limitations when it comes to the type of weather they're able to fly through. It is not unheard of or even really uncommon for aircraft to divert by hundreds of miles to avoid an advancing line of thunder storms.\n\nEdit2: if you want the real skinny on what's happening when planes do this, come on over to /r/flying where the pilots of reddit will set you straight on what's really going on in the skies over your home town.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And here I thought it was because they would need to tunnel to go in straight lines..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hello, real live pilot here! This post is sort of old so I'm not sure if this will get read, but here it goes!\nA lot of people keep answering that the detours we take is because the world is round, but I think you are already aware of the shape of our planet, so I will go on to explain some of the real reasons. Some of the common ones would be to avoid certain air spaces, weather, and other air traffic. For example, this morning I was flying from one Midwest state to its neighboring Midwest state, and we were asked to change our heading 15 degrees to the left, to avoid another airplane. In areas with heavy traffic you have to do this more often. As far as the weather goes, if you are in a larger airplane you have the range and ability to get around bad weather, rather than cancel the whole flight. Also, if you can get a good tail wind, you can save a lot of time, even if you have to go out of your way. With the airspace, there are many different kinds, but to keep this super super simplified there are some that you are not allowed to enter at all, some for the military purposes, and some that are just too busy to handle you. \nThere are also still some planes (mostly smaller general aviation planes) that do not have a GPS in them, and so they must navigate using ground facilities called VORs. These send signals out in all directions that a plane picks up, and you can use them to zig-zag around. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the true ELI5 sense: because you are looking at the flight paths on a flat map, but the earth is actually round. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two different charts that can be used for navigation:\n\n\nOne is a \"mercador chart\" and the other is a \"great circle chart\"\n\n\nThe voyage is planned using a great circle chart, this chart takes into account the curvature of the earth with all lines of longitude coming together at the poles. The navigator will draw a straight line from point A to point B on this chart, this is the course that the plane will actually be flying. \n\n\nMost people are not familiar with a great circle projection (the do look kinda weird) so instead they show you a \"mercator projection.\" This is the way most maps at school are drawn. On this projection all lines of longitude are evenly apart and the curvature of the earth is not taken into account. When the coordinates from the great circle chart are placed on a mercator chart it gives the appearance of curved line when in reality it is the most direct route to the destination.\n\nSource: I am a navigation student\n\n\nTL;DR\n\nPilots use a special map that is projected differently than what we are used to. The map that most people grew up with does not take into account the curvature of the earth, so therefore it just appears that the plane is taking the long way around whereas from the pilots perspective it is actually the most direct route to the destination. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are taking straight lines, you're just thinking in only 2 dimensions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots of reasons. Here's a few.\n\nBigger airports have what's known as Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs). This manages the traffic that arrives at the airport in a predictable fashion which makes things easier for Air traffic control. When they leave they fly a Standard Instrument Departure (SID). Of course this means aircraft can't depart or arrive in a straight line because that wouldn't allow them to be sequenced with other traffic.\n\nWeather is another good reason. Often times a line of thunderstorms requires significant deviations made by the aircrew to circumvent the extreme weather. \n\nMilitary airspace, there are plenty of areas of restricted airspace in the United States (and I would assume other countries) that commercial aircraft aren't allowed to fly through. \n\nSpacing, similar to the arrivals and departures air traffic controls primary job is to keep traffic separated. So even though an aircraft may wish to proceed directly to its destination, ATC can't allow it because it would create congestion.\n\nI'm sure there are a few more reasons, or ways to explain what I mentioned but these are the big reasons I can think of off the top of my head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simple answer.\n\nAircraft generally follow [enroute charts](_URL_0_) and their associated airways.\n\nIt's obviously much more complex than this in reality but that is the easiest way to explain it.\n\nSource: I'm a commercial pilot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually just watched a Netflix documentary on this last night. Doesn't make me an expert by any means, but provides some knowledge. Most of the routes planes take nowadays has to do with the way flights happened in the early days of plane travel. There weren't enough Radar towers to accurately track plans if they took the most direct route from A to B, so they routed all traffic along \"corridors\" that flew by the instillations that were built, allowing them to keep an eye on traffic. Otherwise, plans could/would crash and no one would know/realize until much to late, and they wouldn't be able to locate where exactly a plane crashed, because no one actually knew where it was. Obviously, this is outdated nowadays and it's something the FAA is looking into fixing/resolving.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am an aircraft dispatcher and no we are not air traffic controllers lol. What we do is create flight plans from point A to point B using jet routes that have already been mapped out all across the globe. When we make a flight plan, we try to take the most direct routes to the destinations but we also have to take into consideration what weather could be blocking our path and re-route them around storms. Also when it comes to landing and take off, we use SID's and STAR's (standard instrument departures and standard terminal arrival route). When it comes to those, we try to give the pilots right SIDS and stars that will put them directly in line with the jet route upon takeoff and when coming in to land. Some SIDS and stars have turns in them for the pilots to stay on the course to avoid air collisions. Also next time you are on a flight and you go into holding, don't blame the pilots for it because they are only trying to keep everyone on board safe due to the incoming and outgoing traffic at the airport. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Take a string and put it on a globe from one point to another, you will find that curving a little actually makes it a shorter route.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is because the earth is a sphere and the closest distance between two points may not be the actual closest distance as you see on a 2d map. If you ever get shipment from overseas, you'll notice that many of your items first arrive at Alaska. (In fact, 90% of the industrialized northern hemisphere can be reached within 9.5 hours from Anchorage.) In order words, the airlines save fuel and money, and you also save time by arrive at your destination quicker, a win - win situation) \nSecondly, you may notice planes sometimes stay very close to areas of lands instead of passing over a big chunk of ocean. I believe that this has to do with safety, in case of a failure, planes can request emergency landings near land, instead of landing in sea (which is many more times challenging).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a helicopter pilot so I might be able to shed a little bit of light on the matter. For the most part ATC will detour the aircraft around weather or other traffic. Usually if the local traffic control has to deviate around weather this will also change the flow of traffic coming in and out of the area. ATC is also responsible for the separation of the big airplanes and this takes a lot of coordination between their own, and other control facilities. \n\nOn rare occasions the airplanes may be put into a holding pattern before landing. Basically you'll fly in a planned circle as a planned altitude waiting for your turn in line (if they are backed up) or for the weather to clear. \n\nMost of the navigation is through GPS now, but we still have ground based nav aids and with those nav aids you have to follow certain routes called victor airways. Basically they are like huge roads in the sky between each navigational aid. Sometimes to hop from navaid to navaid might not be the most direct route. \n\nHope this helps. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's also a post showing recent traffic over Britain's airspace. That should help explain it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: link added",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of the curvature of the Earth, the paths taken usually are straight and the shortest. The diameter of the Earth is smaller as you get closer to the poles, so flying closer to the pole can cut time off a trip. Also, on flights the cross the oceans, planes tend to fly as close to land as possible in case of an emergency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Long story short... Pilots account for the rotation of the earth when writing their flight plans. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Firstly, the curvature of the earth distorts the path, so it may not look like a straight line, but if you take a string and stretch it between your destination on a globe it will most likely match up.\n\nSecond, they need to avoid other aircraft, and also travel above certain radio beacons/control centers, and may alter their paths to accommodating for this.\n\nThird, winds aloft can be predictable in certain areas/altitudes, so they may be taking what seems like a detour in order to be more fuel efficient/actually save time due to tailwinds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are landing approaches that are always less direct but meant to make traffic and arrivals/ departures more predictable and safe given the volume of air traffic. Flying direct would t be safe, there are also holding patterns which can be implemented based on volume and weather which will make routes appear less direct than optimal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a bunch of reasons.\n\n* Firstly, traffic. Planes generally try to avoid crashing into each other.\n* Secondly, geographical features. Planes try to avoid coastlines because of turbulance, mountains to avoid crashing, and volcanos because those tend to mess things up.\n* Weather. No-one likes flying through storms or thunderclouds.\n* Holding patterns. If there is an emergency, other planes will be told to stay clear for the time being.\n* Runways. Not all of them are perfectly alligned, and planes can't turn on a ditme, they need to take a \"sweeping approach.\"\n* And, then, of course there is the curvature of the Earth, but others have covered it well before me.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "995636",
"title": "Course (navigation)",
"section": "Section::::Course, track, route and heading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "The path that a vessel follows over the ground is called a \"ground track\", \"course made good\" or \"course over the ground\". For an aircraft it is simply its \"track\". The intended track is a \"route\". For ships and aircraft, routes are typically straight-line segments between waypoints. A navigator determines the \"bearing\" (the compass direction from the craft's current position) of the next waypoint. Because water currents or wind can cause a craft to drift off course, a navigator sets a \"course to steer\" that compensates for drift. The helmsman or pilot points the craft on a \"heading\" that corresponds to the course to steer. If the predicted drift is correct, then the craft's track will correspond to the planned course to the next waypoint. Course directions are specified in degrees from north, either true or magnetic. In aviation, north is usually expressed as 360°. Navigators used ordinal directions, instead of compass degrees, e.g. \"northeast\" instead of 45° until the mid-20th century when the use of degrees became prevalent.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2340464",
"title": "Kennedy Approach",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The aircraft cannot be too close to each other, so the player needs to make sure that they are passing each other on different flight levels or with sufficient distance (three grid dots north/south or east/west) between them. When an aircraft is in danger of crashing or is exiting at the wrong location or altitude, the aircraft will inform the air traffic controller. Aircraft do not change course/altitude unless the player tells them to. Incoming aircraft not given clearance to land, however, will go into a holding pattern and wait until given clearance. When necessary, the player can also give holding instructions to aircraft, as long as their course takes them over a VOR tower which is used as the holding fix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47451921",
"title": "Falling leaf",
"section": "Section::::Maneuver.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "With the exception of landing, plus a few exotic maneuvers, stalling an aircraft is typically avoided in most conventional maneuvers, both because the plane is no longer flying normally, making the control surfaces sloppy and sluggish to react, and also because the aircraft is balanced on the edge of losing control. If the pilot can maintain a level attitude (nose position in relation to the horizon) and keep the wings level, the plane should theoretically float downward at its terminal velocity, which is partially determined by the shape of the plane in the direction of the relative wind. However, the slightest bit of variation in any of a number of factors, such as control surface inputs or air turbulence, will generally result in the aircraft beginning a rotation around both the yaw and roll axes, referred to as \"incipient spin.\" The rotation may be self-induced, called autorotation, or, in maneuvers like the falling leaf, the rotation is pilot-induced by using the rudder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240584",
"title": "Instrument landing system",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "At a controlled airport, air traffic control will direct aircraft to the localizer course via assigned headings, making sure aircraft do not get too close to each other (maintain separation), but also avoiding delay as much as possible. Several aircraft can be on the ILS at the same time, several miles apart. An aircraft that has turned onto the inbound heading and is within two and a half degrees of the localizer course (half scale deflection or less shown by the course deviation indicator) is said to be \"established\" on the approach. Typically, an aircraft is established by at least prior to the final approach fix (glideslope intercept at the specified altitude).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2375883",
"title": "Basic fighter maneuvers",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Out-of-plane maneuvers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "An out-of-plane maneuver enhances this effect, by diverting the fighter into a new plane of travel. Increasing the pitch or slice can quickly provide a change in speed, which can just as quickly be reversed by returning to the original plane of travel. Out-of-plane maneuvers are not only used to provide a reduction in turn radius, but also causes the fighter to fly a longer path in relation to the direction of travel. A maneuver such as a high Yo-Yo is used to slow closure and to bring the fighter into lag pursuit, while a low Yo-Yo is used to increase closure and to bring the fighter into lead pursuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10261692",
"title": "Ground track",
"section": "Section::::Aircraft ground tracks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In air navigation, ground tracks typically approximate an arc of a great circle, this being the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface. In order to follow a specified ground track, a pilot must adjust their heading in order to compensate for the effect of wind. Aircraft routes are planned to avoid restricted airspace and dangerous areas, and to pass near navigation beacons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1170314",
"title": "Wingtip vortices",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In general, to avoid vortices an aircraft is safer if its takeoff is before the rotation point of the airplane that took off before it. However care must be taken to stay upwind (or otherwise away) from any vortices that were generated by the previous aircraft. On landing behind an airplane the aircraft should stay above the earlier one's flight path and touch down further along the runway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wwv6e
|
seriously, how do cell phones work?!
|
[
{
"answer": "There are cell towers all over the place and each one covers a certain area on the ground, which is called the cell. When you travel into the next cell, that tower then picks up your signal and continues your call.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sound energy becomes electricity and then the Tesla fairy takes it across the sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all it's not instant. It's something like one twentieth of a second from the time you speak until the other person hears you, and it depends on how far away you are from each other. It takes time to transmit information, so no kind of communication is instantaneous.\n\nStep by step here is a basic overview. If there's any specific part of this you are curious about I can explain more.\n\nThe sound of your voice goes into the microphone.\n\nThe microphone converts these sounds into electrical signals.\n\nA part in the phone called a ADC converts these signals into a stream of numbers.\n\nA tiny but very fast computer in the phone does lots of math with the numbers to process the signal, compress the information so there's not too much to transmit, and package it into a format that the phone company can understand. \n\nA radio in the phone transmits these numbers onto the airwaves.\n\nThe nearest cell tower receives the radio signal.\n\nA computer at the cell tower then retransmits the numbers, in the form of light waves, into cables that run all over the country. Lots of fancy equipment in big air conditioned facilities all over the world pass this information along to its destination. \n\nAt the other end, the reverse process occurs until the sound you made finally exits the other person's phone through its speaker.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The instantaneous part is due to the radio waves travelling at the speed of light. At this speed, the wave can travel around the world 7.5 times every second. The signal generated by the phone is not powerful enough and will not be able to travel across the globe on its own, and will need to be passed along by cell towers.\n\nWhen you first dial a number, the phones and towers involved must do some \"handshaking\" in order to connect you with the person you are calling and not one of the millions of other people who also have a cell phone. This is the cause for the relatively long delay before their phone starts ringing. After the connection is made, the rest of the conversation will take place with a much lower delay.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like all my ELI5, I'll go big picture complicated, come back to an ELI5 answer:\n\nSo first your cell phone, minus all the \"smart phone\" compartments. Is basically a wireless phone that has a very powerful radio in it. Mattering which country you are in, that radio will be locked to set a frequency which it can connect to. The status bar will show the signal strength, and also the type of network connection (frequency) you are currently connected to. Your radio is constantly looking for a signal, and determining the signal strength. When you make a phone call, the number you dial is like an IP address on your computer. It gets sent out over the airways to a radio tower, which then sends that signal to a switch. That switch will look at the phone number just like it does an IP address. The first three numbers are an area code, and if that area code is for that area, then it moves on. If it isn't, it will look through a registry to find the location of that area code. It will then transmit the call to either a satellite (if it is a very long distance, or if there isn't a fiber connection to that site) or over fiber to the correct location. \n\nThen mattering which way it comes in, it will then take in that signal, look at the number, see that it is the right area code, and then look at the next three numbers, and then the final four. These numbers will be connected to your SIM card. (The SIM is hugely important in this process, it sends out what your number is, controls what network you can connect to, and also holds information such as IEMI, and other vital information for your carrier subscriber. I can go in detail on the SIM card if needed) so it will be able to find that number by sending out a signal looking for that number. Once it is found, the cell phone communicates back that, yes, this is that number, and the cell tower will say you have a call. The call is then patched through, and your voice is transmitted, over radio, then over a wire, then possibly over fiber, and then possibly back to radio, and then to a wire, and finally wireless to the other end of the call. This string of events are carried out back and forth over the whole process of the phone call.\n\nNow how does your voice transmitted as radio waves, and then changed into other forms, back into radio waves, come out as your voice on the other end? Well the radio in the phone takes in the signal and then is able to determine from the changes in the signal coming in what the person's voice is like, and what the person is saying. \n\n\nSo now for the ELIY5 part: Basically your phone has this big radio in it, that sends your voice over the air, and it is sent all over this country to another person's big radio and it sends back and forth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My problem has always been understanding sound - > electric signals - > sound. I do not understand how I can speak, something can pick that up and turn it into not my voice then relay it again as my voice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing I've never understood. If you're calling another cell phone, how is it possible for the 'signal' to KNOW where the other cell phone is located? Are cell phones constantly relaying their position to a phone mast or something?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically you make a handshake with the base station telling it who you are and who you want to connect to in form of a telephone-number, it then does a lookup and finds out which SIM-card that owns that number and creates a connection. Now that you have a connection you can talk to the other person in form of a digital bitstream. A digital bitstream is your voice being translated to binary code. You know how a soundwave looks like, right? \n\nImagine your soundwave being chopped up into tiny pieces, then you can take each little piece of that soundwave and find out how 'tall' it is, so if the piece you got is really high up on that soundwave, you would assign 255 out of 255, and if the sound wave is on the bottom it would be 0 out of 255. The higher the quality of the signal is, the tinier the soundwave gets chopped up. So now that we can build a soundwave out of values we can send each of those pieces by translating them to binary and sending them one by one in the right order, so if we have the first piece which is 130 we would translate that to 10000010, then we would translate the next piece to binary and send it as piece number 2, and it goes like that until the connection is broken by someone hanging up. When the other cellphone receives this bitstream it would translate it back into soundwaves so that the other person can understand it.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe I missed it, but how does the individual phone know which data in a given frequency to \"grab\" out of the air?\n\nFor example, 10 phones all receiving 10 different types of data. How does my phone know that a certain series of bits make up the photo I'm downloading, while another set of bits is going to someone watching chocolate rain?\n\nDo the bits have header data to specify an IMEI? or are different sets of data sent on very specific frequencies within a broader range?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch your mouth!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1272748",
"title": "Mobile phone radiation and health",
"section": "Section::::Exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "A cell phone is a wireless portable telephone that connects to the telephone network by radio waves exchanged with a local antenna and automated transceiver called a cellular base station (\"cell site\" or \"cell tower\"). The service area served by each provider is divided into small geographical areas called \"cells\", and all the cell phones in a cell communicate with that cell's antenna. Both the cell phone and the cell tower have radio transmitters which communicate with each other. Since in a cellular network the same radio channels are reused every few cells, cellular networks use low power transmitters to avoid radio waves from one cell spilling over and interfering with a nearby cell using the same frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33170045",
"title": "Stingray phone tracker",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Active (cell site simulator) capabilities.:Forcing an increase in signal transmission power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Cellular telephones are radio transmitters and receivers much like a walkie-talkie. However, the cell phone communicates only with a repeater inside a nearby cell tower installation. At that installation, the devices take in all cell calls in its geographic area and repeat them out to other cell installations which repeat the signals onward to their destination telephone (either by radio or landline wires). Radio is used also to transmit a caller's voice/data back to the receiver's cell telephone. The two-way duplex phone conversation then exists via these interconnections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16443289",
"title": "Fixed–mobile convergence",
"section": "Section::::Components.:PBX mobility.:Single number.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Single number means that the mobile phone and the desk phone share an extension number. So only one phone number need be given out to receive calls on either a mobile or desk phone. But the cell phone likely still has its own number, it’s just that one need not give it out to anyone. To make business calls from a cell phone, one dials an access number at the office, gets a new dial tone, and then dials the destination number. This allows taking advantage of corporate least-cost-routing, and shows the office number on the caller ID display of the called person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 356,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 356,
"end_character": 1372,
"text": "A mobile phone, or cell phone, is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile voice or data communication over a network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. Early mobile FM radio telephones were in use for many years, but since the number of radio frequencies were very limited in any area, the number of phone calls were also very limited. To solve this problem, there could be many small areas called cells which share the same frequencies. When users moved from one area to another while calling, the call would have to be switched over automatically without losing the call. In this system, a small number of radio frequencies could accommodate a huge number of calls. The first mobile call was made from a car phone in St. Louis, Missouri on June 17, 1946, but the system was impractical from what is considered a portable handset today. The equipment weighed 80 lbs, and the AT&T service, basically a massive party line, cost $30 per month plus 30 to 40 cents per local call. The basic network and supporting infrastructure of hexagonal cells used to support a mobile telephony system while remaining on the same channel were devised by Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young at AT&T Bell Labs in 1947. Finally in 1973, Martin Cooper invented the first handheld cellular/mobile phone. His first mobile phone call was made to Joel S. Engel in April 1973.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369685",
"title": "Walkie-talkie",
"section": "Section::::Developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Some cellular telephone networks offer a push-to-talk handset that allows walkie-talkie-like operation over the cellular network, without dialing a call each time. However, the cellphone provider must be accessible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33170045",
"title": "Stingray phone tracker",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Active (cell site simulator) capabilities.:Forcing an increase in signal transmission power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "To make all that work correctly, the system allows automatic increases and decreases in transmitter power (for the individual cell phone and for the tower repeater, too) so that only the minimum transmit power is used to complete and hold the call active, \"on\", and allows the users to hear and be heard continuously during the conversation. The goal is to hold the call active but use the least amount of transmitting power, mainly to conserve batteries and be efficient. The tower system will sense when a cell phone is not coming in clearly and will order the cell phone to boost transmit power. The user has no control over this boosting; it may occur for a split second or for the whole conversation. If the user is in a remote location, the power boost may be continuous. In addition to carrying voice or data, the cell phone also transmits data about itself automatically, and that is boosted or not as the system detects need.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155746",
"title": "Mobile phone features",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "All mobile phones are designed to work on cellular networks and contain a standard set of services that allow phones of different types and in different countries to communicate with each other. However, they can also support other features added by various manufacturers over the years:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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