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16723q
|
Can a fusion reaction occur near the boundary of the event horizon of a black hole with enough material?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is probably not possible for sustained fusion to occur near a black hole, but some fusion may occur on a small scale. Matter falling into a black hole can (if the black hole is large enough) attain incredibly high speeds, even significant fractions of the speed of light. If a black hole accumulates a large cloud of matter around it, internal collisions between high-velocity objects can produce short situations with sufficient pressure to achieve fusion. This is not where the 'burps' come from though. The best example we can look at is a [Quasar](_URL_0_), a galaxy-sized cloud of accreting matter that is falling into a supermassive black hole. These incredibly bright objects produce far more energy per time unit than any star and are often likened to a sustained supernova in terms of their energy output. Th only source of energy that could be that plentiful with the sustained output that quasars demonstrate is the release of gravitational energy of infalling matter. This process is not very well understood, but it is far more efficient than nuclear fusion, and is the source of the 'burps' you are talking about. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1447921",
"title": "Pp-wave spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "BULLET::::- the Schwarzschild generating plane wave, a gravitational plane wave which, should it collide head-on with a twin, will produce in the \"interaction zone\" of the resulting colliding plane wave solution a region which is locally isometric to part of the \"interior\" of a Schwarzschild black hole, thereby permitting a classical peek at the local geometry \"inside\" the event horizon,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48803",
"title": "Gamma-ray burst",
"section": "Section::::Progenitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "An alternative explanation proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg is that in the course of a gravitational collapse and in reaching the event horizon of a black hole, all matter disintegrates into a burst of gamma radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2269463",
"title": "Thermonuclear weapon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "A fusion explosion begins with the detonation of the fission primary stage. Its temperature soars past approximately one hundred million kelvins, causing it to glow intensely with thermal X-radiation. These X-rays flood the void (the \"radiation channel\" often filled with polystyrene foam) between the primary and secondary assemblies placed within an enclosure called a radiation case, which confines the X-ray energy and resists its outward pressure. The distance separating the two assemblies ensures that debris fragments from the fission primary (which move much slower than X-ray photons) cannot disassemble the secondary before the fusion explosion runs to completion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21544",
"title": "Nuclear fusion",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical description of cross section.:Parameterization of cross section.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The probability that fusion occurs is greatly increased compared to the classical picture, thanks to the smearing of the effective radius as the DeBroglie wavelength as well as quantum tunnelling through the potential barrier. To determine the rate of fusion reactions, the value of most interest is the cross section, which describes the probability that particle will fuse by giving a characteristic area of interaction. An estimation of the fusion cross sectional area is often broken into three pieces:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::History.:General relativity.:Golden age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In 1958, David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon, \"a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction\". This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. Finkelstein's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole. A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal, who was urged to publish it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6813660",
"title": "Apparent horizon",
"section": "Section::::Differences from the (absolute) event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In the simple picture of stellar collapse leading to formation of a black hole, an event horizon forms before an apparent horizon. As the black hole settles down, the two horizons approach each other, and asymptotically become the same surface. If the AH exists, it is necessarily inside of the EH.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6813660",
"title": "Apparent horizon",
"section": "Section::::Differences from the (absolute) event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Event horizons can, in principle, arise and evolve in exactly flat regions of spacetime, having no black hole inside, if a hollow spherically symmetric thin shell of matter is collapsing in a vacuum spacetime. The exterior of the shell is a portion of Schwarzschild space and the interior of the hollow shell is exactly flat Minkowski space. Bob Geroch has pointed out that if all the stars in the Milky Way gradually aggregate towards the galactic center while keeping their proportionate distances from each other, they will all fall within their joint Schwarzschild radius long before they are forced to collide. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
769xsu
|
which is the best theory on how the world will function in ~100 years (socially, economically etc) and what reasoning supports this/these theories?
|
[
{
"answer": "there is no way to decide which theory is \"best\", and there is no good theory that can be done up in one Reddit post, do i suggest you read some books instead\n\nthe best theory i've read syas that in a hundred years, most countries will have space colonies, which will be used to gather energy and minerals. Far East Asia will be unified as an economic powerhouse, and Europe will have fallen far behind them and the US due to population crunch. Russia will go to war to create a buffer zone in Europe because the using up of fossil fuels in the middle East will make Siberia a big target for other countries. it will be defeated by America, the East Asian alliance, Eastern European alliance, and turkey. the last one will benefit from the fall of geopolitical importance of the middle East after oil runs out, and, with an alliance with Iran, will control most of the middle east and a good chunk of central asia and north africa. it will still be behind Europe industrially and technologically, and will be the major supplier of labour to the then critically undermanned Europe, causing the ethnic ratios to become very skewed. \nAlso, India and Mexico will become superpowers and challenge the US.\n\ni know what i said sounds far fetched, but it's hard summarizing a 300 page book into one comment, and it(the book) does a good job of explaining it, so i suggest you go read it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "418604",
"title": "World3",
"section": "Section::::Model.:Reference run predictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The \"Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World\" provides several different scenarios. The \"reference run\" is the one that \"represent the most likely behavior mode of the system if the process of industrialization in the future proceeds in a way very similar to its progress in the past, and if technologies and value changes that have already been institutionalized continue to evolve.\" In this scenario, in 2000, the world population reaches six billion, and then goes on to peak at seven billion in 2030. After that population declines because of an increased death rate. In 2015, both industrial output per capita and food per capita peak at US$375 per person (1970s dollars) and 500 vegetable-equivalent kilograms/person. Persistent pollution peaks in the year 2035 at 11 times 1970s levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1582312",
"title": "Core countries",
"section": "Section::::Sociological theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The World Systems Theory argues that a nation's future is decided by their stance in the global economy. A global capitalistic market demands the needs for wealthy (core) states and poor (periphery) states. Core states benefit from the hierarchical structure of international trade and labor. World systems theory follows the logic that international wars or multinational financial disputes can be explained as attempts to change a location within the global market for a specific state or groups of states; these changes can have the objective to gain more control over the global market (to become a core country), while causing another nation to lose control over the world market. As the two groups grew apart in power, world systems theorists to established another group, the semi-periphery, to act as the middle group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26692723",
"title": "Study of global communication",
"section": "Section::::Central debates.:Global power shifts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Immanuel Wallerstein's world system theory develops a basic framework to understand global power shifts in the rise of the modern world. Wallerstein proposes four different categories: core, semi-periphery, periphery, and external, in terms of different region's relative position in the world system. The core regions are the ones that benefited the most from the capitalist world economy, such as England and France. The peripheral areas relied on and exported raw materials to the core, such as Eastern Europe and Latin America. The semi-peripheries are either core regions in decline or peripheries attempting to improve their relative position in the world system, such as Portugal and Spain. The external areas managed to remain outside the modern world economy, such as Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40667524",
"title": "World Marketing Summit",
"section": "Section::::Vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The scenario of world economy influenced Philip Kotler to coin the term “Creating a Better World through Marketing”, asserting that that creation of positive perceptions is the fastest route toward attaining behavioural changes to make a better world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "506422",
"title": "Environmental sociology",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Historical studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Stephen G. Bunker (d. 2005) and Paul S. Ciccantell collaborated on two books from a world-systems theory view, following commodity chains through history of the modern world system, charting the changing importance of space, time, and scale of extraction and how these variables influenced the shape and location of the main nodes of the world economy over the past 500 years. Their view of the world was grounded in extraction economies and the politics of different states that seek to dominate the world's resources and each other through gaining hegemonic control of major resources or restructuring global flows in them to benefit their locations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48851709",
"title": "Overtaking criterion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Often, the decisions of a policy-maker may have influences that extend to the far future. Economic decisions made today may influence the economic growth of a nation for an unknown number of years into the future. In such cases, it is often convenient to model the future outcomes as an infinite stream. Then, it may be required to compare two infinite streams and decide which one of them is better (for example, in order to decide on a policy). The overtaking criterion is one option to do this comparison.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48938957",
"title": "Econodynamics",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics of development.:Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "The theory allows, being based on the Angus Maddison\"s estimates of the Gross World Product and World population, to restore the picture of development of mankind in the previous centuries. It was shown (see , Chapter 12). that one need the theory, based on the effect of substitution of worker's efforts with work of external power (two-factor theory), for the description of the evolution of production activity from approximately year 1000 of our era. Before this time the substitution of human’s efforts for outer work practically was not noticeable, and one can use one-factor theory that is taking into account only one production factor -- efforts of workers. The theory is stated (see. section 1.3.1, the formula 1.1 in chapter 1 and section 12.3 in chapter 12).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ssfs0
|
Question about the magnetic field in relation to the human brain.
|
[
{
"answer": "There's no reason to think it would, because magnetic fields have an incredibly small effect on chemistry (I neglect them all the time in doing theoretical calculations), and the Earth's magnetic field is very weak. It's more surprising, really, that there are birds who've evolved an ability to sense it at all.\n\nAnyway, empirically we also know this isn't the case: We've sent people to the moon, and their brains seemed to work just fine over there. And we routinely stick people's heads in MRI machines to check them out, where the magnetic field is hundreds of thousands of times larger than the earth's field, and not noticed anything. (Nor noticed much chemical effects when using NMR, MRI's chemical cousin) If you think about it, you'll have a stronger field close to an ordinary refrigerator magnet (try it with a compass), and those don't seem to do anything either.\n\nIn short: No, static (unchanging) magnetic fields of that size have no significant impact on your brain or physiology, or almost all chemistry in general. That said, a strong _rapidly changing_ magnetic field can and will screw things up in your brain, since they'll induce currents in your head and screw up the electrical signalling that's going on.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "277295",
"title": "Magnetite",
"section": "Section::::Biological occurrences.:Human brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense, proposing that this could allow certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation. The role of magnetite in the brain is still not well understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern, interdisciplinary techniques to the study of biomagnetism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Current technologies.:Transcranial magnetic stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is essentially direct magnetic stimulation to the brain. Because electric currents and magnetic fields are intrinsically related, by stimulating the brain with magnetic pulses it is possible to interfere with specific loci in the brain to produce a predictable effect. This field of study is currently receiving a large amount of attention due to the potential benefits that could come out of better understanding this technology. Transcranial magnetic movement of particles in the brain shows promise for drug targeting and delivery as studies have demonstrated this to be noninvasive on brain physiology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36564148",
"title": "Electrophysiological techniques for clinical diagnosis",
"section": "Section::::Electrophysiological techniques.:Magnetoencephalography (MEG).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The measurement of the naturally occurring magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical activity is called magnetoencephalography. This method differs from magnetic resonance imaging in that it passively measures the magnetic fields without altering the body's magnetization. However, data from MEG and MRI can be combined to create images that approximately map the estimated location of the natural magnetic fields. This composite imaging process is called magnetic source imaging (MSI).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1506351",
"title": "Magnetoreception",
"section": "Section::::In homing pigeons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Aside from the sensory receptor for magnetic reception in homing pigeons there has been work on neural regions that are possibly involved in the processing of magnetic information within the brain. Areas of the brain that have shown increases in activity in response to magnetic fields with a strength of 50 or 150 microtesla are the posterior vestibular nuclei, dorsal thalamus, hippocampus, and visual hyperpallium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1025417",
"title": "Electromagnetic theories of consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Influence on brain function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "One hypothesis is that magnetic fields in the 0.5-9 Tesla range can affect the ion permeability of neural membranes, in fact this could account for a lot of the issues seen as this would affect many different brain functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490620",
"title": "Human brain",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Any electrical current generates a magnetic field; neural oscillations induce weak magnetic fields, and in functional magnetoencephalography the current produced can show localised brain function in high resolution. Tractography uses MRI and image analysis to create 3D images of the nerve tracts of the brain. Connectograms give a graphical representation of the neural connections of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16198372",
"title": "Magnetic field imaging",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "In comparison to the electric signals, which are influenced by the differently conductive tissue of the body and varying resistance of the skin before they can be recorded, the magnetic signals travel through the body almost without disturbance. The differences in the electric potentials, that are recorded by the ECG, are directly depending on the inhomogeneity and geometry of the thorax, the magnetic signals outside of the thorax depend primarily on the intracellular currents of the cardiac tissue and only secondarily on the secondary currents generating the electric signal. Furthermore, the magnetic signals of so-called vortex currents, which occur regularly in every heartbeat and include important information for an advanced and more accurate cardiac diagnosis (first theoretically described by John Wikswo), can be acquired with an MFI system, but cannot be recorded electrically on the body surface (First experimental hint by Brockmeier et al. 1994 and comprehensive demonstration Brockmeier et al. 1997).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tr6vv
|
what goes into making a new font and how hard is it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Making a new font is a relatively simple process, but can be a lot of work depending on how detailed you want it to be, and how many different letters you want it to span. \n\nIn essence all you do is you open up MS paint, draw your letter, and save it. Then rinse and repeat for every letter in your font. You then just need to convert the file type from a .png or .jpeg to a .ot or .tt. Some software, like Photoshop allows you to save your file directly as a .ot or .tt.\n\nMaking good fonts is harder, you want letters to look the same, and you want your font to have good spacing between letters (kerning). If you're interested in more, check out the [Open Font Library](_URL_0_) and feel free to contribute. Everyone's shitty first attempt is welcome (although it probably won't be downloaded).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5256709",
"title": "Unicode font",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "are continually added to it, and common font formats cannot contain more than 65,535 glyphs (about half the number of characters encoded in Unicode). As a result, font developers and foundries incorporate new characters in newer versions or revisions of a font, or in separate auxiliary fonts intended specifically for particular languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68227",
"title": "OpenOffice.org",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Fonts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "\"Fontwork\" is a feature that allows users to create stylized text with special effects differing from ordinary text with the added features of gradient colour fills, shaping, letter height, and character spacing. It is similar to WordArt used by Microsoft Word. When OpenOffice.org saved documents in Microsoft Office file format, all Fontwork was converted into WordArt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555337",
"title": "Core fonts for the Web",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In addition to the Core fonts for the Web, some newer fonts, such as those packaged with Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org or other software could form a new canon of core fonts. Broader web browser adoption of the web fonts specification may ultimately render the notion of core fonts obsolete by allowing the real-time downloading and display of specific fonts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87634",
"title": "Daisy wheel printing",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Different typefaces and sizes can be used by replacing the daisy wheel. It is possible to use multiple fonts within a document: font changing is facilitated by printer device drivers which can position the carriage to the center of the platen and prompt the user to change the wheel before continuing printing. However, printing a document with frequent font changes and thus requiring frequent wheel changes was a tedious task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226751",
"title": "Kerning",
"section": "Section::::Digital typography.:Kerning tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Font editors allow the user to modify the properties of a font, including its kerning table (if the font license permits it). They accomplish this by modifying the table found in the actual font file. The user can change the kerning value in existing pairs, or add new pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2032390",
"title": "FontForge",
"section": "Section::::Development history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In 2011, FontForge was packaged for easier installation on Mac OS X by Dr. Ben Martin with support from TUG. Meanwhile, Matthew Petroff published his Windows Build System and unofficial Windows builds. In 2013 the FontForgeBuilds project was started on sourceforge to extend this; it was subsequently entirely rewritten, and is today maintained by Jeremy Tan as an official Windows package.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555337",
"title": "Core fonts for the Web",
"section": "Section::::Program termination and software licence agreement issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "The latest font-versions that were available from Microsoft's \"Core fonts for the Web\" project were 2.x (e.g. 2.82 for Arial, Times New Roman and Courier New for MS Windows), published in 2000. Later versions (such as version 3 or version 5 with many new characters) were not available from this project. A Microsoft spokesman declared in 2002 that members of the open source community \"will have to find different sources for updated fonts… Although the EULA did not restrict the fonts to just Windows and Mac OS they were only ever available as Windows .exe's and Mac archive files.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4m07el
|
Mouse models for disease?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer varies depending on the model. If the gene or mutation that causes the gene is known, the mouse model is usually made by creating that same mutation in the mice. Long QT syndrome is an example of such a disease that has been studied this way. If the genetic cause isn't known, or if the cause isn't genetic in origin (diet, lifestyle, ect) the researchers try their best to simulate the external factors that lead to the disease. After several attempts they usually find the right combination of factors that result in a mouse that presents with the same symptoms as the human disease. This has been done for diabetic studies (in rats more typically than in mice). Additionally for some diseases, like cardiac hypertrophy or modeling heart failure, a surgical intervention can be done to induce the desired disease state. \n\nHow these models are tested depends on how much is known about the disease. Some times we know the gene responsible. From there its usually a matter of figuring out if the mutation results in an overactive protein, and figuring out what drugs will decrease its activity, or if the mutation results in a nonfunctional protein, and figuring out what drugs can restore or circumvent its activity. \n\nFor diseases where we don't know the gene involved, or there are many genes or the problem isn't strictly genetic, we usually screen for drugs that reverse the disease symptoms in our mice models. Researchers have had many years to study mice, so the behavior of healthy happy mice is well known. From there researchers can compare disease model mice to the healthy mice and note any changes or improvements. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Hi /u/plays_in_traffic, \n \nThis is a complex question to answer, especially because the answer differs per disease. \n \nI will use Alzheimers as an example in my explanation since you specifically mention it. Of course I'm going to oversimplify stuff so just respond if you want more in-depth explanations. \n \n \nWhen creating/considering mouse models, there are a few possible ways to look at it. One way is via construct validity. This means that you study the disease, and what causes the disease and the mechanism behind the disease, and you try to mimic this in a mouse model. In Alzheimers this generally means that researchers look at genes that cause Alzheimers in humans. For example, the swedish mutation is a genetic mutation that causes an increase in amyloid and this is linked to Alzheimers. Another genetic mutation that is linked to Alzheimers is presenilin1 (PSEN1). \n--What researchers tend to do is recreate these mutations in mice, and then study the behavior. They will mostly see impairments in learning/retention. The next step is studying possible treatments. This is done by applying a treatment and see if the impairments go away. \n--A big concern/criticism about this model is that you are only looking at the types of Alzheimer's that are caused by these mutations. For example, the swedish mutation is virtually non-existant and in general only about 5 to 10% of Alzheimer's are caused by specific genetic mutations. Another criticism is that these kind of mouse models will never teach you anything new about how the disease is formed. You tell the model how it's supposed to get the disease, so you will never learn something about how Alzheimer is caused in someone who does not follow the construct you worked with. This method of construct validity is most often used because it's really simple and easy to get a APPswe mouse model (for example). \n \n \nAnother method is face validity. This means that the behavior of the mice resemble Alzheimer's. One way to do this is to study a population of rats and do a learning test/memory test - of course multiple tests/observations would be done to account for multiple symptoms. The 5% of the rats that score the lowest are then labelled as resembling Alzheimer's. \n--One good aspect about this method is that you can actually learn something new about how a disease is formed. Just like in humans, the rats Alzheimer-like behavior could be explained by a myriad of reasons and you could study these to learn more about the disease itself. Difficult things with this method are that for most cognitive diseases, it's really hard to recognise it in mice, or worse, it doesn't even really exist in mice. How would you see if a mouse is depressed? How would you see if a mouse has Alzheimers? There are tests designed for this but these are based on human symptoms, so we might just be looking at an entirely different disease that displays the same symptoms. \n \n \nLastly researchers use predictive validity. This often goes together with face or construct validity. This method consists of having a mice that resembles Alzheimers, and then you study whether already proven effective treatment methods are also effective in this model. If these treatment are effective in this model, or produce similar results as in humans, it is said to be a good model. \n--A problem with this is that obviously human treatments might not transfer correctly to an animal or even do something completely different. \n \n \nThere are other ways, and if you want to know specifics, just respond to this. The biggest criticism with mouse models is that barely anyone is creative. We are just creating models based on knowledge we already have, therefore only confirming the knowledge we already have instead of learning groundbreaking new things about a disease.\n\n\nEDIT: \n[[1]](_URL_0_) - Specific mouse models that are being used for Alzheimer's. \n[[2]](_URL_1_) - About what is being looked at when making a mouse model. More about construct/face/predictive validity.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "33708419",
"title": "Knockout mouse",
"section": "Section::::Strains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 565,
"text": "Many mouse models are named after the gene that has been inactivated. For example, the p53 knockout mouse is named after the p53 gene which codes for a protein that normally suppresses the growth of tumours by arresting cell division and/or inducing apoptosis. Humans born with mutations that deactivate the p53 gene suffer from Li-Fraumeni syndrome, a condition that dramatically increases the risk of developing bone cancers, breast cancer and blood cancers at an early age. Other mouse models are named according to their physical characteristics or behaviours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "52868193",
"title": "Nobuyo Maeda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Nobuyo N. Maeda is a Japanese geneticist and medical researcher, who works on complex human diseases including atherosclerosis, diabetes and high blood pressure, and is particularly known for creating the first mouse model for atherosclerosis. Maeda has worked in the United States since 1978; as of 2017, she is the Robert H. Wagner Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "53468434",
"title": "Markus Grompe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Grompe is a specialist in hepatology and stem cell biology, and is known for the development of the \"Fah mouse model\", a transgenic mouse with an inactivating mutation (exon 5 deletion) in sequence encoding fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (\"Fah\"). This mouse strain has been a useful model of Type I tyrosinemia, a human genetic disease caused by inactivating mutations in the \"Fah\" gene. The mice have been used to model diseases such as malaria and to optimize human gene therapy strategies \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14638490",
"title": "Severe combined immunodeficiency (non-human)",
"section": "Section::::Mice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "SCID mice are routinely used as model organisms for research into the basic biology of the immune system, cell transplantation strategies, and the effects of disease on mammalian systems. They have been extensively used as hosts for normal and malignant tissue transplants. In addition, they are useful for testing the safety of new vaccines or therapeutic agents in immunocompromised individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "52872553",
"title": "Severe combined immunodeficient mice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCIDs) are often used in the research of human disease. Human immune cells are used to develop human lymphoid organs within these immunodeficient mice, and many different types of SCID mouse models have been developed. These mice allow researchers to study the human immune system and human disease in a small animal model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "44248347",
"title": "Gene Disease Database",
"section": "Section::::Types of databases.:Predictive databases.:The Mouse genome Database (MGD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The Mouse genome Database (MGD) is the international community resource for integrated genetic, genomic and biological data about the laboratory mouse. MGD provides full annotation of phenotypes and human disease associations for mouse models (genotypes) using terms from the Mammalian Phenotype Ontology and disease names from OMIM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14875704",
"title": "CDCP1",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "CDCP1/Trask is not important for the development of the mouse. Adult mice lacking CDCP1 do not exhibit gross morphologic, reproductive or behavioral abnormalities compared with wild-type mice, and histologic examination of multiple organ systems has shown no significant pathology and no observed histologic differences. CDCP1 is a ligand for CD6, a receptor molecule expressed on certain T-cells and may play a role in their migration and chemotaxis. As such CDCP1 may contribute to autoimmune diseases such as encephalomyelitis, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory arthritis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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] | null |
1lymbl
|
How realistic was Chiang Kai-shek/the Republic of China invading and retaking Mainland China?
|
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{
"answer": "Well until someone with perhaps more verifiable sources can comment, I can take a shot at this based on my experiences interviewing villagers in Southwest China and urbanites in Taiwan. In addition, I will try to tie this in with what I learned from both Chinese/Taiwanese professors, and while in the United States undertaking an undergrad in East Asian studies.\n\nThe answer to your question largely depends on what exactly you meant by \"re-taking\" the mainland? Do you mean could the ROC march back into Beijing by sheer military force? Or do you mean could the Guomingdang effectively reinstate their authority on the mainland population?\n\nIf you looked into historical sources on the Yuan and Qing dynasties, you will understand the difficulty in asking the latter. In practically any case where a foreign entity attempted to rule over the Chinese populace, they ultimately it difficult to impose their culture and ideologies on the public, and often ended up becoming absorbed by the Chinese civilization, whom it appeared was greater than the sum of all its borders.\n\nNow obviously Chiang Kai-Shek and the KMT/GMD (depending on what spelling you prefer) were not \"foreigners\", but the fact of the matter was that by the time the Japanese were retreating after World War 2 and the Chinese Civil War was reigniting, the Communist Party has already amassed a huge base of support among the massive agrarian population, which was crucial in gaining ground against the KMT, who were seen as corrupt an apathetic to the plights of those in the countryside.\n\n\nWhat I got out of my time in the countryside of Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces, China, was that even today, the love and adoration for Mao Ze Dong is permeable and strong. To a lot of people, especially the older ones that I spoke to, Mao and the CCP were seen as \"knights in shining armors\", who instituted land reform, agricultural practices, medical care, etc. I of course also spoke to individuals who had lost loved ones during the famine of the Great Leap Forward, and those who had been imprisoned for 18+ years during the Cultural Revolution, who obviously did not share such admiration, but there was still a significant amount of people even today who proudly display pictures of Mao in their homes with no hint of being coerced into doing so (the police are largely non present here).\n\nThe point is, even today there are many who express nostalgia for the \"iron rice bowl\" era and still do hold on to their red books. Even after I spoke to these people, it is still impossible to imagine the fervor some of them held when Mao rolled into Beijing.\n\n\nSo what does this mean for Chiang Kai-Shek? Well, even if he managed to re-invade the mainland, with or without US support, he would find himself facing an extremely hostile and recently empowered population residing in a country spanning the entire length of the continental United States. Even if he and his armed forces were able to successfully defeat the Communists, he would then have to face the greater battle of rebuilding the Republic of China in a country who historically has been notoriously resistant to subjugation.\n\n\nIf you are asking simply in regards to the military capabilities of the ROC, then I'll let someone else much more knowledgeable discuss that; however, from my studies and experience, Chiang Kai-Shek and the KMT would have had an extremely difficult time reinstating the ROC to its original borders. Even during times of crises like the Great Leap Forward, the geopolitical impact of the ROC attempting to invade the mainland and risk another civil war during the broader context of the Cold War would have like made the idea not too palatable to anyone. \n\n\nAgain, sorry about not specific sources. This is focusing primarily on first-hand sources conducted through private interviews rather than vetted historical sources.\n",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "57868399",
"title": "Republic of China retreat to Taiwan",
"section": "Section::::Plans to retake mainland China.:Chronology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
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"text": "After several unsuccessful feigned invasions between August 1971 and June 1973, in the lead up to the main landings, the 1973 coup which witnessed Nie Rongzhen's rise to power in Beijing drove Chiang to call off all further false attacks and commence full landing operations. Having said this, according to Gen Huang Chih-chung, who was an army colonel at the time and part of the planning process, Chiang Kai-shek never completely gave up the desire to recapture China; \"even when he died (in 1975), he was still hoping the international situation would change and that the Communists would be wiped out one day.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "57868399",
"title": "Republic of China retreat to Taiwan",
"section": "Section::::Plans to retake mainland China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 780,
"text": "Originally, the Republic of China planned to reconquer the mainland from the People's Republic. After the retreat to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek established a relatively benign dictatorship over the island with other Nationalist leaders, and began making plans to invade the mainland. Chiang conceived a top secret plan called Project National Glory or Project Guoguan (), to accomplish this. Chiang's planned offensive involved 26 operations including land invasions and special operations behind enemy lines. He had asked his son Chiang Ching-kuo to draft a plan for air raids on the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, from where many ROC soldiers and much of the population of Taiwan had origins. If it had taken place, it would have been the largest seaborne invasion in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9955745",
"title": "Xinghua Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Outcome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Like other similar clashes immediately after the end of World War II between the communists and the nationalists in China, this conflict showed that Chiang Kai-shek's attempt to simultaneously solve China's long-standing warlord problem and to exterminate communism proved to be a critical mistake. Although the result of the campaign turned out exactly like Chiang Kai-shek and his subordinates had predicted, reducing the power of the warlords in the region, the positive impact of any secondary objectives were negated by the loss of primary ones. The people of the region had already blamed the nationalists for the previous loss to the Japanese invaders, and the reassignment of the former nationalist forces to fight the communists only further alienated the local populace and strengthened popular resentment of Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist regime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "9955745",
"title": "Xinghua Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Like similar clashes following World War II between the communists and the nationalists in China, the Xinghua Campaign stemmed from Chiang Kai-shek's realization that his nationalist regime had neither sufficient troops nor adequate transportation to move his army into the Japanese-occupied regions of China. Chiang feared that the communists, who already dominated much of rural China, would further expand their territories by being the first Chinese faction to accept the official Japanese surrender, thus adding the regions occupied by Japan to the area controlled by the communists. Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Japanese and their wartime puppet regime not to surrender to the communists, and furthermore to quell unrest and fight off the communists until the eventual arrival of the nationalist troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504623",
"title": "Battle of Shanghai",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:International response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Thus, Chiang Kai-shek had to devote everything China had to offer to make sure the Western powers knew that the present conflict between China and Japan was a major war, not a collection of inconsequential \"incidents\" as had been the case previously. Based on this political strategy, Chiang Kai-shek had to order his troops to fight to the death in an attempt to arouse international sympathy and cause the international community to adopt measures that would help China and sanction Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6627640",
"title": "Second United Front",
"section": "Section::::Xi'an Incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "On 12 December 1936, a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in Xi'an to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CCP. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT was forced to agree to a temporary end to the Chinese Civil War and the forming of a united front between the CCP and KMT against Japan on 24 December 1936.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65712",
"title": "Battle of Nanking",
"section": "Section::::Prelude to the battle.:China's decision to defend Nanking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "On November 15, near the end of the Battle of Shanghai, Chiang Kai-shek convened a meeting of the Military Affairs Commission's Supreme National Defense Council to undertake strategic planning, including a decision on what to do in case of a Japanese attack on Nanking. Here Chiang insisted fervently on mounting a sustained defense of Nanking. Chiang argued, just as he had during the Battle of Shanghai, that China would be more likely to receive aid from the great powers, possibly at the ongoing Nine Power Treaty Conference, if it could prove on the battlefield its will and capacity to resist the Japanese. He also noted that holding onto Nanking would strengthen China's hand in peace talks which he wanted the German ambassador Oskar Trautmann to mediate.\n",
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ekmsle
|
Can we ever know the exact area of a circle if the decimal part of pi is infinite?
|
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"answer": "This is a fun discussion. I will add my two cents. \n\nAs many people have stated, mathematically the answer is yes. A circle with radius 4 has an area of of 4\\*pi\\^2. The fact that pi is irrational does not take away from the exactness of this answer. \n\nPhysically speaking I can think of two answers. The case were you have a perfect ruler and the case were you do not. \n\nIf you have a prefer ruler than you must consider if space itself is continuous. The current thinking here is that the smallest region of space that makes sense to think about is the plank length (10\\^-35 m). At distances less than this our current under standing of physics breaks down. We don't know what happens at \"smaller\" distances. Therefore, measuring distance more precisely than this does not make sense even with a perfect ruler. \n\nIf you don't have a perfect ruler we can instead consider the best ruler people have ever made. This is the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) which can detect changes in distance as small as 10\\^-22 m. It is used to detect gravitational waves, which are small ripples in spacetime. Measuring distances smaller than this is beyond our current engineering capabilities.",
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"answer": "Yes. If the radius of a circle is *r*, the area enclosed by the circle is πr^(2). \n\nI think you are confused between what it means to know a number exactly and what it means to have a terminating decimal representation of that number. In fact, a lot of undeserved attention is paid to base representations, when they really don't affect any of the most useful and interesting properties of a number, e.g., rationality. How we write or represent numbers doesn't actually affect or change what the number is. It's like how what a chair is is not affected by what you call it, whether it's \"chair\" or \"silla\" or \"Sessel\" or something else.\n\nThe number π is known exactly. It's just ... π. That's it. We can even *define* it as the ratio of a disk's area to its radius-squared.\n\nSince π is irrational, its representation in *any* rational number base must be infinite and non-periodic. So we cannot write down a finite digit representation of π. But there are plenty of *irrational* bases in which π has a finite representation. Trivially, in base-π, the number π has representation \"10\" (but also the infinite, non-periodic representation \"3.011021110020....\")\n\nIn base *b*, there will always be numbers that cannot be uniquely represented (e.g., 0.499... = 0.5 in base-10 and 0.111... = 1 in base-2) and there will always be numbers that have infinite representations (e.g., 0.333... = 1/3 in base 10 and 0.010101... = 1/3 in base-2). That doesn't mean we don't know those number exactly. For instance, the number 1/3 is the unique number *x* such that 3x = 1. That's the definition of 1/3. But if we choose an integer base *b* for which *b* is not divisible by 3, then 1/3 will have an infinite digit representation.\n\n(The only feature about 1/3 that really separates it from π in this context is that 1/3 is rational, but π is not. So in any integer base, 1/3 always has at least one eventually periodic representation.)\n\n---\n\n**edit**: Copy-pasting a response of mine below for more clarity.\n\n > This doesn't \"sidestep\" the question. If you know *r* exactly, then you know πr^(2) exactly. \"How big is that disk with radius 1 meter? Its circumference is 2π meters and its area is π square-meters.\" All of that is exact and, yes, those are the exact numbers in base-10. That has nothing to do with how we represent numbers, and that's really the only reasonable sense in which \"know\" should be interpreted.\n\n > The problem is that many people confuse knowing a number with being able to write it down with finitely many decimal digits (so we don't know 1/3?), or at least being able to write it down with finitely many decimal digits and some periodic pattern (so we don't know sqrt(2)?). Too much attention is paid to base representation and too many properties of a number are conflated with its base representation.\n\n > Let's look at some other ways you might \"know\" a number...\n\n > If you have some other convoluted definition of \"know\", then you have to specify exactly what you mean. If by \"know\" you mean that...\n\n > * ... you can represent the number with a finite digit representation in base-10, then you can't know the number 1/3 but you can know the number 1/4.\n > * ... you can represent the number with a finite digit representation in base-3, then you can't know the number 1/4 but you can know the number 1/3.\n > * ... you can represent the number with an eventually periodic digit representation in base-10, then you can't know the number sqrt(2) but you can know the number 89102/2123901.\n > * ... you can represent the number by constructing a segment of that length with a compass and unmarked ruler, then you can't know the numbers 2^(1/3) and cos(2π/7), but you *can* know numbers 2^(1/4) and cos(2π/85).\n > * ... you can represent the number by constructing a segment of that length with a compass and *markable* ruler, then you can't know the number 2^(1/5), but you *can* know the number 2^(1/6). (Both of these numbers were also unknowable in the previous bullet point.)\n > * ... you can measure such a length exactly, then you can know 0 and precisely one nonzero number of your choosing *but no other number*.\n\n > Note that with any of these definitions (except the last), you can't know any transcendental number like π or *e*. Some transcendental numbers even have base-10 representations with very easily described patterns, although they are not periodic. For instance, the number\n\n > > 0.110001000000000000000001000...\n\n > is transcendental. Under any of the above concepts of \"know\", you don't know this number. But its base-10 representation is actually very easy to describe: \"the digits are all 0, except where this is a 1 in each *N*th place, where *N* is a factorial\". So there is a 1 in places 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, etc.\n\n > You will find that with these other definitions of \"know\", they don't even all agree about what you can \"know\". It's all just so arbitrary, and there's just way too much emphasis on knowledge of the number depending on some physical reality. The implicit definition of \"know\" that I used in my original post is really the only reasonable interpretation of \"know\". Do you even \"know\" the number 1? Why? Mathematically, it's just this thing we define to have certain properties, just as we do with pi. There's really no difference.",
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"answer": "I would argue Yes, just not in decimal form. All of the infinite decimal places are contained in the singular symbol of Pi, so the equation A=Pi*r^2 is perfectly accurate. \nFor any practical application, ex: car engine parts manufacturing, I would still say yes.... and you can truncate pi to whatever gets you within your desired margin of error.",
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"answer": "We talking abstract or physical object here?\n\nAbstract - a perfect circle of radius 2, say, has an area of exactly 4pi. That is an exact area, and a perfectly good number. The fact that it's a non repeating decimal doesn't actually matter until you try to make it physical and so have to measure things. \n\nPhysical - any accuracy issues will be more related to instrument accuracy than numerical accuracy. If a perfect circle somehow did exist, the issue would be measuring its radius. That measurement will be done to within some accuracy, then we're back in the situation above: that squared times pi. Similarly for creating one.",
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"answer": "Well it depends how you write it...\nIf you want to write it in decimals you will always end up with something that you can't exactly write down... But either way you can always just stax with the π in your answer\n\nBecause it's r(square)*π\nIf r is 3 you will have 9π as your solution and that is basically exact because pi is defined...",
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"answer": "You could say the area is exactly 1 if the radius is 1/sqrt(pi). That's if you want a rational area as the answer, but you'll always have some input or output of the area equation as an irrational number. In this case the input is irrational",
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"answer": "You can't know the exact area practically because you can only measure the radius so accurately. If knowing the decimal expansion of pi sufficiently accurately was the issue (it never would be) you could measure the radius and circumference and calculate the area as\n\nA = r * circumference / 2\n\nNo pi needed.",
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"answer": "There are some great in-depth answers about the definition, function, and operations of numbers, but I think some are missing the OP's point a bit. I have what I think is a much easier way to explain it and visualize it. Please let me know if it helped you, or if have any errors or misunderstandings.\n\nWhile pi itself is irrational (decimals don't always like fractions and vice versa) when we think about it in algebraic form, 1 divided by the square root of pi - 1/√π - is a legit fraction, at least to write down and work with for now. Right, why not, so then make that the radius, you then have area of a circle with area defined as π•(1/√π)² = 1.0 exactly.\n\n1 think you're also partly asking \"so then can we know the full infinite digits in the number that would be the radius/diameter/perimeter?\" Not really because you chose to make the area EXACTLY 1. But there are interesting ways to wrote decimals as fractions in infinite formulas. Look for info about Srinivasa Ramanujan. He was self-taught and it's incredible subject matter, contemplating infinity and how to conceive it and work with it. Georg Cantor is another one.\n\nWhen it comes to real life applications, how to take proper measurements, properly recording the measurements, the method of function of the measuring instrument and their tolerances, and significant figures during the math are all important factors that are related to your accuracy.",
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"answer": "There are 2 answers to your questions really, yes in that we know the area of a circle is exactly πr². The other answer is when using the decimal representation of pi, past a certain point the decimals stop adding very much more accuracy. For example JPL uses 15 decimal places of pi and when you work out the distance for Voyager 1 to earth you will find an inaccurate of something like 1.5in vs a circle with a 12.5 billion mile radius. Practically speaking then you don't really gain very much more by using tens and hundreds of decimal places in terms of accuracy. Past a certain point it stops mattering",
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"answer": "I can never finish trying to write the decimal expansion of 1/3.\n\nBut 1/3 \\* 3 = 1. Exactly.\n\nDecimal notation is a convenient way we can write down things, but it's not perfect. There are several really really useful numbers that decimal expansion doesn't handle. The numbers aren't weird, but decimal notation can't handle them nicely. Examples: pi, square root of 2, natural logarithm base e.",
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"answer": "Yes, assuming you define “exact”. \n\nIn science, maths and especially in engineering it is normal to define to how many decimal places any value is expected to be accurate. On engineering drawings this is sometimes in the legend, or sometimes by specifying zeros in the decimals of each value. Once specified, any value on the drawing is expected to accurate to plus or minus half the smallest decimal.\n\nIf a size was given as 10mm, it could be between 9.5mm and 10.5mm. If it was given as 10.0 mm it would be 9.95mm to 10.05 mm. 10.00mm is 9.995mm to 10.005mm. (Someone correct me if I’m out by a decimal, it’s a while since I did this practically😳, but the principle remains sound)",
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"answer": "A *rational number* is simply a number than can be written as a fraction. For example 3, 1/7, and 57046/9494 are all rational numbers. In decimal, a rational number will either terminate or repeat itself infinitely.\n\nAn *irrational number* cannot be expressed as a fraction, and as a decimal it will go on forever without repeating.\n\nMost numbers (by any reasonable definition of \"most\") are irrational.\n\nFinite addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (except by zero) of rational numbers will always produce another rational number. Other things such as square roots and infinite sums can produce irrational numbers.\n\nIf a circle has a rational radius, its area must be irrational. Conversely if a circle has a rational area, its radius must be irrational. (A circle may also have both radius *and* area irrational).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "People here are talking about the rationality of pi. However, it is possible to construct a circle with an exact area to a terminating decimal place. The result is that the radius of the circle will then be irrational.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So with 40 digits of pi, we can calculate the area of the universe to the accuracy of a hydrogen Atom, So by the time you go farther than there you're calculating something to the exact to the point where any further detail wouldn't add information.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on what you mean.\n\nWhen it comes to mathematics we can define things exactly. \n\nwhen it comes to real-world objects we define things within boundaries called \"significant digits.\" We can call a bolt 1\" long but there is no such thing as a bolt which measures 1.000...(infinity zeroes)\" long. \n\nSo the exact circumference of a circular object in the real world is not an actual thing. The exact circumference of a circle in mathematics is r x 2 x Pi.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you mean by exact? \n\nThe area of a circle with radius r, is EXACTLY pi\\*r\\^2. \n\nPi is exactly pi, it has a clear definition as the ratio of the circumference and its diameter.\n\nThe decimal part of 1/3 is also infinite, do we not know what \"exactly' 1/3 is?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Exact\" does not exist, at some point we have approximations, and further down we are at out right probabilities in terms of \"space\" (distance). The universe you observe is different than the universe I observe, we have to agree to accept some error so that we can have a commonly accepted reality. The precision to Plank length is arguably the end of practically measurable reality.\n\nSo yes, in reality we can calculate the area of a circle such that no one can disagree via methods of measurement. Mathematics are intended to abstract reality, just because you can keep the math going, doesn't always mean its useful.\n\nThis concept was a logical struggle since disagreements between Aristotle and Zeno on the divisibility of time and distance, scientific methods struggled right struggling with 17th century concepts, you need to learn to give up and accept some lack of precision, we get concepts like \"infinitesimal\" winch is something but might as well be zero, and hence Calculus is invented.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. define a circle with area 1 and its diameter becomes irrational. Also, if you are satisfied with talking in a numerical representation that uses pi as a symbol, then we can represent all areas exactly. it is simply the decimal representation that is so complicated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the only way would be by not knowing the radius exactly, for example if r = sqrt(1/pi) \n\n\nAnd I disagree with the answers claiming that we \"know\" the value of pi: in the spirit of the question we don't, we only know an algorithm for calculating an algebraic number arbitrarily close to pi, but never the actual value of pi itself and we also know how to write down expressions that would evaluate to pi exactly if we had infinite time and memory, so this does not constitute \"knowing\" in the spirit of the question either",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I see you've already got a whole bunch of really good answers, but I'd still like to add how I prefer to think of these issues. Might not be as mathematical precise as some of the other answers, but I find it a useful tool when thinking about this, and similar \"precision\" issues.\n\nI like to think of this in a kind of backwards fashion. Imagine using \"pi\" as the base unit of a number system, then we get in a similar situation, but instead when we try to represent just about any number that is not pi - with some details depending on exactly how we decide this number system works.\n\nOne (decimal 1) would be pi/pi, which is exactly one. Even though any attempt to \"write\" one (decimal 1) exactly as \"decimals\" in this number system would fail, the number one is still perfectly well defined. It's still the one glass of water, the single sun rising over the horizon, and the radius of a circle with area pi*pi - an area that could be written as \"pi\" in such a base, or more succinctly \"1\" as pi is our base.\n\nIt's really all a matter of perspective, we feel pi as being less real than one, but it's really not. As an abstract concept both one and pi is well defined, but in the real world, neither is. Small fragments of a favourite sweater is left behind whenever it's handled or worn, it will accumulate molecules of odour or dirt. Thus, if we were to somehow *measure* if that sweater is actually one sweater, we couldn't really do it perfectly without relying one some approximation of our abstract intuitive notion of one.\n\nThis would be very similar to how you can't measure area and radius of a real - physical - circle and get the exact value of pi, which is something of the inverse of the question you asked.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FYI, knowing Pi to 10 digits after the decimal is accurate enough to get a satellite into orbit of Saturn or Jupiter. The Pioneer and Voyager probe programs reportedly didn’t use more than that. Nowadays we have the computing power to do way more than that with a 10 year old phone. But for almost anything you do outside engineering or aerospace, 3.14159 is probably more than you’ll ever need.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can only know the area as precisely as you know the radius. No measurement is infinitely precise and we know Pi to way more digits than are needed for any practical purposes. 3.14 works fine in most instances.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50124015",
"title": "Adriaan Anthonisz",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In 1585 Anthonisz discovered that the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, later called pi, approximated the fractional value of . His son Adriaan Metius later published his father's results, and the value is traditionally referred to as Metius' number'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6832938",
"title": "Non-integer representation",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Base π.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Base π can be used to more easily show the relationship between the diameter of a circle to its circumference, which corresponds to its perimeter; since circumference = diameter × π, a circle with a diameter 1 will have a circumference of 10, a circle with a diameter 10 will have a circumference of 100, etc. Furthermore, since the area = π × radius, a circle with a radius of 1 will have an area of 10, a circle with a radius of 10 will have an area of 1000 and a circle with a radius of 100 will have an area of 100000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24665031",
"title": "Project Mathematics!",
"section": "Section::::Video module descriptions.:\"The Story of Pi\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "Pi is a fundamental constant of nature. Archimedes discovered that the area of the circle equals the square of its radius times pi. Archimedes was the first to accurately calculate pi by using polygons with 96 sides both inside and outside a circle then measuring the line segments and finding that pi was between formula_5 and formula_6. A Chinese calculation used polygons with 3,000 sides and calculated pi accurately to five decimal places. The Chinese also found that formula_7 was an accurate estimate of pi to within 6 decimal places and was the most accurate estimate for 1,000 years until arabic numerals were used for arithmetic. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19537780",
"title": "Timeline of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Symbolic stage.:1000–1500.:15th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1400 – Madhava discovers the series expansion for the inverse-tangent function, the infinite series for arctan and sin, and many methods for calculating the circumference of the circle, and uses them to compute π correct to 11 decimal places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19537780",
"title": "Timeline of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Syncopated stage.:1st millennium BC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "BULLET::::- 260 BC – Archimedes proved that the value of π lies between 3 + 1/7 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 + 10/71 (approx. 3.1408), that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle and that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He also gave a very accurate estimate of the value of the square root of 3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19374248",
"title": "Timeline of geometry",
"section": "Section::::1st millennium BC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "BULLET::::- 260 BC — Archimedes proved that the value of π lies between 3 + 1/7 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 + 10/71 (approx. 3.1408), that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle and that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He also gave a very accurate estimate of the value of the square root of 3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333306",
"title": "Regular polygon",
"section": "Section::::Regular convex polygons.:Angles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "As the number of sides, n approaches infinity, the internal angle approaches 180 degrees. For a regular polygon with 10,000 sides (a myriagon) the internal angle is 179.964°. As the number of sides increase, the internal angle can come very close to 180°, and the shape of the polygon approaches that of a circle. However the polygon can never become a circle. The value of the internal angle can never become exactly equal to 180°, as the circumference would effectively become a straight line. For this reason, a circle is not a polygon with an infinite number of sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t5epf
|
Is there something better than History of the World? (J.M. Roberts, 2007)
|
[
{
"answer": "It's probably the best book to start with. If you tell us more specifically, what you are looking for, we may be able to give you better recommendations. For general world history, *A World History* by Clive Ponting is quite good too. It focuses more on the \"East\", while Roberts' focus is the \"West\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can also read A History of the Modern World by Palmer, Colton and Kramer!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34386838",
"title": "History of the World (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1197,
"text": "History of the World is a compendium written by a collection of noted historians. It was edited by William Nassau Weech, M.A., a former Headmaster of Sedbergh School (and a very early aficionado of downhill skiing who also wrote \"By Ski in Norway\", one of the first British accounts of the sport). First published by Odhams in 1944, \"History of the World\" ran to three editions, the second edition in 1959, and the third in 1965. The editor, W.N. Weech, wrote in the Preface:\"This book is designed for the ordinary man or woman, who should have no difficulty in getting through it in a month, though many may prefer to compress their first reading of it into a fortnight.\" W.N. Weech's \"History of the World\" is notable for bearing comparison with Ernst Gombrich's best-selling \"Little History of the World\", a book that is shorter and is addressed to younger readers. (Gombrich, a Jewish émigré from Vienna, was an art historian better known for his classic work, \"The Story of Art.)\" Weech's book is noteworthy, not only for being both thorough and accessible, but also (not unlike Gombrich's) for maintaining a tolerant and measured style, despite being written during the dark days of Nazism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12473392",
"title": "A Short History of the World (Blainey)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A Short History of the World is a general history non-fiction book written by Australian historian Geoffrey Blainey. First published in 2000 by Penguin Books, it describes over 4 million years of history, from before the first people left Africa, through to the current day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21165500",
"title": "Israel's Secret Wars",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "John C. Campbell, writing in \"Foreign Affairs\", the journal of the Council on Foreign Relations, said that the book \"cannot be the definitive history, but it comes as close as we are likely to get and is especially good in showing how critical to, and closely interwoven with, the fate of the nation these agencies have been.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47634469",
"title": "List of ancient great powers",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). \"The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1\". F. R. Niglutsch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47555277",
"title": "List of modern great powers",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). \"The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1\". F. R. Niglutsch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10772350",
"title": "History",
"section": "Section::::Areas of study.:World history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49471087",
"title": "The Cambridge World History",
"section": "Section::::Approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Speaking in 2013, the editor of volume three, Norman Yoffee, described the history as being \"conceived by a group of world historians, that is people who insist that large indeed global relations are essential in understanding local histories, and they are dedicated comparativists.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3efx85
|
Magnets and Space Travel?
|
[
{
"answer": "There have been a number of proposals of a similar nature, and they all fall short on three fronts:\n\n1. Cost\n2. Materials Science\n3. Politics\n\nA rail gun large enough to accelerate any machine with a low enough degree of acceleration to avoid destroying the payload would have to be *immense*. We're talking *miles* long. The rail gun being deployed by the Navy is just that: a gun. The projectile will experience extremely large acceleration forces on the way out of the gun. To pull this off with something containing sensitive equipment (like a satellite), a much longer acceleration time would be required.\n\nThe cost of building and operating a gun like this would be astronomical.\n\nThe second problem is with the atmospheric heating of the craft on the way up. If you're moving fast enough to get most of the way to orbit, then you're also moving fast enough to be experiencing some seriously extreme atmospheric heating. Spacecraft returning to earth don't have such a hard time (comparatively) because the atmosphere they're entering is MUCH thinner than the atmosphere near the ground. Moving at 8km/s at or near sea level would almost certainly destroy anything. The materials that could survive this kind of launch without weighing too much simply don't exist.\n\nThe third problem is, with all things, politics. Whenever you completely change the way you do something as expensive and dangerous as spaceflight, you have to convince a large portion of everybody involved in spaceflight that it's a good idea. The risks associated with any radically new technology in this area can be quite high, considering the costs involved. Convincing the people cutting the checks (governments) to invest in anything not proven to work would be an immense political battle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's apply Fermi method or order of magnitude calculation. If you're moving at about escape velocity, ~10 km/s, then you have to displace about 1 ton per kilometer of air per 1 m^2 of frontal area, so that would be 10 tons/s/m^2. At these speeds a blunt heat shield is the only option, let's say 1 m^2 frontal area. Change of momentum would be 10000 m/s × 10000 kg = 1e8 kgm/s. Flying ~10 km (isobaric height of atmosphere) would take 1 s, so rate of change of momentum or force would be max. 1e8 N/m^2 i.e Pa, or 1000 atm, higher than in a gun barrel. Over 10000 m, that would mean a work of 1e12 J/m^2, 1 terajoule, over at least a second. Most of it would be spent on the atmosphere, but we're still talking about sitting next to a gigawatt heater. You'd need to evaporate about 5-500 tons of water as a coolant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "390906",
"title": "Ufology",
"section": "Section::::Studies, panels, and conferences.:Project Magnet, Project Second Story (Canada, 1950–1954).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Project Magnet, led by senior radio engineer Wilbert B. Smith from the Department of Transport, had the goal of studying magnetic phenomena, specifically geomagnetism, as a potential propulsion method for vehicles. Smith believed UFOs were using this method to achieve flight. The final report of the project, however, contained no mention of geomagnetism. It discussed twenty-five UFO sightings reported during 1952, and concluded with the notion that \"extraterrestrial space vehicles\" are probable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16880508",
"title": "Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMS) is a NASA robotic space mission to study the Earth's magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. The spacecraft were launched on 13 March 2015 at 02:44 UTC. It is designed to gather information about the microphysics of magnetic reconnection, energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence, processes that occur in many astrophysical plasmas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530745",
"title": "Greyfriars School",
"section": "Section::::Storylines.:Travel series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The early Magnets saw some short trips to Europe, but it was not until 1922 that the first proper foreign travel series appeared. In Magnets Nos. 768 to 774 the juniors travel with Bob Cherry's cousin to Africa in search of buried ivory. The juniors revisited Africa with Mr Vernon-Smith in 1931 (Magnets Nos. 1228 to 1236).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57601067",
"title": "Solar Terrestrial Probes program",
"section": "Section::::Missions.:MMS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMS) is a mission to study the Earth's magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. The spacecraft were launched on March 13, 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18402950",
"title": "Spacecraft magnetometer",
"section": "Section::::Configurations of magnetometers.:Dual technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Explorer 6 (1959) used a search coil magnetometer to measure the gross magnetic field of the Earth and vector fluxgate., however because of induced magnetism is the space craft the fluxgate sensor became saturated and did not send data. Future missions would attempt to place magnetometers further away from the space craft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9772503",
"title": "Project Magnet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Project Magnet was an unidentified flying object (UFO) study programme established by Transport Canada on in December 1950 under the direction of Wilbert Brockhouse Smith, senior radio engineer for Transport Canada's Broadcast and Measurements Section. It was formally active until mid-1954 and informally active (without government funding) until Smith's death in 1962. Smith eventually concluded that UFOs were probably extraterrestrial in origin and likely operated by manipulation of magnetism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2087784",
"title": "Buck Rogers XXVC",
"section": "Section::::Setting.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The main method of interplanetary travel from this time onward is the rocket ship. These vessels use fusion reactions to power the ship throughout its entire voyage. Rocket ships usually can range from 5 to 500 tons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bus38
|
Will a light source change direction inside a black hole?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Suppose a flashlight is falling into a black hole facing outwards. Since light cannot escape the black hole, and a trajectory of a single photon is smooth, I would assume that as soon as the flashlight crosses the event horizon, its particles can no longer emit light in the direction towards the event horizon. Is this correct?\n\nYes, that is exactly right! Inside the event horizon, *all* paths that light (or matter) can take point towards the singularity; no path points outward toward the event horizon.\n\nThe three images on the right side of [this Wikipedia article](_URL_0_) do a pretty good job of illustrating this, if you're interested.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I was wondering how light emission is affected by gravity near the event horizon. ... crosses the event horizon\n\nThe path of light is also affected outside of the event horizon. Gravitational lensing: _URL_0_ \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Photon sphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "While light can still escape from the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294408",
"title": "Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems",
"section": "Section::::Elements of the theorems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Penrose concluded that whenever there is a cube where all the outgoing (and ingoing) light rays are initially converging, the boundary of the future of that region will end after a finite extension, because all the null geodesics will converge. This isn't significant, because the outgoing light rays for any sphere inside the horizon of a black hole solution are all converging, so the boundary of the future of this region is either compact or comes from nowhere. The future of the interior either ends after a finite extension, or has a boundary that is eventually generated by new light rays that cannot be traced back to the original sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456715",
"title": "Kerr metric",
"section": "Section::::Ergosphere and the Penrose process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "The region outside the event horizon but inside the surface where the rotational velocity is the speed of light, is called the \"ergosphere\" (from Greek \"ergon\" meaning \"work\"). Particles falling within the ergosphere are forced to rotate faster and thereby gain energy. Because they are still outside the event horizon, they may escape the black hole. The net process is that the rotating black hole emits energetic particles at the cost of its own total energy. The possibility of extracting spin energy from a rotating black hole was first proposed by the mathematician Roger Penrose in 1969 and is thus called the Penrose process. Rotating black holes in astrophysics are a potential source of large amounts of energy and are used to explain energetic phenomena, such as gamma-ray bursts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9223226",
"title": "Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Speeds of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47338158",
"title": "Heino Falcke",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Falcke predicted that near the edges of a black hole, there would be a 'black hole shadow' that could be detected by a radio telescope.. This shadow was eventually observed with the Event Horizon Telescope. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151013",
"title": "T-symmetry",
"section": "Section::::Macroscopic phenomena: black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The event horizon of a black hole may be thought of as a surface moving outward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between escaping and falling back. The event horizon of a white hole is a surface moving inward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between being swept outward and succeeding in reaching the center. They are two different kinds of horizons—the horizon of a white hole is like the horizon of a black hole turned inside-out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2703885",
"title": "Route dependence",
"section": "Section::::Spatial route dependence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "If light signals are exchanged around one side of the hole, in the equatorial plane, where the adjacent section of event horizon is moving roughly in the direction A→B, then frame-dragging effects should make it easier for light to move with the horizon's motion than against it, and the measurements should show B to be \"downhill\" of A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eu7wxk
|
why can healthy eyes look in only one direction, i.e. why can’t our eyes look in different directions from each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "Our eyes can look in different directions. When you look at the tip of your nose, your left eye is looking right, and your right eye is looking left.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They can be trained to look independently, but our body was evolutionarily selected for the two eyes to work together. It's hard to break the instinct to utilize them in tandem, and there is very little advantage to doing that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Under normal conditions, there's these control centers in your brain that tell your eye muscles to move at the same time. Your brain has to receive the same image from both eyes so that it can paint the world around you. If the left eye is looking to the left and the right eye is looking to the right, then the images don't match up and it makes you feel sick.\n\nLonger, not ELI5:\nLight enters your eyes and the information goes to the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and ultimately to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe (back of your head). Information is processed here and the output is sent to the muscles that control the eyes via cranial nerves (CN) 3, 4, and 6. CN 3 controls basically every eye muscle except for the superior oblique (CN 4) and the lateral rectus (CN 6). However, before the information from the primary visual cortex can be transmitted to the eye muscles, it has to go through certain control centers. One of which is the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF). The MLF is responsible for conjugate horizontal gaze which means it makes sure that the muscles for looking left and right contract at the same time so that your eyes are moving in sync. It does this by sending information to CN 3 (responsible for medial rectus) and CN 6 (responsible for lateral rectus). There's another area called the rostral interstitial nucleus that is responsible for conjugate vertical gaze, which is for looking up and down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some species have binocular vision, meaning two eyes pointed the same direction, and this gives them depth perception. You need two images to form a 3D picture. Predators tend to have this so they can target prey accurately.\n\nMeanwhile prey animals frequently have eyes on opposite sides of their head (which cannot physically look at the same object at the same time). For these animals, it’s more important to be able to look all around for danger so they can flee rapidly. Seeing the danger with great precision isn’t that important because the result will still be the same: they’ll just run away as fast as they can.\n\nWhichever system an animal’s eyes are set up for, its brain is also set up for. Brain matter is expensive in terms of maintenance calories and animals tend to have as much as they need and no more. There doesn’t seem to be an animal that got SO much use out of switching between binocular/dual monocular that it was worth the cost of the added brain structures. Either that or it just wasn’t useful enough that environment and natural selection drove any species toward it at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1969542",
"title": "Extraocular muscles",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Movement coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9170159",
"title": "Binocular disparity",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Human eyes are horizontally separated by about 50–75 mm (interpupillary distance) depending on each individual. Thus, each eye has a slightly different view of the world around. This can be easily seen when alternately closing one eye while looking at a vertical edge. The binocular disparity can be observed from apparent horizontal shift of the vertical edge between both views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20451156",
"title": "Conjugate eye movement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "One and a half syndrome: “One and a half syndrome” also affects horizontal gaze. One eye is completely incapable of horizontal movement, while the other eye is capable of horizontal movement only in one direction away from the midline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "Section::::Disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1526,
"text": "To maintain stereopsis and singleness of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover-uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card. Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall-eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has esophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has exophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount of exophoria or esophoria; it is quite normal. If the uncovered eye also moved vertically, the person has hyperphoria (if the eye moved from down to up) or hypophoria (if the eye moved from up to down). Such vertical phorias are quite rare. It is also possible for the covered eye to rotate in its orbit. Such cyclophorias cannot be seen with the cover-uncover test; they are rarer than vertical phorias.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3407720",
"title": "Exotropia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The brain's ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can \"control\" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek \"exo\" meaning \"outward\" and \"trope\" meaning \"a turning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192280",
"title": "Binocular vision",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Other phenomena of binocular vision include utrocular discrimination (the ability to tell which of two eyes has been stimulated by light), eye dominance (the habit of using one eye when aiming something, even if both eyes are open), allelotropia (the averaging of the visual direction of objects viewed by each eye when both eyes are open), binocular fusion or singleness of vision (seeing one object with both eyes despite each eye's having its own image of the object), and binocular rivalry (seeing one eye's image alternating randomly with the other when each eye views images that are so different they cannot be fused).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gghmb
|
how and why is there a standard for cylindrical batteries, and why hasn't it happened for flat batteries?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are numerous standards for flat batteries. Hearing aides have several standardized sizes, as do watches. \n\nPhone makers/companies also tend to have standardized sizes between specific brands or range of brands. They want you to be somewhat limited in options though so that you have to buy replacements from them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46734540",
"title": "Construction of electronic cigarettes",
"section": "Section::::Device generations.:Third-generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The third-generation includes mechanical mods and variable voltage devices. Battery sections are commonly called \"mods,\" referencing their past when user modification was common. Mechanical mods do not contain integrated circuits. They are commonly cylindrical or box-shaped, and typical housing materials are wood, aluminium, stainless steel, or brass. A larger \"box mod\" can hold bigger and sometimes multiple batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186614",
"title": "Nickel–cadmium battery",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other batteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "BULLET::::- Compared to lead–acid batteries, Ni–Cd batteries have a much higher energy density. A Ni–Cd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead–acid battery, but not a comparable NiMH or Li-ion battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example, aircraft), Ni–Cd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead–acid batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22730221",
"title": "Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Nanostructured architectures.:Three-dimensional thin–films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Solid state batteries employ geometry most similar to traditional thin-film batteries. Three-dimensional thin-films use the third dimension to increase the electrochemically active area. Thin film two dimensional batteries are restricted to between 2-5 micrometres, limiting areal capacity to significantly less than that of three-dimensional geometries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530903",
"title": ".45 ACP",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Because of its large diameter and straight-walled design, the .45 ACP geometry is the highest power-per-pressure production, repeating round in existence. This is because of the higher powers achievable with .45 Super, and +P loads. Because of these inherent low pressures of the standard pressure round, however, compensators and brakes have little effect until +P and Super loads are utilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4902394",
"title": "Button cell",
"section": "Section::::Properties of cell chemistries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Alkaline batteries are made in the same button sizes as the other types, but typically provide less capacity and less stable voltage than more costly silver oxide or lithium cells. They are often sold as watch batteries, and bought by people who do not know the difference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Plates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1324,
"text": "Deep cycle batteries have a different geometry for their positive electrodes. The positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead-oxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side, so their geometry is called tubular or cylindrical. The advantage of this is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, which higher discharge and charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells have a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with weight or space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have a lower energy density than flat-plate cells. And, less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22730221",
"title": "Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Nanostructured architectures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "A significant majority of battery designs are two–dimensional and rely on layered construction. Recent research has taken the electrodes into three-dimensions. This allows for significant improvements in battery capacity; a significant increase in areal capacity occurs between a 2d thick film electrode and a 3d array electrode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4255ib
|
Common cloth materials in medieval Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "They weren't that expensive because they were home grown. Anyone could put in a patch of flax among the other crops. Women could pull it (one does not cut it and shorten the fibres), though men could help. After that it was a woman's job to rett the flax in the stream to rot off the outer coating and pith. Then the fibres were hackled or combed out to remove the bits not wanted. Repeated hackling produced short fibres broken off, called tow. Tow was used like cotton balls or waste paper for wiping up or stopping wounds. Everyone used tow, because every woman spun linen. Once the flax had been bleached on the grass, it was put up in stricks, which were a bundle to be arranged on the distaff to draw down smoothly into thread.\n\nTaxes were often paid in thread. Single women contributed to a household by extra spinning, so the traditional term for them was \"spinster.\" Extra thread could be sold for cash.\n\nWomen rarely wove at home. That was a job for the weaver's guild, who might trade finished cloth for thread. It was a sign of wealth to have one of the gigantic timber-built looms when they only wove a narrow tabby linen for underclothes (body linen).\n\nWool was a little more specialist. A fine lady would spin flax, but only a peasant would spin greasy wool. I'll bet her hands loved the lanolin. Fleeces were sheared from sheep and lambs before spring so they were spared the summer heat. Qualities of wool were separated out of the different parts of the fleece. These would be carded until the fibres all ran straight and the tangles were out. Then the carding combs would be cleared a clever way to roll the wool into a roving. Wool can be spun without a distaff. Wool can be combed before carding to produce worsted. Again, wool thread was a valued commodity and one of the few ways to get cash.\n\nBut all of these were produced by the peasant class. They still stretched the life of everything, including cutting down clothes so the unworn parts clothed the children.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4065380",
"title": "Serbian traditional clothing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "In medieval times, rulers, the nobility and senior churchmen brought many of their fabrics from the Republic of Ragusa. The most common fabric for ordinary Serbs was \"sclavina\" or \"schiavina\", a coarse woollen fabric. Linen was also made within Serbia while silk was grown at the Dečani Monastery as well as near Prizren. Few secular garments have survived from the medieval period the most notable being the costume worn by Lazar Hrebeljanović at the Battle of Kosovo. More decorated vestments have survived from the period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24997796",
"title": "Islamic influences on Western art",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Decorative arts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "A wide variety of portable objects from various decorative arts were imported from the Islamic world into Europe during the Middle Ages, mostly through Italy, and above all Venice. In many areas European-made goods could not match the quality of Islamic or Byzantine work until near the end of the Middle Ages. Luxury textiles were widely used for clothing and hangings and also, fortunately for art history, also often as shrouds for the burials of important figures, which is how most surviving examples were preserved. In this area Byzantine silk was influenced by Sassanian textiles, and Islamic silk by both, so that is hard to say which culture's textiles had the greatest influence on the Cloth of St Gereon, a large tapestry which is the earliest and most important European imitation of Eastern work. European, especially Italian, cloth gradually caught up with the quality of Eastern imports, and adopted many elements of their designs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977576",
"title": "History of knitting",
"section": "Section::::Early European knitting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Archaeological finds from medieval cities all over Europe, such as London, Newcastle, Oslo, Amsterdam, and Lübeck, as well as tax lists, prove the spread of knitted goods for everyday use from the 14th century onward. Like many archaeological textiles, most of the finds are only fragments of knitted items so that in most cases their former appearance and use is unknown. One of the exceptions is a 14th or 15th century woollen child's cap from Lübeck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053455",
"title": "Linens",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Linen was an especially popular cloth during the Middle Ages in Europe, when cotton was an exotic import. It was used for underclothing, chemises, shifts, shirts and blouses, in fact most clothing worn next to the skin, by those able to afford an extra layer of clothing. The tradition of calling household fabric goods \"linens\" dates from this period, but meant clothing as much as large sheets. According to medieval tradition, which survived up until the modern era, a bride would often be given a gift of linens made by the women in her family as a wedding present, to help her set up her new married home. In France this was called a trousseau, and was often presented to the bride in a wooden hope chest. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369518",
"title": "Fustanella",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "In his \"Lexicon of Medieval Latin\", Charles du Fresne suggests that \"fustanum\" (a piece of cloth) originates from the Roman \"palla\". Cotton \"fustana\" was among the belongings of Pope Urban V (1310–1370).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12679",
"title": "Gambeson",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "While the use of linen has been shown in archaeological evidence, the use of cotton – and cotton-based canvas – is disputed since the access to large amounts of cotton cloth was not widely available in northern Europe at this time. It is quite probable that Egypt (and Asia-Minor generally) still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries and knowledge (and samples) of this cloth was brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders. However logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large amounts of cotton-based garments is doubtful, when flax-based textiles (linen) was in widespread use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2843257",
"title": "Serbia in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Fashion.:Fabrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The most used materials among the lower classes were wool, flax and hemp. Rich ones used silk, velvet and taffeta which were imported from Italy, Greece and Flanders via Dubrovnik. In time, the weaving workshops began to open in Serbia itself. The silk was produced in Dečani and Prizren and domestic gold-woven fabrics appear at the court of Emperor Dušan. In time, the colored embroidery developed as the main characteristics of the Serbian medieval attire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ejlaa
|
if it is thought that dreams only last for fractions of a second at a time and it is our brains that interpret them as longer, what is happening when we talk in our sleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "Good question! Where did you get that information, that dreams only last for fractions of a second? If your girlfriend talks in her dream and in real life simultaneously then that becomes impossible - you're right! And if it is impossible then the conclusion must be: it isn't true.\n\n\nDreams vary in lenght, the further you are into the night the longer the dreams get. Some are very short, you're right about that, but they have been observed to last over 20 minutes in real time",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1034794",
"title": "Oneirology",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of dreaming.:REM sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Accumulated observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with REM sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during NREM are normally more mundane in comparison. During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams last only 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams, if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Dreams mainly occur in the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of sleep—when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake. REM sleep is revealed by continuous movements of the eyes during sleep. At times, dreams may occur during other stages of sleep. However, these dreams tend to be much less vivid or memorable. The length of a dream can vary; they may last for a few seconds, or approximately 20–30 minutes. People are more likely to remember the dream if they are awakened during the REM phase. The average person has three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven; however, most dreams are immediately or quickly forgotten. Dreams tend to last longer as the night progresses. During a full eight-hour night sleep, most dreams occur in the typical two hours of REM. Dreams related to waking-life experiences are associated with REM theta activity, which suggests that emotional memory processing takes place in REM sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Neurobiology.:REM sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Since waking up usually happens during rapid eye movement sleep (REM), the vivid bizarre REM sleep dreams are the most common type of dreams that is remembered. (During REM sleep an electroencephalogram (EEG) shows brain activity that, among sleep states, is most like wakefulness.) During a typical lifespan, a person spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams only last 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "558642",
"title": "The Interpretation of Dreams",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Sources of dream content.:Condensation, displacement, and representation in dreams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Dreams are brief compared to the range and abundance of dream thoughts. Through condensation or compression, dream content can be presented in one dream. Oftentimes, people may recall having more than one dream in a night. Freud explained that the content of all dreams occurring on the same night represents part of the same whole. He believed that separate dreams have the same meaning. Often the first dream is more distorted and the latter is more distinct. Displacement of dream content occurs when manifest content does not resemble the actual meaning of the dream. Displacement comes through the influence of a censorship agent. Representation in dreams is the causal relation between two things. Freud argues that two persons or objects can be combined into a single representation in a dream (see Freud's dream of his uncle and Friend R).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358229",
"title": "List of dreams",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:As coincidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Dream researcher Ernest Hartman comments on current dream theories proposed by biologists. One such theory suggests that dreams are basically random nonsense and are the product of a poorly functioning brain during sleep. If there is any meaning to dreams, it is added on later as our brains try to make the best of a bad job.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25196457",
"title": "Cognitive neuroscience of dreams",
"section": "Section::::REM and NREM dream reports compared.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "The characteristics of REM sleep consistently contain a similar set of features. While dreaming people regularly falsely believe that they are awake unless they implement lucidity. Dreams contain multimodal pseudo-perceptions; sometimes any or all sensory modalities are present, but most often visual and motoric. Dream imagery can change quickly and is regularly of a bizarre nature, but reports also contain many images and events that are a part of day-to-day life. In dreams there is a reduction or absence of self-reflection or other forms of meta-cognition relative to during waking life. Dreams are also characterized by a lack of \"orientational stability; persons, times, and places are fused, plastic, incongruous and discontinuous\". In addition, dreams form a single narrative to explain and integrate all dream elements. Lastly, NREM reports contain thought-like mentation and depictions of current concerns more frequently than REM reports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "776322",
"title": "Non-rapid eye movement sleep",
"section": "Section::::Dreaming during NREM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Although study participants' reports of intense dream vividness during REM sleep and increased recollection of dreams occurring during that phase suggest that dreaming most commonly occurs during that stage, dreaming can also occur during NREM sleep, in which dreams tend to be more mundane in comparison.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1drq25
|
What's the best way to use the Bible, when appropriate, as a Primary Source?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think a lot of it depends on the level of scholarship.\n\nI know that many scholars use the New Revised Standard Edition when a simple verse quotation is required. It was created in 1989 to be good for devotional use as well as scholarly use.\n\nLearning the biblical languages and using ancient copies is done, but this is at a fairly advanced level of historical inquiry or textual criticism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I translate myself, footnoting possible alternate readings. Mostly because I like doing that, and because I can and it makes me look smart. But more importantly, when there's important divergence in understanding or something important with the wording, it's much easier to discuss if you're translating it yourself. You can see through a lot of BS that way.\n\nGenerally, the best Christian scholarly translation is the NSRV, and the best Jewish one is the nJPS. When writing about Jewish stuff, nJPS is usually the standard in academic contexts. But for any discussion of how the bible was seen historically in religious contexts, academic sources don't have much choice but to discuss the Hebrew (or Aramaic, if you're in one of those small sections).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "767082",
"title": "Historical thinking",
"section": "Section::::Historical Thinking Teaching Models.:Benchmarks for Historical Thinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Using Primary Sources as Evidence is the ability to locate, choose, understand and provide context for the past using primary sources. This approach to reading a source will be dependent on the kind of source being used and the kind of information the user is trying to find (e.g. reading to a book for factual information)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177891",
"title": "Primary source",
"section": "Section::::Strengths and weaknesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In many fields and contexts, such as historical writing, it is almost always advisable to use primary sources if possible, and \"if none are available, it is only with great caution that [the author] may proceed to make use of secondary sources.\" In addition, primary sources avoid the problem inherent in secondary sources in which each new author may distort and put a new spin on the findings of prior cited authors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18177752",
"title": "Source criticism (biblical studies)",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "In other cases, Bible scholars use the way a text is written (changes in style, vocabulary, repetitions, and the like) to determine what sources may have been used by a biblical author. With some reasonable guesswork it is possible to deduce sources not identified as such (e.g., genealogies). Some inter-biblical sources can be determined by virtue of the fact that the source is still extant, for example, where the Books of Chronicles quotes or retells the accounts of the books of Samuel and Kings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8646172",
"title": "Biblical minimalism",
"section": "Section::::Biblical minimalism.:Bible as a historical source document.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The minimalists did not claim that the Bible is useless as a historical source; rather, they suggest that its proper use is in understanding the period in which it was written, a period which some of them place in the Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE) and others in the Hellenistic period (3rd–2nd centuries).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3828295",
"title": "List of Shadowrun books",
"section": "Section::::Sourcebooks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Sourcebooks are a mix of rules and setting. As such, they contain setting information applicable to any edition of the game, and statistics that may need a little updating. Foreign language editions of sourcebooks often contain additional content relating to local variants on the topic in question. Sometimes even whole original books have been published concentrating solely on providing local source material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315437",
"title": "Study Bible",
"section": "Section::::Study Bible software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Study Bible software is also available which can aid readers in the study of the Bible. This software normally includes several Bible translations, commentaries, dictionaries, maps and other content. They also include search engines to enable users to find Bible passages by keyword and by theme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13233713",
"title": "Sources of sharia",
"section": "Section::::Secondary sources.:Juristic preference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The source, inspired by the principle of conscience, is a last resort if none of the widely accepted sources are applicable to a problem. It involves giving favor to rulings that dispel hardship and bring ease to people. The doctrine was justified directly by the Qur'anic verse stating: \"Allah desires you ease and good, not hardship\". Though its main adherents were Abu Hanifa and his pupils (such as Abu Yusuf), Malik and his students made use of it to some degree. The source was subject to extensive discussion and argumentation, and its opponents claimed that it often departs from the primary sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28ido3
|
When and how did the concept of political veto arise?
|
[
{
"answer": "The romans created it.\nVeto means \"I forbade\" in latin and the right of veto was the privilege of the tribunes of the plebs. When one of them stood up to say \"Veto\" it blocked the decision.\nIronically what was originally a tool to protect the plebeian against patrician abuses of the beginnings of the republic became at the end of it one of the base of the imperial power as Augustus received power over the \"imperial provinces\" and the tibunita potestas, the power of the tribune (of the plebs) enabling him, the patrician to veto any law he would not like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "74661",
"title": "Veto",
"section": "Section::::Roman veto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "The institution of the veto, known to the Romans as the \"intercesio\", was adopted by the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC to enable the tribunes to protect the mandamus interests of the plebs (common citizenry) from the encroachments of the patricians, who dominated the Senate. A tribune's veto did not prevent the senate from passing a bill, but meant that it was denied the force of law. The tribunes could also use the veto to prevent a bill from being brought before the plebeian assembly. The consuls also had the power of veto, as decision-making generally required the assent of both consuls. If one disagreed, either could invoke the \"intercessio\" to block the action of the other. The veto was an essential component of the Roman conception of power being wielded not only to manage state affairs but to moderate and restrict the power of the state's high officials and institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3306231",
"title": "Polish parliament (expression)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Every single member of the Polish parliament during the 17th and 18th century had an absolute veto (); as a result, legislation could only be passed unanimously. Originally, the procedure was used for technical issues such as points of order, but as diverging interests discovered they could disrupt their opponents' agendas singlehandedly, the process came to be abused. Today, the expression is mostly used to describe an assembly that is too easy for minorities or individuals to disrupt and/or has too many parties present for meaningful and orderly debate and decision-making to take place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462813",
"title": "Senate of Poland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Kingdom and Commonwealth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "In 1631 and 1632 the Senate first used its right to veto constitutional acts adopted by the Chamber of Envoys. This marks the first phase of the Senate's demise as powerful nobles (known as the magnates) begin to exercise their power in the legislature. By 1669 the situation had become so bad that landowners took to the streets and, angered by the magnates machinations during the earlier royal election of Michael I, shot at passing senators. By 1717 the king was obliged to implement recommendations given by the senators-resident and by 1773 the cardinal laws pertaining to the 'power of legislating for the Republic in three estates' had been passed and the Senate had begun to hold joint debates with the Chamber of Envoys as a single 'united' Sejm. As a result, in 1775, the senators-resident or 'Little Senate' were abolished and were replaced with a 'Permanent Council' of senators and envoys headed by the King.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29295814",
"title": "Legislative veto",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "In the case of monarchy, \"legislative veto\" describes the right of the ruler to nullify the actions of a legislative body, for example, the French monarch's claim to the right to veto actions of the National Assembly at the start of the French Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1900272",
"title": "United Nations Security Council veto power",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The veto was the result of extensive discussion during the negotiations for the formation of the United Nations at Dumbarton Oaks (August–October 1944) and Yalta (February 1945). The evidence is that the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China all favored the principle of unanimity, not only out of desire for the major powers to act together, but also to protect their own sovereign rights and national interests. Harry S. Truman, who became President of the US in April 1945, wrote: \"All our experts, civil and military, favored it, and without such a veto no arrangement would have passed the Senate.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1347275",
"title": "Legislative veto in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federal government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The legislative veto was first developed in context of the delegation to the president to reorganize governmental agencies and was first authorized by the Legislative Appropriations Act in 1932. It was furthered by the necessities of providing for national security and foreign affairs immediately prior to and during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253071",
"title": "Governor of Indiana",
"section": "Section::::History.:Veto usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "During the state's early history, vetoes were seldom employed by governors primarily because they were seen as only symbolic since the General Assembly could override them with only a simple majority. Governor James Whitcomb was the first to make significant use of the power and vetoed a record of fifteen bills during a single legislative session. Roger Branigin, who presided over a hostile legislature, made the most total vetoes of any governor, returning a total of one hundred bills to the assembly. Despite the fact that vetoes are easily overridden, only around ten percent of vetoed bills are overridden. During the 1970s, for example, 117 bills were vetoed, but only eleven were overridden. Observers and historians attribute this to the short length of legislative sessions, which often do not allow enough time for a large number of bills to pass through both houses twice. Another factor is that legislators of the same party as the governor typically refuse to override his veto, even in cases where they supported the bill originally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
267l4a
|
what would happen to a person if they were to undergo a brain transplant?
|
[
{
"answer": "This would technically be a body transplant, you are your brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1086440",
"title": "Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Even with proper identification and treatment, the majority of patients who present in the neonatal period have severe neurological and intellectual impairments. Liver transplantation cannot cure brain damage which has already occurred, but it will prevent future hyperammonemic episodes and prevent further damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49045552",
"title": "The Final Last of the Ultimate End",
"section": "Section::::I Meet Her.:Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "A man who had a terminal disease decided to get a whole body transplant surgery, removing his brain from his original body and transplanting it to a new brainless body, which was cloned from his cell. He gets the surgery and it seems to be successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167132",
"title": "Brain transplant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "No human brain transplant has ever been conducted. Neurosurgeon Robert J. White has grafted the head of a monkey onto the headless body of another monkey. EEG readings showed the brain was later functioning normally. It was thought to prove that the brain was an immunologically privileged organ, as the host's immune system did not attack it at first, but immunorejection caused the monkey to die after nine days. Brain transplants and similar concepts have also been explored in various forms of science fiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167132",
"title": "Brain transplant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "A brain transplant or whole-body transplant is a procedure in which the brain of one organism is transplanted into the body of another organism. It is a procedure distinct from head transplantation, which involves transferring the entire head to a new body, as opposed to the brain only. Theoretically, a person with advanced organ failure could be given a new and functional body while keeping their own personality, memories, and consciousness through such a procedure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18224",
"title": "Known Space",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Organ transplantation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "On Earth in the mid-21st century, it became possible to transplant any organ from any person to another, with the exception of brain and central nervous system tissue. Individuals were categorized according to their so-called \"rejection spectrum\" which allowed doctors to counter any immune system responses to the new organs, allowing transplants to \"take\" for life. It also enabled the crime of \"organlegging\" which lasted well into the 24th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167339",
"title": "Head transplant",
"section": "Section::::Ethics and popular opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The psychological results of the procedure were unclear as well. While concerns were raised about whether recipients of a face transplant and their social circle would have difficulty adjusting, studies had found that disruptions had been minimal. But no transplant had ever been performed where the entire body of an individual is unfamiliar at the conclusion of the procedure, and one of the few documents discussing the ethics in the biomedical literature, a letter to the editor of a journal published in 2015, foresaw a high risk of insanity as a result of the procedure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167132",
"title": "Brain transplant",
"section": "Section::::Existing challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "When organs are transplanted, aggressive rejection by the host's immune system can occur. Because immune cells of the CNS contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood, the brain has been hypothesized to be an immunologically privileged (unrejectable) organ.) However, immunorejection of a functional transplanted brain has been reported in monkeys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36by1z
|
why is snowden seen as such a hero?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of the breadth of what his leaks revealed.\n\nWe spy on our allies. We spy on our own private citizens. We spy on neutral third parties that are no threat at all like fucking Brazil. We spy on everything, *because we* can, *and because noone will stop us*. \n\nAlso, the [NSA doesn't really do much to not appear cartoonishly evil](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "...\n \nDid you not understand the things he revealed to us? Or did you not believe them? He revealed, with undeniable proof, some terrifying things about the government. He did so with great personal cost (he can never live a normal life again) so that other would know that we're being lied to, and so that we could know what's really going on. That's why he's a hero.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Our government is supposed to be our servant and not our master. Snowden revealed our servant has been secretly spying on everything we do, violating our fundamental human right to a private life. Those people who have access to the information have become even more powerful because they can use it to suppress opposition. If you become an annoyance to them you will soon find embarrassing aspects of your private life leaked to the tabloids. Knowledge is power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39827803",
"title": "Verax (film)",
"section": "Section::::Conception and motives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In regards to Snowden's presence, the filmmakers stated that while Snowden is \"a central character, he is not the most prominent. It is more about the maelstrom of events surrounding him.\" This was because they knew too little about Snowden himself to give him a more prominent role in the story. Lee said that the film focuses more on the \"vignettes\" than on Snowden and that Snowden serves as a catalyst for events that affect the other characters. Snowden himself has no live dialogue in the film. Lee said that half of the film's focus was on Hong Kong, and half was on Snowden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42270811",
"title": "George R. Snowden",
"section": "Section::::Retirement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Snowden was active in the Grand Army of the Republic and Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. He took part in numerous Union Army reunions, as well as the dedication of several monuments and memorials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33313112",
"title": "Dream Walker (comic)",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Five Pillars.:White Owl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Currently held by Snowden. Snowden's speciality is in tricking his opponents, creating clones of himself to deceive opponents. He is the fastest among the Five Pillars, and usually often employs long range tactics like spying or attacking his enemies from long range. Snowden's true form is an owl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55641784",
"title": "Awards received by Edward Snowden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The awards received by Edward Snowden are part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor. He has been honored by publications and organizations based in Europe and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266103",
"title": "Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden",
"section": "Section::::Member of Parliament: 1906–1924.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Snowden was in Australia on a worldwide lecture tour when the First World War broke out in August 1914; he did not return to Britain until February 1915. He was not a pacifist; however, he did not support recruiting for the armed forces, and he campaigned against conscription. His stance was unpopular with the public and he lost his seat in the 1918 general election. In 1922, he was elected to represent Colne Valley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55660110",
"title": "Snowden effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The Snowden effect is part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55641784",
"title": "Awards received by Edward Snowden",
"section": "Section::::Recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Snowden was named \"Time\"′s Person of the Year runner-up in 2013, behind Pope Francis. \"Time\" was criticized for not placing him in the top spot. In 2014, Snowden was named among \"Time\"s 100 Most Influential People in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eypcfa
|
What happens to an island formed in a hotspot when in a subduction zone?
|
[
{
"answer": "This depends a bit on the proximity of the hotspot to the subduction zone and the nature of the material that makes up the island / feature. In a general sense, as plate motion translates an oceanic island away from the hotspot, the island will start to 'sink' as the area around the oceanic island cools (cooler crust = denser crust = lower elevation crust). This coupled with erosion of the island before it sinks below the surface and the potential for continued mass wasting after it is below the surface of the ocean, means that generally the prominence of former oceanic islands diminishes with distance from the hotspot. This is illustrated in [diagrams like these](_URL_2_) and can be seen in the real world in trails of seamounts behind hotspot related oceanic islands, like the [Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain](_URL_4_).\n\nThe relative volume/prominence of the feature when it reaches the subduction zone will determine what exactly happens (and hence why distance between the subduction zone and the hotspot matters). Small seamounts and similar features are successfully subducted all the time, though their subduction may cause deformation of the [accretionary prism](_URL_6_) or overriding plate, e.g. [Dominguez et al, 1998](_URL_3_). If the seamount is larger or still a true oceanic island (or something really big, like an [oceanic plateau](_URL_5_)), then it is more likely that it will, at least in part, [accrete](_URL_0_) to the margin. An example of this would be the [Ontong-Java plateau](_URL_1_), an oceanic plateau which is related to the eruption of a plume head (i.e. the beginning of a hotspot) and that is now being subducted. Portions of the plateau material have been scraped off and are thrust up along the subduction margin while other portions have continued to be subducted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "422737",
"title": "Island arc",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "On the subducting side of the island arc is a deep and narrow oceanic trench, which is the trace at the Earth's surface of the boundary between the down-going and overriding plates. This trench is created by the downward gravitational pull of the relatively dense subducting plate on the leading edge of the plate. Multiple earthquakes occur along this subduction boundary with the seismic hypocenters located at increasing depth under the island arc: these quakes define the Benioff zone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14587",
"title": "Island",
"section": "Section::::Types of islands.:Oceanic islands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually \"drowned\" by isostatic adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which continue beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the Emperor Seamounts. Another chain with similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older, northerly trend is the Line Islands. The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of Tuvalu. Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean. Another hotspot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254443",
"title": "Convergent boundary",
"section": "Section::::Volcanism and Volcanic Arcs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the amphibole group. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed causing dehydration of these hydrous minerals contained within basalts, releasing water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9083935",
"title": "Submarine earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Tectonic plate boundaries.:Convergent plate boundary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The older, and denser plate moves below the lighter plate. The further down it moves, the hotter it becomes, until finally melting altogether at the asthenosphere and inner mantle and the crust is actually destroyed. The location where the two oceanic plates actually meet become deeper and deeper creating trenches with each successive action. There is an interplay of various densities of lithosphere rock, asthenosphere magma, cooling ocean water and plate movement for example the Pacific Ring of Fire. Therefore, the site of the sub oceanic trench will be a site of submarine earthquakes; for example the Mariana Trench, Puerto Rico Trench, and the volcanic arc along the Great Sumatran fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15575",
"title": "Geography of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:Tectonic plates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The subduction zone is where the oceanic crust slides beneath the continental crust or other oceanic plates. This is because the oceanic plate's litosphere has a higher density.Subduction zones are sites that usually have a high rate of volcanism and earthquakes. Additionally, subduction zones develop belts of deformation The subduction zones on the east side of the Japanese archipelago cause frequent low intensity earth tremors. Major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis occur several times per century. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Northeastern Japan, north of Tanakura fault had high volcanic activity 14-17 million years before present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4669030",
"title": "Exclusion zone",
"section": "Section::::Natural disaster exclusion zones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Similarly, exclusion zones have been established due to natural disasters. There is an exclusion zone on the island of Montserrat, where the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano started erupting in 1995 and has continued erupting since. It encompasses the south part of the island, accounting for over half of its land mass and most areas of the island which were populated before the volcano erupted. The volcano destroyed the island's urban center and capital Plymouth, as well as many other villages and neighborhoods. The zone is now strictly enforced; entry into most of the destroyed areas is prohibited, while some areas are subject to restrictions during volcanic activity or open only as a \"daytime entry zone\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1038227",
"title": "Forearc",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "During subduction, an oceanic plate is thrust below another tectonic plate, which may be oceanic or continental. Water and other volatiles in the down-going plate cause flux melting in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and penetrates the overriding plate, forming a volcanic arc. The weight of the down-going slab flexes the down-going plate creating an oceanic trench. The area between the trench and the arc is the forearc region, and the area behind the arc (i.e. on the side away from the trench) is the back-arc region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
40wvev
|
A century ago, in the aftermath of WWI and with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the world had to deal with millions of refugees and mass migration. How did the receiving countries deal with this influx?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not an answer, but a follow-up question ; How and why did the Ottoman empire dissolute and disappear?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This depends on a case-by-case basis. I am unfortunately unable to give you a fully-fledged answer in general, but would be happy to explain what happened in the Netherlands during the War and the immediate post-war period with (predominantly Belgian) refugees, if you are interested. I could also be of some help in illuminating the emergence of the closed-border and passport systems in the immediate pre-war era, again if you are interested in the context. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would be really interested in that SickHobbit, if you have time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1337332",
"title": "History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean",
"section": "Section::::Panama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "They were followed by other waves of immigration: during the First World War the Ottoman Empire from disintegrating, before and after the Second World War from Europe, from Arab countries because of the exodus caused in 1948 and more recently from South American countries suffering economic crises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088822",
"title": "Turkish people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "By the 19th century, the empire began to decline when ethno-nationalist uprisings occurred across the empire. Thus, the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century saw some 7–9 million Muslim refugees (Turks and some Circassians, Bosnians, Georgians, etc.) from the lost territories of the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrate to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. By 1913, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress started a program of forcible Turkification of non-Turkish minorities. By 1914, the World War I broke out, and the Turks scored some success in Gallipoli during the Battle of the Dardanelles in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued with its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the Armenians during the Armenian Genocide and the Greeks during various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion. In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the Mudros Armistice with the Allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45547",
"title": "Refugee",
"section": "Section::::History.:1933 (rise of Nazism) to 1944.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "The conflict and political instability during World War II led to massive numbers of refugees (see World War II evacuation and expulsion). In 1943, the Allies created the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to provide aid to areas liberated from Axis powers, including parts of Europe and China. By the end of the War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. UNRRA was involved in returning over seven million refugees, then commonly referred to as displaced persons or DPs, to their country of origin and setting up displaced persons camps for one million refugees who refused to be repatriated. Even two years after the end of War, some 850,000 people still lived in DP camps across Western Europe. DP Camps in Europe Intro, from: \"DPs Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951\" by Mark Wyman After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Israel accepted more than 650,000 refugees by 1950. By 1953, over 250,000 refugees were still in Europe, most of them old, infirm, crippled, or otherwise disabled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46187677",
"title": "History of human migration",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:World wars and aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "The First and Second World Wars, and wars, genocides, and crises sparked by them, had an enormous impact on migration. Muslims moved from the Balkan to Turkey, while Christians moved the other way, during the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. In April 1915 the Ottoman government embarked upon the systematic decimation of its civilian Armenian population. The persecutions continued with varying intensity until 1923 when the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Turkey. The Armenian population of the Ottoman state was reported at about two million in 1915. An estimated one million had perished by 1918, while hundreds of thousands had become homeless and stateless refugees. By 1923 virtually the entire Armenian population of Anatolian Turkey had disappeared. Four hundred thousand Jews had already moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century, and numerous Jews to America, as already mentioned. The Russian Civil War caused some three million Russians, Poles, and Germans to migrate out of the new Soviet Union. Decolonization following the Second World War also caused migrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31273000",
"title": "Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Post-war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 244,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 244,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Following the end of the war in Europe in late May 1945, large parts of Europe lay completely smashed. Acute food, housing and medical shortages continued for some time and around 10 million refugees housed in temporary encampments or on the roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1428142",
"title": "Halle (Westfalen)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The next essential change was brought by World War II respectively its consequences. Owing to the absorption and integration of a large number of refugees grave economic and demographic shifts were brought about.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38093006",
"title": "Rum Millet",
"section": "Section::::Rise of nationalism and decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Subsequently, with the Balkan Wars (1912–1923) and the First World War (1914–1918) the Ottoman Empire lost virtually most of its possessions, except these in Asia Minor. During these wars and the following Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) the Orthodox Christians there were a subject to a persecution and deportation, and the Assyrians and Greeks even to a Genocide. That put de facto end to the community of the Rum millet. The Treaty of Lausanne from 1923, led to the recognition of the new Republic of Turkey and to the end of the Ottoman Empire itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62u9lp
|
what are those fake puddles of water that appear on the road and disappear as i drive closer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mirage. Optical illusion that form when light coming form critical angle bounce(reflection) off instead of refraction. As you approach closer you are no longer in the path of that bounced light, so it disappear",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723097",
"title": "Puddle",
"section": "Section::::Puddles on roads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Puddles commonly form during rain, and can cause problems for transport. Due to the angle of the road, puddles tend to be forced by gravity to gather on the edges of the road. This can cause splashing as cars drive through the puddles, which causes water to be sprayed onto pedestrians on the pavement. Irresponsible drivers may do this deliberately, which, in some countries, can lead to prosecution for careless driving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723097",
"title": "Puddle",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Due to the action of surface tension, small puddles can also form if a liquid is spilt on a level surface. Puddles like this are common on kitchen floors. Puddles tend to evaporate quickly due to the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and tend to be short lived. In cold conditions puddles can form patches of ice which are slippery and difficult to see and can be a hazard to road vehicles and pedestrians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723097",
"title": "Puddle",
"section": "Section::::Puddles on roads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Puddles commonly form in potholes in a dirt road, or in any other space with a shallow depression and dirt. In such cases, these are sometimes referred to as \"mud puddles\", because mud tends to form in the bottoms, resulting in dirtied wheels or boots when disturbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723097",
"title": "Puddle",
"section": "Section::::Puddles on roads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "In order to deal with puddles, roads and pavements are often built with a camber (technically called 'crowning'), being slightly convex in nature, to force puddles to drain into the gutter, which has storm drain grates to allow the water to drain into the sewers. In addition, some surfaces are made to be porous, allowing the water to drain through the surface to the aquifer below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37208",
"title": "Landslide",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Debris flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1263,
"text": "Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a \"domino effect\" may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid–liquid mixture can reach densities of up to and velocities of up to (;). These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area ) affected by a debris flow, estimated a peak discharge of for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge (by HEC-1), was , a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26111059",
"title": "Road debris",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Some video games (particularly racing games) include road debris that damages vehicles or obstructs visibility. \"Spy Hunter\" (1983) features slippery, icy roads and puddles, oil slicks, and smoke screens. \"MotorStorm\" (2007) depicts air-borne mud that becomes accurately painted onto the body of each vehicle in real-time. Players can use this airborne debris strategically: a chunk of debris may be used to knock opponents off their motorcycles, and mud spatter on the wind-shields might temporarily blind them. \"Fuel\" (2009) features \"crazy windstorms that kick up leaves and debris.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30432825",
"title": "Ford (crossing)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Watersplash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "A road running below the water level of a stream or river is often known as a \"watersplash\". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. There are enthusiasts who seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position and access) on dedicated websites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kk02m
|
why do so many think robert johnson is the greatest bluesman?
|
[
{
"answer": "Everything I know about Robert Johnson I learned from the movie Crossroads, but apparently he invented The Blues, or at least wrote all the early classic Blues songs. He was able to do this because he sold his soul to the Devil. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26010",
"title": "Robert Johnson",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Rock music and related genres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "BULLET::::- Eric Clapton considers Johnson \"the most important blues musician who ever lived\". He recorded enough of his songs to make \"Me and Mr. Johnson\", a blues-rock album released in 2004 as a tribute to the legendary bluesman (it was also used in the film \"Sessions for Robert J\"). He earlier recorded \"Crossroads\", an arrangement of \"Cross Road Blues\", with Cream in 1968, leading some to consider him \"the man largely responsible for making Robert Johnson a household name.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1156876",
"title": "Blind Willie Johnson",
"section": "Section::::Musical style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Johnson is considered one of the masters of blues, particularly of the gospel blues style. Like his contemporary Blind Lemon Jefferson, Johnson channeled the expressiveness of the blues into his religious messages derived from hymnbooks. Samuel Charters, in the liner notes to the compilation album \"The Complete Blind Willie Johnson\", wrote that, in fact, Johnson was not a bluesman in the traditional sense, \"but here still is so much similarity between his relentless guitar rhythms and his harsh, insistent voice, and the same fierce intensities of the blues singers, that they become images of each other, seen in the mirror of the society that produced them\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26010",
"title": "Robert Johnson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Robert Leroy Johnson (May 8, 1911August 16, 1938) was an American blues singer, songwriter and musician. His landmark recordings in 1936 and 1937 display a combination of singing, guitar skills, and songwriting talent that has influenced later generations of musicians. Johnson's poorly documented life and death have given rise to much legend. The one most closely associated with his life is that he sold his soul to the devil at a local crossroads to achieve musical success. He is now recognized as a master of the blues, particularly as a progenitor of the Delta blues style.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43290928",
"title": "Bill Johnson (blues musician)",
"section": "Section::::Style, equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Primarily a blues musician, Johnson fuses many eras of the genre with rock, country, and jazz. He regularly performs either as a solo act with an acoustic guitar or with a backing band. Beyond guitar and vocals he also plays harmonica. He draws on influences as diverse as Robert Johnson, Mississippi John Hurt, Lonnie Johnson, Chuck Berry, Muddy Waters, T-Bone Walker, Eric Clapton, BB King, and slide guitarists David Lindley and Sonny Landreth. According to the Musicians Association of Victoria and the Islands, \"for years he has honed his craft in bars, clubs, festivals and concerts and has achieved a worldly perspective that gives his blues the kind of soul that speaks with authenticity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26010",
"title": "Robert Johnson",
"section": "Section::::Musical style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1214,
"text": "Johnson is considered a master of the blues, particularly of the Delta blues style. Keith Richards, of the Rolling Stones, said in 1990, \"You want to know how good the blues can get? Well, this is it.\" But according to Elijah Wald, in his book \"Escaping the Delta\", Johnson in his own time was most respected for his ability to play in a wide range of styles, from raw country slide guitar to jazz and pop licks, and for his ability to pick up guitar parts almost instantly upon hearing a song. His first recorded song, \"Kind Hearted Woman Blues\", in contrast to the prevailing Delta style of the time, more resembled the style of Chicago or St. Louis, with \"a full-fledged, abundantly varied musical arrangement\". Unusual for a Delta player of the time, a recording exhibits what Johnson could do entirely outside of a blues style. \"They're Red Hot\", from his first recording session, shows that he was also comfortable with an \"uptown\" swing or ragtime sound similar to that of the Harlem Hamfats, but as Wald remarked, \"no record company was heading to Mississippi in search of a down-home Ink Spots ... [H]e could undoubtedly have come up with a lot more songs in this style if the producers had wanted them.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26010",
"title": "Robert Johnson",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Johnson has had enormous impact on music and musicians, but outside his own time and place and even the genre for which he was famous. His influence on contemporaries was much smaller, in part because he was an itinerant performer—playing mostly on street corners, in juke joints, and at Saturday night dances—who worked in a then undervalued style of music. He also died young after recording only a handful of songs. Johnson, though well-traveled and admired in his performances, was little noted in his lifetime, and his records were even less appreciated. \"Terraplane Blues\", sometimes described as Johnson's only hit record, outsold his others, but was still only a minor success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15112541",
"title": "The Complete Recordings (Robert Johnson album)",
"section": "Section::::Reception and influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "While Robert Johnson's professional recording career can be measured in months, his musical legacy has survived more than 70 years. Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf, two prominent Chicago bluesmen, have their roots in the Delta: both knew Robert Johnson, and were heavily influenced by him. Johnson's emotive vocals, combined with his varied and masterful guitar playing, continue to influence blues and popular music performers to this day. In 2004, Eric Clapton recorded \"Me and Mr. Johnson\" as a tribute to the legendary bluesman; the album reached number 6 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and has sold more than 563,000 copies in the United States. The \"Chicago Tribune\"s Greg Kot wrote that \"The Complete Recordings\", along with Clapton's \"The Layla Sessions\" (1990), survive as \"monuments of 20th Century music that will rarely, if ever, be equaled\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fsv2s
|
Do humans make bodily or vocal noises above or below the human hearing (20Hz to 20,000Hz) threshold?
|
[
{
"answer": "Anything that causes a vibration causes a sound, because that's what sound is. While it may not be audible, pretty much any movement your body makes technically makes a sound.\n\nWaving your hand frantically may cause vibration of a few Hertz, for example, even though it's probably very quiet too. Of course, that's just an example you could easily mimic on purpose.\n\nShort answer is yes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but it's not significant.\n\n Sibalants like fff and ssss have peaks around 5-8K, and some noise around 10ish. The noise up there is what adds airiness to vocals, and it is necessary for normal sounding speech-compare real life voices to telephone or voip. Those kill all the high frequencies and you lose a lot of definition.\n\nThere might be some content up there, but natural noise is not evenly distributed across the spectrum, it's filtered, so there is going to be on the order of 1-2 percent of the energy(30db+ reduction) up there versus at the main sibilant peak.\n\nIf you killed the ultrasonics, you wouldn't notice a difference even if you could hear it. Lower noise would totally mask it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41079",
"title": "Dynamic range",
"section": "Section::::Human perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a soundproofed room to the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100 dB which represents a factor of 100,000 in amplitude and a factor 10,000,000,000 in power. The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140 dB, varying with frequency, from the threshold of hearing (around −9 dB SPL at 3 kHz) to the threshold of pain (from 120–140 dB SPL). This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the tensor tympani, stapedius muscle, and outer hair cells all act as mechanical dynamic range compressors to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297595",
"title": "Absolute threshold of hearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 micropascals, i.e. 0 dB SPL, corresponding to a sound intensity of 0.98 pW/m at 1 atmosphere and 25 °C. It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency-dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 2 kHz and 5 kHz, where the threshold reaches as low as −9 dB SPL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1776590",
"title": "Absolute threshold",
"section": "Section::::Hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The absolute threshold of hearing is the minimum sound level of a pure tone that an average ear with normal hearing can hear with no other sound present. The absolute threshold relates to the sound that can just be heard by the organism.The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 µPa (micropascals) = 2×10 pascal (Pa). It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 1 kHz and 5 kHz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Hearing standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Human hearing extends in frequency from 20–20,000 Hz, and in intensity from 0 dB to 120 dB HL or more. 0 dB does not represent absence of sound, but rather the softest sound an average unimpaired human ear can hear; some people can hear down to −5 or even −10 dB. Sound is generally uncomfortably loud above 90 dB and 115 dB represents the threshold of pain. The ear does not hear all frequencies equally well; hearing sensitivity peaks around 3000 Hz. There are many qualities of human hearing besides frequency range and intensity that cannot easily be measured quantitatively. But for many practical purposes, normal hearing is defined by a frequency versus intensity graph, or audiogram, charting sensitivity thresholds of hearing at defined frequencies. Because of the cumulative impact of age and exposure to noise and other acoustic insults, 'typical' hearing may not be normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246329",
"title": "Hearing range",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea. Humans are most sensitive to (i.e. able to discern at lowest intensity) frequencies between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz. Individual hearing range varies according to the general condition of a human's ears and nervous system. The range shrinks during life, usually beginning at around age of eight with the upper frequency limit being reduced. Women typically experience a lesser degree of hearing loss than men, with a later onset. Men have approximately 5 to 10 dB greater loss in the upper frequencies by age 40.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246329",
"title": "Hearing range",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Audiograms of human hearing are produced using an audiometer, which presents different frequencies to the subject, usually over calibrated headphones, at specified levels. The levels are weighted with frequency relative to a standard graph known as the minimum audibility curve, which is intended to represent \"normal\" hearing. The threshold of hearing is set at around 0 phon on the equal-loudness contours (i.e. 20 micropascals, approximately the quietest sound a young healthy human can detect), but is standardised in an ANSI standard to 1 kHz. Standards using different reference levels, give rise to differences in audiograms. The ASA-1951 standard, for example, used a level of 16.5 dB SPL (sound pressure level) at 1 kHz, whereas the later ANSI-1969/ISO-1963 standard uses , with a 10 dB correction applied for older people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8410",
"title": "Decibel",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The human ear has a large dynamic range in sound reception. The ratio of the sound intensity that causes permanent damage during short exposure to that of the quietest sound that the ear can hear is greater than or equal to 1 trillion (10). Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic scale: the base-10 logarithm of 10 is 12, which is expressed as a sound pressure level of 120 dB re 20 μPa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4skykx
|
What happened to German police personnel after the Germans surrendered in WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is an interesting one. \n\nThe Order Police and the Krippo generally continued as normal, as did most of the judiciary.\n\n\nThe Gestapo was brought in front of the Nuremberg trails where it was decided the it was a criminal organisation and that all officers and administrators were collectively responsible. However, it didn't apply to those who left before 1st September 1939, thus ruling it was only after this date that it became a criminal organisation and this ruled out any officer facing punishment for their actions before then.\n\nVery few rank and file officers were brought to trial and most of those that did served less than three years detention. The Law for the Liberation from National Socialism and Militarism (5th March 1946) allowed individuals, including Gestapo officers, the chance of exoneration by producing evidence and witnesses. Most of the West Germans who applied were exonerated (issued a 'Persil Certificate' - a pun on the washing powder that offered whiter-than-white results) due to those overseeing the process being over worked and under staffed. \n\nIn the East, the Russians were just as 'thorougher' in investigating the past of those involved in the Nazi regime, however, this meant detention. \n\n\nTheir are a number of things we must understand. Firstly, rank and file Gestapo officers were forcibly transferred from the police detective branch and very very few were members of the Nazi party before 1937. It was the senior managers that were ardent career Nazis with no police experience. Secondly, by the 1950s there was a distinct lack of enthusiasm among the West German political establishment to bring Nazis to judgement. Thirdly, the people who the Gestapo targeted were dead by the end of the war and unable to provide witness to the prosecution. Finally, by the late 1940s, the western allies were more concerned with the Soviet Union than the Nazis. Routing out every Nazi, be them part of the civil service or civilians was not only time consuming but removing the low level civil service would make reconstruction and governance more difficult. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4554716",
"title": "Collaboration with the Axis Powers",
"section": "Section::::Collaboration by country.:Poland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Shortly after the German invasion of Poland, the Nazi authorities ordered the mobilization of prewar Polish officials and the Polish police (the \"Blue Police\"), who were forced, under penalty of death, to work for the German occupation authorities. The primary task of the officials was to run the day-to-day administration of the occupied territories; and of the Blue Police, to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities. The Germans also used the Blue Police to combat smuggling and resistance and to round up (\"łapanka\") random civilians for forced labor and to apprehend Jews (in German, \"Judenjagd\", \"hunting Jews\"). While many officials and police reluctantly followed German orders, some acted as agents for the Polish resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6245226",
"title": "Legal purge in Norway after World War II",
"section": "Section::::Culpable acts during the occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Norwegians who had volunteered for military service with the Wehrmacht, and especially Germanic-SS were subject to criminal prosecution after the war. Police officers who worked with the RSHA in the Sikkerhetspolitiet (Norwegian Secret State Police) or joined the Gestapo faced charges relating to war crimes, torture, executions, and the mistreatment of prisoners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7953137",
"title": "Feldgendarmerie",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "After World War I, all military police units were disbanded and no police units existed in the inter-war Weimar Republic era. Garrisons were patrolled by regular soldiers performing the duties of the military police.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350111",
"title": "History of Poland (1939–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Occupation of Poland.:Collaboration with the occupiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "In October 1939, the Nazis ordered a mobilization of the prewar Polish police to the service of the occupational authorities. The policemen were to report for duty or face a death penalty. The so-called Blue Police was formed. At its peak in 1943, it numbered around 16,000. Its primary task was to act as a regular police force and to deal with criminal activities, but they were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling and patrolling the Jewish ghettos. Many individuals in the Blue Police followed German orders reluctantly, often disobeyed them or even risked death acting against them. Many members of the Blue Police were double agents for the Polish resistance; a large percentage cooperated with the Home Army. Some of its officers were ultimately awarded the Righteous Among the Nations awards for saving Jews. However, the moral position of Polish policemen was often compromised by a necessity for cooperation, or even collaboration, with the occupier. According to Timothy Snyder, acting in their capacity as a collaborationist force, the Blue Police may have killed more than 50,000 Jews. The police assisted the Nazis at tasks such as rounding up Poles for forced labor in Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56835411",
"title": "Collaboration in German-occupied Poland",
"section": "Section::::Security forces.:Blue Police.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "In October 1939 the German authorities ordered mobilization of the prewar Polish police to serve under the German \"Ordnungspolizei\", thus creating the auxiliary \"Blue Police\" that supplemented the principal German forces. The Polish policemen were to report for duty by 10 November 1939 or face death. At its peak in May 1944, the Blue Police numbered some 17,000 men. Their primary task was to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, but the Germans also used them in combating smuggling and resistance, rounding up random civilians (\"łapanka\") for forced labor or for execution in reprisal for Polish resistance activities (e.g., the Polish underground's execution of Polish traitors or egregiously brutal Germans), patrolling for Jewish ghetto escapees, and in support of military operations against the Polish resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41368355",
"title": "R. C. M. Jenkins",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "The police had the unenviable task of training up the local Home Guard, managing the disorder caused by visiting allied troops and dealing with the aftermath of German air raids. The officers of Kent, and indeed other towns targeted by the Germans, were the only persons obliged to perform such tasks as ensuring all lights were switched off during a raid (even going so far as snuffing out the odd offending light bulb with an air rifle) and pulling civilians from the wreckage of their own bombed homes. Captured German pilots were often thrown into the same cells as the common miscreant, with one recorded example of four enemy prisoners rounded up and taken back to an officer’s house, where the officer told his wife to make sure they didn’t leave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56835411",
"title": "Collaboration in German-occupied Poland",
"section": "Section::::Security forces.:Auxiliary police.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The German General Government tried to form additional Polish auxiliary police units—\"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202\" in 1942, and \"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107\" in 1943. Very few men volunteered, and the Germans decided on forced conscription to fill their ranks. Most of the conscripts subsequently deserted, and the two units were disbanded. \"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107\" mutinied against its German officers, disarmed them, and joined the Home Army resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8j3h02
|
How and when did the Star and Crescent become a symbol of Islam? What exactly does it represent?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is primarily trying to answer another question, but it touches on the question you’re curious about:\n\n * [Why didn't the Turkish Republic change its flag?](_URL_0_)\n\nI’m afraid, though, that I come at this as someone who’s interested in the Early Turkish Republican era/the Late (19th century) Ottoman Empire, so I don’t know much more about this early/middle Ottoman question than I listed in that answer. (Edit: this particularly doesn’t cover at all when the star and crescent became a *global* symbol—it obviously appears on flags outside the former Ottoman Empire and outside the context of Pan-Turkism on, for instance, the flags of Pakistan, Malaysia, and Mauritania.)\n\n/u/Chamboz and /u/CptBuck might have more to add. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I did a search of\n\n!g site:_URL_0_\n\nand found:\n\n1. [https://www._URL_0_/comments/5rm5ap/why\\_did\\_the\\_crescent\\_and\\_star\\_become\\_symbol\\_of/](https://www._URL_0_/comments/5rm5ap/why_did_the_crescent_and_star_become_symbol_of/)\n2. [https://www._URL_0_/comments/24d72l/why\\_is\\_the\\_star\\_and\\_crescent\\_considered\\_the/](https://www._URL_0_/comments/24d72l/why_is_the_star_and_crescent_considered_the/)\n\nHope that gives a couple good answers!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1854994",
"title": "Symbols of Islam",
"section": "Section::::Star and crescent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "The star and crescent symbol became strongly associated with the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, a symbol that had been used throughout the Middle East extending back to pre-Islamic times, especially in the Byzantine Empire and Crusader States which occupied the lands later assumed by the Ottoman Empire. By extension from the use in Ottoman lands, it became a symbol also for Islam as a whole, as well as representative of western Orientalism. \"Star and Crescent\" was used as a metaphor for the rule of the Islamic empires (Ottoman and Persian) in the late 19th century in British literature. This association was apparently strengthened by the increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets. The \"Red Crescent\" emblem was adopted by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1854994",
"title": "Symbols of Islam",
"section": "Section::::Star and crescent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the star and crescent was used in several national flags adopted by its successor states. The star and crescent in the flag of the Kingdom of Libya (1951) was explicitly given an Islamic interpretation by associating it with \"the story of Hijra (migration) of our Prophet Mohammed\" By the 1950s, this symbolism was embraced by movements of Arab nationalism or Islamism, such as the proposed Arab Islamic Republic (1974) and the American Nation of Islam (1973).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "755405",
"title": "Star and crescent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The star and crescent is an iconographic symbol used in various historical contexts but most well known as a symbol of the Ottoman Empire. It is often considered as a symbol of Islam by extension, however is denied as the religion bears no symbol. It develops in the iconography of the Hellenistic period (4th–1st centuries BCE) in the Kingdom of Pontus, the Bosporan Kingdom and notably the city of Byzantium by the 2nd century BCE. It is the conjoined representation of the crescent and a star, both of which constituent elements have a long prior history in the iconography of the Ancient Near East as representing either Sun and Moon or Moon and Morning Star (or their divine personifications). Coins with crescent and star symbols represented separately have a longer history, with possible ties to older Mesopotamian iconography. The star, or Sun, is often shown within the arc of the crescent (also called star in crescent, or star within crescent, for disambiguation of depictions of a star and a crescent side by side); In numismatics in particular, the term crescent and pellet is used in cases where the star is simplified to a single dot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "755405",
"title": "Star and crescent",
"section": "Section::::History.:Use in the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "In the late 19th century, \"Star and Crescent\" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature. The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western Orientalism. The \"Red Crescent\" emblem was used by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "755405",
"title": "Star and crescent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "In the later 20th century, the star and crescent have acquired a popular interpretation as a \"symbol of Islam\", occasionally embraced by Arab nationalism or Islamism in the 1970s to 1980s, but often rejected as erroneous or unfounded by Muslim commentators in more recent times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2660841",
"title": "National emblem of Turkey",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The star and crescent is retained from the 19th-century Ottoman flag, and has acquired its status as de facto national emblem following the abolition of the Ottoman coat of arms in 1922. It was used on national identity cards by the 1930s (with the horns of the crescent facing left instead of the now more common orientation towards the right).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156629",
"title": "Crescent",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early modern and modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "While some Islamic organisations since the 1970s have embraced the crescent as their logo or emblem (e.g. \" Crescent International\" magazine, established 1980), Muslim publications tend to emphasize that the interpretation of the crescent, historically used on the banners of Muslim armies, as a \"religious symbol\" of Islam was an error made by the \"Christians of Europe\". The identification of the crescent as an \"Islamic symbol\" is mentioned by James Hastings as a \"common error\" to which \"even approved writers on Oriental subjects\" are prone as early as 1928.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2clfqx
|
how come the human race still has "ugly" people if nobody wants to reproduce with them?
|
[
{
"answer": "People still do.\n\nEdit: also Luck, two \"perfect\" parents wont always have a \"perfect\" child. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two very attractive people can still make an ugly baby. And likewise, two ugly people can create a very attractive baby. It all just depends on how the genes interact.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "781460",
"title": "Ashley Montagu",
"section": "Section::::Work.:\"Statement on Race\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The second statement says that since human history is widely diverse and complex, there are many human populations that cannot be easily classified “racially”. However, some anthropologists believe that mankind is classified into at least three major human races. Even though it is believed that there are many human races, it gives no support that there is one race that is superior or inferior to any of the other races.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10851304",
"title": "The Moon Pool",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Eventually of the race which created it only three are left; these are called the Silent Ones, and they have been 'purged of dross' and can be described as higher, nobler, more angelic beings than are humankind. They have also been sentenced by the good among their race to remain in the world, and not to die, as punishment for their pride which was the source of the calamity called the Dweller, until such time as they destroy their creation—if they still can. And the reason they do not do so is simply that they continue to love it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2118334",
"title": "List of The Belgariad and The Malloreon characters",
"section": "Section::::Races.:Humans.:Godless Ones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Other human races are descended from the Godless Ones: ethnicities chosen by no god (Aldur abstaining from selection) at the beginning of the human race. They are widely spread across both continents and have physical diversity comparable to the other races.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14371117",
"title": "Mythic humanoids",
"section": "Section::::Categories of mythic humanoids.:Monster skinned humanoids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Portions of these humanoids are clearly not of human make. They may have drastic differences in skin color and eye type and may have scales, fur, claws, and tails. The average person may find them quite unpleasant and untrustworthy because they are not entirely human.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47751868",
"title": "Vegetarian ecofeminism",
"section": "Section::::Link between sexism and speciesism.:Linking sexism and speciesism through language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Women are often objectified by being compared to a piece of meat or dehumanized by being called a 'cow' or a 'bird'. There is indeed a history of dehumanization through equating humans to animals, which because of speciesism, means that they are devalued and considered to be less than other valued humans. This is often seen in cases of genocide, for in Rwanda the Tutsi were compared to cockroaches for many months leading up to the actual genocide. Viewing humans as animals makes it easier to oppress them, and thus it is once again clear that in order to end the oppression of humans, one must also work to end the oppression of nonhuman animals, because so long as nonhuman animals are viewed as inherently inferior to humans, dehumanization will continue to be justified with comparisons to nonhuman animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14612277",
"title": "The Warriors of Spider",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "The human race consists of billions of people spread throughout a relatively small area of space containing Earth and several other inhabited planets. The majority of the population lives on giant space stations, either in orbit or moving like giant ships. A change occurred over the generations that was caused by zero-gravity conditions and exposure to different radiations. Most are pale-skinned, thin and frail-boned; some would die if they experienced gravity. The human race is ruled over by the Directorate, a group of three genetically modified humans, through whom all information must pass before it is released; this has given the Directorate complete control over information for the last 600 years. They stopped all war and religion and caused humanity to be composed of mostly obedient cowards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4816797",
"title": "Race and society",
"section": "Section::::Social interpretation of physical variation.:Race as a social construct and populationism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Through this small sampling of experts, it is clear that race as a social construction is a common theory. All of the experts in this sampling say that biological race is non-existent. Race therefore must have been created by societies. They were created to do what humans do, to serve the purposes of the majority. The hierarchies created by race have kept the majority \"race\" in control of everything from public policy to the workforce to law enforcement. They benefit from this construction of race. Yet, the minorities, who are just the same genetically, suffer under this system. Most of the points made by the experts expose this issue, yet none truly suggest a way to fix the problem. Bill Nye weighs in on the issue on the same side as the experts in the sample. He says that humans are humans, we are all one species. We have to fix it. If society created the problem, society has to take it on itself to fix it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1scq28
|
how did amazon gain enough popularity to support it's massive infrastructure costs?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was one of the first dot coms, back when online shopping wasn't a thing yet.\n\nThey also started niche with just books - an industry which (at that time) had lousy overpriced competition and was impossible for brick and mortar stores to compare on inventory / price. Great place to start.\n\nThen after they became the niche book go-to, they moved to music and movies which had the same basic problem before digitalization.\n\nThen they expanded to more types of merchandise. And so on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29736990",
"title": "Criticism of Amazon",
"section": "Section::::Treatment of workers.:Warehouse conditions in the US.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In June 2012, Amazon began the installation of a $52 million investment in cooling its warehouses around the country, a major cost for the company equivalent to 8.2 percent of Amazon's 2011 total earnings. Experts speculated Amazon made such a massive investment either to dampen negative publicity over worker conditions, and/or to better protect goods in the warehouse such as food and electronics equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1691376",
"title": "Amazon Web Services",
"section": "Section::::History.:Growth and profitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In 2016 Q1, revenue was $2.57 billion with net income of $604 million, a 64% increase over 2015 Q1 that resulted in AWS being more profitable than Amazon's North American retail business for the first time. In the first quarter of 2016, Amazon experienced a 42% rise in stock value as a result of increased earnings, of which AWS contributed 56% to corporate profits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39336923",
"title": "Internet area network",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "After the dot-com bubble, Amazon played a key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10% of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found that the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" (teams small enough to be fed with two pizzas) could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new product development effort to provide cloud computing to external customers, and launched Amazon Web Services (AWS) on a utility computing basis in 2006. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Amazon is known for its disruption of well-established industries through technological innovation and mass scale. It is the world's largest e-commerce marketplace, AI assistant provider, and cloud computing platform as measured by revenue and market capitalization. Amazon is the largest Internet company by revenue in the world. It is the second largest private employer in the United States and one of the world's most valuable companies. Amazon is the second largest technology company by revenue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90451",
"title": "Amazon (company)",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "For the fiscal year 2018, Amazon reported earnings of US$10.07 billion, with an annual revenue of US$232.887 billion, an increase of 30.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Since 2007 sales increased from 14.835 billion to 232.887 billion, thanks to continued business expansion. Amazon's market capitalization was valued at over US$803 billion in early November 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58634020",
"title": "History of Amazon",
"section": "Section::::Mergers and acquisitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Amazon has grown through a number of mergers and acquisitions over the years. The company has also invested in a number of growing firms, both in the United States and Internationally. In 2014, Amazon purchased top level domain .buy in auction for over $4 million. The company has invested in brands that offer a wide range of services and products, including Engine Yard, a Ruby-on-Rails platform as a service company, and Living Social, a local deal site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55296806",
"title": "Amazon HQ2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Amazon announced its plans to build a new headquarters in September 2017, saying that it would house 50,000 workers and spend $5 billion on new construction. The corporation also invited governments and economic development organizations to give the corporation tax breaks and other incentives to entice it to their locality. More than 200 cities in Canada, Mexico, and the United States eventually offered tax breaks, expedited construction approvals, promises of infrastructure improvements, new crime-reduction programs, and other incentives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yedwh
|
How long does it take for a large, non-spherical object in space to become spherical?
|
[
{
"answer": "Assuming the cube is made from the same material that Earth is made of, it would probably not take very long to become spherical. The corners of the cube would in effect be mountains that are many hundreds of km tall, which would collapse due to gravity. \n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "172911",
"title": "Nuclear weapon design",
"section": "Section::::Two-stage thermonuclear weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "A spherical secondary can achieve higher implosion densities than a cylindrical secondary, because spherical implosion pushes in from all directions toward the same spot. However, in warheads yielding more than one megaton, the diameter of a spherical secondary would be too large for most applications. A cylindrical secondary is necessary in such cases. The small, cone-shaped re-entry vehicles in multiple-warhead ballistic missiles after 1970 tended to have warheads with spherical secondaries, and yields of a few hundred kilotons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23023386",
"title": "Spherical segment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 239,
"text": "If the radius of the sphere is called \"R\", the radii of the spherical segment bases are \"r\" and \"r\", and the height of the segment (the distance from one parallel plane to the other) called \"h\", then the volume of the spherical segment is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53243172",
"title": "Eridanus II",
"section": "Section::::Properties of the Galaxy.:Size, Shape, and Rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Eridanus II does not have a spherical shape, and its ellipticity (ε) has been estimated at about 0.45 (Crnojević et al., 2016; Koposov et al., 2015). Its size depends on assumptions about mass distribution and three-dimensional structure. Crnojević et al. (2016) find that their data are consistent with a simple exponential distribution of mass and a half-light radius (a radius enclosing half the luminosity of the galaxy) of 277 ±14 pc (~890 light years), with an apparent half-light diameter of 4.6 arcmin to observers on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214102",
"title": "Spherical aberration",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "A spherical lens has an aplanatic point (i.e., no spherical aberration) only at a radius that equals the radius of the sphere divided by the index of refraction of the lens material. A typical value of refractive index for crown glass is 1.5 (see list), which indicates that only about 43% of the area (67% of diameter) of a spherical lens is useful. It is often considered to be an imperfection of telescopes and other instruments which makes their focusing less than ideal due to the spherical shape of lenses and mirrors. This is an important effect, because spherical shapes are much easier to produce than aspherical ones. In many cases, it is cheaper to use multiple spherical elements to compensate for spherical aberration than it is to use a single aspheric lens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1137111",
"title": "Spherical cap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "In geometry, a spherical cap, spherical dome, or spherical segment of one base is a portion of a sphere cut off by a plane. If the plane passes through the center of the sphere, so that the height of the cap is equal to the radius of the sphere, the spherical cap is called a \"hemisphere\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208742",
"title": "Mimas (moon)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "With a diameter of it is the smallest astronomical body that is known to still be rounded in shape because of self-gravitation. However, Mimas is not actually in hydrostatic equilibrium for its current rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70048",
"title": "Rectangle",
"section": "Section::::Other rectangles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "In spherical geometry, a spherical rectangle is a figure whose four edges are great circle arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. The surface of a sphere in Euclidean solid geometry is a non-Euclidean surface in the sense of elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is the simplest form of elliptic geometry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
1kqfek
|
Why doesn't China have a large muslim population but southeast Asia does even though China is closer to the middle east?
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually early in China's history it had a larger Islamic population. Several revolutions happened centered around its Islamic population. Infact the famous explore Zheng He, was actually Muslim (it was one of the reasons he was selected actually to ease relations with Arabian leaders, meeting a member of your own religion always makes thing easier).\n\nThat being said Islam in China has historically gotten the short end of the stick. While most Chinese dynasties had little problem with Muslims, who often ended up getting very wealthy off of trade. The mongols harshly apposed several Islamic practices (namely a few festivals and meat perpetration).\n\nThe real 'modern' decline of Islam in china occurred around the rise of Communism. The Red Guard would burn and deface mosques, as well as burn copies of the Quran. Muslims were painted as holding \"Anti-socialist\" views, as well as \"clinging to old superstitions.\" This was true for most religions, not just Islam.\n\nCurrently Islam is on the rise in China, and accounts for about 1-2% of its total population.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "China does have a thriving Muslim population, though they are in several different groups.\n\nPerhaps the most notable are the 维吾尔族 Uyghurs (pronounced like \"Wee-ger\") in the 新疆维吾尔族自治区, or the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (a region some Uyghurs often refer to as Eastern Turkestan). In this region, the largest province in China, Uyghurs are the majority population, accounting for ABOUT fifty percent of the province's ~22 million people. They are a Turkic people, and are often characterized by their devotion to Islam. In general they bare little resemblance to East Asian peoples. Peter Hessler, an American travel writer, said that when he visited China in the 90's many Han Chinese 汉族 (the dominant ethnic group in China that we simply refer to as \"Chinese,\" though incorrectly) assumed he was Uyghyr upon first meeting him. Many Muslims of the Kazakh minority 哈萨克族 are also to be found in Xinjiang. \n\nAnother notable groups of Muslims in China are the Hui (pronounced like \"Hway\") people 回族. The Hui have been present in China since the Tang Dynasty, and are widespread. Major population centers include Gansu 甘肃, Yunnan 云南, Xinjiang 新疆, and other Western provinces. Though ethnically distinct, a westerner might look at a Hui person and think they look very \"Chinese\" as opposed to the Uyghurs who certainly do not. Famous Hui Muslims include the famous explorer from the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He 郑和.\n\nEdit: Just an anecdote. I live in Beijing, and I'm surrounded by Hui Muslims. Where I live, Chongwenmen 崇文门 in Dongcheng District 东城区, they are an everyday sight. There is a beautiful Hui Mosque here, and even a Hui Primary school.\n\nEdit 2: Some numbers. China is home to over 8 million Ughurs, 10 millions Hui Muslims, 1.5 million Kazakhs, and a variety of other Muslim peoples such as Tajiks, Uzbecks, Kyrgyz, etc.",
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"answer": "As /u/kevink123 mentions, there are in fact quite a few Muslims living in China, but I would add that there are perhaps *fewer* than there would be if it hadn't been for Genghis Khan.\n\nIn a nutshell, during the height of Muslim power in Central Asia, the Mongols rolled through, razed many cities, and slaughtered millions of Muslims.\n\nThere's also a geographical factor. It would be easier for Islam and Islamic populations to spread along the sea trade routes of the Indian ocean than it would be for them to spread through Central Asia and Western China (despite the Silk Road).\n\nIt's also worth mentioning that the autonomous region of XinJiang (China's largest province) now has a population that is roughly 50-50 in terms of Muslims versus non-Muslims, but prior to Communist rule, the region was almost entirely Muslim.\n\nThe [Great Mosque of Xian](_URL_0_) is worth a mention here because it's the oldest existing mosque in China (742 C.E.) and it's notable for being in central, rather than western, China. It's also intersesting from an architectural perspective as it incorporates Buddhist and Daoist elements of design, but without all the iconography that would come with it.\n\nAnother interesting thing that the Xian mosque illustrates is the traditional tolerance towards Muslims in China. There are Daoist, Buddhist, and (former) Confucian temples all within two blocks. Religious pluralism in old China is really quite astounding by European standards. Prior to the 20th century, there is not a single recorded case of serious religious conflict with Muslims in China.",
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{
"answer": "Along with what kevink mentioned, I want to note that Islam spread rapidly during the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate (moving the capital from Damascus to Baghdad), as trade grew exponentially in the Indian Ocean. Eventually dominating the whole trade in the ocean, their influence of Islam became extremely prevalent in the coastal areas of trade (Southeast Asia, East Africa, India). ",
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"answer": "I'd like to piggyback onto this. When and how did these migrations take place, and what were the Chinese rulers' views towards Muslims?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24493019",
"title": "Islamic missionary activity",
"section": "Section::::In Southeast Asia.:In China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Most of the significant population of Muslims in China is a result, not of missionary activity, but of trade links forged between various Muslim Caliphates with various Chinese dynasties over the centuries. In addition, often Chinese rulers would encourage flourishing of Muslim minority communities as buffers against local Chinese enemies and as a source for loyal military recruits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6037917",
"title": "Islam",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Most estimates indicate that the China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to \"U.S. News & World Report\" suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "705408",
"title": "Islam in China",
"section": "Section::::People.:Number of Muslims in China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1866,
"text": "China is home to a large population of adherents of Islam. According to the \"CIA World Factbook\", about 1–2% of the total population in China are Muslims. The 2000 census counts imply that there may be up to 20 million Muslims in China. According to the textbook, “Religions in the Modern World”, it states that the “numbers of followers of any one tradition are difficult to estimate, and must in China as everywhere else rely on statistics compiled by the largest institutions, either those of the state – which tend to underestimate – or those of the religious institutions themselves – which tend to overestimate. If we include all the population of those designated ‘national’ minorities with an Islamic heritage in the territory of China, then we can conclude that there are some 20 million Muslims in the People’s Republic of China. A 2009 study done by the Pew Research Center, based on China's census, concluded there are 21,667,000 Muslims in China, accounting for 1.6% of the total population. According to the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), there are more than 21 million Muslims in the country. According to SARA there are approximately 36,000 Islamic places of worship, more than 45,000 imams, and 10 Islamic schools in the country. Within the next two decades from 2011, Pew projects a slowing down of the Muslim population growth in China compared to previous years, with Muslim women in China having a 1.7 fertility rate. Many Hui Muslims voluntarily limit themselves to one child in China since their Imams preach to them about the benefits of population control, while the number of children Hui in different areas are allowed to have varies between one and three children. Chinese family planning policy allows minorities including Muslims to have up to two children in urban areas, and three to four children in rural areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "705408",
"title": "Islam in China",
"section": "Section::::People.:Ethnic groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "Muslims live in every region in China. The highest concentrations are found in the northwest provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, and Ningxia, with significant populations also found throughout Yunnan province in southwest China and Henan province in central China. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are Hui (9.8 million in year 2000 census, or 48% of the officially tabulated number of Muslims), Uyghur (8.4 million, 41%), Kazakh (1.25 million, 6.1%), Dongxiang (514,000, 2.5%), Kyrgyz (144,000), Uzbeks (125,000), Salar (105,000), Tajik (41,000), Bonan (17,000), and Tatar (5,000). However, individual members of traditionally Muslim groups may profess other religions or none at all. Additionally, Tibetan Muslims are officially classified along with the Tibetan people. Muslims live predominantly in the areas that border Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia, i.e. Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is known as the \"Quran Belt\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4610037",
"title": "Panthays",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Chinese-speaking, and of predominantly Han Chinese ethnic origin, this little-known group of Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi madhhab forms a predominantly endogamous, closely inter-related minority group in four countries – China, Burma, Thailand and Laos – and today represents both Islamic and Chinese cultures in northern Southeast Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24493019",
"title": "Islamic missionary activity",
"section": "Section::::In Southeast Asia.:In China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Hui Muslims are the majority Muslim group in China. The greatest concentration is in Xinjiang, with a significant Uyghur population. Lesser but significant populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu, and Qinghai. Various sources estimate different numbers of adherents with some sources indicating that 1-3% of the total population in China are Muslims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47408687",
"title": "Islam by country",
"section": "Section::::Denominations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "About 20% of Muslims live in Arab countries. In the Middle East, the non-Arab countries of Iran and Turkey are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities. The study found more Muslims in the United Kingdom than in Lebanon and more in China than in Syria. Indian state of Uttar Pradesh has more Muslims than any other Muslim majority countries except Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Iran and Turkey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
2yk5dl
|
How and when did pepperoni become the default topping for pizza in the U.S.?
|
[
{
"answer": "We've had to remove a number of posts with people sharing what they like on their pizza instead of pepperoni and/or challenging the OP's assumption. Please, if you want to discuss your favorite pizza, that is for another subreddit.\n\nAs for the fact that Pepperoni is the default topic, \"default\" is up for debate, I agree, but I think we can all agree that \"most popular\" is not a very contentious observation, and supported by [polling on the matter.](_URL_0_) So I would ask that further discussion be focused on pepperoni's popularity in the American pizza business, and not on what *you* like on your pie. Thank you!",
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"answer": "(Had to look at my physical books). According to *The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink* and January 1985 issue of Gourmet Magazine, pepperoni is an Americanized version of Italian salami. In the early 1900's Italian immigrants brought salami to the US, but traditional salami is a seasonal product that required carefully controlled climate and other conditions and it was difficult to replicate the same process in an urban environment that the immigrants had settled in. Armour meat company developed the technology to control climate and automated the process so they could be produced year round. The first reference to pepperoni in print is from 1919. The American pepperoni uses lactic acid culture and greatly reduced curing time. As a result it became the most available Italian-style cured meat in the US (particularly when pizza became popular in the US in the 50's) before more authentic Italian-style cured meat appeared. In addition due to its shortened curing time the flavor can be improved by heating prior to consuming (usually salami is eaten cold). ",
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"answer": "Hopefully I do this correctly, I'm a long-time reader but don't often post. I wrote an essay about immigration and the influx of influx of food culture a few years ago in my M.A. program. I'll provide some excerpts and some commentary seeing that there are no useful threads posted yet:\n\nMany will argue that interest in southern/eastern European food did not begin until after our soldiers returned from WWII. There are some arguments, however, that the assimilation of ethnic foods began much earlier. A book entitled, The Grocer's Encyclopedia, published in New York in 1911 provides, a detailed look at the demand for products during the time period. It was essentially publish as a guide for large, commercial markets to understand the differences between different ethnicities and their food. The volume, in addition to containing Jewish Dietary Laws contains list of more than 500 of the most popular food words and concepts translated into German, French, Swedish, and Italian. \n\nAround this time there are also a few other cookbooks that begin to get translated into English for the first time. One volume of particular interest was a compilation entitled With A Saucepan Over The Sea; Quaint And Delicious Recipes From The Kitchens Of Foreign Countries. This volume provided signature recipes from almost every country in Europe and even singled out different ethnic groups by providing Jewish recipes from both Poland and Germany. This demonstrates both the diversity of ethnic groups and also the interest in redefining American food culture with an international palette.\n\nThe increase in the availability of ethnic street food provides some additional evidence that eastern/southern European food was becoming more popular. During the \"gilded\" and \"progressive\" era a large percentage of immigrants were engaged in street vending. New York City during the time period actually made special laws to allow street vending to occur. With the large amount of eastern/southern Europeans engaged in the food market, they had a large impact in the types of food available on the street for regular consumption. (Bhat, R.V. (Editor). Street Foods (Vol. 86, Wrund). Basel, Switzerland: Karger Publishers, 2000. p 27.)\n\nThat being said, pepperoni pizza is an excellent example of a sociological theory referred to as (I believe) the diffusion and reformulation of culture. Just like McDonalds in India has more vegetarian options as they have reformulated the diffusion of fast food culture to meld with their own. Pizza was reformulated to meld with existing American culture. \"Americanization\" was already taking place during this time for immigrants. This americanization movement also extended to food and diet. \"As the waves of immigrants from Europe and elsewhere poured into the great cities of America at the end of the 19th century, earnest American social workers, medical personal, home economists, educators and others became increasingly concerned with the newcomers' diets and health. Numerous studies were undertaken to learn about the immigrant's foodways, mostly in an attempt to change them.\" (Feeding America Project,Michigan State University, Anne-Marie Rachman, Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University Libraries). Immigrants were actively encourage to change their dietary habits to \"healthier,\" American options. \n\nI would assume that pepperoni was one viable option for the reformulation of pizza culture to the U.S. Dried meats were utilized in both the U.S. and Europe. Pepperoni has a relatively long shelf-life and can be used on pizza in the winter when other toppings may not have been available. \n\nI went off subject for a little bit but that's the best answer that I can come up with. In simple terms, pepperoni was a culturally acceptable topping where American's could eat it and feel like they're exploring \"foreign\" food without getting too far off the beaten path. \n",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24768",
"title": "Pizza",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Common toppings for pizza in the United States include ground beef, mushrooms, onions, pepperoni, pineapple, garlic, olives, peppers, carrots, tomatoes, spinach, anchovies, chicken, bacon, ham and sausage. Distinct regional types developed in the 20th century, including California, Chicago, Detroit, Greek, New Haven, New York and St. Louis styles. The first pizzeria in the U.S. was opened in New York's Little Italy in 1905 and since then regions throughout the U.S. offer variations, including deep-dish, stuffed, pockets, turnovers, rolled and pizza-on-a-stick, each with seemingly limitless combinations of sauce and toppings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "178944",
"title": "Pepperoni",
"section": "Section::::Serving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"end_character": 312,
"text": "According to \"Convenience Store Decisions\", Americans consume 251.7 million pounds of pepperoni annually, on 36% of all pizzas produced nationally. Pepperoni has a tendency to curl up from the edges in the heat of a pizza oven. Some pepperoni is produced in thicker slices, so that the edges curl intentionally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "59405867",
"title": "Filipino spaghetti",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The dish is believed to date back to the period between the 1940s and the 1960s. During the American Commonwealth Period, a shortage of tomato supplies in the Second World War forced the local development of the banana ketchup. Spaghetti with Bolognese sauce was introduced by the Americans and was tweaked to suit the local Filipino predilection for sweet dishes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2209922",
"title": "New York-style pizza",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "The first pizzeria in the United States of America was claimed to have been founded by Gennaro Lombardi in New York City's Little Italy in 1905, though this has recently been debunked by author Peter Regas. An immigrant \"pizzaiolo\" (pizza maker) from Naples, he opened a grocery store in 1897; eight years later, it was licensed to sell pizza by New York State. An employee, Antonio Totonno Pero, began making pizza, which sold for five cents a pie. Many people, however, could not afford a whole pie and instead would offer what they could in return for a corresponding sized slice, which was wrapped in paper tied with string. In 1924, Totonno left Lombardi's to open his own pizzeria on Coney Island, called Totonno's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1118474",
"title": "Shakey's Pizza",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Shakey's Pizza was founded in Sacramento, California, on April 30, 1954, by Sherwood \"Shakey\" Johnson and Ed Plummer. Johnson's nickname resulted from nerve damage following a bout of malaria suffered during World War II. The parlor opened on a weekend, but since the pizza ovens were not yet completed only beer was served. Shakey took the profits from beer sales and bought ingredients for pizza the following Monday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "41990168",
"title": "Old Town Pizza",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Old Town Pizza is a pizzeria established in 1974 and located in the historic Merchant Hotel building in the Old Town Chinatown neighborhood of central Portland, Oregon in the United States. The company has a satellite location located at Vanport Square in Northeast Portland that includes a brewery branded as Old Town Brewing Co. Two days before its March 2012 opening, a fire forced the restaurant to undergo reconstruction for six weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41094143",
"title": "Grandma pizza",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "The origins of grandma pizza can be traced back the early 20th century in Long Island when Italian immigrants from southern Italy would try to replicate some of the food and pizza from their old country with what few ingredients they had available. This eventually morphed into a pizza that would be made at home with simple ingredients in their home kitchens. Due to the humble beginnings and background of the pizza, it was dubbed \"grandma pizza\" since it was rarely made outside of a home kitchen and mainly made by first-generation immigrants. Pizzerias rarely sold this type of pizza.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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8rubkk
|
One of the main requirements of Islam is prayer, and one of the prayers is at dawn. How did people in the time of the prophet Muhammad wake up for prayer on time, considering there were no alarms at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are basically two answers. One is that, at least according to the Hadith, the call to prayer already existed and would have been called out for the dawn prayer. The second answer is that pre-modern sleep practices were very different than our modern concept of one, approximately eight hour long period of uninterrupted sleep. Pre-moderns, including Muhammad, would more frequently have had a \"first sleep\", followed by a period of awakeness, followed by a \"second sleep.\" This is also referenced in the hadith: _URL_0_\n\nSeparately, in lieu of alarm clocks, there were plenty of animals that make noise at dawn: _URL_1_",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "8154397",
"title": "Reforms of Umar's era",
"section": "Section::::Reforms.:Religious.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
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"text": "Mohammad initially prayed the tarawih, a special Muslim prayers during the month of Ramadan, in congregation but later discontinued this practice out of fear that Muslims would start to believe the prayers to be mandatory, rather than a sunnah. During his Caliphate Umar reinstated the practice of praying \"tarawih\" in congregation as there was no longer any fear of people taking it as something mandatory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5723418",
"title": "Sunnah prayer",
"section": "Section::::Tahajjud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Tahajjud () prayer is performed at night time, and it is recommended that it be performed after first going to sleep for a part of the night. Scholars have different opinions about whether sleeping first is absolutely required or not. In Saudi Arabia during the fasting month of Ramadan, there are many people who leave the Tarawih prayers in the main masjid in a hurry so that they can go home, go to sleep, and then wake up to perform their Tahajjud prayers in the early morning. Others simply stay in the mosque and perform these optional prayers before going home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1349173",
"title": "Al-Muzzammil",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "However, as time passed, the Qur'an continued to grow, and by the time ayat 20 was revealed, the Qur'an was too long to fully recite during the night. Consequently, Allah relaxes his prior command to recite the Qur'an at night. Muhammad is told to pray what is easy for him during the night (“recite as much of the Qur’an is easy for you”), but to continue to pray throughout the day (“keep up the prayer [during the day], pay the prescribed alms, and lend God a good loan).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1162603",
"title": "Jumu'ah",
"section": "Section::::In the history of Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "According to the history of Islam and the report from Abdullah bn 'Abbas narrated from the Prophet saying that: the permission to perform the Friday prayer was given by Allah before hijrah, but the people were unable to congregate and perform it. The Prophet wrote a note to Mus'ab b. Umair, who represented the Prophet in Madinah to pray to raka'at in congregation on Friday (that is, Jumu'ah). Then, after the migration of the Prophet to Medina, the Jumu'ah was held by him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1345200",
"title": "As-Sajda",
"section": "Section::::In hadith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "A hadith narrated by Abu Huraira said that Muhammad often recited \"As-Sajda\" together with \"Al-Insan\" (chapter 76 of the Quran) for the early morning prayer (\"fajr\") every Friday. This report also appears in Tafsir ibn Kathir. Another report said that he often recited the chapter before going to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3198142",
"title": "Tahajjud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Tahajjud (), also known as the \"night prayer\", is a voluntary prayer performed by followers of Islam. It is not one of the five obligatory prayers required of all Muslims, although the Islamic prophet, Muhammad was recorded as performing the tahajjud prayer regularly himself and encouraging his companions too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31502968",
"title": "Expedition of Dhat al-Riqa",
"section": "Section::::Background and Attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "When the prayer time came, the Muslims were worried that the Ghatafan men might descend from their mountain hideout and make a sudden attack on them while they were praying. Apprehending this fear, Muhammad introduced the ‘service of prayer of danger.’ In this system, a party of faithful stands guard while the other party prays. Then they take turns. According to Muslim sources, God revealed the verses 4:101 regarding shortening of a prayer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14ftp7
|
how do disinfectants work?
|
[
{
"answer": "They contain an agent which kills bacteria. In the case of hand-sanitizers, the ingredient is alcohol - specifically, usually, ethanol or isopropanal (there's others too, though). When rubbed onto skin (or surfaces, in the case of other disinfectants) the bacteria are killed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "478185",
"title": "Disinfectant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than sterilization, which is an extreme physical and/or chemical process that kills all types of life. Disinfectants are different from other antimicrobial agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Disinfectants are also different from biocides — the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, not just microorganisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214701",
"title": "Water purification",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Disinfection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including \"Salmonella\", \"Cholera\", \"Campylobacter\" and \"Shigella\", and protozoa, including \"Giardia lamblia\" and other \"cryptosporidia\". After the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage – often called a contact tank or clear well – to allow the disinfecting action to complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "478185",
"title": "Disinfectant",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "A perfect disinfectant would also offer complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive, and noncorrosive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. Most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur. The choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a wide spectrum (kill many different types of microorganisms), while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties (they may be non-corrosive, non-toxic, or inexpensive).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Disinfectants and antibacterials in home hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Chemical disinfectants are products that kill pathogens. If the product is a disinfectant, the label on the product should say \"disinfectant\" or \"kills\" pathogens. Some commercial products, e.g. bleaches, even though they are technically disinfectants, say that they \"kill pathogens\" but are not actually labelled as \"disinfectants\". Not all disinfectants kill all types of pathogens. All disinfectants kill bacteria (called bactericidal). Some also kill fungi (fungicidal), bacterial spores (sporicidal) or viruses (virucidal).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331179",
"title": "Infection control",
"section": "Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Disinfection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Disinfection uses liquid chemicals on surfaces and at room temperature to kill disease causing microorganisms. Ultraviolet light has also been used to disinfect the rooms of patients infected with \"Clostridium difficile\" after discharge. Disinfection is less effective than sterilization because it does not kill bacterial endospores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331179",
"title": "Infection control",
"section": "Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Sterilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1328,
"text": "Chemical sterilization, also referred to as cold sterilization, can be used to sterilize instruments that cannot normally be disinfected through the other two processes described above. The items sterilized with cold sterilization are usually those that can be damaged by regular sterilization. Commonly, glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde are used in this process, but in different ways. When using the first type of disinfectant, the instruments are soaked in a 2-4% solution for at least 10 hours while a solution of 8% formaldehyde will sterilize the items in 24 hours or more. Chemical sterilization is generally more expensive than steam sterilization and therefore it is used for instruments that cannot be disinfected otherwise. After the instruments have been soaked in the chemical solutions, they are mandatory to be rinsed with sterile water which will remove the residues from the disinfectants. This is the reason why needles and syringes are not sterilized in this way, as the residues left by the chemical solution that has been used to disinfect them cannot be washed off with water and they may interfere with the administered treatment. Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also more irritating to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and is classified as a potential carcinogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "965323",
"title": "Antimicrobial",
"section": "Section::::Chemical.:Non-pharmaceutical.:Antimicrobial pesticides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "BULLET::::- Disinfectants: Destroy or inactivate microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses,) but may not act as sporicides (as those are the most difficult form to destroy). According to efficacy data, the EPA will classify a disinfectant as limited, general/broad spectrum, or as a hospital disinfectant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21w5iz
|
how did glow in the dark happen? and where did it get its source of energy to glow in the dark?
|
[
{
"answer": "Around 1669, there was a German alchemist named Hennig Brand. He was in search of gold, and thought that it came from within man. What color is gold? It's a shade of yellow. What else is yellow that everyone is familiar with? Urine. So off went Hennig on a quest to extract gold from pee. He boiled down 5,500 liters of the stuff, and what was left over was a bunch of phosphorus. Phosphorus, for those who don't know, has a tendency to take in light, and hold it for a while, which makes it glow. This is why Hennig named it phosphorus, for the greek \"light-bearer\".\nSo glow in the dark resulted from a scientific fluke. The dude was trying to make gold in an early stab at chemistry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to redfoot's answer. If your super lucky, your glow in the dark stuff is not made of phosphors that are energised with light radiation but with decomposing uranium. Before we realised how dangerous that stuff was it got stuck in a lot of things. Watches and kids toys from the 40-60's, if they glow, can contain uranium",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23318",
"title": "Phosphorus",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemiluminescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan. A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147536",
"title": "Calcium oxide",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "BULLET::::- Light: When quicklime is heated to , it emits an intense glow. This form of illumination is known as a limelight, and was used broadly in theatrical productions before the invention of electric lighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2881462",
"title": "Arachnocampa",
"section": "Section::::Common features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The glow is the result of a chemical reaction that involves luciferin, the substrate; luciferase, the enzyme that acts upon luciferin; adenosine triphosphate, the energy molecule; and oxygen. It occurs in modified excretory organs known as Malpighian tubules in the abdomen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "850048",
"title": "Gas lighting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The light is produced either directly by the flame, generally by using special mixes of illuminating gas to increase brightness, or indirectly with other components such as the gas mantle or the limelight, with the gas primarily functioning as a fuel source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2282767",
"title": "Bude-Light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The light works by introducing oxygen into the centre of an Argand burner. The unburned carbon in the oil flame burns incredibly brightly and an intense, white light is produced from the weak yellow flame of the oil lamp. They were first trialled to light the House of Commons in 1839, and stayed in use there for over 50 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11728535",
"title": "Fort Canning Lighthouse",
"section": "Section::::History.:Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The light was created by a burner fuelled by kerosene, which generated 20,000 candlepower and itself was dioptric occulting type. The light was \"eclipsed\" (darkened) every 17 seconds by lowering a metal cylinder around the burner for 3 seconds, thus giving rise to the term\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309252",
"title": "Phosphorescence",
"section": "Section::::Chemiluminescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Some examples of glow-in-the-dark materials do not glow by phosphorescence. For example, glow sticks glow due to a chemiluminescent process which is commonly mistaken for phosphorescence. In chemiluminescence, an excited state is created via a chemical reaction. The light emission tracks the kinetic progress of the underlying chemical reaction. The excited state will then transfer to a dye molecule, also known as a sensitizer or fluorophor, and subsequently fluoresce back to the ground state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
160zuf
|
Theoretically, how far "back in time" could we go and still be able to have a conversation with local inhabitants?
|
[
{
"answer": "Warning: This is not my area of expertise at all, but since there have been no replies after half an hour, I'll give it a go.\n\nFirst of all, it depends greatly on what language you'd like to speak in, as you acknowledged in your post. It also depends on who you'd like to speak to - peasants? kings? But the general answer for English is somewhere around the 12th-14th centuries. This is a bit of text from the mid-1100s: \"He chæs himm sone kinnessmenn all swillke summ he wollde and whær he wollde borenn ben he chæs all att hiss wille.\" This is mostly intelligible - it means \"He chose some kinsmen as he liked, and where he would be born, he chose all at his will.\" But they were also using a number of Germanic words that we don't use anymore, and you may have had some trouble understanding a great deal. By the time of Chaucer in the late 1300s - well, you can read Canterbury Tales without any special training, so there you go.\n\nIf you speak Italian, you might be able to go back significantly further. Italian was fractured into many regional dialects until the publication of the Divine Comedy in the 14th century. However, certain regional dialects were more like modern Italian than others, and in those regions you could go back further. The first documented words in Italian date from the mid 10th century; however, spoken Italian dates back much further - in 722, when Pope Gregory II, raised in Rome, met St. Boniface, who had studied classical Latin, Boniface said that he found Gregory IIs Latin very difficult to understand, indicating that the language of the Italian peninsula had already begun to evolve away from vulgar Latin.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might be a good question for /r/linguistics. Also, I'm not an expert on this so feel free to take this with a grain of salt.\n\nFor English, the Great Vowel Shift renders spoken Middle English largely unintelligible. This change is thought to have begun in the 1300's and be completed around 1700. Modern English (being attested to the 1500's) falls in this range. I'd conjecture that we today would most likely be able to converse with at least the educated around Shakespeare's time, albeit with some difficultly due to differences in vocabulary and pronunciation. Any earlier gets fuzzy, but as language change is rarely abrupt it could be possible. Middle English is largely unintelligible to people today. Sorry for the conjecturing, but we don't really have access to spoken forms of language in older files (excluding pronunciation gleaned from written texts).\n\nI'm less versed in other languages, but do know that languages change constantly and change differently compared to other even related languages. Some are more conservative than others. Kevin Stroud's History of English podcast claims that roughly it takes 1000 years for a language to diverge from a parent language into a mutually unintelligible daughter language. I would use that number as a basis, but it probably isn't true for every language.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You should try posting in r/linguistics. They have a few people who could answer pretty well!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That will be different for every region.\nI can answer for my native language, Modern Greek. \nThe classical sound system collapsed around 1st century CE, and it started resembling the modern one around the 4th century CE. Grammar and vocabulary undergone transformations that will lead eventually to modern Greek, so a fluent and somehow linguistically-aware speaker of Modern Greek could understand spoken [medieval Greek](_URL_0_) mostly of the late period of the Middle Ages. As a matter of fact, religious texts written in then-modern Koiné Greek are way, WAY more accessible to Modern Greek speakers, than classical texts (Plato etc), and Homeric texts are completely inaccessible without dedication and years of study.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4152890",
"title": "Cry of Silence",
"section": "Section::::Opening narration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "\"In the not-distant future, the sound of Man will invade those unknown depths of space which as yet we cannot even imagine. In his own world there are no places left beyond the reach of his voice. His neighbor is no longer just next door, but anywhere at the end of a wire. And it all began when prehistoric man discovered the art of communication...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11579",
"title": "Fermi paradox",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.:Intelligent civilizations are too far apart in space or time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1243,
"text": "It may be that non-colonizing technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication. If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light-years, it is possible that one or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialogue can be established. Human searches may be able to detect their existence, but communication will remain impossible because of distance. It has been suggested that this problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact/communication is made through a Bracewell probe. In this case at least one partner in the exchange may obtain meaningful information. Alternatively, a civilization may simply broadcast its knowledge, and leave it to the receiver to make what they may of it. This is similar to the transmission of information from ancient civilizations to the present, and humanity has undertaken similar activities like the Arecibo message, which could transfer information about Earth's intelligent species, even if it never yields a response or does not yield a response in time for humanity to receive it. It is also possible that archaeological evidence of past civilizations may be detected through deep space observations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37856",
"title": "Alcubierre drive",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "For example, if one wanted to travel to Deneb (2,600 light years away) and arrive less than 2,600 years in the future according to external clocks, it would be required that someone had already begun work on warping the space from Earth to Deneb at least 2,600 years ago:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50788",
"title": "Māori language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "A national census undertaken in 2013 reported that about 149,000 people, or 3.7 per cent of the New Zealand population, could hold a conversation in Māori about everyday things. , 55 per cent of Māori adults reported some knowledge of the language; but of these speakers, only 64 per cent use Māori at home and only around 50,000 people can speak the language \"very well\" or \"well\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1392846",
"title": "The Final Experiment",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Prologue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In the year 2084 scientists have found a way to send messages back into time using time telepathy. With the Earth nearly destroyed by many different causes, they have one hope for the experiment: warn the past of the future to avert the fate of Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163103",
"title": "Future",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Some physicists claim that by using a wormhole to connect two regions of spacetime a person could theoretically travel in time. Physicist Michio Kaku points out that to power this hypothetical time machine and \"punch a hole into the fabric of space-time\", it would require the energy of a star. Another theory is that a person could travel in time with cosmic strings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71575",
"title": "Free-space optical communication",
"section": "Section::::Usage and technologies.:Extraterrestrial.:Demonstrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "A two-way distance record for communication was set by the Mercury laser altimeter instrument aboard the MESSENGER spacecraft, and was able to communicate across a distance of 24 million km (15 million miles), as the craft neared Earth on a fly-by in May, 2005. The previous record had been set with a one-way detection of laser light from Earth, by the Galileo probe, of 6 million km in 1992.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2movzc
|
why are ceiling's spackled or whatever it's called. why aren't they just flat like walls?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's sound damping. Flat surfaces echo more than dimpled ones. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Spackling is the use of spackle to fill holes and cracks. I assume you mean that textured finish on some ceilings. If so, that's just a design choice and doesn't have any practical reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work in new home construction in a mid-Atlantic market. We do smooth ceilings (you are describing textured). In my market textured is about 50% of the multifamily housing market and about 0% of the single family market. From my perspective you do this more to hide imperfections in drywall seams than as a sound dampening device. In multifamily it also hides wear and tear where a tenant my cause dents moving in/out of a unit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always suspected it was to hide a shitty mudding job. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just recently bought a house and that was one of the first things I did. Scrape all that popcorn crap off the ceilings and make them flat. After checking for asbestos, of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Major home builders texture walls and ceilings because the texture hides the crappy job their laborers do. These home builders spend as little money as possible on labor (undocumented and barely legal migrant workers compose a significant amount of their workforce, especially in the southwest) and as such, they get what they pay for. Walls aren't flat or plumb, ceilings are not even close to level, and corners are almost never true. As such, they coat every surface possible with texture, which makes it more difficult for eyes to pick up on the imperfections.\n\nSource: A friend of mine oversaw regional construction related business for a major homebuilder in the southwest until the housing bust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's mostly about labor costs and appearance. \n\nIt's not all that easy from a modern craftsmanship standpoint to get flat, smooth ceilings that hide the seams in the drywall. \n\nIn old houses that haven't been renovated you'll often see smooth ceilings. As I understand it, this is because they were plaster and the plasterers had the skill to make it look flat and smooth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "844811",
"title": "Ceiling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers the upper limits of a room. It is not generally considered a structural element, but a finished surface concealing the underside of the roof structure or the floor of a story above. Ceilings can be decorated to taste, and there are many fine examples of frescoes and artwork on ceilings especially in religious buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16992147",
"title": "Robert Scarano Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Building codes and zoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Many of the buildings designed by Scarano's firm are instantly recognizable for being much larger than neighboring buildings. This is often due to the double-height spaces and mezzanine levels commonly used on his residential projects to maximize building height, floor area, and lot coverage. Under the New York City building codes, mezzanines (defined in part as spaces with ceiling heights of less than five feet) are not included when calculating the square footage of a building, but it has been alleged that many of Scarano's building plans classified habitable space as mezzanines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053292",
"title": "Laurentian Library",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.:Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "In the \"ricetto\", critics have noted that the recessed columns in the vestibule make the walls look like taut skin stretched between vertical supports. This caused the room to appear as if it mimics the human body, which at the time of the Italian Renaissance was believed to be the ideal form. The columns of the building also appear to be supported on corbels so that the weight seems to be carried on weak elements. Because of the seeming instability of the structure, the viewer cannot discern whether the roof is supported by the columns or the walls. This sense of ambiguity is heightened by the unorthodox forms of the windows and, especially, by the compressed quality of all architectural elements, which creates a sense of tension and constrained energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4386199",
"title": "Industrial style",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Large sectionals are a staple item in any industrial style room. This is because of their ability to help close off larger spaces and help divide up the living areas. This is important because spaces like lofts tend to be very open. In order to create the illusion of multiple rooms, a sectional can help block the flow and define a separate living area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "844811",
"title": "Ceiling",
"section": "Section::::Elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Ceilings have frequently been decorated with fresco painting, mosaic tiles and other surface treatments. While hard to execute (at least in place) a decorated ceiling has the advantage that it is largely protected from damage by fingers and dust. In the past, however, this was more than compensated for by the damage from smoke from candles or a fireplace. Many historic buildings have celebrated ceilings. Perhaps the most famous is the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398480",
"title": "Doom engine",
"section": "Section::::Rendering.:Floor and ceiling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The system for drawing floors and ceilings (\"flats\") is less elegant than that used for the walls. Flats are drawn with a flood fill-like algorithm. Because of this, it is sometimes possible if a bad BSP builder is used to get \"holes\" where the floor or ceiling bleeds down to the edges of the screen. This is also the reason that if the player travels outside of the level using the noclip cheat the floors and ceilings will appear to stretch out from the level over the empty space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2433249",
"title": "Shotgun house",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The rooms are well-sized, and have relatively high ceilings for cooling purposes, as when warm air can rise higher, the lower part of a room tends to be cooler. The lack of hallways allows for efficient cross-ventilation in every room. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34xm8m
|
Are there any current historical debates/uncertainties between historians in regards to Spartacus?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main uncertainty about Spartacus is his ethnicity. He is called a Thracian, but Thracian is both an ethnicity and a style of combat in gladiatorial games. Gladiators were organised by their combat style, and by that point in Roman history gladiators were no longer limited to just their cultural combat style, especially if the slave was not one of the traditional enemies of Rome. So while it is possible that Spartacus was from Thrace, it is equally possible that he was from pretty much anywhere else, and simply trained in Thracian-style combat as a gladiator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993992",
"title": "Spartacus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Spartacus ( \"\"; ; c. 111–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of the war, and surviving historical accounts are sometimes contradictory and may not always be reliable. However, all sources agree that he was a former gladiator and an accomplished military leader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34896829",
"title": "Spartacus (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Spartacus is an American television series produced in New Zealand that premiered on Starz on January 22, 2010, and concluded on April 12, 2013. The fiction series was inspired by the historical figure of Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator who from 73 to 71 BCE led a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic departing from Capua. Executive producers Steven S. DeKnight and Robert Tapert focused on structuring the events of Spartacus' obscure early life leading up to the beginning of historical records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27562715",
"title": "List of Spartacus characters",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "\"Spartacus\" is a set of Starz television series that focuses on the historical figure of Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator who, from 73 to 71 BC, led a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Executive producers Steven S. DeKnight and Robert Tapert focused on structuring the events of Spartacus' obscure early life leading to the records of history. This article serves as a list of characters for the television series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18993992",
"title": "Spartacus",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and recognition.:In communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "In modern times, Spartacus became an icon for communists and socialists. Karl Marx listed Spartacus as one of his heroes and described him as \"the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history\" and a \"great general (though no Garibaldi), noble character, real representative of the ancient proletariat\". Spartacus has been a great inspiration to left-wing revolutionaries, most notably the German Spartacus League (1915–18), a forerunner of the Communist Party of Germany. A January 1919 uprising by communists in Germany was called the Spartacist uprising. Spartacus Books, one of the longest running collectively-run leftist bookstores in North America, is also named in his honour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12441786",
"title": "Great Rhetra",
"section": "Section::::Genesis of the constitution.:Plutarch's version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "The younger source, Plutarch, speaks less confidently of the details of Lycurgus' life, being faced by that time with multiple traditions, and having no way to judge between them. He says: \"There is so much uncertainty in the accounts which historians have left us of Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, that scarcely any thing is asserted by one of them which is not called into question or contradicted by the rest.\" After repeating some of the opinions of sources available to him he launches into his own reconstruction based, he says, on the majority opinion. Lycurgus was the younger son of the Eurypontid king, Eunomus. He was thus passed over for the throne in favor of his brother, Polydectes, but the latter died. The inheritance changed by law to Lycurgus. However, Polydectes's wife having been found to be pregnant, Lycurgus became regent instead for the first several months of the infant Charilaus' life. There is no mention of the Agiad Labotas in this version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19375990",
"title": "History of Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Roman Sparta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "After 146 BC, sources for Spartan history are somewhat fragmentary. Pliny describes its freedom as being empty, though Chrimes argues that whilst this may be true in the area of external relations, Sparta retained a high level of autonomy in internal matters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12441786",
"title": "Great Rhetra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The classical authors and the literate population of Sparta knew better than to suppose that the rhetra went into effect as written by an oracle and remained unchanged. A double tradition developed: tales of the oracular rhetra and stories of the laws of Lycurgus. As there is no history of any constitutional issues dividing the Spartans, they seem to have had no problem accepting its contradictions, perhaps because they knew it was legendary. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ufcm4
|
If the y chromosome is human specific what causes the differentiation of male and female apes?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Y chromosome originally evolved from an autosome which acquired sex-determining characteristics. Apes also have X and Y chromosomes; in fact, many vertebrates do - mice have XY (male) and XX (female), birds have ZZ (male) and ZW (female). \n\nSome vertebrates don't have their sex determined in this way. Often, environmental facts play a major role such as the temperature-dependence of sex determination in crocodilians.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) is a great place to start for getting your head around the origin of the Y chromosome. Fascinating stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12266",
"title": "Genetics",
"section": "Section::::Molecular basis for inheritance.:DNA and chromosomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Many species have so-called sex chromosomes that determine the gender of each organism. In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes. The X and Y chromosomes form a strongly heterogeneous pair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635892",
"title": "Sexual differentiation",
"section": "Section::::Sex determination system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Humans, many mammals, insects and other animals have an XY sex-determination system. Humans have forty-six chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males. The Y chromosome must carry at least one essential gene which determines testicular formation (originally termed \"TDF\"). A gene in the sex-determining region of the short arm of the Y, now referred to as \"SRY\", has been found to direct production of a protein, testis determining factor, which binds to DNA, inducing differentiation of cells derived from the genital ridges into testes. In transgenic XX mice (and some human XX males), \"SRY\" alone is sufficient to induce male differentiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7860110",
"title": "Sexual differentiation in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The development of sexual differences begins with the XY sex-determination system that is present in humans, and complex mechanisms are responsible for the development of the phenotypic differences between male and female humans from an undifferentiated zygote. Females typically have two X chromosomes, and males typically have a Y chromosome and an X chromosome. At an early stage in embryonic development, both sexes possess equivalent internal structures. These are the mesonephric ducts and paramesonephric ducts. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of the testes in males, and the subsequent release of hormones which cause the paramesonephric ducts to regress. In females, the mesonephric ducts regress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7860110",
"title": "Sexual differentiation in humans",
"section": "Section::::Sex determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Most mammals, including humans, have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. In the absence of a Y chromosome, the fetus will undergo female development. This is because of the presence of the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome, also known as the SRY gene. Thus, male mammals typically have an X and a Y chromosome (XY), while female mammals typically have two X chromosomes (XX). In humans, biological sex is determined by five factors present at birth: the presence or absence of a Y chromosome, the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal genitalia (such as the uterus in females), and the external genitalia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40603620",
"title": "Gender psychology",
"section": "Section::::Biological perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Biological differentiation is a fundamental part of human reproduction. Males have two different sex chromosomes, an X and a Y. Females have two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome is what determines sexual differentiation. If the Y chromosome is present, growth is along male lines; it results in the production of testes, which in turn produce testosterone. In addition to physical effects, this prenatal testosterone increases the likeliness of certain \"male\" patterns of behavior after birth, though the exact impact and mechanism are not well understood. Parts of the SRY and specific parts of the Y chromosome may also possibly influence different gender behaviors, but if so, these impacts have not yet been identified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49414",
"title": "Sex-determination system",
"section": "Section::::Chromosomal systems.:XX/XY sex chromosomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The XX/XY sex-determination system is the most familiar, as it is found in humans. The XX/XY system is found in most other mammals, as well as some insects. In this system, most females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while most males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The X and Y sex chromosomes are different in shape and size from each other, unlike the rest of the chromosomes (autosomes), and are sometimes called allosomes. In some species, such as humans, organisms remain sex indifferent for a time after they're created; in others, however, such as fruit flies, sexual differentiation occurs as soon as the egg is fertilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20913864",
"title": "Female",
"section": "Section::::Sex determination.:Genetic determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The sex of most mammals, including humans, is genetically determined by the XY sex-determination system where males have X and Y (as opposed to X and X) sex chromosomes. During reproduction, the male contributes either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while the female always contributes an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have ZZ (as opposed to ZW) sex chromosomes, is found in birds, reptiles and some insects and other organisms. Members of Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and some sterile males are diploid. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8vomp8
|
why does using a tootbrush how we do not make us sick? it is never sanitised and sit in your bathroom all day.
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to mention every time you flush with the lid up the flushing motion causes tons of tiny poo particles to be thrown in the air which settles on anything nearby, such as a tooth brush.\n\nThe immune system is fighting off infection 24/7. Not just when you contract a disease. Plus the bristles are plastic, designed to resist contamination. And you generally rinse it off before and after each use.\n\nBut still is why you need a new one every couple months.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A tooth brush is not a disinfecting agent. It's meant to scrape away excess food, not kill bacteria. Your mouth is ahead good enough at dealing with bacteria; removing excess carbohydrates by brushing just limits bacterial growth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Soap, your faucet, your tooth brush, the glass you drink water out of, all has bacteria on it. We don't live in a sterile environment and we ourselves are not sterile. You have more bacteria in your mouth, and fungal spores, than on your tooth brush. \n\nHaving bacteria isn't the problem, it's having a place for bacteria to multiply and grow into a colony unopposed and for that you need food, water, shelter, and no competition. Your tooth brush has only one of those things. \n\nThe job of a tooth brush is not to sterilize your mouth, it's to wash away the metabolic junk and plaque that eats away at your teeth. It denies the colonies in your mouth food and a medium to safely grow in (plaque). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Might not be relevant, but I dip my tooth brush in listerine for a minute every other week ........ 99.9 percent effective ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your mouth is dirtier than your toothbrush. The longer you go without brushing your teeth, the cleaner your toothbrush is. Your mouth is the contaminant. Not dissing anyone's specific mouth - this applies to all humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sure, your toothbrush is full of germs, but they're *your* germs (unless someone else is using your toothbrush). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same reason toddlers don't sporadically die even though they put all kinds of random shit in their mouths when you aren't looking.\n\n\nIf we were reliant on our own sanitation efforts to keep from getting sick (washing our hands, sterilizing eating utensils etc.) we would be long since dead.\n\n\nIt feels good to wash your hands and feel like all the evil bacteria is gone, but that's mostly naive first world logic, its not that simple. And someday we may arrive at the collective conclusion that antibacterial soaps are simply not necessary for everyday use (discounting things like surgery, idk).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few things:\n\n* Toothbrushes are cleaner than you think; most dangerous bacteria needs moisture and nourishment to survive, and really only replicates quickly in warmth. Your toothbrush dries out, is (hopefully) rinsed thoroughly to limit resources for the bacteria to thrive on, etc.\n\n* Your immune system is amazing; it's a lot harder to get sick from exposure to bacteria than you imagine. If it *weren't*, you'd be constantly sick.\n\n* Most of the bacteria on your toothbrush isn't novel; the bacteria in the bathroom is mostly stuff you and your housemates have already been exposed to, and which your immune system is therefore already dealing with. Having a bit on your toothbrush isn't likely to significantly alter your risk.\n\nThat said, it's pretty easy to disinfect a toothbrush by swishing it in an antiseptic mouthwash (e.g. listerine) for 60 seconds, so if it's a worry, it's easy to mitigate the risk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because in general modern society is excessively paranoid about germs but our bodies are exceptionally good at not getting sick. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there's nothing on your toothbrush that isn't already in your body.\n\nYou know you can walk outside and eat dirt and be fine right? Kids do it all the time.\n\nYour body has a robust immune system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ye the bacteria are strong, but fear not your immune system is stronger. I mean your mouth is covered in bacteria too. Not all bacteria is bad bacteria and your body has ways of kind of keeping bacteria out of where it's supposed to be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3350315",
"title": "Cerebellar hypoplasia (non-human)",
"section": "Section::::Home Care Considerations and Accommodations.:Tips for Caring for CH Cats.:Potty tips and basic hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "BULLET::::- Waterless pet shampoo may help keep a messy butt clean. If frequent baths are necessary, it's advisable to use a shampoo specifically formulated for cats. Their skin pH is significantly different from ours; our soaps, shampoos, and detergents may be too harsh and cause dry skin or brittle fur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3331179",
"title": "Infection control",
"section": "Section::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Infections can be prevented from occurring in homes as well. In order to reduce their chances to contract an infection, individuals are recommended to maintain a good hygiene by washing their hands after every contact with questionable areas or bodily fluids and by disposing of garbage at regular intervals to prevent germs from growing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842002",
"title": "Shampoo",
"section": "Section::::Specialized shampoos.:Animal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Shampoo intended for animals may contain insecticides or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas or mange. These must never be used on humans. While some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any human haircare products that contain active ingredients or drugs (such as zinc in anti-dandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392012",
"title": "Isosporiasis",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Avoiding food or water that may be contaminated with stool can help prevent the infection of \"Cystoisospora\" (Isosporiasis). Good hand-washing, and personal-hygiene practices should be used as well. One should wash their hands with soap and warm water after using the toilet, changing diapers, and before handling food (CDC.gov). It is also important to teach children the importance of washing their hands, and how to properly wash their hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842002",
"title": "Shampoo",
"section": "Section::::Specialized shampoos.:Animal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Antipruritic shampoos are intended to provide relief of itching due to conditions such as atopy and other allergies. These usually contain colloidal oatmeal, hydrocortisone, Aloe vera, pramoxine hydrochloride, menthol, diphenhydramine, sulfur or salicylic acid. These ingredients are aimed to reduce the inflammation, cure the condition and ease the symptoms at the same time while providing comfort to the pet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27243949",
"title": "No poo",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Proponents of \"no poo\" claim that there is no medical reason for humans to wash their hair with synthetic shampoos, and that washing practices are determined by cultural norms and individual preferences, with some people washing daily, some fortnightly, and some not at all. From a clinical point of view, \"the main purpose for a shampoo is to cleanse the scalp\", though \"most patients would disagree[,] stating that the purpose of shampoo is to beautify the hair\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842002",
"title": "Shampoo",
"section": "Section::::No Poo Movement.:Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "In the 1970s, ads featuring Farrah Fawcett and Christie Brinkley asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week. This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing. Using shampoo every day removes sebum, the oil produced by the scalp. This causes the sebaceous glands to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing. According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp. Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22sy1f
|
Historiography question: what do you consider determinism/causality?
|
[
{
"answer": "you cannot assign a causal relationship without direct experimental manipulation. History is a correlative study.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47922",
"title": "Determinism",
"section": "Section::::Modern scientific perspective.:Compatibility with the existence of science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "Certain philosophers of science argue that, while causal determinism (in which everything including the brain/mind is subject to the laws of causality) is compatible with minds capable of science, fatalism and predestination is not. These philosophers make the distinction that causal determinism means that each step is determined by the step before and therefore allows sensory input from observational data to determine what conclusions the brain reaches, while fatalism in which the steps between do not connect an initial cause to the results would make it impossible for observational data to correct false hypotheses. This is often combined with the argument that if the brain had fixed views and the arguments were mere after-constructs with no causal effect on the conclusions, science would have been impossible and the use of arguments would have been a meaningless waste of energy with no persuasive effect on brains with fixed views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47921",
"title": "Free will",
"section": "Section::::Western philosophy.:Incompatibilism.:Hard incompatibilism.:Causal determinism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Causal determinism is the concept that events within a given paradigm are bound by causality in such a way that any state (of an object or event) is completely determined by prior states. Causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. Causal determinists believe that there is nothing uncaused or self-caused. The most common form of causal determinism is nomological determinism (or scientific determinism), the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. Quantum mechanics poses a serious challenge to this view.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39834",
"title": "Correlation does not imply causation",
"section": "Section::::Determining causation.:In academia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "In academia, there are a significant number of theories on causality; \"The Oxford Handbook of Causation\" encompasses 770 pages. Among the more influential theories within philosophy are Aristotle's Four causes and Al-Ghazali's occasionalism. David Hume argued that beliefs about causality are based on experience, and experience similarly based on the assumption that the future models the past, which in turn can only be based on experience – leading to circular logic. In conclusion, he asserted that causality is not based on actual reasoning: only correlation can actually be perceived. Immanuel Kant, according to , held that \"a causal principle according to which every event has a cause, or follows according to a causal law, cannot be established through induction as a purely empirical claim, since it would then lack strict universality, or necessity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47922",
"title": "Determinism",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1517,
"text": "BULLET::::- Causal determinism is \"the idea that every event is necessitated by antecedent events and conditions together with the laws of nature\". However, causal determinism is a broad enough term to consider that \"one's deliberations, choices, and actions will often be necessary links in the causal chain that brings something about. In other words, even though our deliberations, choices, and actions are themselves determined like everything else, it is still the case, according to causal determinism, that the occurrence or existence of yet other things depends upon our deliberating, choosing and acting in a certain way\". Causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. The relation between events may not be specified, nor the origin of that universe. Causal determinists believe that there is nothing in the universe that is uncaused or self-caused. Historical determinism (a sort of path dependence) can also be synonymous with causal determinism. Causal determinism has also been considered more generally as the idea that everything that happens or exists is caused by antecedent conditions. In the case of nomological determinism, these conditions are considered events also, implying that the future is determined completely by preceding events—a combination of prior states of the universe and the laws of nature. Yet they can also be considered metaphysical of origin (such as in the case of theological determinism).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47922",
"title": "Determinism",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "BULLET::::- Nomological determinism is the most common form of causal determinism. It is the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. Nomological determinism is sometimes illustrated by the thought experiment of Laplace's demon. Nomological determinism is sometimes called 'scientific' determinism, although that is a misnomer. Physical determinism is generally used synonymously with nomological determinism (its opposite being physical indeterminism).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246070",
"title": "Predictability",
"section": "Section::::Predictability and causality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Causal determinism has a strong relationship with predictability. Perfect predictability implies strict determinism, but lack of predictability does not necessarily imply lack of determinism. Limitations on predictability could be caused by factors such as a lack of information or excessive complexity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151577",
"title": "Causality (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Causality in physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Despite these subtleties, causality remains an important and valid concept in physical theories. For example, the notion that events can be ordered into causes and effects is necessary to prevent (or at least outline) causality paradoxes such as the grandfather paradox, which asks what happens if a time-traveler kills his own grandfather before he ever meets the time-traveler's grandmother. See also Chronology protection conjecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mycgj
|
what are the reasons as to why the oil price never return to $1 range since 9/11?
|
[
{
"answer": "The specifics about why gas prices go up can be better explained by others, but this chart shows gas prices adjusted for inflation:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt seems like the climb started closer to 1999 than 2001, but asking why it hasn't gone back done since then is a great question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "two big reasons. China and India are industrializing at an amazing rate, using more petroleum for industry and also for autos as the middle class moves up. But the biggest reason is that people will gladly pay a great deal more for gas. SInce they can sell all they want at $3.50/gal why would they lower the price to $1? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they've discovered that demand will sustain $3.00+ conditions. If they thought they could get away with anything higher, they would. And, they will soon.\n\nIf you were selling lemonade (and were evil) you rely on lemons. If you're grocer was cheating with his produce supplier's wife, there might be concern in your community about the availability of lemons. With summer approaching, people would be very willing to pay $2 for a lemonade they paid $1 for last year. Eventually your grocer would find a new fruit source and lemon supply would return. But, people are now used to paying $2 a glass, so....... yeah.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because oil companies are greedy. Record high profits while charging record high prices, but the oil companies will tell you that the price of gas has nothing to do with their profits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "849508",
"title": "Peak oil",
"section": "Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The oil price historically was comparatively low until the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis when it increased more than tenfold during that six-year timeframe. Even though the oil price dropped significantly in the following years, it has never come back to the previous levels. Oil price began to increase again during the 2000s until it hit historical heights of $143 per barrel (2007 inflation adjusted dollars) on 30 June 2008. As these prices were well above those that caused the 1973 and 1979 energy crises, they contributed to fears of an economic recession similar to that of the early 1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18190185",
"title": "2000s commodities boom",
"section": "Section::::Boom.:Fuel.:Oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "In January 2008, oil prices surpassed $100 a barrel for the first time, the first of many price milestones to be passed in the course of the year. In July 2008, oil peaked at $147.30 a barrel and a gallon of gasoline was more than $4 across most of the US. The high of 2008 may have been part of broader pattern of spiking instability in the price of oil over the preceding decade. This pattern of instability in oil price may be a product of peak oil. There is concern that if the economy was to improve, oil prices might return to pre-recession levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19366351",
"title": "World oil market chronology from 2003",
"section": "Section::::2010.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "On May 21, 2010, the price of oil had dropped in two weeks from $88 to $70 mainly due to concerns over how European countries would reduce budget deficits; if the European economy slowed down, this would mean less demand for crude oil. Also, if the European economic crisis caused the American economy to have problems, demand for oil would be reduced further. Other factors included the strong dollar and high inventories. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, gas prices nationwide averaged $2.91 on May 10, dropping to $2.79 two weeks later. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was not a factor in gas prices since the well had not produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849508",
"title": "Peak oil",
"section": "Section::::Possible consequences.:Oil prices.:Historical oil prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "More recently, between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable, fluctuating around $US100 per barrel. It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $US70 where it remained for most of 2015. In early 2016 it traded at a low of $US27. The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy, OPEC reluctance to concede market share, and a stronger US dollar. These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers, who may increase production to maintain liquidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19366351",
"title": "World oil market chronology from 2003",
"section": "Section::::2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "On August 4, the price of oil dropped 6% to its lowest level in 6 months. On August 5, the price had dropped $8.82 in a week to $86.88 per barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange. The same pessimistic economic news that caused stock prices to fall also decreased expected energy demand, and experts predicted a gas price drop of 35 cents per gallon from the average of $3.70. On August 8, oil fell over 6%, in its largest drop since May, to $81, its lowest price of the year. On September 24, oil reached $79.85, down 9% for the week, due to concerns about another recession and the overall world economy. The average price of gas was $3.51, with predictions of $3.25 by November, but it was below $3 in some markets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4255163",
"title": "2002 world oil market chronology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- March 7: Light, sweet crude oil for April delivery on the NYMEX closes at $23.71, the highest price since September 21, 2001, when oil prices had temporarily spiked because of the September 11 terrorist attacks. Oil prices have been on the rise because of OPEC and non-OPEC production cuts, an improving U.S. economy, and concern over U.S. intentions toward Iraq. (OD)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19366351",
"title": "World oil market chronology from 2003",
"section": "Section::::2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "During October, the price of oil rose 22%, the fastest pace since February, as worries over the U.S. economy decreased, leading to predictions of $4 by early 2012. As of November 8, the price reached $96.80. Gas prices were not following the increase, due to lower demand resulting from the economy, the normal decrease in travel, lower oil prices in other countries, and production of winter blends which cost less. The average rose slightly to $3.41 but predictions of $3.25 were made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33h6wm
|
What happens to electrons in a circuit?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the purposes of circuits, electricity works a lot like a pneumatic system. With wire there will be electrons in all the places at the same time. If power gets used up, to useful work or to resistance it does so in the form of a 'pressure drop' but the electrons are still around.\n\nThe actual net movement of the electrons is typically quite slow:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So in metals, there is a large amount of electrons in the \"conduction band\" (the outer electron shells), and these electrons can freely move throughout the whole metal. They are doing this all the time, just whizzing around randomly like molecules in a liquid. When you apply a Voltage (say, using a 9V battery), the electrons are all subjected to a field and they begin to move a little more in the direction of lower potential energy (towards the positive terminal of your battery). So a single electron is suddenly flying towards the positive terminal of the battery, zooming along through the metal. But then, a tiny distance later, it bumps into a defect in the metal (which are abundant) and loses most of its kinetic energy, which goes into vibrating the metallic atoms and creating a phonon (read: thermal energy in the metal). Then the electron is off on its journey again, as the electric field in the metal accelerates it. This is all very exciting, but on a macroscopic scale, the electrons are moving very slowly; however, there are a lot of them and the net movement of charge is significant, enough to power a lightbulb or a motor. No electrons or charges are lost, because your battery is supplying electrons at the negative terminal for every electron that is sucked into the positive terminal of the battery. Eventually, the chemicals in the battery are no longer imbalanced and there is no longer any potential difference between the positive and negative ends of the battery--all the extra electrons in the negative side are now in the positive side and the battery is \"dead\", but the wire still has the same number of electrons that it started with! As to the potential energy--it really comes from the original imbalance in the battery that creates the field that moves the electrons. After the energy is depleted, the electrons no longer feel any force in any particular direction and they go back to their random motion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27709",
"title": "Semiconductor",
"section": "Section::::Physics of semiconductors.:Charge carriers (electrons and holes).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical ideal gas, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. In most semiconductors the conduction bands have a parabolic dispersion relation, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much like they would in a vacuum, though with a different effective mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563847",
"title": "Electromigration",
"section": "Section::::Failure mechanisms.:Thermal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1142,
"text": "In an ideal conductor, where atoms are arranged in a perfect lattice structure, the electrons moving through it would experience no collisions and electromigration would not occur. In real conductors, defects in the lattice structure and the random thermal vibration of the atoms about their positions causes electrons to collide with the atoms and scatter, which is the source of electrical resistance (at least in metals; see electrical conduction). Normally, the amount of momentum imparted by the relatively low-mass electrons is not enough to permanently displace the atoms. However, in high-power situations (such as with the increasing current draw and decreasing wire sizes in modern VLSI microprocessors), if many electrons bombard the atoms with enough force to become significant, this will accelerate the process of electromigration by causing the atoms of the conductor to vibrate further from their ideal lattice positions, increasing the amount of electron scattering. High current density increases the number of electrons scattering against the atoms of the conductor, and hence the speed at which those atoms are displaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48336",
"title": "Electrolyte",
"section": "Section::::Electrochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "When electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and a voltage is applied, the electrolyte will conduct electricity. Lone electrons normally cannot pass through the electrolyte; instead, a chemical reaction occurs at the cathode, providing electrons to the electrolyte. Another reaction occurs at the anode, consuming electrons from the electrolyte. As a result, a negative charge cloud develops in the electrolyte around the cathode, and a positive charge develops around the anode. The ions in the electrolyte neutralize these charges, enabling the electrons to keep flowing and the reactions to continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4932111",
"title": "Capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.:Current–voltage relation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "The current \"I\"(\"t\") through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge \"Q\"(\"t\") passing through it, but actual charges—electrons—cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, one electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage \"V\"(\"t\"). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46870556",
"title": "Valence and conduction bands",
"section": "Section::::Electrical conductivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "There is some conductivity in semiconductors, however. This is due to thermal excitation—some of the electrons get enough energy to jump the band gap in one go. Once they are in the conduction band, they can conduct electricity, as can the hole they left behind in the valence band. The hole is an empty state that allows electrons in the valence band some degree of freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70847",
"title": "X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Electron detectors.:Older style electron detector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 196,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 196,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Electrons can be detected using an electron multiplier, usually a channeltron. This device essentially consists of a glass tub with a resistive coating on the inside. A high voltage is applied between the front and the end. An electron which enters the channeltron is accelerated to the wall, where it removes more electrons, in such a way that an electron avalanche is created, until a measurable current pulse is obtained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3134232",
"title": "Avalanche breakdown",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "Materials conduct electricity if they contain mobile charge carriers. There are two types of charge carriers in a semiconductor: free electrons (mobile electrons) and electron holes (mobile holes which are missing electrons from the normally occupied electron states). A normally bound electron (e.g., in a bond) in a reverse-biased diode may break loose due to a thermal fluctuation or excitation, creating a mobile electron-hole pair. If there is a voltage gradient (electric field) in the semiconductor, the electron will move towards the positive voltage while the hole will move towards the negative voltage. Usually, the electron and hole will simply move to opposite ends of the crystal and enter the appropriate electrodes. When the electric field is strong enough, the mobile electron or hole may be accelerated to high enough speeds to knock other bound electrons free, creating more free charge carriers, increasing the current and leading to further \"knocking out\" processes and creating an avalanche. In this way, large portions of a normally insulating crystal can begin to conduct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4dh5cd
|
how exactly do people avoid taxes using shell companies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's say you own a pretty profitable business in the US but you're tired of paying taxes. First, you make a shell company where there are lax regulations and low taxes. Then you transfer the assets that your US company has to the shell company, in name at least. You continue to use those assets in the US to make money and do business, but all the money technically belongs to your shell company. Since your shell company is outside of the US, it doesn't pay US taxes. \n\nThe tricky part is being able to use assets outside of the US to do business in the US without having to keep the money in the US. There are different ways to get around this. For example, a tech company can transfer all of its patents to its shell company and then the US company can lease them back under terms where money made from their sale belongs to the shell company. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You transfer assets out of the real company, to make it look like it didn't make any money, and put them in the shell company.\n\nThen the shell company doesn't pay taxes. You could just not file, and shut it down before you get caught. \n\nOr you could put the shell company in another country, and make that money and your association with it hard to trace.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "846633",
"title": "Shell corporation",
"section": "Section::::Abuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "There are also shell companies that were created for the purpose of owning assets (including tangibles, such as a real estate for property development, and intangibles, such as royalties or copyrights) and receiving income. The reasons behind creating such a shell company may include protection against litigation and/or tax benefits (some expenses that would not be deductible for an individual may be deductible for a corporation). Sometimes, shell companies are used for tax evasion or tax avoidance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846633",
"title": "Shell corporation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Shell companies are a main component of the underground economy, especially those based in tax havens. They may also be known as \"international business companies\", \"personal investment companies\", \"front companies\", or \"\"mailbox\" companies\". Shell companies can also be used for tax avoidance. A classic tax avoidance operation may utilize favorable transfer pricing among multiple corporate entities to lower tax liability in a certain country; e.g. Double Irish arrangement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846633",
"title": "Shell corporation",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "As another example, the use of a shell company in a tax haven makes it possible to move profits to that shell company, in a strategy called tax evasion. Suppose a United States company wants to buy products from overseas. If it brings the products directly to the United States, it will have to pay US tax on the profits. To avoid this, it may buy the products through a non-resident shell company based in a tax haven, where it is described as an offshore company. The shell company would purchase the products in its name, mark up the products and sell them on to the US company, thereby transferring the profit to the tax haven. (The products may never actually physically pass through that tax haven, and be shipped directly to the US company.) As the shell company is not based in the United States, its profit is not subject to US income tax, and as it is an offshore company in the tax haven jurisdiction, it is not taxed there either. Under the tax haven law, the profits are deemed not to have been made in the jurisdiction, with the sale deemed to have taken place in the United States. As US personal income tax is significantly less important than corporate income tax, US company executives would claim a salary (or fees, consulting fees, etc.) from the company's profits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11416621",
"title": "Corporate tax in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Tax deferral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "However, tax deferral encourages U.S. companies to make job-creating investments offshore even if similar investments in the United States can be more profitable, absent tax considerations. Furthermore, companies try to use accounting techniques to record profits offshore by any way, even if they keep actual investment and jobs in the United States. This explains why U.S. corporations report their largest profits in low-tax countries like the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Bermuda, though clearly that is not where most real economic activity occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447435",
"title": "Tax avoidance",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Country of residence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "A company may choose to avoid taxes by establishing their company or subsidiaries in an offshore jurisdiction (see offshore company and offshore trust). Individuals may also avoid tax by moving their tax residence to a tax haven, such as Monaco, or by becoming a perpetual traveler. They may also reduce their tax by moving to a country with lower tax rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846633",
"title": "Shell corporation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Shell companies do have legitimate business purposes. They may, for example, act as trustee for a trust, and not engage in any other activity on their own account. This structure creates limited liability for the trustee. A corporate shell can also be formed around a partnership to create limited liability for the partners, and other business ventures, or to immunize one part of a business from the risks of another part. Shell companies can be used to transfer assets from one company into a new one, while leaving the liabilities in the former company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846633",
"title": "Shell corporation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "A shell corporation is a company or corporation that exists only on paper and has no office and no employees, but may have a bank account or may hold passive investments or be the registered owner of assets, such as intellectual property, or ships. Shell companies may be registered to the address of a company that provides a service setting up shell companies, and which may act as the agent for receipt of legal correspondence (such as an accountant or lawyer). The company may serve as a vehicle for business transactions without itself having any significant assets or operations. Sometimes, shell companies are used for tax evasion, tax avoidance, and money laundering, or to achieve a specific goal such as anonymity. Anonymity may be sought to shield personal assets from others, such as a spouse when a marriage is breaking down, from creditors, from government authorities, besides others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jqt9h
|
pigs are considered fairly intelligent animals. why are people who abhor eating dogs, cats, horses and whales for moral reasons fine with eating pork?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because pigs rarely have a use outside of their use as food. Sometimes they are bred to hunt for truffles and other fungus/plants, but aside from that, their characteristics make them ideal as a food source.\n\n* Grow quickly\n* Eat anything\n* Don't require much space\n* Gain lots of meat in a small amount of time\n\nThat second part \"Eat anything\" is actually the reason why Jews and Muslims don't eat pork. Pigs were scavengers in the areas where Abrahamic faiths are indigenous to, and as such they would eat the garbage and therefore were considered unclean, despite the fact that they are remarkably hygienic animals.\n\nWhereas while dogs, cats and horses share some of these traits, they generally are more viable to be used for other means.\n\nDogs\n\n* Hunting companions\n* Shepherd companions\n* Security/protection\n* Don't grow as quickly\n* Not as much of a varied diet\n\nCats are almost solely kept around as mousers, they would eat mice, rats, any rodent really, as well as insects and other small animals. This would result in less rats, mice, etc. to carry disease or get into food stores, therefore more food for us humans, and less disease. They were also very good when kept in a home in order to know when something was to happen as they can sense things we can't.\n\nHorses have been used for travel, as beasts of burden and symbols of wealth and power for thousands of years. They took a while to grow and didn't produce a large enough amount of meat compared to what it took to raise them for them to be a viable mass food source. They are a delicacy in some countries, and even then they take in horses that are lame, or died in accidents to be butchered.\n\nWe don't eat whales because it's a pain to get them, they are almost extinct and serve a massive role in the oceans' ecosystems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're really not going to find much of a good reason for why we see some animals as deserving of rights and protection and some as being hardly better than inanimate objects. I'd say the average cow isn't any dumber or less able to feel pain or understand their captivity than the average dog, but if that means never eating beef again, you'll find that a majority of people won't find this reasoning convincing enough. \n\nSame with whales. Whales are extremely intelligent and some are forced to live in tiny pools and do tricks for our entertainment. Probably the only reason there's such a robust movement to protect whales is because they're endangered. If whales were common like cows are, we'd probably have much less of a problem killing them.\n\nUltimately, there are only two logically consistent positions: veganism or accepting that there's absolutely no moral reason not to kill animals for any reason. I'm not even a vegan myself. I'm just saying, anyone who can justify eating meat but also opposing some forms of animal cruelty is tricking themselves. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47862597",
"title": "Suckling pig",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Pigs are regarded to be highly intelligent social animals. Animal rights groups like PETA argue that this makes their exploitation and suffering in the hands of the factory farming industry especially unethical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6064291",
"title": "List of Revelation Space races",
"section": "Section::::Pigs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Most Pigs, however, are mute, lacking the ability to form words in either thought or speech. Some Pigs are more intelligent and can interact on a human level, but even they are not as intelligent as humans; Scorpio comments that he has little understanding of complex human interrelationships and when played music, only hears a series of sounds. All but the lowliest have enough intelligence to make them useful as servants, however. Such treatment, and their low standing in human society, leads many into crime. At the time of \"Chasm City\", Pigs are only mentioned as either servants, or a criminal underclass. No Pig has reached a high position of authority among Humans except among the survivors of the planet Resurgam's destruction, where a large number of the rescue party were Pigs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14339058",
"title": "Man-eater",
"section": "Section::::Suidae.:Pigs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Although not true carnivores, pigs are competent predators and can kill and eat helpless humans unable to escape them. Numerous animal trials in the Middle Ages involved pigs accused of eating children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7382931",
"title": "Pigs in popular culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Pigs, widely present in world cultures, have taken on many meanings and been used for many purposes in traditional arts, popular culture, and media. As one scholar puts it, people all over the world have made swine stand for \"extremes of human joy or fear, celebration, ridicule, and repulsion.\" They have become synonymous with negative attributes, especially greed, gluttony, and uncleanliness, and these ascribed attributes have often led to critical comparisons between pigs and humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2401051",
"title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
"section": "Section::::Prohibited foods.:Pigs/pork.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "More recently, Marvin Harris posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates and thus require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. Mary Douglas has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it trangresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3229543",
"title": "Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork",
"section": "Section::::Interpretations of restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The cultural materialistic anthropologist Marvin Harris thinks that the main reason for prohibiting consumption of pork was ecological-economical. Pigs require water and shady woods with seeds, but those conditions are scarce in the Middle East. Unlike many other forms of livestock, pigs are omnivorous scavengers, eating virtually anything they come across, including carrion and refuse. This was deemed unclean; and a Middle Eastern society keeping large stocks of pigs would destroy their ecosystem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38249023",
"title": "2013 horse meat scandal",
"section": "Section::::Implications for religious groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Observant Muslims and Jews consider it sinful to eat certain types of meat, pork for both groups and also horse and many other animals for Jews, due to religious prohibitions. Professor Reilly stated \"for some religious groups or people who abstain from eating pig meat, the presence of traces of pig DNA is unacceptable\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c7aij8
|
why stab wounds in movies appear to be deadlier than gunshot wounds (at least in movies)
|
[
{
"answer": "It's all about what's convenient for the story. Bad guys get shot and they are instantly dead. Good guys get shot and they can run a marathon.\n\nThere is no consistent logic even within the same movie. As long as it doesn't break the suspension if disbelief, writers and directors do what moves the story in the direction they like",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They both obey the same laws:\n\nIf it hits an artery/heart, you're dead 99% of the time\n\nIf it hits a major organ, there's a high chance of death unless treated immediately. \n\nIt's just stabbing is more accurate than shooting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Knife fights and stabbing are often more \"personal\" conflicts that are supposed to cause more tension emotional distress in the viewer. In keeping with this perception of raised stakes, they will often be depicted as fatal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on a lot of factors, but personally I'd MUCH rather take my chances getting stabbed than shot. Knives make much cleaner wounds with a lot less energy than bullets, are less likely to shatter bone and tear tissues beyond what you see with the entry wound, and have inherently limited depth depending on the blade. Others have commented how in film and TV, the relative deadliness of a knife vs gun wound has much more to do with the demands of the plot than what happens in real life. I find it very believable that gunshot wounds to the abdomen are deadlier than stab wounds - gunshots are more likely to damage one of the several huge arteries and veins in the abdomen, relative to a knife, and the damage they do is more difficult to repair in the trauma bay.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIf YOU get stabbed, the absolute number 1 most important thing to do is STOP THE BLEEDING. Blood loss is the most common cause of immediate death from stab wounds, bar none - especially if the stab is in the gut. Cutting into intestines can kill from infection, but this takes days to weeks; dying from blood loss due to a major artery in the abdomen can take seconds. Other targets - the liver, pancreas, kidneys, stomach, spleen - all have really significant risks when damaged, but none as immediate and high-stakes as blood loss (and, for many of them - i.e. the spleen, kidneys and liver - blood loss IS one of those risks, as they bleed profusely when damaged). Find the hole where blood is coming out, and apply as much direct pressure to it as you can to stop it until EMTs get there. This is why one important rule is to never remove the object that caused the wound, if you can avoid it - the knife or whatever could be helping to stop blood coming out of the vein or artery it's stuck in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have been an ER nurse for 25 years and one thing I have learned in that time is that if a woman comes at you with a knife, run! She will kill you! \n\nI have seen far too many deaths from stab wounds compared to gun shots. The majority of them have severed aortas, pulmonary arteries, superior vena cava, etc. Most gun shot wounds tend to hit extremities or in the back (which causes other issues). \n\nAlmost every stabbing victim I have treated was attacked by a woman. I had a guy in the other day who was stabbed by a woman. She severed his pulmonary artery. He died in the trauma room. We got him back. He was in for a follow up because he thought his wound was infected. \n\nMaybe I should put this in /r/life tips but if you have pissed off a woman enough that she comes at you with a knife, run like hell, your life depends on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3177982",
"title": "The Flesh Eaters (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The film has developed a cult following due to its gruesome, if primitive, special effects, including some memorably bloody death scenes. One character is eaten from the inside out by the titular monsters, resulting in a gushing fountain of intestinal matter. Another victim is stabbed with a wooden stake, then shot twice in the face, with resultant gaping bullet holes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57024462",
"title": "Wounds (film)",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "\"Wounds\" received mixed reviews from film critics. It holds a 55% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 22 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Wounds isn't without its creepy-crawly charms, but they -- and the efforts of a talented cast -- get squished by a story that never quite gets completely under the skin.\" On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 50 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52375320",
"title": "Detective Story (2007 film)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Ben Sachs of Mubi called the film \"satisfying as genre filmmaking. Many of the murder sequences are indeed scary—and they're scary because of their atmosphere and manipulation of suspense; they contain surprisingly little gore.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2546472",
"title": "Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Post-production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "Though one contemporary critic noted that the film is \"nearly devoid of blood and gore by '80s slasher standards,\" several explicit scenes of gore were cut in order to avoid an X rating. Among these were the murder sequences of Maddy, who originally had a sickle jammed through her neck; Ben's death, which showed Jason crushing his head into a bloody pulp; Kate's death revealed the gory aftermath of a party horn to her eyeball; we see Eddie's head hit the floor; a shot of Russell's face splitting open with a large blood spurt; Dan's original death had Jason ripping out his guts; Amanda Shepard's death originally showed Jason stabbing her from behind, with the resulting blade going through her chest and subsequent blood hitting Dr. Crews; Dr. Crews's death showed Jason's tree-trimming saw violently cutting into his stomach, sending a fountain of blood and guts in the air; Melissa's original death had Jason cleaving her head in half with an axe with a close-up of her eyes still wriggling in their sockets. The boxed set DVD release of all of the films and the single deluxe edition have all these scenes available as deleted scenes in rough workprint footage; however, the deluxe edition features more additional footage than the boxed set.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10725984",
"title": "Gunshot wound",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Trauma from a gunshot wound varies widely based on the bullet, velocity, entry point, trajectory, and affected anatomy. Gunshot wounds can be particularly devastating compared to other penetrating injuries because the trajectory and fragmentation of bullets can be unpredictable after entry. Additionally, gunshot wounds typically involve a large degree of nearby tissue disruption and destruction due to the physical effects of the projectile correlated with the bullet velocity classification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33264696",
"title": "Stab wound",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Stab wounds are one of the most common forms of penetrating trauma globally, but account for a lower mortality compared to blunt injuries due to their more focused impact on a person. Stab wounds can result from self-infliction, accidental nail gun injuries, and stingray injuries, however, most stab wounds are caused by intentional violence, as the weapons used to inflict such wounds are readily available compared to guns. Stabbings are a relatively common cause of homicide in Canada and the United States. Typically death from stab wounds is due to organ failure or blood loss. They are the mechanism of approximately 2% of suicides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2482322",
"title": "Hollywood Homicide",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Michael O'Sullivan of the \"Washington Post\" wrote, \"\"Hollywood Homicide\" is a buddy film starring two people who, even as the closing credits roll, appear to have just met\" and added \"every scene between them, and that's most every scene, feels like a screen test or, at best, a rehearsal.\" One of the few major critics to give it a positive notice was Roger Ebert, who awarded the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote \"that it's more interested in its two goofy cops than in the murder plot; their dialogue redeems otherwise standard scenes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19hqkd
|
how does the susan g komen foundation steal so much money without anybody getting upset about it?
|
[
{
"answer": "people stop caring after they make their donation. No one ever cares where the money goes after they give it, they just give it to feel good about themselves, not to actually do any real good. It is all about perception, and perception is reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"It\" is a pronoun, not a preposition.\n\nAlso, \"don't end questions with a preposition\" is a questionable rule at best, and just plain made up at worst, depending on which grammarians you ask.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14936447",
"title": "Spinka financial controversy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "The accusations include receiving up to seven-figure sums in contributions to Spinka charities while secretly promising to refund up to 95% of contributors' donations, thus allowing contributors to then illegally claim tax deductions on money they in fact kept. The scheme allegedly saved the participating donors millions of dollars in federal income taxes. Over the course of ten years, it is alleged that at least $8.7 million in donations were involved, out of which the charities kept nearly $750,000. The rest is said to have been refunded to donors who allegedly claimed bogus donations on their income tax returns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4159007",
"title": "Nancy Brinker",
"section": "Section::::Susan G. Komen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1468,
"text": "In 1982, Brinker established Susan G. Komen for the Cure, after a promise to her dying sister, Susan G. Komen, that she would do everything in her power to end breast cancer. Since its inception, the nonprofit organisation has raised over $1.9 billion for research, education and health services, making it the largest breast cancer charity in the world. \"The Washington Post\" has called her the \"steely force\" at the organization. Komen has more than 75,000 volunteers nationwide, 120 affiliates in the United States, and 3 affiliates in other countries. The organization has resulted in the development of many new treatment options and a higher quality of life overall for breast cancer patients and long-term survivors. Brinker served as founding chairman of the organization, supervising all aspects of initial growth. On December 2, 2009, Brinker was appointed CEO. She also pioneered cause marketing, allowing millions to participate in the fight against breast cancer through businesses that share Komen's commitment to end the disease. Susan G. Komen for the Cure at one point held Charity Navigator's highest rating, four stars. As of November 2016, it held three stars. In late January 2012, a public furor arose around the Foundation's policy decision to stop funding most Planned Parenthood offices, resulting in an apology from Brinker and a revised policy by the first week of February 2012. On June 17, 2013, Judith A. Salerno replaced Brinker as CEO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2742905",
"title": "Susan G. Komen for the Cure",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and criticism.:Legal battles over trademarking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Critics have also asserted that the slogan itself implies the majority of Komen's funds go to research, specifically research to find a means to cure (and not merely treat or detect) the disease. By Komen's own figures, however, 21% of the total budget goes to research. In the words of cancer survivor Alicia Staley, \"an organization that is actively pursuing other small charities over the use of the term 'for the cure' does not spend the majority of their own funds towards research for a cure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33490311",
"title": "Foundation Financial Group",
"section": "Section::::Company history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In 2012, Foundation Financial Group entered a partnership with the Susan G. Komen for the Cure, a national nonprofit that funds breast cancer research. For each 2011 tax return Foundation Financial Group prepared, the company made a donation to Komen for the Cure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11444755",
"title": "Damages (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Season three.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1493,
"text": "Six months earlier, Patty Hewes is tackling a new case. Appointed a trustee by the US government, she is tasked to recover billions of dollars lost to the largest investment fraud in Wall Street history: a fraudulent Ponzi scheme run by Louis Tobin (Len Cariou), a Bernie Madoff-type. Patty believes Tobin has hidden the money and that members of his family, specifically his loyal son Joe (Campbell Scott) and daughter Carol, secretive wife Marilyn (Lily Tomlin), and trusted attorney and family friend Leonard Winstone (Martin Short) know much more than they claim. Tom has a personal involvement because he invested in the Tobin fund and lost his savings and those of his parents and in-laws, which makes his work on the case a conflict of interest. Ellen, meanwhile, has stayed true to her promise not to return to Patty's firm and has avoided contact for the past year that she has been working at the District Attorney's office. Ellen runs into Tom, and she mentions she is having trouble cracking a drug case. Soon afterward, Ellen's case is suddenly resolved under suspicious circumstances, and she receives a package from Hewes & Associates containing an expensive Chanel bag from Patty (the same bloodstained bag that ends up in the hands of the homeless man). Believing Hewes & Associates is more capable than the D.A. to bring about restitution for the victims, Ellen begins to secretly cooperate with Patty and Tom, and they all get drawn into the Tobin family's world of deceit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10957020",
"title": "Vera Nazarian",
"section": "Section::::Crowdfunding controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "In 2014 controversy erupted when she started an Indiegogo campaign to try to raise money for her authors; although the campaign was canceled after three days. As a result of \"personal misfortunes\", she had stopped paying royalties to the authors publishing books with Norilana Books, and hoped to raise enough money to pay what she owed them through the crowdfunding campaign. This generated discussion and criticism questioning to which extent small businesses should use Indiegogo or other similar crowdfunding sites to pay off business debt, and also resulted in criticism against her handling of the matter. A similar fundraiser was carried out successfully in 2008 for the same reasons, which resulted in donations of $19,000 to cover the debt she owed her authors, as well as to support herself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "498812",
"title": "Cancer support group",
"section": "Section::::Support groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The Susan G. Komen for the Cure is a non-profit organization created in 1982 to raise money for research and awareness of breast cancer. It is the world's largest network of breast cancer survivors and activists as well as the largest source of nonprofit funds dedicated to the fight against breast cancer in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19c682
|
why do people want programming taught in elementary/high schools?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it's a skill which has lots of real-world use, and which, like many skills, is easier to teach to children than adults.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It promotes good thinking habits. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a good way to teach someone a different method of logical reasoning. Same reason they teach higher level math. Are you REALLY going to need advanced algebra in your daily life? Nope! \n\nAre you going to learn how to program your own operating system in high school? nah!\n\nI think of programming like another universe. The laws are different. You have to learn the laws and learn to think in that universe. \n\nFor instance, an exclusive or: _URL_0_\n\nXOR as it's called. \"This OR that but not both\". \"Do you have an apple or an orange\". note the question is asking in the singular. Both isn't an acceptable answer and neither is none. The answer can only be apple or orange. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Been advocating this too.\n\n1) As a proxy for learning problem solving and overcoming setbacks in a logical, highly teachable way that's full of immediate feedback. Mastering those two things can mean the difference between seeing the world as a place full of solvable problems or as an incomprehensible pile of magic and mess. \n\n2) If you get good at it and enjoy it, then do it professionally, you're less likely to ever have to worry about a job (or being trapped in a job) than many other people. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It should be an elective, but I see no qualms offering it to students. It'll give a 13 year a head start in a field they might be interested in, and a reason to stay in school. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I took computer programming in high school as an alternative to calculus.\n\nIt's a challenge getting through my daily life without knowing calculus, but I cope the best I can. With the money I make as a computer programmer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Programming teaches people that if something is wrong, 99% of the time 1) it was the coder's fault, 2) it's due to lack of attention to details, and 3) there is a logical (and often elegant) solution. It teaches that complex systems can be broken down into smaller parts. It forces objectivity and reasoned analysis. Magical thinking is punished.\n\nThe learning experiences gained through programming are valuable in many disciplines and life in general.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Critical thinking and problem solving.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A computer litterate nation is better than an illiterate one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_1_\n\nHere's a nice little video by _URL_0_ that addresses that very issue. It features people like Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg and _URL_2_.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Programming is a subset of computer skills that are required in the real world. Computers are everywhere. I'm a computer science (programming) major in college that works for IT (fixing broken computers). The lack of understanding by even many university professors is incredible. The current system for learning to computer is poor, at best.\n\nSecondly, programming doesn't just mean, \"oh, look at that nerd writing Java programs\". Excel allows for many commands, and is a major tool used by almost every company at many levels. Knowing how to use this program more effectively is a huge asset.\n\nFor most things people use, individuals take the time to educate themselves about the product at some level. I drive a car- I know I need to get my oil changed regularly and which gas to get and the difference between brands and engine types. Not at the level of a mechanic, but I know enough to have a high level conversation with one to discuss my issues. I talk to many people about computers, and ask if they've \"installed drivers\" or to \"find their ip address\" (relatively simple tasks), and they don't even know where to look.\n\nWith as prevalent as computers are today (everywhere), people just need to be more educated, early, about computers in a manner that just isn't taught today. Programming is one aspect of that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the biggest reasons people want programming taught is because programming isn't exactly what you think it is. Programming is problem solving. I work with visual studio mostly and there is a reason that the name we use for a new project is a *\"Solution\"*.\n\nEverything I do is a problem. You come to me and say you want a website. Before I would think \"Ok so I need html, uh I need a domain\" etc etc. As I got more into programming and better at it I learned all I was doing was solving problems. So when you say you want a website what you are actually saying is that you have a problem. The nature and solution to your problem is my skill. You don't want a website you want me to build something to fit a need you have. The problem is that you do not have a tool to get what you want, so I build you the tool that gives you what you want.\n\nSo I will begin asking you questions. They will seem strange. I won't ask about color schemes or trends yet. I need to figure out what you want and you can't tell me that. You don't know. Thats what I do. You tell me the vague goal you want and I probe and prod and solve **you**, to solve your problem.\n\nCode and the languages themselves are just my tools. I am skilled with them and understand them. But the difference between someone who knows how to code and what I would call a programmer is the same between a carpenter and a person who owns a hammer. You do not pay for my tools. You pay for my mind and I use my tools to solve your problem, the same as you pay a carpenter for how he uses the tool, not how long he's been using the tool.\n\nThe reason that programming is so much better at teaching problem solving is because of a concept known as abstraction. Abstraction is confusing because it's used for a lot of things. We associate it with so many concepts it's tough to know if you don't look for it. But abstraction is easy. You already know it. If I showed you a desk chair and asked you to tell me what it was you could do it easily. Now if I showed you a recliner and asked you what it was; again no problem. Now if I asked you what both were then you would tell me they were both chairs. That's it right there. You can tell me that they are clearly different and yet the same. So if you had to tell me about both chairs we can figure out what they have in common (back, bottom, support, seat, material) and what was different (recliner part, wheels). Abstraction is just saying. These things all fit into a group I call this. So desk chair is a chair which is a piece of furniture.\n\nThis is what is needed in problem solving. You have to understand incredibly in depth what makes things the same and what makes them different. You have to be able to take something real (a deskchair) and understand what is abstract about it and what is real (the chair is really made of leather and metal) and what is abstract (the name \"desk chair\") is abstract it could be called anything yet we need to understand how both of those concepts work in order to understand a chair.\n\nSo learning programming allows you to make connections and associations. Along with that it allows you to understand hierarchies and scopes of problems. It gives you language to express problems. So I can think and plain intelligently my approach to a solution because I have a way of expressing any problem. I can do it with anything. You have a social problem? I can deconstruct the components and give form to the problem. I can literally pull out all of the information and then provide any solution for you.\n\nProgramming just gives you access to that world. This magic box in front of you is capable of generating an almost infinite amount of imagery. Those pixels you are reading this with can be rearranged IN ANY WAY!! All you need to know is how to get them to do that. And you do that by learning to program. So it not only teaches you how to solve problems but gives you a virtual environment in which you can recreate and test and test and test. You can do anything that your computer can process.\n\n**TL;DR Why the hell would you not want to know how to virtually become a magician?**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because if you understand how to code, you can basically do anything you can imagine. You will also learn that it's not hard.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's more about learning logic than just making things pop up on a screen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you can program a solution method, you understand the problem. \n\nI firmly believe this is the way math should be taught. Repetition on an abstract idea doesn't really help. Learning good problem solving in a practical way does. That's why no-calculator tests always bothered me. Really? I'm going to be doing this level of math without one ever?\n\nWhen people talk about programming, they don't necessarily mean graphics, web, all of that - that kind of practical programming isn't necessary for everyone. They mean using programs that can ready simple commands to solve simple programs, like Matlab. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You know people who 'aren't good at computers' and how they generally suck at a lot of other things too? Well by the time kids today are job age tomorrow, they's gonna need it. \n\n**TLDR:** The world is only getting more and more computery, son. You don't wanna end up like lazy uncle Joe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I know absolutely nothing about programming.\n\nI feel like you answered your own question.\n\nComputer literacy is important. Browse r/talesfromtechsupport and see the stupidity that those people have to deal with on a daily basis. If you're computer literate, your productivity shoots up tremendously, since there are all these computer programs that do just that! Besides, since computers are so useful, *you're* only useful if you know how to use them. Even a cashier needs to be able to handle numbers and computers. Nearly every facet of our lives is centered on, or at least informed by, computers.\n\nIf being able to use computers is like reading, then programming is like writing. Even more than that, programming is a language you use to solve problems. And just like with English, if you can *think* in programming, your universe is much bigger. Would you be able to think of, say, the US Constitution without language? It's a document, but it's also the framework of a government. Maybe you can imagine a picture of the US Constitution, and maybe comprehend some of what it means, but without language, you won't get very far! Programming is like that, but it's a different language for a different problem space.\n\nThe thing is, math is *abstract*. You learn how to add and divide, but for what? What good is factoring polynomials? It's easy to treat math as something you have to do for school that you never want to see again. Programming is something with obvious applications *right now*, and it's fun, too, since you get to build and create things. Programming *forces* you to think logically and to pay very careful attention to details, because otherwise, things just don't work. Programming is the culmination of what our logical-leaning education is *supposed* to be.\n\nAnd, very importantly, jobs require programming. Lots of them. If you're a bad programmer, that's OK; at least you know the basics and can understand what's going on if you need to. If you don't program at all, though, a large share of the world is just unavailable to you. The barriers are just too high when you don't program at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3313352",
"title": "SAT-7",
"section": "Section::::Network and channels.:SAT-7 ACADEMY.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The idea of educational programming is in fact much more than just the delivery of instruction modules for children and youth hungry to learn the basics of literacy and mathematics. The concept is much more holistic and concerned about the values, attitudes, and character of the next generation in the Arab World; to see Arab children grow up well and to shape a much more inclusive, creative, and democratic society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6607149",
"title": "Educational program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Educational programs help people decide if they are going to be a teacher or not. They're mostly in high schools called C4 program. C4 programs help students in high schools decide what they are going to be before they get to college, so they do not waste their time taking classes they do not need in college or wasting their parents' money on classes and books they do not need.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29031158",
"title": "Radio Colegial",
"section": "Section::::Programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The programming is done to connect and get in touch with all that happens in the “Collegial” student life. Attending the necessities of this market is pretty simple because all of the people who work on this project are students and they share the same necessities. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29460253",
"title": "Billy Drease Williams",
"section": "Section::::The Art of Hip-Hop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "BULLET::::- To produce programming designed to improve scholastic abilities in math, reading and the sciences through after school tutoring, mentor-ship and educational excursions to help fight juvenile delinquency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182663",
"title": "Sudbury Valley School",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "There are no traditional classrooms and no traditional classes; instead children are free to do what they wish with their time. This may or may not include formally exploring academia or speaking with staff members or other students about academic interests, as part of educating themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27761",
"title": "School choice",
"section": "Section::::Debate.:Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The goal of school choice programs is to give parents more control over their child's education and to allow parents to pursue the most appropriate learning environments for children. For example, school choice may enable parents to choose a school that provides religious instruction, stronger discipline, better foundational skills (including reading, writing, mathematics, and science), everyday skills (from handling money to farming), or other desirable foci.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48724026",
"title": "Frankford Friends School",
"section": "Section::::Early childhood program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten students enjoy learning through purposeful play, constructive learning activities, information gathering and wondering. They review skills and concepts in math, literacy, handwriting, social studies, and science in one-to-one (teacher/student) or small groups. Classrooms are joyous places for learning, equipped with centers for literacy, science, engineering, manipulative work, sensory play, and exploration. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5vrzqh
|
why do people in the americas greet eachother with one kiss on the cheek while in europe they greet eachother with two kisses on each cheek?
|
[
{
"answer": "Americans do not, on average, kiss each other on the cheek when meeting. Since the most common is zero, one seems like plenty.\n\nIn a culture where kissing on the cheek is common, two does not seem like an excess. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I do not greet people with one kiss on the cheek, and I'd think you were weird if you were also an American and greeted me with a kiss on the cheek.\n\nA handshake will do if it's formal. A hug if you're family or a close friend. A simple vocal greeting will do just fine otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "560563",
"title": "Greeting",
"section": "Section::::Greeting gestures.:Kisses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "While cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Russia, Poland, Slovenia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Iran and Egypt it is customary to \"kiss three times, on alternate cheeks\", but kiss twice in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Italians, Hungarians and Romanians usually kiss twice in a greeting and in Mexico and Belgium only one kiss is necessary. In the Galapagos women kiss on the right cheek only and in Oman it is not unusual for men to kiss one another on the nose after a handshake. French culture accepts a number of ways to greet depending on the region. Two kisses are most common throughout all of France but in Provence three kisses are given and in Nantes four are exchanged. However, in Finistère at the western tip of Brittany and Deux-Sèvres in the Poitou-Charentes region, one kiss is preferred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956730",
"title": "Haptic communication",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Low contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Low contact cultures such as: The United States, Canada, Northern Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Asia prefer infrequent touching, larger physical distance, indirect body orientations (during interaction) along with little share gazes. In the Thai culture, kissing a friend on the cheek is less common than in the Latin Americas. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people communicating and found that in England (8%), France (5%) and the Netherlands (4%), touching was rare compared to the Italian (14%) and Greek (12.5%) samples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127162",
"title": "Kissing traditions",
"section": "Section::::Greetings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "While cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Russia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland and Lebanon, it is customary to “kiss three times, on alternate cheeks.” Italians and Hungarians usually kiss twice in a greeting and in Mexico and Belgium only one kiss is necessary. In Ecuador, women kiss on the right cheek only and in Oman it is not unusual for men to kiss one another on the nose after a handshake. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127162",
"title": "Kissing traditions",
"section": "Section::::Greetings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "In the Western world, a kiss is a common gesture of greeting, and at times a kiss is expected. Throughout all cultures people greet one another as a sign of recognition, affection, friendship and reverence. Depending on the occasion and the culture, a greeting may take the form of a handshake, hug, bow, nod, nose rub, a kiss on the lips with the mouth closed or a kiss or kisses on the cheek. Cheek kissing is most common in Europe and Latin America and has become a standard greeting in Latin Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366663",
"title": "Body language",
"section": "Section::::Other subcategories.:Proxemics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In Latin America, people who may be complete strangers may engage in very close contact. They often greet one another by kissing on the cheeks. North Americans, on the other hand, prefer to shake hands. While they have made some physical contact with the shaking of the hand, they still maintain a certain amount of physical space between the other person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50399",
"title": "Kiss",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Expression of affection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Kissing another person's lips has become a common expression of affection or warm greeting in many cultures worldwide. Yet in certain cultures, kissing was introduced only through European settlement, before which it was not a routine occurrence. Such cultures include certain indigenous peoples of Australia, the Tahitians, and many tribes in Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575388",
"title": "Hand-kissing",
"section": "Section::::Chivalrous gesture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "A hand-kiss was considered a respectful way for gentleman to greet a lady. The practice originated in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Spanish courts of the 17th and 18th centuries. The gesture is still at times observed in Central and Eastern Europe, namely, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania and Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b5w9aw
|
is there any difference between getting injections(of vitamins,medicine etc.) directly into your veins or into your muscle(most commonly butt muscle)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some things, like vaccines, are best injected into muscles due to the way they are made and engineered to work.\n\nOthers are injected into veins for quick distribution. Because vaccines do not need to be so rapidly distributed they do not need to directly enter the bloodstream.\n\nAs to why they did both for you, it could be that you need some now and some long lasting treatment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "334821",
"title": "Intramuscular injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance directly into muscle. In medicine, it is one of several alternative methods for the administration of medications (see route of administration). Muscles have larger and more numerous blood vessels than subcutaneous tissue and injections here usually have faster rates of absorption than subcutaneous injections or intradermal injections. Depending on the injection site, an administration is limited to between 2 and 5 milliliters of fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665909",
"title": "Injection (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Intravenous injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Intravenous injections involve needle insertion directly into the vein and the substance is directly delivered into the bloodstream. In medicine and drug use, this route of administration is the fastest way to get the desired effects since the medication moves immediately into blood circulation and to the rest of the body. This type of injection is the most common and often associated with drug use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665909",
"title": "Injection (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Subcutaneous injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "In a subcutaneous injection, the medication is delivered to the tissues between the skin and the muscle. Absorption of the medicine is slower than that of intramuscular injection. Since the needle does not need to reach the muscles, often a bigger gauge and shorter needle is used. Usual site of administration is fat tissues behind the arm. Certain intramuscular injection medicine such as EpiPen® can also be used subcutaneously. Insulin injection is a common type of subcutaneous injection medicine. Certain vaccines including MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella), Varicella (Chickenpox), Zoster (Shingles) are given subcutaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1035470",
"title": "Stroke recovery",
"section": "Section::::Training of muscles affected by the upper motor neuron syndrome.:Injections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Injections are focal treatments administered directly into the spastic muscle. Drugs used include: Botulinum toxin (BTX), phenol, alcohol, and lidocaine. Phenol and alcohol cause local muscle damage by denaturing protein, and thus relaxing the muscle. Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin and it relaxes the muscle by preventing the release of a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine). Many studies have shown the benefits of BTX and it has also been demonstrated that repeat injections of BTX show unchanged effectiveness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2123234",
"title": "Torsion dystonia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "A more site-specific treatment is the injection of botulinum toxin. It is injected directly into the muscle and works much the same way the oral medications do—by blocking neurotransmitters. The injections are not a treatment for the disease, but are a means to control its symptoms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665909",
"title": "Injection (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Intramuscular injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Intramuscular injections (IM injections) deliver a substance deep into a muscle, where they are quickly absorbed by blood vessels. Common injections sites include the deltoid, vastus lateralis, and ventrogluteal muscles. Most inactivated vaccines, like influenza, are given by IM injection. Some medications are formulated for IM injection, like Epinephrine autoinjectors. Medical professionals are trained to give IM injections, but patients can also be trained to self-administer medications like epinephrine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25949",
"title": "Recreational drug use",
"section": "Section::::Routes of administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "BULLET::::- intravenous injection (see also the article Drug injection): the user injects a solution of water and the drug into a vein, or less commonly, into the tissue. Drugs that are injected include morphine and heroin, less commonly other opioids. Stimulants like cocaine or methamphetamine may also be injected. In rare cases, users inject other drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wvtzg
|
Where does helium in natural gas come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alpha particle decay of naturally occuring radioactive elements, such as Uranium. The alpha particle is a helium nucleus. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium), as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations up to 7% by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47685603",
"title": "Helium production in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "All commercial production of helium comes from natural gas. There are two basic types of commercial helium deposits: natural gas produced primarily for the hydrocarbon content, typically containing less than 3 percent helium; and gas with little or no hydrocarbons, produced solely for the helium, which typically makes up between 5 and 10 percent of the gas. Although natural gas in which helium is only a byproduct contains a much lower percentage of helium, historically it has supplied the most helium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "601621",
"title": "Hubbert peak theory",
"section": "Section::::Hubbert peaks.:Helium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Almost all helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. Helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium. The world's largest helium-rich natural gas fields are found in the United States, especially in the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The extracted helium is stored underground in the National Helium Reserve near Amarillo, Texas, the self-proclaimed \"Helium Capital of the World\". Helium production is expected to decline along with natural gas production in these areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47685603",
"title": "Helium production in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "All commercial helium is recovered from natural gas. Helium usually makes up a minuscule portion of natural gas, but can make up as much as 10 percent of natural gas in some fields. A helium content of 0.3 percent or more is considered necessary for commercial helium extraction. In 2012, helium was recovered at 16 extraction plants, from gas wells in Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming. One extraction plant in Utah was idle in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54001918",
"title": "Helium storage and conservation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Helium is commercially produced as a byproduct of natural gas extraction. Until the mid-1990s, the United States Bureau of Mines operated a large scale helium storage facility to support government requirements for helium. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86350",
"title": "Period (periodic table)",
"section": "Section::::Periods.:Period 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions. It is the second-lightest element and is the second-most abundant in the universe. Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars. On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct of the natural decay of some radioactive elements. Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199079",
"title": "Period 1 element",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Helium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Helium was discovered in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen, who first detected the substance as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in light from a solar eclipse. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas. The substance is used in cryogenics, in deep-sea breathing systems, to cool superconducting magnets, in helium dating, for inflating balloons, for providing lift in airships, and as a protective gas for industrial uses such as arc welding and growing silicon wafers. Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. The behavior of liquid helium-4's two fluid phases, helium I and helium II, is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics and the phenomenon of superfluidity in particular, and to those looking at the effects that temperatures near absolute zero have on matter, such as with superconductivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19696772",
"title": "Balloon release",
"section": "Section::::Opposition.:Helium scarcity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Helium is a natural atmospheric gas, but as a land-resource, it is limited. As of 2012 the United States National Helium Reserve accounted for 30 percent of the world's helium, and was expected to run out of helium in 2018. Some geophysicists fear the world's helium could be gone in a generation. For this reason, balloon releases are seen as a wasteful use of this limited resource.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20v4jt
|
why is contact lens solution so friggin' expensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because people need it and will buy it at any price. Like gas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a sterile product that people are putting in their eyes. Lots of liability if someone gets an infection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "74845",
"title": "Contact lens",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Contact lens solutions often contain preservatives such as benzalkonium chloride and benzyl alcohol. Preservative-free products usually have shorter shelf lives, but are better suited for individuals with an allergy or sensitivity to a preservative. In the past, thiomersal was used as a preservative. In 1989, thiomersal was responsible for about 10% of problems related to contact lenses. As a result, most products no longer contain thiomersal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74845",
"title": "Contact lens",
"section": "Section::::Current research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 1450,
"text": "Another important area of contact lens research deals with patient compliance. Compliance is a major issue pertaining to the use of contact lenses because patient noncompliance often leads to contamination of the lens, storage case, or both. However, careful users can extend the wear of lenses through proper handling: there is, unfortunately, no disinterested research on the issue of \"compliance\" or the length of time a user can safely wear a lens beyond its stated use. The introduction of multipurpose solutions and daily disposable lenses have helped to alleviate some of the problems observed from inadequate cleaning but new methods of combating microbial contamination are currently being developed. A silver-impregnated lens case has been developed which helps to eradicate any potentially contaminating microbes that come in contact with the lens case. Additionally, a number of antimicrobial agents are being developed that have been embedded into contact lenses themselves. Lenses with covalently attached selenium molecules have been shown to reduce bacterial colonization without adversely affecting the cornea of a rabbit eye and octyl glucoside used as a lens surfactant significantly decreases bacterial adhesion. These compounds are of particular interest to contact lens manufacturers and prescribing optometrists because they do not require any patient compliance to effectively attenuate the effects of bacterial colonization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74836",
"title": "Corrective lens",
"section": "Section::::Lens materials.:Plastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Plastic lenses are currently the most commonly prescribed lens, owing to their relative safety, low cost, ease of production, and high optical quality. The main drawbacks of many types of plastic lenses are the ease by which a lens can be scratched, and the limitations and costs of producing higher-index lenses. CR-39 lenses are an exception in that they have inherent scratch resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1179794",
"title": "Cataract surgery",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Intraocular lenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "The multifocal intraocular lens is one of the newest types of such lenses. They are often referred to as \"premium\" lenses because they are multifocal and accommodative, and allow the patient to visualize objects at more than one distance, removing the need to wear eyeglasses or contact lenses. Premium intraocular lenses are those used in correcting presbyopia or astigmatism. Premium intraocular lenses are more expensive and are typically not covered, or not fully covered, by health insurance, as their additional benefits are considered a luxury and not a medical necessity. An accommodative intraocular lens implant has only one focal point, but it acts as if it is a multifocal IOL. The intraocular lens was designed with a hinge similar to the mechanics of the eye's natural lens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24990312",
"title": "Optics and vision",
"section": "Section::::Non-Surgical Visual Correction.:Corrective lens.:Glasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Eyeglass lenses are commonly made from plastic, including CR-39 and polycarbonate. These materials reduce the danger of breakage and weigh less than glass lenses. Some plastics also have more advantageous optical properties than glass, such as better transmission of visible light and greater absorption of ultraviolet light. Some plastics have a greater index of refraction than most types of glass; this is useful in the making of corrective lenses shaped to correct various vision abnormalities such as myopia, allowing thinner lenses for a given prescription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13082366",
"title": "Pellucid marginal degeneration",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Contact lenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "New studies found that the use of Scleral contact lens, a type of rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens, may be a good option for most people with PMD. Most of these lenses are in the range of 15.5mm to 18.0mm in diameter. Regardless of the lens size, it is thought that the larger the RGP lens will in most cases be more comfortable then standard rigid corneal lenses, and at times more comfortable than soft lenses, regardless of the fact that it is a rigid lens. The highlight to the scleral design and the correction of eye disorders such as pellucid marginal degeneration is that vision with these types of lenses is exceptional when fit correctly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58592450",
"title": "Enchroma",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Lens material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "The use of glass in lens manufacturing has reduced due to the availability of new lens materials offering different characteristics. Lens research is aimed at finding the optimum materials for the most common vision deficiencies. EnChroma technology is one of the few materials to compenste for CVD. Trivex eyeglass lenses were first developed by PPG industries in the United States. The lenses can be progressive or photochromic. They are significant in allowing better vision sharpness and eye protection, and are also comfortable to wear since the weight of the material is minimized. The tinted plastic lens used to make EnChroma glasses is coated in approximately 100 layers of dielectric material. A coating can be applied on both sides of the lens to eliminate light reflection and to protect the lens itself for scratches. A predecessor of the Trivex lens with similar characteristics is made from polycarbonate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jwcez
|
how do "non-profit" organizations have some of the highest paying internships / job positions?
|
[
{
"answer": "The company itself doesn't post a profit, meaning that any money it gets over its budget/operating cost (including employee salaries) must be given away/not used for company benefit. While it may seem counter-intuitive, non-profits do need to maintain competitive pay rates to attract talent necessary to maintain an effective business.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Non-profit just means that instead of the company paying out profits to employees (in the form of bonuses) or to investors (e.g. through dividends) as regular corporations do, non-profit organizations instead re-invest all the 'profit' they make back into the company to improve its products and services. It basically just means the organization is committed to only spend excess money on advancing the corporation in meeting its long-term goals and mission statement. Not for profits are required to comply with a number of government regulations which require them to be very open and transparent about their 'business practices' and finances to ensure they are not abusing their non-profit status.\n\nDo note that non-profit organizations are still allowed to pay salaries like normal companies. All that matters is that whatever is left over after covering expenses (including but not limited to salary-pay), must then be reinvested back into the corporation. So they can still have salaries, they just can't pay bonuses that are dependent on how much money the organization makes that year.\n\nIt's also important to distinguish between non-profit and charity. A charity is simply a type of non-profit organization that does free work (e.g. helping the poor) and is funded primarily through donations. There are however other non-profit organizations that look and act just like companies and offer regular products and services for a fee, it's just that they don't take home the profits in the form of bonuses and dividends.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "298221",
"title": "Internship",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Internship for a fee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Companies in search of interns often find and place students in mostly unpaid internships, for a fee. These companies charge students to assist with research, promising to refund the fee if no internship is found. The programs vary and aim to provide internship placements at reputable companies. Some companies may also provide controlled housing in a new city, mentorship, support, networking, weekend activities or academic credit. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30608495",
"title": "Intern Aware",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "They believe that unpaid internships are exploitative, exclusive and unfair. By asking people to work without pay, employers exclude those with talent, ambition and drive who cannot afford to work for free. They campaign that employers and young people alike benefit from the best graduates getting the best jobs. They argue that paying interns a fair wage can ensure that this happens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6234187",
"title": "Inroads (organization)",
"section": "Section::::Internships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "All the internships offered through INROADS are paid internships though the actual rate of pay varies from company to company. Also in addition to working at the sponsoring company, INROADS interns are required to attend training sessions hosted by INROADS with the purpose of teaching interns business skills. Some of the many sponsoring companies are: Texas Instruments, Boeing, TD Bank Financial Group, Regions Bank, Liberty Mutual Insurance, Travelers Insurance, Target, MetLife, Pfizer, Google, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, RBC Capital Markets, Sunoco Inc, KPMG, Bridgestone/Firestone, Allstate Insurance, Johnson and Johnson, Coca-Cola, PECO, Vanguard, United Health Group, United Technologies and Kraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72487",
"title": "Nonprofit organization",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "A common misconception about nonprofits is that they are run completely by volunteers. Most nonprofits have staff that work for the company, possibly using volunteers to perform the nonprofit's services under the direction of the paid staff. Nonprofits must be careful to balance the salaries paid to staff against the money paid to provide services to the nonprofit's beneficiaries. Organizations whose salary expenses are too high relative to their program expenses may face regulatory scrutiny.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30739088",
"title": "Post-graduate service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "A post-graduate volunteer works for a non-profit organization on a full-time and long-term basis. Non-profits can have internal programs for taking on such volunteers. But what is more commonly meant by \"post-graduate service\" is when graduates interested in service of this kind become applicants to broader programs that have relationships with multiple (in the case of AmeriCorps, \"thousands\" of) non-profits. These programs, upon accepting the graduate, \"place\" him or her with a non-profit. The placement can resemble paid employment and usually demands a commitment of one (or two) year(s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29539425",
"title": "The NonProfit Times",
"section": "Section::::Services.:Job Service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In 2010, The NonProfit Times added a job board called Nonprofit Jobseeker. The site lists the latest jobs from nonprofit organizations from all over the United States. The site is free to use for job seekers, though employers that wish to list their job openings have to pay a fee depending on the type of job package they choose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57074156",
"title": "Passion pay",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Us unpaid internship problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1836,
"text": "According to the 2012 data from the National Association of Colleges and Employers, 55% of college graduates in 2012 experienced internships, nearly half of whom were unpaid interns. In the early years, non-profit organizations that demanded volunteer services had been employing unpaid internships for about one-third of companies seeking for-profit. Whether the unpaid internship is viewed as a valuable opportunity for young people to exploit their passion for the younger generation or to acquire actual job skills is a long-standing controversy in the United States. Under federal law, all employees are entitled to more than the minimum wage, except where there is an exception. If the employee's work is judged to be for the benefit of the employee rather than the benefit of the employer, that is to say, if the content or condition of the work is closer to the \"training\" of the training than to the actual work, it is not illegal. The US Department of Labor is concerned with wages and working hours that 'internships are for interns' benefit and interns do not replace existing ones, but existing staff directs and manages internships, I understand that the internship is unpaid, \"and that the unpaid internship is not against the law at all. However, Judge William Foley Manhattan District Court in 2013 ruled that Fox Search light violated the Minimum Wage and Excess Allowance rules in a lawsuit filed by interns who participated in the films \"Black Swan\" and \"500 Days of Summer\". He was heated up by the interns' controversy when he ruled that the interns could receive wages. Judge Paul said that the work that interns did at that time was to bring immediate benefits to employers in the same way that existing paid employees did, and the knowledge gained by interns working was not training by education for training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5imzfv
|
why do elderly people die from simple falls?
|
[
{
"answer": "Healing wounds takes a lot of energy and resources for the body, and as a person gets older there's less to go around for normal processes if something does happen. Bones, muscles, and organs all get weaker and less effective at their jobs, just like in a mechanical system when parts fail and degrade.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A hip repair is a big fucking surgery. \n\nA lot of energy goes into healing that type of injury. \n\nOlder bodies simply don't work as well as younger bodies. \n\nYou could have internal bleeding. Infection. Organ failure from shock. You name it. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > when an identical fall would barely even injure someone younger?\n\nBecause often it is not an identical fall.\n\nA healthy person will likely have the strength, reflexes, balance, and agility to partially recover, and minimize the damage of fall. You put a hand out, aim for something soft, or twist so you land on your side or butt. \n\nAn elderly person taking the same fall might not be able to any of these things, and wind up falling harder, landing on a more vulnerable area, and hurting something vital.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Advanced Age + Fall = Death\n\nMortality comes from:\n\n1) deadly blood clots (as a direct complication of any broken bones) which can then travel around the body (think heart, brain and lungs) and cause further fatal damage like heart attacks, strokes\n2) deadly hospital-related infections while undergoing treatment for the fall\n\nThere are also complications from de-conditioning from being immobilized after the fall, which leads to skin break down from being bed-bound, and overall failure to recover.\n\nElderly people have less \"reserve\" than younger people, and it can be very hard to bounce back from a serious fall. This lack of reserve means they have less strength/flexibility, tend to be malnourished, and perhaps have weaker immune responses to begin with when they fall. \n\nYou'd be amazed by how deadly even a ground-level fall can be for a patient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17507532",
"title": "Falls in older adults",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Falls in older adults are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality and are an important class of preventable injuries. The cause of falling in old age is often multifactorial, and may require a multidisciplinary approach both to treat any injuries sustained and to prevent future falls. Falls include dropping from a standing position, or from exposed positions such as those on ladders or stepladders. The severity of injury is generally related to the height of the fall. The state of the ground surface onto which the victim falls is also important, harder surfaces causing more severe injury. Falls can be prevented by ensuring that carpets are tacked down, that objects like electric cords are not in one's path, that hearing and vision are optimized, dizziness is minimized, alcohol intake is moderated and that shoes have low heels or rubber soles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22461",
"title": "Osteoporosis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Risk of falls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "There is an increased risk of falls associated with aging. These falls can lead to skeletal damage at the wrist, spine, hip, knee, foot, and ankle. Part of the fall risk is because of impaired eyesight due to many causes, (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle). Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness). Causes of syncope are manifold, but may include cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal drop in blood pressure on standing up), and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous falls, as well as those with gait or balance disorders, are most at risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18498968",
"title": "Falling (accident)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Falling is the second leading cause of accidental death worldwide and is a major cause of personal injury, especially for the elderly. Falls in older adults are an important class of preventable injuries. Builders, electricians, miners, and painters are occupations with high rates of fall injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5486225",
"title": "Fall prevention",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Falls and fall related injuries are among the most serious and common medical problems experienced by older adults. Nearly one-third of older persons fall each year, and half of them fall more than once. Over 3 million American over the age of 65 visited hospital emergency departments in 2015 due to fall related injuries with over 1.6 million being admitted. Because of underlying osteoporosis and decreased mobility and reflexes, falls often result in hip fractures and other fractures, head injuries, and even death in older adults. Accidental injuries are the fifth most common cause of death in older adults. In around 75% of hip fracture patients, recovery is incomplete and overall health deteriorates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18498968",
"title": "Falling (accident)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Accidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The most common cause of falls in healthy adults is accidents. It may be by slipping or tripping from stable surfaces or stairs, improper footwear, dark surroundings, uneven ground, or lack of exercise. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5486225",
"title": "Fall prevention",
"section": "Section::::Strategies and interventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "Falls are well known amongst community – dwelling individuals ages 65 and older. The risk of fall-related incidents nearly doubles when individuals are institutionalized. The impact on different falls in certain situation of fall prevention programs on the rate differences of falls in elderly population has not been reported. According to the study, annual 60% of older people with cognitive impairment and dementia are highly likely risk of having a fall related incident .Most falls that are experienced are by older people over the age 65 with acute problems that can come from chronic diseases. These falls may occur by intrinsic risk factor as well as precipitating causes. In order to prevent falls that could lead to serious injury or death health facilities need to know how to solve the problems and explore alternatives that can lead to a patient fall. As well as cognitive impairment, functional impairment, gait and balance disorders, certain medications can all increase fall risk factors for patients. By advance age these risk factors are double and more likely to occur. It’s important to identify the risk factors that increase the likelihood of injurious falls. State-level fall prevention strategies can also mitigate fall risk for community-dwelling older adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5486225",
"title": "Fall prevention",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors of falls.:Healthy young individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The most common cause of falls in healthy adults is due to accidents. It may be by slipping or tripping from stable surfaces or stairs, improper footwear, dark surroundings, uneven ground, or lack of exercise. Studies suggest that women are more prone to falling than men in all age groups. The most common injuries in the young population due to falls occur at the wrist/hand, knees and ankles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rfnu0
|
how does a on-time pad work?
|
[
{
"answer": "All codes work by changing some piece of information. Because of the change it is hard to tell what the original information was. For instance if I change some word into \"xxr\" what was the original word? \n\nWell a one time pad is a way of changing information that never repeats any pattern,, that means you can never predict how information is or was changed. That means you can never decode \"xxr\" because you can never guess what I did and I will never do it again, I did it \"one time\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "286399",
"title": "Automated external defibrillator",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Preparation for operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "All manufacturers mark their electrode pads with an expiration date, and it is important to ensure that the pads are in date. This is usually marked on the outside of the pads. Some models are designed to make this date visible through a 'window', although others will require the opening of the case to find the date stamp.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22210",
"title": "One-time pad",
"section": "Section::::Perfect secrecy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "One-time pads are \"information-theoretically secure\" in that the encrypted message (i.e., the ciphertext) provides no information about the original message to a cryptanalyst (except the maximum possible length of the message). This is a very strong notion of security first developed during WWII by Claude Shannon and proved, mathematically, to be true for the one-time pad by Shannon about the same time. His result was published in the \"Bell Labs Technical Journal\" in 1949. Properly used, one-time pads are secure in this sense even against adversaries with infinite computational power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956709",
"title": "Time clock",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Basic time clock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "A basic time clock will just stamp the date and time on a time card, similar to a parking validation machine. These will usually be activated by a button that a worker must press to stamp their card, or stamp upon full insertion. Some machines use punch hole cards instead of stamping, which can facilitate automated processing on machinery not capable of optical character recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22210",
"title": "One-time pad",
"section": "Section::::Problems.:Authentication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "As traditionally used, one-time pads provide no message authentication, the lack of which can pose a security threat in real-world systems. For example, an attacker who knows that the message contains \"meet jane and me tomorrow at three thirty pm\" can derive the corresponding codes of the pad directly from the two known elements (the encrypted text and the known plaintext). The attacker can then replace that text by any other text of exactly the same length, such as \"three thirty meeting is canceled, stay home\". The attacker's knowledge of the one-time pad is limited to this byte length, which must be maintained for any other content of the message to remain valid. This is a little different from malleability where it is not taken necessarily that the plaintext is known. \"See also\" stream cipher attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3768009",
"title": "Code signing",
"section": "Section::::Providing security.:Time-stamping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Time-stamping was designed to circumvent the trust warning that will appear in the case of an expired certificate. In effect, time-stamping extends the code trust beyond the validity period of a certificate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2235511",
"title": "Time for print",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "Time for prints (or trade for prints, time for pics, TFP, and sometimes prints for time, PFT) is a term many photography communities use to describe an arrangement between a model and a photographer whereby the photographer agrees to provide the model with a certain number of pictures of selected photographs from the session, and a release or license to use those pictures in return for the model's time. The word 'Time' refers a person's time spent during the photo shoot. The Word \"Prints\" refers to a physically printed photo, usually on photo paper. The foundation of the concept of TFP being that both a photographer and a model get together and exchange their 'time', for free, and each receives the photos for their own usage. Since photos can now be delivered by means other than 'Prints,' some variant wordings of this arrangement are: Time for CD or Trade for CD (TFCD). With TFCD, the photographer provides the selection of images on a CD instead of prints. Similarly, with the ease and convenience of digital high-resolution images, the generic term TF* has evolved, where it does not necessarily refer to a tangible CD or printed image since the same accepted rules apply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30890",
"title": "Time zone",
"section": "Section::::Computer systems and the Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Database records that include a time stamp typically use UTC, especially when the database is part of a system that spans multiple time zones. The use of local time for time-stamping records is not recommended for time zones that implement daylight saving time because once a year there is a one-hour period when local times are ambiguous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2g8bnn
|
why airline frequent flyer programs have been made so difficult?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the airlines benefit from the impression that they have the program, but do not benefit from people using it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "254753",
"title": "Frequent-flyer program",
"section": "Section::::Climate and environmental issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Frequent-flyer programs have been receiving scrutiny because of the prevalence and rapid growth of air travel, in terms of both the frequency that individuals fly and the tendency toward longer distance travel. There have also been calls for an end to frequent-flyer programs. An increase in the number of hypermobile travelers has been identified as a particular aspect of the issue because of the highly disproportionate contribution of this class of individuals to aviation greenhouse gas emissions, and frequent-flyer programs are a contributing factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6389531",
"title": "Environmental impact of aviation",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.:Reducing air travel.:Ending incentives to fly—frequent flyer programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Over 130 airlines have \"frequent flyer programs\" based at least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments for flights taken. Globally, such programs included about 163 million people as reported in 2006. These programs benefit airlines by habituating people to air travel and, through the mechanics of partnerships with credit card companies and other businesses, in which high profit margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats for a high price. The only part of United Airlines business that was making money when the company filed for bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent flyer program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254753",
"title": "Frequent-flyer program",
"section": "Section::::Climate and environmental issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Precedent exists for ending frequent-flyer programs. In 2002, Norway established a ban on domestic frequent-flyer programs in order to promote competition among its airlines, and lifted the ban in 2013 when the competitive situation changed. In 2005, Morten A. Meyer, the Modernization Minister asked the competition authority to consider extending the Norwegian ban on frequent flyer miles to include all of Scandinavia. In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president of Braniff said the government should consider ordering an end to frequent-flyer programs, which he said allow unfair competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254753",
"title": "Frequent-flyer program",
"section": "Section::::Elite status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Some carriers also require frequent flyers to spend a set amount of money on tickets before they are eligible for elite status. This is in addition to the miles-flown requirements that are already in place. Delta switched to revenue-based elite status requirements in January 2014, United in March 2015, with American Airlines the last of the three US legacy carriers to switch on August 1, 2016. This has led to some frequent flyers devaluing those programs over others, as the changing model can be less rewarding to frequent flyers. To date no UK frequent flyer scheme has sought to operate in such a fashion, with both Virgin Atlantic and British Airways opting for the traditional method of granting tier points based on the miles flown and class of travel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6389531",
"title": "Environmental impact of aviation",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.:Reducing air travel.:Ending incentives to fly—frequent flyer programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Several studies have contemplated the elimination of frequent flyer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of anti-competitiveness, ethics, conflict with society's overall well-being, or climate effects. There is a record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not allow the programs until 1992, then changing its policy because its airlines were disadvantaged. In 2002, Norway banned domestic FFPs in order to promote competition among its airlines. In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president of Braniff \"said the government should consider ordering an end to frequent-flyer programs, which he said allow unfair competition.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942",
"title": "Airline",
"section": "Section::::Economic considerations.:Ticket revenue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58358519",
"title": "History of non-scheduled airlines in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Non-scheduled airlines first appeared in significant numbers in the United States after the Second World War, as returning pilots purchased discount surplus planes from the government and set up their own uncertificated air services under the non-scheduled charter service exemption in the 1938 Civil Aviation Act. Low overhead and fewer regulations allowed the non-scheduled airlines to offer considerably lower fares than the national scheduled carriers, inaugurating the immensely popular aircoach service which attracted millions of Americans unable to afford tickets on the regular airlines. Though the regulatory actions of the Civil Aeronautics Board ultimately extinguished the burgeoning non-scheduled industry, the idea of cheap, efficient air transport endured and by the passage of the 1978 Airline Deregulation Act nearly all civil airlines had transitioned to an aircoach model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
di4sdf
|
Can a person sense light if he/she is asleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can sense light through your eyelids while closed, although you may not be consciously aware of it. Light signals your body to stop producing (or secreting) melatonin, enabling you to wake up more readily. This is how the lamps that use simulated sunlight help you gently wake up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007171",
"title": "Nightlight",
"section": "Section::::Potential health issues and benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Another study has indicated that sleeping with the light on may protect the eyes of diabetics from retinopathy, a condition that can lead to blindness. However, the initial study is still inconclusive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007171",
"title": "Nightlight",
"section": "Section::::Potential health issues and benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "A University of Pennsylvania study indicated that sleeping with the light on or with a nightlight was associated with a greater incidence of nearsightedness in children. However, a later study at Ohio State University contradicted the earlier conclusion. Both studies were published in the journal \"Nature\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2022036",
"title": "Closed-eye hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 1: Visual noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The most basic form of CEV perception that can be immediately experienced in normal waking consciousness involves a seemingly random noise of pointillistic light/dark regions with no apparent shape or order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3074432",
"title": "The Book on Mediums",
"section": "Section::::Important concepts developed or introduced in this Book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sleep is the emancipation of the mind: While we are asleep our spirit loosens its ties to matter and wanders the spiritual world. Because of it, it is theoretically possible—although uncommon—to see the spirit of a living person as an apparition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2022036",
"title": "Closed-eye hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 3: Patterns, motion, and color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "This level is relatively easily accessible to people who use psychedelic drugs such as LSD. However, it is also accessible to people involved in deep concentration for long periods of time. When lying down at night and closing the eyes, right before sleep or just before waking up, the complex motion of these patterns can become directly visible without any great effort thanks to hypnagogic hallucination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446859",
"title": "Polysomnography",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "BULLET::::- Onset of sleep from time the lights were turned off: this is called \"sleep onset latency\" and normally is less than 20 minutes. (Note that determining \"sleep\" and \"awake\" is based solely on the EEG. Patients sometimes feel they were awake when the EEG shows they were sleeping. This may be because of sleep state misperception, drug effects on brain waves, or individual differences in brain waves.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5329800",
"title": "Circadian rhythm sleep disorder",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Intrinsic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most common in individuals that are blind and unable to detect light, Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder (N24SWD) is characterized by chronic patterns of sleep/wake cycles which are not entrained to the 24-hr light-dark environmental cycle. As a result of this, individuals with this disorder will usually experience a gradual yet predictable delay of sleep onset and waking times. Patients with DSPD may develop this disorder if their condition is untreated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6pwn7n
|
how do telescopes that capture images very far away (hundreds of light years) get a good sharp shot when you know that the earth rotates slowly
|
[
{
"answer": "The telescopes are mounted on motors that move it to compensate for the rotation of the earth. This is true for even moderately expensive personal telescopes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Extremely high-quality images are taken with orbital telescopes. Even if you compensate for Earth's motion, the atmosphere imposes a limit on the quality of pictures we can take from Earth's surface.\n\nBut yes, the best telescopes we do have on the surface of Earth compensate for its motion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20651372",
"title": "Autoguider",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "Imaging of dim celestial targets, usually deep sky objects, requires exposure times of many minutes, particularly when narrowband images are being taken. In order for the resulting image to maintain usable clarity and sharpness during these exposures, the target must be held at the same position within the telescope's field of view during the whole exposure; any apparent motion would cause point sources of light (such as stars) to appear as streaks, or the object being photographed to appear blurry. Even computer-tracked mounts and GoTo telescopes do not eliminate the need for tracking adjustments for exposures beyond a few minutes, as astrophotography demands an extremely high level of precision that these devices typically cannot achieve, especially if the mount is not properly polar aligned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369087",
"title": "Guide star",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Accurate telescope pointing and tracking is critical for obtaining good astronomical images and astrophotographs. However, because the Earth rotates, the sky appears to be in a constant state of motion relative to the Earth. Although this movement appears to be relatively slow when viewed with the naked eye, with the high magnification and consequently smaller field of view provided by even a small telescope this motion becomes apparent on timescales of the order of seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6143326",
"title": "Automated Planet Finder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "The telescope uses high-precision radial velocity measurements to measure the gravitational reflex motion of nearby stars caused by the orbiting of planets. The design goal is to detect stellar motions as small as one meter per second, comparable to a slow walking speed. The main targets will be stars within about 100 light years of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10201642",
"title": "Polar alignment",
"section": "Section::::Alignment methods.:Plate Solving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "For telescopes combined with an imaging camera connected to a computer it is possible to achieve very accurate polar alignment (within 0.1 minute of arc) by approximately aligning it, then identifying the exact field of view when aimed at stars near the pole - 'plate solving'. The telescope is then rotated ninety degrees around its right ascension axis and a new 'plate solve' carried out. The error in the point around which the images rotate compared to the true pole is calculated automatically and the operator can be given simple instructions to adjust the mount for close polar alignment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8897883",
"title": "GoTo (telescopes)",
"section": "Section::::How a GoTo mount works.:Alt-azimuth mounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "For accuracy purposes, a second alignment star, as far away as possible from the first and if possible close to the object to be observed, may be used. This is because the mount might not be level with the ground; this will cause the telescope to accurately point to objects close to the initial alignment star, but less accurately for an object on the other side of the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3391863",
"title": "Meridian circle",
"section": "Section::::Basic instrument.:Adjustment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "The line of sight of the telescope needed to be exactly perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This could be done by sighting a distant, stationary object, lifting and reversing the telescope on its bearings, and again sighting the object. If the crosshairs did not intersect the object, the line of sight was halfway between the new position of the crosshairs and the distant object; the crosshairs were adjusted accordingly and the process repeated as necessary. Also, if the rotation axis was known to be perfectly horizontal, the telescope could be directed downward at a basin of mercury, and the crosshairs illuminated. The mercury acted as a perfectly horizontal mirror, reflecting an image of the crosshairs back up the telescope tube. The crosshairs could then be adjusted until coincident with their reflection, and the line of sight was then perpendicular to the axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2235270",
"title": "International Ultraviolet Explorer",
"section": "Section::::History.:Instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "There were two Fine Error Sensors (FES), and their first purpose was to image the field of view of the telescope in visible light. They could detect stars down to 14th magnitude, about 1500 times fainter than can be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The image was transmitted to the ground station, where the observer would verify that the telescope was pointing at the correct field, and then acquire the exact object to be observed. If the object to be observed was fainter than 14th magnitude, the observer would point the telescope at a star that could be seen, and then apply \"blind\" offsets, determined from the coordinates of the objects. The accuracy of the pointing was generally better than 2 arcseconds for blind offsets \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iutms
|
FAQ Friday: Ask your questions about the Ebola epidemic here!
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm somewhat familiar with the symptoms, but how does Ebola actually kill victims? (I.e. you don't die of Ebola, but of dehydration due to Ebola)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to be traveling to Morocco over the summer. It is at the northwest corner of Africa. Should I be worried? The healthcare system there isn't the best. In a nutshell, what are the chances of the disease spreading to other parts of Africa?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How likely is it to spread in a first world country? Could it ever reach epidemic proportions with our level of hygiene?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How far out is a vaccine? What steps are left in making one available to the public? It seems to me like as soon as a vaccine is generally available then the risk of wide spread panic should go away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are the chances of Ebola becoming a pandemic here in the US? My dad is already really freaked out by the possibility and is preparing for the worst cast scenario. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I keep hearing that Ebola is not infectious while asymptomatic, but have been unable to find any sources or papers that back this up. Is it truly noninfectious, or does it just have a drastically reduced infectivity than compared to when symptoms emerge?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I saw that post yesterday mentioning 55% of Americans want to cancel flights coming into the US from ebola stricken African countries..\n\nDoes the government take note of these polls? If so, do they need or want a 75% agreement? What percentage would it take for the government to actually listen, or do they not really care what US citizens believe regarding this? & thanks in advance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Every year during the Christmas present buying season, we see a huge rise in flu bugs, colds, the winter vomiting bug etc, purely because of the amount of people out and about. These bugs are all spread by poor personal hygiene. Should we be worried by Ebola at this time of year? Does it have the potential to spread in the same manner? Could it evolve to spread this way? Thank you! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How much of a 'crisis' is this i.e. how far has this been blown out of proportion by the media? I guess the main point being, to what extent do we have this under control, especially with safeguards being put in place to control the spread to the West?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could ebola cross into other species?\n\nCould bats in the US become carriers? What about ticks? Or farm livestock?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you touch something with the ebola virus on it (a dirty tissue), do you automatically get ebola? Or is there some way to get it off your hand? If someone with ebola bled on the floor, is there something that can clean up the blood and the virus? Or will the virus be on the floor for however many days it takes to die off? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi everybody! \n\nI just posted this same set of questions in Mark Fielder's AMA, but I'd appreciate getting a wider range of answers (and there's no certainty he'll choose to answer my question - but if he does, I'll share his answer here). \n\nMedia seems to be assuming a high rate of mutation for the Ebola virus, but there seems to be very little difference between this outbreak and previous ones in terms of virulence. Most of the high transmission rate seems to be arising from social practices, rather than a more infectious virus. \n\nSo my questions are: \n\n1. In the current outbreak of the Ebola virus, is the virus actually more virulent than in previous outbreaks?\n\n2. What is known about the rate of mutation of the Ebola virus? \n\n3. There is political movement in the US to stop all flights from the 3 most affected African countries. Do you think this is necessary? Is screening travelers for fever effective, or should all travel be stopped? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where can we find ongoing comprehensive factual information regarding:\n\n* Where are there ongoing cases of Ebola?\n\n* How many suspected cases are there inside the US?\n\n* How many people are being observed in the US who may have come in contact with an Ebola patient?\n\n* What transmissions vectors exist outside of Africa? Have any international airports closed down, etc.\n\n* A history of Ebola cases leaving Africa or being diagnosed outside of Africa.\n\n* What procedures or steps in place are there with hospitals / healthcare professionals? \n\n* Which airports / international transmission vectors are currently being monitored?\n\nI gave a speech on Ebola yesterday and have another next week and I'd like to ensure I'm both accurate and up to date (and not needing to splice together 50 sources)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read today about US Marines arriving in Liberia to help build clinics. What can they do to prevent being infected with Ebola?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(1) Is the average United States hospital capable of dealing with patients in large quantities? \n(2) Do patients require very specialized care once we get basic protocol down\n(3) With the current projection of infection rates, is it likely we're going to see many more pockets of infected around the world? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the treatment procedure for Ebola patients once admitted to the hospital?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a flight attendant, and consequently fly to some moderate risk areas. Additionally I come into contact with bodily fluids A LOT more than you'd imagine (people are weird). What can I do to protect myself on flights? Also how could I spot someone with symptoms (apart from a high fever)? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For this outbreak the reported fatality rate seems to be around 50-60% meaning that a lot of people actually have survived this nightmare. My question is about what shape these people are in when they are no longer testing positive for the virus? It seems some make a full recovery, but are there irreversible damage done to organs or other things that will effect survivors later in life?\n\n\nOr is it more likely that you either have < something > that makes you get rid of the virus in time, before serious damage are done, or you don't make it at all (and thus creating the image that surviving = full recovery)?\n\n\nI haven't found much written about survivors of the virus, except for some news stories about people that survived and now working with the medical effort (on the assumptions they have (some) immunity now).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain how the current vaccines are targeting Ebola?\n\nI've been doing research on the structure of the virus and was wondering if any of the current trials are targeting the major proteins integrated in the virus namely VP40 and VP35. Also the mechanism of targeting glycoproteins on the cell surface. I was wondering if there are opinions on which targets are likely to be most successful in creating a vaccine or atleast a treatment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is the virus affected by weather conditions? What I am trying to say is would higher parallels be safe in a hypothetical ebola outbreak?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can ebola infect dogs and therefore be transmitted via dog-human?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Should United States citizens actually be as concerned about the disease as they are? I am aware Ebola is a deadly disease, but to me it seems like the media is playing on our fears, using a lot of \"what-ifs.\" However, whenever I search for info about the disease in the country, I find that we have experienced at most six cases, one death, and tons of negative tests. Everyone who comes into contact with victims are quarantined, but show no symptoms. It really seems like the country is keeping this pretty under control, and we are more scared than we should be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The first question on the original post is about Ebola going airborne. My question is related. What's more likely, a deadly virus like Ebola mutating to become airborne or a mostly non deadly virus like influenza becoming as deadly as Ebola?\n\nIf these two things were basically as likely, it would be a good way to reduce the fear. After all most of us survive every year and influenza has not become really deadly in our lifetimes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can the ebola virus eventually mutate into an airborne virus? If so, how long could that take for it to mutate?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How accurate are computer models at predicting the spread of this disease?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How does an epidemic like this actually start? How come there are no cases for this for years and then all of a sudden it pops up? How does that first case come to arise? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why/how did those two americans taken out of africa to be treated in the US live, and why didn't the first victim diagnosed in america live?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why are people confusing it with the black Plague?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What policies and procedures are in place for responding to infectious disease outbreaks of these sorts of diseases? Do local Health Departments just all of a sudden have a lot of extra work, is there some organized relief/assistance system in place?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At what point is containment essentially impossible? I assume there is a point, where it's just not feasible to stop its spread once a certain number of people have it. Even if you close all airports, public transportation, schools, etc. it will still continue to spread and there won't be enough medical facilities to deal with the number of patients.\n\nWhat is the number of patients where it's considered unstoppable? Maybe depends a bit on how geographically spread those patients are...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At what point does the global presence of the disease change it's status from \"epidemic\" to \"pandemic\"?\n\nSeeing as there are cases in at least 3 continents, does it require a finite number of cases, time, geographic dispersion, a combination of all 3 or is it something totally different?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How painful is Ebola compared to other terminal illnesses, and do our pain management solutions do a good job of dealing with that pain?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How susceptible are healthy people to the virus? If you're a healthy person, do you have a significantly lower risk of catching it than someone with a poor immune system if both were to come into contact with the virus?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We have all heard that Ebola is transmitted via bodily fluids, but most of the time this information also comes with people talking about blood, vomit, and feces of the patients. \nMy question is can Ebola be transmitted through sweat? Can someone with Ebola and with sweaty hands open a door and the next person who opens it be possibly contaminated?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have we figured out why this outbreak has been so much more widespread than other ebola outbreaks? My understanding is that it is a generally slow spreading disease that burns bright but quick as it kills it's hosts so effectively and noticeably. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At what point does it become a \"Pandemic\" as opposed to an \"Epidemic\"?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know this is extremely unlikely, but I am generally curious about how to handle an outbreak, Ebola or whatever comes along next. Let's say it does end up spreading here. It wouldn't be all at once, first it would probably hit poor regions and works its way from state to state. At what point do I pull the kids out of school, stop going to work and just isolate ourselves from the rest of society? I wouldn't want to jump the gun too early but i also wouldn't want too wait to long. I live in the suburbs of a smaller city if that matters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The mortality rate for Ebola where it is currently epidemic is around 50%. The dallas patient might have passed away from the disease, but I was wondering what we believe a 1st world health care system could do for mortality rates. \n\nIs there at least an educated guess as far as the survival rate would be for a first world case? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi, I'm a grad student working on developing point-of-care diagnostics for infectious diseases, and I'm wondering if there are any conserved biomarkers that have been identified in the peripheral fluids of patients that could be targeted by ELISA-like rapid diagnostic tests (like a pregnancy test)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "America is taking steps to \"limit\" incoming travelers by giving them temperature readings at airports upon arrival if their starting location was from a high risk area. Is this really a way to catch this? If it takes 21 days to start showing symptoms and they've gotten on the plane with none of the symptoms, does this really seem like a viable solution? I feel like this is just a way to placate the public into thinking they're taking precautions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has been bothering me for a bit, but could someone please explain to me the apparent discrepancies between all the statements, FB posts, etc about how there's 0 risk unless you've been directly exposed to their bodily fluids, and the fact that in Africa when someone tests positive they send in a hazmat team to completely and utterly disinfect all of their possessions and burn what they can't?\n\nThere was a post maybe a few weeks ago where a photographer followed a woman around after she got infected, and it seemed like a stark difference between \"bleach her entire house and burn anything that can't be disinfected\" and the statements from the government that seemed to say \"no we're not worried that someone might have gotten infected if he used a public toilet, and you're silly for thinking so.\"\n\nI'm sorry I can't quote specific examples, and most of it is just frustration at stupid condescending facebook posts of a simple flowchart saying \"no you don't have Ebola\" without citing any sources or anything, but I'm in Dallas and while I can understand all the facts and everything, and I go out of my way to ignore the fearmongering, it'd be hard to not have at least *some* small doubts, even if I wasn't worried about the aforementioned discrepancies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live in a major European city with direct flights from North Africa. This isn't really a science question (more of a political question) but why are governments hesitating so much to quarantine flights? Of course it's expensive and logistically complicated, but isn't it safer (and perhaps even cheaper) than the alternative (spread of the infection)? By the same token, why are governments flying aid workers home for treatment? This seems insanely risky to me compared to flying medical equipment down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had a guest speaker come in to one of my classes that said that the cdc predicts the total number of cases of Ebola to be 1,000,000 by the first of the year. At the current rate, how many cases until we reach the plateau? Will it continue to expand exponentially? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm from Spain, and many of you would know that the virus is spreading here. There are at least 14 who are being investigated, and a woman which is certain that she has the virus (all of them are in the same hospital in Madrid). My question is: how fast the virus spreads? Thank you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Viruses mutate. That's why there's always an updated flu vaccine each year, specific to each region, too. Since the Ebola virus is susceptible to mutation just as any other virus is, what are the odds of the virus mutating to the point in which it can be transferred without direct contact with bodily fluids? In other words, what is the probability of Ebola somehow mutating so it can infect others while airborne? This may seem like an irrational fear, but I would like to know if there is any sort of information about this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While it seems clear that it would be difficult to imagine a large scale ebola outbreak in the developed world, how hard would it be for the virus to spark epidemics in \"middle class\" nations? I live in Uruguay and while its nice to hear that Europe is prepared, people here are quite nervous about our region's (Southern Cone) risk. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The patient who died in Dallas was not given the antiviral serum developed from the surviving MD, due to the hospital stating the patient was out of treatment window.\n\n While I realize other antiviral medications have a time limit of effectiveness, the patient was admitted in hospital for 10 days before finally succumbing. This seems like plenty of time to at least attempt it's use?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40817590",
"title": "Ebola virus disease",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:2017 Democratic Republic of the Congo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "On 11 May 2017, the DRC Ministry of Public Health notified the WHO about an outbreak of Ebola. Four people died, and four people survived; five of these eight cases were laboratory-confirmed. A total of 583 contacts were monitored. On 2 July 2017, the WHO declared the end of the outbreak.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33583",
"title": "World Health Organization",
"section": "Section::::History.:Overall focus.:f) Emergency work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "On 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. The situation in West Africa was considered very serious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44016208",
"title": "Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic",
"section": "Section::::United Nations.:World Health Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "On 28 August, the WHO published a roadmap to guide and coordinate the international response to the outbreak, aiming to stop ongoing Ebola transmission worldwide within 6–9 months. It simultaneously revised its cost estimate for the global resources required over the next six months up to $490 million. They report that they \"are on the ground establishing Ebola treatment centres and strengthening capacity for laboratory testing, contact tracing, social mobilization, safe burials, and non-Ebola health care\" and \"continue to monitor for reports of rumoured or suspected cases from countries around the world.\" Other than cases where individuals are suspected or have been confirmed of being infected with Ebola, or have had contact with cases of Ebola, the WHO does not recommend any travel or trade restrictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42345073",
"title": "Western African Ebola virus epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Responses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 193,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 193,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "In July 2014, the WHO convened an emergency meeting of health ministers from eleven countries and announced collaboration on a strategy to co-ordinate technical support to combat the epidemic. In August they published a roadmap to guide and coordinate the international response to the outbreak, aiming to stop ongoing Ebola transmission worldwide within 6–9 months, and formally designated the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. This is a legal designation used only twice before (for the 2009 H1N1 (swine flu) pandemic and the 2014 resurgence of poliomyelitis) that invokes legal measures on disease prevention, surveillance, control, and response, by 194 signatory countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42694003",
"title": "Public Health Emergency of International Concern",
"section": "Section::::Declarations.:2014 Ebola declaration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Confirmed cases of Ebola were being reported in Guinea and Liberia in March 2014 and Sierra Leone by May 2014. On Friday, 8 August 2014, following the occurrence of Ebola in the United States and Europe and with the already intense transmission ongoing in three other countries for months, the WHO declared its third PHEIC in response to the outbreak of Ebola in Western Africa. Later, one review showed that a direct impact of this epidemic on America escalated a PHEIC declaration. It was the first PHEIC in a resource-poor setting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4585037",
"title": "Sylvia Mathews Burwell",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Health and Human Services Secretary.:Ebola epidemic response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "With an Ebola epidemic devastating West Africa, Burwell began holding daily meetings on July 28, 2014, as part of the efforts of the United States government, including the Department of HHS, to prevent further spread of the disease. Starting on September 30, other Obama administration officials began giving daily public briefings while Burwell took less of a public role, although she did take part in a number of public meetings. In the fall of 2014, the first known death from Ebola in the United States occurred. The Obama administration proposed devoting $6billion to fight the spread of Ebola, including $2billion for the State Department and USAID. The plan included provisions to help U.S. hospitals become better prepared and to support global health initiatives aimed at containing the disease in Africa. Congress allocated $5.4billion to fight Ebola in response to the Obama administration request. Burwell and other Obama administration officials sought to assure the public that the American health system was prepared to deal with Ebola cases and that the chances of a full outbreak in the United States were low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42345073",
"title": "Western African Ebola virus epidemic",
"section": "Section::::Responses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "In September 2014, the United Nations Security Council declared the Ebola virus outbreak in Western Africa \"a threat to international peace and security\" and unanimously adopted a resolution urging UN member states to provide more resources to fight the outbreak. In October, WHO and the UN Mission for Ebola Emergency Response announced a comprehensive 90-day plan to control and reverse the Ebola epidemic. The ultimate goal was to have capacity in place for the isolation of 100% of Ebola cases and the safe burial of 100% of casualties by 1 January 2015 (the 90-day target). Many nations and charitable organizations cooperated to realise the plan, and a WHO situation report published mid-December indicated that the international community was on track to meet the 90-day target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16cahj
|
I few Warp Drive questions.
|
[
{
"answer": "IIRC, there would be no significant time dilation using an Alcubierre metric because it is space itself moving. Inside the bubble the object has locally zero velocity, but I could be wrong. Therefore I think that only four weeks would pass. It also would not create any G-force since the spaceship is not being accelerated, space itself is moving. \nCan't answer the last question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56197",
"title": "Warp Drive",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "One supervisor, Jim Burton of Blue Ridge, tried to be serious. He reminded the board that \"warp\" had other meanings. \"You need to think about it before you vote on it\" he warned. \"Would you prefer 'Beam me up, Scotty?'\", the board's chairman replied. In the end the vote was unanimous. \"What more uplifting motion could there possibly be than something that will literally make law out of a Star Trek joke?\" concluded Miller. \"It's a great idea. I look forward to driving on Warp Drive myself.\" Orbital agreed to reimburse the county for the approximately $500 it would cost to replace the street sign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55278",
"title": "Warp drive",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "A warp drive is a theoretical superluminal spacecraft propulsion system in many science fiction works, most notably \"Star Trek\" and \"I, Robot\" by Isaac Asimov. A spacecraft equipped with a warp drive may travel at speeds greater than that of light by many orders of magnitude. In contrast to some other fictitious FTL technologies such as a jump drive, the warp drive does not permit instantaneous travel between two points, but rather involves a measurable passage of time which is pertinent to the concept. In contrast to hyperdrive, spacecraft at warp velocity would continue to interact with objects in \"normal space.\" The general concept of \"warp drive\" was introduced by John W. Campbell in his 1931 novel \"Islands of Space\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42241533",
"title": "Build the Enterprise",
"section": "Section::::Warp drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "In Houston, Texas, at the Johnson Space Center, Harold White is working to create a warp drive that could be used for propulsion. Although this project is not related to the project proposed by BTE Dan, it could still possibly be used in a future version of the \"Enterprise\". The project is based on Miguel Alcubierre's spacetime metric. The warp drive would allow the ship to travel faster than the speed of light by compressing space around it to create a moving bubble. As of yet however, there still remain many problems with the theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1951200",
"title": "First Flight (Star Trek: Enterprise)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1277,
"text": "Warp drive was first mentioned in Gene Roddenberry's first-draft pitch for \"Star Trek\", dated March 11, 1964, although in that version it was referred to as a \"space-warp drive\". The drive allows for a vessel to travel faster than the speed of light by warping space-time around the ship itself. In 1994, physicist Miguel Alcubierre created the theoretical Alcubierre drive, which used a similar theory. In the \"Star Trek\" universe, Zefram Cochrane invented the drive in 2063. Cochrane was portrayed by James Cromwell in the film \"\" and re-appeared in this role in the pilot of \"Enterprise\", \"\". That episode showed the culmination of the development of the warp 5 engine, which was designed by Jonathan Archer's father, Henry, in the launch of the \"Enterprise\" itself. The Vulcans during this period gave oversight and advice to Starfleet in the development of the warp drive, but sought to slow the progress of the humans. \"First Flight\" showed a previously unseen period in the development of the fictional warp drive, with the pursuit of the warp 2 barrier. The dark matter seen in this episode is a real phenomenon, however it is unclear exactly what it is. It cannot be seen by telescopes, and it is theorised that it makes up a great deal of the matter in the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55278",
"title": "Warp drive",
"section": "Section::::\"Star Trek\".:Original warp scale – \"The Original Series\", \"The Animated Series\", \"Enterprise\", and \"Discovery\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Warp drive is one of the fundamental features of the \"Star Trek\" franchise; in the first pilot episode of \"\", \"The Cage\", it is referred to as a \"hyperdrive\", with Captain Pike stating the speed to reach planet Talos IV as \"time warp, factor 7\". When beginning to explain travel times to the illusion survivors (before being interrupted by the sight of Vina), crewmember Jose stated that \"the time barrier's been broken\", allowing a group of interstellar travelers to return to Earth far sooner than would have otherwise been possible. Later in the pilot, when Spock is faced with the only action of escaping, he announces to the crew they have no choice but to leave, stating \"Our time warp factor...\" before the ship's systems start failing. In the second pilot for the original series, \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\", \"time\" was dropped from the speed setting with Kirk ordering speeds in simple \"Ahead Warp Factor One\", etc. that became so familiar from then on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "570253",
"title": "Force of Nature (Star Trek: The Next Generation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "\"Force of Nature\" (, E09) is the 161st episode of the American science fiction television series \"\". In this episode, a pair of sibling scientists show that warp drive propulsion is harming the very fabric of space -- an implied metaphor for global climate change (which is mentioned explicitly in the episode's final scene). A sub-plot involves Data attempting to train his pet cat, Spot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44017873",
"title": "Negative energy",
"section": "Section::::Speculative suggestions.:Warp drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "A theoretical principle for a faster-than-light (FTL) warp drive for spaceships has been suggested, involving negative energy. The Alcubierre drive comprises a solution to Einstein's equations of general relativity, in which a bubble of spacetime is moved rapidly by expanding space behind it and shrinking space in front of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1n5owg
|
i've been diagnosed with tenitus (loud ringing in the ears) what's making my brain generate that noise?
|
[
{
"answer": "You didn't ask the person who diagnosed you?\n\nAlso, it's tinnitus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm also suprised you didn't ask the diagnoser.\n\nThe brain is interpreting something and producing the ringing. There are several ways this can happen. Damage to the ear drum, damage to the hairs in the cochlea, damage to the nerves going to the hearing processing centers of the brain, damage of the processing centers themselves, damage to the small bones of the ears...\n\nBut it just is what it is now. I play music at night, seems to help. And zzzquil. OMG awesome stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555553",
"title": "Unilateral hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Profound unilateral hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "BULLET::::- For sensorineural hearing loss, the lack of input coming from the damaged sensory apparatus can cause \"ghost beeps\" or ringing/tinnitus as the brain attempts to interpret the now missing sensory data. The frequency and the volume of the noise can increase according to one's physical condition (stress, fatigue, etc.). This can aggravate social problems and increase the difficulty of speech comprehension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19414028",
"title": "Misophonia",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Misophonia's mechanism is not known, but it appears that, like hyperacusis, it may be caused by a dysfunction of the central auditory system in the brain and not of the ears. The perceived origin and context of the sound appears to be essential to trigger a reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1187487",
"title": "Sensorineural hearing loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "\"Sensory\" hearing loss often occurs as a consequence of damaged or deficient cochlear hair cells. Hair cells may be abnormal at birth, or damaged during the lifetime of an individual. There are both external causes of damage, including infection, and ototoxic drugs, as well as intrinsic causes, including genetic mutations. A common cause or exacerbating factor in SNHL is prolonged exposure to environmental noise, or noise-induced hearing loss. Exposure to a single very loud noise such as a gun shot or bomb blast can cause noise-induced hearing loss. Using headphones at high volume over time, or being in loud environments regularly, such as a loud workplace, sporting events, concerts, and using lawn equipment can also be a risk for noise-induced hearing loss. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Physiological relevance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Synaptic noise is not only caused by mass signaling from surrounding neuronal impulses, but also from the direct signaling within the neuron itself. During episodes of epilepsy, the impulses fired are of greater magnitude and frequency than normal. Transient signaling, or more specifically noise, may shorten the resting potential in order to allow for quicker neural firing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6494584",
"title": "Harry Farr",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "It is now thought by professionals that Farr was possibly suffering from hyperacusis, which occurs when the olivocochlear bundle in the inner ear is damaged, causing it to lose its ability to soften and filter sound, making loud noises physically unbearable (auditory efferent dysfunction). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3474296",
"title": "Neuronal noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Neuronal noise or neural noise refers to the random intrinsic electrical fluctuations within neuronal networks. These fluctuations are not associated with encoding a response to internal or external stimuli and can be from one to two orders of magnitude. Most noise commonly occurs below a voltage-threshold that is needed for an action potential to occur, but sometimes it can be present in the form of an action potential; for example, stochastic oscillations in pacemaker neurons in suprachiasmatic nucleus are partially responsible for the organization of circadian rhythms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892612",
"title": "Blast injury",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Primary injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Extensive damage can also be inflicted upon the auditory system. The tympanic membrane (also known as the eardrum) may be perforated by the intensity of the pressure waves. Furthermore, the hair cells, the sound receptors found within the cochlea, can be permanently damaged and can result in a hearing loss of a mild to profound degree. Additionally, the intensity of the pressure changes from the blast can cause injury to the blood vessels and neural pathways within the auditory system. Therefore, affected individuals can have auditory processing deficits while having normal hearing thresholds. The combination of these effects can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, headache, vertigo (dizziness), and difficulty processing sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7mfr15
|
Why did Russian life expectancy drop massively in 1993?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up: how reliable would pre-1993 numbers be? Would the Soviet Union fudge its statistics on a subject like this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Broader question: what level of confidence do historians have in Soviet statistics? Is there a reason we might just think that the previous numbers were somehow deflated to look more favorable when presenting to leadership?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a [massive famine](_URL_1_). When Boris Yeltsin liberalized the economy in 1992, speculators came in and basically broke the Russian wholesale markets, causing massive price spikes. Inflation rose 2,500% in 1992. \n\nPreviously, the USSR had price controls for most foods, meat, dairy, wheat, etc. After prices were liberalized, the Russian diet shifted tremendously. People were unable to get, or afford, meat and diary products especially and only low-nutritive-value foods were widely available, i.e. potatoes and bread. \n\nAn additional issue wasn't just that food was too expensive, but that low quality substitutes came onto the market. Dangerous, toxic food substitutes. Poisoning and food-bourne illnesses were common. And mind you, this wasn't the healthiest population to begin with, as the old Soviet food systems weren't exactly renown for being particularly nutritious. \n\nAdd to all of this the end of subsidies to the Soviet health-care system and the end result is a huge swell in fatalities that continued on until the IMF helped Russia get on its economic feet in 1995, resulting in life expectancy rising agin in 1996. \n\n\nEdit: [Here's an interesting Rand Corp. paper on Russian mortality trends](_URL_0_). Interestingly, they pin a large number of deaths on excess alcohol consumption following the collapse of the Soviet empire. Wow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try and answer the best that I can, but it was a lot of reasons.\n\nCrime rapidly increases from 1991-1994.\n\nDue to the centralized collapse of the regime in the former USSR the Russian Mafia or small cliches called 'bandity' took over cities and towns all over Russia. The murder rates from 1993-1994 are one of the highest points of Russian crime rates in the Russian Federation. The police forces were either corrupted, understaffed, or ill-equipped or all above to deal with the large increase of gangs and mob rule over the major cities especially St. Petersburg which brings us to..\n\n\nThe Russian Drugs Crisis.\n\nCocaine, Opium, Cannabis, Heroin, and whatever there's a market for there's a demand for it and there was a huge demand for drugs. The borders collapsed, everyone can either leave the country very cheaply or simply walk out.. or come in easily. Drug trade exploded during this period because of the collapse of Border Guards and the reformation period of the military/police during this period means that it was impossible to secure or stop drugs from coming in from South America, Eurasia, etc, etc.\n\n\n\nThe older generation suffered the most.\n\nThe massive amount of smoking and drinking among the older population due to large stress of the collapse of the country from 1990-1994.\n\nThe older generation and those who didn't want to risk jail or death? Tobacco and alcohol use exploded after the collapse of the Soviet government meaning that once again more people died from car accidents, accidents, alcohol poisoning, cancer, etc, etc.\n\n\n\nHealthcare System utterly collapsed.\n\nHeart disease, heart attacks, strokes, and all kind of cardiovascular diseases killed off the middle to older generations of Russians in large amounts. Due to the stress, depression, sickness like the flu, and the unhealthy eating or lack of proper diet due to the collapsed of common good and services during this turmoil period and the medical services were just unable to give basic care to the older generations.\n\n\n\nFrozen conflicts\n\nRegions around Russia or where Russia is involved with such as the Chechen War for example saw a huge decrease in life expectancy because it was a war zone and the surrounding regions were suffering from large refugee, bandits, mob rule, corrupted arm forces on many sides. The list goes on and on.\n\nSources: _URL_0_\n\nJonathan Daniel Weiler (2004) - Human Rights in Russia: A Darker Side of Reform. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 36. ISBN 1-58826-279-0.\n\nAbraham Bob Hoogenboom (1997). Policing the Future. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 121. ISBN 90-411-0416-X.\n\nCrime in the Soviet Era Federal Research Division, Library of Congress\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25703",
"title": "Demographics of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Health.:Life expectancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The life expectancy was about 70 in 1986, prior to the transition-induced disruption of the healthcare system. The turmoil in the early 1990s caused life expectancy in Russia to steadily decrease while it was steadily increasing in the rest of the world. Recently however, Russian life expectancy has again begun to rise. Between 2006—2011 the male life expectancy in Russia rose by almost four years, increasing the overall life expectancy by nearly 4 years to 70.3.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52630",
"title": "History of Russia (1991–present)",
"section": "Section::::Reforms.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Public health indicators show a dramatic corresponding decline. Although all post-Soviet countries experience an immediate decline in birth-rates due to economic turmoil this may have been particularly acute in Russia. In 1999, total population fell by about three-quarters of a million people. Meanwhile, life expectancy dropped for men from 64 years in 1990 to 57 years by 1994, while women's dropped from 74 to about 71. Both health factors and a sharp increase in deaths of the youth demographic from unnatural causes (such as murders, suicides, and accidents) have significantly contributed to this trend. Closely related to the declining life expectancy, alcohol-related deaths skyrocketed 60% in the 1990s and deaths from infectious and parasitic diseases shot up 100%, mainly because medicines were no longer affordable to the poor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25703",
"title": "Demographics of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Main trends.:Demographic crisis and recovery prospects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In 2018, the number of births kept falling, but at much slower pace. However, the number of deaths didn't decline by as much as it did the previous year because whilst life expectancy improved, the population aged leading to a higher mortality rate. By 2020 around 25.7% of Russians will be over 60 years, which is nearly double the percentage in 1985 of 12.7%. By the middle of the century it is possible that more than a third of the population will be over 60, similar to modern Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7720531",
"title": "Criticism of communist party rule",
"section": "Section::::Areas of criticism.:Social development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "After 1965, life expectancy began to plateau or even decrease, especially for males, in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe while it continued to increase in Western Europe. This divergence between two parts of Europe continued over the course of three decades, leading to a profound gap in the mid-1990s. Life expectancy sharply declined after the change to market economy in most of the states of the former Soviet Union, but may now have started to increase in the Baltic states. In several Eastern European nations, life expectancy started to increase immediately after the fall of communism. The previous decline for males continued for a time in some Eastern European nations, like Romania, before starting to increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98606",
"title": "Demographics of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Population dynamics in the 1970s and 1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the situation for adult mortality began to improve again. Referring to data for the two decades ending in 1989-1990, while noting some abatement in adult mortality rates in the Soviet republics in the 1980s, Ward Kingkade and Eduardo Arriaga characterized this situation as follows: \"All of the former Soviet countries have followed the universal tendency for mortality to decline as infectious diseases are brought under control while death rates from degenerative diseases rise. What is exceptional in the former Soviet countries and some of their East European neighbors is that a subsequent increase in mortality from causes other than infectious disease has brought about overall rises in mortality from all causes combined. Another distinctive characteristic of the former Soviet case is the presence of unusually high levels of mortality from accidents and other external causes, which are typically associated with alcoholism.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12583841",
"title": "Ageing of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Countries.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The improving economy has had a positive impact on the country's low birth-rate, as it rose from its lowest point of 8.27 births per 1000 people in 1999 to 11.28 per 1,000 in 2007. Russian Ministry of Economic Development hopes that by 2020 the population will stabilise at 138–139 million, and that by 2025 it will begin to increase again to its present-day status of 142–145, also raising the life expectancy to 75 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98606",
"title": "Demographics of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Population.:Life expectancy and infant mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "After the October revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. A newborn child in 1926-27 had a life expectancy of 44.4 years, up from 32.3 years thirty years before. In 1958-59 the life expectancy for newborns went up to 68.6 years. This improvement was seen in itself by some as immediate proof that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. The life expectancy in Soviet Union were fairly stable during most years, although in the 1970s went slightly down probably because of alcohol abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
774jpx
|
What was the Communist Party of Korea like during the Japanese occupation, and how did Kim Il-Sung seize complete control over it after the establishment of North Korea?
|
[
{
"answer": "About a year ago i answered a [similar question](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10576133",
"title": "Communist Party of Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The party became the Korean section of the Communist International at the 6th congress of the international in August–September 1928. But after only a few months as the Korean Comintern section, the perpetual feuds between rival factions that had plagued the party from its foundation led the Comintern to disband the Communist Party of Korea in December the same year. However, the party continued to exist through various party cells. Some communists, like Kim Il-sung went into exile in China, where they joined the Communist Party of China. In the early 1930s Korean and Chinese communists began guerrilla activity against the Japanese forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14487612",
"title": "Communism in Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "The Communist movement in Korea emerged as a political movement in the early 20th century. Although the movement had a minor role in pre-war politics, the division between the communist North Korea and the anti-communist South Korea came to dominate Korean political life in the post-World War II era. North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, continues to be a \"Juche\" \"socialist\" state under the rule of the Workers' Party of Korea. In South Korea, communism remains illegal through the National Security Law. Due to end of economic aid from Soviet Union after its dissolution in 1991 and impractical ideological application of Stalinist policies in North Korea over years of economic slowdown in the 1980s and receding during the 1990s, North Korea replaced Communism with the Juche ideology in its 1992 and 1998 constitutional revisions for the personality cult of Kim's family dictatorship and (albeit reluctanly) opening of North Korean market economy reform, though it still retains a command economy with complete state control of industry and agriculture. North Korea maintains collectivized farms and state-funded education and healthcare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3240526",
"title": "Pak Hon-yong",
"section": "Section::::Life.:After World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Late in August 1945, the Communist Party of Korea(조선 공산당) was re-established, having been officially disbanded in 1928, and Pak became its secretary. On 5 January 1946, as its representative, he announced at a foreign and domestic press conference that, supporting the decision of the Moscow conference of great powers (UK, US, Soviet Union), Korea was now in the process of a \"democratic revolution\". After Moscow Conference (1945) his organization the Communist Party of Korea had been oppressed by United States Army Military Government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14487612",
"title": "Communism in Korea",
"section": "Section::::Founding of the Communist Party of Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "The Communist Party of Korea was founded during a secret meeting in Seoul in 1925. The leaders of the party were Kim Yong-bom and Pak Hon-yong. The party became the Korean section of the Communist International at the 6th congress of the International in August–September 1928. But after only a few months as the Korean Comintern section, the perpetual feuds between rival factions that had plagued the party from its foundation led the Comintern to disband the Communist Party of Korea in December the same year. However, the party continued to exist through various party cells. Some Korean communists went into exile in China, where they participated in the early years of Communist Party of China. In the early 1930s Korean and Chinese communists began guerrilla activity against the Japanese forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10576133",
"title": "Communist Party of Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The Communist Party of Korea () was a communist party in Korea. It was founded during a secret meeting in Seoul in 1925. The Governor-General of Korea had banned communist parties under the Peace Preservation Law (see History of Korea), so the party had to operate in a clandestine manner. The leaders of the party were Kim Yong-bom and Pak Hon-yong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21594397",
"title": "New People's Party of Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "On 22 July 1946 the northern section of the Communist Party of Korea joined with the New People's Party, the Democratic Party and the Party of Young Friends of the Celestial Way (supporters of an influential religious sect) to form the United Democratic National Front which put all of North Korea's parties under the \"leading role\" of the Communists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55800148",
"title": "Zhu Dehai",
"section": "Section::::Korean Minority Leadership.:Chinese Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "After the end of the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied Korea. While many Korean communists returned to an independent Korea, which they assumed would soon be unified, Zhu expected that the division of Korea would be perpetual. Hence, he believed that Korean communists in the CCP should rather take over former Manchurian territory in which more than a million of Korean minorities were residing. Once the communist party occupies the northeast, then communists could recruit and train a Korean army that could consolidate the divided Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11c3gd
|
musical intervals (with emphasis on guitar)
|
[
{
"answer": "The simplest way to describe an interval is that it's the number of semitones between two notes. There are 12 semitones in an octave and each one has a special name. Here's what that would look like using a C chromatic scale:\n\n* 12. Octave (C)\n* 11. Major 7th (B)\n* 10. Minor 7th (Bb)\n* 9. Major 6th (A)\n* 8. Minor 6th (Ab)\n* 7. Perfect 5th (G)\n* 6. Tritone (Gb)\n* 5. Perfect 4th (F)\n* 4. Major 3rd (E)\n* 3. Minor 3rd (Eb)\n* 2. Major 2nd (D)\n* 1. Minor 2nd (Db)\n* 0. Root (C)\n\nYou might notice that the intervals labelled \"major\" match up with the notes of the major scale, and the ones labelled \"minor\" are in the minor scale (except for the minor 2nd, which gets no love). The perfect intervals are the most harmonious intervals, and appear in both scales, while the \"tritone\" is a special interval that is extremely dissonant and is in neither scale. For intervals larger than an octave, the cycle repeats again (starting with minor 9th because the octave is the 8th note).\n\nEDIT: Since you asked for an emphasis on guitar, I made you [this diagram](_URL_0_) as an illustration. If you're playing in C (root note 3rd fret on A), the number on the diagram matches up with the interval on the list.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2652244",
"title": "List of pitch intervals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "For commonly encountered harmonic or melodic intervals between pairs of notes in contemporary Western music theory, without consideration of the way in which they are tuned, see Interval (music) § Main intervals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49171",
"title": "Interval (music)",
"section": "Section::::Pitch-class intervals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In atonal or musical set theory, there are numerous types of intervals, the first being the ordered pitch interval, the distance between two pitches upward or downward. For instance, the interval from C upward to G is 7, and the interval from G downward to C is −7. One can also measure the distance between two pitches without taking into account direction with the unordered pitch interval, somewhat similar to the interval of tonal theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16141",
"title": "Jazz guitar",
"section": "Section::::Musical ingredients.:Rhythm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Jazz rhythm guitar often consists of very textural, odd-meter playing that includes generous use of exotic, difficult-to-fret chords. In 4/4 timing, it is common to play 2.5 beat intervals such as on the 2 and then the half beat or \"and\" after 4. Jazz guitarists may play chords \"ahead\" of the beat, by playing the chord a swung eighth note before the actual chord change. Chords are not generally played in a repetitive rhythmic fashion, like a rock rhythm guitarist would play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77933",
"title": "Pitch (music)",
"section": "Section::::Labeling pitches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Human perception of musical intervals is approximately logarithmic with respect to fundamental frequency: the perceived interval between the pitches \"A220\" and \"A440\" is the same as the perceived interval between the pitches \"A440\" and \"A880\". Motivated by this logarithmic perception, music theorists sometimes represent pitches using a numerical scale based on the logarithm of fundamental frequency. For example, one can adopt the widely used MIDI standard to map fundamental frequency, \"f\", to a real number, \"p\", as follows\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5643937",
"title": "Music and mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Frequency and harmony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "A musical scale is a discrete set of pitches used in making or describing music. The most important scale in the Western tradition is the diatonic scale but many others have been used and proposed in various historical eras and parts of the world. Each pitch corresponds to a particular frequency, expressed in hertz (Hz), sometimes referred to as cycles per second (c.p.s.). A scale has an interval of repetition, normally the octave. The octave of any pitch refers to a frequency exactly twice that of the given pitch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49171",
"title": "Interval (music)",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations and non-pitch uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The term \"interval\" can also be generalized to other music elements besides pitch. David Lewin's \"Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations\" uses interval as a generic measure of distance between time points, timbres, or more abstract musical phenomena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "275768",
"title": "Counting",
"section": "Section::::Inclusive counting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Musical terminology also uses inclusive counting of intervals between notes of the standard scale: going up one note is a second interval, going up two notes is a third interval, etc., and going up seven notes is an \"octave\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4y3laa
|
when people that are lactose intolerant eat or drink dairy, what exactly is happening inside their stomach when diarrhea occurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "So lactose intolerance happens when someone's body does not create enough [lactase](_URL_1_). Lactase is an [enzyme](_URL_4_) that would break down [lactose](_URL_3_), the unique sugar component of milk, into sugar that our bodies can use for energy. Lactose intolerant people have issues with breaking down the lactose in their small intestines, which is a part of the digestive tract after the stomach that is responsible for absorbing a great amount of the nutritional stuff that goes through our body. So when a lactose passes through the small intestine and into the large intestine it removes water from the colon lining (through [osmosis](_URL_0_?)) and causes excessive runny poops. Much of the more complicated answer involves [microbial communities](_URL_2_).\n\nEdit: added a bunch of links in case you get carried away with this question and want to learn more but appreciate quick links. Additionally, did you know in some Asian communities over 90% of individuals experience some level of lactose intolerance? This fun fact also brings up the important distinction that not all lactose intolerance is equal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "extra credit: why/how is it possible to overcome this allergy over time? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56873",
"title": "Lactose intolerance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to the decreased ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. These symptoms typically start thirty minutes to two hours after eating or drinking milk-based food. Severity typically depends on the amount a person eats or drinks. Lactose intolerance does not cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5558520",
"title": "Milk allergy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.:Lactose intolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Milk allergy is distinct from lactose intolerance, which is a nonallergic food sensitivity, due to the lack of the enzyme lactase in the small intestines to break lactose down into glucose and galactose. The unabsorbed lactose reaches the large intestine, where resident bacteria use it for fuel, releasing hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane gases. These gases are the cause of abdominal pain and other symptoms. Lactose intolerance does not cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract. There are four types: primary, secondary, developmental, and congenital. Primary lactose intolerance is when the amount of lactase declines as people age. Secondary lactose intolerance is due to injury to the small intestine, such as from infection, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, or other diseases. Developmental lactose intolerance may occur in premature babies and usually improves over a short period of time. Congenital lactose intolerance is an extremely rare genetic disorder in which little or no lactase is made from birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2753115",
"title": "Milk substitute",
"section": "Section::::Lactose intolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Lactose is the major sugar found in dairy milk. Lactose intolerance occurs when an individual is deficient in the enzyme lactase, which breaks down the lactose in the intestine. Bloating, cramps, constipation, or diarrhea may result when an individual who is lactose intolerant consumes a dairy product. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition and health.:Lactose intolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Lactose, the disaccharide sugar component of all milk, must be cleaved in the small intestine by the enzyme lactase, in order for its constituents, galactose and glucose, to be absorbed. Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to not enough of the enzyme lactase in the small intestines. Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop. These may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. Severity depends on the amount a person eats or drinks. Those affected are usually able to drink at least one cup of milk without developing significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated if drunk with a meal or throughout the day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56873",
"title": "Lactose intolerance",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The principal symptom of lactose intolerance is an adverse reaction to products containing lactose (primarily milk), including abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhea, nausea, borborygmi, and vomiting (particularly in adolescents). These appear one-half to two hours after consumption. The severity of symptoms typically increases with the amount of lactose consumed; most lactose-intolerant people can tolerate a certain level of lactose in their diets without ill effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1705387",
"title": "Health of Charles Darwin",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.:Other possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Food intolerance and lactase deficiency may also be confused with food allergies. Symptoms include difficulty swallowing and breathing, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Upon reaching several other organs in the body, allergens can cause hives, eczema, lightheadedness, weakness, hypotension, etc. This has been proposed as the source of Darwin's illness, but the hypothesis is improbable, because, as with lactose intolerance, its temporal and causal relationship with food is easily established, and this was not always the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "736674",
"title": "Enterocyte",
"section": "Section::::Disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lactose intolerance is the most common problem of carbohydrate digestion and occurs when the human body doesn't produce a sufficient amount of lactase (a disaccharidase) enzyme to break down the sugar lactose found in dairy. As a result of this deficiency, undigested lactose is not absorbed and is instead passed on to the colon. There bacteria metabolize the lactose and in doing so release gas and metabolic products that enhance colonic motility. This causes gas and other uncomfortable symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zvlf7
|
is modern industry able to make cheap paper not from wood?
|
[
{
"answer": "Paper gets made from fibres such as linen, too, and a lot of paper is recycled. It would come down to cost, whether synthetic polymers would do the job and be cost-effective (i.e. cheaper).\n\nTyvek® has many of the properties of paper - e.g, it's flexible and you can write on it - but it's more expensive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question is though... What's wrong with paper from wood? The paper industry plants as many trees as they cut down nowadays, to make sure they will be able to still make paper in the future. It's not like massive forests are disappearing because of paper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even if we could make paper cheaper, faster, and better from synthetic sources, we may not want to. Paper is biodegradable, recyclable, and comes from an infinitely renewable source (trees and other plants). The most likely alt would be some sort of petroleum product, which is non-renewable and often non-biodegradable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Really there just isn't a good alternative that's biodegradable and cheap. Also can't believe no one has commented talking about hemp paper haha",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19795082",
"title": "Tree-free paper",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Paper manufacturing is highly competitive, with historically tight margins and small operating profits. As a result, the raw materials used to make paper have to be very cost effective, using cheap, scalable renewable resources, coupled with relatively inexpensive ways to deliver large quantities to market. Until recently, commercial tree farming, has been shaped to account for these tight operating margins and supply cost limitations. Virtually all paper, however, requires massive cutting, replanting and re-cutting of wide swaths of forest. These limitations have made wood pulped farm grown supply stock the paper industry's overwhelming scalable raw material of choice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215844",
"title": "Pulp (paper)",
"section": "Section::::Wood pulp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Some of the most commonly used softwood trees for paper making include spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. There is also increasing interest in genetically modified tree species (such as GM eucalyptus and GM poplar), because of several major benefits these can provide, such as increased ease of breaking down lignin and increased growth rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215844",
"title": "Pulp (paper)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1575,
"text": "Using wood pulp to make paper is a fairly recent innovation, that was almost concurrent to the invention of automatic papermaking machines, both together resulting in paper and cardboard becoming an inexpensive commodity in modern times. Although the first use of paper made from wood pulp dates from 1800, as seen in some pages of a book published by Matthias Koops that year in London, large-scale wood paper production began with the development of mechanical pulping in Germany by Friedrich Gottlob Keller in the 1840s, and by the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia, Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roth's use of sulfurous acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghman's U.S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca(HSO), to pulp wood in 1867. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built, in Sweden. It used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, surpassing mechanical pulping methods. The competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879; the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the recovery boiler, by G.H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals. This, along with the ability of the kraft process to accept a wider variety of types of wood and to produce stronger fibres, made the kraft process the dominant pulping process, starting in the 1940s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524589",
"title": "Paper recycling",
"section": "Section::::Rationale for recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1396,
"text": "Today, 40% of paper pulp is created from wood (in most modern mills only 9-16% of pulp is made from pulp logs; the rest comes from waste wood that was traditionally burnt). Paper production accounts for about 35% of felled trees, and represents 1.2% of the world's total economic output. Recycling one ton of newsprint saves about 1 ton of wood while recycling 1 ton of printing or copier paper saves slightly more than 2 tons of wood. This is because kraft pulping requires twice as much wood since it removes lignin to produce higher quality fibres than mechanical pulping processes. Relating tons of paper recycled to the number of trees not cut is meaningless, since tree size varies tremendously and is the major factor in how much paper can be made from how many trees. Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance. Most pulp mill operators practice reforestation to ensure a continuing supply of trees. The Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certify paper made from trees harvested according to guidelines meant to ensure good forestry practices. It has been estimated that recycling half the world's paper would avoid the harvesting of 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of forestland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16861908",
"title": "Paper",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142475",
"title": "Papermaking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "While monitoring, regulations and action by concerned citizens, as well as improvements within the industry itself are limiting the worst abuses, papermaking continues to be of concern from an environmental perspective, due to its use of harsh chemicals, its need for large amounts of water, and the resulting contamination risks, as well as trees being used as the primary source of wood pulp. Paper made from other fibers, cotton being the most common, tends to be valued higher than wood-based paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215844",
"title": "Pulp (paper)",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to wood pulp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Non-wood pulp made from rags, or from linters (short fibers discarded by the textile industry), is still manufactured today mostly as a pricey product perceived as being of better quality, especially for the art market and so-called \"archival\" paper. The modern source fiber is most often cotton, with a much higher value given to paper made from linen, hemp, abaca, kōzo or other fibers. 100% cotton, or a combination of cotton and linen pulp is used for certificates, currency, and passports. Abaca pulp has very long, strong fibers, and is used for teabags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pqlq3
|
how hard would it be to just unplug all of n. korea from the internet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not that hard but China's assistance would be a prerequisite. But that goes against all ethical reasoning in that the internet should be available to all.\n\nEven if you did, the chances are that the Sony hack was conducted from outside N. Korea. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technically easy, they're decades behind in infrastructure, and I doubt they have many trunk lines or much redundancy. I'd actually be surprised if they had more than one or two physical lines. Blocking satellite access would be a lot harder, of course.\n\nBut it wouldn't have the effect you want, because it won't stop them from \"hacking\" sony or whatever they feel like next time. It's pretty likely that attack wasn't even done from within north korea, and virtually certain they relied on non koreans anyways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's pretty hard to unplug a country that doesn't have electricity. North Korea's hackers work all over the world to cover their tracks and utilize free wifi hotspots that they don't have in Pyongyang.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11356755",
"title": "Censorship in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Internet policies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Internet access is not generally available in North Korea. Only some high-level officials are allowed to access the global internet. In most universities, a small number of strictly monitored computers are provided. Other citizens may get access only to the country's national intranet, called Kwangmyong. Foreigners can access the internet using the 3G phone network. However, the IT industry has been growing and Internet access is starting to increase within North Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31575328",
"title": "Internet censorship in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Political censorship.:Discussion about North Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "South Korea has banned at least 65 sites considered sympathetic to North Korea through the use of IP blocking. Most North Korean websites are hosted overseas in the United States, Japan and China. Critics say that the only practical way of blocking a webpage is by denying its IP address, and since many of the North Korean sites are hosted on large servers together with hundreds of other sites, the impact on the number of real blocked pages increase significantly. Estimates are that over 3,000 additional webpages are rendered inaccessible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18251329",
"title": "Kwangmyong (network)",
"section": "Section::::Information control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Foreigners in North Korea are generally not allowed to access Kwangmyong but may have access to the global Internet. For security reasons networks with Internet and intranet access are air gapped so that computers with Internet access are not housed in the same location as computers with Kwangmyong access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60577749",
"title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Asia",
"section": "Section::::Substantial censorship or surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "South Korea uses IP address blocking to ban web sites considered sympathetic to North Korea. Illegal websites, such as those offering unrated games, file sharing, pornography, and gambling, are also blocked. Any attempts to bypass this is enforced with the \"three-strikes\" program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15500531",
"title": "Internet in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Government use of the Internet.:Hackers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "In December 2014, North Korea was accused of a hack attack on Sony Pictures Entertainment. From 19–21 December, North Korea experienced technical difficulties with Internet access. On December 22, North Korea suffered a complete Internet link failure, resulting in loss of Internet access from outside the country for which the United States is suspected. On 23 December, nine hours after the outage, the country regained Internet access, albeit \"partial and potentially unstable with other websites still inaccessible.\" On 22–24 December, North Korea experienced seven more Internet outages, including two on 23 December. On 27 December, the country experienced an outage on Internet (the third time of the year) and a mobile network. A similar outage, lasting for one and a half days, occurred in March 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18251329",
"title": "Kwangmyong (network)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Only tourists and a small number of government officials are allowed to use the global Internet in North Korea, making Kwangmyong the only computer network available to most North Korean citizens. It is a free service for public use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15500531",
"title": "Internet in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Service providers and access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1627,
"text": "Permission to access the Internet remains tightly restricted. However, the IT industry has been growing and Internet access is gradually increasing within North Korea. In October 2010, the website of the Korean Central News Agency went live from a web server hosted in North Korea. It is accessible globally on a North Korean IP address, marking the country's first known direct connection to the Internet. Around the same time, on 9 October, journalists visiting Pyongyang for the Workers' Party's 65th anniversary celebrations were given access to a press room with Internet connectivity. , 1,024 IP addresses are known to exist in North Korea, although \"The New York Times\" journalists David E. Sanger and Nicole Perlroth believe that the actual number may be higher. The total amount of Internet users is estimated at no more than a few thousand. People who can access the Internet without limits are claimed to be high-ranking officials, members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government ambassadors. Kim Jong-il was said to have loved \"surfing the net\". According to Ofer Gayer, a security researcher of Incapsula, the country's total web traffic footprint has been less than that of the Falkland Islands. According to Joo Seong-ha, a \"The Dong-a Ilbo\" journalist and a North Korean defector, as of 2014, the government's intranet Kwangmyong has been used to limit the general public's global Internet usage, especially in hotels. Although available in most campuses, the government has \"strictly monitored the Internet usage\". Many citizens of North Korea may be unaware of the existence of the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cn679
|
why do analog tv broadcasts still exist in the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "Low Power TV stations are still allowed to transmit in analog in the United States. The current deadline for them to convert to digital is Sept 1, 2015.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "229460",
"title": "Sporadic E propagation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "On June 12, 2009, sporadic E allowed some television viewers in the eastern United States to see VHF analog TV stations from other states at great distances, in places and on TV channels where local stations had already done their permanent analog shutdown on the final day of the DTV transition in the United States. This was possible because VHF has been mostly avoided by digital TV stations, leaving the analog stations the last ones on the band. It is still possible (as of April, 2010) for many Americans to see Canadian and Mexican analog stations in this manner when sporadic-E occurs, until those countries do their own analog shutdowns over the following few years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1598357",
"title": "Radio in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Recent developments.:HD Radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Over time AM and FM analog transmissions have started to become considered to be outdated, because digital transmissions have been developed that provide high quality signals using less bandwidth. In the United States, FCC mandates have resulted in analog over-the-air TV transmissions to be almost completely replaced by digital ones. In contrast, for radio broadcasting the FCC has adopted a dual analog-digital hybrid approach, permitting but not requiring stations to add digital signals to their existing analog ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497303",
"title": "Digital terrestrial television",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 232,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 232,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "In the United States on 12 June 2009, all full-power U.S. television broadcasts became exclusively digital, under the Digital Television and Public Safety Act of 2005. Furthermore, since 1 March 2007, new television sets that receive signals over the air, including pocket-sized portable televisions, include ATSC digital tuners for digital broadcasts. Prior to 12 June 2009, most U.S. broadcasters were transmitting in both analog and digital formats; a few were digital only. Most U.S. stations were not permitted to shut down their analog transmissions prior to 16 February 2009 unless doing so was required in order to complete work on a station's permanent digital facilities. In 2009, the FCC finished auctioning channels 52–59 (the lower half of the 700 MHz band) for other communications services, completing the reallocation of broadcast channels 52–69 that began in the late 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33094374",
"title": "Telecommunication",
"section": "Section::::Modern media.:Radio and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "However, despite the pending switch to digital, analog television remains being transmitted in most countries. An exception is the United States that ended analog television transmission (by all but the very low-power TV stations) on 12 June 2009 after twice delaying the switchover deadline. Kenya also ended analog television transmission in December 2014 after multiple delays. For analog television, there were three standards in use for broadcasting color TV (see a map on adoption ). These are known as PAL (German designed), NTSC (American designed), and SECAM (French designed). For analog radio, the switch to digital radio is made more difficult by the higher cost of digital receivers. The choice of modulation for analog radio is typically between amplitude (AM) or frequency modulation (FM). To achieve stereo playback, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for stereo FM, and quadrature amplitude modulation is used for stereo AM or C-QUAM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29580",
"title": "Set-top box",
"section": "Section::::TV signal sources.:Digital television adapter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The transition to digital terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many existing television receivers unable to tune and display the new signal directly. In the United States, where analog shutdown was completed in 2009 for full-service broadcasters, a federal subsidy was offered for coupon-eligible converter boxes with deliberately limited capability which would restore signals lost to digital transition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7843108",
"title": "Digital television adapter",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "On June 12, 2009, all full-power analog television transmissions ended in the United States. Viewers who watch broadcast television on older analog TV sets must use a DTA. Since many of the low-power TV stations will continue to broadcast in analog for years to come, consumers who watch low-power stations will need an adapter with an analog passthrough feature that allows the viewer to watch both digital and analog signals. Viewers who receive their television signals through cable or satellite were not affected by this change and did not need a digital television adapter (however, see the cable TV exception below). Additionally, viewers who have newer televisions with built-in digital ATSC tuners will not need an external digital television adapter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18581669",
"title": "Digital television transition in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Congressional mandate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "All U.S. full-power analog TV broadcasts were required by law to end on June 12, 2009. Since March 1, 2007, all new television devices that receive signals over-the-air, including pocket-sized portable televisions, personal computer video capture card tuners, and DVD recorders, have been required to include digital ATSC tuners. Prior to this, the requirement was phased-in starting with larger screen sizes. Until the transition was completed, most U.S. broadcasters transmitted their signals in both analog and digital formats, though a few were already digital-only. Digital stations transmitted on another channel, which was assigned to each full-power broadcaster in a three-round digital channel election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ml8nj
|
Do modern high heels worn by women and Chinese foot binding have any historical similarities in the way they developed?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, not really.\n\nIn western Europe, high heels date back to the 17th century for both men and women, and were worn by fashionable men and women into the 18th century. There is no clear origin, only speculation and apocryphal stories (so in that sense, there *is* a connection between foot-binding and high heels), such as the idea that various rulers invented or popularized them in order to be taller than their subjects. Louis XIV and Catherine de' Medici both come in for this - Catherine de' Medici is also falsely but commonly stated to have forced her court ladies to tightlace to a 13\" waist, so there is possibly some correlation between the stories, a long-running reputation for fetishism in dress? A more likely origin is that the heel was brought from Persia and found to be helpful on riding boots, to better hold the stirrup, and then was applied to more and more non-riding footwear.\n\nIn Venice and Spain, during the 16th century, there was a woman's shoe called the *chopine* that comes closer to bound feet in ideology. These are sometimes considered proto-high-heels, but I think this is because of an assumed ideological similarity - they're actually tall platforms. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has [a nice little page on them](_URL_2_). We used to think they were associated with prostitutes, and therefore about sexuality mixed with helplessness (that assumed similarity I mentioned), but we now know that they were worn by noblewomen as well. [Here's another good resource.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe thing to remember is that \"high heel\" before the 1930s or 1940s really does not mean what we think of when it comes to high heels. An inch or two at most is generally what was worn. Not anywhere near as incapacitating as modern stilettos, let alone foot-binding. \n\nA curator at the Bata Shoe Museum recentlyish wrote a book, *Heights of Fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe*, that might be interesting to you. She attributes men's abandonment of high heels over the early 18th century to Enlightenment ideas about men being more rational than women, and men's clothing becoming more sober and \"unfeminine\" is a narrative that plays out over the course of the century. Still, [men's heels were still kind of clinging on in the 1780s](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There a few previous questions of similar nature with good discussions on how the heeled shoe came to be created:\n\n[Heeled Shoes](_URL_0_) and [When was the High Heeled Shoe invented?](_URL_1_).\n\nWhile the heeled shoe today is associated with women and with foot pain, it was not originally the case. Both men and women were wearing heels at certain times, men's use falling out during the 18th century. Women's fashionable heel heights have gone up and down in the decades since. Various heel heights and styles have always been available as well, not restricting the woman to only one extreme. In the 1770s you can find mentions of French, English, Italian, Low, and Common heels in advertisements. Just like today in our shops you'll find flats, wedges, stilettos, kittens, Italian, and many more. Women today certainly do wear higher heels due to the perceived notion that it is more attractive (longer legs, re-alignment of the spine that moves the hips back, etc) and likely that plays a part in many other time periods as well, but that was not why they were created.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145439",
"title": "Women's rights",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient history.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1723133",
"title": "Girl",
"section": "Section::::History.:Preparing girls for marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "In some parts of China, beginning in the Southern Tang kingdom in Nanjing (937-975), the custom of foot binding was associated with upper class women who were worthy of a life of leisure, and husbands who could afford to spare them the necessity of work (which would require the ability to be mobile and spend the day on their feet). Because of this belief, parents hoping to ensure a good marriage for their daughters would begin binding their feet from about the age of seven years to achieve the ideal appearance. The tinier the feet, the better the social rank of a future husband. This practice did not end until the early years of the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21992780",
"title": "Feminism in China",
"section": "Section::::Foot-binding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "Foot binding in Chinese history was initially a mark of hierarchy and privilege in society. However, it soon became a symbol of sexism in many people's minds and lasted for over more than one hundred years. Having a bound foot meant looking prettier as men thought smaller feet were more beautiful and dainty for a woman. Chinese women in the nineteenth century were expected to keep up their appearance, as they did not have many other rights. They could not own as much property, they did not get good education, and they showed a lot of signs of \"weakness\" because they were treated so poorly. However, scholars of Chinese religion and society note that women generally never felt like they were being victimized by being forced to have bound feet, but that they quietly rebelled against this societal norm by way of acting. Early Chinese feminists in the nineteenth century would get around the rules that restricted to them, but not in an obvious way that would get them in trouble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31028161",
"title": "Foot Emancipation Society",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Foot binding was a custom practiced on young girls and women for approximately one thousand years in China, beginning in the 10th century. In Chinese society, bound feet were considered beautiful and erotic. The practice also limited women's mobility and was sometimes seen as a mark of status (the woman did not have to work) or a mark of male ownership (the woman's mobility was limited and she was intensely dependent on the males in her household).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240059",
"title": "Femininity",
"section": "Section::::Clothing and appearance.:Body alteration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30608304",
"title": "Children's feet",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "In Imperial China, it was the custom for respectable women to have their feet bound as children. This was started between the ages of five and seven. The feet were bound tightly and forced into increasingly small shoes so that the front part of the foot was bent back and the toes touched the heel. This was done to make the girls marriageable as the tiny feet and the swaying lotus gait which resulted were considered attractive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1231558",
"title": "China poblana",
"section": "Section::::Fashion design of the \"china dress\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "BULLET::::- As footwear, 19th century author Manuel Payno pointed out that despite her financial lackings, a \"china\"-dress woman would use satin shoes embroidered with silk thread. This type of footwear appears in some nineteenth century Mexican texts as an indicator that the wearer was a \"merry woman\". Furthermore, the \"china\" wearer completed the outfit with beads and jewels that adorned her ears, her cleavage, and her hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6e0vho
|
Photon Energy Levels, what is different about Radio wave photons vs Gamma wave photons?
|
[
{
"answer": " > but what exactly is that extra energy coming from?\n\nWhatever is producing the photon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > so what is it that gives certain frequencies this extra energy?\n\nIntuitively, a wave that is waving more rapidly will be more energetic. Thus higher frequency v means more energy E, directly seen in Einstein's relation E = hv.\n\n > I know electron volts are how the energy is measured, but I still don't really get how this relates to the photons themselves.\n\nThe electron volt is just a unit of energy, like the joule. It's equal to the kinetic energy an electron gains while moving between a potential difference of 1 volt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18616290",
"title": "Gamma ray",
"section": "Section::::Distinction from X-rays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are defined by energy, since the processes that produce them may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, determines the required astronomical detectors needed. High-energy photons occur in nature that are known to be produced by processes other than nuclear decay but are still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is \"gamma rays\" from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, and known to be produced by the bremsstrahlung mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1744922",
"title": "Gamma spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Gamma ray characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Gamma rays are the highest-energy form of electromagnetic radiation, being physically the same as all other forms (e.g., X rays, visible light, infrared, radio) but having (in general) higher photon energy due to their shorter wavelength. Because of this, the energy of gamma-ray photons can be resolved individually, and a gamma-ray spectrometer can measure and display the energies of the gamma-ray photons detected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4579933",
"title": "Linear energy transfer",
"section": "Section::::Application to radiation types.:Gamma rays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "LET has therefore no meaning when applied to photons. However, many authors speak of \"gamma LET\" anyway, where they are actually referring to the LET of the secondary electrons, i.e., mainly Compton electrons, produced by the gamma radiation. The secondary electrons will ionize far more atoms than the primary photon. This gamma LET has little relation to the attenuation rate of the beam, but it may have some correlation to the microscopic defects produced in the absorber. It must be noted that even a monoenergetic gamma beam will produce a spectrum of electrons, and each secondary electron will have a variable LET as it slows down, as discussed above. The \"gamma LET\" is therefore an average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37649",
"title": "Amplitude",
"section": "Section::::Units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "For electromagnetic radiation, the amplitude of a photon corresponds to the changes in the electric field of the wave. However, radio signals may be carried by electromagnetic radiation; the intensity of the radiation (amplitude modulation) or the frequency of the radiation (frequency modulation) is oscillated and then the individual oscillations are varied (modulated) to produce the signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43532331",
"title": "Ultra-high-energy gamma ray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Ultra-high-energy gamma rays are gamma rays with photon energies higher than 100 TeV (0.1 PeV). They have a frequency higher than 2.42 × 10 Hz and a wavelength shorter than 1.24 × 10 m. The existence of these rays were confirmed in 2019 . The highest energy astronomical sourced gamma rays detected are very-high-energy gamma rays, with the center of the Crab Nebula (thought to contain a rapidly spinning neutron star, or 'pulsar') being the source of the highest energy rays detected as of 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33870807",
"title": "Very-high-energy gamma ray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Very-high-energy gamma ray (VHEGR) denotes gamma radiation with photon energies of 100 GeV (Gigaelectronvolt) to 100 TeV (Teraelectronvolt), i.e., 10 to 10 electronvolts. This is approximately equal to \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10134",
"title": "Electromagnetic spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency \"f\", wavelength λ, or photon energy \"E\". Frequencies observed in astronomy range from (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
] | null |
k2u38
|
Partial pressure of O2/CO2 in blood versus the actual concentrations of O2/CO2 exchanged; why the huge difference?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure if i'm qualified to help you, as i have troubles understanding your doubts.\n\nBut did you take into account that solubilized CO2 is in equilibration with HCO_3^- / H_2CO_3?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, you partially answered your own question; oxygen pressure increases dramatically due to hemoglobin binding. Some oxygen is directly dissolved into the blood, but this amount is almost negligible compared to that bound to hemoglobin. CO2, on the other hand, is mostly present in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions, and this conversion and excretion process is slower than oxygen transfer to hemoglobin. Oh, and relative pressures of inhaled air is important too. \n\nOxygen transfer in the lungs is normally perfusion limited, meaning that the amount of oxygen transferred from air to blood is limited by the rate of blood flowing through the lungs. This is because oxygen transfers very well to the blood, faster than blood can flow through the lungs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure if i'm qualified to help you, as i have troubles understanding your doubts.\n\nBut did you take into account that solubilized CO2 is in equilibration with HCO_3^- / H_2CO_3?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, you partially answered your own question; oxygen pressure increases dramatically due to hemoglobin binding. Some oxygen is directly dissolved into the blood, but this amount is almost negligible compared to that bound to hemoglobin. CO2, on the other hand, is mostly present in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions, and this conversion and excretion process is slower than oxygen transfer to hemoglobin. Oh, and relative pressures of inhaled air is important too. \n\nOxygen transfer in the lungs is normally perfusion limited, meaning that the amount of oxygen transferred from air to blood is limited by the rate of blood flowing through the lungs. This is because oxygen transfers very well to the blood, faster than blood can flow through the lungs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11201354",
"title": "Alveolar–arterial gradient",
"section": "Section::::Values and meaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "Because A–a gradient is approximated as: (150 − 5/4(pCO)) – Pa at sea level and on room air (0.21x(760-47) = 149.7 mmHg for the alveolar oxygen partial pressure, after accounting for the water vapor), the direct mathematical cause of a large value is that the blood has a low P, a low P, or both. CO2 is very easily exchanged in the lungs and low P directly correlates with high minute ventilation; therefore a low arterial P indicates that extra respiratory effort is being used to oxygenate the blood. A low Pa indicates that the patient's current minute ventilation (whether high or normal) is not enough to allow adequate oxygen diffusion into the blood. Therefore, the A–a gradient essentially demonstrates a high respiratory effort (low arterial P) relative to the achieved level of oxygenation (arterial P). A high A–a gradient could indicate a patient breathing hard to achieve normal oxygenation, a patient breathing normally and attaining low oxygenation, or a patient breathing hard and still failing to achieve normal oxygenation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52299004",
"title": "Degas conductivity",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "See the graph showing relative CO concentration. After the cation exchanger, the sample pH value is generally between 5.5-6, so that means almost only CO is present as gas, and only about 6% is carbon carbonate ion CO. The bicarbonate ion (HCO) is practically absent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2889996",
"title": "Triplet oxygen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Triplet oxygen, \"\"O, refers to the \"S\" = 1 electronic ground state of molecular oxygen (dioxygen). It is the most stable and common allotrope of oxygen. Molecules of triplet oxygen contain two unpaired electrons, making triplet oxygen an unusual example of a stable and commonly encountered diradical. According to molecular orbital theory, the electron configuration of triplet oxygen has two electrons occupying two π molecular orbitals (MOs) of equal energy (that is, degenerate MOs). In accordance with Hund's rules, they remain unpaired and spin-parallel and account for the paramagnetism of molecular oxygen. These half-filled orbitals are antibonding in character, reducing the overall bond order of the molecule to 2 from a maximum value of 3 (e.g., dinitrogen), which occurs when these antibonding orbitals remain fully unoccupied. The molecular term symbol for triplet oxygen is Σ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33209445",
"title": "Fraction of inspired oxygen",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The ratio between partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) and \"Fi\"O is used as an indicator of hypoxemia per the American-European Consensus Conference on lung injury. A high \"Fi\"O has been shown to alter the ratio of \"Pa\"O/\"Fi\"O.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261148",
"title": "Apnea",
"section": "Section::::Apneic oxygenation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "However, no CO is removed during apnea. The partial pressure of CO in the airspace of the lungs will quickly equilibrate with that of the blood. As the blood is loaded with CO from the metabolism, more and more CO will accumulate and eventually displace oxygen and other gases from the airspace. CO will also accumulate in the tissues of the body, resulting in respiratory acidosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35589912",
"title": "P/O ratio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The Phosphate/Oxygen Ratio, or P/O Ratio, refers to the amount of ATP produced from the movement of two electrons through a defined electron transport chain, terminated by reduction of an oxygen atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6136",
"title": "Carbon monoxide",
"section": "Section::::Molecular properties.:Bonding and dipole moment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "The carbon monoxide has a very high bond-dissociation energy, the strongest of any neutral molecule, 11.65 eV. Carbon and oxygen together have a total of 10 electrons in the valence shell. Following the octet rule for both carbon and oxygen, the two atoms form a triple bond, with six shared electrons in three bonding molecular orbitals, rather than the usual double bond found in organic carbonyl compounds. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen atom and only two from carbon, one bonding orbital is occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming a dative or dipolar bond. This causes a C←O polarization of the molecule, with a small negative charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen. The other two bonding orbitals are each occupied by one electron from carbon and one from oxygen, forming (polar) covalent bonds with a reverse C→O polarization, since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. In the free carbon monoxide, a net negative charge δ remains at the carbon end and the molecule has a small dipole moment of 0.122 D.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
4touns
|
how do single cylinder engines work?
|
[
{
"answer": "When the piston goes up into the cylinder, it squeezes a fuel-air combination, and when it gets to a \"sweet\" spot, the spark plug at the top of the cylinder fires, igniting (somewhat explosively) the compressed fuel-air mix. This drives the cylinder down. \nA rod on the bottom of the piston is non-rigidly attached to a drive shaft. The rod is allowed to move back and forth as well as up and down as it drives the shaft. When it gets to the bottom, the shaft keeps on spinning, and moves the rod a little more in the direction it had been traveling. As the shaft continues its rotation, this pushes the piston back up into the cylinder again to start the whole deal over again. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A single-cylinder engine works just the same as other engines; you compress a working fluid with oxidizer in it (i.e. air), and add fuel which then combusts, raising the pressure and temperature of the working fluid in the cylinder to high levels. You then take advantage of that high pressure to drive a piston downwards, which is connected to an output shaft that can be used to drive something. In the cylinder, after expansion, the exhaust gas is expelled, and new fresh air enters the cylinder to prepare for the next round of combustion. Suck, squeeze, bang, blow, with all 4 steps repeating dozens to hundreds of times every second.\n\nThe only difference with multiple cylinders is that they work together on the same output shaft.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All engines have a flywheel of some sort to smooth out their power output. In a four-stroke engine with less than four cylinders or a two-stroke engine with only one, the flywheel's inertia is the only thing turning the engine when there isn't a power stroke occurring in one of the cylinders.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I assume you have a basic understanding of cylinders, so I'm just going to answer the single cylinder question with a very simple example:\n\nImagine those elliptical machines at the gym. They actually function pretty similar to cylinders. You can just use one leg if you time your pushes correctly. Here is an example: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35023447",
"title": "Single- and double-acting cylinders",
"section": "Section::::Single-acting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "A single-acting cylinder in a reciprocating engine is a cylinder in which the working fluid acts on one side of the piston only. A single-acting cylinder relies on the load, springs, other cylinders, or the momentum of a flywheel, to push the piston back in the other direction. Single-acting cylinders are found in most kinds of reciprocating engine. They are almost universal in internal combustion engines (e.g. petrol and diesel engines) and are also used in many external combustion engines such as Stirling engines and some steam engines. They are also found in pumps and hydraulic rams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3888930",
"title": "Single-cylinder engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "A single-cylinder engine is a piston engine with one cylinder. It is often used on motorcycles, scooters, go-karts, ATVs, radio-controlled vehicles, portable tools and garden machinery (such as lawnmowers, rototillers and string trimmers).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41236711",
"title": "Multi-cylinder engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "A multi-cylinder engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine with multiple cylinders. It can be either a 2-stroke or 4-stroke engine, and can be either Diesel or spark-ignition. The cylinders and the crankshaft which is driven by and co-ordinates the motion of the pistons can be configured in a wide variety of ways. Multi-cylinder engines offer a number of advantages over single-cylinder engines, chiefly with their ability to neutralize imbalances by having corresponding mechanisms moving in opposing directions during the operation of the engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35023447",
"title": "Single- and double-acting cylinders",
"section": "Section::::Double-acting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "A double-acting cylinder is a cylinder in which the working fluid acts alternately on both sides of the piston. In order to connect the piston in a double-acting cylinder to an external mechanism, such as a crank shaft, a hole must be provided in one end of the cylinder for the piston rod, and this is fitted with a gland or \"stuffing box\" to prevent escape of the working fluid. Double-acting cylinders are common in steam engines but unusual in other engine types. Many hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders use them where it is needed to produce a force in both directions. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has a port at each end, supplied with hydraulic fluid for both the retraction and extension of the piston. A double-acting cylinder is used where an external force is not available to retract the piston or it can be used where high force is required in both directions of travel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "859284",
"title": "Cylinder (engine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (\"lined\" with a harder metal) or sleeveless (with a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil). A sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a \"parent-bore engine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2142653",
"title": "Crankcase",
"section": "Section::::Two-stroke engines.:Small engines and crankcase compression engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "A large number of small two-stroke engines use a sealed crankcase as a compression chamber for their mixture. These are very common as petrol or gasoline small engines for motorcycles, generator sets and garden equipment. Both sides of the piston are used as working surfaces: the upper side is the power piston, the lower side acts as a scavenging pump. As the piston rises, it pushes out exhaust gases and produces a partial vacuum in the crankcase, which draws in fuel and air. As the piston travels downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase into the cylinder. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35023447",
"title": "Single- and double-acting cylinders",
"section": "Section::::Steam engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Steam engines normally use double-acting cylinders. However, early steam engines, such as atmospheric engines and some beam engines were single-acting. These often transmitted their force through the beam by means of chains and an \"arch head\", as only a tension in one direction was needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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1jwulh
|
Did the Roman economy suffer through "Bust and Boom" cycles?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a very interesting question that I would like answered (as well as the spam deleted). Did the slave economy more or less function in a stable pattern of growth fueled by conquests until the decline brought about stagnation? Or were there boom and bust cycles as in the capitalist system? Any experts care to weigh in?",
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},
{
"answer": "It is quite difficult to tell. The modern boom-and-bust cycle is based on a liquidity of economic assets and market integration that were simply impossible in a premodern world. The Roman economy was remarkably well integrated for a premodern economy, but if Ephesus sneezed Autun would not catch a cold.\n\nIt is possible to see localized, for lack of a better term, periods of differential economic performance, such as Pompeii, which boomed during the Augustan period and declined in the late Julio-Claudian. But as DeSoulis noted, this was not a matter of boom and bust so much because the timeframe is far too long. There would also be years of bountiful harvest and years of famine, which would have potentially had a similar effect as boom and bust cycles on the individual, but again isn't quite what you mean.\n\nThe caveat of course is that we don't have the evidence to make such granular analysis--as a comparison, someone doing archaeology on nineteenth century America in a thousand years would see continuous economic development and not the busts. But current economic understanding would argue against.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**IMPORTANT NOTE: the Roman economy is a very difficult subject to truly understand, since we lack a lot of evidence for economic conditions in ancient times. The period I discuss here is particularly bad, since there are almost no contemporary sources from the crisis of the 3rd century. We're still discovering new emperors about whom we had no prior evidence because one of their coins turns up on a dig. Keep that in mind throughout this post.**\n\nI don't know about boom and bust cycles in the modern sense of the term, but there were certainly major economic crises, usually relating to currency. (Remember, Rome lacked fiat currency; all currency depended, in theory, on the value of gold)\n\nFrom the time of the Republic through the 2nd century, Rome experienced tremendous economic prosperity. The economy was largely based on agriculture, which was a successful industry, especially given the new agricultural land gained in conquest and the influx of foreign slaves from the newly conquered peoples. When Rome began to conquer the areas along the Eastern Mediterranean, this brought in so much wealth that many authors began to criticize the decadence of their age. (cf. Propertius and Tibullus, for a few examples) There were some issues with smaller landowners being dispossessed by larger farms, called *latifundia*, but this was really the only main economic issue, and didn't cause a depression.\n\nOne of the best examples of a \"bust\" is the Crisis of the Third Century, which was a major political, military, and economic crisis that lasted for decades. At this time, there was tremendous instability, with each emperor lasting for only ~2 years or so (IIRC, the average reign of an emperor from the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 to the accession of Diocletian in 284 was 1.5 years). The vast majority of emperors were killed; only 2 or 3 died natural deaths. Alongside this political crisis, the economy sank into a depression. Trade slowed down, and there was hyperinflation of the currency (often, this happened by stating that a coin had a certain value, while debasing its actual value by adding in lesser metals). It should be noted that debasing the currency started long before the Crisis of the Third Century; it just reached its lowest point then.\n\nBy the time Diocletian became emperor, the currency was so debased that it was practically worthless. Diocletian came in with his Edict on Maximum Prices (301) to combat inflation. This set maximum prices on a long list of goods and services to prevent inflation. It also declared the value of certain coins, and set them at a certain rate against the value of gold. Resisting the Edict was, in theory, punishable by death; however, it was still ineffective, and many people sold goods at higher prices. In addition, the number of new coins Diocletian minted contributed to inflation even more.\n\nUltimately, Rome only got out of this crisis during the reign of Constantine, who established the gold solidus as the primary currency. One of the main reasons he was able to achieve this was because of his confiscation of the treasures of pagan temples.\n\nAfter the reign of Constantine, the economy may have stabilized for the rest of the 4th century. However, this is currently a point of dispute. The traditional narrative holds that the decline of the 3rd century continued throughout the 4th; newer archaeological evidence suggests that rural areas were very successful economically, and certain provinces, like North Africa, flourished, while there may have been decline in other areas.\n\nLater on, in the 5th century, prior to the fall of the Western Empire, there was another economic crisis, this time not related to currency, but to invading barbarians. The invasions of the Goths et al. in the early 5th century lead to a decline in agricultural output, which lead to a decreased tax base, and then a smaller military, which was less able to defend against future invaders. It became a vicious cycle like this until Rome fell.\n\nSource: A class I took on Late Antiquity, and Bryan Ward-Perkins' *The Fall of Rome: and The End of Civilization,* among others.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965658",
"title": "Roman economy",
"section": "Section::::Trade and commodities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1224,
"text": "Whereas the Roman Economy was able to thrive in the first few centuries AD thanks to its advanced trade and commerce, the boom was tempered as their ways of conducting business changed drastically. Due to Augustus and the aristocracy holding the large majority of land and wealth in Rome, trade and commerce in the basic everyday commodities began to decline. Trade began to only take place for the more luxurious commodities, effectively excluding the majority of Romans due to their poverty. Foreign trade was also incredibly significant to the rise and complexity of the Roman Economy, and the Romans traded commodities such as wine, oil, grain, salt, arms, and iron to countries primarily in the West. When those countries came under decline in around 2nd century AD, and respective trade between them and the Roman Empire had to cease as a result, this put a dent in the strength of the Roman economy as foreign trade was a major factor of economic growth for the superfluously resourced Roman Empire. Compounded with their inability to make proper production advancements to keep up with their growing and evolving economy, these events hindered Roman trade, limited their array of commodities and harmed the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4921176",
"title": "Military of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Funding and expenditures.:Plunder economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "During the time of expansion in the Republic and early Empire, Roman armies had acted as a source of revenue for the Roman state, plundering conquered territories, displaying the massive wealth in triumphs upon their return and fueling the economy to the extent that historians such as Toynbee and Burke believe that the Roman economy was essentially a plunder economy. However, after the Empire had stopped expanding in the 2nd century CE, this source of revenue dried up; by the end of the 3rd century CE, Rome had \"ceased to vanquish.\" As tax revenue was plagued by corruption and hyperinflation during the Crisis of the Third Century, military expenditures began to become a \"crushing burden\" on the finances of the Roman state. It now highlighted weaknesses that earlier expansion had disguised. By 440 CE, an imperial law frankly states that the Roman state has insufficient tax revenue to fund an army of a size required by the demands placed upon it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24783524",
"title": "Economy of Rome",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The Roman economy, however, boomed in the 16th and 17th centuries, especially when the Medici popes Leo X and Clement VII were in power. The renaissance transformed Rome into a city of the arts, culture, politics, banking, commerce and trade, especially when the Florentine merchants involved in papal affairs, yielded huge profits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2488214",
"title": "Macedonia (Roman province)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of the Via Egnatia, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "110096",
"title": "Rome, Georgia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Twentieth century.:Great Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In Rome, the effect of the Great Depression was significantly less severe than in other, larger cities across the United States. Since Rome was an agricultural town, food could be grown in surrounding areas. Rome's textile mill continued operating, providing steady jobs as a buffer against the hardships of the Great Depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53872280",
"title": "Democracy and economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Case studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Romans, being the successors of the Greeks, enjoyed an even greater boom to their economy. Granted a lot of their success was due to their unbeatable production of iron as well as the development of trade routes i.e. Pax Romana. They ruled with a mixture of kingship, aristocracy and democracy. Despite their accomplishments from the reformed political structure, the need to invest in the military to keep their growing competition at bay, by producing less and less valuable coins, ultimately led to their collapse, recessing back to the country side and barter system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24937641",
"title": "Aquae Iasae",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "But the biggest boom was seen under the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 4th centuries. The public part of the Roman settlement was located on the highest terrace of the hill Varaždin spa, today the park and archaeological site. The residential part of \"Aquae Iasae\" was on the terraces that descend to the foot of the hill in the foothills of the craft-established commercial and trade show facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
1sycin
|
why at rock concerts and gigs is it always impossible to get the sound of the vocals to sound clear over the rest of the band?
|
[
{
"answer": "A public address system system is not a sound system. A professional sound engineer makes all the difference.",
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},
{
"answer": "It's all about the sound engineer and the equipment they use. A shitty engineer won't get it right but the good ones will. Also depends where you are sitting/standing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the human voice is a really difficult thing to capture. Unlike instruments, it doesnt have a definite frequency or volume. This means a sound engineer has to constantly be adjusting the mix to bring the vocals out. They try to combat it with compression to regulate the volume, but it still shifts frequency, and gets muddied with the other instruments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Three reasons. First, the guitars are always up too damn loud. Second, many smaller venues don't have adequate systems because that costs money. Third, many sound guys don't really care about their jobs in smaller places. Believe me, when you find a small venue with an adequate system and an engineer who cares, you can tell pretty quickly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3617193",
"title": "Soundscapes by Robert Fripp",
"section": "Section::::Soundscapes.:Art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The performances are improvised: they can be quite loud, lengthy, dramatic, soothing, eerie, and possibly alarming. Because Soundscapes are often held as part of a rock concert, they can prove somewhat taxing on an unprepared audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5579747",
"title": "C21 (band)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "“We haven’t yet done any playback vocals at any of our live concerts, and to prove to the audience that we truly can sing, we always pull out our acoustic guitars and perform a couple of tune unplugged”, says Søren about the band’s good experiences on tour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "689552",
"title": "Pieces of You",
"section": "Section::::Recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "\"[...] Typically I’ve had difficulty in the studio. I don’t sing as raw, it’s just a bit more tame. I’m a live singer who’s always fed off the energy of the audience. In a studio, you’re just looking at a wall—it feels very odd to me. I’ve been a live performer since I was six years old. The reason I recorded the album live with the band was so that I could play guitar, which I usually never do in the studio, while I sing at the same time. The band was accustomed to following singer-songwriters and feeling for me slowing down and speeding up. It has a real ebb and a flow and a naturalness that didn’t inhibit my singing or performance.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "873971",
"title": "All About Eve (band)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Debut and chart success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The band later performed a dubbed version of \"Martha's Harbour\" on the BBC television music show \"Top of the Pops\", but, owing to a studio technical error, the taped vocals were broadcast without the band being able to hear them, resulting in the audience of BBC1 hearing the recorded version of the song, while the band members sat motionless on screen waiting for their cue to begin. By way of compensation, the band were invited back on to the show to perform the song the following week, this time with the vocals performed live. This performance passed off smoothly, with the resultant publicity helping the track to climb the singles chart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22872782",
"title": "Lombard effect",
"section": "Section::::Choral singing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Choral singers experience reduced feedback due to the sound of other singers upon their own voice. This results in a tendency for people in choruses to sing at a louder level if it is not controlled by a conductor. Trained soloists can control this effect but it has been suggested that after a concert they might speak more loudly in noisy surroundings, such as after-concert parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196337",
"title": "Loveless (My Bloody Valentine album)",
"section": "Section::::Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "The vocals, handled jointly by Shields and Butcher, are kept relatively low in the mix, and are for the most part highly pitched. On occasion Shields sang the higher register and Butcher the lower. According to Shields, because the band had spent so long working on the album's vocals, he \"couldn't tolerate really clear vocals, where you just hear one voice\", thus \"it had to be more like a \"sound\".\" Butcher said of her \"dreamy, sensual\" style vocals: \"Often when we do vocals, it's 7:30 in the morning; I've usually just fallen asleep and have to be woken up to sing.\" To aid this effect, Shields and Ó Cíosóig sampled Butcher's voice and reused it as instrumentation. The layered vocals on \"When You Sleep\" were born out of frustration with trying to get the right take. Shields commented that \"The vocals sound like that because it became boring and too destructive trying to get the right vocal. So I decided to put all the vocals in. \"(It had been sung 12 or 13 times)\".\" He explained:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977607",
"title": "Cut the Crap",
"section": "Section::::Music and lyrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The overlaid vocals in several choruses give songs the feel of football chants. These vocals have been harshly criticised, both because the effect seemed like low-brow rabble-rousing, and the chants compared unfavourably with Jones's backing vocals on the band's earlier recordings. The drums are largely untreated with sound effects and are thus are dull sounding. Knowles suggested that adding reverb would have helped to create a more organic \"roomy\" sound, so the songs wouldn't feel \"so canned and phony\". Against this, the live instrumentation is tight and cohesive. Each of the new recruits were skilled musicians, and they had just come off a tour during which Rhodes had instructed them not to vary song structures or guitar leads between performances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xqrgk
|
why should we care that we created nuclear fusion?
|
[
{
"answer": "As you might know, most of our energy comes from unsustainable and highly polluting fossil fuels. Wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal sources can't create enough energy to replace them. Nuclear fission power plants produce highly radioactive waste. So we need some large source of energy that has a readily available fuel, doesn't pollute, and can produce enough energy to sustain a developing world. One of the most likely sources is through nuclear fusion. The fuel is not too uncommon (it can be found in sea water), it doesn't leave radioactive waste like fission, and it can theoretically produce large amounts of energy. We have some technological hurdles to sustain the process and for it to generate more power than it consumes, but many scientists and engineers are confident that some time decades from now, it can effectively eliminate many of today's problems with generating energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "As a source of power, nuclear fusion is expected to have several theoretical advantages over fission. These include reduced radioactivity in operation and little high-level nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, achieving the necessary temperature/pressure/duration combination has proven to be difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but to date, no design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9273237",
"title": "World energy resources",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear fuel.:Nuclear fusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "Fusion power is the process driving the sun and other stars. It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be derived from seawater. The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control. Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution. Although both the United States and the European Union, along with other countries, are supporting fusion research (such as investing in the ITER facility), according to one report, inadequate research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21785",
"title": "Nuclear weapon",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, \"...made a substantial investment\" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, \"The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon\", and that, \"No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4222539",
"title": "Nuclear safety and security",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear fusion research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Nuclear fusion power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25029133",
"title": "National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Japan",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:National Institute for Fusion Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The National Institute for Fusion Science is engaged in basic research on fusion and plasma in order to actualize nuclear fusion generation, with the hope of developing new sources of energy that are safe and environmentally friendly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21188370",
"title": "Fuel",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear.:Fusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by humans but are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22153",
"title": "Nuclear power",
"section": "Section::::Use in space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Both fission and fusion appear promising for space propulsion applications, generating higher mission velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of nuclear reactions: some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than the chemical reactions which power the current generation of rockets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
496dte
|
how is pre-made frozen food at the grocery store less healthy than food you make yourself and then refrigerate?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not. However, making it yourself allows you to use healthier ingredients and actually choose what you eat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not *necessarily* less healthy, depending on what you make at home. But, generally speaking, pre-made foods are often made with more salt, sugar, and/or fat than people usually use when they make their own food.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally, frozen, premade foods are made from ingredients that are processed. Processed foods, generally speaking, are shelf stabilized for longer shelf life and that means there are usually loaded with preservatives, which are not healthy. There are premade, frozen foods that are made with better ingredients. Just read the labels to find the better foods. If there are ingredients you can't pronounce, then you are looking at chemically stabilized foods. Those are the ones you should avoid. \n\nPremade foods like fried checken are one of the foods that are not necessarily unhealthy, unless they are actually fried instead of baked.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of those premade frozen meals have like 40% or more of the daily recommended amount of sodium. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Preservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Defrosting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31309377",
"title": "Food spoilage",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Other than drying, other methods include salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high hydrostatic pressure: Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations. Canning of food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether done at home or commercially. Canned food is vacuum packed in order to keep oxygen, which is needed by bacteria in aerobic spoilage, out of the can. Canning does have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely. Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Freezing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602960",
"title": "Food processing",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Food processing does have some benefits, such as making food last longer and making products more convenient. However, there are drawbacks to relying on a lot of heavily processed foods. Whole foods and those that are only minimally processed, like frozen vegetables without any sauce, tend to be more healthy. An unhealthy diet high in fat, added sugar and salt, such as one containing a lot of highly-processed foods, can increase the risk for cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease, according to the World Health Organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Classifications and types of food.:Frozen food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1n9g9u
|
What do social and political sciences say about when we will get to dealing with global climate change?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might want to have a mod change the the category flag for this question, as it's pretty far afield of the physical science of climate change. Poli sci, economics, or another social science might be more appropriate. \n\nIn the mean time, I can toss you some leads that I've stumbled across until someone else can do better. \n\nIn terms of: \n\n > it seems to me the prisoner's dilemma characteristics, threat to poor greater than rich, actions of one country impacting the health of others\n\nYou might be interested in: \n\n* [The Global Deal: Climate Change and the Creation of a New Era of Progress and Prosperity](_URL_3_) (Stern, 2009)\n\n* [A Question of Balance: Weighing the Options on Global Warming Policies](_URL_2_) (Nordhaus, 2008)\n\n* [Combined inequality in wealth and risk leads to disaster in the climate change game](_URL_1_) (Burton-Chellew, et al., 2013)\n\n* [Circumspection, reciprocity, and optimal carbon prices](_URL_7_) (Kopp and Migone, 2013)\n\nThe most recent crisis on a scale remotely like anthropogenic climate change was arguably ozone depletion. There are some missteps one can make in believing that these are 1:1 fits for each other, but there are certainly valuable lessons to we can learn about intergovernmental diplomacy, scientific consensus informing policy, projected vs. realized costs of action, etc. These are some accounts of how we avoided a pretty serious catastrophe through a mix of science, advocacy, governmental action, technological innovation, etc.: \n\n* [Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy](_URL_0_;) by Parson\n\n* [Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet](_URL_5_) by Benedick\n\n* [Ozone Discourse: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation](_URL_6_) by Liftin\n\nThere is a long history of industry funded (and ideologically metastasized) denial of health/environmental problems, fear-mongering about the economic consequences of action, claims that the problems are intractable, etc. A brief summary of the history of this dynamic is:\n\n* [Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming](_URL_4_) (Oreskes and Conway, 2010)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2358436",
"title": "Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory",
"section": "Section::::Major divisions.:Ocean and climate physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Scientists are also increasingly interested in understanding the nature of past and present changes to Earth's climate—whether abrupt or gradual, regional or global—and the potential for human activities to influence the natural system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33630916",
"title": "Sustainability at American Colleges and Universities",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "It has been evident that climate change has become a main focus in the pursuit of sustainable solutions. As more evidence grows on the significant changes in the weather patterns in the past few decades and the impacts it has on disrupting human and natural systems far more quickly than what has been predicted, actions need to be made in order to maintain efforts in eliminating greenhouse gas emissions. With the lack of help from the government in reinforcing policies to further reduce these emissions, colleges and universities have taken it upon themselves to sustain this world through efforts around their own campuses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31835841",
"title": "Political economy of climate change",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1316,
"text": "Climate change and global warming have become one of the most pressing environmental concerns and the greatest global challenges in society today. As this issue continues to dominate the international agenda, researchers from different academic sectors have for long been devoting great efforts to explore effective solutions to climate change, with technologists and planners devising ways of mitigating and adapting to climate change; economists estimating the cost of climate change and the cost of tackling it; development experts exploring the impact of climate change on social services and public goods. However, Cammack (2007) points out two problems with many of the above discussions, namely the disconnection between the proposed solutions to climate change from different disciplines; and the devoid of politics in addressing climate change at the local level. Further, the issue of climate change is facing various other challenges, such as the problem of elite-resource capture, the resource constraints in developing countries and the conflicts that frequently result from such constraints, which have often been less concerned and stressed in suggested solutions. In recognition of these problems, it is advocated that “understanding the political economy of climate change is vital to tackling it”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53893135",
"title": "Elfatih Eltahir",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Eltahir's research focuses on how global climate change may impact society, specially in Africa and Asia. He spent the last 25 years developing sophisticated computer models suitable for predicting regional and local impacts of climate change, and testing them against field and satellite observations. Using these models, he studied the “hottest” spots on Earth: around the Persian Gulf and in South Asia, and predicted that habitability of these regions will be impacted due to deadly heatwaves, if climate change is not mitigated. This work received broad international media attention, suggesting a significant role in shaping policy debate about climate change. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42673705",
"title": "Climate resilience",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical foundations for building climate resilience.:Human resilience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Global climate change is going to increase the probability of extreme weather events and environmental disturbances around the world, needless to say, future human populations are going to have to confront this issue. Every society around the world differs in its capacity with regards to combating climate change because of certain pre-existing factors such as having the proper monetary and institutional mechanisms in place to execute preparedness and recovery plans. Despite these differences, communities around the world are on a level-playing field with regards to building and maintaining at least some degree “human resilience”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243210",
"title": "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report",
"section": "Section::::Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis.:Reaction to Working Group I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "Lord Rees, the president of the Royal Society, said, \"This report makes it clear, more convincingly than ever before, that human actions are writ large on the changes we are seeing, and will see, to our climate. The IPCC strongly emphasises that substantial climate change is inevitable, and we will have to adapt to this. This should compel all of us — world leaders, businesses and individuals — towards action rather than the paralysis of fear. We need both to reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases and to prepare for the impacts of climate change. Those who would claim otherwise can no longer use science as a basis for their argument.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19834598",
"title": "Tuvalu and the United Nations",
"section": "Section::::Addresses to the United Nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "\"Climate change is, without doubt, the most serious threat to the global security and survival of mankind. It is an issue of enormous concern to a highly vulnerable small island State like Tuvalu. Here in this Great House, we now know both the science and economics of climate change. We also know the cause of climate change, and that human actions by ALL countries are urgently needed to address it. The central message of both the IPCC reports and the Sir Nicholas Stern reports to us, world leaders, is crystal clear: \"unless urgent actions are done to curb greenhoses gasses emissions by shifting to a new global energy mix based on renewable energy sources, and unless timely adaptation is done, the adverse impact of climate change on all communities, will be catastrophic.\"\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24qhyw
|
how do satellites orbiting the earth get their orbits assigned to them, and how do they not hit into each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "Space agencies coordinate data on the tracking of the debris field above earth, to help avoid any sizable objects.\n\nBut mostly, the odds are just very low that you will hit anything. The surface of the earth is a big place, and the stuff we put into orbit, with a few exceptions, is relatively tiny. Picture a dust mote circling a beach ball.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know about the orbit assigning part... but in my experience (at least with KSP) space is HUMONGOUS! You really have to try to get 2 objects even relatively close enough to each, and getting them close enough to actually hit is a miracle. Personally, it's not the satellites that pose a threat. A satellite is a single piece of machinery placed in orbit by people who know what they're doing (at least one would hope so). The most likely thing you would have to worry about in space in terms of collision is the thousands of pieces of debris from broken space junk/ejected pieces of rockets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Much like how planets in our solar system orbit faster around the Sun when they are closer to the sun, satellites differ in orbit speed when placed at different attitudes from Earth.\n\nIf satellites are orbiting at different speeds only if they are at different altitudes. Since they are at different altitudes, they won't collide.\n\nTwo satellites placed in the same orbit attitude will orbit at the same speed. Since they never speed up or slow down normally, there is no chance of them hitting each other unless some other force acts on them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Spent the last 25 years in the space business. It depends on the orbit. Geostationary communication satellites have their slots (e.g. longitude) assigned by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) _URL_3_. If I want to put up a new comm sat I have to file with my national regulatory agency (for the US this is the Federal Communications Commission). The FCC then works with the ITU which may award a slot. The spacing is determined based on the type of communication service you want to offer and frequency you will be operating in. If satellites operating on the same frequencies get too close in longitude then they will cause interference into each others ground terminals (e.g. dishes). But two satellites at different frequencies can be in the same slot. Several geostationary operators operate multiple satellites in the same slot (most famously SES Astra having 6 in one slot _URL_1_). \n\nFor non-geo satellites, it's pretty much not an issue. Space is big and satellites are not. Until they do hit, such as the famous Iridium/Cosmos collision in 2009 _URL_2_.\n\nThe US Air Force Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) _URL_0_ does monitor all the objects in space and checks for potential collisions and notifies operators of potential collisions. Due to the limited accuracy of the orbital data it's difficult to predict with any certainty that an actual collision will occur, at best you can calculate a probability (usually around 1E-6 or smaller). \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Space is big. Really big. You just won't believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may think it's a long way down the road to the chemist's, but that's just peanuts to space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7077627",
"title": "Inner moon",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Inner satellites are all tidally locked, that is, their orbit is synchronous with their rotation so that they only show one face toward their parent planet. Their long axes are typically aligned to point towards their planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568972",
"title": "Geocentric orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 385,
"text": "A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting Planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite payloads orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center. Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35252232",
"title": "Co-location (satellite)",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Co-located satellites cannot actually be positioned at the same point on the geostationary satellite arc. In fact, they are just close enough together to appear to be at the same position so far as the beamwidth of the receiving dish is concerned. SES maintains its co-located satellites within an imaginary 150 km cube in space, centred on the notional orbital position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1313703",
"title": "Small satellite",
"section": "Section::::Collision safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Small satellites are difficult to track with ground-based radar, so it is difficult to predict if they will collide with other satellites or human-occupied spacecraft. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission has rejected at least one small satellite launch request on these safety grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41210",
"title": "Geostationary orbit",
"section": "Section::::Implementation.:Orbit allocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator. The requirement to space these satellites apart to avoid harmful radio-frequency interference during operations means that there are a limited number of orbital \"slots\" available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same longitude but differing latitudes) and radio frequencies. These disputes are addressed through the International Telecommunication Union's allocation mechanism. In the 1976 Bogotá Declaration, eight countries located on the Earth's equator claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims gained no international recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8453893",
"title": "Claimed moons of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Other small natural objects in orbit around the Sun may enter orbit around Earth for a short amount of time, becoming temporary natural satellites. , the only confirmed example has been in Earth orbit during 2006 and 2007, though further instances are already predicted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21626",
"title": "Near-Earth object",
"section": "Section::::Number and classification.:Near-Earth asteroids.:Co-orbital asteroids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Temporary satellites\": NEAs can also transfer between solar orbits and distant Earth orbits, becoming gravitationally bound temporary satellites. According to simulations, temporary satellites are typically caught when they pass the L1 or L2 Lagrangian points, and Earth has at least one temporary satellite across at any given time, but they are too faint to detect by current surveys. , the only observed transition was that of asteroid , which was a temporary satellite from September 2006 to June 2007 and has been on a solar orbit with a 1.003-year period ever since. According to orbital calculations, on its solar orbit, passes Earth at low speed every 20 to 21 years, at which point it can become a temporary satellite again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9b0kgz
|
what's the difference between allegory and metaphor?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short version: An allegory is a type of metaphor.\n\n \nLonger version: A metaphor is a figure of speech that substitutes in a non-literal alternative to make an interesting point. Saying that \"his heart is a shattered vase\" is a metaphor, because a heart is definitely not a balloon, but it gives you an interesting image about how heartbroken that guy is. But it's not an allegory.\n\n \nAn allegory is specifically a story, poem, or image where the characters, places, or events are used as metaphors to make another point. So it's a little more fleshed out than the metaphor overhead. The Narnia books are seen to be allegorical, showing the foundations of Christianity (the creation of the world, a savior figure, a Last Judgement) in the form of a story about a magical world with talking lions and evil witches. Plato's Allegory of the Cave is about human understanding and learning, with humans trapped in a metaphorical cave staring at shadows on the wall, unable to understand what the greater world looks like when it's explained to them by someone who understands it better than them.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo an allegory is sort of a metaphor on a larger scale, while a metaphor can be small or large, not needing the structure of a larger work of art to be understood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20518",
"title": "Metaphor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two ideas. Metaphors are often compared to other types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile. One of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the \"All the world's a stage\" monologue from \"As You Like It\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33033852",
"title": "List of English-language metaphors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "A list of metaphors in the English language organised by type. A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., \"Her eyes were glistening jewels\". \"Metaphor\" may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via association, comparison or resemblance. In this broader sense, antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile would all be considered types of metaphor. Aristotle used both this sense and the regular, current sense above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1042512",
"title": "Primary metaphor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Primary metaphor is a term named by Joseph Grady for the basic connection that exist between subjective or abstract experiences such as \"good\" and concrete experiences such as \"up\". These two concepts usually correlate in experience, and form the primary metaphor \"good is up\". Likewise there is a correlation between \"knowing\" and \"seeing\" forming the primary metaphor \"knowing is seeing\". Two such primary metaphors are used when understanding an expression such as \"glass ceiling\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20518",
"title": "Metaphor",
"section": "Section::::Larger applications.:Conceptual metaphors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1192,
"text": "Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. In \"Metaphors We Live By\", George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common definition of metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another, called a \"conduit metaphor\". A speaker can put ideas or objects into containers, and then send them along a conduit to a listener who removes the object from the container to make meaning of it. Thus, communication is something that ideas go into, and the container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors in use, including \"argument is war\" and \"time is money\". Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: \"Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20518",
"title": "Metaphor",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other types of analogy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. It is said, for instance, that a metaphor is 'a condensed analogy' or 'analogical fusion' or that they 'operate in a similar fashion' or are 'based on the same mental process' or yet that 'the basic processes of analogy are at work in metaphor'. It is also pointed out that 'a border between metaphor and analogy is fuzzy' and 'the difference between them might be described (metaphorically) as the distance between things being compared'. A metaphor asserts the objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, while a simile merely asserts a similarity through use of words such as \"like\" or \"as\". For this reason a common-type metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48517568",
"title": "Allegorical interpretations of Plato",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "The definitions of 'allegory', 'symbolism', and 'figurative meaning' evolved over time. The word 'allegory' (Greek for 'saying other') became more frequent in the early centuries CE and referred to language that had some other meaning in addition to its usual or literal meaning. Earlier in classical Athens, it was common instead to speak of 'undermeanings' (Gk., \"hyponoiai\"), which referred to hidden or deeper meanings. Today, allegory is often said to be a sustained sequence of metaphors within a literary work, but this was not clearly the ancient definition since then a single passage or even a name could be allegorical. Generally, the changing meanings of such terms must be studied within each historical context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "910746",
"title": "De Interpretatione",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "\"Chapter 1\". Aristotle defines words as symbols of 'affections of the soul' or mental experiences. Spoken and written symbols differ between languages, but the mental experiences are the same for all (so that the English word 'cat' and the French word 'chat' are different symbols, but the mental experience they stand for—the concept of a cat—is the same for English speakers and French speakers). Nouns and verbs on their own do not involve truth or falsity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fkkxz
|
Biologists: Snake repellent?
|
[
{
"answer": "Plant lemongrass.\n\nOr get a pet mongoose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cats will reduce the rodent population. I live in Rural California and we have a lot of Rattlesnakes, we have cats to bring down the rodent population, lessening the snakes. We still find them, but when we do they meet Mr. Shovel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Francis Crick has commented on potential limitations of Occam's razor in biology. He advances the argument that because biological systems are the products of (an ongoing) natural selection, the mechanisms are not necessarily optimal in an obvious sense. He cautions: \"While Ockham's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29370",
"title": "Snake",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with humans.:Medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential treatments or preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease, hemophilia, and hypertension, and to control bleeding (e.g. during surgery).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29370",
"title": "Snake",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with humans.:Bite.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of the snake. Some antivenom is species-specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snakes are pit vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of the different species of rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the immunized horse. The serum is separated and further purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses are more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom. Antivenom for the more dangerous species (such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa, and Australia, although these antivenoms are species-specific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34713162",
"title": "Findlay E. Russell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Findlay Ewing Russell (1 September 1919 – 21 August 2011) was an American internal medicine physician and toxicologist. He pursued a research interest in venomous and poisonous animals and the effects of toxins on the human nervous system and was widely acknowledged as one of the world's leading authorities on snakes and the pharmacology of snake venoms. Consulting work for the United Nations and various governmental agencies took him all over the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657905",
"title": "Agkistrodon",
"section": "Section::::Venom.:Venom and traditional Chinese medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "\"D. acutus\" venom has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries to extract antivenin that is successfully used to treat snakebites. Different parts of the snake are also prescribed to help alleviate ailments known as “wind diseases.” Because these snakes move so quickly, substances from their bodies are thought to easily treat these fast-moving “wind” syndromes. \"D. acutus\" is currently used in patients with arthritis, leprosy, tetanus, boils, and, as previously mentioned, tumors. The same qualities that make snakes flexible, capable of regenerating skin, and able to inflict paralysis could be transferred to human conditions if applied medicinally. The vipers are prepared by cooking the flesh of the headless body, grinding a paste of snake ash and mixing it with honey, drying the snake and compacting it into a powder, or even injecting their venom intravenously. Although these practices are common in Chinese medicine, no current studies have affirmed the effectiveness of these treatments. Whether or not these \"cures\" simply have a placebo effect or actually heal the patients is not known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1440,
"text": "Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's razor in either of two contexts both in evolutionary biology: the units of selection controversy and systematics. George C. Williams in his book \"Adaptation and Natural Selection\" (1966) argues that the best way to explain altruism among animals is based on low-level (i.e., individual) selection as opposed to high-level group selection. Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g., R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behavior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost to the individual, and many posit individual selection as the mechanism that explains altruism solely in terms of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective of others who propose selection at the level of the group as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic traits (e.g., D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The basis for Williams' contention is that of the two, individual selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he is invoking a variant of Occam's razor known as Morgan's Canon: \"In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.\" (Morgan 1903).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36797",
"title": "Occam's razor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In science, Occam's razor is used as an abductive heuristic in the development of theoretical models, rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models. In the scientific method, Occam's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion. For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since one can always burden failing explanations with \"ad hoc\" hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47muw7
|
why do ants drop other ants off ledges?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not sure if the carried ant was alive, but as i'm aware ants will remove ant-corpses from the vicinity of their colony so disease doesn't spread and doesn't attract predators. Perhaps that's why? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Was it possibly a drone ant they was no longer needed? Once the Queen has done her thing the guys get tossed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40554533",
"title": "Myrmecocystus mexicanus",
"section": "Section::::Foraging.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Other species of ants such as \"Conomyrma biocolor\" has been known to drop stones around the entrances of \"M. mexicanus\" nests. This behavior usually happens if the two species have colony entrances within 3 meters of each other. The two species have similar foraging times and food sources which creates competition between the colonies. The foraging of a \"M. mexicanus\" colony can decrease drastically due to this stone dropping technique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15300868",
"title": "Vachellia drepanolobium",
"section": "Section::::Symbiosis with ants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Because the ants compete for exclusive usage of a given tree, some species employ tactics to reduce the chance of a hostile ant invasion. \"Crematogaster nigriceps\" ants trim the buds of trees to reduce lateral growth in trees, thereby reducing chances of contact with a neighboring tree. \"Tetraponera penzigi\", the only species which does not utilize the nectar produced by the trees, instead destroys the nectar glands in order to make a tree less appealing to other species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31603740",
"title": "Azteca andreae",
"section": "Section::::Predatory behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "When an insect lands on the leaf, three to ten of the closest ants immediately attack and drive the prey to the leaf margin, where more ambushing ants will congregate and attack. Large prey was only captured if on the edge of the leaf, because the ants use their specialized legs to hold onto the velvety surface underneath ‘’C. obtusa’’ leaves. This mechanism essentially acts like Velcro, with the many small hooks on the legs of the ant gripping onto the velvet of the underside of the leaf. Because only the bottom of the leaf has this surface, the ants can only really capture prey when they are holding onto the leaf from the underside. This is the main factor that allows the ants to capture such massive prey. After catching their prey, they will either start tearing it to shreds on the spot or take it back to the colony and cut it up into smaller pieces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17427405",
"title": "Saharan silver ant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Largely due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, but also due to the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day. The twin pressures of predation and temperature restrict their above-ground activity to within a narrow temperature band between that at which predatory lizards cease activity and the ants' own upper threshold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31603740",
"title": "Azteca andreae",
"section": "Section::::Predatory behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "\"A. andreae\" use ambush predation to hunt insects many times their own size. The ants will actually position themselves side-by-side next to each other underneath the edge a leaf. There, they are invisible from above except for their mandibles, which hang outside the edge waiting for prey. Many times, the ants will occupy each leaf of the plant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425938",
"title": "Animal cognition",
"section": "Section::::Research questions.:Tool and weapon use.:Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Ants of the species \"Conomyrma bicolor\" pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15704241",
"title": "Tool use by animals",
"section": "Section::::In invertebrates.:Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Ants of the species \"Conomyrma bicolor\" pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8chk2l
|
why have we developed to sometimes hold our breath during tense situations?
|
[
{
"answer": "Put simply, your brain puts all it's resources to getting you out of that situation, including the bit that controls your subconscious breathing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to do my best here. Deep breathing activates certain neurons in the brain that tell your body to relax. Holding your breath heightens that response a little. It also provides proprioceptive input, meaning it activates your muscles through that feeling of tension in your chest/abdomin. Similar to swaddling a baby, putting a thunder vest on a dog, or how a nice good hug is calming. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always assumed it was to better avoid predators and allow us to listen more carefully. This thread has been enlightening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10115962",
"title": "Catathrenia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Common characteristics in reported cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "BULLET::::- Many took part in sports activities during teens and twenties some which required breath-holding which included many types of sports such as swimming and even weight lifting. They find a certain level of comfort in breath-holding, and often do it while awake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529870",
"title": "Control of ventilation",
"section": "Section::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Control of ventilatory pattern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Ventilation is normally unconscious and automatic, but can be overridden by conscious alternative patterns. Thus the emotions can cause yawning, laughing, sighing (etc.), social communication causes speech, song and whistling, while entirely voluntary overrides are used to blow out candles, and breath holding (to swim, for instance, underwater). Hyperventilation may be entirely voluntary or in response to emotional agitation or anxiety, when it can cause the distressing hyperventilation syndrome. The voluntary control can also influence other functions such as the heart rate as in yoga practices and meditation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18209535",
"title": "Vocal cord dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Behavioral approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Breathing techniques can be taught to reduce tension in the throat, neck, and upper body and bring attention to the flow of air during respiration. Diaphragm support during breathing decreases muscle tension in the larynx. These techniques are meant to move awareness away from the act of breathing in and focus on the auditory feedback provided by the air moving in and out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366663",
"title": "Body language",
"section": "Section::::Physical expressions.:Breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations. Generally, deeper breathing which uses the diaphragm and abdomen more is interpreted as conveying a relaxed and confident impression; by contrast, shallow, excessively rapid breathing is often interpreted as conveying a more nervous or anxious impression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26644416",
"title": "Relaxation (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Relaxation techniques.:Physical relaxation technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Breathing techniques is one of the easiest ways to reduce stress. It requires little effort and can be done anywhere at any time. Proper breathing techniques that incorporate deep abdominal breathing have been shown to reduce the physical symptoms of depression, anxiety and hypertension as well as everyday emotional symptoms of anger and nervousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3167780",
"title": "Diaphragmatic breathing",
"section": "Section::::In complementary and alternative medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Deep breathing exercises are sometimes used as a form of relaxation, that, when practiced regularly, may lead to the relief or prevention of symptoms commonly associated with stress, which may include high blood pressure, headaches, stomach conditions, depression, anxiety, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31183283",
"title": "Nigamananda Paramahansa",
"section": "Section::::Yoga, theories and techniques.:Yoga.:Dharana and dhyan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Nigamananda taught that the breathing system is closely connected with the intricate workings of the mind. Therefore, practice of pranayama leads to calmer breathing and thereby maintains tranquility of mind. Mind is subjected to forces of disturbed thoughts owing to irregular breathing. He said\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y0jvh
|
What were the reactions and perceptions of new allied technology by the axis?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's worth noting that most of the major Allied technologies we associate with the European war were secret (e.g. the code-breaking computers) or subtle. The most important two were probably radar and the proximity fuze. Neither of them have a \"Wunderwaffen\" quality to them. The Germans had their own proximity fuzes (though they didn't deploy them as heavily), they had their own radar (though they didn't develop them as well or integrate them as successfully into their total defensive and offensive plans). The Allies also used napalm to deadly effect — again, not much of a wonder weapon, just a good improvement on existing techniques (incendiary bombs). I am wracking my brain for a good Allied technology that mattered during World War II that would have actually been a significant propaganda tool, or made a big morale splash, and just not coming up with any. The German technologies were superficially impressive but ended up being not very effective militarily in the forms developable for the war. The Nazis led the \"super technology propaganda\" war during the war itself even though the Allied technologies, while superficially more banal, were much, much more useful for winning the actual war.\n\nThe atomic bomb, of course, would qualify as a wonder weapon but, of course, it was not developed in time for use during the European campaign. The physicists who were working on fission work for the Germans were justifiably shocked that the Americans had managed to pull that one off, when they heard about it after Hiroshima.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14786506",
"title": "The Enemy Strikes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The message of complacency is transferred to other theatres, such as the Russian, Pacific and later invasion of Germany, reminding the audience that despite recent victories, the Axis could still strike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37537066",
"title": "French Indochina in World War II",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Increased Axis pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "With the signing of the Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940, creating the Axis of Germany, Japan, and Italy, Decoux had new grounds for worry: the Germans could pressure the homeland to support their ally, Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38534810",
"title": "Aerial reconnaissance in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Endgame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "Finally, the industrial centers arrayed against the Axis – in the United States and the Urals and Siberia – were simply out of reach of strategic reconnaissance. As always it was at the tactical level that the Germans excelled, and short-range aircraft were able to hold their own in the East until fuel, pilots, and even aircraft became depleted. Experts generally hold that the top German leadership failed to understand air power, and Hitler has been especially blamed for lacking the strategic perspective that the West Allies adopted. But since the industrial mismatch was insurmountable, it is doubtful what difference a greater German emphasis on strategic reconnaissance and commensurate bombardment would have made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50186011",
"title": "Tomorrow's World (film)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "With the forces of the New World about to collide with that of the Old World, the Axis powers build up their defences using forced labour. Across Northwest Europe, the \"Maginot mentality\" begins to take root as the Axis turns its occupied territory into Fortress Europe. The Allies realize that victory over the Axis powers will release the industrial might that was mobilized for war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6786981",
"title": "Turning Point: Fall of Liberty",
"section": "Section::::Campaign.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "A period of development follows the success of the Axis Powers, transforming conquered Europe, Asia and Africa into the Greater German Reich and allowing allies Japan and Italy to share in the prosperity; at the same time, the Nazis start engineering and mass-producing many of their Wunderwaffen, including jet fighters, super-heavy tanks, and high-tech bombers. This advanced technology makes Germany the strongest nation on the planet. With the war essentially over, the people of the world wonder why the weapons are being developed, and what is the purpose of the build-up. This causes rising tensions between the now technologically superior German Reich and the United States, one of the few nations that is still free from Nazi rule. The United States and the rest of the League of Nations continue to condemn the actions of Nazi Germany in the occupied territories, but make no attempts to stop them, as the U.S. is still dominated by anti-war sentiment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990697",
"title": "Axis and Soviet air operations during Operation Barbarossa",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "By 1941, the Axis powers were in a comfortable position after defeating the Allies in Scandinavia, Western Europe and in the Balkans (leaving the British Empire as the only significant opposition). Axis forces deployed in Europe could only be engaged in the air or at sea, while the North African Campaign was unlikely to threaten its European territories. However, by this point of the war, Germany was in dire need of raw materials and oil resources available in the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23335764",
"title": "Hypothetical Axis victory in World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The subject of Axis supremacy as a fictional dramatic device began in the English-speaking world before the start of World War II, with Katharine Burdekin's novel \"Swastika Night\" coming out in 1937. Subsequent popular fictional depictions of an Axis-powers victory include: \"The Man in the High Castle\" by Philip K. Dick (1962), \"SS-GB\" by Len Deighton (1978), and \"Fatherland\" by Robert Harris (1992).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7wlq24
|
why do surgeons need to wash their hands for an extend period of time when normal sanitizer already kill 99.9% of all bacteria
|
[
{
"answer": "I believe it's usually to make sure they've got every last part of their hand. Between their fingers, under their nails etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most people don't thoroughly wash their hands, even when using hand sanitizer. Surgeons take their time to ensure that every nook and cranny is washed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From what I understand, sanitizer kills the organisms, but those dead \"corpses\" are all still there. The body reacts the same way to a dead virus as it does to a live one. Washing probably cleans all that dead stuff off too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sanitized dirt and feces and food are still dirt and feces and food. Stick any of those into a surgical site, the body will attack it. \n\nThen:\n\nImagine taking a steak and a bucket of white paint. Red is dirty, white is sanitized. Paint the steak. No matter how well you paint, if you bend or fold that steak enough times, you’ll eventually see more red.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always thought that part of the length of the wash was drilling a routine into your head so you wash every nook and cranny of the hand (between fingers and such). I imagine that if someone wanted to there could be a cleaner or some sort of santizer (either soap or machine or both)) that could do things faster but would you really want a surgeon to do something fast or do something thoroughly?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The 99.9% comes from \"ideal usage\", not real world usage. Ideal usage looks a lot more like what surgeons do than what you do in the lobby of the DMV.\n\n99.9% is not enough, for surgery.\n\n99.9 applies to some types of germs. Again, 'some types' is not enough for surgery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Antibacterial hand soap only kills 99.9% of bacteria if you wash your hands for at least 30 seconds. Part of the issue with triclosan is that people don't wash their hands long enough, so the more resistant bacteria persist and reproduce. Also, the scrubbing is to make sure that all the oils on their hand are washed away to avoid bacteria avoiding the antibacterial agent by hiding within them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are approved surgical foams and gels that are alcohol-based which take the place of the First Scrub as an alternative to the 3-5 minute wash at the sink with medicated, antimicrobial soap. \n\nThe aim is to reduce the load of organisms on the skin and prevent regrowth during the surgical procedure. If hands are visibly soiled, of course it is recommended that the surgical team member wash the grime off first, preferably before entering the hospital.\n\nSterile gloves are not leak proof or puncture proof. They are known to fail during procedures and often leaks/punctures are undetected during cases, even with double gloving, they're not 100%. The more effective the antimicrobial activity of the pre-scrub, the better. Alcohol-based hand-rubs have many positive attributes and are readily found at the scrub sinks. \n\n[Bonus article on efficacy of both.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I couldn't see any comments about spores. Some nasty bugs produce spores that are immune to those antibacterial cleaners. They stay dried out like seeds until they're put somewhere they can grow, like a human body, where they'll germinate and infect.\n\nWashing your hands quite literally washes those things off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At each facility I have worked, you do an initial first scrub which consists of water, nail cleaner, cleanser and scrub brush. You clean your nails, soap up your sponge and clean hands, fingers, nails and arms. I also do this coming back from lunch. Before every other surgery, we have alcohol based cleanser that we use on our hands, fingers, nails and arms. Basically there are only two times a day we use water unless we see blood or other bodily fluids on our hands/arms. Then we must wash. Any other time we use cleanser. This has changed since I became a surgical technician 26 years ago. We used to have to scrub before each case. When you are doing 30 cataracts a day it can really abuse your skin when you have to use water and soap. Thank goodness for alcohol based cleanser.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "875883",
"title": "Hospital-acquired infection",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Handwashing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing santizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and \"S. aureus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16535",
"title": "Joseph Lister",
"section": "Section::::Early life and education.:Career and work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Before Lister's studies of surgery, most people believed that chemical damage from exposure to bad air was responsible for infections in wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, but facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. A surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient; in the absence of any theory of bacterial infection, such practices were not considered necessary. Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., hospitals practised surgery under unsanitary conditions. Surgeons of the time referred to the \"good old surgical stink\" and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382316",
"title": "Old Operating Theatre Museum and Herb Garret",
"section": "Section::::History.:Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The risk of death at the hands of a surgeon was greatly increased by the lack of understanding of the causes of infection. Although cleanliness was a moral virtue, descriptions suggest that a surgeon was as likely to wash his hands after an operation as before. The old frock coats worn by surgeons during operations were, according to a contemporary, 'stiff and stinking with pus and blood'. Beneath the table was a sawdust box for collecting blood. The death rate was further heightened by the shock of the operation, and because operations took place as a last resort, patients tended to have few reserves of strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The purpose of hand-washing in the health-care setting is to remove pathogenic microorganisms (\"germs\") and avoid transmitting them. The \"New England Journal of Medicine\" reports that a lack of hand-washing remains at unacceptable levels in most medical environments, with large numbers of doctors and nurses routinely forgetting to wash their hands before touching patients, thus transmitting microorganisms. One study showed that proper hand-washing and other simple procedures can decrease the rate of catheter-related bloodstream infections by 66 percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15345560",
"title": "Concordia Hospital",
"section": "Section::::Hand Washing Audit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "A hand-hygiene audit completed in February 2012 found that front-line staff in hospitals do not sufficiently wash their hands. Reports reviewed two wards, N2W and N2E, and found compliance rates of only 58% and 48%. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19574596",
"title": "Global Handwashing Day",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The campaign was initiated to reduce childhood mortality rates and related respiratory and diarrheal diseases by introducing simple behavioral changes, such as handwashing with soap. This simple action can reduce the mortality rate of respiratory disease by 25%. Death from diarrheal diseases can be reduced by 50%. Across the world, more than 60 percent of health workers do not adhere to proper hand hygiene. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US health care providers, on average, wash their hands less than half of the time they should. On any given day, one in 25 US hospital patients has at least one health care-associated infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172321",
"title": "Hand, foot, and mouth disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Handwashing may prevent spread, and those infected should not go to work, daycare or school. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. Most cases require no specific treatment. Simple pain medication such as ibuprofen or numbing mouth gel may be used. Occasionally, intravenous fluids are given to children who are unable to drink enough. Rarely, viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
y4ln0
|
why you only get caught for illegally downloading some things, but not others?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pure luck. You just happened to be downloading the file at a time when the copyright police (basically a bunch of people at the big media companies) were tracking you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4168072",
"title": "Information ethics",
"section": "Section::::Ethics of downloading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Christian Barry believes that understanding illegal downloading as equivalent to common theft is problematic, because clear and morally relevant differences can be shown \"between stealing someone’s handbag and illegally downloading a television series\". On the other hand, he thinks consumers should try to respect intellectual property unless doing so imposes unreasonable cost on them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2844497",
"title": "Lex Karpela",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "BULLET::::- Downloading illegal copies on the Internet will be prohibited. Downloading for personal use won't be punished, but it may lead to claims for damages, if the copier knows or should have known that the source is illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18618063",
"title": "Black market",
"section": "Section::::Consumer issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "BULLET::::- In some jurisdictions (such as England and Wales), consumers found to be in possession of stolen goods will have them taken away if they are traced, even if they did not know they were stolen. Though they themselves will not usually face criminal prosecution, they are still left without the goods they paid for and with little if any recourse to get their money back. This risk may make some averse to buying goods that they think may be from the underground market, even if in fact they are legitimate (for example, items sold at a car boot sale).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5935748",
"title": "Prostitution in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Current legal status.:Purchasing sex (Brottsbalk 6.11).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "[[Sweden]]'s \"Sex Purchase Act\" (), enacted in 1999, makes it illegal to purchase \"sexual services\" (\"sexuell tjänst\"), but not to sell them. The rationale for criminalizing the purchaser, but not the seller, was stated in the 1997 government proposition, namely that \"\"...it is unreasonable to also criminalize the one who, at least in most cases, is the weaker party who is exploited by others who want to satisfy their own sexual desires\".\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22090326",
"title": "Counterfeit consumer goods",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Online sales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Buyers often know they were victimized from online sales, as over a third (34%) said they were victimized two or three times, and 11% said they had bought fake goods three to five times. While many online sellers such as Amazon are not legally responsible for selling counterfeit goods, when items are brought to their attention by a buyer, they will apply a takedown procedure and quickly remove the product listing from their website. This does not seem to be entirely accurate in practice. Counterfeit sellers have a lot of leeway through online commerce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24189",
"title": "Possession (law)",
"section": "Section::::Intention to possess.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "It is possible to intend to possess something without knowing that it exists. For example, if you intend to possess a suitcase, then you intend to possess its contents, even though you do not know what it contains. It is important to distinguish between the intention sufficient to obtain possession of a thing and the intention required to commit the crime of possessing something illegally, such as banned drugs, firearms or stolen goods. The intention to exclude others from the suitcase and its contents does not necessarily amount to the guilty mind of intending to possess illegally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31201241",
"title": "Torrent poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Barriers to torrent poisoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Instead, the aim of content providers is to make illegal downloads statistically less likely to be clean and complete, in the hope that users will be discouraged from illegally downloading copyright material. Content providers and copyright holders may decide that the financial outlay is not worth the end result of their efforts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8t883y
|
Why didn't the turkish people attempt to reclaim any lost territory from the first world war?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's important to note that, at this time, the lands they lost with the exception of Saudi Arabia were all British and French colonies who were at the height of their power. Taking back Iraq or Syria or Palestine didn't mean going to war with some two-bit monarch or collapsing empire, it meant taking them from some of the strongest militaries in the world. Additionally, the ideals of the Arab Revolt were probably still very strong in many of these territories, and the Turks would have likely faced an unending insurgency if they tried to retake any of the old Ottoman territories.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8925043",
"title": "Ani",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Everything that was left behind was later looted or destroyed. Turkey's surrender at the end of World War I led to the restoration of Ani to Armenian control, but a resumed offensive against the Armenian Republic in 1920 resulted in Turkey's recapture of Ani. In 1921 the signing of the Treaty of Kars formalized the incorporation of the territory containing Ani into the Republic of Turkey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2893954",
"title": "Bulgarian Turks",
"section": "Section::::History.:From Liberation to Communist Rule (1878 to 1946).:Transfer of Land.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1551,
"text": "With the outbreak of war some Turks sold their property, mostly to wealthy local Bulgarians. Other Turks rented their lands, usually to dependable local Bulgarians, on the understanding that it would be handed back if and when the owners returned. Most departing Turks, however, simply abandoned their land and fled, the fall of Pleven had made it clear that the Russians were to win the War. As the Turks fled many Bulgarians seized some of the land now made vacant. The incidence of seizure varied regionally. In the north-east the Turks were numerous and, feeling safety in numbers, few of them had left and those remaining were therefore strong enough to discourage seizures by Bulgarians. In the north and south-west on the other hand almost all Turks had fled and their lands were immediately taken over by local Bulgarians who often divided up the large estates found in these areas. In the remainder of northern Bulgaria transfers, often under the cloak of renting, took place in approximately one third of the communities. In the Turnovo province, for example, there were seventy-seven Turkish mixed Turkish-Bulgarian villages of which twenty-four (31.0%) were seized by Bulgarians, twenty two (28.5%) were later repossessed by returning Turkish refugees, and another twenty-two remained unaffected; the fate of the remaining nine is unknown. In the south-west there was much more tension and violence. Here there was no provisions about renting and there were cases of Bulgarian peasants not only seizing land but also destroying buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3093486",
"title": "Caucasus campaign",
"section": "Section::::Casualties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Historian Uğur Ümit Üngör, the author of \"Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property\", noted that during the Russian invasion of the Ottoman Empire, many atrocities were carried out against the local Turks and Kurds by the Russian army and its Armenian volunteer units. A large part of the local Muslim Turks and Kurds fled west after the Russian invasion of 1916.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39040416",
"title": "Yalova Peninsula massacres",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "An additional factor that lead to violence was the return of Greek refugees to their homes, who have been dislocated as a result of the Ottoman ethnic cleansing policies during World War I. On the other hand, thousands of Turkish refugees from the Balkan wars, who had occupied their homes in the meantime, were expulsed. This turn of event created a rural proletariat apt for brigandage and violence by irregular groups. According to a report of the Allied commission the events during World War I and the problems of the refugees were not the primary reason of the thorough destruction of numerous Turkish villages and towns in the Gemlik-Yalova Peninsula. They stated that the massacres and destruction was carried out according to a plan by the Greek army who also encouraged the local Greek and Armenians to participate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4050172",
"title": "İncirliova",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Following the Treaty of Sèvres, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War Karapınar was occupied by Greek forces from May 26, 1919. The Turkish resistance began at nearby Erbeyli in June 1919 and continued in the area throughout the Turkish War of Independence, while the Turkish people of the town retreated into the surrounding hills for safety to gather forces for further resistance. Following the defeat of the Greek army at İnönü and their retreat to the Aegean coast, Karapınar was liberated on September 7, 1922.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8132359",
"title": "United Armenia",
"section": "Section::::History of the claims.:Post-World War II: 1945–1953.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "After the end of World War II in Europe, the Soviet Union made territorial claims to Turkey. Joseph Stalin pushed Turkey to cede Kars and Ardahan, thus returning the pre-World War I boundary between the Russian and Ottoman empires. Besides these provinces, the Soviet Union also claimed the Straits (see Turkish Straits crisis). \"Stalin, perhaps, expected that the Turks, shocked by the Red Army's triumph, would give up, and Washington and London accept it as a \"fait accompli\",\" writes Jamil Hasanli. Athena Leoussi added, \"While Stalin's motives can be debated, for Armenians at home and abroad the re-emergence of the Armenian Question revived hopes for territorial unification\". On 7 June 1945 Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed the Turkish ambassador in Moscow that the USSR demanded a revision of its border with Turkey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40067447",
"title": "Committee of Union and Progress",
"section": "Section::::Disbandment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Any possibility of a general effort at truth, reconciliation, or democratisation was, however, lost when Greece, which had sought to remain neutral through most of World War I, was invited by France, Britain, and the United States to occupy western Anatolia in May 1919. Turkish nationalist leader Mustafa Kemal rallied the Turkish people to resist. Two additional organisers of the genocide were hanged, but while a few others were convicted, none completed their prison terms. The CUP and other Turkish prisoners held on Malta were eventually traded for almost 30 British prisoners held by Nationalist forces, obliging the British to give up their plans for international trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nrq1n
|
what makes computer hacking difficult, and not something a computer itself does?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well in some cases, it does. But that's another story.\n\nConsider what computers do: very simple tasks, *very* fast. They don't (usually) screw up.\n\nNow hacking consists, fundamentally, of finding cases where people told the computer to do the wrong thing. At a very basic level, this is a deviation from expected behavior, which makes it...unpredictable. Computers suck at it because it's a *difficult* problem that can't easily be broken down into simple problems. \nOr in a nutshell, it is very hard to predict the unpredictable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's difficult for a few reasons:\n\nIn the past 20 years since computing got big, an entire *career field* has been created against hacking (computer and internet security).\n\nSince computing has gotten so much more powerful, it's difficult to overload security software which causes it to crash, leaving systems vulnerable.\n\nComputer manufacturers have had a lot of time to build systems within their operating system to overcome hacking attempts, and have a lot of people on staff working to make their systems unbreakable.\n\nAny software programmer hired to write high-level software has at least a basic knowledge of security, most probably try to hack their own software.\n\nCompanies pay big money to groups/individuals who find security holes in their software and then fix it. (But not before letting the government use them for a few months, amirite?)\n\nThere's more but I want to play GTA5 now.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer hacking, as the word was first used, is best described as clever, unexpected use of the technology. All it requires is intelligence and creativity.\n\nComputer cracking, the bypassing of restrictions placed there by the programmers of a system, should be impossible. But errors made by programmers leave corner cases where the system does not work as it should, allowing a user do do something the programmer did not permit. This is a battle of intellect between the programmer and the cracker, where all the cards should be in the hand of the programmer. Because of this, it should be difficult!\n\n(The difference between hacking and cracking is basically whether the original programmer would have allowed it if they knew! A good hack is applauded by the program's creator (I didn't know it could do that - Neat!), whereas an instance of a crack is reported to the authorities.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First lets talk about why computer systems are hackable to begin with. Computers simply execute operations on a basic arithmetic/logical level. All of the complexity of programs, operating systems, graphical user interfaces, etc. boils down to these basic operations. They're just stacked on top of each other MANY times over by programmers to perform the more complex tasks that suit their needs/goals. The flaws in any given system, therefore, are not with the basic operation of the computer but with the greater overall logic or execution of the *person* chaining together these operations at a much higher level. There's a ton of room for error when you account for the sheer number of platforms and frameworks that are employed to accomplish varying tasks.\n\nA computer doesn't possess any sort of understanding of the purpose of the operations it is given, so it can't tell a programmer when they've made an exploitable mistake and it certainly couldn't repair itself. Without that level of self-awareness there's no way it could even begin to analyze the execution of OTHER systems all on its own. However, a computer *can* be programmed to check for certain flaws in a system and potentially exploit them if it is told explicitly what to do. Automating the process doesn't make a computer intelligent, though, and it still lacks the capacity to improvise and discover new flaws in the way a clever human might.\n\nI think a lot of people give too much credit to computers. They are fantastic pieces of equipment that enable us to do many, many things but at the end of the day they're not truly smart or magical. A computer is simply a tool.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6806",
"title": "Computer memory",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Early computer systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write the data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some cases, the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can take advantage of this to create viruses and malware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "586357",
"title": "Artificial general intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Problems requiring AGI to solve.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The most difficult problems for computers are informally known as \"AI-complete\" or \"AI-hard\", implying that solving them is equivalent to the general aptitude of human intelligence, or strong AI, beyond the capabilities of a purpose-specific algorithm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3369375",
"title": "Cyberwarfare",
"section": "Section::::Motivations.:Private sector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Computer hacking represents a modern threat in ongoing global conflicts and industrial espionage and as such is presumed to widely occur. It is typical that this type of crime is underreported to the extent they are known. According to McAfee's George Kurtz, corporations around the world face millions of cyberattacks a day. \"Most of these attacks don't gain any media attention or lead to strong political statements by victims.\" This type of crime is usually financially motivated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4696394",
"title": "Password manager",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "It is typical to make at least one of these mistakes. This makes it very easy for hackers, crackers, malware and cyber thieves to break into individual accounts, corporations of all sizes, government agencies, institutions, etc. It is protecting against these vulnerabilities that makes password managers so important.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1467336",
"title": "Secure communication",
"section": "Section::::Methods used to \"break\" security.:Computers (general).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Any security obtained from a computer is limited by the many ways it can be compromised – by hacking, keystroke logging, backdoors, or even in extreme cases by monitoring the tiny electrical signals given off by keyboard or monitors to reconstruct what is typed or seen (TEMPEST, which is quite complex).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5707206",
"title": "Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics",
"section": "Section::::The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics.:Exegesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "BULLET::::- Explanation: Computer software can be used in ways that disturb other users or disrupt their work. Viruses, for example, are programs meant to harm useful computer programs or interfere with the normal functioning of a computer. Malicious software can disrupt the functioning of computers in more ways than one. It may overload computer memory through excessive consumption of computer resources, thus slowing its functioning. It may cause a computer to function wrongly or even stop working. Using malicious software to attack a computer is unethical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163729",
"title": "ROM hacking",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Assembly hacking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "The most powerful, and arguably the most difficult, hacking technique is editing the game's actual code, a process called \"ASM hacking\" (\"ASM\" means \"assembly\", referring to the type of programming language used for early video games). There is no set pattern for ASM hacking, as the code varies widely from game to game, but most skilled ASM hackers either use an emulator equipped with a built-in debugger or tracer, or run the ROM through a disassembler, then analyze the code and modify it using a hex editor or assembler according to their needs. While quite challenging compared to the relatively simple methods listed above, \"anything\" is possible with ASM hacking (of course, within the limits of the hardware/software of the gaming platform), ranging from altering enemy AI to changing how graphics are generated. (Of course, the possibilities are still limited by the hacker's ability to comprehend and modify the existing code.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dsk72
|
why do some gifs load fine on the reddit app but others won't?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know why either. Happens to maybe 20% of gifs. There is an easy fix though. If it doesn't load, click the word 'imgur' just above the post title. Works a treat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reddit sync is the best app i have on my phone, works so well i bought the ad free version. It is so smooth and one of the most detailed apps i ever used! Defo give it a try if your problemo persists :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16115172",
"title": "List of Facebook features",
"section": "Section::::Facebook structure.:Comments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "To mark the 30th anniversary of the GIF, Facebook has introduced a new feature enabling users to add GIFs to comments. The eagerly-awaited feature can be accessed using the GIF button located beside the emoji picker. Users can choose from the available GIFs sourced from Facebook's GIF partners, but cannot upload other GIFs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39000816",
"title": "GifBoom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "GifBoom is a free social networking mobile application that enables its users to upload animated GIFs and to share them on GifBoom as well as on Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr, or via email or MMS. GifBoom is available in the App Store and in the Google Play Store too. On November 4, 2014, the application abruptly crashed. While unable to recover any data prior to the crash, GifBoom developers resorted to resetting the application.( \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41915053",
"title": "Giphy",
"section": "Section::::Partnerships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Giphy partners with brands to host GIFs that can be shared as marketing promotions via social media channels. The company also created artist profiles on the website, which allow GIFs to be attributed to the artist(s) who created them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37293007",
"title": "Betaworks",
"section": "Section::::Studio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "BULLET::::- Giphy lets anyone search for animated gifs on the web. It was born out of an experiment by two hackers in residence, Alex Chung and Jace Cooke, who found it difficult to browse the best gifs on the web. It spread unexpectedly quickly, serving millions of results in the first few weeks. \"We could tell it struck a nerve, so we swarmed it,\" said Paul Murphy, the head of product at Betaworks told The Verge\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39000816",
"title": "GifBoom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The app no longer loads due to the domain name of GifBoom.com no longer being able to be resolved (as of 9/17/2017). The app simply tries to load, but cannot find a service to connect to. The GifBoom Twitter states: \"We're having a service disruption. Working on resolving the issue and will provide an update as soon as possible.\" on 11/3/14.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2033759",
"title": "Remix culture",
"section": "Section::::Domains of remixing.:GIFs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "GIFs are another example of remix culture. They are illustrations and small clips from films used for personal expressions in online conversations. GIFs are commonly taken from an online video form such as film, T.V. or YouTube videos. Each clip usually lasts for about 3 seconds and is \"looped, extended and repeated.\" GIFs take a mass media sample and reimagines, or remixes, its meaning from the original context to use it as a form of personal expression in a different context. They are used throughout various media platforms but are most popular in Tumblr where they are used to articulate a punch line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12702",
"title": "GIF",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "As a noun, the word \"GIF\" is found in the newer editions of many dictionaries. In 2012, the American wing of the Oxford University Press recognized \"GIF\" as a verb as well, meaning \"to create a GIF file\", as in \"GIFing was perfect medium for sharing scenes from the Summer Olympics\". The press's lexicographers voted it their word of the year, saying that GIFs have evolved into \"a tool with serious applications including research and journalism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15oxrf
|
How come some farts blow over in seconds, whilst others hang in the air for ages?
|
[
{
"answer": "Best fucking question ever asked \rI dunno :/",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5856404",
"title": "Patufet",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "(I'm in the ox's tummy/ Where it doesn't snow or rain./ When the ox farts/ Patufet will get out). After a while they hear Patufet's little voice and his mother feeds the ox with herbs that make it fart faster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6136724",
"title": "The Gas We Pass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The Gas We Pass: The Story of Farts (おなら \"Onara\") is a children's book written by Shinta Chō (). It was first published in Japan in 1978; the first American edition was in 1994. The book tells children about flatulence (also known as farting), and that it is completely natural to do so. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63199",
"title": "Spontaneous human combustion",
"section": "Section::::Cultural references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the episode \"Spontaneous Combustion\" (April 1999) of the American animated series \"South Park\", several characters die from spontaneous human combustion. It is later discovered that it is the result of people holding in their farts. In the DVD commentary for the episode, Trey Parker reveals that flatulence causing spontaneous combustion in the episode stemmed from his own serious belief that holding in farts can indeed cause humans to spontaneously combust. Parker said, \"I honestly think it could be what spontaneous combustion is because I've seen some dudes light their farts, and the fireballs were big. And that was just one fart. I'm serious, I think it's totally possible.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45626112",
"title": "Honeysuckle Divine",
"section": "Section::::Working as a stripper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1488,
"text": "I started by wheeling out my shopping cart full of surprises. The first thing I did was stick a mop handle in my puss and clean the stage floor. Then I pulled the mop handle out of my puss and made a lot of pussy farts. The audience always got a laugh out of that. I made my puss sound like a duck. I'd say, \"I fucked a duck and the duck's still in there!\" I lit a candle with a match, then extinguished the flame with my puss. Then I'd blow out the flame from three candles all at once. After that I put three candles in my puss, lit them, and stood on my head. I'd count down, and blast-off! The candles shot out of my puss like a rocket. I call that 'Pussy Propulsion'. After the candles, I smoked a cigarette in my puss and blew smoke rings in time with Glenn Miller swing music. This is an old-time trick for the smoker's stag parties. I used to be afraid of cancer because of the smoke. Then I pour Jergens lotion into my parts, which I then shoot 20 feet into the air. The guys within shooting range scatter in all directions! I joke that the guys who are close to me are in the \"combat zone.\" Then I put talcum powder in my pussy, which I blow out in big white clouds. Then I shoot ping pong balls out; the powder gives me better grip on the ball so I can shoot them 15 to 20 feet. I prepare each ball carefully: I write 'Honeysuckle loves your balls' on them and then I wrap them each up in a baggie to keep the autograph dry, so whoever catches them can keep them as souvenirs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11240",
"title": "Flatulence",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Historical comment on the ability to fart at will is observed as early as Saint Augustine's \"The City of God\" (5th century AD). Augustine mentions men who \"have such command of their bowels, that they can break wind continuously at will, so as to produce the effect of singing\". Intentional passing of gas and its use as entertainment for others appear to have been somewhat well known in pre-modern Europe, according to mentions of it in medieval and later literature, including Rabelais.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8679088",
"title": "Kitchen Kabaret",
"section": "Section::::Show description.:Act 4.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "There were also running gags in this part of the show. Mr. Eggz's bow moved if he was laughing, and at the end of their parts, smoke bellowed around them to keep these two from being seen moving into the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29843",
"title": "The Goon Show",
"section": "Section::::Running jokes.:Rhubarb, rhubarb, rhubarb!\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "During radio programmes of the 1920s and 1930s, the background noise for crowd scenes was often achieved by a moderately large group of people mumbling \"rhubarb\" under their breath with random inflections. This was often parodied by Milligan, who would try to get the same effect with only three or four people, clearly intoning the word rather than mumbling. After some time, Secombe began throwing in \"custard\" during these scenes (for example, in \"The Fear of Wages and Wings Over Dagenham\", where the phrase was amended to 'flying rhubarb').\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4nzy31
|
What did the soldiers of the hundred years war eat as rations?
|
[
{
"answer": "Soldiers in the Hundred Years War did not receive rations as such. Commanders were supposed to provide food for their men (whether by taking it with them or by foraging/pillaging for it), but there was no system comparable to the Royal Navy's daily allotments of particular foods. Food might be provided by royal purveyance (where food was gathered by order of the king), but this proved to be politically unpopular and was largely replaced by contracted merchants providing supplies to military forces and garrisons like at Calais. What form did these supplies take? Primarily, various forms of grains: wheat, oat, barley, and malt are mentioned frequently. Beans and peas were also common for English military rations, though not to the same extent as the grains. For meat, pork and beef (presumably salted) were the usual military supplies. When soldiers were in the field, they would also forage for whatever they could find in the area. If they camped near a lake, they might fish. If they came upon a village, they would take bread. If they were passing by vineyards, the soldiers would drink as much as they could get their hands on, much to the irritation of their commanders. Although sometimes commanders attempted to limit the violence and destruction caused by their soldiers for political reasons, they had a limited ability to actually enforce discipline. Civilians caught in the path of medieval armies had very few options for protecting themselves or their livelihoods. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32873905",
"title": "British soldiers in the eighteenth century",
"section": "Section::::The life of a redcoat.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "When on campaign, soldiers would normally be supplied with an allowance of bread, meat, oatmeal or rice and either beer or rum to wash it down with. A typical daily allowance for a group of up to six men consisted of () of bread or flour, () of beef, () of rice or oatmeal and () of rum. A soldier in camp could expect to be provided with a loaf of bread for which would last about four days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27709502",
"title": "History of military nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Diet quality.:British military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The rations provided to the British Forces were often inedible and did not resemble real food. The soldiers mentioning food in many of their letters home shows some psychological distress that they may have been experiencing due to the nature of their rations. They also were high in calories yet low in the essential nutrients needed to thrive. In the book the author reveals parts of soldiers diaries where they admit to stealing food from French farms and orchards. Edible food was used as a motivating source for the Soldiers when receiving care packages from loved ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27709502",
"title": "History of military nutrition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "The standard for military rations in the United States was set in 1775 during the Revolutionary War and included one pound of beef, one quarter pound of pork, or one pound of salt fish; one pound of bread or flour; three pints of peas or beans; one pint of milk; one half-pint of rice or one pint of cornmeal; and one quart of spruce beer or cider. When these items were not available, soldiers relied on jerky and hardtack, a type of biscuit made from flour and water. During the Civil War, due to the progress made in the preservation of food, Union rations came to include coffee, tea, potatoes, and seasonings. During World War I, rations included a pound of hard bread and canned meat, a cube of condensed soup, coffee, and sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1340426",
"title": "Pedro Fages",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Strict discipline to build Monterey presidio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Weekly rations for the soldiers consisted of two gallons of corn, a pound of beans, a pound of pinole, half a pound of panocha, and four pounds of meat. The meat, delivered in barrels from the galleon \"San Antonio\", often proved too putrid to eat. Weevils infested some of the corn and meal. The soldiers supplemented their diet by gathering wild herbs and hunting geese on Sundays. They also traded what goods they had like ponchos, knives, daggers and handkerchiefs for food from the Indians. News of the soldiers' harsh treatment and poor conditions gradually reached Mexico, and Alta California became an undesirable assignment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41916620",
"title": "33rd Regiment Alabama Infantry",
"section": "Section::::Regimental commanders, weapons and equipment.:Rations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "By April 1863, rations consisted of \"three-fourths pounds of flour, or corn meal, or rice; meat rations: usually three-fourths pounds grass-fed common beef or a half pound of bacon; and salt, occasionally ...\" Soldiers supplemented this through foraging, and while rations were plentiful enough at this point to ignore a dead yearling bull they found on one of their marches, Matthews indicates that \"a dead yearling, nor a live one for that matter, would not have remained unskinned long near us a month later.\" By the start of the Atlanta Campaign, the beef issued to the regiment was of such an inferior quality that \"some of the boys said they had to walk across their pen twice to make a shadow.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41225652",
"title": "British military rations during the French and Indian War",
"section": "Section::::Supplements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "In garrison the regular ration was supplemented with vegetables from gardens tended by the soldiers during their spare time. Turnips, carrots and cabbage were the most common crops. Soldiers in towns could also buy food in the civilian marketplace, but at border forts or in the field, they were limited to what the sutlers sold. The margin for such purchases was limited, however, due to the many stoppages taken from the soldiers' pay, among them the cost for the issued ration. While marching through populated areas, the soldiers frequently resorted to foraging, often a euphemism for theft and robbery of food from the citizenry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8883858",
"title": "Foods of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Logistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Often, while on field campaigns, soldiers found themselves saving some portions of food in their haversacks, washable canvas bags that provided storage but did little for food preservation. The soldiers' diets often sometimes included salted pork, salted beef, salt, vinegar, and dried fruits and vegetables. Rarely, the soldiers could obtain fresh items such as carrots, onions, turnips, potatoes, and fresh fruit. The Union army soldiers were often given food items such as bacon, cornmeal, tea, sugar, molasses, and fresh vegetables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ckivjr
|
baby boomers are adamant that they had it far worse than proceeding generations, how is the opposite actually true?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's imagine this. You're a new generation of cavemen and you have the ability to use wheeled carts to carry items. The generation before you complains on how the new generation has it \"easy\" compared to them where they had to carry every item. Although yes, the technological advancements weren't there, a new set of issues arrive for the newer generation too. What if the wheels break down? Larger advancements demands larger supplements. Can you really move at the same pace in carrying items as if you had no wheels? Regardless if you're skilled at carrying items beforehand? \n\nSame happens for the new generation. Each technological advancement brings a new set of complications for that specific grouping. Just because lets say, Africa doesn't have a large amount of people using smartphones doesn't mean that we can't complain about issues in our first world state. Someone had a leak in their home and wants to fix it, but then a homeless guy comes and says that they have it far worse in that they don't have a home at all. \n\nWith these examples, it comes more easy to understand the different perspectives that take place when talking about this topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51240626",
"title": "Cusper",
"section": "Section::::Notable cusper groups.:Baby Boomers/Generation X.:Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "This population is sometimes referred to as Generation Jones, and less commonly as Tweeners. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47127",
"title": "Baby boomers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The boomers have tended to think of themselves as a special generation, very different from preceding and subsequent generations. In the 1960s and 1970s, as a relatively large number of young people entered their late teens—the oldest turned 18 in 1964—they, and those around them, created a very specific rhetoric around their cohort and the changes brought about by their size in numbers. This rhetoric had an important impact in the self-perceptions of the boomers, as well as their tendency to define the world in terms of generations, which was a relatively new phenomenon. The baby boom has been described variously as a \"shockwave\" and as \"the pig in the python\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "954420",
"title": "Generation Jones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The generation is noted for coming of age after a huge swath of their older brothers and sisters in the earlier portion of the baby boomer population had come immediately preceding them; thus, many complain that there was a paucity of resources and privileges available to them that were seemingly abundant to older boomers. Therefore, there is a certain level of bitterness and \"jonesing\" for the level of freedom and affluence granted to older boomers but denied to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47127",
"title": "Baby boomers",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Size and economic impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "In addition to the size of the group, Steve Gillon has suggested that one thing that sets the baby boomers apart from other generational groups is the fact that \"almost from the time they were conceived, Boomers were dissected, analyzed, and pitched to by modern marketers, who reinforced a sense of generational distinctiveness.\" This is supported by the articles of the late 1940s identifying the increasing number of babies as an economic boom, such as a 1948 \"Newsweek\" article whose title proclaimed \"Babies Mean Business\", or a 1948 \"Time\" magazine article called \"Baby Boom.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3861253",
"title": "Boomerang Generation",
"section": "Section::::Trend.:Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "Economic instability is the primary justification for this phenomenon, as articulated in Kimberly Palmer's 2007 \"U.S. News & World Report\" article \"The New Parent Trap: More Boomers Help Adult Kids out Financially\". In particular, the term Boomeranger has been used to draw reference to those Gen-Xers and Gen-Yers of the Boomerang Generation who have either returned to an earlier, more modest lifestyle or have simply moved back home with parents and other loved ones, in response to the Great Recession. Where the young person and his/her parents can tolerate the arrangement, it provides tremendous financial relief to the young person. Such co-residence can be a valuable form of insurance, particularly for youths from poorer families. It may also provide non-negligible income to the parents, though in many cultures, the boomeranger retains all or nearly all of their disposable income for discretionary income purchases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8880793",
"title": "Gray ceiling",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "As the children of the baby boomers advance from below, the Gen-Xers, usually with middle management jobs, feel threatened and trapped in a job that is going nowhere and might be given away to the next younger candidate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40781236",
"title": "Sampo generation",
"section": "Section::::Similar issues in other countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the United States, many Millennials and late Generation X also belong to the Boomerang Generation which live with their parents after they would normally be considered old enough to live on their own. This social phenomenon is mainly caused by high unemployment rates coupled with various economic downturns, and in turn, many Boomerang children postpone romance and marriage due to economic hardship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7gedwm
|
why do some things only taste good after a few tries?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your body automatically rejects new bitter flavors, as many poisons are bitter. But once you have tasted them several times and suffered zero ill effects, your nervous system (basically your brain) starts to adjust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2284563",
"title": "Conditioned taste aversion",
"section": "Section::::Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "If the flavor has been encountered before the subject becomes ill, the effect will not be as strong or will not be present. This quality is called latent inhibition. Conditioned taste aversion is often used in laboratories to study gustation and learning in rats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2284563",
"title": "Conditioned taste aversion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Conditioned taste aversion occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance. Generally, taste aversion is developed after ingestion of food that causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting. The ability to develop a taste aversion is considered an adaptive trait or survival mechanism that trains the body to avoid poisonous substances (e.g., poisonous berries) before they can cause harm. The association reduces the probability of consuming the same substance (or something that tastes similar) in the future, thus avoiding further poisoning. It is an example of classical or \"Pavlovian\" conditioning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328705",
"title": "Taste (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Taste is generally considered very complex. As a result, it is sometimes said to be temperamental, and users who make complex documents and edit them in major ways have learned to keep good backup files. Sometimes documents become corrupted and it becomes difficult or impossible to recover the data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232495",
"title": "Motivation",
"section": "Section::::Psychological theories.:Approach versus avoidance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5476650",
"title": "John Garcia (psychologist)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Garcia's discovery, conditioned taste aversion, is considered a survival mechanism because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2961628",
"title": "Special senses",
"section": "Section::::Taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282070",
"title": "Taste",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
289kuv
|
why do people remember car accidents or anything similar in slow motion?
|
[
{
"answer": "The brain's perceptual ability can have a very wide or very narrow focus depending on the circumstances. Normally you are taking in sights, sounds, physical sensation, scents, etc, in a more or less balanced manner. At the first sight of danger, the brain can essentially turn off the perception of everything but the visual stimuli. \n\nWhat's happening is not really the perception of time being slowed, but an overwhelming level of visual detail being experienced all at once. Our memory perceives this as meaning the event must have lasted longer than it actually did.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Experts will say that people only recall time being slowed, because of the amount of visual detail recorded, but this is wrong. Events appearing slower is an actual experience.\n\nI was once in a stressful situation, but not life-threatening. There was nothing going on to distract me, and not a lot of detail to be recorded. Suddenly everything slowed down. I was aware it was happening at the time, and was trying to figure it out. I began walking, and was moving in slow motion. Others around me were walking in slow motion. After about four steps everything shifted back to normal. It shook me up, and I have never tried to replicate the event.\n\nWhenever I see a TV program showing a lion chasing a gazelle, and the tape has been put in slow motion, I wonder if that is what the gazelle is actually experiencing. There is probably a survival strategy that kicks in in certain stressful situations, such as a lion chasing you. It gives you \"more time\" to think of a way out",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41275963",
"title": "Risk aversion (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Neuropsychology of risk aversion.:Negativity bias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Do you remember the worst thing that has happened to you? What about the best? At what frequency are you able to recall memories that are negative in comparison to those that are positive? Does it seem like negative information is remembered with more ease and clarity than positive information? Why is it easier to know the percentage of fatal car accidents each year, as opposed to the percentage of accidents without fatalities?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19001051",
"title": "Narrative of the abduction phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Upon getting out of the vehicle, the driver and passenger(s) often will experience a blank period and amnesia (see Missing Time), after which they will find themselves again standing in front of, or driving their car. While they frequently will not consciously remember the experience, either subsequent nightmares or hypnosis will reveal events interpreted as having occurred during the period lacking explicit memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19740545",
"title": "Traffic collision",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Human factors.:Motor vehicle speed.:Assured clear distance ahead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "A common cause of accidents is driving faster than one can stop within their field of vision. Such practice is illegal and is particularly responsible for an increase of fatalities at night – when it occurs most.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "772441",
"title": "Memorylessness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Most phenomena are not memoryless, which means that observers will obtain information about them over time. For example, suppose that is a random variable, the lifetime of a car engine, expressed in terms of \"number of miles driven until the engine breaks down\". It is clear, based on our intuition, that an engine which has already been driven for 300,000 miles will have a much lower than would a second (equivalent) engine which has only been driven for 1,000 miles. Hence, this random variable would not have the memorylessness property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11756343",
"title": "Long-exposure photography",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "When a scene includes both stationary and moving subjects (for example, a fixed street and moving cars or a camera within a car showing a fixed dashboard and moving scenery), a slow shutter speed can cause interesting effects, such as light trails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Potential disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "Human thought and reaction time may sometimes be too slow to detect the risk of an upcoming fatal crash, think through the ethical implications of the available options, or take an action to implement an ethical choice. Whether a particular automated vehicle's capacity to correctly detect an upcoming risk, analyse the options or choose a 'good' option from among bad choices would be as good or better than a particular human's may be difficult to predict or assess. This difficulty may be in part because the level of automated vehicle system understanding of the ethical issues at play in a given road scenario, sensed for an instant from out of a continuous stream of synthetic physical predictions of the near future, and dependent on layers of pattern recognition and situational intelligence, may be opaque to human inspection because of its origins in probabilistic machine learning rather than a simple, plain English 'human values' logic of parsable rules. The depth of understanding, predictive power and ethical sophistication needed will be hard to implement, and even harder to test or assess.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "Section::::Types of temporal illusions.:Effects of emotional states.:Fear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Possibly related to the oddball effect, research suggests that time seems to slow down for a person during dangerous events (such as a car accident, a robbery, or when a person perceives a potential predator or mate), or when a person skydives or bungee jumps, where they're capable of complex thoughts in what would normally be the blink of an eye (See Fight-or-flight response). This reported slowing in temporal perception may have been evolutionarily advantageous because it may have enhanced one's ability to intelligibly make quick decisions in moments that were of critical importance to our survival. However, even though observers commonly report that time seems to have moved in slow motion during these events, it is unclear whether this is a function of increased time resolution during the event, or instead an illusion created by the remembering of an emotionally salient event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hznsb
|
Would a bottle of wine chill faster opened or unopened?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't think it'll make a significant difference either way. The neck is such a small surface area for heat to flow through. Circulating chilled water around the bottle is the way to do it quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm curious why you think it might make a difference? What phenomena do you have in mind?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Protip: put some salt, wine bottle, and ice in a bucket. Fill the gaps with cold water. Swirl it a round a tad, and you'll have some cold wine asap. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It should cool faster closed. There is a difference in heat capacity for systems at constant pressure or constant volume. If you are at constant pressure (open) you have the ability to do expansion (P*dV) work. At constant volume (closed), you can't do any work, so changes in energy (external temperature) all go into the internal energy (wine temperature).\n\nI think this effect will be incredibly minor for a bottle of wine because of the low surface area (this is purely a geometric concern) and probably small thermal expansion coefficient.\n\nEdit: Wikilink _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3031996",
"title": "Wine fault",
"section": "Section::::Environmental.:Heat damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Even if the temperatures do not reach extremes, temperature variation alone can also damage bottled wine through oxidation. All corks allow some leakage of air (hence old wines become increasingly oxidized), and temperature fluctuations will vary the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the bottle and will act to \"pump\" air into the bottle at a faster rate than will occur at any temperature strictly maintained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923212",
"title": "Kosher wine",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for being kosher.:Mevushal wines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "A process called flash pasteurization rapidly heats the wine to the desired temperature and immediately chills it back to room temperature. This process is said to have a minimal effect on flavor, at least to the casual wine drinker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20718139",
"title": "History of Champagne",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Furthermore, the cold winter temperatures prematurely halted fermentation in the cellars, leaving dormant yeast cells that would awaken in the warmth of spring and start fermenting again. One of the byproducts of fermentation is the release of carbon dioxide gas, which, if the wine is bottled, is trapped inside the wine, causing intense pressure. The pressure inside the weak, early French wine bottles often caused the bottles to explode, creating havoc in the cellars. If the bottle survived, the wine was found to contain bubbles, something that the early Champenois were horrified to see, considering it a fault. As late as the 17th century, Champenois wine makers, most notably the Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon (1638–1715), were still trying to rid their wines of the bubbles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544",
"title": "Vermouth",
"section": "Section::::Modern use.:Storing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Because vermouth is fortified, an opened bottle will not sour as quickly as white wine. Opened vermouth, however, will gradually deteriorate over time. Gourmets recommend that opened bottles of vermouth be consumed within one to three months and should be kept refrigerated to slow oxidation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228756",
"title": "Bottle variation",
"section": "Section::::Wine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Bottle variation that increases over time typically comes from the packaging. Exposure to heat or light can cause a wine to mature more quickly or even make it taste \"cooked\". Bottles aged in the chilly cellars of Sweden's alcohol monopoly are famous for tasting younger than the same wine stored at a more typical 13 °C (55 °F). Finally, not all corks seal equally well, and a faulty cork will allow air into the bottle, oxidizing it prematurely. However, a corked wine would be described as a simple fault rather than bottle variation, even though the corked bottle would be clearly different from a non-corked example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22779492",
"title": "Storage of wine",
"section": "Section::::Places to store wine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Wine will prematurely develop if stored in an environment that has large temperature variations, particularly if these occur frequently. Temperature control systems ensure the wine cellar temperature is very stable. The variations cause corks to expand and contract which leads to oxidation of the wine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22779492",
"title": "Storage of wine",
"section": "Section::::Orientation of the bottle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "If the wine is completely on its side then this action will eject some wine through the cork. Through this \"breathing\" which can result from variations in temperature, oxygen may be repeatedly introduced into the bottle and as a result, can react with the wine. An appropriate and constant temperature is therefore preferred. Additionally, oxidation will occur more rapidly at higher temperatures and gases dissolve into liquids faster the lower the temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
131vgn
|
where republicans have gotten the idea that
obama is a "socialist", and why socialism is seen as
such a threat to republicans.
|
[
{
"answer": "The whole basis of the republican party is smaller government, socialism is more government, thus seen as a \"threat\" to republican ideals at the very core.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is one of those questions that's hard to explain simply. There are a few different things affecting the answer.\n\nTo begin with, there are decades of negative propaganda in the US around the word \"socialism\". So, a lot of the people calling others socialists aren't actually referring to specific policies. They're just saying, \"He's a bad guy doing bad things!\" This is why you see things that don't make any sense like, \"Obama's a socialist fascist!\"\n\nOn top of that, there are very few (if any) countries in the world that are run purely according to the principles of a single political ideology. Everybody runs with a little bit of capitalism, a little bit of socialism, a little bit of democracy, a little bit of autocracy, et cetera. So, when someone says, \"That's socialism!\", , they probably actually mean, \"That would result in more government oversight than we have now.\" This is why they call Obamacare, or even clean water regulations socialist. \n\nThe strange part about this is that socialism does NOT necessarily mean \"an economy run by the government\". In fact, if you look at what Marx had to say about avoiding \"[alienating work](_URL_0_)\", it sounds almost anarchist. Many of the older socialist government-run economies liked to claim that they were just assisting the transition from capitalism to socialism, with it being understood that when the transition is complete, government could be radically scaled back. There was an assumption that focusing on profit above things like the good of mankind was a result of brainwashing, and once we overcame our brainwashing and saw how selfish we were being, we would all be smart enough to realize how foolish that was in the long term. \n\nIt turns out, however, that the desire to improve one's lot in life, even at your neighbor's expense, is a much more deep-seated desire than the original socialists expected. Capitalism said, \"Well, duh! Let's run with it. Every man for himself!\" Socialism said, \"If people aren't going to figure this out on their own, we need to put some smart people in charge to keep people's greed and selfishness in check.\" From that ideological difference, we come to the shorthand of \"Capitalists want less government and socialists want more.\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it is a partisan question. Just look at the wording of it. If you were to leave out the whole \"Where Republicans have gotten the idea\" and \"such a threat\" parts, then you might have a question more people would be willing to look into answering. As it is, I'm not even going to bother talking to you about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39596452",
"title": "Democratic Socialists of America",
"section": "Section::::History.:Electoral positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Following Obama's election, many on the political right began to allege that his administration's policies were \"socialistic\", a claim rejected by the DSA and the Obama administration alike. The widespread use of the word \"socialism\" as a political epithet against the Obama administration by its opponents caused National Director Frank Llewellyn to declare that \"over the past 12 months, the Democratic Socialists of America has received more media attention than it has over the past 12 years\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39699737",
"title": "Eco-socialism",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "Conservatives have criticised the perceived opportunism of left-wing groups who have increased their focus on green issues since the fall of communism. Fred L. Smith Jr., President of the Competitive Enterprise Institute think-tank, exemplifies the conservative critique of left Greens, attacking the \"pantheism\" of the Green movement and conflating \"eco-paganism\" with eco-socialism. Like many conservative critics, Smith uses the term 'eco-socialism' to attack non-socialist environmentalists for advocating restrictions on the market-based solutions to ecological problems. He nevertheless wrongly claims that eco-socialists endorse \"the Malthusian view of the relationship between man and nature\", and states that Al Gore, a former Democratic Party Vice President of the United States and now a climate change campaigner, is an eco-socialist, despite the fact that Gore has never used this term and is not recognised as a such by other followers of either Green politics or socialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248589",
"title": "Socialist Party USA",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.:Positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "During his campaign, 2008 Socialist Party candidate for President Brian Moore was very vocal against the idea that Barack Obama was a socialist of any kind. He further commented on the issue, saying it was \"misleading of the Republicans\" to spread that message. In a later statement about Obama's policies, Wharton called Obama's 2010 State of the Union Address a \"public relations ploy\" and concluded saying: \"The time for slick public relations campaigns has ended—the time for building our grassroots movements is more urgent than ever. The Socialist Party USA stands ready to join in such a political revitalization\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23214099",
"title": "Capitalism: A Love Story",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1409,
"text": "Moore reports on the Occupy movement and the 2008 presidential campaign of Democratic Senator Barack Obama, who is demonised as a \"socialist\". He notes that the smears against Obama don't work, as support for him increases and people become curious as to what socialism actually means. He profiles Wayne County Sheriff Warren Evans, who orders an end to foreclosures; the Miami Low Income Families Fighting Together, who re-occupy foreclosed homes; and workers at Republic Windows and Doors, who organised a sit-down strike after being fired without severance, vacation time, or health care benefits after the company was taken over by Bank of America and JPMorgan Chase. The striking workers are met with support from Obama, clergy and Illinois politicians and Moore asks if this is the beginning of a worker's revolt. After six days, Bank of America agrees to all their demands. Moore compares this action with the Flint sit-down strike of 1936–1937 and recalls President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposed Second Bill of Rights during his 1944 State of the Union address and lamenting that Roosevelt's early death meant that none of it was accomplished. However, as Roosevelt's advisors went abroad after the end of World War II, many other countries adopted his ideas. In contrast, Moore muses, ordinary American people eventually suffered from crises like Hurricane Katrina, while the rich are unaffected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7567347",
"title": "Socialist Alternative (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The Socialist Alternative party supported the candidacy of Ralph Nader during the 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2008 presidential elections. In the time leading up to the 2008 presidential election, the Socialist Alternative party criticized Barack Obama, pointing to his pro-free market stance on job creation, his record in congress of voting in favor of bills such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, his stance on healthcare reform and on other issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24372201",
"title": "Barack Obama \"Joker\" poster",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Alkhateeb, in response to the usage of his image, said, \"To accuse [Obama] of being a socialist is really ... immature. First of all, who said being a socialist is evil?\" He also stated \"socialism is an idea thats time has come and passed. It’s basically like calling someone a loyalist to the British crown\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38433171",
"title": "Socialist Equality Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Ideology.:The Obama administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The Socialist Equality Party claims that the majority of left-wing opponents of the Bush administration have \"lined up behind the Obama Administration\", despite the fact that the Obama administration's policies are in many respects similar to those of the Bush administration. The Socialist Equality Party seeks to create a mass movement in opposition to the Obama administration on the basis of a socialist program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bctaz
|
why emergency vehicle (police/fire/ambulance) sirens sometimes sound like the driver is repeatedly pushing the siren button causing the pattern to constantly restart, rather than just keeping the siren on?
|
[
{
"answer": "Modern emergency vehicle sirens, typically made by federal or Whelen \n\nThe standard modes are usually \"wail\" and \"yelp\" which are the two typical police sirens. Then there is usually a button for an airhorn and a manual burst siren. \n\nThe manual burst siren is what they use to alert you to a traffic stop if you don't notice the flashing lights behind you. And airhorn is what they use to clear an intersection. \n\nThis is a good demo of the typical buttons in an emergency vehicle. _URL_0_\n\n\nFire trucks and old 50s era police cars often also have a secondary rotary siren, usually made by Whelen that sounds like this _URL_1_\n\nRotary sirens were also used in air-raid sirens. They have a motor that spins the a fan every few seconds, so the siren pulsates. \n\nSo I'm not sure which you're referring to. My gut tells me you're thinking of air-horns, or a cop who just likes playing with the buttons as they clear the intersection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The changes in pattern and siren type are to keep those around the emergency vehicle alert. The human brain likes things in patterns so that you can concentrate on it less, and sirens, even when loud, will start to get faded out by your brain after a while. Think of it like music at a club, if it's the same repetitions over and over you start to notice it less and less. \n\nSo what they do is have the pitch and pattern change constantly to keep nearby drivers alert to the presence of the vehicle and ensure they will be ready to move out of the way if needed. Similar to how highways are always curved as to ensure drivers won't get drowsy or lose attention on a super straight road.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230649",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment",
"section": "Section::::Audible warning devices (sirens).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Some emergency vehicle operators occasionally turn off their sirens when on side streets or when there are no cars on the road so as not to disturb residents; however, there is seldom a mandate for responders to do so. The driver will then turn on the sirens before proceeding through intersections or when traveling on potentially dangerous stretches of road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8724",
"title": "Doppler effect",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Sirens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "A siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5247716",
"title": "Emergency service response codes",
"section": "Section::::Other countries.:Australia.:New South Wales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "BULLET::::- Respond: To drive to an incident, urgently but safely, whilst displaying lights and/or sirens. Drivers are exempt from the road traffic act with some conditions, however both organisations have policies imposing further restrictions.. The siren can be switched off at the discretion of the driver when it is not needed (for example, when the road ahead is clear of traffic and easily visible) and reactivated at possible traffic hazards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Audible and visual warnings.:Audible warnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1395,
"text": "In addition to visual warnings, most police cars are also fitted with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an emergency vehicle before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the car. A later development was the rotating air siren, which made noise when air moved past it. Most modern vehicles are now fitted with electronic sirens, which can produce a range of different noises. Police driving training often includes the use of different noises depending on traffic conditions and maneuver being performed. In North America for instance, on a clear road, approaching a junction, the \"wail\" setting may be used, which gives a long up and down variation, with an unbroken tone, whereas, in heavy slow traffic, a \"yelp\" setting may be preferred, which is a sped up version of the \"wail\". Some vehicles may also be fitted with airhorn audible warnings. Also in some European countries, where a hi-lo two tone siren is the only permitted siren for emergency vehicles, a \"stadt\" siren will be used in cities where it has loud echo that can be heard from blocks away to warn the traffic an emergency vehicle is coming, or a \"land\" siren will be used on highways to project its noise to the front to produce more penetration into the vehicles ahead to alert the drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230649",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment",
"section": "Section::::Audible warning devices (sirens).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "When an emergency vehicle is responding, it often uses audio warning devices in addition to the visual warnings provided by its warning lights. Audio warning devices are turned off once the vehicle is on-scene. Such devices include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "874073",
"title": "Siren (alarm)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Fire sirens are often called \"fire whistles\", \"fire alarms\", or \"fire horns\". Although there is no standard signaling of fire sirens, some utilize codes to inform firefighters of the location of the fire. Civil defense sirens also used as fire sirens often can produce an alternating \"hi-lo\" signal (similar to emergency vehicles in many European countries) as the fire signal, or a slow wail (typically 3x) as to not confuse the public with the standard civil defense signals of alert (steady tone) and attack (fast wavering tone). Fire sirens are often tested once a day at noon and are also called \"noon sirens\" or \"noon whistles\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4677856",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Emergency vehicle equipment is used in the United Kingdom to indicate urgent journeys by an emergency service. This usage is colloquially known as Blues and twos which refers to the blue lights and the two-tone siren once commonplace (although most sirens now have a range of tones like Wail, Yelp and Phaser). A call-out requiring the use of lights and sirens is often colloquially known as a blue light run.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3aotsd
|
why crt tv's have that line going through them when recorded by a camera
|
[
{
"answer": "Someone may want to confirm this, because it's just an educated guess, but I think the frame rate of the camera is such that it picks up the crt scanning lines in the way we see it..... similar to how a helicopter rotor may appear to spin slowly backwards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "CRTS work by an electron beam scanning down the screen line by line hitting phosphoros dots and lighting them up. It does this 50 times a second.\n\nAt the same time a camera is effectively doing the reverse, it is sampling it's light sensor line by line, 50 times a second. The problem is that the scan rates are rarely in sync, so the camera ends up catching the CRT halfway through it's scan.\n\nThere are special devices that are used by the television industry called genlocks which allow a camera and CRT tv to be synced so that the line does not appear",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27598453",
"title": "Oscilloscope types",
"section": "Section::::Cathode-ray oscilloscope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Although a CRO allows one to view a signal, in its basic form it has no means of recording that signal on paper for the purpose of documentation. Therefore, special oscilloscope cameras were developed to photograph the screen directly. Early cameras used roll or plate film, while in the 1970s Polaroid instant cameras became popular. A P11 CRT phosphor (visually blue) was especially effective in exposing film. Cameras (sometimes using single sweeps) were used to capture faint traces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21631471",
"title": "Display lag",
"section": "Section::::Analog vs digital technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "For older analog cathode ray tube (CRT) technology, display lag is extremely low, due to the nature of the technology, which does not have the ability to store image data before display. The picture signal is minimally processed internally, simply for demodulation from a radio-frequency (RF) carrier wave (for televisions), and then splitting into separate signals for the red, green, and blue electron guns, and for timing of the vertical and horizontal sync. Image adjustments typically involve reshaping the signal waveform but without storage, so the image is written to the screen as fast as it is received, with only nanoseconds of delay for the signal to traverse the wiring inside the device from input to the screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3247598",
"title": "405-line television system",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with later standards.:Spot wobble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "On some larger TV screen sizes, the scanned lines were not fat enough to give 100% coverage of the CRT. The result was a lined picture with darkness between each horizontal scanned line, reducing picture brightness and contrast. Larger screen sets often used a spot wobble oscillator, that slightly elongated the scanning spot vertically at high frequency to avoid this line separation effect without reducing horizontal sharpness. Spot wobble was also utilised when making telerecordings of 405-line programmes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "170870",
"title": "Telecine",
"section": "Section::::History of telecine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a television display to film, synchronized to the TV scan rate. This could then be re-played directly into a video camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the same cameras, edited mechanically as normal, and then played back for TV. As the film was run at the same speed as the television, the flickering was eliminated. Various displays, including projectors for these \"video rate films\", slide projectors and film cameras were often combined into a \"film chain\", allowing the broadcaster to cue up various forms of media and switch between them by moving a mirror or prism. Color was supported by using a multi-tube video camera, prisms, and filters to separate the original color signal and feed the red, green and blue to individual tubes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3563744",
"title": "Moving image formats",
"section": "Section::::Capture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Early TV cameras, such as the video camera tube, did not have a shutter. Not using shutter in raster systems may alter the shape of the moving objects on the screen. On the other hand, the video from such a camera looks shockingly \"live\" when displayed on a CRT display in its native format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80765",
"title": "SCART",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Status and aspect ratio (slow switching).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "In the first case, the widescreen pin allows to indicate the current signal format, which allows widescreen TVs to adjust the image width, and widescreen-capable standard TVs to compress the scan lines of the 576i image vertically to a letterbox shape portion of the picture tube. In the second case, the widescreen SCART signal is never active and the signal source performs the adaptations itself so that the image has always a standard format as a result. Some sources assume that the TV is always capable of widescreen functionality and hence never perform the adaptations. Some sources will not even issue the widescreen signal or maintain it at the same level all the time. Other sources might offer the option of truncating the sides, but not of letterboxing, which requires significantly more processing. Notably, the circuitry of the early widescreen MAC standard decoders (e.g. the \"Visiopass\") could not letterbox. The limitations apply mostly to satellite TVs, while DVD players can always at least letterbox and often \"zoom\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64343",
"title": "Moiré pattern",
"section": "Section::::Implications and applications.:Television screens and photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Photographs of a TV screen taken with a digital camera often exhibit moiré patterns. Since both the TV screen and the digital camera use a scanning technique to produce or to capture pictures with horizontal scan lines, the conflicting sets of lines cause the moiré patterns. To avoid the effect, the digital camera can be aimed at an angle of 30 degrees to the TV screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3p4133
|
why can some animals go weeks without eating, but humans need food on a daily basis?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its just a habit. You as a human can probably go up to a month without eating, just burning your fat reserves. \n\nEdit: There are several reported cases of humans (pretty obese) to live from their fat alone for up to a year. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Animals that don't eat as often tend to eat much more at each meal. For example, wolves eat only a couple of times a week, if that, but during each meal session they eat somewhere around 15% of their body weight in food. If humans ate like that, they would eat ~20-30 pounds of meat in a single meal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans are perfectly capable to surviving while eating like predators (2-3 days worth of calories on some days, nothing on other days). It's just not comfortable and not ideal for long-term health. The idea that you'll get sick or go into \"starvation mode\" from not eating for a day is bullshit perpetrated by people who've never missed a meal in their life.\n\nSnakes are cold-blooded and therefore need very few calories to maintain their basic metabolic functions, as well as being ambush predators that use very little energy hunting.\n\nSome small invertebrates, like scorpions, have such efficient metabolisms and are so inactive that they can survive on one meal per month or less, because their body only uses the minimum required to keep their immune system and other vital functions going any time they're not actively hunting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans do not need food on a daily basis, this eating daily thing is pretty new to our species. For the most part humans ate every other day. We are able to run for about 5 days straight only stopping to drink water while chasing our prey. Humans have the best endurance of any mammal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans don't actually need to eat all that often. One meal a day in terms of standard American size is enough for you to live. You might not like it since you haven't eaten that way before, but your body can. Multiple people have lived months before dying of starvation.\n\nAlso to clear up a misunderstanding you might have, other animals don't like to go weeks without eating. Most animals (humans too!) prefer to eat at least once a day. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all your initial premise is wrong. Humans can go without food for a long time as well, but we cant go without water for long. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We don't need food on a daily basis, it's simply what we prefer. If you have ever gone hungry you probably noticed that your hunger abated after a day or two. Human beings can go weeks without food provided you have the body fat for it but switching over from aerobic and carbohydrate based metabolism, to a more anaerobic and keytone based metabolism takes a few days. When you stop eating food your stomach and intestines have residual food left. This lasts a few hours. Then your liver has built up reserves of energy and this takes a day or two to become exhausted, at that point your body starts burning fat reserves but it's slow to switch to this. Your body breaks the fat and some muscle and organ protein down into ketone bodies which your body can use for energy. This is a slower process than the energy your liver can provide so you tend to be more lethargic and you don't get a burst of energy like you do after a trail mix bar but the energy that is there can last a long time as you burn fat. \n\nIf this goes on for a few weeks your body will start to cannibalize it's own organs and muscles in addition to the fat, if it goes on a very long time, several weeks for instance, this can weaken your heart and organs which will make you very weak and eventually lead to your death. \n\nYou can go weeks without food, it's not good for you but it wont' kill you. You can't go more than a few days without water before you start dying by comparison. \n\nCompared to animals there are a few big differences in our digestion and energy making organs. We have pretty tiny stomachs and ridiculously short digestive tracts compared to other animals. This comes from eating frequently, cooking our food which makes it easier to digest, and it's a good fit for our way of living. \n\nTake an animal like a lion for instance which can eat a much higher percentage of it's body weight in food compared to a human and it has a longer digestive tract to get every last bit of nutrients out of it that it can. Animal livers can also be much larger than human livers for body weight which allows them to store quick energy for longer periods without food. Our liver is very specialized though and it can do things that animal livers can't. For instance we can eat lots of caffeine and chocolate, which are poisonous to many animals and insects but our livers are able to break down and metabolise them quickly enough that it doesn't hurt us and we may even find them delicious. This is why dogs can't eat chocolate for instance, the something something thylobromide can't be metabolised fast enough and it can reach toxic levels where as our liver breaks it down very quickly. \n\nOn the other hand a dog liver can hold a lot of energy. So animals can eat more at once and go longer between meals. This is a good thing because when you hunt, you put yourself at risk of becoming hurt or killed, especially when hunting things that are bigger than you. The less often you need to do it, the less risk you take. Better to take down 1 bison a week and eat it all at once, than to kill one every day and just eat a little. \n\nThen you have cold blooded animals like reptiles which don't need to waste energy heating their bodies up so they can go very long periods of time without eating and without storing fat because their metabolic needs are far less than warm bodied animals. \n\nThen you have birds, which ironically are descended from reptiles yet their metabolism is a polar opposite, they must eat constantly because their bodies need large amounts of energy. Humming birds are at the extreme end and they burn so much energy flying they can't go very long at all without eating. I once saved a hummingbird that knocked itself out on my window. It was VERY weak when it regained consciousness, I could hold it in my hand and it just sat there staring at me and being very lethargic. Over a few hours I fed it soda pop by holding my finger over a straw and putting the end over it's beak and letting it get the HFCS energy. It became more active after doing this and I was able to release it and it flew away. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What makes you think humans need food daily? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15760517",
"title": "Sociology of food",
"section": "Section::::Food Distribution.:Early History and Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Since the beginning of mankind, food was important simply for the purpose of nourishment. As primates walked the Earth, they solely consumed food for a source of energy as they had to hunt and forage because food was not easily on hand. By early humans fending for themselves, they had figured out that they needed a high energy diet to keep going on a daily basis to survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4692188",
"title": "Two-toed sloth",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "They eat primarily leaves, but also shoots, fruits, nuts, berries, bark, some native flowers, and even some small vertebrates. In addition, when they cannot find food, they have been known to eat the algae that grow on their fur for nutrients. They have large stomachs, with multiple chambers, which help to ferment the large amount of plant matter they eat. Food can take up to a month to digest due to their slow metabolism. Depending on when in the excretion cycle a sloth is weighed, urine and feces may account for up to 30% of the animal’s body weight, which averages about 6 kg (13 lb). They get their water from juicy plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "728513",
"title": "Laziness",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \"satisfice\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third to eating and resting for foraging animals. When more time must be spent foraging, animals are more likely to sacrifice time spent on aggressive behavior than time spent resting. Extremely efficient predators have more free time and thus often appear more lazy than relatively inept predators that have little free time. Beetles likewise seem to forage lazily due to a lack of foraging competitors. On the other hand, some animals, such as pigeons and rats, seem to prefer to respond for food rather than eat equally available \"free food\" in some conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2394145",
"title": "Emerald tree boa",
"section": "Section::::Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The diet consists primarily of small mammals, but they have been known to eat some smaller bird species as well as lizards and frogs. Due to the extremely slow metabolism of this species, it feeds much less often than ground dwelling species and meals may be several months apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5709360",
"title": "Live food",
"section": "Section::::Animals commonly fed live food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Animals that are commonly fed live food include bearded dragon and other lizards, various types of snake, turtles, and carnivorous fish, though other animals, such as skunks (which are sometimes kept as pets), being omnivorous, can also eat some live food, though it is unknown how common this is in practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3040270",
"title": "Phenotypic plasticity",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Animals.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Animals often consume more food during periods of high energy demand (e.g. lactation or cold exposure in endotherms), this is facilitated by an increase in digestive organ size and capacity, which is similar to the phenotype produced by poor quality diets. During lactation, common degus (\"Octodon degus\") increase the mass of their liver, small intestine, large intestine and cecum by 15–35%. Increases in food intake do not cause changes in the activity of digestive enzymes because nutrient concentrations in the intestinal lumen are determined by food quality and remain unaffected. Intermittent feeding also represents a temporal increase in food intake and can induce dramatic changes in the size of the gut; the Burmese python (\"Python molurus bivittatus\") can triple the size of its small intestine just a few days after feeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212818",
"title": "Eating",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19436c
|
which medieval combat weapon was the most exclusive to use?
|
[
{
"answer": "You needed a strong, fast warhorse to use a lance. So that was a prestigious weapon of the nobility. Long swords used a lot of metal and would have been expensive. Spears and clubs were the most simple weapons to construct and would have been available to the common foot soldier. The clergy (yeah, they fought in those days) frequently used maces because of a religious stigma against killing with a sword. I guess it was OK to bludgeon someone to death.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "That's an interesting question, it's also a difficult question to answer. \n\nThe middle ages is basically 1,000 years long and is a massive geographical location with a lot of different cultures. As you head towards the end of the medieval period, who could run around with weapons became more restricted - but even then it is largely local customs. Do you have a more specific question? \n\nHowever, there are bits of awesomeness floating around: \n\n > Writ of King Edward I. to the Mayor and Sheriffs of London enjoining them to punish all bakers, brewers, and other misdoers walking the City by night with swords and bucklers and assaulting those they met; and further commanding that all corn sent to mills to be ground within the City should be delivered by weight to the miller, who was to return the same weight in flour. Dated Westminster, 28 Nov., 10 Edward I. [A.D. 1281].\n\nNote: Corn in medieval Europe often means \"The predominant crop of a region\". \n\nEDIT: Broadly speaking, weapons and armour were defined by your ability to afford them. If you could afford to armed and armoured as a knight, you'd be obliged to be able to fight amongst them (not be one). That being said, affording the arms, armour, and training of a knight is fantastically expensive - more the vast majority of people in the majority of the medieval period could realistically afford. \n\nEDIT2: Also, just because you have a weapon doesn't mean that you can fight with it. Fighting with (say) a Longsword on a battlefield without heavy armour is a death sentence. If you didn't own armour, you'd want to be a spearman or an archer. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "435800",
"title": "Tournament (medieval)",
"section": "Section::::During the High Middle Ages.:Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "It is a vexed issue as to what extent specialized arms and armour were used in mêlée tournaments. A further question that might be raised is to what extent the military equipment of knights and their horses in the 12th and 13th centuries was devised to meet the perils and demands of tournaments, rather than warfare. It is, however, clear from the sources that the weapons used in tournaments were initially the same as those used in war. It is not by any means certain that swords were blunted for most of the history of the tournament. This must have changed by the mid 13th century, at least in jousting encounters. There is a passing reference to a special spear for use in jousting in the \"Prose Lancelot\" (c. 1220). In the 1252 jousting at Walden, the lances used had \"sokets\", curved ring-like punches instead of points. The \"Statute of Arms\" of Edward I of England of 1292 says that blunted knives and swords should be used in tournaments, which rather hints that their use had not been general until then.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30639950",
"title": "Mount & Blade: With Fire & Sword",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The gameplay is based on that of \"\", with similar controls in regards to melee and archery. Like its predecessors, \"With Fire and Sword\" is an action role-playing game. This installment allows the player to fight for one of five factions in an effort to control Eastern Europe, however only three have a proper storyline. The game is set in a later, more modern period than earlier titles with access to pistols, grenades, and other equipment of the post-medieval era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2943",
"title": "Dual wield",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129408",
"title": "Bodkin point",
"section": "Section::::Armour penetration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Armour of the medieval era was not completely proof against arrows until the specialised armour of the Italian city-state mercenary companies. Archery was thought not to be effective against plate armour in the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), the siege of Bergerac (1345), and the Battle of Poitiers (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the late 14th century, though never to all soldiers in any army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64687",
"title": "Combined arms",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "During the Middle Ages military forces used combined arms as a method of winning battles and furthering a war leader or king's long term goals. Some historians claim that during the Middle Ages there was no strategic or tactical art to military combat. Kelly DeVries uses the Merriam-Webster definition of combat \"as a general military engagement\". In the pursuit of a leader's goals and self-interest tactical and strategic thinking was used along with taking advantage of the terrain and weather in choosing when and where to give battle. The simplest example is the combination of different specialties such as archers, infantry, cavalry (knights or shock mounted troops), and even peasant militia. At times, each force fought on its own and won or lost depending on the opposing military competence. During the Middle Ages leaders utilized a combination of these skilled and unskilled forces to win battles. An army that has multiple skills available can engage a larger force that incorporates mainly one or two types of troops. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1959282",
"title": "Ringen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Medieval and early Renaissance wrestling treatises present both sport and combat techniques together as one art. The distinction is made more frequently by modern practitioners than is present in historical sources, but in a select few examples the terms for sportive grappling or \"geselliges ringen\" and earnest unarmed combat or \"kampfringen\" (where \"kampf\" is the Early Modern German term for \"war\" or \"battle\") were used to describe specific techniques which were only suitable for one scenario or the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37682487",
"title": "Historical medieval battles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Historical Medieval Battles (HMB) or Buhurt (from Old French \"béhourd\": \"wallop\") is a modern full contact fighting sport with steel blunt weapons characteristic for the Middle Ages. Armor and weapons have to follow regulations on historical authenticity and safety published on official Battle of the Nations page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
152s01
|
If most romantic languages descend from Latin, what are the roots of Latin?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think you'll get a better answer from /r/linguistics, frankly, but the short answer is that it comes from the Italic branch of a (reconstructed) language called Proto-Indo-European. There's a \"family tree\" [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There's a fascinating podcast called \"History of English\" that goes into this in detail. The first episode is an overview of English from ancient times till now, the next several go over the Indo-European language (the root of both English and Latin, as well as many other languages), including explanations of how linguists have learned about that language.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "First of all, the Romance languages are descended from Vulgar Latin, a sort of Latin with a slightly different vocabulary and different grammar used in common speech.\n\nAnyway, as others said it's from the Italic branch of the larger Indo-European language family. [Here's a family tree](_URL_1_). Using linguistic tools and some guesswork linguists can reconstruct a hypothetical proto-Italic language, which would've split into the Italic languages and would've emerged from part of the also reconstructed proto-Indo-European language. But not much is known with certainty in this area. Latin also gets quite a bit of vocabulary from Greek, but it isn't descended from it, though it is related.\n\nIn terms of the word \"honor\", not every root can be traced reliably to proto-Indo-European stems, though many can. [This](_URL_0_) says that beyond Latin, the ultimate origin of \"honor\" is unknown.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I too find this subject very interesting. There is a theory that the Italic and Celtic languages share a common root language (besides proto-Indo-European, of course) _URL_0_\n\nI also recommend The Horse, the Wheel, and Language for a discussion of the common roots of all Indo-European languages. \n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You need to read the introduction (pp. 1-16) to Fortson's [*Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction*](_URL_0_). Do it. Do it now!\n\nIt's the nicest explanation of how Indo-European linguistics works I've ever seen. Amazing scholarly writing, if I may say so.\n\n(edit to change the link to go directly to the intro)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Italic languages, which used to be a relatively closely related branch of languages inhabiting the Italian peninsula contemporaneously with the Etruscan languages (a non-Indo-European language). These were consumed by Latin when the Romans conquered the peninsula _URL_1_ \n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThat map doesn't necessarily cover what is and isn't Indo-European, but Etruscan and Raetic are thought to have been language isolates and not related to IE. And as a note, Greek is obviously not Italic. The Greeks were a seafaring people for a lengthy period of time, colonizing everywhere from the North of Africa, Eastern Spain, Sicily and southern Italy all the way north to the northern coasts of the Black Sea.\n\nIf you wish to go further back you verge on the theoretical. It's believed that the Italic languages made their incursion into central and southern Europe with the Celtic languages as one common language or closely related group of dialects, Italo-Celtic. \n\n_URL_3_\n\nI'd come to this as a caveat, though, as this is not an all accepted model for the languages before Italic. It's certainly plausible though. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59787",
"title": "Loanword",
"section": "Section::::Languages apart from English.:Romance languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "A large percentage of the lexicon of Romance languages, themselves descended from Vulgar Latin, consists of loanwords (later learned or scholarly borrowings) from Latin. These words can be distinguished by lack of typical sound changes and other transformations found in descended words, or by meanings taken directly from Classical or Ecclesiastical Latin that did not evolve or change over time as expected; in addition, there are also semi-learned terms which were adapted partially to the Romance language's character. Latin borrowings can be known by several names in Romance languages: in Spanish, for example, they are usually referred to as \"cultismos\", and in Italian as \"latinismi\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25401",
"title": "Romance languages",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic features.:Lexicon.:Loanwords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 305,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 305,
"end_character": 1929,
"text": "Romance languages have borrowed heavily, though mostly from other Romance languages. However, some, such as Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and French, have borrowed heavily from other language groups. Vulgar Latin borrowed first from indigenous languages of the Roman empire, and during the Germanic folk movements, from Germanic languages, especially Gothic; for Eastern Romance languages, during Bulgarian Empires, from Slavic languages, especially Bulgarian. Notable examples are *\"blancus\" \"white\", replacing native \"albus\" (but Romansh \"alv\", Dalmatian \"jualb\", Romanian \"alb\"); *\"guerra\" \"war\", replacing native \"bellum\"; and the words for the cardinal directions, where cognates of English \"north\", \"south\", \"east\" and \"west\" replaced the native words \"septentriō\", \"merīdiēs\" (also \"noon; midday nap\"; cf. Romanian \"meriză\"), \"oriens\", and \"occidens\". (See History of French – The Franks.) Some Celtic words were incorporated into the core vocabulary, partly for words with no Latin equivalent (\"betulla\" \"birch\", \"camisia\" \"shirt\", \"cerevisia\" \"beer\"), but in some cases replacing Latin vocabulary (\"gladius\" \"sword\", replacing \"ensis\"; \"cambiāre\" \"to exchange\", replacing \"mūtāre\" except in Romanian and Portuguese; \"carrus\" \"cart\", replacing \"currus\"; \"pettia\" \"piece\", largely displacing \"pars\" (later resurrected) and eliminating \"frustum\"). Many Greek loans also entered the lexicon, e.g. \"spatha\" \"sword\" (Greek: \"spáthē\", replacing \"gladius\" which shifted to \"iris\", cf. French \"épée\", Spanish \"espada\", Italian \"spada \"and Romanian \"spată\"); \"cara\" \"face\" (Greek: κάρα \"kára\", partly replacing \"faciēs\"); \"colpe\" \"blow\" (Greek: κόλαφος \"kólaphos\", replacing \"ictus\", cf. Spanish \"golpe\", French \"coup\"); \"cata\" \"each\" (Greek: \"katá\", replacing \"quisque\"); common suffixes *\"-ijāre/-izāre\" (Greek: \"-izein\", French \"oyer/-iser\", Spanish \"-ear/-izar\", Italian \"-eggiare/-izzare\", etc.), \"-ista\" (Greek: \"-istes\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5178",
"title": "Classics",
"section": "Section::::Legacy of the classical world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman empire. The modern Romance languages – such as French, Spanish, and Italian – all derive from Latin. Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33987540",
"title": "Medieval Spanish literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "By the end of the 10th century, the languages spoken in northern Spain had developed far from their Latin origins, and can assuredly be called Romance. Latin texts were no longer understood, as can be seen from the glosses used in manuscripts of Castile to explain Latin terms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3840024",
"title": "History of Latin",
"section": "Section::::Romance languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "In spite of the multiple influences of pre-Roman languages and later invasions, the phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax of all Romance languages are predominantly derived from Vulgar Latin. As a result, the group shares a number of linguistic features that set it apart from other Indo-European branches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "437016",
"title": "Mozarabic language",
"section": "Section::::Native name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "\"Latinus\" (from \"Latium\", modern-day Lazio, Italy), that is, Latin (and Classical Latin), was spoken in Rome 75 BC to AD 3rd century when it developed into Late Latin (Latin: Latinitas serior) in the 3rd to 7th centuries. Vulgar Latin (Latin: Sermo vulgaris) was spoken in the 6th to 9th centuries. The Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc., all evolved from Vulgar Latin and not from Classical Latin. Contemporary Romance speakers of the Iberian Peninsula, of the time of Moslem Spain, saw their vernacular spoken language as Latin. This happened because Classical Latin was seen as an educated speech, not as a different language. As Francisco Marcos-Marín (2015) has pointed out, following archaeological studies mainly by Juan Zozaya, Berber invaders could not have learnt to speak Arabic so soon. They used a continuum between Berber and Latin varieties. Latin was the cultural language of the Roman provinces of Africa before Arabic and continued in use (at least for some registers) until the 11th century. The interaction of these Afro-Romance varieties and Ibero-Romance has yet to be studied. Those African speakers also referred to their language as Latine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504379",
"title": "Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hxqad
|
How territorial are pets about their food?
|
[
{
"answer": "You must perform this experiment, for science! It's by far the easiest way to find out for your particular cats.\n\nAnecdotal evidence time: In my experience, I have found that the answer varies wildly depending on the pet. Some don't mind sharing at all, others mind a great deal. My dog isn't aggressive enough to make sure that other dogs stay out of his bowl, so when friends bring over their dogs we have to move his food bowl. \n\nI don't know how your two cats would act if forced to share - there are too many variables.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's absolutely no way to say without trying it, because it varies from pet to pet. Some won't mind at all, and others, even if they're big softies away from the food dish, will try to kill like the damned. If you want to find out, try it when they're both in chill moods and in a place that is equally theirs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't really the best question for /r/AskScience. Your answer is too dependent upon the personalities of your cats and their relationship with one another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "501364",
"title": "Territory (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Resources defended.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Behavioural ecologists have argued that food distribution determines whether a species is territorial or not, however, this may be too narrow a perspective. Several other type of resource may be defended including partners, potential mates, offspring, nests or lairs, display areas or leks. Territoriality emerges where there is a focused resource that provides enough for the individual or group, within a boundary that is small enough to be defended without the expenditure of excessive effort. Territoriality is often most strong towards conspecifics, as shown in the case of redlip blenny. This is because the conspecifics share exactly the same set of resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501364",
"title": "Territory (animal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Territoriality is only shown by a minority of species. More commonly, an individual or a group of animals has an area that it habitually uses but does not necessarily defend; this is called the home range. The home ranges of different groups of animals often overlap, or in the overlap areas, the groups tend to avoid each other rather than seeking to expel each other. Within the home range there may be a \"core area\" that no other individual group uses, but, again, this is as a result of avoidance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501364",
"title": "Territory (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Resources defended.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Food related territoriality is least likely with insectivorous birds, where the food supply is plentiful but unpredictably distributed. Swifts rarely defend an area larger than the nest. Conversely, other insectivorous birds that occupy more constrained territories, such as the ground-nesting blacksmith lapwing may be very territorial, especially in the breeding season during which they not only threaten or attack many kinds of intruders, but have stereotyped display behaviour to deter conspecifics sharing neighbouring nesting spots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44437560",
"title": "Fish aggression",
"section": "Section::::Territorial aggression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1233,
"text": "Fish territory, or in another word, defended areas are generally ruled by a single individual or by breeding pairs. The guarded resource may include food, shelter, sexual partner or offspring. While protecting their regions, fish often display aggressive behavior against their intruders. The territory owner strikes at competing fish directly ending in a bite, or a bump. Such aggressive behavior is seen in large juveniles, females and other fish of the same kind from the same area. To better understand this topic, consider the male three-spine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, as an example. Theo Bakker's paper claims the three-spine stickleback male fish is polygynous—meaning they prefer two or more female mates in a territory. Thus, males are highly aggressive so they have access to females in a particular territory, which also leads to intrasexual selection among males. Intrasexual selection is selection within the same sex. For instance, some male animals compete against one another, physically, for access to females for their kind. So, characters like big tail, sharp teeth or similar weaponry that can be used against other males of the same species as means of mating with females is a selective advantage. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501364",
"title": "Territory (animal)",
"section": "Section::::Retaining a territory.:Defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "Territories may be held by an individual, a mated or unmated pair, or a group. Territoriality is not always a fixed behavioural characteristic of a species. For example, red foxes (\"Vulpes vulpes\") either establish stable home ranges within particular areas or are itinerant with no fixed abode. Territories may vary with time (season), for example, European robins defend territories as pairs during the breeding season but as individuals during the winter. Resource availability may cause changes in territoriality, for example, some nectarivores defend territories only during the mornings when plants are richest in nectar. In species that do not form pair bonds, male and female territories are often independent, i.e. males defend territories only against other males and females only against other females. In this case, if the species is polygynous, one male territory probably contains several female territories, while in some polyandrous species such as the northern jacana, this situation is reversed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22052921",
"title": "Adaptive behavior (ecology)",
"section": "Section::::Non-heritable.:Learning.:Territorial defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "As mentioned above, chimpanzees work together with closely related kin to protect their territory. Defending territory from rivals (known as territoriality) is a learnt adaptive behavior performed by several ecological species. The advantage of being territorial varies depending on the species of interest, but the underlying principle is always to increase overall fitness. Many species will display territoriality in order to acquire food, compete for mates, or have the safest lair. Bird song is an example of learned territorial defense. Studies show that birds with high-quality songs will use them as a stimulus to deter predators from their territorial range. Higher quality songs have been proven to act as the best defense mechanism in a variety of bird species, such as the red-winged blackbird (\"Agelaius phoeniceus\"). Therefore, correct learning of the birdsong early in life is necessary for territory defense in birds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501364",
"title": "Territory (animal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "In ethology, territory is the sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics (or, occasionally, animals of other species). Animals that defend territories in this way are referred to as territorial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3masti
|
how is it that vets can treat multiple types of animals with similar training as doctors who only have humans to deal with?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are some veterinarians who do specialize. They specialize both when it comes to what sort of animals they treat and what sort of problems they treat. There are horse-doctors and Animal dentists for example.\n\nMost of them however are more general practitioners.\n\nThis is possible because the difference between a cat and a dog is not really all that big for example and a lot of general medical knowledge can easily be applied to lots of different animals. Being able to care for two different species does not take twice the general medical knowledge as being able to care for a single one.\n\nThe other factor is that we allow for a much greater room for error when it comes to animal care. If a pet could not be saved because a veterinarian did not know about some extremely obscure bit of knowledge about some rare animal malady that is considered slightly more acceptable than when it would happen to a human patient.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "It may be due to the amount of ailments and issues that cats/dogs come up with comparatively to humans. As /u/Loki-L said, there is greater room for error when it comes to animals. Doctors for ailments regarding humans must know a wide range of maladies that affect us from the flu, to infections and wounds. For the most part, animals only have to deal with a smaller number of things before it becomes more specialized.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32654",
"title": "Veterinary medicine",
"section": "Section::::Veterinary workers.:Veterinary physicians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Most vets work in clinical settings, treating animals directly. These vets may be involved in a general practice, treating animals of all types; may be specialized in a specific group of animals such as companion animals, livestock, laboratory animals, zoo animals or horses; or may specialize in a narrow medical discipline such as surgery, dermatology, laboratory animal medicine, or internal medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229116",
"title": "Veterinary physician",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Most veterinary physicians work in clinical settings, treating animals directly. These veterinarians may be involved in a general practice, treating animals of all types; they may be specialized in a specific group of animals such as companion animals, livestock, zoo animals or equines; or may specialize in a narrow medical discipline such as surgery, dermatology or internal medicine . As with other healthcare professionals, veterinarians face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. Current debates within the profession include the ethics of certain procedures believed to be purely cosmetic or unnecessary for behavioral issues, such as declawing of cats, docking of tails, cropping of ears and debarking on dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229116",
"title": "Veterinary physician",
"section": "Section::::Roles and responsibilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Veterinarians treat disease, disorder or injury in animals, which includes diagnosis, treatment and aftercare. The scope of practice, specialty and experience of the individual veterinarian will dictate exactly what interventions they perform, but most will perform surgery (of differing complexity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24685621",
"title": "Pets for Vets",
"section": "Section::::Companion animals as therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Pets for Vets developed a program focusing on addressing these issues by bringing together animals needing to be rescued and veterans needing a companion for a better quality of life. Not every veteran qualifies for a psychiatric service dog, however everyone who wants one can benefit from a companion or pet animal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54318656",
"title": "Technology in veterinary medicine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Many of the technologies used in human medicine are also used in the veterinary field, although often in slightly different ways. Veterinarians use a variety of technologies for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes to better understand and improve the health of their animal patients. Recent trends in veterinary technology have moved towards the integration of hand-held devices and consumer based technology to monitor pets and interact with veterinarians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32654",
"title": "Veterinary medicine",
"section": "Section::::Veterinary workers.:Veterinary physicians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "As with healthcare professionals, vets face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. Current debates within the profession include the ethics of purely cosmetic procedures on animals, such as declawing of cats, docking of tails, cropping of ears and debarking on dogs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33103088",
"title": "Veterinary medicine in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Other professionals are also permitted to perform some animal treatment, through exemptions in the law, and these include manipulation techniques such as physiotherapy, chiropractic and osteopathy. Other alternative medicine therapies, such as homeopathy, acupuncture, phytotherapy and aromatherapy may only be performed by a licensed veterinary surgeon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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