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79w7et
|
what does aspirin do that helps prevent heart attacks, stroke and now cancer?
|
[
{
"answer": "One observation is that some cancers are linked to inflammation. Aspirin may reduce certain kinds of inflammation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chronic inflammation promotes cell proliferation, which increases the chances of DNA damage. Aspirin is an NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) so taking it at low doses will help prevent inflammation, which decreases the probability of DNA damage occurring.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the heart attacks and stroke risks: aspirin thins out your blood, lowering the stress on the veins and arteries.",
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{
"answer": "Blood clots can cause blockages in the arteries that bring blood and oxygen to the heart and brain leading to either heart attacks or strokes. Aspirin can help in preventing this by thinning the blood and preventing the blood from even clotting. As for how it can prevent cancers i'm not entirely sure, maybe by preventing the clots from forming you can prevent chronic complication from even happening in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The theory is that it thins the blood, making arterial blockages less likely.\n\nBut most of the evidence for this is statistical. You have one group use aspirin, one that doesn't, and see who has the most heart attacks. That can show that aspirin is beneficial without us knowing exactly why it is beneficial.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease. Lower doses of aspirin have also been shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in people who are at high risk or who have cardiovascular disease, but not in elderly people who are otherwise healthy. There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear. In the United States, low-dose aspirin is deemed reasonable in those between 50 and 70 years old who have a risk of cardiovascular disease over 10%, are not at an increased risk of bleeding, and are otherwise healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or inflammation. Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever. Aspirin given shortly after a heart attack decreases the risk of death. Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk. It may also decrease the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes. Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Cancer prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Aspirin is thought to reduce the overall risk of both getting cancer and dying from cancer. This effect is particularly beneficial for colorectal cancer (CRC) but must be taken for at least 10–20 years to see this benefit. It may also slightly reduce the risk of endometrial cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16283254",
"title": "History of aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Revival as heart drug.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1578,
"text": "The idea of using aspirin to prevent clotting diseases (such as heart attacks and strokes) was revived in the 1960s, when medical researcher Harvey Weiss found that aspirin had an anti-adhesive effect on blood platelets (and unlike other potential antiplatelet drugs, aspirin had low toxicity). Medical Research Council haematologist John O'Brien picked up on Weiss's finding and, in 1963, began working with epidemiologist Peter Elwood on aspirin's anti-thrombosis drug potential. Elwood began a large-scale trial of aspirin as a preventive drug for heart attacks. Nicholas Laboratories agreed to provide aspirin tablets, and Elwood enlisted heart attack survivors in a double-blind controlled study—heart attack survivors were statistically more likely to suffer a second attack, greatly reducing the number of patients necessary to reliably detect whether aspirin had an effect on heart attacks. The study began in February 1971, though the researchers soon had to break the double-blinding when a study by American epidemiologist Hershel Jick suggested that aspirin prevented heart attacks but suggested that the heart attacks were more deadly. Jick had found that fewer aspirin-takers were admitted to his hospital for heart attacks than non-aspirin-takers, and one possible explanation was that aspirin caused heart attack sufferers to die before reaching the hospital; Elwood's initial results ruled out that explanation. When the Elwood trial ended in 1973, it showed a modest but not statistically significant reduction in heart attacks among the group taking aspirin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16985959",
"title": "Mechanism of action of aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Effects on prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "This antiplatelet property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks; heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. A dose of 40 mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Heart attacks and strokes.:Lower risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Aspirin appears to offer little benefit to those at lower risk of heart attack or stroke—for instance, those without a history of these events or with pre-existing disease. Some studies recommend aspirin on a case-by-case basis, while others have suggested the risks of other events, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, were enough to outweigh any potential benefit, and recommended against using aspirin for primary prevention entirely. Aspirin has also been suggested as a component of a polypill for prevention of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Low-dose aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation during the lifetime of the affected platelet (8–9 days). This antithrombotic property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks in people who have had a heart attack, unstable angina, ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. 40mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
z10wu
|
Is it possible for a planet to have no night time?
|
[
{
"answer": "One way I can think of for a planet to not experience any nighttime is for it to be located at [L1](_URL_0_) between two stars. However, either forming the planet at L1, or forming it elsewhere and then somehow moving it to L1 would be unphysical. Also, (assuming you got a planet there) it would be a very unstable configuration. If there was anything else massive in the system (say another planet) then the L1-planet's orbit would be perturbed and it would cease to be at L1.\n\nThe scenario of six suns is an interesting idea but also doomed to failure. The way I see this scenario is for the planet to be orbiting one star but there are several other, more distant stars around. The idea of groups of stars in mutual orbit around each other is a good one: such groups have been observed (I'm not sure if a group as big as six has been observed though). The idea falls apart when considering how close the other stars must be in order to sufficiently illuminate the planet: The planet needs to be far enough away from its host star so that it doesn't get fried but close enough to its host star (relative to how far the other stars are) so that the other stars can't steal it away. As a result the other stars will have far less illumination power simply because they must be much farther away from the planet then the planet's host star is. Such a planet might have day and a nighttime that's not completely dark, but the day/night cycle would be present.\n\nOne could also imagine a six-star scenario in which the planet orbits in and among all the stars, not particularly attached to any star in particular. In this case its orbit would be highly chaotic. The amount of illumination it gets would be highly variable (and visit values that would be very unhappy for life) and its expected lifetime would be short (it would be very likely for the planet to either impact one of the stars or get flung from the system).\n\nEdit: Every time I hit save I think of something else ...",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20732772",
"title": "Circumbinary planet",
"section": "Section::::System characteristics.:Habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "All the Kepler circumbinary planets are either close to or actually in the habitable zone. None of them are terrestrial planets, but large moons of such planets could be habitable. Because of the stellar binarity, the insolation received by the planet will likely be time-varying in a way quite unlike the regular sunlight Earth receives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206119",
"title": "Night",
"section": "Section::::On other celestial bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "The phenomenon of day and night is due to the rotation of a celestial body about its axis, creating an illusion of the sun rising and setting. Different bodies spin at very different rates, however. Some may spin much faster than Earth, while others spin extremely slowly, leading to very long days and nights. The planet Venus rotates once every 224.7 days – by far the slowest rotation period of any of the major planets. In contrast, the gas giant Jupiter's sidereal day is only 9 hours and 56 minutes. However, it is not just the sidereal rotation period which determines the length of a planet's day-night cycle but the length of its orbital period as well - Venus has a rotation period of 224.7 days, but a day-night cycle just 116.75 days long due to its retrograde rotation and orbital motion around the Sun. Mercury has the longest day-night cycle as a result of its 3:2 resonance between its orbital period and rotation period - this resonance gives it a day-night cycle 176 days long. A planet may experience large temperature variations between day and night, such as Mercury, the planet closest to the sun. This is one consideration in terms of planetary habitability or the possibility of extraterrestrial life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39863531",
"title": "Habitability of red dwarf systems",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Tidal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Moons of gas giants within a habitable zone could overcome this problem since they would become tidally locked to their primary and not their star, and thus would experience a day-night cycle. The same principle would apply to double planets, which would likely be tidally locked to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10304194",
"title": "Daytime",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Other planets and natural satellites that rotate relative to a luminous primary body, such as a local star, also experience daytime of some sort, but this article primarily discusses daytime on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45085125",
"title": "Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets",
"section": "Section::::Potential determining factors for Earth-like exoplanet geodynamic regimes.:Insolation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Planets closer than 0.5 astronomical units from their star are likely to be tidally locked; these planets are expected to have drastically different temperature regimes on their “day” and “night” sides. When this scenario is modeled, the day side displays mobile lid convection with diffuse surface deformation flowing toward the night side, while the night side has a plate tectonic regime of downwelling plates and a deep mantle return flow in the direction of the night side. A temperature contrast of 400 K between day and night sides is required to create such a stable system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2592906",
"title": "Planetary habitability",
"section": "Section::::Planetary characteristics.:Orbit and rotation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "BULLET::::- The planet should rotate relatively quickly so that the day-night cycle is not overlong. If a day takes years, the temperature differential between the day and night side will be pronounced, and problems similar to those noted with extreme orbital eccentricity will come to the fore.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53306",
"title": "Natural satellite",
"section": "Section::::Tidal locking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "In contrast, the outer natural satellites of the giant planets (irregular satellites) are too far away to have become locked. For example, Jupiter's Himalia, Saturn's Phoebe, and Neptune's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours, whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abxxi7
|
Would we be able to sequence DNA that's been fossilized, or preserved in amber? Or is it too degraded to even see?
|
[
{
"answer": "DNA degrades pretty fast, as geologic time scales go. New(ish) techniques have allowed sequencing of DNA from relatively young fossils, but the oldest DNA to have been sequenced so far is that of a horse from about 700,000 years ago, and that only worked because the horse had been preserved in permafrost; no tropical DNA even remotely close to that has been sequenced. \n\n > The fossil, a fragment of horse leg bone, was too old for radiocarbon dating, but Willerslev estimated, based on its location in the permafrost, that it was between 560,000 and 780,000 years old. ... No DNA had been salvaged and sequenced from a fossil more than 130,000 years old (that was a polar bear jawbone), and theoretical estimates put the upper limit of DNA survival at about 1 million years. \n\n--[700,000-Year-Old Horse Becomes Oldest Creature With Sequenced Genome](_URL_1_)\n\nA million years is a long time when you're trying to remember what you had for lunch yesterday, but it's really short as time goes. Dinosaurs mostly went extinct 65 million years ago, for example.\n\nAs for recreating or editing the DNA, it might be possible for microbes, but for complex organisms, we're nowhere near being able to do that. See answers in the recent question [Will we ever be able to clone dinosaurs from fossilized DNA?](_URL_0_) for why.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49960377",
"title": "How to Clone a Mammoth",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "Several chapters deal with the genetic material itself and how to obtain it, along with the difficulties of recovering viable DNA samples from mummified or fossilized remains. Due to the actions of nucleases after cell death, most DNA of extinct species is fragmented into small pieces that have to be reconstructed at least partially if it is to be cloned. This fragmentation means that recovery of a full extinct genome is largely impossible. Thus, only partial genes can be utilized and the most viable method is to use a close evolutionary relative of the extinct species and insert the genes that differ into an embryo of the living species. For mammoth de-extinction, any trait consideration would involve the Asian elephant, the closest still-living relative. Using genes from extrapolated mammoth DNA, the Asian elephant could be made to survive across a wider range, including cold environments, protecting it against possible extinction. This gene transfer to benefit living species is one of the primary sources of research done with de-extinction technology in addition to the desire to revive lost species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47774240",
"title": "Homo naledi",
"section": "Section::::Fossils.:DNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Ancient DNA in the fossils was found to be degraded (including cross-linking, deamination and fragmentation) and attempts to extract it from \"H. naledi\" remains have thus far proven unsuccessful. Ancient DNA preservation depends on many different variables, such as the UV radiation, pH, temperature the remains have been subjected to, and the amount of water, salinity, microbes, and oxygen present in the depositional context. Future research and developments regarding ancient DNA repair may or may not succeed in revealing \"H. naledi\" genome for study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14925578",
"title": "The Amber Time Machine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Attenborough then discusses the scientific feasibility of DNA being preserved in amber, and the science behind the 1993 hit techno-thriller \"Jurassic Park\", in which his elder brother Richard Attenborough starred as John Hammond. Several attempts were tried, with DNA eventually being recovered from a weevil that was several million years older than \"Tyrannosaurus rex\". Attenborough reasons that a few old, rare pieces of amber may contain DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328736",
"title": "Archaeogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Methods of DNA extraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "There are several challenges that add to the difficulty when attempting to extract ancient DNA from fossils and prepare it for analysis. DNA is continuously being split up. While the organism is alive these splits are repaired; however, once an organism has died, the DNA will begin to deteriorate without repair. This results in samples having strands of DNA measuring around 100 base pairs in length. Contamination is another significant challenge at multiple steps throughout the process. Often other DNA, such as bacterial DNA, will be present in the original sample. To avoid contamination it is necessary to take many precautions such as separate ventilation systems and workspaces for ancient DNA extraction work. The best samples to use are fresh fossils as uncareful washing can lead to mold growth. DNA coming from fossils also occasionally contains a compound that inhibits DNA replication. Coming to a consensus on which methods are best at mitigating challenges is also difficult due to the lack of repeatability caused by the uniqueness of specimens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328736",
"title": "Archaeogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Methods of DNA analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "DNA extracted from fossil remains is primarily sequenced using Massive parallel sequencing, which allows simultaneous amplification and sequencing of all DNA segments in a sample, even when it is highly fragmented and of low concentration. It involves attaching a generic sequence to every single strand that generic primers can bond to, and thus all of the DNA present is amplified. This is generally more costly and time intensive than PCR but due to the difficulties involved in ancient DNA amplification it is cheaper and more efficient. One method of massive parallel sequencing, developed by Margulies et al., employs bead-based emulsion PCR and pyrosequencing, and was found to be powerful in analyses of aDNA because it avoids potential loss of sample, substrate competition for templates, and error propagation in replication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24532432",
"title": "Unplaced in APG II",
"section": "Section::::\"Gumillea\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "It might be possible to determine the affinities of \"Gumillea\" if DNA could be extracted from the existing specimen. DNA has been successfully amplified from specimens of similar age. Any material used in such research, however, will never be replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328736",
"title": "Archaeogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Methods of DNA analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The identity of the fossil remain can be uncovered by comparing its DNA sequence with those of known species using software such as BLASTN. This archaeogenetic approach is especially helpful when the morphology of the fossil is ambiguous. Apart from that, species identification can also be done by finding specific genetic markers in an aDNA sequence. For example, the American indigenous population is characterized by specific mitochondrial RFLPs and deletions defined by Wallace et al.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
9sucfi
|
does the brain stem ever learn anything new?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hmm good question. The short answer is not really. At the most basic level, the brain stem is a way for the nerves of the body (PNS) to communicate with the brain and a way to regulate autonomic functions without active thought (imagine how much of a pain in the ass it would be to have to think about breathing 24/7.) So directly, no the brain stem does not learn in that it forms new synaptic connections in response to stimuli that it can “remember” and change its function. But, the mid and forebrain can influence its behavior so long as this influence does not cause a more significant important system to fall out of “acceptable levels” like heart rate and respiration. \n\nSo the learning that takes place in these areas can influence its behavior. For example, hypothalamus of the midbrain regulates sleep cycles. This means that when the midbrain (hypothalamus) has learned it’s close to sleep, it lets the hindbrain know to trigger more parasympathetic responses (rest and digest). \n\nThis is grossly simplified and probably wrong as I’m still a student but it’s as much as I can remember from my neuro block. ",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12640115",
"title": "Peter Eriksson (neuroscientist)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Eriksson was a frequently cited scientist who made ground-breaking research on the neurogenesis in hippocampus in the adult human brain. He showed that new brain cells are created throughout the whole human lifespan, and that the integration of the new brain cells to the brain depended on the stimuli that the environment offered, thus offering an insight that could enhance the treatment of neuro damaged patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2777285",
"title": "Adult stem cell",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Neural stem cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The existence of stem cells in the adult brain has been postulated following the discovery that the process of neurogenesis, the birth of new neurons, continues into adulthood in rats. The presence of stem cells in the mature primate brain was first reported in 1967. It has since been shown that new neurons are generated in adult mice, songbirds and primates, including humans. Normally, adult neurogenesis is restricted to two areas of the brain – the subventricular zone, which lines the lateral ventricles, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. Although the generation of new neurons in the hippocampus is well established, the presence of true self-renewing stem cells there has been debated. Under certain circumstances, such as following tissue damage in ischemia, neurogenesis can be induced in other brain regions, including the neocortex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Current technologies.:Cell therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Researchers have begun looking at uses for stem cells in the brain, which recently have been found in a few loci. A large number of studies are being done to determine if this form of therapy could be used in a large scale. Experiments have successfully used stem cells in the brains of children who suffered from injuries in gestation and elderly people with degenerative diseases in order to induce the brain to produce new cells and to make more connections between neurons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Future technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 2385,
"text": "Stem cell technologies are always salient both in the minds of the general public and scientists because of their large potential. Recent advances in stem cell research have allowed researchers to ethically pursue studies in nearly every facet of the body, which includes the brain. Research has shown that while most of the brain does not regenerate and is typically a very difficult environment to foster regeneration, there are portions of the brain with regenerative capabilities (specifically the hippocampus and the olfactory bulbs). Much of the research in central nervous system regeneration is how to overcome this poor regenerative quality of the brain. It is important to note that there are therapies that improve cognition and increase the amount of neural pathways, but this does not mean that there is a proliferation of neural cells in the brain. Rather, it is called a plastic rewiring of the brain (\"plastic\" because it indicates malleability) and is considered a vital part of growth. Nevertheless, many problems in patients stem from death of neurons in the brain, and researchers in the field are striving to produce technologies that enable regeneration in patients with stroke, Parkinson's diseases, severe trauma, and Alzheimer's disease, as well as many others. While still in fledgling stages of development, researchers have recently begun making very interesting progress in attempting to treat these diseases. Researchers have recently successfully produced dopaminergic neurons for transplant in patients with Parkinson's diseases with the hopes that they will be able to move again with a more steady supply of dopamine. Many researchers are building scaffolds that could be transplanted into a patient with spinal cord trauma to present an environment that promotes growth of axons (portions of the cell attributed with transmission of electrical signals) so that patients unable to move or feel might be able to do so again. The potentials are wide-ranging, but it is important to note that many of these therapies are still in the laboratory phase and are slowly being adapted in the clinic. Some scientists remain skeptical with the development of the field, and warn that there is a much larger chance that electrical prosthesis will be developed to solve clinical problems such as hearing loss or paralysis before cell therapy is used in a clinic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7927678",
"title": "Michael Kaplan (biologist)",
"section": "Section::::Research Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In addition, the concept that there may be brain stem cells that could proliferate, migrate, and then differentiate into new neurons had not yet been introduced. It was therefore thought that mature neurons would have to replicate, an idea that most researchers found incredible. Furthermore, the possible relevance of the findings for humans was underestimated because there was no evidence of neurogenesis in primates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34068593",
"title": "Halton Hills Christian School",
"section": "Section::::Arrowsmith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The Arrowsmith_Program is based on the theory of neuroplasticity. It is now a recognized fact that the brain is pliable and elastic, not fixed as we used to believe. Therefore, it is now possible to physically change the brain in response to stimuli and develop new neural pathways. The exercises created by Barbara Arrowsmith Young over the past 25 years now make it possible for the brains of children with certain learning dysfunctions to be strengthened to the point of average or above-average functionality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40436381",
"title": "Heinrich Reichert",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Reichert investigated the role of neural stem cells in the development of the brain using the fruit fly \"Drosophila\" as a model. He discovered a molecular production program followed by stem cells as they develop in the brain. A similar, evolutionary conserved developmental program also plays a role in the formation of the brain in vertebrates. If this program is disrupted by specific Gene mutations, an uncontrolled production of misprogrammed cells results, which divide in an uncontrolled manner, leading to the development of lethal brain tumors. How exactly such genetic aberrations in the formation of stem cells come about is subject of Reichert’s research. His goal was to find new strategies to prevent such brain tumors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rrmrp
|
why is gasoline always priced to .009?
|
[
{
"answer": " > The extra \"tenths\" is a very old tradition that's never gone away. In 1935, a Reno Nevada newspaper wrote about \"selling third grade gasoline at eight and nine-tenths cents a gallon.\" \n\n > In those times, a penny had considerable value. To raise the price of gasoline from 8 to 9 cents would be more than a 12 percent hike. To compete, gas stations raised prices by tenths of a penny. Around this time, federal and state excise taxes were also introduced in increments of tenths of a cent, so it made sense to keep the decimal value.\nPerpetuated for Profit?\nThe tradition stuck. The U.S. Energy Information Administration, 'prime suppliers' of 'motor gasoline' reported sales of 372,833.5 thousand barrels sold in February 2007. These gas sales collected US$ 141 million in nine-tenths-of-a-cent increments. With gasoline prices in the US$ 2.00 to US$ 4.00 range, the 9/10 no longer serves a constructive purpose, and occasionally measures have been introduced to abolish it. From 1980 to 1984, the state of Iowa experimented with even cents, but eventually returned to the 9/10 pricing.\n\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22131",
"title": "Natural gas",
"section": "Section::::Energy content, statistics, and pricing.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer. In 2007, a price of $7 per 1000 cubic feet () was typical in the United States. The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, depending on gas composition. This corresponds to around $7 per million BTU or around $7 per gigajoule (GJ). In April 2008, the wholesale price was $10 per 1000 cubic feet ($10/MMBTU). The residential price varies from 50% to 300% more than the wholesale price. At the end of 2007, this was $12–$16 per 1000 cubic feet (). Natural gas in the United States is traded as a futures contract on the New York Mercantile Exchange. Each contract is for 10,000 MMBTU or . Thus, if the price of gas is $10/MMBTU on the NYMEX, the contract is worth $100,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5735522",
"title": "Petroleum pricing in Nova Scotia",
"section": "Section::::Price Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The price of gasoline and diesel fuel are based on the price on the New York Mercantile Exchange as a benchmark in Canadian funds. This plus a 6 cent per litre wholesale margin, plus a transportation allowance of 0.5 to 2 cents per litre, and a retail margin of 4 to 5.5 cents per litre (or to a maximum of 7.5 cents per litre for full-serve gasoline).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23639",
"title": "Gasoline",
"section": "Section::::Use and pricing.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between US$1 and US$2 per U.S. gallon. After 2004, the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but receded to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009. More recently, the U.S. experienced an upswing in gasoline prices through 2011, and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per gallon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8032596",
"title": "Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "The usage and pricing of gasoline (or \"petrol\") results from factors such as crude oil prices, processing and distribution costs, local demand, the strength of local currencies, local taxation, and the availability of local sources of gasoline (supply). Since fuels are traded worldwide, the trade prices are similar. The price paid by consumers largely reflects national pricing policy. Some regions, such as Europe and Japan, impose high taxes on gasoline (petrol); others, such as Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, subsidize the cost. Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person. The largest consumer is the United States, which used an average of 368 million US gallons (1.46 gigalitres) each day in 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61260",
"title": "Filling station",
"section": "Section::::Fuel prices.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Even with oil market fluctuations, prices for gasoline in the United States are among the lowest in the industrialized world; this is principally due to lower taxes. While the sales price of gasoline in Europe is more than twice that in the United States, the price of gas excluding taxes is nearly identical in the two areas. Some Canadians and Mexicans in communities close to the U.S. border drive into the United States to purchase cheaper gasoline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608623",
"title": "Ethanol fuel",
"section": "Section::::Reduced petroleum imports and costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "According to a 2008 analysis by Iowa State University, the growth in US ethanol production has caused retail gasoline prices to be US $0.29 to US $0.40 per gallon lower than would otherwise have been the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61260",
"title": "Filling station",
"section": "Section::::Fuel prices.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "In the United States, the states of California and Hawaii typically have the highest gasoline prices, while the lowest prices are usually found in oil-producing states like Oklahoma and Texas. In Canada, prices are typically highest in the provinces of British Columbia and Quebec, and the lowest in the oil-producing province of Alberta. The provinces of Prince Edward Island (PEI), Newfoundland and Labrador, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia have instituted gasoline price regulation, which is intended to protect small rural gas stations from low profits due to low sales volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ad7hxr
|
Is there a genetic link between cleft palate and torus palatinus?
|
[
{
"answer": "The soft and hard palate are both formed during foetal development (vs embryonic). There is a high likelihood that there is a minor genetic defect since both abnormalities to the palate, with similar point in gestation, have manifested themselves in siblings. Here is an excellent website explaining the development of the palate including abnormalities: _URL_0_.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6114977",
"title": "Velopharyngeal inadequacy",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.:Relationship to cleft palate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "A cleft palate is one of the most common causes of VPI. Cleft palate is an anatomical abnormality that occurs in utero and is present at birth. This malformation can affect the lip and palate, or the palate only. A cleft palate can affect the mobility of the velopharyngeal valve, thereby resulting in VPI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239890",
"title": "Cleft lip and cleft palate",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Genetics.:Specific genes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Many genes associated with syndromic cases of cleft lip/palate (see above) have been identified to contribute to the incidence of isolated cases of cleft lip/palate. This includes in particular sequence variants in the genes \"IRF6\", \"PVRL1\" and \"MSX1\". The understanding of the genetic complexities involved in the morphogenesis of the midface, including molecular and cellular processes, has been greatly aided by research on animal models, including of the genes \"BMP4\", \"SHH\", \"SHOX2\", \"FGF10\" and \"MSX1\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239890",
"title": "Cleft lip and cleft palate",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Genetic factors contributing to cleft lip and cleft palate formation have been identified for some syndromic cases, but knowledge about genetic factors that contribute to the more common isolated cases of cleft lip/palate is still patchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15228594",
"title": "Cleft lip and palate transmembrane protein 1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Cleft lip with or without cleft palate is a common birth defect that is genetically complex. The nonsyndromic forms have been studied genetically using linkage and candidate-gene association studies with only partial success in defining the loci responsible for orofacial clefting. CLPTM1 encodes a transmembrane protein and has strong homology to two \"Caenorhabditis elegans\" genes, suggesting that CLPTM1 may belong to a new gene family. This family also contains the \"Homo sapiens\" cisplatin resistance related protein CRR9p which is associated with CDDP-induced apoptosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12244620",
"title": "TP63",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Both cleft lip with or without a cleft palate and cleft palate only features have been seen to segregate within the same family with a \"TP63\" mutation. Recently, induced pluripotent stem cells have been produced from patients affected by EEC syndromes by cell reprogramming. The defective epithelial commitment could be partially rescued by a small therapeutic compound. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59731253",
"title": "Classification of cleft lip and cleft palate",
"section": "Section::::Laterality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Cleft palate does not have laterality in the same sense that the cleft lip does. Rather, there are certain morphologic forms of cleft palate (described succinctly by the Veau classification, as explained in detail below). An isolated cleft of the palate (whether Veau-I soft palate only or Veau-II hard and soft palate) is a \"midline\" cleft. A Veau-III cleft may be considered \"unilateral,\" as it is contiguous with a unilateral cleft lip. A Veau-IV cleft may be considered \"midline\" or \"bilateral\" as it is contiguous with a bilateral cleft lip. Due to the confusion regarding laterality of the palate, usage of the terms \"midline,\" \"unilateral,\" and \"bilateral\" should be discouraged in favor of more accurate morphologic descriptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17497006",
"title": "Frontonasal dysplasia",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Embryogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The palate is formed between the 6th and 10th week of pregnancy. The primordia of the palate are the lateral palatine processes and median palatine processes. A failure of the fusion between the median and lateral palatine processes results in a cleft palate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vrug0
|
Are matter and antimatter symmetrical.
|
[
{
"answer": "Now that is an interesting question. As you've phrased it, the answer is yes: our universe would work the same if it were made of antimatter, and the physical laws we would discover would be the same.\n\nHowever, there are a couple of laws that, although their general forms would be the same, would have the sign of a fundamental constant or two flipped from plus to minus (or vice-versa, since we don't actually know the signs). This corresponds to the fact that there are a few physical processes that work differently than their anti-counterparts. None of them are particularly relevant for the kind of matter that makes up the objects we deal with in everyday life, or even planets, stars, and galaxies, although they could play a role in explaining why our universe does consist of matter instead of antimatter in the first place.\n\nThe buzzword for this sort of thing in physics is \"[CP violation](_URL_0_).\" It stems from the idea of CP symmetry, which is the mathematical expression of the statement \"matter and antimatter behave identically.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52693565",
"title": "2017 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:October.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 270,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 270,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "BULLET::::- Measurement of the magnetic moment of antiprotons provides further evidence for CPT symmetry, the hypothesis that matter and antimatter behave identical when time and space are reversed at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3404684",
"title": "Gravitational interaction of antimatter",
"section": "Section::::Theories of gravitational attraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "When antimatter was first discovered in 1932, physicists wondered about how it would react to gravity. Initial analysis focused on whether antimatter should react the same as matter or react oppositely. Several theoretical arguments arose which convinced physicists that antimatter would react exactly the same as normal matter. They inferred that a gravitational repulsion between matter and antimatter was implausible as it would violate CPT invariance, conservation of energy, result in vacuum instability, and result in CP violation. It was also theorized that it would be inconsistent with the results of the Eötvös test of the weak equivalence principle. Many of these early theoretical objections were later overturned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342127",
"title": "Anti-gravity",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical solutions.:Fifth force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Under general relativity any form of energy couples with spacetime to create the geometries that cause gravity. A longstanding question was whether or not these same equations applied to antimatter. The issue was considered solved in 1960 with the development of CPT symmetry, which demonstrated that antimatter follows the same laws of physics as \"normal\" matter, and therefore has positive energy content and also causes (and reacts to) gravity like normal matter (see gravitational interaction of antimatter).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5619176",
"title": "Flatlander (short story)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "It is thus revealed to Shaeffer and Elephant that what made the system the most distinctive was its composition: antimatter, which General Products hulls are not resistant to. Elephant finally understands why he’s just a \"flatlander\": He does not instinctively recognize that the universe is a dangerous place to live.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1317",
"title": "Antimatter",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "There are compelling theoretical reasons to believe that, aside from the fact that antiparticles have different signs on all charges (such as electric and baryon charges), matter and antimatter have exactly the same properties. This means a particle and its corresponding antiparticle must have identical masses and decay lifetimes (if unstable). It also implies that, for example, a star made up of antimatter (an \"antistar\") will shine just like an ordinary star. This idea was tested experimentally in 2016 by the ALPHA experiment, which measured the transition between the two lowest energy states of antihydrogen. The results, which are identical to that of hydrogen, confirmed the validity of quantum mechanics for antimatter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4043742",
"title": "Physics beyond the Standard Model",
"section": "Section::::Problems with the Standard Model.:Phenomena not explained.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Matter–antimatter asymmetry\". The universe is made out of mostly matter. However, the standard model predicts that matter and antimatter should have been created in (almost) equal amounts if the initial conditions of the universe did not involve disproportionate matter relative to antimatter. Yet, no mechanism sufficient to explain this asymmetry exists in the Standard Model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150159",
"title": "Noether's theorem",
"section": "Section::::Basic illustrations and background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "As an illustration, if a physical system behaves the same regardless of how it is oriented in space, its Lagrangian is symmetric under continuous rotations: from this symmetry, Noether's theorem dictates that the angular momentum of the system be conserved, as a consequence of its laws of motion. The physical system itself need not be symmetric; a jagged asteroid tumbling in space conserves angular momentum despite its asymmetry. It is the laws of its motion that are symmetric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30op10
|
If Germany and Japan were not allowed to have armies and were defended by the US after World War 2, why wasn't Italy in the same situation?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were limitations placed upon both the size, deployment, and structures of the Italian military in the [1947 Peace Treaty- Warning PDF](_URL_1_). Part IV of the Treaty demanded that Italy defortify its frontiers with France and Yugoslavia and deploy no weapons that could reach into these areas. Italian islands like Pantellaria had to be completely demilitarized. Both the Italian Air Force and the Army were limited to two hundred planes and tanks. Furthermore, the Army was limited to 250,000 men and the Navy could not acquire new ships until after 1950 and then could not build heavy units like battleships or aircraft carriers. The Allies also forbid Italy from developing either nuclear or guided missile technology. \n\nItaly's joining of NATO two years later and the formation of the European Defense Community (EDC) in 1950 rendered many of these provisions and limitations moot. Although the EDC foundered amongst much wrangling and apprehension, the initial treaty allowed Italy to release itself from the military provisions of the 1947 Treaty. Since Italian rearmament took place under the auspices of these two institutions, there was little opposition among Western European and American governments over this development. The Italians allowed for the US deployment of IRBMs and the Italian Navy launched two large guided-missile cruisers and flirted with an abortive plan to deploy Polaris missiles on its ships. \n\nThe rearmament and incorporation of Italian troops into the defense structures of Western Europe were congruent with the wider trend of rearming former Axis powers. In both the cases of Japan and West Germany, the embryo of a postwar military emerged in the form of police forces that maintained domestic order and patrolled the borders. These polices forces often had a strong paramilitary character and were staffed by veterans from the war. Treaties with the US and Western forces in the 1950s allowed for these policing institutions to be expanded into proper military formations, albeit often with explicit provisions that they would be both subordinate to civilian control and be incorporated into defense organizations which were dominated by US military leaders for most of the Cold War. In the case of Japan, its armed forces, called the Self-Defense Forces, developed very strong defensive capabilities but lacked many offensive weapons that would allow it to project this military power outside of the home islands or immediate environs without major US assistance. The Japanese constitution explicitly outlawed war and renounced offensive weapons which resulted in stretching the terminology for military equipment (just recently, the Maritime Self-Defense Forces just launched a [\"destroyer\"](_URL_0_) which really looks like an aircraft carrier). These often self-imposed restrictions caused a degree of friction with the US in the latter half of the Cold War. Kissinger, for example, resented how the Japanese would never really step away from their defensive orientation and help the over-stretched US forces during the tail-end of the Vietnam War and its aftermath. This criticism avowed civilian control over the Japanese and German armed forces have often created the mistaken impression that neither Japan nor the FRG possessed a military worth much value. In fact, both forces were highly advanced, relatively large, and well-trained and their existence (and staffing by officers from the Second World War) was a consistent source of criticism within Soviet propaganda during the Cold War. \n\n*Sources*\n\nDi Nolfo, Ennio. *Power in Europe? II: Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, and the Origins of the EEC, 1952-1957*. Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1992. \n\nHattendorf, John B. *Naval Policy and Strategy in the Mediterranean: Past, Present, and Future*. London: Frank Cass, 2000. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43507",
"title": "Axis powers",
"section": "Section::::Founding members of the Axis.:Japan.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "With the European powers focused on the war in Europe, Japan sought to acquire their colonies. In 1940 Japan responded to the German invasion of France by occupying French Indochina. The Vichy France regime, a \"de facto\" ally of Germany, accepted the takeover. The allied forces did not respond with war. However, the United States instituted an embargo against Japan in 1941 because of the continuing war in China. This cut off Japan's supply of scrap metal and oil needed for industry, trade, and the war effort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166614",
"title": "Military history of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary period.:Shōwa period (Post-war) (1945–1989).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Post World War II, Japan was deprived of any military capability after signing the surrender agreement in 1945. The U.S. occupation forces were fully responsible for protecting Japan from external threats. Japan only had a minor police force for domestic security. Japan was under the sole control of the United States. This was the only time in Japanese history that it was occupied by a foreign power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161323",
"title": "Military history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::1930s: Neutrality Acts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1426,
"text": "Due to the underlying pressure against military involvement by both citizens and politicians, the United States was reluctant to intervene in any overseas conflicts. The involvement that the United States had toward the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931 only extended as far as non-recognition. Other events such as Benito Mussolini's Italian Conquest of Ethiopia went ignored by the U.S. along with the League of Nations being unable to act upon the usage of chemical weapons by the Italian fascists. No official involvement was waged during the Spanish Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War, though both wars utilized loopholes for U.S. involvement, such as volunteering and using British ships as a middleman for delivering provisions (since the Neutrality Acts only specified American ships). This, along with Roosevelt's Quarantine Speech, produced mixed opinions among Americans that were still anxious about military involvement. Non-interventionists were mainly constituent in the Republican Party, but other Democratic politicians, such as Louis Ludlow, attempted to pass bills to compromise and even amend the United States Constitution for the purpose of calling for public Referendum to decide military involvement in cases that do not immediately follow an attack on the United States. This amendment was introduced many times, but failed to gain enough support, including opposition even by Roosevelt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282291",
"title": "Aftermath of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Political upheavals.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Because of the treaty that Japan had signed with Great Britain in 1902, Japan was one of the Allies during the war. With British assistance, Japanese forces attacked Germany's territories in Shandong province in China, including the East Asian coaling base of the Imperial German navy. The German forces were defeated and surrendered to Japan in November 1914. The Japanese navy also succeeded in seizing several of Germany's island possessions in the Western Pacific: the Marianas, Carolines, and Marshall Islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205357",
"title": "The Domination",
"section": "Section::::Draka history.:The Eurasian War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The United States is forced into the war when the entire Pacific Fleet is wiped out at Pearl Harbor. Japanese forces occupy the U.S. states of Hawaii, the Philippines and the Panama Canal Zone. Additionally, Japan occupies northern Australia, raids California, and the Imperial Japanese Navy shells Acapulco. Consequently, the United States cannot open a second front in Europe. Alliance with the Nazis against the Draka is also impossible, due to the influence of the Jewish lobby and a Draka threat to supply Japan with nuclear weapons-related materials in the event of U.S.-German peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2991012",
"title": "Japan–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:Pre–World War II period.:World War I and 1920s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "During World War I, both the United States and Japan fought on the Allied side. With the cooperation of its ally the United Kingdom, Japan's military took control of German bases in China and the Pacific, and in 1919 after the war, with U.S. approval, was given a League of Nations mandate over the German islands north of the equator, with Australia getting the rest. The U.S. did not want any mandates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46880",
"title": "Japanese-American service in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Servicemen in the Army Air Forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Japanese Americans were generally forbidden to fight a combat role in the Pacific theatre; although no such limitations were placed on Americans of German or Italian ancestry who fought against the Axis powers. Up to this point, the United States government has only been able to find records of five Japanese Americans who were members of the Army Air Forces during World War II, one of them being Kenje Ogata. There was at least one \"Nisei\", U.S. Army Air Forces Technical Sergeant Ben Kuroki, who participated initially in 35 missions as a dorsal turret gunner over Europe, followed by 28 bombing missions over mainland Japan and other locations in the Pacific Theater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5irpdx
|
how can devices such as google home and amazon echo understand your voice while loud music is playing in the background?
|
[
{
"answer": "Background music adds complications to all signal processing, including for Google Home and Amazon Echo. Both of these devices have an always on functionality, meaning they are always listening. They are always listening for a distinct and very specific signal to be played (ie. your voice saying 'OK Google' or 'Alexa'). These two phrases have been broken down into their components and each component of the signal must be heard, in the correct order. So after the device processes the signal for the sound 'Oh', it expects to hear 'Kay' next. \n\nBackground noise is not able to affect the commands because even though the device recognizes there is background noise, it is only looking and waiting for specific sounds at specific frequencies in specific orders (which are the command phrases). Think of it as a coin sorting filter, no matter what you put into the coin sorting filter, it is only looking for a certain number of specific coins, and anything else will be disregarded.\n\nThis isn't to say that background noise is totally filtered out. If the background noise is too loud it can alter the command phrase and mess up the signal processing.\n\nTLDR: These devices filter out any noise signal that isn't the command phrase signal while waiting for command phrase.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44331153",
"title": "Amazon Echo",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Available services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "Echo devices offer weather from AccuWeather and news from a variety of sources, including local radio stations, BBC, NPR, and ESPN from TuneIn. Echo can play music from the owner's Amazon Music accounts and has built-in support for other streaming music services like Apple Music, iHeartRadio, Pandora, Sirius XM, and Spotify among others, and has support for IFTTT and Nest thermostats. Echo can also play music from non-compatible music streaming services such as Google Play Music from a phone or tablet via Bluetooth. Echo maintains voice-controlled alarms, timers, shopping and to-do lists and can access Wikipedia articles. Echo will respond to questions about items in one's Google Calendar. It also integrates with Yonomi, Philips Hue, Belkin Wemo, SmartThings, Insteon, and Wink. Additionally, integration with the Echo is in the works for Countertop by Orange Chef, Sonos, Scout Alarm, Garageio, Toymail, MARA, and Mojio. Questions like \"Who is Barack Obama?\" are answered by reading the first few lines of the corresponding Wikipedia article.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44331153",
"title": "Amazon Echo",
"section": "Section::::Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "There are concerns about the access Echo has to private conversations in the home, or other non-verbal indications that can identify who is present in the home and who is not—based on audible cues such as footstep-cadence or radio/television programming. Amazon responds to these concerns by stating that Echo only streams recordings from the user's home when the \"wake word\" activates the device, though the device is technically capable of streaming voice recordings at all times, and in fact will always be listening to detect if a user has uttered the word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560437",
"title": "Portable media player",
"section": "Section::::Digital signal processing.:Sound around mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Sound around mode allows for real time overlapping of music and the sounds surrounding the listener in her environment, which are captured by a microphone and mixed into the audio signal. As a result, the user may hear playing music and external sounds of the environment at the same time. This can increase user safety (especially in big cities and busy streets), as a user can hear a mugger following her or hear an oncoming car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44253533",
"title": "Soundtracker (music streaming)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "SoundayMusic (Formerly known as Soundtracker) is a geosocial networking mobile music streaming app that enables users to listen to and track the music their friends and neighbors are playing in real time. The service provides over 32 million tracks and allows users to create \"music stations\" choosing between a mix of up to three artists, or choosing a music genre. In the free version users can create up to 10 personalized stations, look at the stations that are being played nearby in real time, and interact with other users through instant chat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17720084",
"title": "Samsung M800 Instinct",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The MP3 player allows users to listen to music while they exchange text messages. It pauses music when the user answers a call. The Instinct supports uploading music into the music library. The phone does not come with MP3 ringtones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50575054",
"title": "Google Home",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Users can connect and group together multiple Home speakers for synchronized playback of music in every room. A notable feature omission, multiple accounts, was criticized by JR Raphael of \"Computerworld\" in November 2016, but an update for users in the United States in April 2017 enabled the feature. Google Home can now recognize up to six different voices, pulling information from their different accounts depending on who's talking. Google Home has integration with each user's calendar, for adding reminders or appointments verbally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254059",
"title": "Handsfree",
"section": "Section::::Software technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "These acoustic technologies must also remove or reduce the noise levels so that the caller is well understood. A person making a call from a handsfree device who is in a busy restaurant or while driving will introduce large levels of noise into the call. This situation is complicated as the software must not only remove the noise around him, but must transmit his voice clearly and loudly to whoever is connected to him. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e4ycmw
|
what happens to a body when mixed with molten steel?
|
[
{
"answer": "Molten steel is at least 1370 degrees celcius. Crematoriums operate at a maximum of 980 degrees celcius.\n\nThe body is basically cremated. Burnt into ash.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The high temperature will burn a body to ash, and the processes used to produce and recycle steel produce a lot of waste in the form of slag and scale, which would easily mask any human cremains that are floating around",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water would evaporate, the carbon would be mixed in with the steel to make high carbon steel along with the other elements, depending upon the quantity of steel it might be possible to detect that a body was added to the steel by the chemical composition, but other than that it would be untraceable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, first of, that moisture would most likely cause a violent steam explosion if thrown in to a melting cauldron at a foundry: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nIt would be more plausible if the process is started while everything is cool, thus allowing any moisture to evaporate while the steel is melting.\n\nThis is all hypothetical, isn't it, [u/DreamSeaside](_URL_1_)? All academic?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was told that molten steel has the same density as solid steel\n\nMeaning if you fell into a crucible full of molten steel, you would remain on the surface, and instantly catch fire while skating around the surface turning to steam and smoke (and dying)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15054348",
"title": "Dual-phase steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The steel melt is produced in an oxygen top blowing process in the converter, and undergoes an alloy treatment in the secondary metallurgy phase. The product is aluminium-killed steel, with high tensile strength achieved by the composition with manganese, chromium and silicon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305335",
"title": "Steel casting",
"section": "Section::::Steel castability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Molten steel is also less fluid than molten iron, making it more difficult to pour and fill intricate gaps in a mold cavity. Molten steel is also more likely to react with internal mold surfaces, making for more unpredictable results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1143008",
"title": "Steel mill",
"section": "Section::::Integrated mill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Molten steel is cast into large blocks called \"blooms\". During the casting process various methods are used, such as addition of aluminum, so that impurities in the steel float to the surface where they can be cut off the finished bloom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1388228",
"title": "Electromagnetic forming",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The forming process is most often used to shrink or expand cylindrical tubing, but it can also form sheet metal by repelling the work piece onto a shaped die at a high velocity. High-quality joints can be formed, either by electromagnetic pulse crimping with a mechanical interlock or by electromagnetic pulse welding with a true metallurgical weld. Since the forming operation involves high acceleration and deceleration, mass of the work piece plays a critical role during the forming process. The process works best with good electrical conductors such as copper or aluminum, but it can be adapted to work with poorer conductors such as steel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10938277",
"title": "Robert Forester Mushet",
"section": "Section::::Dozzles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "When steel solidifies in a mould, uneven cooling causes a central cavity or 'pipe' to form in the casting. In 1861 Mushet invented the 'Dozzle'; a clay cone or sleeve, heated white hot and inserted into the top of the ingot mould near the end of the pour, and then filled with molten steel. Its purpose was to maintain a reservoir of molten steel, which drained down and filled the pipe as the casting cooled. Mushet claimed this, and other small inventions of his, saved the steelmakers of Sheffield 'many millions of pounds' (in 19th century money), yet he received neither payment nor recognition for these inventions. Dozzles, now called hot tops or feeder heads, are still in use today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "975309",
"title": "Cementation process",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Alternatively they could be broken up and melted in a crucible using a crucible furnace with a flux to become \"crucible steel\" or \"cast steel\", a process devised by Benjamin Huntsman in Sheffield in the 1740s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2741033",
"title": "Molten Man",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "Molten Man was given superhuman powers after exposure to an organic liquid metal alloy obtained from a meteor discovered by Spencer Smythe. His skin completely absorbed the experimental alloy, turning all of the external tissues of his body into a solid metallic substance, as well as the trunks, belt, and boots he was wearing at the time of the accident. As a result, Molten Man possesses superhuman strength and his skin is composed of a frictionless metal that grants him a high degree of resistance to physical injury. Raxton's metallic fingers are sensitive enough to pick locks (making him an expert safe cracker), and his skin is so slick he cannot be restrained with Spider-Man's webbing. Molten Man's skin can also generate intense heat, burning anybody who tries to touch him and shooting flaming projectiles at his foes. At one time, his skin was like molten lava, allowing him to project radiation and heat up to . In his molten form, the Molten Man's skin may reach a critical stage at which point his skin could actually melt off him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ahp96s
|
why do artists and painters in movies always hold out their pen and focus on it?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're using the pen/brush handle/thumb as a reference for judging the size of an object, keeping it at arms length every time gives you a constant good-enough-for-art measurement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "people in movies or “actors” don’t usually know much about art and are just following directions from the script. If the script doesn’t say anything about what to do and just says “painter is painting” then the actor might go to a school like an academy of art to learn how to behave like an artist. But artists in art school are art students, so when actors copy and act like art students they look pretty silly, especially when an actor is trying to look like a master painter. \n\nThat said, if you’re trying to paint a realistic portrait of something, holding out your arm and squinting through one eye at your outstretched thumb or paintbrush can be pretty useful when looking at things in perspective. This is because to your eye, things look smaller the further away they are! How? Because your eye has a lens in it just like a camera. If you don’t want things to look like you see them through your eye’s lense, you don’t have to worry about any of this, just paint. or act like you don’t care.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "for scale. and it's actually their thump that's important, typically. from the tip of your thumb nail to the knuckle is close to an inch on most people. by using a consistent reference (the height of their thumb held at the length of their arm), a reasonably skilled artist can translate distances with remarkable accuracy on the fly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57993531",
"title": "At Eternity's Gate (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Casting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "In an article for 'W' magazine, Dafoe further stated, \"I painted in a movie called \"To Live and Die in L.A.\", but it wasn't about painting--it was more about counterfeiting and killing people. In playing Vincent van Gogh, painting was the key to the character. I had to know what I was doing. The director, Julian Schnabel, would say, 'Hold the brush like a sword' and 'There's no such thing as a bad mark.' I began to think that painting is about making an accumulation of marks. Acting is the same: You create a character scene by scene. It's a series of marks that start a rhythm, and that rhythm sends you where you need to go.\" It was noted that Dafoe was 62 at the time of filming, 25 years older than Van Gogh when he died.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7806704",
"title": "Jonathan Lasker",
"section": "Section::::Early life and education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "\"At CalArts, to be a painter meant you had to take a stance, because there was a very antagonistic attitude towards painting there. In a way it was good for me, because it forced me to shape my reasons for making paintings. It also forced me to make paintings that had reasons for being paintings. So I think, in a way it pushed me in a good direction, although the experience was alienating.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1818908",
"title": "Emile de Antonio",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In an interview regarding his filmography, de Antonio spoke towards his relationship with the painters and his role in the creation of the film: \"I was probably the only filmmaker in the world who could [have made \"Painters Painting\"] because I knew all those people, from the time that they were poor, and unsuccessful and had no money. I knew Warhol and Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns and Stella before they ever sold a painting, and so it was interesting to [do the film about them].\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40376977",
"title": "Kamekichi Tokita",
"section": "Section::::In the U.S., 1920s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "While his skill as a sign painter was a source of income, his oil paintings headed in a very different direction. He painted scenes of the world around him—houses, apartment buildings, stores, streets, bridges, the waterfront—using bold outlines and subtle valuation of earthen tones. With his friend Nomura and others he at times ventured into the countryside to paint rural scenes, but most of his still-extant paintings show urban scenes of the city where he lived and worked. Because of his vernacular subject matter and realist approach he came to be associated with the American Scene painters, but unlike many of them he rarely painted human forms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30461926",
"title": "Michael Flohr",
"section": "Section::::Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The works of impressionist artists throughout history inspire me, specifically Pissaro, Monet, Manet, and Degas. Like these artists, I prefer to work in oils. I love oil paint because of its durability and the richness it brings to the canvas. I also believe that most people with an appreciation for art respect an artist's use of this classic medium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33961786",
"title": "Yunizar",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Preferring to play with empty spaces, his paintings carry his signature abstract style with a focus on texture that invites the viewer to reach out for a feel. He understands and manipulates materials, working primarily in acrylic and pencil, artfully building volume and anti-rhythm with his brushwork and setting forth impressions through contrast and lines, forms and colours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54348468",
"title": "Freehand brush work",
"section": "Section::::Tools.:Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "What is most important that a painting aims to express is the artistic conception. By depicting all the contents in a scene, the painter can finally achieve an atmosphere in which the relations, colors, positions and all the other elements are able to convey spiritual consideration. And that is the deep value of appreciating freehand brush work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fgh6lg
|
what causes veins in the arms and hands to bulge sometimes, in addition to a feeling of "fullness" or pressure without physical activity?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the main functions of veins is to serve as a reservoir for extra blood. If you had just enough oxygenated blood in your arteries for when you are at rest, then you would have a big problem as soon as you were active. So, your veins are like balloons that can expand when needed to hold extra blood. When you work out, the veins are distended because a lot of blood is going to the tissues, and it needs to get back to the heart quickly. When you're resting, they can be distended with all the extra blood. Lots of other things affect how distended they are--such as gravity, if you're relatively dehydrated, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2297321",
"title": "Superficial vein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Superficial veins are important physiologically for cooling of the body. When the body is too hot the body shunts blood from the deep veins to the superficial veins, to facilitate heat transfer to the surroundings. Superficial veins can be seen under the skin. Those below the level of the heart tend to bulge out. This can be readily witnessed in the hand: raised above the heart and the blood should drain; lowered below the heart and it will fill. Veins become more visually prominent when lifting heavy weight, especially after a period of proper strength training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40903932",
"title": "Signs and symptoms of pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Varicose veins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Dilation of veins in legs caused by relaxation of smooth muscle and increased intravascular pressure due to fluid volume increase. Treatment involves elevation of the legs and pressure stockings to relieve swelling along with warm sitz baths to decrease pain. There is a small amount of evidence that rutosides (a herbal remedy) may relieve symptoms of varicose veins in late pregnancy but it is not yet known if rutosides are safe to take in pregnancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1305703",
"title": "Beck's triad (cardiology)",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The rising central venous pressure is evidenced by distended jugular veins while in a non-supine position. It is caused by reduced diastolic filling of the right ventricle, due to pressure from the adjacent expanding pericardial sac. This results in a backup of fluid into the veins draining into the heart, most notably, the jugular veins. In severe hypovolemia, the neck veins may not be distended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646151",
"title": "Bronchospasm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The overactivity of the bronchioles' muscle is a result of exposure to a stimulus which under normal circumstances would cause little or no response. The resulting constriction and inflammation causes a narrowing of the airways and an increase in mucus production; this reduces the amount of oxygen that is available to the individual causing breathlessness, coughing and hypoxia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3063000",
"title": "Lymphangioma",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "A thick coat of muscle fibers that cause rhythmic contractions line the sequestered primitive sacs. Rhythmic contractions increase the intramural pressure, causing dilated channels to come from the walls of the cisterns toward the skin. He suggested that the vesicles seen in lymphangioma circumscriptum are outpouchings of these dilated projecting vessels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "646151",
"title": "Bronchospasm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Bronchospasm or a bronchial spasm is a sudden constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles. It is caused by the release (degranulation) of substances from mast cells or basophils under the influence of anaphylatoxins. It causes difficulty in breathing which can be very mild to severe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010013",
"title": "Navicular syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Causes and contributing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Because veins are more easily compressed than arteries, blood flow to the bone would be less obstructed than blood flow from the bone. This would cause a buildup of pressure within the navicular bone. The navicular bone, in response to both the increased pressure and overall decreased blood supply, would absorb mineral from its center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16a0bw
|
How were wounded soldiers treated during battle in formation-heavy armies (Roman legion, phalanx, Napoleonic line infantry, etc)?
|
[
{
"answer": "From what I understand from previous posts and various books I have read, a soldier wounded in a Napoleonic line company would be pulled away from the line initially by sergeants or corporals and then taken back to the surgeon by drummer boys and military band member. Usually a soldier was pulled away during a battle even if only moderately wounded (arm or leg wounds etc), as to close ranks and/or maintain platoon fire discipline so he wasn't fighting to the death unless the whole company was. In close combat, you would be wounded then killed later or as air challenged said, placed in the victors infirmary (well, maybe during the mayhem following a siege attack or even in the surgeons office) but someone might want to clarify that as I am not that well versed in that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "John Keegan wrote a very enlightening analysis of what happened during battles. It's called *[The Face of Battle](_URL_0_)*. If you get the chance to read it, I highly recommend it. It gives a lot of insight into the factors that make up the actual battles, like fear, fatigue, terrain, weapons, formations, etc. He also makes a point of specifically talking about the dead and wounded.\n\nMy best understanding was his discussion of Agincourt, so I'll just briefly summarize that. In this battle the French suffered a lot more wounds, and basically all were left where they fell. For one, the battle wasn't incredibly long, and for two, the English couldn't afford to break ranks and the French were too cramped to break ranks, so the wounded had no where to go but forward or down. The wounded and dead just piled up. At least one English officer was either suffocated or had a heart attack after being buried in one of these piles. It was only after the most intense part of the fighting, when the French withdrew and were regrouping for another charge, that some of the English went out to look for loot or wounded men who might be worth ransom (a big caveat). The next day, the English killed the wounded they found still on the battlefield, and Keegan notes that they probably would have died from their wounds or shock anyway.\n\nAndrew Goble wrote an interesting article about wound medicine in medieval Japan called [\"War and Injury: The Emergence of Wound Medicine in Medieval Japan\"](_URL_1_), but unfortunately he didn't talk much about treatment during the battle itself. There is one screen painting, and I wish I could find it right now, that includes a warrior giving rudimentary first aid to a comrade during a battle, but it's an artist's depiction and I haven't seen any English language description of Japanese battles that included handling the wounded. [State of War](_URL_3_) talks a lot about wounds, but doesn't give any insight into this.... which is a bummer because this is the period when Japanese militaries started using formations and the shape of battles changed significantly. Prior to this, when it was more one-on-one, warriors could withdraw when wounded (see [Takezaki Suenaga's scrolls](_URL_2_) for instances of this happening) partly because, in my own analysis, there were no formations or direct hierarchy preventing them from doing so. The only thing stopping them from doing this for a light wound might be that they were rewarded based on performance and only compensated for injuries. That and retreating, in formation or not, exposes even armored combatants and is a good way to get killed.\n\n*Edit for formatting fail*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50502333",
"title": "Armies in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Medical support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 367,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 367,
"end_character": 1486,
"text": "Procedures, medical techniques, and medical problems for both sides were virtually identical. Commanders discouraged soldiers from leaving the battle lines to escort wounded back to the rear, but such practice was common, especially in less-disciplined units. The established technique for casualty evacuation was to detail men for litter and ambulance duty. Both armies used bandsmen, among others, for this task. Casualties would move or be assisted back from the battle line, where litter bearers evacuated them to field hospitals using ambulances or supply wagons. Ambulances were specially designed two or four-wheel carts with springs to limit jolts, but rough roads made even short trips agonizing for wounded men. Brigade and division surgeons staffed consolidated field hospitals. Hospital site considerations were the availability of water, potential buildings to supplement the hospital tents, and security from enemy cannon and rifle fire. The majority of operations performed at field hospitals in the aftermath of battle were amputations. Approximately 70 percent of Civil War wounds occurred in the extremities, and the soft lead Minié ball shattered any bones it hit. Amputation was the best technique then available to limit the chance of serious infection. The Federals were generally well supplied with chloroform, morphine, and other drugs, though shortages did occur on the battlefield. Confederate surgeons were often short of critical drugs and medical supplies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26221135",
"title": "Imperial Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Army medical services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 227,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 227,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "On the battlefield, medics and orderlies would be on hand behind the lines to treat injured soldiers on the spot. Using a wide range of sophisticated surgical instruments, medics would promptly remove extraneous bodies such as arrow- and spear-heads, clean and disinfect wounds using clean water and medicated wine or beer and stitch them. Orderlies would then bandage them. Speed in cleaning, closing and bandaging the wound was critical, as, in a world without antibiotics, infection was the gravest danger faced by injured troops, and would often result in a slow, agonising death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24240060",
"title": "Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "At the time of the battle, the Tigris Corps had facilities to treat 250 wounded soldiers. By the end of 7 January 1916, the field ambulances were trying to deal with almost ten times that may. Some of the wounded had to wait as much as ten days before they were finally cleared through the field ambulances before being sent to the hospitals established downriver at Basra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5989657",
"title": "Medical community of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Military medical corps.:Practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "As far as can be determined, the medical corps in battle worked as follows. Trajan's Column depicts medics on the battlefield bandaging soldiers. They were located just behind the standards; i.e., near the field headquarters. This must have been a field aid station, not necessarily the first, as the soldiers or corpsmen among the soldiers would have administered first aid before carrying their wounded comrades to the station. Some soldiers were designated to ride along the line on a horse picking up the wounded. They were paid by the number of men they rescued. Bandaging was performed by \"capsarii\", who carried bandages (\"fascia\") in their \"capsae\", or bags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5989657",
"title": "Medical community of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Military medical corps.:Republican.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The state of the military medical corps before Augustus is unclear. Corpsmen certainly existed at least for the administration of first aid and were enlisted soldiers rather than civilians. The commander of the legion was held responsible for removing the wounded from the field and insuring that they got sufficient care and time to recover. He could quarter troops in private domiciles if he thought necessary. Authors who have written of Roman military activities before Augustus, such as Livy, mention that wounded troops retired to population centers to recover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20324068",
"title": "Medical treatment during the Second Boer War",
"section": "Section::::Surgical developments and treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "Casualties during the Boer War were generally recovered in stages. Battalion doctors located on the battlefields would take the wounded by stretcher to a dressing station for initial treatment. This included the widespread use of field dressings consisting of a sterile gauze pad stitched to the bandage and covered with waterproofing. Each pack contained two dressings and numerous safety pins. Later they would be taken to ambulances or stationary hospitals where the complex recovery by the surgeons could be carried out. However, given the number of casualties in relation to staff, it was often days before a wounded soldier could see a doctor for full treatment, increasing the extent of the infection of the wounds. As a result, primary surgical care was often conducted in ambulances. Many wounds were open fractures and often involved damage to bones. In such cases, the wounds were treated by debridement and the wound packed. The limb would then be immobilised with a splint made of canvas with strips of bamboo sewn in to support it.Plaster of Paris was also used during the Boer War after the bone had been set. The treatment of wounds was greatly enhanced by the invention of X-rays and some 9 machines were taken to South Africa during the campaign. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459502",
"title": "Sturmtruppen",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "BULLET::::- The \"Eroiken Portaferiten\" (combat medics) are tasked with recovering wounded soldiers from the battlefield with their stretcher. However, they are often clumsy and end up aggravating the conditions of the wounded themselves, when they are not actually looting the fallen and wounded for golden watches, golden teeth, wallets, et cetera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5v3vi6
|
what has the mri scan done to help us understand the role of the brain?
|
[
{
"answer": "It helped us map out which areas of the brain are activated under different situations, using contextual or sensory testing, such as exposing a person to visual, auditive, olfactory, etc... inputs, and watching which 'compartment' of the brain showed increased activity.\nResearchers also draw conclusions from similarities in brain activity stemming from different substances (\"sugar and cocaine activate the same part of the human brain\").",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24219329",
"title": "Neurogenomics",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Imaging studies and optical mapping.:MRI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can be used to identify the structural composition of the brain. Particularly in the context of neurogenomics, MRI has played an extensive role in the study of Alzheimer's disease(AD) over the past four decades. It was initially used to rule out other causes of dementia, but recent studies indicated the presence of characteristic changes in patients with AD. As a result, MRI scans are currently being used as a neuroimaging tool to help identify the temporal and spatial pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease, such as specific cerebral alterations and amyloid imaging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Current technologies.:Live Imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used for scanning the brain for topological and landmark structure in the brain, but can also be used for imaging activation in the brain. While detail about how MRI works is reserved for the actual MRI article, the uses of MRI are far reaching in the study of neuroscience. It is a cornerstone technology in studying the mind, especially with the advent of functional MRI (fMRI). Functional MRI measures the oxygen levels in the brain upon activation (higher oxygen content = neural activation) and allows researchers to understand what loci are responsible for activation under a given stimulus. This technology is a large improvement to single cell or loci activation by means of exposing the brain and contact stimulation. Functional MRI allows researchers to draw associative relationships between different loci and regions of the brain and provides a large amount of knowledge in establishing new landmarks and loci in the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24219329",
"title": "Neurogenomics",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Imaging studies and optical mapping.:MRI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "The ease and non-invasive nature of MRI scans has motivated research projects that trace the development and onset of psychiatric diseases in the brain. Alzheimer disease has become a key candidate in this topographical approach to psychiatric diseases. For example, MRI scans are currently being used to track the resting and task-dependent functional profiles of brains in children with autosomal dominant Alzheimer disease. These studies have found indications of early onset brain alterations in at-risk individuals for AD. The Autism Center of Excellence at University of California, San Diego, is also conducting MRI studies with children between 12 and 42 months, in the hopes of characterizing brain development abnormalities in children who present behavioural symptoms of autism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8738547",
"title": "Imagery analysis",
"section": "Section::::Analytical techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The development of MRI would have been a question of comparing their data with that of CAT scans and ultrasound. As far as how they established the visibility of neurochemical reactions, that would have been dependent on current knowledge of neurological and physiological processes. Now a situation exists where a new technology that is based on previous understanding actually increases those fields of knowledge that made it possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::How these help study the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1841,
"text": "Magnetic resonance imaging is a vital tool in neurological research in showing activation in the brain as well as providing a comprehensive image of the brain being studied. While MRIs are used clinically for showing brain size, it still has relevance in the study of brains because it can be used to determine extent of injuries or deformation. These can have a significant effect on personality, sense perception, memory, higher order thinking, movement, and spatial understanding. However, current research tends to focus more so on fMRI or real-time functional MRI (rtfMRI). These two methods allow the scientist or the participant, respectively, to view activation in the brain. This is incredibly vital in understanding how a person thinks and how their brain reacts to a person's environment, as well as understanding how the brain works under various stressors or dysfunctions. Real-time functional MRI is a revolutionary tool available to neurologists and neuroscientists because patients can see how their brain reacts to stressors and can perceive visual feedback. CT scans are very similar to MRI in their academic use because they can be used to image the brain upon injury, but they are more limited in perceptual feedback. CTs are generally used in clinical studies far more than in academic studies, and are found far more often in a hospital than a research facility. PET scans are also finding more relevance in academia because they can be used to observe metabolic uptake of neurons, giving researchers a wider perspective about neural activity in the brain for a given condition. Combinations of these methods can provide researchers with knowledge of both physiological and metabolic behaviors of loci in the brain and can be used to explain activation and deactivation of parts of the brain under specific conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1732125",
"title": "Cerebral atrophy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "CT and MRI are most commonly used to observe the brain for cerebral atrophy. A CT scan takes cross sectional images of the brain using X-rays, while an MRI uses a magnetic field. With both measures, multiple images can be compared to see if there is a loss in brain volume over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304588",
"title": "Brain damage",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "There are several imaging techniques that can aid in diagnosing and assessing the extent of brain damage, such as computed tomography (CT) scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission tomography (SPECT). CT scans and MRI are the two techniques widely used and are most effective. CT scans can show brain bleeds, fractures of the skull, fluid build up in the brain that will lead to increased cranial pressure. MRI is able to better to detect smaller injuries, detect damage within the brain, diffuse axonal injury, injuries to the brainstem, posterior fossa, and subtemporal and subfrontal regions. However patients with pacemakers, metallic implants, or other metal within their bodies are unable to have an MRI done. Typically the other imaging techniques are not used in a clinical setting because of the cost, lack of availability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4f2bla
|
What films, if any, most accurately portray a pre-WWI battle, especially hand-to-hand fighting?
|
[
{
"answer": "Everyone would do well in remembering that we require **in-depth** comments in this subreddit. Just throwing out a title of a movie and a short sentence or two is not enough. Explain what *why* it's accurate (sources please!), show examples and walk us through it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unfortunately, you're not really going to get a satisfactory answer to your question, because - with very few exceptions - we don't really know how mass battles were fought. A lot of the source material we have on battles doesn't describe formations or troop density or tactical manoeuvres or anything like that with any granularity, so we can't accurately recreate them on film.\n\nThat said, though, there are some films depicting Greek and Roman battles that might be more accurate than others, but that's unfortunately far out of my specialization, so another user will have to pick it up.",
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"answer": "For a few reasons, you're probably *never* going to see it because (as /u/EyeStache pointed out) we don't know how they fought since none of the sources explicitly tell us (they assume the audience knew) but I feel modern audience has been so conditioned to view ancient/medieval battle in a certain way. No director will attempt to be 'realistic' as the audience would be confused, it would take a very skilled director with the pull to get it shot his way and willing to spend considerable screen time to 'get it right'. \n\n\nGoldsworthy has a model of ancient combat that stresses the psychological aspects of warfare. That suggests that combat was pretty terrifying (in an age without Geneva Conventions, antibiotics, painkillers) and few would be willing to just charge straight into an enemy formation bristling with sharp pointy objects. So one would try to fight in a formation - be it a rigid Greek phalanx, a slightly more flexible Roman cohort, or even a loose Gallic tribal force - to ensure your flanks are covered. Certain men in the unit, be they huscarls, centurions, generals, will be the main motivator for the unit. They're the guys who'll whip the men into action, who'll lead the assault, who'll be fighting to kill their opponent. Most soldiers will be more intent on fighting to survive, concentrating on protecting themselves rather than killing their opponent. After several minutes of fighting both sides would tire and pull back to rest and to psych themselves up for another round. Rinse and repeat until one side takes too many casualties or loses the will to continue fighting (or both) and then panic takes effect and the unit dissolves. Its a good model and one that can explain how battles can take several hours yet the victor only comes out with a handful of casualties (even treating casualty numbers with some grains of salt).\n\n\nLastly, the majority of the killing was done when one side broke and ran. They'd abandon anything to slow them down like weapons and shields which would leave them defenceless and vulnerable when struck from behind. But there's hardly anything 'heroic' in showing Mel Gibson cutting down fleeing English soldiers without mercy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The scene depicting Gaugamela in Oliver Stone's Alexander is pretty great in a fair degree of it's details - or at least in terms of the depiction of the account in Arrian, and of the Macedonian phalanx, and ancient warfare in general. There are several factual errors surrounding the battle and film itself, but if you were after a depiction on film of a massed ancient battle, there aren't many better.\n\nIn terms of why this is successful - details such as the terrifying but ineffectual scythed chariots match up to their description in Arrian, and pretty much every other time they are mentioned anywhere - they are frightening and terrifying constructs, but they rarely seem to have any effect on the overall outcome of a battle (as noted in Phillip Sabin's Lost Battles, among other places).\n\nHow accurate it actually is, is probably impossible to say, but it at least depicts the source material reasonably well, which is often about as good as you cab get with ancient warfare.\n\nThe battle scenes from Kubrick's Spartacus are an interesting counter-example. The Roman Quincunx formation is still a matter of debate (one I suspect is solved by massed battles looking rather more tentative and piecemeal than generally depicted on screen), but Kubrick's solution to the puzzle of a checkerboard army formation (i.e., \"wouldn't that leave massive holes?\") was to have them march into position in Quincunx, and then deploy into solid linesm which there is no evidence for.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others have pointed out, no battle can be truly realistic as we don't have sufficient information to say precisely how they were fought, but we do still have enough information to say with a high degree of certainty that, in Western warfare, the chaotic Hollywood style of massed armies mingling and fighting one on one battles didn't happen. Instead, sources emphasize the need for a densely packed formation that fought together.\n\nFor instance, when fighting the Colchians, Xenophon writes: \n\n > In the first instance, the Hellenes drew up opposite in line of battle, as though they were minded to assault the hill in that order; but afterwards the generals determined to hold a council of war, and consider how to make the fairest fight.\n\n > Accordingly Xenophon said: \"I am not for advancing in line, but advise to form companies by columns. To begin with, the line,\" he urged, \"would be scattered and thrown into disorder at once; for we shall find the mountain full of inequalities, it will be pathless here and easy to traverse there. The mere fact of first having formed in line, and then seeing the line thrown into disorder, must exercise a disheartening effect. Again, if we advance several deep, the enemy will none the less overlap us, and turn their superfluous numbers to account as best they like; while, if we march in shallow order, we may fully expect our line to be cut through and through by the thick rain of missiles and rush of men, and if this happen anywhere along the line, the whole line will equally suffer. \n\n(*Anabasis 4.8*)\n\nVerbruggen, in *The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages*, cites a large number of literary and poetic texts that point out the dense and tightly packed cavalry and infantry formations. He notes in particular that Raas of Gaver's advice at the Battle of Worringen that they thin their ranks in order to match the width of the enemy formation was considered by the chronicler Jan van Heelu to be a tourney tactic not suited to battle. Liebrecht, lord of Dormaal was of a similar opinion and is recorded as having said \n\n > Thick and tight! \n\n > Thick and tight! \n\n > Let every man press up stoutly to his \n\n > neighbor as close as he can. So we shall certainly win \n\n > glory today!\n\nIn contrast, the archbishop Siegfried's army advanced in a disorderly fashion, all his troops virtually in a single line. As a result, while the archbishop's army was able to outflank their enemies temporarily, they were unable to break the formations of the Brabant army and were ultimately defeated when a company of foot and horse (the peasants and knights of the Count of Berg and the civic levy from Cologne) arrived and took the archbishop in the flank.\n\nWith regards to the battles in *Braveheart*, they have only the vaguest connection to how the battles are recorded as being fought, and fall into the Hollywood melee trap. Stirling was a case of foot soldiers cutting off a portion of the English army from the bridge they were crossing, trapping them in a loop of the river and systematically killing them, while the main English force was largely without archers and was demoralised, leading to their retreat. Falkirk was a case of dense, circular infantry formations resisting a cavalry charge but ultimately being taken apart by archery and cavalry as a result of their tactical immobility.\n\nIn short, *Braveheart* doesn't even get the most basic aspects of the battles correct, let alone how they might have been fought.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd suggest you check out the film waterloo. The movie used 15-16 thousand soldiers from the soviet unions army as extras in the battle scenes. It in a lot of ways a reenactment of the battle. They had engineers prepair the battle area by getting rid of hills, planting 5000 trees, and laying out miles of roads, planting rye, and wild flowers. They uses irrigation pipes to create the mud of the battle. The 16000 extras were drilled in 1815 battle formations and how to handle bayonets, sabres, and cannons. The troops would function as units, and orders were given to the officers by the director to try get authenticity. So well its still a film at the end of the day there was a considerable amount of care put in try to keep it authentic as possible",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60168547",
"title": "The Spirit of the USA",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The action scenes were filmed near Hollywood. Emory selected an area where the terrain mimicked the European battlegrounds of World War I. To make the battle scenes more realistic, Emory used High Explosives, fake Gas Shells and mines. Many of the local residents began to think the Japanese had started to invade California. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13312227",
"title": "The Battle (1911 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The Battle is a 1911 American war film directed by D. W. Griffith. The film was set during the American Civil War. It was shot in Fort Lee, New Jersey, where many early film studios in America's first motion picture industry were based at the beginning of the 20th century. Prints of the film survive in several film archives around the world including the Museum of Modern Art, UCLA Film and Television Archive, George Eastman House and the Filmoteca Española. It was Lionel Barrymore's motion picture debut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33076634",
"title": "Volley fire",
"section": "Section::::Depictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Movies often give wrongful depictions of linear tactics and warfare in the early modern period. Notable exceptions are some of the battle scenes in \"The Patriot\". Movies on the American Civil War, like \"Gettysburg\" and \"Gods and Generals\" also give a fairly accurate impression of this method. Volley fire was depicted in the movie \"Zulu\", a fictionalization of the Battle of Rorke's Drift. In the defense of a fixed position, British infantry utilized a three rank volley fire to decimate an attack by a large Zulu force. Despite the Zulus' superior numbers, the attack collapsed under the relentless volley fire they faced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19063107",
"title": "First to Fight (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "\"First to Fight\" was shot at Camp Pendleton Marine Base, Oceanside, California, and in the San Fernando Valley at the Bell Ranch and Africa U.S.A. Park, a wildlife tourist attraction in Boca Raton, Florida. Most of the equipment matched period pieces from World War II and helped to make the film more authentic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46188299",
"title": "History of propaganda",
"section": "Section::::Propaganda films.:Interwar period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Between the Great Wars American films celebrated the bravery of the American soldiers while depicting war as an existential nightmare. Films such as \"The Big Parade\" depicted the horrors of trench warfare, the brutal destruction of villages, and the lack of provisions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435322",
"title": "Universal City, California",
"section": "Section::::History.:Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) history before 1917.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The Providencia Land and Water Development Company property was used as a location for some early films, most significantly the battle scenes in the silent classic about the American Civil War, \"The Birth of a Nation\" (1915).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40381727",
"title": "March on the Drina (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The film is based on a historical event, the Battle of Cer, which took place in 1914 during World War I. The film chronicles the experiences of a Serbian artillery battery of the Combined Division as it makes a forced march to the Cer Mountain in western Serbia to meet Austro-Hungarian troops who have invaded the country by crossing over the Drina River. The Battle of Cer was a landmark battle of World War I as the first Allied or Entente victory of the war over the Central Powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a1nxkj
|
how exactly does more money translate to winning court cases more often? is it purchasing smarter lawers or just manpower to go through documents?
|
[
{
"answer": "More manpower to go through documents and do legal research\n\n\nMore talented/experienced trial attorney's\n\n\nMore money to hire experts at trial\n\n\nMore money to file appeals, continuances and delay tactics",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I know I'm going to lose, I settle out of court. This is much cheaper, so it leaves me with more money. Also, since I only go to court when I think I'm likely to win, I usually do in fact win.\n\nSo I both have more money and win more often than someone who pays a lot of money for their lawyer to show up and make losing arguments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More money have private investigators investigate things. \n\nmore money means that you can hire a dedicated legal team rather than have to rely on a over worked public defender. \n\nMoney help a lot in court cases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24997830",
"title": "Legal information retrieval",
"section": "Section::::Problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Overcoming these problems can be made more difficult because of the large number of cases available. The number of legal cases available via electronic means is constantly increasing (in 2003, US appellate courts handed down approximately 500 new cases per day), meaning that an accurate legal information retrieval system must incorporate methods of both sorting past data and managing new data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113258",
"title": "Lawsuit",
"section": "Section::::Financing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "There was a study conducted in the \"Supreme Court Economic Review\" that shows why litigation financing can be practical and beneficial to the overall court system and lawsuits within the court. This study concluded that the new rules that were set for litigation financing actually did produce more settlements. Under conservative rules, there tended to be fewer settlements, however under the older rules they tended to be larger on average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1946773",
"title": "Legal research",
"section": "Section::::Third-Party Legal Research Providers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Legal research is known to take much time and effort, and access to online legal research databases can be costly. Consequently, with due consideration given to ethical concerns, law firms and other practitioners may turn to third-party legal research providers to outsource their legal research needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32732287",
"title": "Unbundled legal services",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "However, Richard Susskind in his 2008 book \"The End of Lawyers: Rethinking the Nature of Legal Services,\" argues that, as technology progresses, lawyers might have no choice but to move toward commoditization. With the emergence of do-it-yourself companies that sell blank legal documents like LegalZoom, lawyers must compete with new low-cost options. Further driving down attorney fees has been outsourcing, where attorneys educated in American law but not necessarily licensed in any state provide services to law firms at reduced rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14165555",
"title": "Barry Cohen (attorney)",
"section": "Section::::Legal methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Cohen was quoted as saying that \"defenders have to try to balance an inherent media advantage enjoyed by prosecutors.\" His history of winning cases and the large legal fees he commanded put Cohen in the position of being able to choose the cases he wants to handle, including accepting clients that cannot afford his fees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21985926",
"title": "Legal financing",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "There is some concern that, if widely adopted, litigation finance could prolong litigation and reduce the frequency of settlements of civil lawsuits. A study of civil lawsuits published in the Journal of Empirical Legal Studies found that between 80% and 92% of cases settle. The study found that most plaintiffs who decided to pass up a settlement offer and proceed to trial ended up recovering less money than if they had accepted the settlement offer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33290215",
"title": "Clifford Winston",
"section": "Section::::\"First Thing We Do, Let's Deregulate All the Lawyers\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "\"First Thing We Do, Let’s Deregulate All the Lawyers\" (Brookings Press, 2011) is the latest book from Clifford Winston, Robert W. Crandall, and Vikram Maheshri. It analyzes why legal costs are so high and proposes how they can be reduced without sacrificing the quality of legal services. They argue that deregulating entry by individuals and firms into the legal profession will inherently improve lawyers’ performance, as they contend for business in a more competitive environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ammeek
|
how can a password not containing numbers or special characters be considered weak?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unless you're using a randomly generated chain of letters, most password cracking software have functions built in to use the most commonly used words in passwords.\n\nIf you set a limit to the length of the password (say 20 characters), you go from very predictable, and easily brute-forcible using numbers, to somewhat predictable, and not impossible to brute force, using the 26 letters of the alphabet, to impossible (unless you have lots of time and a supercomputer) if you combined all 3.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In theory an attacker who doesn't know you didn't use the numbers and special characters would need to consider that they might have been used, slowing their attempts on your password. But consider that an attacker might simply only decide to go for the easy targets and just try normal characters, leaving out numbers and special characters. That wouldn't ever get into accounts of the people who included them but it would happen to break yours since you didn't.\n\nBy expanding the possible characters to include the extra numbers and special symbols it presents a task too great for an attacker to solve, and to ensure it actually *is* too hard to solve they force you to include them in your password. Otherwise the attackers just solve the problems they can and the simple passwords get broken.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My point is: why is a password like ‘gsnnssijcbdbhduehvedbvpqqqqq’ considered weak by most services while something like ‘dopeHe4d1999’ is considered strong? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4459886",
"title": "Password strength",
"section": "Section::::Password guess validation.:Human-generated passwords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "The full strength associated with using the entire ASCII character set (numerals, mixed case letters and special characters) is only achieved if each possible password is equally likely. This seems to suggest that all passwords must contain characters from each of several character classes, perhaps upper and lower case letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric characters. In fact, such a requirement is a pattern in password choice and can be expected to reduce an attacker's \"work factor\" (in Claude Shannon's terms). This is a reduction in password \"strength\". A better requirement would be to require a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228060",
"title": "Internet privacy",
"section": "Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:Other potential Internet privacy risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "BULLET::::- Use of weak passwords that are short, consist of all numbers, all lowercase or all uppercase letters, or that can be easily guessed such as single words, common phrases, a person's name, a pet's name, the name of a place, an address, a phone number, a social security number, or a birth date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "719388",
"title": "Weak key",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "In cryptography, a weak key is a key, which, used with a specific cipher, makes the cipher behave in some undesirable way. Weak keys usually represent a very small fraction of the overall keyspace, which usually means that, if one generates a random key to encrypt a message, weak keys are very unlikely to give rise to a security problem. Nevertheless, it is considered desirable for a cipher to have no weak keys. A cipher with no weak keys is said to have a \"flat\", or \"linear\", key space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4459886",
"title": "Password strength",
"section": "Section::::Guidelines for strong passwords.:Examples of weak passwords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "There are many other ways a password can be weak, corresponding to the strengths of various attack schemes; the core principle is that a password should have high entropy (usually taken to be equivalent to randomness) and \"not\" be readily derivable by any \"clever\" pattern, nor should passwords be mixed with information identifying the user. On-line services often provide a restore password function that a hacker can figure out and by doing so bypass a password. Choosing hard-to-guess restore password questions can further secure the password.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1123994",
"title": "LAN Manager",
"section": "Section::::Cryptanalysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "BULLET::::3. A 14-character password is broken into 7+7 characters and the hash is calculated for the two halves separately. This way of calculating the hash makes it exponentially easier to crack, as the attacker needs to brute force 7 characters twice instead of 14 characters. This makes the effective strength of a 14-characters password equal to only formula_1, or twice that of a 7-character password, which is significantly less complex than the formula_2 theoretical strength of a 14-character password.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5708700",
"title": "Cracking of wireless networks",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and Protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "any pattern then the password will be essentially uncrackable. Just to give an example of this, let's just take the minimum of 8 characters for WPA2 and suppose we take upper case and lower case letters, digits from 0-9 and a small selection of symbols, we can avail of a hefty choice of 64 characters. In an 8 character length password this is a grand total of 64^8 \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4459886",
"title": "Password strength",
"section": "Section::::Guidelines for strong passwords.:Examples of weak passwords.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "As with any security measure, passwords vary in effectiveness (i.e., strength); some are weaker than others. For example, the difference in weakness between a dictionary word and a word with obfuscation (i.e., letters in the password are substituted by, say, numbers — a common approach) may cost a password cracking device a few more seconds; this adds little strength. The examples below illustrate various ways weak passwords might be constructed, all of which are based on simple patterns which result in extremely low entropy, allowing them to be tested automatically at high speeds.:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hb0pv
|
How was the Soviet invasion of Poland justified in the Soviet public?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just 20 years earlier, the 'corpse of Poland' was supposed to be the road to global revolution. The defeat of the Soviet army at Warsaw in 1920 was a major setback to international socialism. Also the territories Poland took in that war, while historically a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, were populated largely by what we would call today Belarusians and Ukrainians. These groups were seen as part of a greater russian ethnicity, who were vulnerable to German atrocities due to the failure of the Polish government to protect them. This supposed intervention was the official reason cited by the soviets, though I would add that the sentiment of Poland as a historical enemy of international socialism helped as well. \n\nEdit: after rereading your question, I would like to note that the molotov-ribbentrop pact was secret, and no 'justification of it was necessary. Apologies, I initially read your question as asking about the justification for invasion, not the pact itself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51250",
"title": "Wojciech Jaruzelski",
"section": "Section::::Leader of the Polish military government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1178,
"text": "Historical evidence released under Russian President Boris Yeltsin indicates that the Soviet Union did not plan to invade Poland. In fact, Jaruzelski actually tried to persuade the Soviets to invade in order to support martial law, only to be sternly turned down. This left the Solidarity \"problem\" to be sorted out by the Polish government (see also Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981). However, the exact plans of the Soviet Union at that time have never been determined. Jaruzelski, however, justified cracking down by alleging that the threat of Soviet intervention was quite likely had he not dealt with Solidarity internally. This question, as well as many other facts about Poland in the years 1945–1989, are presently under the investigation of government historians at the Instytut Pamięci Narodowej (IPN), whose publications reveal facts from the Communist-era archives. Additionally, there are numerous confirmations from Czech army officers of the time speaking of \"Operation Krkonoše\", plan of armed invasion of Poland, because of which many units of the Czechoslovak People's Army were stationed on highest alert, ready for deployment within hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66951",
"title": "Józef Piłsudski",
"section": "Section::::Polish–Soviet War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "The Bolshevik leadership framed the Polish actions as an invasion; in response, thousands of officers and deserters joined the Red Army, and thousands of civilians volunteered for war work. The Soviets launched a counter-offensive from Belarus and counterattacked in Ukraine, advancing into Poland in a drive toward Germany to encourage the Communist Party of Germany in its struggle to take power. Soviet confidence soared. The Soviets announced their plans to invade Western Europe; Soviet communist theoretician Nikolai Bukharin, writing in \"Pravda\", hoped for the resources to carry the campaign beyond Warsaw \"straight to London and Paris\". Soviet commander Mikhail Tukhachevsky's order of the day for 2 July 1920 read: \"To the West! Over the corpse of White Poland lies the road to worldwide conflagration. March upon Vilnius, Minsk, Warsaw!\" and \"onward to Berlin over the corpse of Poland!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865825",
"title": "Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Soviet invasion of eastern Poland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "On September 17 the Soviet Union finally entered the Polish territories that had been granted to it by the secret protocol of non-aggression pact from the east. As the pretexts to justify their actions, the Soviets cited the collapse of the Second Polish Republic and they claimed that they were trying to help the Belorussian and Ukrainian people. The Soviet invasion is usually considered direct result of the pact, although the revisionist school contends that this was not the case and that the Soviet decision was taken a few weeks later. The Soviet move was denounced by Britain and France, but they did not intervene. In an exchange of captured Polish territories in compliance with the terms of the protocol, already on September 17 the Red Army and Wehrmacht held a joint military parade in Brest; occupation of the city was then transferred by Germany to the Soviet troops. In the following battles with the rest of the Second Polish Republic's army, the Soviet Union occupied the territories roughly corresponding to its sphere of interests, as defined in the secret additional protocol to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7884711",
"title": "Soviet invasion of Poland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The Soviet invasion of Poland was a military operation by the Soviet Union without a formal declaration of war. On 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, sixteen days after Germany invaded Poland from the west. Subsequent military operations lasted for the following 20 days and ended on 6 October 1939 with the two-way division and annexation of the entire territory of the Second Polish Republic by Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet invasion of Poland was secretly approved by Germany following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436605",
"title": "Red Orchestra (espionage)",
"section": "Section::::Harnack group/Schulze-Boysen.:Acts of resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The Invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, was seen as the beginning of the feared world war, but also as an opportunity to eliminate Nazi rule and to a thorough transformation of German society. Hitler's victories in France and Norway in 1940 encouraged them to expect the replacement of the Nazi regime, above all from the Soviet Union, not from Western capitalism. They believed that the Soviet Union would keep Germany as a sovereign state after its victory and that they wanted to work towards a corresponding opposition without domination by the Communist Party of Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350111",
"title": "History of Poland (1939–1945)",
"section": "Section::::German and Soviet invasions of Poland.:Soviet invasion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1357,
"text": "For the optimal \"political motivation\" (a collapse of Poland having taken place), Molotov wished to hold the Soviet intervention until the fall of Warsaw, but the city's capture by the Germans was being delayed due to its determined defense effort (until September 27). The Soviet troops marched on 17 September into Poland, which the Soviet Union claimed to be by then non-existent anyway (according to the historian Richard Overy, Poland was defeated by Germany within two weeks from 1 September). The Soviet invasion of Poland was justified by the Soviets by their own security concerns and by the need to protect the ethnically Belarusian and Ukrainian populations. The invasion was coordinated with the movement of the German army, and met limited resistance from the Polish forces. The Polish military formations available in the eastern part of the country were ordered by the high command, who were then at the Romanian border, to avoid engaging the Soviets, but some fighting between Soviet and Polish units did take place (such as the Battle of Szack fought by the Border Protection Corps). The Soviet forces moved west (to the Bug River) and south to fill the area allotted to them by the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. They took steps to block the potential Polish evacuation routes into Lithuania, Latvia, Romania and Hungary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10318619",
"title": "Northern Group of Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Soviet forces entered Poland as they were advancing towards Nazi Germany in the course of the Red Army's Operation Bagration in the summer of 1944. Following the Vistula-Oder Offensive in early 1945, all of Poland was cleared from Nazi occupation by Soviet forces. While formal Polish sovereignty was almost immediately restored, the territory of Poland fell under \"de facto\" Soviet control as the Soviet military and security forces acted to ensure that Poland would be ruled by the Soviet-installed communist puppet government of Poland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f3j1i8
|
how do broken bones knit when they aren’t completely immobile?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lot of things actually heal better this way. For example, in hip fractures, the fixation depends on the bones being slightly mobile (look up a dynamic hip screw) as this reinforces repairs along areas of stress, making the overall repaired bone stronger. \n\nInitially a haematoma will form around the site. Then fibrous, but reasonably flexible tissue will be laid down, this is called a callous. This will hold the broken parts close together. Then the bone will fill itself in within this area. Small movements aren't too much of a problem but larger movements will break the connections as they start to form.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19857818",
"title": "Mandibular fracture",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Open reduction with direct skeletal fixation allows the bones to be directly mandibulated through an incision so that the fractured ends meet, then they can be secured together either rigidly (with screws or plates and screws) or non-rigidly (with transosseous wires). There are a multitude of various plate and screw combinations including compression plates, non-compression plates, lag-screws, mini-plates and biodegradable plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9213410",
"title": "Hematoma block",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "When a bone is fractured as a result of an injury, the two fragments may be displaced relative to each other. If they are not, usually no treatment is required other than immobilisation in an appropriate cast. If displacement does occur, then the space separating the fragments fills with blood shed by the damaged blood vessels within the bone. This collection, or pool, of blood is known as a hematoma. Injection of a suitable local anesthetic by needle and syringe through the skin into this hematoma produces relief of the pain caused by the fracture, allowing the bones to be painlessly manipulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23035006",
"title": "Artificial bone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Bone fracture, which is a complete or partial break in the bone, is a very common condition that has more than three million US cases per year. Human bones have the ability to regenerate themselves by cycle of bone resorption and bone formation. The cell responsible for bone resorption is osteoclast, while the cell responsible for bone formation is osteoblast. That being said, the human body can regenerate fractured bone. However, if damage to bone is caused by a disease or severe injury, it becomes difficult for the body to repair itself. When the human body is unable to regenerate the lost bone tissue, surgeons come in and replace the missing bone using autografts, allografts, and synthetic grafts (artificial bone). When compare artificial bone to autograft and allograft, it is less invasive and more biocompatible since it avoids the risk of unknown viral infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24358244",
"title": "Child bone fracture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "On an everyday basis bones will support many kinds of forces naturally applied to them, but when the forces are too strong the bones will break. For example, when an adolescent jumps off of a trampoline and lands on his/her feet the bones and connective tissue in the adolescent's feet will usually absorb the force, flex, then return to their original shape. However, if the adolescent lands and the force is too strong, the bones and the connective tissue will not be able to support the force and will fracture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1692549",
"title": "Clavicle fracture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "A clavicle fracture, also known as a broken collarbone, is a bone fracture of the clavicle. Symptoms typically include pain at the site of the break and a decreased ability to move the affected arm. Complications can include a collection of air in the pleural space surrounding the lung (pneumothorax), injury to the nerves or blood vessels in the area, and an unpleasant appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6058",
"title": "Collagen",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Bone grafts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "As the skeleton forms the structure of the body, it is vital that it maintains its strength, even after breaks and injuries. Collagen is used in bone grafting as it has a triple helical structure, making it a very strong molecule. It is ideal for use in bones, as it does not compromise the structural integrity of the skeleton. The triple helical structure of collagen prevents it from being broken down by enzymes, it enables adhesiveness of cells and it is important for the proper assembly of the extracellular matrix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1173689",
"title": "Stress fracture",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Bones are constantly attempting to remodel and repair themselves, especially during a sport where extraordinary stress is applied to the bone. Over time, if enough stress is placed on the bone that it exhausts the capacity of the bone to remodel, a weakened site—a stress fracture—may appear on the bone. The fracture does not appear suddenly. It occurs from repeated traumas, none of which is sufficient to cause a sudden break, but which, when added together, overwhelm the osteoblasts that remodel the bone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7cddyl
|
why do bass sounds seem to travel better through walls, when high pitched sounds usually carry better over distance?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are two effects at work.\n\nThe first is the physics of it. Any material will attenuate different frequencies at differing levels. For most solid materials, low frequencies will be slightly attenuated and high frequencies massively attenuated. Through free space, both attenuate over distance but by relatively similar amounts (high frequencies still don't travel as far, but low frequencies don't have the huge advantage they do passing through solid materials). This relationship is not strictly linear, but generally low frequencies penetrate/propagate better than high ones.\n\nThe second is the biology of it. Human beings hear high frequencies (relative to our range) significantly better than we hear low frequencies. What we think of as 'balanced' levels across the frequencies are actually incredibly loud low frequencies coupled with relatively quiet high frequencies. When you evenly attenuate across the frequency spectrum, this causes low frequencies to drop into the inaudible range much more quickly than high frequencies.\n\nThe combination of these two effects is what causes the phenomenon you're experiencing. If you've got a wall, low frequencies punch right through while high frequencies are almost completely blocked. If you're simply listening to a sound through free space, distance will cause both to attenuate - but your inability to hear low frequencies well will make everything turn 'tinny'.\n\nIn terms of your apartment, the walls likely block the sound from your birds entirely while the pounding bass of your subwoofer makes their furniture shake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3247450",
"title": "Horn (acoustic)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Horn loudspeakers.:Use of the surroundings as part of the horn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Large bass speakers often take advantage of the surroundings as part of the horn. For example, they can be put in the corners of a room, so the walls act as part of the horn. Even outdoors, the ground can form part of the horn surface, and thus a partial horn can help provide a good impedance match to ground, or one or more walls, even at very low frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19888583",
"title": "Bookshelf speaker",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Finally, most home theater and many musical home audio applications, began in the late 1990s to incorporate separately-enclosed subwoofers to handle deep bass. Human perception of low-frequency sound is relatively non-directional, so a single subwoofer cabinet placed anywhere in the room (even hidden behind a sofa) is usually sufficient and may be placed anywhere. This frees up the other speakers to omit the lower end of the frequency spectrum. Without the relatively heavy, bulky, and expensive low bass drivers and their large speaker enclosures, the speakers can be made smaller.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15520448",
"title": "List of bass amplifier and loudspeaker manufacturers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "This distinction affects the design of the loudspeakers, the cabinet, and the preamplifier and amplifier. Loudspeakers for bass instruments tend to be larger and more heavy-duty, and speaker cabinets have to be built more solidly to prevent unwanted rattling due to the low frequencies. Preamplifiers and amplifiers for bass instruments often have features designed for bass instruments, such as equalizers that go down to 40 Hz or below or limiters to prevent speaker damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "816290",
"title": "Horn loudspeaker",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Public address and concert use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Concert venues often use large arrays of horn loudspeakers for high-volume bass reproduction (\"bass bins\" or subwoofers), in order to provide bass that concertgoers can not only hear but feel. Combining multiple horn loudspeakers in an array affords the same benefits as having a single horn with a greater mouth area: the low frequency cut-off extends lower as the horn mouth gets larger, and the array has the greater output power of multiple drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24471",
"title": "Phonograph",
"section": "Section::::Equalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "BULLET::::- Because bass sounds have a higher amplitude than high frequency sounds (for the same perceived loudness), the space taken in the groove by low frequency sounds needed to be large (limiting playback time per side of the record) to accommodate the bass notes, yet the high frequencies required only tiny variations in the groove, which were easily affected by noise from irregularities (wear, contaminates, etc.) in the disc itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131409",
"title": "Klipsch Audio Technologies",
"section": "Section::::Products.:The Klipschorn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Utilizing the room walls and floor boundaries as extensions of the bass horn helps extend the speaker's frequency response down into the 35 Hz range, considerably lower than would be possible otherwise. Because of the folded horn, the woofer cone moves no more than a few millimeters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196048",
"title": "Electrostatic loudspeaker",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1892,
"text": "Typical disadvantages include sensitivity to ambient humidity levels and a lack of bass response, due to phase cancellation from a lack of enclosure, but these are not shared by all designs. The bass rolloff 3db point occurs when the narrowest panel dimension equals a quarter wavelength of the radiated frequency for dipole radiators, so for a Quad ESL-63, which is 0.66 meters wide, this occurs at around 129 Hz, comparable to many box speakers (calculated with the speed of sound taken as 343 m/s). There is also the difficult physical challenge of reproducing low frequencies with a vibrating taut film with little excursion amplitude; however, as most diaphragms have a very large surface area compared to cone drivers, only small amplitude excursions are required to put relatively large amounts of energy out. While bass is lacking quantitatively (due to lower excursion than cone drivers) it can be of better quality ('tighter' and without 'booming') than that of electrodynamic (cone) systems. Phase cancellation can be somewhat compensated for by electronic equalization (a so-called shelving circuit that boosts the region inside the audio band where the generated sound pressure drops because of phase cancellation). Nevertheless \"maximum\" bass levels cannot be augmented because they are ultimately limited by the membrane's maximum permissible excursion before it comes too close to the high-voltage stators, which may produce electrical arcing and burn holes through it. Recent, technically more advanced solutions for perceived lack of bass include the use of large, curved panels (Sound-Lab, MartinLogan CLS), electrostatic subwoofer panels (Audiostatic, Quad), and long-throw electrostatic elements allowing large diaphragm excursions (Audiostatic). Another trick often practiced is to step up the bass (20–80 Hz) with a higher transformation ratio than the mid and treble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18wjvm
|
Are shades of grey actually colors that we just cannot see that part of the spectrum for?
|
[
{
"answer": "Shades of gray is a matter of intensity, not wavelength.\n \nWhite light (which is when our Red, green, blue receptors are equally stimulated), can appear anywhere from black to any shade of grey, based on how much light you are receiving.\n\nWhile the minds can be very complex, seeing multiple colors as grey or red / green color blindness and whatnot, at a fundamental level different shades of grey are not at different spots in the spectrum, they are a single point in the spectrum.\n\nIt IS however possible that we see other parts of the spectrum as gray, as the human mind is a pretty amazing thing... 2-3% of women can see into the UV:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI dont know if it shows up as gray for them, but it certainly is possible... but would still be different than normal white light that is lower intensity ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "Section::::Spectral colors and color reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "There are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral colors due to [[Saturation (color theory)|desaturation]] or because they are [[purple]]s (mixtures of red and violet light, from opposite ends of the spectrum). Some examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray, and white) and colors such as [[pink]], [[Tan (color)|tan]], and [[magenta]].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28927",
"title": "Stellar classification",
"section": "Section::::Conventional color description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "The conventional color description takes into account only the peak of the stellar spectrum. In actuality, however, stars radiate in all parts of the spectrum. Because all spectral colors combined appear white, the actual apparent colors the human eye would observe are far lighter than the conventional color descriptions would suggest. This characteristic of 'lightness' indicates that the simplified assignment of colors within the spectrum can be misleading. Excluding color-contrast illusions in dim light, there are no green, indigo, or violet stars. Red dwarfs are a deep shade of orange, and brown dwarfs do not literally appear brown, but hypothetically would appear dim grey to a nearby observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30087669",
"title": "Shades of white",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "In color theory, a \"shade\" is a pure color mixed with black (or having a lower lightness). Strictly speaking, a “shade of white” would be a neutral beige. This article is also about off-white colors that vary from pure white in hue, and in chroma (also called saturation, or intensity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42210873",
"title": "Green star (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Why stars do not look green.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1330,
"text": "The (blackbody) colors of stars are sometimes confused with the colors of the spectrum. The spectral (rainbow) colors are those on the curved part of the boundary of the diagram on the right. As can be seen, the red, orange, yellow and blue rainbow colors happen to be much the same as blackbody colors. However, stars whose peak emission is green light also emit much red and blue light, and the human visual system happens to interpret this mixture of colors as whitish rather than green. So the fact that some spectral colors appear as star colors is more a quirk of human color vision than a property of stars: if one uses an instrument such as a spectroscope that is better at distinguishing wavelengths of light, then all spectral colors look completely different from star colors. All sufficiently hot stars look about the same shade of blue (and not violet as claimed in some popular accounts). The reason for this is that at sufficiently large temperatures (above about 20,000 K) all blackbody spectra look about the same in visible light, though they can differ a lot at shorter wavelengths. Although their maximum output at visible wavelengths is at violet, they put out enough light at other wavelengths to look light blue: the color at the end of the Planckian locus rather than the color at the end of the spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32357031",
"title": "Shades of gray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Variations of gray or grey include achromatic grayscale shades, which lie exactly between white and black, and nearby colors with low colorfulness. A selection of a number of these various colors is shown below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36120567",
"title": "Shades of black",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Shades of black are colors that differ only slightly from pure black. These colors have a low lightness. From photometric point of view, a color which differs slightly from black always has low relative luminance. Variations of black include what are commonly termed off-black colors, which may be considered part of a neutral color scheme, usually in interior design as a part of a background for brighter colors. Black and dark gray colors are powerful accent colors that suggest weight, dignity, formality, and solemnity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23271819",
"title": "Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect",
"section": "Section::::Lightness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "An example of this lightness factor would be if there were different colors on a grey background that all are of the same lightness. Obviously the colors look different because they are different colors not just grey, but if the image were converted all to grey scale, all of the colors would match the grey background because they all have the same lightness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32qy6j
|
How common/effective was guerrilla warfare in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "TL;DR: Very common, and in MANY cases, EXTREMELY effective!\n\nThere were resistance movements in Greece, Yugoslavia, France, China, Indochina, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the occupied territories in the Soviet Union, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Albania, the Philippines, Indonesia; those are the ones that come to mind at the moment!\n\nAll of those movements save perhaps Czechoslovakia, Norway and Denmark were engaged in full on guerrilla warfare, often full scale battles. The Norwegian resistance engaged in important acts of sabotage, and aided in attacks on the German heavy water plant in Norway, and in attacks on the German held Svalbard Archipelago, while the Czech resistance 'iced' Reinhard Heydrich, Himmler's right hand man. \n\nThe Soviet, Yugoslav and Polish resistances amounted to small armies operating behind enemy lines, with the Yugoslav partisans especially engaging often in open warfare, while they and the soviet partisans took part openly in the liberation of their homelands. The Polish Home Army was incredibly sophisticated, taking part in the uprisings in Wilna (Vilnius) and Warsaw, while the French FFI & Maquis took part in engagements such as the brief uprising in the Vercors Massif. \n\nThe Filipino resistance forces aided the US in the liberation of the Philippines, along with the Alamo Scouts, Philippine Scouts, and US Army Rangers & Airborne. The Chinese communists under Mao made up a formidable force, although some of their exploits were embellished to say the least! Enver Hoxha's Albanian partisans, and the Greek resistance movements both took part in extensive actions against German and Italian occupation forces.\n\nI doubt I've done justice to the manifold, and incredibly brave, resistance movements that operated against the Axis, and often each other! If I've left any out, which I undoubtedly have, please, ANYONE, add more!!!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842471",
"title": "Spanish Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Course of the war.:1939.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s, gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population. In 1944, a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319088",
"title": "Low-intensity conflict",
"section": "Section::::Guerrilla warfare: the main challenge to low-intensity warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Low-intensity warfare's main opponent is the guerrilla, or irregular fighter. This opponent may be state sponsored, or private non-state actors driven by religious or other ideology in urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Modern guerrilla warfare at its fullest elaboration is an integrated process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills and propaganda capabilities. Guerrillas can operate as small, scattered bands of raiders, but they can also work side by side with regular forces or combine for far-ranging mobile operations in squad, platoon or battalion sizes or even form conventional units. Based on their level of sophistication and organization, they can shift between all those modes as the situation demands, as guerrilla warfare is flexible, not static.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634730",
"title": "History of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::19th century (1815–1914).:American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "In the late 20th century several historians have focused on the non-use of guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, there were those in the Confederate government, notably Jefferson Davis who advocated continuing the southern fight as a guerrilla conflict. He was opposed by generals such as Robert E. Lee who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were better than guerrilla warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485037",
"title": "Urban guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Theory and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Historically guerrilla warfare was a rural phenomenon, it was not until the 1960s that the limitations of this form were clearly demonstrated. The technique was almost entirely ineffective when used outside of the later colonial environment, as was shown by the Cuban sponsored efforts in Latin America during the 1960s culminating in the \"foco\" campaign headed by Che Guevara in Bolivia that culminated in his death. The need for the target government to be simultaneously incompetent, iniquitous, and politically isolated was rarely met.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634730",
"title": "History of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::19th century (1815–1914).:Philippine–American War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "At the start of the Philippine–American War, even with the recommendation of the able General Antonio Luna, guerrilla warfare strategy was viewed by the Philippine side only as a tactical option of final recourse. This led to subsequent defeat of the Filipino forces in the early stages of the war mainly due to superior American weaponry and troops. Guerrilla warfare was only used as a main strategy on November 13, 1899 which made American occupation of the Philippine archipelago all the more difficult over the next few years. This can be greatly seen by the Moro insurrection at the southern province of the Philippines wherein Moro rebels will conceal themselves in the thick Philippine jungle and will charge American troops with only bolo knives in overwhelming numbers at the opportune time. These led the American weapons manufacturers to develop the famed M1911 pistol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634688",
"title": "Strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "Section::::Guerrilla warfare as a continuum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Modern insurgencies and other types of warfare may include guerrilla warfare as part of an integrated process, complete with sophisticated doctrine, organization, specialist skills and propaganda capabilities. Guerrillas can operate as small, scattered bands of raiders, but they can also work side by side with regular forces, or combine for far ranging mobile operations in squad, platoon or battalion sizes, or even form conventional units. Based on their level of sophistication and organization, they can shift between all these modes as the situation demands. Successful guerrilla warfare is flexible, not static.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22634688",
"title": "Strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The main strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to involve the use of a small attacking, mobile force against a large, unwieldy force. The guerrilla force is largely or entirely organized in small units that are dependent on the support of the local population. Tactically, the guerrilla army makes the repetitive attacks far from the opponent's center of gravity with a view to keeping its own casualties to a minimum and imposing a constant debilitating strain on the enemy. This may provoke the enemy into a brutal, excessively destructive response which will both anger their own supporters and increase support for the guerrillas, ultimately compelling the enemy to withdraw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lbs5g
|
Does fasting make people more famine resistant?
|
[
{
"answer": "This Radiolab segment discusses the improvement of your resistance from disease if your father or grandfather is in a fasted state when they develop sperm. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I attended a presentation through university that was looking at famine conditions during pregnancy and early child hood development \none study that stood out to me was based on the Dutch famine of 1944. \n\nIt was caused by a siege and during the time food supplies were very limited. Obviously it is incredibly unethical to conduct this sort of research so there are few examples that can be studied. this famine affected millions of people and there were women who were pregnant in this time period. \n\nThe children born were studied by Dutch and British researchers who followed them through there life. It was found that these children were more prone to diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, microalbuminuria and other health problems. It was also found that this was noted in the second generation of offspring as well. \n\nThe Liggens Institute which gave the lectures also provided studied done on feast and famine conditions of mice. With a bit of searching i could not actually find a paper however here is part of the lecture material they use as part of there scholarship preparation program this is aimed at 17 year olds who are trying to gain a biology scholarship so it has been simplified somewhat but is still very informative. \n[Feast or Famine](_URL_0_)\n[Video of Lecture](_URL_2_)\n[Wikipedia article on dutch famine](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > addition, when you fast you reduce your IGF-1 (Insulin-like growth factor). IGF-1 is what promotes cell division, muscle production, and so on.\n\nif ig-1 promotes cell devision and muscle production, would that mean that reducing your igf-1 is bad thing?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Exercise in a fasted state causes positive adaptations in your body that enable better performance while in an un-fed state (or a fed state even...). If I can be liberal with my interpretation of what you mean by \"famine resistant\" by saying it makes you body more albe to provide for itself in a competitive environment then yes.\n\nFasted training improves glycogen storage significantly more than fed training. It improves glucose synthesis. It improves VO2 max. All these things could make your body more able to compete for food in a difficult environment.\n\nIt's not a stretch to say that these effects extend to those that are active while fasted and not just those that are performing LISS exercise while fasted.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I will do my best to answer your questions specifically, OP.\n\nThere have been no reputable large scale studies of fasting vs. non-fasting groups having been imbued with famine resistance. \n\nUsually, when you're looking at fasting groups vs non-fasting groups, there is more than just this one thing dividing them. A great example is the potato famine in Ireland. The famine was partially caused by potato crop failure, mostly caused by the economic policy of the British at the time. Ireland was exporting food at the time. So, the Brits had plenty. This is an example of close neighbors being under vastly different circumstances.\n\nAs far as the radiolab article that people are talking about, there are a few things that are wrong with using this study for this purpose. \n\n1.) They hypothesize an epigenetic factor, but do not study what that factor may be, so do not prove its existence.\n\n2.) Other, more readily available explanations are available. For example, if your grandad had genes that conferred a disease resistance upon him, he would therefore benefit during famine, when disease strikes the starving. No epigenetic factor at play here.\n\n3.) This \"winnowing event\" would reduce the number of disease susceptible males in the population, but nothing is mentioned about the females. Maybe they were given larger portions of food than their male counterparts due to cultural reasons?\n\n4.) The town would go through famine, which is not the same as fasting. Famine is an extended period of time of very low nutritional intake. Fasting is a very short period of time (no more than 72 hours) of no nutritional intake.\n\nFor these reasons, I do not think the radiolab article is a good fit for your question. (although I thought it was interesting) As far as your other questions go, I bet that fasting would prepare an individual for the psychological aspects of starving (initially), but would confer no famine resistance. I also bet that generations of families going through cycles of famine and plenty would confer famine resistance, but only if done in a controlled manner. (and allowing the weak to die, regardless of supply)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "187886",
"title": "Fasting",
"section": "Section::::Political application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Fasting is often used as a tool to make a political statement, to protest, or to bring awareness to a cause. A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt, or to achieve a goal such as a policy change. A \"spiritual fast\" incorporates personal spiritual beliefs with the desire to express personal principles, sometimes in the context of a social injustice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22299625",
"title": "Orthopathy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Medical experts consider natural hygiene practices such as anti-vaccination, fasting and food combining to be quackery. There is no scientific evidence that prolonged fasting provides any significant health benefits. A prolonged fast may cause \"anemia, impairment of liver function, kidney stones, postural hypotension, mineral imbalances, and other undesirable side effects.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8460",
"title": "Dieting",
"section": "Section::::Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Fasting is when there is a long time interval between the meals. In dieting, fasting is not recommended, instead, having small portions of food after small intervals is encouraged . Lengthy fasting can also be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition and should be carried out only under medical supervision. During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores. Once glycogen is depleted the body begins to fuel the brain using ketones, while also metabolizing body protein (including but not limited to skeletal muscle) to be used to synthesize sugars for use as energy by the rest of the body. Most experts believe that a prolonged fast can lead to muscle wasting, although some dispute this. The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent this issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5040",
"title": "Inedia",
"section": "Section::::Scientific assessment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Documented studies on the physiological effects of food restriction clearly show that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20104879",
"title": "Intermittent fasting",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Understanding the potential adverse effects of intermittent fasting is limited by an inadequate number of rigorous clinical trials. One 2015 review of preliminary clinical studies found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of weakness and hunger, headaches, fainting, or dehydration. Long-term, periodic fasting may cause eating disorders or malnutrition, with increased susceptibility to infectious diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2035419",
"title": "Islamic holidays",
"section": "Section::::Religious practices.:Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The act of fasting represents the condition experienced by the needy, who although already hungry must also fast for Ramadan. Muslims fast by denying themselves food, water and all related sexual activity with their spouses, but people with chronic diseases or unhealthy conditions such as diabetes, and children are exempt from fasting. Travelers, and women who are menstruating or nursing a baby, are exempt from fasting as well during their special situation but are required to fast later. A person's observance of fasting can be for naught if religiously forbidden acts are made, such as Ghibah (backbiting others) and deceiving others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252866",
"title": "Altered state of consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Induction methods.:Pathologies/other.:Fasting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Coupled with deprivation of sleep and oxygen, another form of deprivation includes fasting. Fasting can occur because of religious purposes or from psychological conditions such as anorexia. Fasting refers to the ability to willingly refrain from food and possibly drinks as well. The dissociation caused by fasting is not only life-threatening but it is the reason why extended fasting periods can lead to ASC. Thus, the temporary dissociation from reality allows fasting to fall into the category of an ASC following the definition provided by Dr. Avner (2006).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wls51
|
What precisely was a "fashionable regiment?"
|
[
{
"answer": "The fashionable part was more for officers than the actual soldiers. Finding a good regiment or unit usually had to do with the location of their deployment, the favor of the commanding officer with the higher ups, the amount of action they saw, and sometimes where they had been mustered or who was in them. This was the case for most armies and navies of the time. An example would be a British nobleman who had recently purchased his lieutenancy trying to find a unit headed for India. He would want to go there because it would be a good place to gain experience against relatively under-equipped opponents, he would be able to make good connections with other officers and with executives in the various Trading Companies, the wars were generally very profitable so attracted the attention of the press and other officers , and a man could generally gather some manner of loot in the battles. A place where he wouldn't want to be deployed would be in a unit being sent to a Caribbean island where most of the soldiers died of various diseases and fevers from the climate. Since you had to buy your place and advancement in the armies of England in that time, the richer people were usually able to secure the best placements because of family connections. Another possibility for a British officer would be to try to find a position in a militia unit. These units got to look the best, parade around for the big cheeses and make good impressions on the lords and ladies without ever needing to leave their mustering grounds. This would change over time as militia units began to be deployed in wars overseas. \n\nThese are just examples for the British army but other armies were similar. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "71349",
"title": "Grenadier",
"section": "Section::::Elite status in the 18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Whether for reasons of appearance or reputation, grenadiers tended to be the showpiece troops of their respective armies. In the Spanish Army of the early 19th century, for example, grenadier companies were excused routine duties such as town patrols but were expected to provide guards at the headquarters and residences of senior officers. When a regiment was in line formation the grenadiers were always the company which formed on the right flank. In the British Army, when Trooping the Colour, \"The British Grenadiers\" march is played no matter which regiment is on the parade ground, as the colour party stands at the right-hand end of the line, as every regiment formerly had a company of grenadiers at the right of their formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21669267",
"title": "Régiment du Roi",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Régiment du Roi (\"King's Regiment\") was a name given to several of the most prestigious regiments of the French Army under the ancien Régime and Bourbon Restoration, with most of the Army's branches having a régiment du Roi. It is not to be confused with the term régiment royal (meaning a regiment belonging to the king as opposed to régiments de gentilhomme belonging to nobles)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28305979",
"title": "1st (Emperor Alexander) Guards Grenadiers",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "The regiment's tradition dated back to 1626, when Elector George William of Brandenburg had a standing mercenary unit established during the Thirty Years' War, in order to defend the borders of his margraviate. The 1st Grenadier regiment was formed after the Napoleonic Wars of Liberation on 14 October 1814 by order of King Frederick William III of Prussia and was named in honour of Tsar Alexander I of Russia, who was also its first colonel-in-chief. Parts of the formation had distinguished themselves in the 1807 Siege of Kolberg, most of its officers had been decorated with the Iron Cross or the order \"Pour le Mérite\". The regiment was elevated to the rank of a royal guard on 18 February 1820.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166653",
"title": "Regiment",
"section": "Section::::Historical origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "The French term \"régiment\" is considered to have entered military usage in Europe at the end of the 16th century, when armies evolved from collections of retinues who followed knights, to formally organised, permanent military forces. At that time, regiments were usually named after their commanding colonels, and disbanded at the end of the campaign or war; the colonel and his regiment might recruit from and serve several monarchs or countries. Later, it was customary to name the regiment by its precedence in the line of battle, and to recruit from specific places, called cantons. The oldest regiments which still exist, and their dates of establishment, include the Spanish 9th Infantry Regiment “Soria” (originally the \"Tercio de Nápoles\") (1505), Swedish Life Guards (1521), the British Honourable Artillery Company (1537) and the King's Own Immemorial Regiment of Spain, first established in 1248 during the conquest of Seville by King Ferdinand the Saint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17796176",
"title": "Horse Grenadier Guards",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Grenadiers, soldiers specially trained to carry and use hand grenades, first appeared in the British Army in 1677. Particularly tall and strong soldiers were usually picked to become grenadiers, because of the weight of extra equipment that they carried. Their use became general in the British Army in 1678, when a company from each infantry regiment was picked and trained as grenadiers. It was at this time that the horse grenadiers were first raised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308084",
"title": "Grande Armée",
"section": "Section::::Forces of the Grande Armée.:Infantry.:Line Infantry.:Grenadiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Regulations required that Grenadiers recruits were to be the tallest, most fearsome men in the regiments, and all were to have moustaches. To add to this, Grenadiers were initially equipped with a \"bonnet à poil\" or bearskin, as well as red epaulettes on their coat. After 1807 regulations stipulated that line Grenadiers were to replace their bearskin with a shako lined red with a red plume; however, many chose to retain their bearskins. In addition to the standard Charleville model 1777 and bayonet, Grenadiers were also equipped with a short sabre. This was to be used for close combat, but most often ended up serving as a tool to cut wood for campfires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410259",
"title": "Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)",
"section": "Section::::Cavalry regiments.:Guards of Honour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The Guards of Honour (\"Régiment de Garde d'Honneur\") were four regiments of light cavalry which Napoleon created in 1813 for his campaigns in Germany to reinforce his Guard cavalry decimated in Russia. The regiments were dressed in the fashion of the hussars. They served alongside the other Guard cavalry, but were not technically part of the Old, Middle or Young Guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cfqsm
|
how does someone who knows absolutely nothing about cars go about choosing a secondhand car?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because you're looking at potentially putting a lot of money into something that's going to need to be reliable for you, I would seriously recommend finding a friend who does know about cars, and take them with you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Give each of the following traits a 1-5 score based on how important they are to you: Performance (in the sporty sense of the word), fuel economy, storage and carrying space, roominess, and reliability. Be realistic, if you want a car that is all 5's, you are going to spend a lot. Also write down your price range, and any preferences you have ($4000-8000, preferably green, not a truck, must have a sun roof, etc). Get a copy of the consumer reports used car edition they release each year, and look through it for cars that line up with what you wrote down. Get a friend who knows cars to help. Toyota and Honda will generally always be good bets. The German cars are usually very nice cars but may need more maintenance. Most other Japanese car brands will be good too but look and see. Of the American brands, Ford is probably the best bet, then GM. Stay away from Chrysler/Dodge except for a few very specific vehicles.\n\nMake a list of 5-10 cars that match your needs well. If your price range is in the $8000-15000 range or so, you can look at car dealers, as most of them also deal in used cars. Sometimes they will have cheaper cars too. There are several websites that will conglomerate car listings, check those out. And keep an eye out on craigslist. Don't just look in your city, look around anywhere within a 2 hours drive or so, or more even. The gas money you spend driving there should be more than offset by the benefits of getting a great car for you. \n\nLook at a few different cars, and test drive them all. Watch out for high mileage cars, you are more likely to run into a lot of maintenance. Take them to a trusted mechanic (arrange this beforehand) for an inspection. It may cost a bit, but if you don't do it it can bite you in the ass. The dealer should be okay with this, if they aren't then forget about buying from them. Oh and bring your car knowledgeable friend along too. As for negotiating a price, I am going to leave that up for you to find out. There are tons of guides online, and I am not going to try to cover all of that. Good luck",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have someone who knows how come along with you. Your biggest trouble spots are the engine itself and the transmission. As long as both of those are in decent shape, most other stuff is relatively minor to fix in a financial sense. IE, it costs a lot less to replace a radiator than a transmission.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6455963",
"title": "Life as a BlackMan",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Cars also make a difference, and a player must choose their ride wisely. Options include the SUV, Used Car, Bucket, or even no car at all. Choosing no car is risky because public transportation is unreliable and one needs a car to get around in Downtown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13051518",
"title": "Analytic network process",
"section": "Section::::Hierarchy vs. network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "To illustrate this, consider a simple decision about buying an automobile. The decision maker may want to decide among several moderately-priced full-size sedans. He might choose to base his decision on only three factors: purchase price, safety, and comfort. Both the AHP and ANP would provide useful frameworks to use in making his decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28299520",
"title": "Rank reversals in decision-making",
"section": "Section::::Are rank reversals always undesirable?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Consider a simple example of buying a car. Suppose that there are two cars available to the decision maker: Car A and Car B. Car A is much cheaper than Car B but its overall quality is much less when compared to that for Car B. On the other hand, Car B is more expensive than Car A but it is also of better quality. A decision maker who is concerned of the high price issue, may choose Car A over the better quality and more expensive Car B. Next suppose that the car dealer presents to the decision maker a third car, say Car C, which is way more expensive than Car B but now the overall quality of Car C is marginally higher than that of Car B. Under such a scenario, it is quite possible for a decision maker to alter his/her opinion and purchase Car B instead of Car A, even if he/she has not actually seen Car C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42904206",
"title": "Ap Dijksterhuis",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Unconscious Thought Theory (UTT) (2002–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "In a 2006 paper, Dijksterhuis and colleagues did multiple studies looking at making the best choices. In the first study, participants were shown 4 (simple) or 12 (complex) attributes, randomized one at a time, about four fake cars. The attributes were either positive or negative. Two of the cars had equal numbers of positive and negative attributes, one was presented with 75% positive attributes, and the other 25%. After the attributes were shown participants were told they would have to pick the best car. Half the participants were allowed to think about the cars for 4 minutes (conscious thought condition) the other half were distracted for those 4 minutes solving anagrams (unconscious thought condition). After the 4 minutes everyone chose the best car and participants in the simple condition made better decisions in the conscious thought condition, but unconscious thought led to better decisions in the complex condition. Other studies are presented in the article applying this same design to the real world decisions (e.g. department store vs a furniture store).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13064673",
"title": "Emotions in decision-making",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "BULLET::::- Decision-makers who were made to consider safety concerns that induced negative emotions when deciding which car to purchase, were more likely to \"choose not to choose,\" or to stick with the status quo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040741",
"title": "Moral psychology",
"section": "Section::::Intersections with other fields.:Robotics and artificial intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "At the intersection of moral psychology and machine ethics, researchers have begun to study people's views regarding the potentially ethically significant decisions that will be made by self-driving cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33275126",
"title": "The Game of Life (game show)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Round 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Each team takes a turn \"driving\" the Game of Life car through a Life adventure of their choice. (The car actually faces a green screen animation, and can be shaken in various ways to simulate turns, bumps, and jumps in the \"road\".) After choosing one of the two adventures, the team faces a series of 50/50 questions at the forks in the road. The driver turns the wheel toward the fork they feel is the correct answer. Correct answers earn \"Life points\", while wrong answers stop the car for 5 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3izrx1
|
the difference between homo sapiens and homo sapiens sapiens?
|
[
{
"answer": " Homo Sapiens is what species we are. Homo Sapiens Sapiens is a subspecies - it's used to mean \"anatomically modern Homo sapiens\", ie people who's bodies look like ours. \n\nThe subspecies H. Sapiens Sapiens, ie us, differentiates us from H. Sapiens Idaltu, arguably our direct ancestor. \n\nNote that in this hierarchy, Neanderthals are a separate species of Homo, specifically H. neanderthalensis, and they died off. Homo Sapiens are the only surviving species of the Homo genus.\n\nIn my view, differentiating between h. sapiens and h. s. sapiens makes the question pretty poor, as it's comparing species to subspecies, but h. s. s. is the *most* correct, so unfortunately you cannot prove your teacher wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way it was explained to me in my college Anthropology class, Homo Sapiens means roughly \"thinking man\", while H.S.S. means roughly \"man who thinks about thinking\". The degree of difference being that as the question your teacher posed alludes to, h.s.s. is capable of symbolic thought whereas h.s. is not believed to have possessed this capability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27298083",
"title": "Neanderthal",
"section": "Section::::Name and classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The question depends on the definition of \"Homo sapiens\" as a chronospecies, which has also been in flux throughout the 20th century. Authorities preferring classification of Neanderthals as subspecies have introduced the subspecies name \"Homo sapiens sapiens\" for the anatomically modern Cro-Magnon population which lived in Europe at the same time as Neanderthals, while authorities preferring classification as separate species use \"Homo sapiens\" as equivalent to \"anatomically modern humans\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The species binomial \"\"Homo sapiens\"\" was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work \"Systema Naturae\". The generic name \"\"Homo\"\" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin ' \"man,\" ultimately \"earthly being\" (Old Latin ' a cognate to Old English ' \"man\", from PIE ', meaning \"earth\" or \"ground\"). The species-name \"\"sapiens\"\" means \"wise\" or \"sapient\". Note that the Latin word \"homo\" refers to humans of either gender, and that \"\"sapiens\"\" is the singular form (while there is no such word as \"\"sapien\"\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3097571",
"title": "Human taxonomy",
"section": "Section::::Species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "At least a dozen species of \"Homo\" other than \"Homo sapiens\" have been proposed, with varying degrees of consensus. \"Homo erectus\" is widely recognized as the species directly ancestral to \"Homo sapiens\". Most other proposed species are proposed as alternatively belonging to either \"Homo erectus\" or \"Homo sapiens\" as a subspecies. This concerns \"Homo ergaster\" in particular. One proposal divides \"Homo erectus\" into an African and an Asian variety; the African is \"Homo ergaster,\" and the Asian is \"Homo erectus sensu stricto.\" (Inclusion of \"Homo ergaster\" with Asian \"Homo erectus\" is \"Homo erectus sensu lato.\") There appears to be a recent trend, with the availability of ever more difficult-to-classify fossils such as the Dmanisi skulls (2013) or \"Homo naledi\" fossils (2015) to subsume all archaic varieties under \"Homo erectus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99645",
"title": "Homo sapiens",
"section": "Section::::Name and taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The subspecies name \"H. sapiens sapiens\" is sometimes used informally instead of \"modern humans\" or \"anatomically modern humans\". It has no formal authority associated with it. By the early 2000s, it had become common to use \"H. s. sapiens\" for the ancestral population of all contemporary humans, and as such it is equivalent to the binomial \"H. sapiens\" in the more restrictive sense (considering \"H. neanderthalensis\" a separate species).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "442638",
"title": "Homo heidelbergensis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "\"Homo sapiens\" has been proposed as derived from \"H. heidelbergensis\" via \"Homo rhodesiensis\", present in East and North Africa from around 400,000 years ago. The correct assignment of many fossils to a particular chronospecies is difficult and often differences in opinion ensue among paleoanthropologists due to the absence of universally accepted dividing lines (autapomorphies) between \"Homo erectus\", \"Homo heidelbergensis\", \"Homo rhodesiensis\" and Neanderthals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of genus \"Homo\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "\"Homo sapiens\" is the only extant species of its genus, \"Homo\". While some (extinct) \"Homo\" species might have been ancestors of \"Homo sapiens\", many, perhaps most, were likely \"cousins\", having speciated away from the ancestral hominin line. There is yet no consensus as to which of these groups should be considered a separate species and which should be a subspecies; this may be due to the dearth of fossils or to the slight differences used to classify species in the genus \"Homo\". The Sahara pump theory (describing an occasionally passable \"wet\" Sahara desert) provides one possible explanation of the early variation in the genus \"Homo\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3222831",
"title": "Archaic humans",
"section": "Section::::Terminology and definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "The category archaic human lacks a single, agreed upon definition. According to one definition, \"Homo sapiens\" is a single species comprising several subspecies that include the archaics and modern humans. Under this definition, modern humans are referred to as \"Homo sapiens sapiens\" and archaics are also designated with the prefix \"\"Homo\" \"sapiens\"\". For example, the Neanderthals are \"Homo sapiens neanderthalensis\", and \"Homo heidelbergensis\" is \"Homo sapiens heidelbergensis\". Other taxonomists prefer not to consider archaics and modern humans as a single species but as several different species. In this case the standard taxonomy is used, i.e. \"Homo rhodesiensis\", or \"Homo neanderthalensis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fn5ru
|
Franco-Prussian War, any experts around?
|
[
{
"answer": "/r/Genealogy might be useful for you?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "885795",
"title": "Modern history",
"section": "Section::::Late modern period.:European dominance and the 19th century.:French governments and conflicts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 186,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 186,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35835705",
"title": "Outline of the history of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Great powers and the First World War: 1870–1918.:Europe: 1870–1914.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Franco-Prussian War – The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44035",
"title": "Franco-Prussian War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Effects on military thought.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 1103,
"text": "The events of the Franco-Prussian War had great influence on military thinking over the next forty years. Lessons drawn from the war included the need for a general staff system, the scale and duration of future wars and the tactical use of artillery and cavalry. The bold use of artillery by the Prussians, to silence French guns at long range and then to directly support infantry attacks at close range, proved to be superior to the defensive doctrine employed by French gunners. The Prussian tactics were adopted by European armies by 1914, exemplified in the French 75, an artillery piece optimised to provide direct fire support to advancing infantry. Most European armies ignored the evidence of the Russo-Japanese War of which suggested that infantry armed with new smokeless-powder rifles could engage gun crews effectively. This forced gunners to fire at longer range using indirect fire, usually from a position of cover. The heavy use of fortifications and dugouts in the Russo-Japanese war also greatly undermined the usefulness of Field Artillery which was not designed for indirect fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44035",
"title": "Franco-Prussian War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War (, ), often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and later the Third French Republic, and the German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1871, the conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. Some historians argue that the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on Prussia in order to draw the independent southern German states—Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt—into an alliance with the North German Confederation dominated by Prussia, while others contend that Bismarck did not plan anything and merely exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. None, however, dispute the fact that Bismarck must have recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46189293",
"title": "Historical examples of flanking maneuvers",
"section": "Section::::Franco-Prussian War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The Franco-Prussian War was marked by two devastating encirclements by the Prussian Army of the French. Although a spirited resistance movement continued in France for some time, these effectively ended large scale fighting for the rest of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44035",
"title": "Franco-Prussian War",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are strongly rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and formed the North German Confederation. This new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon III, then the emperor of France, demanded compensations in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine to secure France's strategic position, which the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, flatly refused. Prussia then turned its attention towards the south of Germany, where it sought to incorporate the southern German kingdoms, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, into a unified Prussia-dominated Germany. France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, which would have significantly strengthened the Prussian military.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130803",
"title": "Victory disease",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "BULLET::::- The first six weeks of the Franco-Prussian War saw French armies, convinced of their superiority following French victories in the Crimean War and the wars of Italian unification, enter a war with Prussia believing that their weapons and tactics would easily defeat the Prussians. However, the Prussians had better weapons and tactics, and this led to catastrophic French defeats at Sedan and Metz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dbnmu
|
given the gigantic size of its military, why can't the us impose its will on every country?
|
[
{
"answer": "While we could do that to every country individually. We would piss off the world more then we already do. And we cant face the entire world.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Having a large military force is not enough, while most countries could not hope to beat the US in a straight battle. Imposing your will on a country requires more than that. In many parts of the world guerilla tactics have been used against an occupying power, to overcome these requires a vast amount of manpower as the Germans found out in WWII.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In order to impose your will upon a country using military force, you'd have to be willing to kill anyone that resists. The US (and most countries, really) is generally loath to do this unless it can pass off some sort of defensive justification.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It would completely destroy their economy.\n\nIf you're talking about invasion, it's one thing to perform a military action, it's entirely another thing to hold on to the results of that military action through a continued policing presence. That's VERY VERY expensive.\n\nAnd even if you just impose your will on other independent people through threat without actual military action, they are not going to buy your exports and are not going to import to your country, and they will sabotage you when they can get away with it. So your economy, which funds your military unless you want to drive your country into bankruptcy or simply conquer everyone else and steal their stuff or take slaves, moves to a standstill. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The cynical answer is because it is much easier to let our economy do that, and just use our military to protect the soft targets that the economy needs to function (see the [Straight of Hormuz](_URL_0_)).\n\nAlso, we don't have nearly a strong enough military to forcibly occupy every nation on Earth and impose our will, especially given the existence of nuclear weapons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22105084",
"title": "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics",
"section": "Section::::Main arguments.:State strategies for survival.:Objective 2 – Maximum wealth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Great powers seek to maximize their share of the world's wealth because economic strength is the foundation of military strength. Great powers seek to prevent rival powers from dominating wealth-producing regions of the world. The United States, for example, sought to prevent the Soviet Union from dominating Western Europe and the Middle East. Had the Soviets gained control of these areas, the balance of power would have been altered significantly against the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22105084",
"title": "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics",
"section": "Section::::Main arguments.:Primacy of land power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "A state's power in international politics, Mearsheimer argues, derives from the strength of its military for two reasons: because land force is the dominant military power in the modern era, and because large bodies of water limit the power projection capabilities of land armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372836",
"title": "Great power",
"section": "Section::::History.:Aftermath of the Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to \"their political and economic dominance of the global arena\". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only state entities to have met the conditions to be considered \"Nuclear Weapons States\" under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what precisely defines a great power. For example, sources have at times referred to China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom as middle powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22105084",
"title": "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics",
"section": "Section::::Main arguments.:State strategies for survival.:Objective 1 – Regional hegemony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "In addition to their principal goal, which is survival, great powers seek to achieve three main objectives. Their highest aim is to achieve regional hegemony. Mearsheimer argues although achieving global hegemony would provide maximum security to a state, it is not feasible because the world has too many oceans which inhibit the projection of military power. Thus, the difficulty of projecting military power across large bodies of water makes it impossible for great powers to dominate the world. Regional hegemons try strongly to prevent other states from achieving regional hegemony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215140",
"title": "American imperialism",
"section": "Section::::Benevolent imperialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "International relations scholar Joseph Nye argues that U.S. power is more and more based on \"soft power\", which comes from cultural hegemony rather than raw military or economic force. This includes such factors as the widespread desire to emigrate to the United States, the prestige and corresponding high proportion of foreign students at U.S. universities, and the spread of U.S. styles of popular music and cinema. Mass immigration into America may justify this theory, but it is hard to know for sure whether the United States would still maintain its prestige without its military and economic superiority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2451129",
"title": "The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:The United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The United States has the typical problems of a great power, which include balancing guns and butter and investments for economic growth. The U.S.' growing military commitment to every continent (other than Antarctica) and the growing cost of military hardware severely limit available options. Kennedy compares the U.S.' situation to Great Britain's prior to World War I. He comments that the map of U.S. bases is similar to Great Britain's before World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1421461",
"title": "Nicholas J. Spykman",
"section": "Section::::Quotations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"There are not many instances in history which show great and powerful states creating alliances and organizations to limit their own strength. States are always engaged in curbing the force of some other state. The truth of the matter is that states are interested only in a balance which is in their favor. Not an equilibrium, but a generous margin is their objective. There is no real security in being just as strong as a potential enemy; there is security only in being a little stronger. There is no possibility of action if one's strength is fully checked; there is a chance for a positive foreign policy only if there is a margin of force which can be freely used. Whatever the theory and rationalization, the practical objective is the constant improvement of the state's own relative power position. The balance desired is the one which neutralizes other states, leaving the home state free to be the deciding force and the deciding voice.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5bxzny
|
if the average human hearing is 20hz to 20khz, why do they sell headphones with higher ranges, like 30khz?
|
[
{
"answer": "To get better results at 20KHz. The rules on this subreddit are forcing me to elaborate, but this is the simplest answer. Speakers with a 'response' from 20Hz to 20kHz cannot have a nice linear response (same output power for same input level, which is what you want for accurate reproduction of sound) across that range of frequencies, and then immediately drop to no output at all at 19Hz and 20,001Hz. On headphones marked as 20Hz-30KHz the audible range from 20Hz-20kHz can be made lovely and linear, with increasingly poor response between 16Hz-20Hz and 20kHz-31kHz, and worse response still outside that range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because if you want a car that goes easily with 200km/h you buy a car that has a top speed (on board) of 300 km/h.\n\nIf you have a car that has a max speed of 200km/h don't expect to reach that speed as easily as lower speeds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046687",
"title": "Equal-loudness contour",
"section": "Section::::Experimental determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from about 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20,000 Hz, although the upper hearing limit decreases with age. Within this range, the human ear is most sensitive between 2 and 5 kHz, largely due to the resonance of the ear canal and the transfer function of the ossicles of the middle ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246329",
"title": "Hearing range",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea. Humans are most sensitive to (i.e. able to discern at lowest intensity) frequencies between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz. Individual hearing range varies according to the general condition of a human's ears and nervous system. The range shrinks during life, usually beginning at around age of eight with the upper frequency limit being reduced. Women typically experience a lesser degree of hearing loss than men, with a later onset. Men have approximately 5 to 10 dB greater loss in the upper frequencies by age 40.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5367064",
"title": "PULHES Factor",
"section": "Section::::Specific definitions used by the military.:H. Hearing (ears).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "2 – Audiometer average level for each ear at 500, 1000, 2000 Hz, or not more than 30 dB, with no individual level greater than 35 dB at these frequencies, and level not more than 55 dB at 4000 Hz; or audiometer level 30 dB at 500 Hz, 25 dB at 1000 and 2000 Hz, and 35 dB at 4000 Hz in better ear. (Poorer ear may be deaf.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246329",
"title": "Hearing range",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Audiograms of human hearing are produced using an audiometer, which presents different frequencies to the subject, usually over calibrated headphones, at specified levels. The levels are weighted with frequency relative to a standard graph known as the minimum audibility curve, which is intended to represent \"normal\" hearing. The threshold of hearing is set at around 0 phon on the equal-loudness contours (i.e. 20 micropascals, approximately the quietest sound a young healthy human can detect), but is standardised in an ANSI standard to 1 kHz. Standards using different reference levels, give rise to differences in audiograms. The ASA-1951 standard, for example, used a level of 16.5 dB SPL (sound pressure level) at 1 kHz, whereas the later ANSI-1969/ISO-1963 standard uses , with a 10 dB correction applied for older people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3324864",
"title": "The Mosquito",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The newest version of the device, launched late in 2008, has two frequency settings, one of approximately 17.4 kHz that can generally be heard only by young people, and another at 8 kHz that can be heard by most people. The maximum potential output sound pressure level is stated by the manufacturer to be 108 decibels (dB), and the manufacturer's product specification furthermore states that the sound can typically be heard by people below 25 years of age. The ability to hear high frequencies deteriorates in most humans with age (a condition known as presbycusis), typically observable by the age of 18.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8410",
"title": "Decibel",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Acoustics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all sound frequencies, noise levels at maximum human sensitivity, somewhere between 2 and 4 kHz, are factored more heavily into some measurements using frequency weighting. (See also Stevens' power law.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46348501",
"title": "Evolution of the cochlea",
"section": "Section::::Comparative anatomy.:Neanderthals to modern humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Human beings, along with Apes, are the only mammals that do not have high frequency (32 kHz) hearing. Humans have long cochleae, but the space devoted to each frequency range is quite large (2.5mm per octave), resulting in a comparatively reduced upper frequency limit. The human cochlea has approximately 2.5 turns around the modiolus (the axis). Humans, like many mammals and birds, are able to perceive auditory signals that displace the eardrum by a mere picometre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a4tjzt
|
why are other video hosting sites not as used/popular as youtube?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here is a [video](_URL_0_) that goes into the problems start up video sharing websites run into. Their audiences end up being the very same people that drive everyone else away. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Popular among whom? In Japan, _URL_1_ is far more popular. For some *specific* vids, _URL_0_ is more popular as it usually cares about copyright far less than YT, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6249816",
"title": "List of video hosting services",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Video hosting services are platforms which allow users to upload, share videos or live stream their own videos to the Internet. These can either be for the general public to watch, or particular users on a shared network. The most popular video hosting website is YouTube, with 1.8 billion logged-in users per month and the most extensive catalog of online videos. There are some countries in the world which place restrictions on YouTube, so some of these respective countries have their own regional video sharing websites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41273427",
"title": "Online video platform",
"section": "Section::::Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "In the 2010s, with the increasing prevalence of technology and the Internet in everyday life, video hosting services serve as a portal to different forms of entertainment (comedy, shows, games, or music), news, documentaries and educational videos. Content may be either both user-generated, amateur clips or commercial products. The entertainment industry uses this medium to release music and videos, movies and television shows directly to the public. Since many users do not have unlimited web space, either as a paid service, or through an ISP offering, video hosting services are becoming increasingly popular, especially with the explosion in popularity of blogs, internet forums and other interactive pages. The mass market for camera phones and smartphones has increased the supply of user-generated video. Traditional methods of personal video distribution, such as making a DVD to show to friends at home, are unsuited to the low resolution and high volume of camera phone clips. In contrast, current broadband Internet connections are well suited to serving the quality of video shot on mobile phones. Most people do not own web servers, and this has created demand for user-generated video content hosting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4192777",
"title": "History of the World Wide Web",
"section": "Section::::2002–present: The Web becomes ubiquitous.:Web 2.0.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41273427",
"title": "Online video platform",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Before YouTube changed the way videos were hosted on the web, the first Internet video hosting site was shareyourworld.com. Just like the modern hosting services, it allowed users to upload clips or full videos in different file formats. It was founded in 1997 by Chase Norlin and it ran till 2001 where it closed due to budget and bandwidth problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6048839",
"title": "Internet video",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "There are several online video hosting services, including YouTube, as well as Vimeo, Twitch, and Youku. In recent years, the platform of internet video has been used to stream live events. As a result of the popularity of online video, notable events like the 2012 U.S. presidential debates have been streamed live on the internet. Additionally, internet video has played an important role in the music industry as a medium to watch music videos and gain popularity for songs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520208",
"title": "Google Video",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Google Video was a free video hosting service from Google, similar to YouTube, that allowed video clips to be hosted on Google servers and embedded on to other websites. This allowed websites to host lots of video remotely without running into bandwidth or storage-capacity issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40505955",
"title": "Viral phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Viral videos.:YouTube effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1365,
"text": "With the creation of YouTube, a video sharing website, there has been a huge surge in the number of viral videos on the Internet. This is primarily due to the ease of access to these videos and the ease of sharing them via social media websites. The ability to share videos from one person to another with ease means there are many cases of 'overnight' viral videos. \"YouTube, which makes it easy to embed its content elsewhere) have the freedom and mobility once ascribed to papyrus, enabling their rapid circulation across a range of social networks.\" YouTube has overtaken television in terms of the size of audience. As one example, \"American Idol\" was the most viewable TV show in 2009 in U.S. while \"a video of Scottish woman Susan Boyle auditioning for \"Britain's Got Talent\" with her singing was viewed more than 77 million times on YouTube\". The capacity to attract an enormous audience on a user-friendly platform is one the leading factor why YouTube generates viral videos. YouTube contribute to viral phenomenon spreadability since the idea of the platform is based on sharing and contribution. \"Sites such as YouTube, eBay, Facebook, Flickr, Craigslist, and Wikipedia, only exist and have value because people use and contribute to them, and they are clearly better the more people are using and contributing to them. This is the essence of Web 2.0.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9q3jkq
|
How do lakes deep underground maintain an ecosystem with no energy input from the Sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "Underground aquifers could support primitive microbial life-forms if they were adapted to living off the minerals, and hydrogen seeping into the water from the surrounding rock. They may also adapt similarly to deep sea life that lives off of/near hydrothermal vents if they're present in the underground aquifer",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Any chemical can serve as an energy source if there is a more thermodynamically-stable energy state, such as glucose being oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Both of those are more stable than glucose and the oxidation of glucose into them produces energy.\n\nThere are many such compounds such as methane, decaying plant matter, and minerals that might come from another source and drive the ecosystem. For example, in the deep ocean organic matter falling from above can feed lower life. Deep lakes can have material washed down into them from the surface or they can feed on previously-buried matter.\n\nThere are also other sources of energy such as geothermal and nuclear decay that can provide energy to an ecosystem.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you have a specific lake in mind?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s pretty much already been explained by others here but perhaps you’d enjoy looking up online about “chemo-heterotrophs” I believe this is the life you are speaking of.\n\nThe “chemo” part meaning energy is derived from chemical compounds in the environment, whilst we also have “photo-heterotroph” which derives energy from sunlight (photosynthesis).\n\nThis greatly increases the possible habitable environments on other planets/moons (i.e. IF there is life on Titan they’d be too far away to receive sunlight benefits and may be chemo-heterotrophs, or similar).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure specifically what like to cave/lake you're thinking, but in caves, there are ~~cynao~~bacteria that can derive energy from oxidation of chemicals/minerals like sulphur with carbon dioxide. They're called chemoautotrophic bacteria. These often form of the \"base\" food source of any ecosystem that survives down there (excluding critters that go in/out of the cave to feed).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of cave dwellers are sustained by rare calorie inputs from surface sources, so they too rely on the sun for food. For example, bats bring nutrient-rich guano into caverns, enough to feed a whole ecosystem of amphipods, cave crickets, and centipedes. Many troglodytes are also adapted to have extremely slow metabolisms so that they can take advantage of the rare bit of food that comes into their cavern from the outside world. The [olm](_URL_0_), a cave salamander, is able to enter stasis when food is scarce, and can re-absorb organs when it needs the calories (and grow them back once it finds a morsel of food). They can last as long as ten years in between a meal. As for what they eat, the olm only lives around underground rivers with connections to the surface, so every so often an insect or a small crustacean will get washed into the cave from outside and the olm is there to grab and devour it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, when animals in the upper part of the water column die - especially larger fish, whales, etc - their corpses decay, break apart, and chunks float down to the sea floor. We watched a video in my marine biology class of a whale carcass on the sea floor, and it was absolutely SWARMING to any and all types of deep sea life - they can smell the food from miles away and they all gather to get as much of this nutrient-rich food source as they can. Decaying carcasses are a small part of their diet, but are definitely an important one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Energy originally from the Sun can be stored as chemical energy in molecule such as glucose (especially molecules rich in Hydrogens where the potential energy of the electrons is high) and harvested through oxidation (essentially breaking it down). These energy containing molecules could get into the ecosystem in a number of ways. \n\nThere are also autotrophs (organisms that make their own ‘food’) through chemical means, rather than using sunlight. For example, the tube worms at the bottom of the deep ocean. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To break things down: Life could be sustained either through allotropy (food from basic building blocks) or heterotropy (digesting available premade nutrients). As plants are the basis of heterotrophy, without sunlight heterotrophy is impossible. Without sunlight you can go through chemosynthesis, which is an allotropic way of creating energy stored in chemical bonds. As this way of “feeding” creates relatively little energy, life forms thriving this way are rudimentary (single celled organisms). An example (omitting complex details) are methane producing archaea (bacteria like creatures). They get energy from carbon and water to create methane. Some archaea break down methane for energy. Surprisingly lots of these archaea live next to each other in deep water wells (aquifers) sustaining each other, for millions of years now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So many wonderful, thoughtful replies! But couldn't we simply and accurately say \"chemosynthesis\" rather than photosynthesis? I thought that was the explanation for hydrothermal vent communities so it would apply elsewhere as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a common myth that all life comes from the sun... hydrothermal vents and cave ecosystems are testament to that.\n\nIt is my personal opion that life originated from chemosynthesis and broadened to include photosynthesis",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a good documentary on amazon prime about \"the real lost world\" and it details what they find on the giant Mesas in South America. It's not exactly underwater like what you said but it's still a desolate region with very little resource, but in the documentary the only legitimate scientist there actually finds microbial life living off some weird way I'm not sure. She received an NSF Grant to continue research on it though. Life is able to survive in the darndest of places.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Marine snow.\n\nWhen you get deep (mostly in the ocean but it's somewhat true in lakes too) there is a constant \"snow\" fall that looks very pretty. It's made of feces and dead stuff. This can provide some energy for ecosystems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, I'm kind of late to the party here but this is actually my area of expertise so I'm excited to see someone asking about stygobionts (subterranean aquatic animals). As stated by others, energy sources for living organisms in caves and aquifers can come from two places: organic material from the surface that washed into the cave, or there can be \"in house\" biologic production via chemolithoautotrophic bacteria. These bacteria take sulfur ions (among others) and either oxidize them or reduce them and glean a small bit of energy from this reaction. It's much less energetically favorable than photoautotrophy (like plants) or heterotrophy (eating other organisms), so these bacteria grow very slowly. They also need a carbon source, in plants this comes from CO2 in the air and in heterotrophs it comes from the food they eat. Caves are made of limestone generally, which is calcium carbonate. Thus, cave waters have abundant carbon in the form of CO2 and HCO3. These specialized bacteria are able to uptake and use this carbon. In this way, they are literally made of rock! \n\nCertain caves have such a good environment for this chemolithoautotrophy, the bacteria grow abundantly enough to form the base for an entire ecosystem of organisms including vertebrates. The Edwards Aquifer in central Texas is the most bio diverse aquifer in the Americas, and probably the world once all the diversity is described. The diversity in the Edwards is truly astounding for a ground water sustem. One well-studied site, the San Marcos Artesian Well has 43 described animals, and probably nearly double that in undescribed species. These include a blind salamander, numerous crustaceans and insects, worms, and lots of tiny planktonic organisms. The reason for the hyper diversity of the Edwards has to do with its large size, old age, and excellent porosity. And also because it has a saline zone that is a source for those sulfur ions that the bacteria need. Diversity is highest in the zones near this freshwater-saline interface. If you'd like to know more about food webs in aquifers, I suggest the 2016 paper by Hutchins et al. in Ecology. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've never studied lakes (assuming freshwater) but I imagine most of the same fundamentals apply.\n\nIn the oceans, some systems are supplied organic matter from cold water sinking down through valleys on the seafloor, this leads to cold water coral reefs like that of Lophelia pertusa. These systems are still provided for by photosynthesis they just don't exist in the light directly (mostly).\n\nOther systems are chemosynthetic. In the case of life around a hydrothermal event, instead of a plant photosynthesising light to produce organic matter at the base of the food chain certain specialist bacteria synthesise the rich source of chemical compounds discharging from the seabed. Specialist organisms either house the bacteria to benefit from them or cultivate them on their body as a food source. Then like any other system it moves through to predators and scavengers etc. of these specialists. Plenty of these species have 'Alvin' in their latin names due to the sub used to explore the vents and find them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You'd likely get a fair amount of ammonia-oxidising bacteria which can make use of ammonia and inorganic carbon, like carbon dioxide. Some of the products they make will then serve as food for other organisms when they die.\n\nThe thing to note is that the growth may be slower depending on the bottleneck, but EVERYTHING would run off that timing anyway. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22205",
"title": "Oasis",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The presence of water on the surface or underground is necessary and the local or regional management of this essential resource is strategic, but not sufficient to create such areas: continuous human work and know-how (a technical and social culture) are essential to maintain such ecosystems..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105659",
"title": "Upwelling",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Coastal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid, themselves the result of decomposition of sinking organic matter (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by phytoplankton, along with dissolved CO (carbon dioxide) and light energy from the sun, to produce organic compounds, through the process of photosynthesis. Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity. High primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of the oceanic food chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "35261859",
"title": "Manistique Lakes",
"section": "Section::::Aquatic plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Aquatic plants in lakes provide a source of food for bacteria, fish, waterfowl, insects, and mammals because they convert sunlight and nutrients into living plant tissue than can be used by these organisms. Roots from the vegetation also make a diverse environment for the fish which is essential for their reproduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43568991",
"title": "Gerber Reservoir",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "While very few aquatic plants live in the shallow branches, the reservoir is still very productive. Its trophic state is classified as eutrophic. A combination of suspended inorganic matter and phytoplankton growth limit the water’s transparency. In the main part of the reservoir, the water is deep enough for thermal stratification. In the deeper thermal layers, there is less oxygen than is found near the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38603345",
"title": "Hypolimnetic aeration",
"section": "Section::::Eutrophication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "In stratified, eutrophic lakes an oxygen deficit in deep water is created during summer stagnation. As a result of elevated nutrient inputs the trophic level of many lakes increases continuously. Elevated phosphorus concentrations may lead to stronger algae growth and a corresponding increase in oxygen consumption in the deep zones. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4479734",
"title": "Lake ecosystem",
"section": "Section::::Trophic relationships.:Primary producers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "Lentic systems gain most of their energy from photosynthesis performed by aquatic plants and algae. This autochthonous process involves the combination of carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to produce carbohydrates and dissolved oxygen. Within a lake or pond, the potential rate of photosynthesis generally decreases with depth due to light attenuation. Photosynthesis, however, is often low at the top few millimeters of the surface, likely due to inhibition by ultraviolet light. The exact depth and photosynthetic rate measurements of this curve are system specific and depend upon: 1) the total biomass of photosynthesizing cells, 2) the amount of light attenuating materials and 3) the abundance and frequency range of light absorbing pigments (i.e. chlorophylls) inside of photosynthesizing cells. The energy created by these primary producers is important for the community because it is transferred to higher trophic levels via consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29171632",
"title": "Marine habitats",
"section": "Section::::Open ocean.:Surface waters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The surface waters are sunlit. The waters down to about 200 metres are said to be in the epipelagic zone. Enough sunlight enters the epipelagic zone to allow photosynthesis by phytoplankton. The epipelagic zone is usually low in nutrients. This partially because the organic debris produced in the zone, such as excrement and dead animals, sink to the depths and are lost to the upper zone. Photosynthesis can happen only if both sunlight and nutrients are present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sci7l
|
Why is it in the overwhelming majority of societies in history, that gender roles remain consistent?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! it might be worth x-posting this question to /r/AskAnthropology or /r/AskSocialScience",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23480361",
"title": "Unpaid work",
"section": "Section::::Unpaid domestic labor.:Gender and unpaid work: the gender division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Socially constructed gender roles are prescribed as ideal or proper behaviors for specific categories of male and female. Societies have socially constructed women's roles because women are primarily financially dependent on men as is defined through a 'sexual contract', thus deeming them a \"private responsibility of individual men\". This construction has resulted in women being domesticated because their primary access to economic support was through marriage to a man. This gender division has made women's needs and rights invisible, which allows men to \"continue to dominate women and define them as dependent\" and conceals the needed dependency between men and women. This ignored 'dual dependency' highlights the fact that men are dependent on women's \"domestic and reproductive labor\" just as women are dependent on the income of men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26977104",
"title": "Expressions of dominance",
"section": "Section::::Gender differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1401,
"text": "Gender variations exist because of differences in our expectations about what is appropriate for a particular gender (sex differences in psychology), what is appropriate depending on the composition of two or more people and whether gender or role norms are most salient. For instance, women who display dominance can be judged differently than men exhibiting the same behavior (Burgoon \"et al.\".; Carli and Winn, as cited by Youngquist, 2009). This is because women are perceived as less competitive and dominant than men and are thought to be less likely to display dominance (Burgoon \"et al.\", as cited by Youngquist, 2009); a woman who displays dominance might potentially be perceived as more dominant than a man displaying the same behavior because her behavior will be seen as unusual. Gender composition can influence dominant behaviors differently. For instance, individuals in a same-sex group can be perceived to be of equal status and are expected per norms to play fairly (Orcutt and Harvey, as cited by Youngquist, 2009). Gender differences in behavior are often found in mixed sex groups, though some have found that women can become more assertive with men in mixed group settings (Maccoby, as cited in Moskowitz, Suh, and Desaulniers, 1994).Therefore, dominance is more readily perceived when an individual displays a control act in a same sex group as opposed to a mixed sex group. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347657",
"title": "Authoritarianism",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Gender and authoritarianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "According to a study by Brandt and Henry, there is a direct correlation between the rates of gender inequality and the levels of authoritarian ideas in the male and female populations. It was found that in countries with less gender equality where individualism was encouraged and men occupied the dominant societal roles, women were more likely to support traits such as obedience which would allow them to survive in an authoritarian environment and less likely to encourage ideas such as independence and imagination. In countries with higher levels of gender equality, men held less authoritarian views. It is theorized that this occurs due to the stigma attached to individuals who question the cultural norms set by the dominant individuals and establishments in an authoritarian society as a way to prevent the psychological stress caused by the active ostracizing of the stigmatized individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50757692",
"title": "Heteropatriarchy",
"section": "Section::::Background history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Since ancient times, heteropatriarchy has shaped the way how societies across the world have viewed masculinity and femininity. This societal system has had negative effects on societies, which have beat the test of time and are still apparent in modern days. Throughout Ancient China, it is shown by the example of emperors being male with dominant power. Women and people that showed feminine traits were objectified and oppressed. Women were seen as obedient housewives whose main purpose was to serve males. Due to this, women’s voice has been ignored and suppressed. Leading to a system that grew into a society denying women rights and that they were dehumanized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38076",
"title": "Gender",
"section": "Section::::Psychology and sociology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological sex. Socio-cultural codes and conventions, the rules by which society functions, and which are both a creation of society as well as a constituting element of it, determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes. These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. It follows then, that gender can be assumed as the acquisition and internalisation of social norms. Individuals are therefore socialized through their receipt of society's expectations of 'acceptable' gender attributes that are flaunted within institutions such as the family, the state and the media. Such a notion of 'gender' then becomes naturalized into a person's sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a sexed body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9238494",
"title": "Biosocial theory",
"section": "Section::::Sex, gender, and mate selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "The differences between the biological sexes interact with societal expectations to form the assumptions that men should hold more power and status while women hold lesser roles in society. Because of this, psychological difference increases between males and females as they try to adjust to their biologically and culturally influenced social roles. The adjustment to expected social roles is based on a cost-benefit analysis that typical sex roles are more functional and satisfactory with less effort than those of non-typical sex roles. This implies that it is more beneficial if a man enters a male-dominated occupations and women should assume positions in female-dominated occupations. However, occupations in our society may be staffed equally well by both men and women, and societal views are constantly changing even though biological differences stay constant. Because of this, men and women may staff occupations in fields dominated by the other sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Gender roles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The sexual division of humans into male, female, and in some societies other genders has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of roles, norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power. Cultural differences by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36mfa2
|
what is the 'school smell'?
|
[
{
"answer": "I always thought I noticed it more when I came back from brakes, when they had time to buff the floors. I thought it was the cheep floor wax schools use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Different schools will smell differently. You are talking about buildings and rooms filled with people all using different scents in their soaps and hygiene products (and some without), books, cleaning supplies, foods, and environmental factors that all combine to create the smell you know as school.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I asked a custodian once why all school cafeterias smelled the same. He said it is the lovely aroma of spilled milk and bleach. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As somebody that works in an inner city school that ranges from K-8th Grade, I could tell you that the \"School\" smell you speak of definitely gets stronger as you go from the Middle School to the Elementary part of the school. If I had to guess, I would say it's some combination of sweat, dirty laundry, disinfectant, and low quality food with a hint of freshly sharpened pencils. It is a smell like no other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps the cleaning agents used within the schools. \n\nAlso school lunch pizza. How can I get that recipe?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I also wish to know what is the \"School Computer Lab Smell\" ? Like the combination of metals, cleaning agents and overly ventilated air...? It is my second favorite scent, next to the \"Swimming Pool Aisle at Walmart\" where the chlorination products mix to a mouth watering scent. :3",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has a lot to do with the standard building materials for a school (whatever cheap brick or laminate they use, chalk boards) and then the cleaning supplies and mish mash of regular day mess that they accumulate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59993",
"title": "Smells Like Teen Spirit",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "\"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" uses a \"somewhat conventional formal structure\" consisting of four-, eight-, and twelve-bar sections, including an eight-bar verse, an eight-bar pre-chorus, and a twelve-bar chorus. Musicologist Graeme Downes, who led the band the Verlaines, says that \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" illustrates developing variation. Elements of the structure are marked with shifts in volume and dynamics, moving from quiet to loud several times. This structure of \"quiet verses with wobbly, chorused guitar, followed by big, loud hardcore-inspired choruses\" became an alternative rock template.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33258618",
"title": "Quelli dell'Intervallo Cafe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "All the adventures of the boys are accompanied by the smell of croissants and the presence, not always welcome, of former teachers such as \"Professor Martinelli\", horrible math teacher, who sometimes goes there to bring a bit of fear between her students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19817565",
"title": "Mighty Lak a Goat",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "They walk to school and get thrown out of the classroom due to their smell. Then, being free from school, the gang goes to see a movie called \"Don't Open That Door\" at the theater. The movie-house cashier notices their smell, but they head into the auditorium. Then even the actors on the screen cannot stand the smell and stop performing. They finally get removed from the theater and remove their clothes behind a tree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19548036",
"title": "The Twinkie Squad",
"section": "Section::::Garlic Squid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Meanwhile, the school reopens but the rotting stench is still there; the Home EC room and the Principal's Office directly above it, are closed off and abandoned because the smell is so bad that it makes people's noses and eyes feel a painful burning sensation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "528242",
"title": "Smells Like Children",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Smells Like Children is an EP by American rock band Marilyn Manson, released on October 24, 1995 by Nothing and Interscope Records. Produced by Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, it represents an era of the band full of drugs, abuses, tours, sound experiments, and references the Child Catcher, a villain from the 1968 musical film \"Chitty Chitty Bang Bang\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47563014",
"title": "Cue Detective",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1118,
"text": "After watching the movie \"Doctor Dolittle\" at school, the children realize that Bart and Lisa smell badly and they start teasing them about it. The same thing happens to Homer at the nuclear plant, with Homer realizing (belatedly and angrily) that this is what people were referring to when they called him \"Stink-son.\" Marge then discovers that the smell is coming from their clothes because their washing machine is old and covered in mold. She then gives Homer a bag full of money (derived from Bender's body, which has been in their basement since the events of \"Simpsorama\") so they can buy a new washing machine. On his way to the store, Homer smells something delicious and discovers a roadside barbecue stand run by an old biker. When Homer eats the best BBQ he's ever had, the biker reveals that the secret is that the smoker was made from a meteorite with a unique beehive shape that has trapped all of the fat and sauce from every grilling ever. Homer weighs up whether to do what he should do (buy the washer) or what everyone knows he will; he passes up the washing machine to buy the smoker for himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11261044",
"title": "School spirit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "School spirit is the sense of identity and community shared by members of an educational institution. This can apply to any type of school, from elementary schools to universities. Members of a school can manifest spirit in the exhibition of school colors in dress and decoration, in attendance at athletic events, or verbally in the form of chants or cheers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hzqz8
|
how are people with split personality disorder diagnosed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dissociative Identity Disorder is extremely rare. People are diagnosed by a qualified professional in the same way that any psychiatric illness is diagnosed. They must demonstrate that they meet the diagnostic criteria outlined in the DSM, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders. Google \"DSM criteria for dissociative identity disorder\" for specifics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is also some really compelling evidence that the entire idea of \"other personalities\" isn't really a thing, that American psychologists who really wanted it to be real were inadvertently encouraging their patients to demonstrate that sort of behavior through positive reinforcement. Saying \"Tell me about your other personality\" encouraged patients to think of themselves in those terms, arguably making their situation worse.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lets just talk about the elephant in the room. Psychology is not an exact science, and there are many that feel it isn't a science at all since many of the observations made are subjective ones rather than objective. \n\nThat being said, it does make predictions about peoples behavior based on their previous actions and depending on the model it can be an accurate way of understanding a persons behavior. \n\nSo because the measurements are subjective, you have to make many more of them, and you have to use the right testing and model in order to make a diagnosis. There for a battery of tests are given to the subject, often by a team of psychologists and it works like a process of elimination. They also have to be able to observe the subject for a period of time. These observations, along with the results of many, many, tests, will lead to a diagnosis. \n\nAs far as the experience of being MPD it's difficult to guess what another persons experience is, and like people in general, every case is a little different. Movies and books tend to over dramatize MPD to write a gripping story so it can lead to a distorted public perception of what it means to have multiple or split personality disorder. \n\nTo some extent, we all have a little bit of this going on even in healthy people. You have your pissed off conflict escalating self. You have your negotiator self, and your diplomatic self. There is you when nobody else is around to judge, there is the way you act at work, and the way you act around your art school friends, the way you behave around family, etc. \n\nIt's not a disorder though because they are just different aspects of the same personality, you, and you don't suffer any debilitating aspects or have a negative quality of life because of it and most importantly, you are somewhat in control of yourself. \n\nSomebody who feels compelled to behave in socially unacceptable ways beyond their control could be suffering from a variety of psychosis, which goes back to the need to test and observe. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43086977",
"title": "Louis Vivet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Louis Vivet (also Louis Vivé or Vive) was one of the first mental health patients to be diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, colloquially known as \"multiple [or] split personalities.\" Within one year of his diagnosis, the term \"multiple personality\" appeared in psychological literature in direct reference to Vivet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 251,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 251,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Schizophrenia is not split or multiple personality disorder—a split or multiple personality is dissociative identity disorder. The term was coined from the Greek roots \"schizein\" and \"phrēn\", \"to split\" and \"mind\", in reference to a \"splitting of mental functions\" seen in schizophrenia, not a splitting of the personality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "915081",
"title": "Differential diagnosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "A differential diagnosis is also commonly used within the field of psychiatry/psychology, where two different diagnoses can be attached to a patient who is exhibiting symptoms which could fit into either diagnosis. For example, a patient who has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder may also be given a differential diagnosis of borderline personality disorder, given the similarity in the symptoms of both conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149223",
"title": "Borderline personality disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Diagnosis of borderline personality disorder is based on a clinical assessment by a mental health professional. The best method is to present the criteria of the disorder to a person and to ask them if they feel that these characteristics accurately describe them. Actively involving people with BPD in determining their diagnosis can help them become more willing to accept it. Although some clinicians prefer not to tell people with BPD what their diagnosis is, either from concern about the stigma attached to this condition or because BPD used to be considered untreatable, it is usually helpful for the person with BPD to know their diagnosis. This helps them know that others have had similar experiences and can point them toward effective treatments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149223",
"title": "Borderline personality disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis and comorbidity.:Comorbid Axis I disorders.:Mood disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Many people with borderline personality disorder also have mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder or a bipolar disorder. Some characteristics of BPD are similar to those of mood disorders, which can complicate the diagnosis. It is especially common for people to be misdiagnosed with bipolar disorder when they have borderline personality disorder or vice versa. For someone with bipolar disorder, behavior suggestive of BPD might appear while the client is experiencing an episode of major depression or mania, only to disappear once the client's mood has stabilized. For this reason, it is ideal to wait until the client's mood has stabilized before attempting to make a diagnosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42184815",
"title": "Family estrangement",
"section": "Section::::Contributing causes.:Personality disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Personality disorders, particularly the cluster B personality disorders (antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder), cause significant interpersonal conflicts. Sufferers typically have volatile relationships and may be both the estranger and the estranged multiple times throughout their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6235952",
"title": "Compartmentalization (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Vulnerability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Those suffering from borderline personality disorder will often divide people into all good versus all bad, to avoid the conflicts removing the compartments would inevitably bring, using denial or indifference to protect against any indications of contradictory evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1det8m
|
Why were the U.S. Army so ill-trained and ill-equipped when they entered WWI?
|
[
{
"answer": "Another reason was that President Wilson refused to prepare the US Army for war (I believe he even refused to send observers to Europe). This was one of Teddy Roosevelt and the Republicans' main criticisms of Wilson at the time. While Wilson eventually agreed to an expansion of the navy (over a period of 10 years), he still left the army neglected. The size of the active US Army was about 100,000 (for a comparison, that was what Germany was *restricted to* after the war by the Treaty Of Versailles).\n\nOnly when war became imminent was the Army expanded. Because the suddenly enlarged US Army had to be so quickly drafted, trained, and some would say *rushed* into the field naturally the troops were not only inexperienced in combat, but the commanders weren't familiar with the advanced style of modern European warfare. This lead to frequent misuses of US forces and high casualty rates. \n\nShortly after the outbreak of WWII in Europe, George C. Marshall said *\"You know, I know, all of us know that the time factor is the vital consideration — and vital is the correct meaning of the term — of our national defense program; that we must never be caught in the same situation we found ourselves in 1917.\"*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an expert on the topic, but here's my take, and anyone who knows more can correct me if I am mistake.\n\nFirst, the U.S. wasn't in the business of having a standing army up at all times at this point in history. Most soldiers were drafted in order to fight in specific cases. This makes sense considering how logistically difficult and how expensive it is to pay for an army (including the loss of labor).\n\nSecond, this is before the time of simple and cheap transport. War in Europe didn't necessarily mean the U.S. was going to be involved so there wasn't a reason to prepare for battle.\n\nFinally, the U.S. before WWI wasn't not as important, rich, or technologically advanced in relation to European nations at this point. In fact, if it hadn't been for the two world wars that practically destroyed Europe there is a good reason to suspect that the U.S. would have a similar role to China today (one in which it is economically growing, but is still politically on the outside). This part is speculation on my part, but the rise of the U.S. in my mind has to be inexorably linked to the fall of the European powers.\n\nSo to flesh out the answer, there are a lot of reasons why the U.S. was unprepared: logistics, politics, military structure, economics, and lack of need.\n\nHope that helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure how ill-trained and ill-equipped they were, but it's partially due to the fact that the US didn't spend the previous three years fighting an intense war. If the US had immediately joined the war in 1914, they probably wouldn't have looked *that* out of place. The other nations went into the war with outdated tactics and equipment too (maybe not outdated, but certainly not fit for that kind of warfare), but they then had three years to adapt and improve. You saw tactics evolve from simple charges to complex combined arms assaults. You saw equipment evolve - like how the brightly coloured uniforms quickly became a dull grey or green for every army. But also just having soldiers in the field and in combat raised the experience and the know-how of the soldiers and the officers. And these advances were *huge.* The US Army could count on communication between the Allied armies - it's not like they went in totally blind to the advances of the last few years - but it's not the same as actually fighting the war. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "305153",
"title": "Battle of Aachen",
"section": "Section::::Comparison of forces.:American forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "Although American units were usually able to replenish their numbers quickly, the replacements rarely had sufficient tactical training. Many junior officers were short on tactical and leadership abilities. Some tankers were shipped to Europe without having so much as driven a car before; some tank commanders were forced to teach their men how to load and fire their tank guns in the field prior to missions. The American replacement system, which focused on quantity over quality, ensured that the majority of fresh troops reaching the front lines were not properly trained for combat. It was not unusual for half of a unit's replacements to become casualties within the first few days of combat. These tremendous frontline losses required ever-more troops to be fed into the fighting; for instance, a freshly reinforced battalion of the US 28th Infantry Division was immediately thrown into direct assaults against Aachen to buttress the depleted US 1st Infantry Division during the final stages of the battle on 18–21 October.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264383",
"title": "George Washington Goethals",
"section": "Section::::World War I.:Quartermaster General of the United States Army.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "The Army's supply chain suffered from 3 main problems; a shortage of specialized personnel, decentralized organization and diverse uncoordinated functions. When the United States entered the war, the Quartermaster Corps had suffered a loss of personnel —most officers were sent to the front—, this was the first problem demanding attention. Believing the Army's business could be best organized along civilian lines, he hired military men who could get along with industrialists and built with and around a number of highly trained executives and businessmen (among the new recruits were Hugh S. Johnson and Robert J. Thorne). Some of these men were commissioned and some were dollar-a-year-men, most of whom never collected the dollar. From General Goethals down, practically everyone was on the job from early morning to late at night, seven days a week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14590408",
"title": "Clandestine HUMINT and covert action",
"section": "Section::::Separate functions during peacetime?:US postwar change.:PWD and the Creation of US Army Special Forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "After World War II, the regular Army had a largesse of officers that had successfully run large UW operations, without any doctrine to guide them. The Army also had strong psychological operations capabilities, and a new Army Staff element was created to manage them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168210",
"title": "Continental Army",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Two major mutinies late in the war drastically diminished the reliability of two of the main units, and there were constant discipline problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2607320",
"title": "Fort Polk",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Until 1939, the Army had mostly been an infantry force with supporting artillery, engineer, and cavalry units. Few units had been motorized or mechanized. As U.S. involvement in World War II became more likely, the Army recognized the need to modernize the service. But it also needed large-scale maneuvers to test a fast-growing, inexperienced force. That is where Fort Polk and the Louisiana Maneuvers came in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1138643",
"title": "Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Manpower.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "American losses now called on replacements direct from the United States. They were often inexperienced and not used to the harsh conditions of the latter part of the campaign. There were also complaints about the poor quality of troops released into the infantry from less-stressed parts of the U.S. Army. At one point, after the Battle of the Bulge had highlighted the shortage of infantrymen, the army relaxed its embargo on the use of black soldiers in combat formations. Black volunteers performed well and prompted a permanent change in military policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23265330",
"title": "Civil–military relations",
"section": "Section::::Other civil-military relations issues.:Liberal theory and the American Founding Fathers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "The solution to this problem throughout most of American history was to keep its standing army small, relying on augmentation from militias (the predecessor of modern-day Reserve forces, to include the National Guard) and volunteers. While armed forces were built up during wartime, the pattern after every war up to and including World War II was to demobilize quickly and return to something approaching pre-war force levels. However, with the advent of the Cold War in the 1950s, the need to create and maintain a sizable peacetime military force engendered new concerns of militarism and about how such a large force would affect civil-military relations in the United States. For the first time in American history, the problem of civil-military relations would have to be managed during peacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lw6v3
|
Did early humans have any predators?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many. Remember that it wasn't until fairly recently in the timeframe of modern human evolution that most large megafauna died off (well, was wiped out by humans anyway), so for most of that time humans coexisted with a panoply of large predators that did indeed prey on them.\n\nBig cats including now extinct saber toothed cats and cave lions. Wolves including now extinct dire wolves. Crocodiles and alligators including now extinct giant varieties with jaws a meter long. Marsupial lions. Cave bears the size of polar bears and giant bears that weighed as much as a car. Cave hyena that were bigger than most humans. Constricting snakes, such as boas. Large birds sometimes preyed on children and humans possibly had to content with giant flightless carnivorous birds.\n\nWe know that early humans sometimes fell victim to these predators based on marks on various human bone fossils. There is also one particular case of evidence of a human skull having been bitten by a saber toothed cat (Megantereon) as the cause of death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to /u/rocketsocks there's also some evidence that one of early humanity's top predators was [eachother](_URL_0_) and that human meat was frequently on the menu. This comes from finding human bones with butchery marks, sometimes in the same pile and with the same tool marks as animal bones from hunting. It's hard to tell if these were deliberate kills or merely eating your dead relatives like some modern tribes, but probably some of both.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are African eagles which eat moneys. There's a particular pattern of bird claw and beak damage to the monkey head.\n\nArchaeologists dug up the skull of an early hominid child with the same damage pattern.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nGoogle \"hominid skull eagle\" for more articles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6543",
"title": "Carnivore",
"section": "Section::::Prehistoric carnivores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "\"Predation\" (the eating of one living creature by another for nutrition) predates the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the fossil record is poor, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7 Gya (billion years ago). The rise of eukaryotic cells at around 2.7 Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2 Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600 Mya – 2 Gya, probably around 1 Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior, and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to small predator species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the fossil record is poor, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7 Gya (billion years ago). Predation visibly became important shortly before the Cambrian period—around —as evidenced by the almost simultaneous development of calcification in animals and algae, and predation-avoiding burrowing. However, predators had been grazing on micro-organisms since at least , with evidence of selective (rather than random) predation from a similar time. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "482629",
"title": "Scavenger",
"section": "Section::::In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In the 1970s Lewis Binford suggested that early humans primarily obtained meat via scavenging, not through hunting. In 2010, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman proposed that early carnivorous human ancestors subsequently developed long-distance running behaviors which improved the ability to scavenge and hunt: they could reach scavenging sites more quickly and also pursue a single animal until it could be safely killed at close range due to exhaustion and hyperthermia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872736",
"title": "Apex predator",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the Cambrian period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behaviour cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive. \"Anomalocaris\" was an aquatic apex predator, in the Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57559",
"title": "Predation",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Predation dates from before the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. Predation has evolved repeatedly in different groups of organisms. The rise of eukaryotic cells at around 2.7 Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2 Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600 Mya - 2 Gya, probably around 1 Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior, and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to small predator species. It likely triggered major evolutionary transitions including the arrival of cells, eukaryotes, sexual reproduction, multicellularity, increased size, mobility (including insect flight) and armoured shells and exoskeletons. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872736",
"title": "Apex predator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Humans have for many centuries interacted with apex predators including the wolf, birds of prey and cormorants to hunt game animals, birds, and fish respectively. More recently, humans have started interacting with apex predators in new ways. These include interactions via ecotourism, such as with the tiger shark, and through rewilding efforts, such as the proposed reintroduction of the lynx.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29234",
"title": "Spear",
"section": "Section::::Hunting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "One of the earliest forms of killing prey for humans, hunting game with a spear and spear fishing continues to this day as both a means of catching food and as a cultural activity. Some of the most common prey for early humans were mega fauna such as mammoths which were hunted with various kinds of spear. One theory for the Quaternary extinction event was that most of these animals were hunted to extinction by humans with spears. Even after the invention of other hunting weapons such as the bow the spear continued to be used, either as a projectile weapon or used in the hand as was common in boar hunting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nq58k
|
The personal life of women (circa 1050)
|
[
{
"answer": "It would be useful to specify a location as well. Since you said \"medieval,\" I'm assuming you're looking for European answers, right?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14457458",
"title": "Women in medicine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Women in the Middle Ages participated in many healing techniques and capacities. According to historical documents, small numbers of women occupied almost all ranks of medical personnel during the period. They worked as herbalists, midwives, surgeons, barber-surgeons, nurses, and traditional empirics. Women treated everyone, not only women as historians once thought. The names of 24 women described as surgeons in Naples between 1273 and 1410 are known, and references have been found to 15 women practitioners, most of them Jewish and none described as midwives, in Frankfurt between 1387 and 1497. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1749999",
"title": "Beguinage",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Our understanding of women's motivations for joining the beguinages has changed dramatically in recent decades. The development of these communities is clearly linked to a preponderance of women in urban centers in the Middle Ages, but while earlier scholars like the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne believed that this \"surplus\" of women was caused by men dying in war, that theory has been debunked. Since the groundbreaking work of John Hajnal, who demonstrated that, for much of Europe, marriage occurred later in life and at a lower frequency than had previously been believed, historians have established that single women moved to the newly developed cities because those cities offered them work opportunities. has shown how the smaller beguinages as well as the court beguinages answered such women's social and economic needs, in addition to offering them a religious life coupled with personal independence, which was a difficult thing to have for a woman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12298276",
"title": "Elise M. Boulding",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Women's role in history and the peace process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Boulding's book \"The Underside of History: A View of Women through Time\", first published 1976, explored the changing roles of women from Paleolithic times to the present. She attempted to understand what she described as women's \"underlife\" and men's' \"overlife\" in social roles. Boulding likened modern women's roles to that of inmates: the household imprisons them and expects them to be \"on call\" at all times to provide for their husbands and children. Women are, in a sense, stripped of their identity, autonomy and privacy and considered \"under\" their family and husbands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58633937",
"title": "Gender novels",
"section": "Section::::Background.:History of gender in literature up until the 19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Gender in literature mostly reflected how gender was seen in society in that specific time period. That being said, it is important to understand how society saw the roles of men and women because it translated into the literature published during that time.Gender throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th century all over the world was very set in stone. Women were required to wear, act and behave a certain way both in public and in the private home. Life back then was extremely patriarchal, with opportunities, power and respect reserved for men only. Prior to the 17th century, men would play women's roles in old Shakespearean plays and musicals. Cross-gender acting is seen as evidence of the fact that women were not typically included or invited to participate in the arts, literature and musical theatrics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39356728",
"title": "Feminism in Germany",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval period to Early Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Some women of means asserted their influence during the Middle Ages, typically in royal court or convent settings. Hildegard of Bingen, Gertrude the Great, Elisabeth of Bavaria (1478–1504), and Argula von Grumbach are among the women who pursued independent accomplishments in fields as diverse as medicine, music composition, religious writing, and government and military politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13224",
"title": "History of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Some women of means asserted their influence during the Middle Ages, typically in royal court or convent settings. Hildegard of Bingen, Gertrude the Great, Elisabeth of Bavaria (1478–1504), and Argula von Grumbach are among the women who pursued independent accomplishments in fields as diverse as medicine, music composition, religious writing, and government and military politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50637403",
"title": "History of German women",
"section": "Section::::Medieval.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Some women of means asserted their influence during the Middle Ages, typically in royal court or convent settings. Hildegard of Bingen, Gertrude the Great, Elisabeth of Bavaria (1478–1504), and Argula von Grumbach are among the women who pursued independent accomplishments in fields as diverse as medicine, music composition, religious writing, and government and military politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3na2lf
|
why is the highest tax bracket only about $450,000? why not have higher tax brackets at incomes of $1 million, $5 million, $10 million, etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you have that much money, it's easy to [minimize your effective tax rate](_URL_1_) (charities, retirement plans, investments, etc). The top tax bracket was as high as 94% in [1944](_URL_0_). As for why it's not very high now, look at the series of laws in that table. Rich people are able to lobby for tax changes, and tend to argue that the bulk of the economy is run by rich people so by taxing them less, they have more money to e.g. start companies, so you gain a stronger economy.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the problem is compound interest... according to bloomberg the walton heirs doubled their net worth from 70 billion in 2007 to 140 billion in 2011... by heavily taxing people like them you slow down the disaster when the top .1 % have most of the wealth on the planet",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When did this become r/soapbox? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "301892",
"title": "Progressive tax",
"section": "Section::::Computation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "For example, suppose there are tax brackets of 10%, 20%, and 30%, where the 10% rate applies to income from $1 to $10,000; the 20% rate applies to income from $10,001 to $20,000; and the 30% rate applies to all income above $20,000. In that case the tax on $20,000 of income (computed by adding up tax in each bracket) is 10% × $10,000 + 20% × $10,000 = $1,000 + $2,000 = $3,000. The tax on $25,000 of income could then be computed two ways. Using point–slope form (tax on bottom amount plus tax on marginal amount) yields:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768124",
"title": "Tax bracket",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Imagine that there are three tax brackets: 10%, 20%, and 30%. The 10% rate applies to income from $1 to $10,000; the 20% rate applies to income from $10,001 to $20,000; and the 30% rate applies to all income above $20,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31172365",
"title": "Progressivity in United States income tax",
"section": "Section::::Income taxes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Additional brackets of 28%, 33%, 35% and 39.6% apply to higher levels of income. So, if a person has $50,000 of taxable income, his next dollar of income earned will be taxed at 25% - this is referred to as \"being in the 25% tax bracket,\" or more formally as having a marginal rate of 25%. However, the tax on $50,000 of taxable income figures to $9,058. This being 18% of $50,000, the taxpayer is referred to as having an effective tax rate of 18%. Starting in 2013, high income households will also pay an additional medicare surcharge of 0.9% on earned income, and 3.8% on investment income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11029",
"title": "Form 1040",
"section": "Section::::History.:Original form structure and tax rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "BULLET::::- High earners had to pay additional taxes. The first high-earning tax bracket, $20,000–$50,000, has an additional tax of 1% on the part of net income above $20,000. Thus, somebody with a taxable income of $50,000 (over a million dollars in 2015 dollars according to the BLS) would pay a total of $800 (1% of $50,000 + 1% of $(50,000 − 20,000)) in federal income tax. At the time (when the United States as a whole was much poorer) these higher taxes applied to fewer than 0.5% of the residents of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174607",
"title": "Supply-side economics",
"section": "Section::::United States monetary and fiscal experience.:The 1920s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "After World War I, the highest tax bracket, which was for those earning over $100,000 a year (worth at least $1 million a year now), was over 70 percent. The revenue acts of 1921, 1924 and 1926 reduced this tax rate to less than 25 percent, yet tax revenues actually went up significantly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8645415",
"title": "Affluence in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Extreme affluence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "As of 2002, there were approximately 146,000 (0.1%) households with incomes exceeding $1,500,000, while the top 0.01% or 11,000 households had incomes exceeding $5,500,000. The 400 highest tax payers in the nation had gross annual household incomes exceeding $87,000,000. Household incomes for this group have risen more dramatically than for any other. As a result, the gap between those who make less than one and half million dollars annually (99.9% of households) and those who make more (0.1%) has been steadily increasing, prompting \"The New York Times\" to proclaim that the \"Richest Are Leaving Even the Rich Far Behind.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1990779",
"title": "Lucky duckies",
"section": "Section::::Expansion and limits of the original argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "According to Congressional Budget Office estimates, the lowest earning 20% of Americans (24.1 million households earning an average of $15,900 in 2005) paid an \"effective\" federal tax rate of 3.9%, when taking into account income tax, social insurance tax, and excise tax. For comparison, the same study found that the highest earning 1% of Americans (1.1 million households earning an average of $1,558,500 in 2005) paid an \"effective\" federal tax rate of 21.9%, when including the same three types of taxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3bq551
|
why can't dopamine be manufactured?
|
[
{
"answer": "While we can create dopamine, there's no way to enjoy the dopamine without injecting it into our brain. It's much simpler to just take another drug that causes dopamine production.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They basically do manufacture dopamine. In fact, a popular drug treatment for people with parkinson's is 'L-DOPA' which is technically the pre-cursor to dopamine which causes the body to produce more dopamine.\n\nThere are also synthetic chemicals which can mimic neurotransmitters in the brain (e.g. bind to receptors and cause the brain to activate in pretty much the same way as a natural neurotransmitter). There are also other ways to increase neurotransmitter levels (e.g. by inhibiting re-uptake in the synapse).\n\nAs with any drug, however, firstly you can't really control where exactly in your brain gets the dopamine boost (it basically just increases dopamine activity everywhere, which won't necessarily mimic natural concentrations of the neuro-chemical).\n\nSecondly, these drugs (depending on how they increase dopamine activity) may have unwanted side effects, especially in the case of continual use or over-dosing. For example, depending on the drug, your body may start to adapt so that you need a larger and larger dose over time until the point where the drug has basically no effect or you have to take so much of the drug that you risk over-dosing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dopamine can be manufactured, but dopamine itself won't cross the blood-brain barrier. You can however produce drugs that will increase dopamine levels - patients with Parkinson's disease are given [L-DOPA](_URL_0_), which is a precursor to dopamine that can reach the brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work for a home infusion company and some of our bags of IV fluid have dopamine in it, but as stated before it doesn't cross the brain barrier. So I don't know WHY it's in there but I assume it does something good for neurological and autoimmune diseases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48548",
"title": "Dopamine",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry.:Synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The direct precursor of dopamine, -DOPA, can be synthesized indirectly from the essential amino acid phenylalanine or directly from the non-essential amino acid tyrosine. These amino acids are found in nearly every protein and so are readily available in food, with tyrosine being the most common. Although dopamine is also found in many types of food, it is incapable of crossing the blood–brain barrier that surrounds and protects the brain. It must therefore be synthesized inside the brain to perform its neuronal activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48548",
"title": "Dopamine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. It functions both as a hormone and a neurotransmitter, and plays several important roles in the brain and body. It is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical L-DOPA, which is synthesized in the brain and kidneys. Dopamine is also synthesized in plants and most animals. In the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons (nerve cells) to send signals to other nerve cells. The brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways, one of which plays a major role in the motivational component of reward-motivated behavior. The anticipation of most types of rewards increases the level of dopamine in the brain, and many addictive drugs increase dopamine release or block its reuptake into neurons following release. Other brain dopamine pathways are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of various hormones. These pathways and cell groups form a dopamine system which is neuromodulatory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "51082929",
"title": "Dopamine (medication)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Dopamine was first synthesized in a laboratory in 1910 by George Barger and James Ewens in England. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world of a container of 400 mg is between $0.28 and $0.60 (USD) as of 2014. In human physiology dopamine is a neurotransmitter as well as a hormone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2375679",
"title": "Leiner Health Products",
"section": "Section::::Methamphetamine lawsuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Green's widow, Linda Green, subsequently filed a lawsuit against several US drug manufacturers and retailers, including Leiner. In the suit, she claimed that the companies deliberately turned a blind eye toward the purchase of their products containing pseudoephedrine by criminals engaged in the manufacture of illegal drugs. She also claimed that the companies were negligent in deciding not to use a known manufacturing technique which would have rendered their drugs useless to meth cooks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48548",
"title": "Dopamine",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry.:Synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Dopamine itself is used as precursor in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is converted into norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase, with O and -ascorbic acid as cofactors. Norepinephrine is converted into epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine \"N\"-methyltransferase with \"S\"-adenosyl--methionine as the cofactor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48548",
"title": "Dopamine",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Like most amines, dopamine is an organic base. As a base, it is generally protonated in acidic environments (in an acid-base reaction). The protonated form is highly water-soluble and relatively stable, but can become oxidized if exposed to oxygen or other oxidants. In basic environments, dopamine is not protonated. In this free base form, it is less water-soluble and also more highly reactive. Because of the increased stability and water-solubility of the protonated form, dopamine is supplied for chemical or pharmaceutical use as dopamine hydrochloride—that is, the hydrochloride salt that is created when dopamine is combined with hydrochloric acid. In dry form, dopamine hydrochloride is a fine colorless powder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1115749",
"title": "Lesch–Nyhan syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "However, the link between dopamine and purine synthesis is a nucleotide called guanosine triphosphate or 'GTP'. The first step of dopamine synthesis is GTP cyclohydrolase, and significantly a deficiency of this step produces a syndrome that has a neuropathology similar to LNS. Thus a lack of HGPRT may produce a \"nucleotide deficiency\" (specifically: GTP deficiency) disorder, resulting in dopamine deficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3g3k06
|
what is a dna schedule and how does it prove when human life begins?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not a term that exists. Huckabee made it up. \n\nThe question of when human life begins will always be a philosophical one. Science can't \"prove\" anything here. A new, genetically distinct organism is created at fertilization. So you could argue \"life\" begins there. But at that stage several eggs are fertilized and most of these will spontaneously abort rather than go on to form a fetus. So is it the beginning of human life? That's for you and your God to decide. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I think he's defining organic matter containing human DNA as human beings. Like if I were to leave my skin cells in his mum's butt, they would be his sibling poo babies. \n\nOr maybe DNA just needs to organize its busy life and that somehow relates to embryos.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I am an MD and a researcher in molecular biology and I have never heard the term \"DNA schedule\" before last night. Apparently, though, Huckabee has used the term in prior speeches, so it wasn't a brand new invention. That said, I can't see where anyone else has used the term.\n\nI think that his argument is that each zygote has a genome which is distinct from the parents and that this somehow makes a zygote a person. If that's his claim, then he may be using the term \"schedule\" in the sense of a plan or procedure or perhaps in the sense of a legal schedule like an appendix to a document. He would be saying something like, \"The instructions for development contained in the DNA of a zygote are unique, therefore it is a legal person.\"\n\nI'm not sure how you coherently get from the idea that a zygote has a non-parental genome to the idea that a zygote is a person. Clearly, personhood is not conferred only by having a unique genome. Some human lymphocytes and certainly cancer cells are slightly different in their genes from the rest of your cells and identical twins have an identical genetic sequence (more or less), yet no one argues that a tumor is a person but both twins are not. Furthermore, presumably a human clone would also be a legal person at some point in development. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51165385",
"title": "TCP-seq",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Expression of genetic code in all life forms consists of two major processes, synthesis of copies of the genetic code recorded in DNA into the form of mRNA (transcription), and protein synthesis itself (translation), whereby the code copies in mRNA are decoded into amino acid sequences of the respective proteins. Both transcription and translation are highly regulated processes essentially controlling everything of what happens in live cells (and multicellular organisms, consequently).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40328701",
"title": "Chimeric RNA",
"section": "Section::::Review of RNA Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "DNA encodes the genetic information required for an organism to carry out its life cycle. In effect, DNA serves as the \"hard drive\" which stores genetic data. DNA is replicated and serves as its own template for replication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12385",
"title": "Genetic code",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The genetic code is a key part of the story of life, according to which self-replicating RNA molecules preceded life as we know it. The main hypothesis for life's origin is the RNA world hypothesis. Any model for the emergence of genetic code is intimately related to a model of the transfer from ribozymes (RNA enzymes) to proteins as the principal enzymes in cells. In line with the RNA world hypothesis, transfer RNA molecules appear to have evolved before modern aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, so the latter cannot be part of the explanation of its patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7955",
"title": "DNA",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes. This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951833",
"title": "Escherichia virus T4",
"section": "Section::::Replication and packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "The time it takes for DNA replication in a living cell was measured as the rate of virus T4 DNA elongation in virus-infected E. coli. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during virus T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 10, a highly accurate DNA copying mechanism, with only 1 error in 300 copies. The virus also codes for unique DNA repair mechanisms. The T4 DNA packaging motor has been found to load DNA into virus capsids at a rate up to 2000 base pairs per second. The power involved, if scaled up in size, would be equivalent to that of an average automobile engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37826297",
"title": "Biotic ethics",
"section": "Section::::Science-based arguments for biotic ethics.:The unity of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Biology uses DNA sequences in a genetic code for proteins that in turn help to reproduce the DNA sequences. All cellular biota share these gene/protein cycles, a common DNA code, and complex proteins, membranes and adenosine triphosphate energy apparatus of cells. This complexity, and common roots, and a shared future, unite all life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60103727",
"title": "Personalized onco-genomics",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "A genome is the complete collection of an organism’s DNA sequences, which contains instructions for cellular processes. In human diploid cells, 6 billion DNA base pairs of the genome can be found in the nucleus. The development of all cancers starts with a single cell accumulating enough harmful changes in DNA sequence that allow it to proliferate uncontrollably. Subsequently, the origin cell’s fast-growing progeny invade surrounding tissues, migrate to other tissues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qh8wn
|
why was/is there such an incredible fear of communism?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because all of the historical attempts has worsened the condition of the country, e.g\n\n[Mao's reign in China](_URL_0_)\n\n[Soviet Union](_URL_1_)\n\nI agree that idealistically the world would have communism, but from what we can see in history it just can't work.\n",
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"answer": "In the US the fear of Communism kicked off after the Russian Revolution, when the states went through the first \"Red Scare\". This was an ideology that had eliminated an established European monarchy - it seemed powerful, and it didn't seem unreasonable to think that a similar revolution could happen in the US, particularly since the country had experienced a lot of high-profile attacks/assassinations by anarchists at the end of the 1800s and start of the 1900s. It was an ideology that went against what people believed was the American way of life - Lenin was talking about a global revolution, and there were a lot of people in the United States that would have a lot to lose if what happened in Russia happened in their country too.\n\nAfter WWII I doubt anyone thought there was any kind of risk of the USA undergoing a communist revolution. The fear was more that the USA's could lose allies to communism, and that the ideology would spread, or that the communist 'enemy' would attack the US.",
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"answer": "All these people are talking about dictatorships. It's understandable because dictatorships and communism go hand in hand kind of. You can say that is the fear with communism because people usually associate it with a dictatorship. When people think of communism they think of people getting shot for criticisms against the government and their liberties getting taken away. This is just more of a by product of the one party system. If the party is an ass and wants to take liberties away they can. But it the party is cool and allow those liberties they can. Both work in communism.\n\nSome of the key features of communism is the means of production is controlled by the state and the economy is planned by the one party. This means that the one party decides how the economy is going to run. They determine how many of one product is going to be produced and determines the prices for those product. There are also a lot of other features that appear good on paper, but don't really work out in reality. \n\nIt should be noted that no government has really achieved real communism/socialism they just picked some of the features they liked left the rest out.",
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"answer": "*Note: I am not a history or a sociology major or anything that could be classified as 'a professional' on this subject. I've just had alot of history classes and read alot. Im going to try and cover Communism as a concept and as a history topic.*\n\n\n* **Communism == USSR**\nRemember that Communism, or Marxism-Leninism as in the 1920's was what overthrew the Russian monarchy in a revolution and began the USSR. As you must know that the USSR was an enormous economic power that grew extremely quickly to rival the U.S. After defeating Germany with the Allies, at the end of the WWII the USSR decided it would be *a great idea* if the whole world would reject democracy (or whatever government they currently had) and use socialist(?) Communist governments, and decided to enact this process by force- invading Eastern Europe and supporting parts of Africa (Congo and Ethopia) and East Asia (Korea) in communist reform. The U.S. (and some of Europe, but mostly the U.S took active measures) saw this 'spread' of 'communism' as a threat- and thus the war between 'democracy' vs 'communism', 'the west' vs 'the east *(of the Berlin Wall)*, the U.S vs the USSR in indirect conflict over ideology began (thus begins the Cold War.)\n\nWe can blame propaganda and people like McCarthy for giving the popular beliefs about communism being bad and such- but again, Im not a sociologist, the propaganda was likely as bad for both sides. But the 'War against Communism' was a frightening war where both sides could obliterate the world with nuclear arms; a war not on land or other disputes but the ideology of government. The outcome of this war between the U.S vs the USSR (and the collapse of the USSR) has been cemented into our ideals of Democracy vs Communism; and considering the public opinion of these nations you can guess which government system is favoured.\n\nAs for why there is still a fear now, we still have a major country that still uses Communism style of government- China. I'll presume you already know why people are in fear of China; I dont spread rumors so I'll refrain from listing them here. Of course China is still doing extremely well under its government so ultimately Communism cannot be labeled as bad/evil. On the other hand we also have North Korea- which with its military spending, personality cult, low standard of living(?), censorship and suspect behaviour, represents a threat(?) of what a Communism governments can perform (similar occurrences are reported from the USSR and China). I cant tell if any of this is completely true because yes, propaganda and censorship still exist both for and against North Korea.\n\n\n* **Communism as a concept/ideal**\nAssuming you know what communism is, most people confuse it with an extreme version of socialism. Socialism presumably being- reforms that favour use of state funding to help a majority of people (e.g welfare, health care reforms, etc). There's the belief that reliance on state funds will increase (thus more taxes) and people will do less to benefit themselves (this is ignoring people who are already in less than ideal situations due to circumstance and the state funding is their only reliable means of escaping poverty/etc). This doesnt seem to be much of an issue with European countries where social reforms are widespread- but in the U.S there seems to be a strong backlash against social reforms and these 'social reforms' are then perceived to be our government heading towards 'communism'.\nThe Western world (U.S, Europe) is probably never going to head towards Communism unless a very serious threat/something occurs.\nThats all I've got. Being from Nigeria, England and the U.S I think I gave a decent but neutral description on the topic. I dont think there's anything inherently wrong with Communism; but the examples we do have (excluding China?) have not been exemplary.\n\n**TL:DR** The Cold War made the U.S (representing Democracy) seem like the good guy and the winners over the bad guy; the USSR (representing Communism.) \nLots of propaganda from both sides.\nLots of atrocities and low standard of living committed under Communist governments.\nPeople link a 'welfare state' with being Communist.\n\n**Edit:** Lots of grammar mistakes. LOTS OF THEM.\n\n**Edit 2:** I acknowledge that my answer is by no means complete and I should have put more emphasis on the atrocities that occur as a result of Communist governments (the dictatorship of Stalin in the USSR, Mao Zedong of China, and various countries of the Eastern Bloc. I encourage people to read the criticism/replies before forming a complete opinion on Communism (although this is reddit- you should never take just one person's opinion on something anyway.) \n\nCommunism is also a very vague and nebulous idea- its important to learn from history but its also important to know that Communism is not **solely** the manner in which Stalin / Mao built up the USSR and China upon bodies of their own people (although it seems to happen **every time**, but the USSR/Stalin originated the first communist government so it might be what others built upon on, or maybe its just my bias in thinking dictators use Communism as a means for absolute power that caused me to omit this.) If someone can better explain what Communism is from a concept/ideal point of view please do. Thanks again- the original post has stayed the same.",
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"answer": "Partly seeing what governments espousing Communism (Soviets, Maoist China, modern China to a much lesser extent) have done in the past, partly propaganda, partly horror at Communist philosophy.\n\nThe Soviet Union was founded in an extremely violent, bloody revolution. The royal family, including the children, as well as other who happened to be born into noble families, were murdered. Churches were seized, pillaged, and burned, and clergy murdered or exiled, showing that the revolutionaries (called the Bolshevics) had no respect for God. Religion, which unlike on Reddit was and is mostly revered, was banned. Dissenters were killed or imprisoned. Later, under Stalin, purges even began within the party, leaving no one safe. The model of central, state control of the economy that defines socialism was inherently and historically inefficient, leading to widespread poverty and starvation at worst, and lack of opportunity at best.\n\nThose that have studied the philosophies involved have deeper complaints. By collectivising the means of production and placing it under state/community control, Communism denies people agency. It denies people the right to pursue their own best interest over that of the collective, which is one of the most basic and fundamentsl human rights there is. It justifies this with a skewed view of history based on class warfare and perceived (and sometimes real) oppression. It wrapped this up with a universalist view of their revolution - they believed (and practiced to varying degrees) in spreading their revolution worldwide, so it wasn't something that could be brushed off as someone else's problem.\n\nFinally, from the beginning there has been a lot of propaganda muddying things up. While the attrocities committed by Communist revolutionaries and governments are real, some people let their reasonable distaste for it get too far and either make them seem bigger or more common than they were, or ignore the role played by incompetence. The power of the Soviet Union, and their will to destroy us, were hugely exagerated. The soviets loved to keep things secret, leading people on the outside to assume the worst. The desire to spread Communism wavered over time, but you wouldn't hear about that. The presence of big scary communism lead people to overlook problems with their own governments, partly by the design of people with an interest in maintaining the status quo, and partly out of honest priorities.\n",
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"answer": " In a communist country there is no private property and everyone works for the collective good. In democratic free enterprise workers receive the marginal value of the product or service they produce. The theory is that with the existence of private property people will work hard to better their own position in life (and in doing so they unintentionally increase the overall GDP of their country). Communism was originally proposed as a post capitalist structure but it has always been implemented in countries that do not have a vast amount of wealth to collectivize. The result is that hunger becomes more widespread rather than wealth, as was the case in the Soviet Union. If communism were implemented in a wealthy country like Luxembourg it would likely have an entirely different result from the terror based regimes we are familiar with. Once the human race has developed to a point where we no longer need innovation and most of the world problems have been solved (ie hunger, pollution, disease) it may be possible to finally adopt a system where we all work together rather than race each other to the top.",
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"answer": "Since I haven't seen anyone mention it yet, look into primitive communism, many tribes were successful for thousands of years without personal property and ownership of others labor. Unfortunately, models like these don't scale up well, but in smaller groups it can still be possible, the people in that system however would have to give up many of the comforts we hold dear in modern society, and I don't know many people who would want to do that, myself included. But to answer your question in a completely uneducated viewpoint, I feel most of the fear of communism is a fear of losing ones own identity as an individual. We have grown up in a paradigm that promotes rugged self sufficiency and it's hard to imagine any other way, so fear of the unknown I'm sure plays a part, plus there has never been a good modern model that hasn't ended in catastrophe. Hope this helps! ",
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"answer": "It isn't fear. Communism is intrinsically flawed because it is merely a set of laudable goals but zero understanding of human psychology or sociology. That is exceedingly dangerous combination when many people blindly support it because it permits individuals to grab massive power with little real understanding of how to create a successful society. \n\nWhat it leads to, ineluctably, is the opposite of communism; massive inequality and domination. ",
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"answer": "The rich feared losing all their power and money, which is ironic, given the current state of communist China. ",
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"answer": "The points I don't see many people bridging are that when you have sharing or redistribution, someone has to be in charge of doling it out. That someone ends up a point of control and, further, that someone ends up with the privilege of giving themselves and their friends more than anyone else. \n\nTheoretically, community oversight can solve this; in practice, that doesn't tend to happen. Among other reasons like basic human complacency, national scale means you can no longer personally watch the people doling stuff out. So you trust someone else and then they become a point of control too. \n\nThat's why, human desire for more stuff aside, communism isn't sustainable at scale, and tends to lead to dictatorial governments. The same issues potentially exist in socialism and capitalism, especially with the US's form of democracy, but capitalism in theory keeps power (via money and opportunity) more distributed. In practice, it also devolves (as we're currently seeing), just in a different way and pace. \n\nRe: it being scary, probably because it does look so good on paper, and because once you start it it's hard to reverse until the system in general collapses. You can flee, but you probably don't have enough power to actually modify the system. Capitalism and democracy at least give the illusion of choice and power, if not always the reality. \n\nArguably, the truly scary thing is power centralization, however it happens. But the lure of \"getting things done\" is high enough that people go for it every time. Ambition doesn't always work in one's favor on the long scale. ",
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"answer": "There's an interesting economic argument against communism called the [economic calculation problem](_URL_0_) about how economic planning is a poor (or impossible) substitute for markets. The arguments stems from a debate in the 1920s between Austrian/marginalist economists and Marxists economists called the [socialist calculation debate](_URL_1_). Back then (neoclassical) economics was still in its infancy.\n\nThe gist of the argument is that without a price mechanism, which a market provides, you cannot match demand and supply. \n\n",
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"answer": "To me its seems that everyone thinks that what Russia had was pure Communism. What most people hate is actually the political view Stalinism. Leon Trotsky's (the original communist leader) views were very diffrent to Stalin and it was when he died in which the political idea communism became hated, because of what Stalin turned it into.",
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"answer": "Second time today I've found myself suggesting people read Leon Trotsky. Also, you're crazy if you think China is still practicing Communism. It isn't. They're capitalists under single-party state control. ",
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"answer": "Because it killed 50,000,000+ people.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'll go a different direction with this.\n\nPeople, you know are afraid of many things. We are afraid of things that look scary or things we don't know or things we don't understand. We're afraid of change in any form really, just like tomorrow, if I said we are going to eat completely different food now on, before you even tasted what I make, you will be a little unsure how to feel.\n\nNow I could tell you, communism is bad and millions and millions of people died because of it, but really, how many people died from god, or democracy. It's hard to say, but what I can tell you is, people don't like change, and when we all finally agree to change, it's usually when things are so bad we feel like there is no other way.\n\nIn those situations, it is easy for certain people to hold great power and do good things or do bad things.\n\nThere is a certain fear of communism in the U.S.A, but people also fear electric cars and thorium reactors and solar panels and hell and...well so many different things.\n\nPeople are generally afraid of anything that is not the norm.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "We are raised to believe Communism is bad like we're raised to believe hard work pays off in a Capitalist state. While the latter [is demonstrably untrue](_URL_0_), the former is more problematic. \n\n\"Communism,\" following Marx, is a stateless, classless, moneyless society. Stalinist Russia, or Castro's Cuba were therefore never Communist societies- they were actually quite the opposite. They relied on heavy state control, stark social stratification, and state manipulation of currency. Those countries did nothing to abolish the state, to upend the class war, or to eliminate wage slavery. They aren't particularly relevant to this conversation, because while they are excellent examples of State Capitalism, or Fascism, they aren't very pertinent examples of Communism. \n\nThe great fear of Communism in the US follows from what a Marxist might call \"Ideological State Apparatuses.\" In school, in the media, in religious institutions, even in our families, the Capitalist ideology pervades. It's neither rational nor irrational, but it's inculcated early and often into our daily practices, and therefore into our ideologies. \n\nThis is what causes a kneejerk reaction in many to the concept of Communism. Few truly understand by \"Communism\" that a widely laudable set of ideals is being set forth, with a century and a half's worth of strong scholarship in its favor. They point to Soviet Russia, or \"The People's Republic of China\" as strawmen against the Communist proposition because their prescribed ideology prevents them from seeing the difference between the two.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Just a few reasons, off the top of my head...\n\n* Iron curtain\n* Millions killed by their own government\n* Failed economic system\n* Bread lines\n* Little to no hope of improving one's lot in life\n* Widespread poverty with very few controlling the money and power (people bitch about this in a capitalistic economy, it is ironically worse in a \"communist\" economy)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Additionally, to add to the good historical facts raised below, the communist nations not only did not care about an individuals rights, they made it a point to squash all dissent. There was no such thing as free speech at all. One had to be very careful to what you said and to whom. The Berlin Wall was not put up to keep West Germans from escaping to communist East Berlin. It was the other way around and that was true in all the Eastern Block nations. Life was very hard for people and communists, generally, do not run a good economy or agribusiness resulting in severe shortages of food and other basic goods. You are still a very fortunate person to be born and raised in the USA. You can learn how so in more detail from immigrants, especially political ones. \n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "On an unpollotical note and note reading much of other comments would u feel comfortable in a society in which no matter how hard you work you will always be equal in wealth amd etc as some one who does nothing ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did you not read this mornings news? 80 North Koreans shot for having bibles or watching porn and soap operas. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This video explains the basic american fear of Communism during the peak McCarthy Era better than anything else I've ever found.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "Communism, as an ideology, is incompatible with many Western beliefs/ideals such as private property ownership and individual achievement (the idea that if you work harder or are more business savvy/risk-taking, you should be rewarded accordingly). Proponents of capitalism will argue that communism stifles progress and invention.\n\nHowever, in theory socialistic societies don't sound horrible, especially when we know of the gross inequalities in our world today. Just look at America's 1%. Say what you will, but that's a gross inequality of wealth in the world's top economy--should CEOs be taking in multimillion dollar salaries while employees are laid off? Sorry, I digress, but a communist might criticize capitalists for that reason.\n\nCommunism became unspeakable to Western societies after World War II, when the bipolar powers of the US and USSR emerged as competitors in a roughly 40-year pissing contest that would span all over the world. The Truman Doctrine of 1947 was Truman's request for Congress to send millions of dollars in aid to Greece and Turkey to aid in recovery and development. Truman warns that poor countries are prone to radicalism, which would result in socialist governments taking over. He characterizes the world in black and white terms, Russians/communists = evil, Americans/liberty-loving capitalists = good.\n\nInterestingly enough, the Communist Party in the US had been around since 1919 and were essential in creating and leading major labor unions. Communist-trained leaders and members were known to be very organized, good at recruiting members, exceptionally passionate and dedicated to their job. Communists were also known as more willing to accept African Americans in labor unions (pretty rare for the time) and were more likely to be proponents in general for civil rights and economic equality.\n\nBy the late 1940s, though, communism was not only unpopular; it was evil. With the \"closing of the Iron Curtain,\" communism became solely associated with the Soviet Union, America's ultimate enemy. Early on, the war in Korea (1950) proved that we would be fighting physical wars against communist proponents in addition to proxy wars in Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East.\n\n**To really answer your question**, however, the Red Scare (1947-1955 roughly) is why there was such an incredible fear of Communism. People often refer to the era and the attitude itself as McCarthyism, so named after a turd of a Senator named Joseph McCarthy who engaged in modern-day witch hunts of alleged communists. The Red Scare was the fear of the upsurge of Communism in America, and the specific fear that we were being infiltrated by Soviet spies. \n\nThe American government was the one going after everyone! They imposed loyalty tests for federal workers. Workers who were found to have ties with Communism were fired. Keep in mind that CPUSA had been labor supporters just a decade back; many workers had interactions--even brief ones--with CPUSA for this reason. Yet this would work against them. If your name was found on a confiscated CPUSA mailing list from 1937, you were suspicious.\n\nCommunism *was* more prevalent in the entertainment circles. In Hollywood, directors, writers, producers, actors, and many more in the industry were blacklisted--sometimes by their own peers (see Elia Kazan). Some were appalled by it; Stanley Miller, a playwright who was himself questioned by the US Congress, wrote The Crucible as an allegory for the era. These Congressional hearings themselves were awful. Hearings aren't like courts, and there's no due process of the law. Congressmen like Joseph McCarthy would hurl allegations at a powerless victim; even if they weren't guilty of anything, simply the public embarrassment of being involved was enough for it to affect you for the rest of your life. It lasted only until the mid-late 1950s, but damn, it was bad. You knew it was going downhall fast when McCarthy accused General Marshall, a friggin war hero, of being a Communist. \n\nBut still, it's quite the sore subject.\n\nP.S. The [kibbutzes](_URL_0_) in Israel are intriguing modern communal communities. I personally would love to know more.",
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"answer": "Because of human nature\n\n",
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"answer": "How could you do it on a large scale without a fascist government? People are always quick to point out that the USSR and People's Republic of China aren't good examples of communism, but the system inherently requires a large degree of centralized planning to the extent that control will have to be exerted on the individual in a way that makes cronyism look like anarcho-utopia. ",
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"answer": "I just don't like the idea of the government telling me what job I have to do for the rest of my life, and owning my land/house, yada yada. I'm all for helping people. I donate to charities, help at the food kitchen, whatever I can. But I want to be able to help people help themselves. I want to be able to choose my career, buy the house I want, all of which I've done. We can all still work together, it's just better to do it all by our own choices, rather than the government controlling all or most of our lives. \n\nI know this is brash, vague, and not helpful. Just my very quick 2 cents. No disrespect to anyone that feels different.",
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"answer": "This sounds like one of those ELI5 questions that everyone tried to answer like it's ELI'm a college senior. ",
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"answer": "An example from childhood: Your teacher assigns a project and you have groups of 4. How often do you actually get all 4 people to make a contribution? Usually it's the motivated kids pulling extra weight to get 4 people's work done. \n\nBy removing the personal consequences of failure and rewards of success, communism breeds apathy. ",
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"answer": "I believe Communism as an idea is sound and fair. It's just extremely hard to implement as it relies on the people in power having integrity and actually sticking to the plan. Thing is, the people in power can never be entirely trusted and in general people are greedy selfish fucks.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Why's there a fear of communism? Take a look at the everyday circumstances of the average person in China, or formerly, in the USSR.",
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"answer": "This question was answered rather eloquently in 1985: _URL_0_",
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"answer": "The reason communisms barbarity is seemingly poorly understood is that too many of the intellectual elite of the capitalist/democratic West were enamored of its ideas. No one really defended fascism after WWII, but there were still intellectuals- professors, journalists, artists, who thought that Marx had good ideas. They spent a lot of energy excusing the crimes of communism, often trying to lay the responsibility for these atrocities on the \"wrong man\" being at the pinnacle of the system, or even on American actions. (They only did it 'cause they were afraid of us.)\nThe Holodomor was an explicitly communist act. The Kulaks of Ukraine did not wish to \"collectivize\" their farms, so the Soviets did their best to exterminate them (4-14 million dead, mostly of absolutely, undeniably intentional starvation.) People act like it is only the megalomaniacs at the top, or the free-loaders on the collective farm that spoil communism.\nNope. Communism spoils communism. What Stalin did to Ukraine was the logical, and only outcome of forced collectivization. If you stand in the way of the collective will, your existence is a problem to be solved. The justification is that the goal is so, so important, no individual can be allowed to hinder it. \n\nWhen Mao inflicted the \"Great Leap Forward\" upon China, he created what is probably the greatest famine in human history. Either it was willful elimination of excess population for the benefit of industrial development and population control, or it was (as an economist might say) misallocation of resources in the absence of the price signal. Pretty predictable. The national cultural suicide that was the Cultural Revolution was another perfect example of communism properly practiced. Mao gets all the credit for China moving into the 20th Century, as if China would have stayed a semi-feudal warlord infested state with out the Great Helmsman. Marx, and later communists, realized that communism could not work if the people retained their old value system. Hence the \"Vanguard Period\" when they would be instilled with the new ethos. Sure, it was part personality cult, but this gets at another problem of communism:\nHave you noticed that apologists for communism always point to people as the problem? If your system is not designed for people, please don't use it on them. \nYet people still point to China as the success story, ignoring the fact that this incredible rise coincides with the end of Mao and Deng Xiaoping's adoption of more capitalist economics. Look closely at China, and I think you will find that, while it is massively productive and way better off than it was, it is starting to run into the limits of \"Socialism with Chinese characteristics.\"\nSo, yes I guess we can say that despite many dedicated communist revolutions, communism has never existed. In the end human nature and the inherent inefficiency of central planning did them all in. \n\nThe presumption after the tens of millions of lives lost must be that communism does not work, and attempting it leads to an incredible concentration of power in a totalitarian state that will prevent any redress of grievances with terror.",
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"answer": "From a personal view communism does not work because it does not reward the gifted, there is no incentive to be good at anything.",
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"answer": "666 comments; Communism's evil confirmed! ",
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"answer": "Fear of Communism mainly manifests in areas dominated by Capitalism. In situation where there is inequity, the folks who possess the lion's share are generally unlikely to endorse a systemic change that would change ownership to everyone. And the folks that have the most money have the greatest ability to control messaging.\n\nIronically enough, the real hardcore capitalist types that endorse Laissez-Faire policies and no regulations are, in fact, endorsing communism. Karl Marx saw Capitalism as a critical step in the evolution to it's successor (known to the public somewhat interchangeably as communism, marxism, socialism.) In order for the succession to occur, Capitalism needs to be left completely unfettered. The result, according to Marx, would be over-production and severe income inequity which would cause a crisis of capitalism. The workers would become too poor to afford the goods that are produced by their capitalism employers. The system stalls and over-production occurs. (JIT production systems hadn't been invented yet.) It's at this point that a revolution would occur and the goods would be distributed fairly.\n\nSo - want Communism? Go with the Tea Party and Neoconservative types and buckle your seat belt. \n\nAs an aside, it's interesting that in addition to their policies supporting a Communist revolution, the Republicans control 'red states.' They also complain viciously about Liberals just as Karl Marx did. And the Neoconservative movement actually started in the American Communist Party.\n\nTLDR; The Republicans are, in some ways, more communist than avowed communists.",
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"answer": "Feared by who? The rich and powerful who control most of the information feared communism b/c the communists tended to purge them, appropriate their property and wealth, and hand it out to others. Most of the rest of the Red Scare was just smoke and mirrors because --though communists have done some truley horrible things-- fascists and capitalists and others 'ists\" of all ilks have done just about the same amount of evil to average people as communists. But those who pull the strings were very well aware that communists would snatch their wealth and so they put a lot of effort into anti-communist propaganda. ",
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"answer": "Communism is idealistic in nature. This proposed form of government, in no way takes the human behavior into account. It is an idealistic design, for a people far from ideal. Humans are flawed, it is what defines us. Therefore true communism has yet to exixst. What does exist, is a bastardization of the communist ideal.",
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"answer": "It is important to know that real communism has never happened on a large scale. People love to throw around the word communism, but many don't actually know what it is. To quote attiladanun \" Your teacher assigns a project and you have groups of 4. How often do you actually get all 4 people to make a contribution? Usually it's the motivated kids pulling extra weight to get 4 people's work done.\" This is only because of the teacher being a bad teacher. If there is some sort of enforcement that says \"well, if you don't do your part, then you get nothing\" then people will do their part. Communism works quite well on a small scale such as tribes or communes. This is because there will be consequences if you don't chip in.",
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"answer": "Because you live in a country that was capitalist during the existence of the USSR and the USSR was explicitly anti-capitalist. The country had every intention of creating global communism and tried to support communist revolution whenever possible. The capitalist countries, especially the US tried to do the opposite, by installing capitalist-friendly (although often authoritarian) regimes wherever it could. The middle there was a massive propaganda war. The US government has very actively tried to make you hate communism. That is why there is such an incredible fear. The propaganda was extremely effective. ",
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"answer": "Communism was an attempt to promote the equality of all people in a society. In modern terms, it's the knee here reaction people have to the golden parachute CEOs; they've been so hurt by the fabulously wealthy that they would rather remove the concept of wealth and class than be subjected to the giant gap between the poor and the mega rich. For Communism, especially in Russia, this doesn't really work. Government workers were given more power than ever, and the military officials got to be top dog. To me, it's the returning to a caveman type era, why be nice to the little weakling when you've got the bigger stick? Also, like the previous commenter, when everyone gets equal reward for every job, those that have the crappiest, dirtiest jobs (think garbage man v burger flipper) are ticked off because their effort is far higher than others but they all get equal reward. And in the case of Russia that reward was awful. It's all basic modern economic principle and that's why capitalist/Democratic systems are often viewed as superior because they are based upon individual choice and the pursuit of personal goals. Mind you, this is ftom a western cultural perspective. I've heard that eastern cultures are more focused on benefitting the community. ",
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"answer": "It's collectivism vs individualism. I think you'll find there's a place for both, but the argument for collectivism is far more compelling.",
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"answer": "Communism needs to first be understood. First the soviets did not have communism and neither do the chinese etc.. they have or had \"forms\" of communism.\n\n\"TRUE\" communism is rather closely relates to true \"socialism\"\n\nthey are not necessarily \"bad\" unless your wealthy. then they are very very bad.\n\nthe wealthy people in control of our nation certainly don't want to give up their wealthy so they demonized communism in extreme.\n\nnow its just built into our society to hate it.\n\nand this is just fine for the wealthy ones in power :-)",
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"answer": "Arguments about how there has never been a truly communist country are essentially fantastical. All attempts at communism (on a national and not village or tribal level) have wilted down to the proliferation of repression and grave injustices. Capitalist systems started out pretty awful by today's standards, but I am able to make that statement because things HAVE improved, capitalism allows for improvements (albeit slow and painful) that communism doesn't. The only communist system that has survived to be a world player is the Chinese one, and I think most will agree that it's because their economy is essentially capitalist. Their political philosophy is the one that's still communist, and most will agree that the injustices and censorship etc. of that style of governance are not desirable. \n\nSo communism has fared worse than capitalism both as an economic philosophy and as an political one. (Actual results, not intended ones). This is not to say that capitalism is the ideal (no human construct is), but as history and actually results on the ground have shown, capitalism makes things better, **overally** and **eventually**, i.e. on a national and global scale. The improvement is like a chain saw, it contains rises and falls on a smaller scale, but it rises none-the-less. So I yearn to see a scientific approach to political discourse, where we don't simply pin ideas in our heads together, but look at actual results. \nLet's not debate the ideas or the intentions, but the actual results achieved in practice.\n\nSo communism is feared because in all attempts (despite all cultural, economic, linguistic differences etc. between all communist and former communist countries), it (without fail so far) degenerates into tyranny and doesn't pull out of it. (The only ones pulling out clearly adopting capitalist philosophies in their economies.) Its ideals greatly appeal to our sense of equality and so forth, but in practise it emphatically fails to achieve its goals. This appeal is what attracts so many young boisterous and change seeking individuals, which is why the left is comprised primarily of active young adults. But the results on the ground are why it is not popular among the more mature demographics, when people eventually realise that actual actions and results are more important than intentions, no matter how noble. That is why \" **if u are not a radical in your early 20s, you have no heart; but if you are still a radical in your 40s, you have no head** \"\nMost people are incapable and unwilling to look at these things in required detail, and so the capitalist countries resolved to simply shun communism in (ironically) a rather authoritarian manner. But that's fine, because we must not create a false dichotomy; there is a lot of grey area, and though grave injustices can occur under capitalism, it effing improves, and moves on.\nAnd when a better system pops up, we'll take it. But communism is definitely not it. In the evolution of political philosophies, communism has is definitely being pushed to extinction, principally because it doesn't work. So let's not create a false dichotomy and say that capitalism is just as horrible as communism; there are similar undesirables, but one can clearly move in a direction that the other can't.\n\nUnless we have an apocalypse and return to living as small tribe! :)\n\nOne other thing. Governments suck at doing most things. Imagine Apple or Ferrari being run by a centralised government type body, I dare say that you are far less likely to have the innovation and growth etc. experienced. So think about **that** when u espouse collectivised economies and wealth redistribution and egalitarianism in a world we know that we have very different people with very different capabilities and motivations. There is a very good reason why Gates made a whole lot more money than me, and trying to make us equal contributors, or sharing his wealth with me or making it for everyone is not the way to go... you'd make him sad and he would move to another country :)\n\nBut seriously, people are afraid of communism because the western powers bullied them into being fearful of it. But for good reason :)",
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"answer": "This is my complete guess and conclusion based on the stories I hear from the vietnamese people I work with who escaped during the Vietnam war. \n\nCommunism is run by party. This party is like the school yard bully, they do whatever they want, when they want.\n\n1/ For example,in AUS for a bill to be passed, it needs to be revised and formally go through a process before it can be imposed. Notice is also given to the public of the new law. \nIn Vietnam, it seemed that the communist can one day say 'today we are no longer using shells as our currency, we are now using beads'. This screws up the nation as everyone was using shells before and they are now poor, hence making the communist party richer as they most likely obtain the majority of beads. This is what actually happened during the Vietnam war (not actually using shells and beads, but changing their currency) \n\n2/ here we follow a structure of law, where if you do something wrong you will be charged/thrown in jail/face consequence in a humane way where you still have rights to being treated in a humane manner.\nIn communist countries, law enforcers ARE the communist and you will not be treated with civil rights as this does not exist. You will probably be bashed, shot or robbed. They can do whatever they want to you and no one can touch them.\n\n3/ they have f**king control over EVERYTHING. Facebook is banned in China, youtube and google is banned in North Korea and Vietnam - no f**king joke. They control what their citizens have access to as they want their citizens to believe they are the best and nicest people out there and that their country isn't suffering.... When it is. I remember at work this vietnamese lady told me just before she escaped from Vietnam, she was required to fill out a permission slip to visit her friend in the next town. WHO DOES THAT!? here you just hop in your car and do whatever you like!! This was 30 years ago so I'm not sure if this is still the case\n\n4/ I was also told that when Ho Chi Minh died, the law enforcers of the town went around telling everyone that they HAD to cry and wail when the media show up. If anyone was caught not doing so, the punishment was they would starve the victims family of rice and food. I guess the communist have access to their food supply as well.\n\n5/everything is all about money. Want to send your child to school? Sick and need meds for pneumonia? Only the wealthy can afford these services as it will go directly into the communists pockets. I know that the healthcare in US sounds like this but the difference is in USA, they will only perform enough service/s so you will not die. They may not treat you, but just enough so you can still walk out breathing. In Vietnam, no medical treatment will be performed unless you show them the munnies.\nIn developed countries there are public schools are education is free. Not the case in Vietnam. Only rich kids get an education or very hard labourers can only afford to send one or two of their many children to school. \n\n6/ humanity does not exist. If you die on the street... Who cares? Your pockets will be emptied clean and everyone will go on about their day. Not over here buddy... Not over here. Someone will probably contact for help, your family will be notified and you will have a proper burial. \n\n\n\nIt sounds like a massive lack of freedom, broken laws and the communist are only interested in making themselves richer and have no interest in helping their nation. I have asked my fellow colleagues the question that if Australia was to be under attack by China, North Korea or Vietnam, would they take refuge again or would they stay. They shook their heads and said 'I would run until I die. I would never succumb to the communist.' I'd say they are probably in their 50s or 60s and came to Australia around thirty years ago.",
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"answer": "This would have been a better question over in /r/AskHistorians. Because it wasn't about theoretical fear of theoretical communism, it was about some specific incidents in Communist history that people were afraid would happen if it came to them.\n\nMost Americans have *no* idea what the Boxer Rebellion was about. For this discussion, the only thing you need to know was that the US Marine Corps was sent in to pull off a kind of takeover of China, to prop up a pro-US regime, and the Chinese people guessed (correctly) that the Christian missionaries who were in China right before the US invasion, who were in some cases the excuse for the invasion when bad things happened to them, were spies for the US and for US oil companies. So when the pro-US government of China got overthrown, Christian missionaries and their converts were tortured to find out what they knew, then slaughtered.\n\nNone of the reasons for this made the papers back in the US, only the fact that after the Communist takeover of China, US missionaries and their converts were slaughtered. So most Americans assumed that, if Communism came to the US, Christians would be slaughtered here, too. (Never mind that Christians were mostly left alone in Soviet Russia. People were having to guess, at a time when their own government was lying to them about what it was doing, so unsurprisingly their guesses weren't all that accurate.)\n\nAnother thing that most Americans didn't know was that the Russian Revolution of 1917 was, arguably, the most complicated war in human history: 13 distinct sides, plus invasion forces from 7 different countries. In the aftermath of the revolution, where a coalition of several sides won, there was a series of show trials, purges, and internal massacres intended to take out rivals to the ruling faction, then again so that one leader inside that faction could stop worrying about being overthrown by his internal rivals.\n\nMost Americans didn't know enough Russian history and politics, or enough about the history of revolutions in general, to understand why any of this was happening. So they assumed it was just happening \"because Communism,\" that if Communism came to the US, there would also be internal genocide, waves of assassination, and show trials of accused dissidents. And maybe it even would have; not because of Communism, but because after most revolutions the aftermath more closely resembles The Reign of Terror than what we went through in the US.\n\nThat being said, there were people whose fear of Communism was somewhat legitimate: people who had inherited great wealth, and people whose income mostly came from the stock market, both of whom stood to lose most of their fortunes, maybe even lose everything, if Communism ever came to the US. So, even if nothing else went wrong while the US was converting to Communism, it would really have sucked for the richest 0.5% or so of us -- and that 0.5% were able to pay for a lot of ads, a lot of lecture tours, a lot of lobbying firms, and a lot of clubs and organizations, to spread stories about how scary Communism was.",
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"answer": "I lived in a communist country when Russians came here. It was the darkest age ever for our state. We are free now and hating communist like ever before. Still, North Korea is com.\n\n//Edit: spelling",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "35312641",
"title": "History of the Communist Party USA",
"section": "Section::::History.:1947–1958: Second Red Scare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 934,
"text": "The widespread fear of Communism became even more acute after the Soviets' detonation of an atomic bomb in 1949 and discovery of Soviet espionage. Ambitious politicians, including Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, made names for themselves by exposing or threatening to expose Communists within the Truman administration or later—in McCarthy's case—within the United States Army. Liberal groups, such as the Americans for Democratic Action, not only distanced themselves from Communists and Communist causes, but defined themselves as anti-communist. Congress outlawed the Communist Party in the Communist Control Act of 1954. However, the act was largely ineffectual thanks in part to its ambiguous language. In the 1961 case, \"Communist Party v. Catherwood\", the Supreme Court ruled that the act did not bar the party from participating in New York's unemployment insurance system. No administration has tried to enforce it since.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222839",
"title": "Welfare state",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 1719,
"text": "It's a little tricky because the US never really had any strong leftist movement. But if you look at Europe, after 1917 people were really scared about communism in all the Western European countries. \"You have all these poor people, they might rise up and kill us and take our stuff.\" That wasn't just a fantasy because it was happening next door. And that, we can show, did trigger steps in the direction of having more welfare programs and a rudimentary safety net in response to fear of communism. Not that they [the communists] would invade, but that there would be homegrown movements of this sort. American populism is a little different because it's more detached from that. But it happens roughly at the same time, and people in America are worried about communism, toonot necessarily very reasonably. But that was always in the background. And people have only begun to study systematically to what extent the threat, real or imagined, of this type of radical regime really influenced policy changes in Western democracies. You don't necessarily even have to go out and kill rich peopleif there was some plausible alternative out there, it would arguably have an impact on policy making at home. That's certainly there in the 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s, and 60s. And there's a debate, right, because it becomes clear that the Soviet Union is really not in very good shape, and people don't really like to be there, and all these movements lost their appeal. That's a contributing factor, arguably, that the end of the Cold War coincides roughly with the time when inequality really starts going up again, because elites are much more relaxed about the possibility of credible alternatives or threats being out there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1115961",
"title": "History of creationism",
"section": "Section::::Post-war.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1402,
"text": "In the 1950s the United States slid into a Cold War with the communist Soviet Union, its former ally. Communism had as one of its principles atheism. Americans divided over the issues of Communism and atheism, but with the Great Purge, Cultural Revolution and 1956 Hungarian Uprising, many became concerned about the implications of Communism and atheism. At the same time, the scientific community was making great strides in developing the theory of evolution, which seemed to make belief in God unreasonable under Occam's razor. The American shock and panic about the 1957 Sputnik launch led to the passage of the National Defense Education Act in 1958 to reform American science curricula. This resulted in the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, also begun in 1958 and with the goal of writing new up-to-date biology textbooks. These new biology textbooks included a discussion of the theory of evolution. Within a few years, half of American schools were using the new BSCS biology textbooks. In addition, the hundredth anniversary of the publication of \"The Origin of Species\" was in 1959, and this sparked renewed public interest in evolutionary biology. The creationist fervor of the past seemed like ancient history. A historian at Oklahoma's Northeastern State University, R. Halliburton, even made a prediction in 1964 that \"a renaissance of the [creationist] movement is most unlikely.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20224767",
"title": "Marxism and religion",
"section": "Section::::Religious criticism of communism.:\"Godless communism\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Throughout the Second Red Scare, the fear of the \"Godless communist\" rooted itself as an epithet and a warning to the United States in a changing global environment. As the perceived threat of the \"Godless communist\" and materialism to the American way of life grew, \"the choice between Americanism and Communism was vital, without room for compromise\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5934518",
"title": "Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Anti-Western.:Anti-communist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Communism was enumerated among the Western dangerous ideas. However, during the invasion of China, Japanese propaganda to the United States played on American anti-communism to win support. It was also offered to the Japanese people as a way of forging a bulwark against communism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31994535",
"title": "Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism",
"section": "Section::::In political discourse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "British journalist and Labour Party (UK) aide Seumas Milne posits that the impact of the post-Cold War narrative that Stalin and Hitler were twin evils, and therefore Communism is as monstrous as Nazism, \"has been to relativise the unique crimes of Nazism, bury those of colonialism and feed the idea that any attempt at radical social change will always lead to suffering, killing and failure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1298133",
"title": "Danny Nalliah",
"section": "Section::::Politics / history.:Views on multiculturalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "\"We also know that Stalin and his communist ideologies were responsible for the murder of millions of people. Although communist ideologies seemed to be very good to many millions of people, the end result was much death and destruction. In other words, 'One Word' becomes a gate way to lead to great disaster if we don't wake up in time. We have seen Nazism and Communism destroy many nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
umxc6
|
How do you regulate calcium if you don't have a thyroid?
|
[
{
"answer": "Calcitonin is actually not that important in normal calcium homeostasis - it's primarily regulated by parathyroid hormone. The parathyroid glands receive feedback from both vitamin D and serum calcium levels to modulate secretion of PTH, which increases vitamin D conversion to its active form in the kidneys while also inducing bone release of calcium to increase serum calcium levels as needed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Arumbar is correct. Just to add, this is why when people have to get their thyroids removed do to disease, cancer or whatnot that they only have to supplement T3 and/or T4 and not supplement calcitonin as well ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9333994",
"title": "Milk fever",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "In normal calcium regulation, a decrease in plasma calcium levels causes the parathyroid glands to secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates the activation of Vitamin D in the kidney. These two compounds act to increase blood calcium levels by increasing absorption of dietary calcium from the intestine, increasing renal tubular reabsorption of calcium in the kidney, and increasing resorption of calcium from bones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51579279",
"title": "Calcium supplement",
"section": "Section::::Interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Calcium supplements by mouth diminish the absorption of thyroxine when taken within four to six hours of each other. Thus, people taking both calcium and thyroxine run the risk of inadequate thyroid hormone replacement and thence hypothyroidism if they take them simultaneously or near-simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378744",
"title": "Calcium in biology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Plasma calcium levels in mammals are tightly regulated, with bone acting as the major mineral storage site. Calcium ions, Ca, are released from bone into the bloodstream under controlled conditions. Calcium is transported through the bloodstream as dissolved ions or bound to proteins such as serum albumin. Parathyroid hormone secreted by the parathyroid gland regulates the resorption of Ca from bone, reabsorption in the kidney back into circulation, and increases in the activation of vitamin D to calcitriol. Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, promotes absorption of calcium from the intestines and bones. Calcitonin secreted from the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland also affects calcium levels by opposing parathyroid hormone; however, its physiological significance in humans is dubious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47677036",
"title": "Child nutrition in Australia",
"section": "Section::::The Results of Poor Nutrition.:Deficiency.:Calcium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 996,
"text": "Calcium is a nutrient that can be gained through the consumption of primarily milk and cheeses, however, can also be derived from fish, as well as vegetables from the brassica family. Children between the ages 4–8 should be consuming 1,000 mg/day of calcium to ensure adequate bone health. Calcium's most essential function relates to the growth and strengthening of muscles and bones, with 1% of calcium also undergoing a crucial role in protein functioning. A lack of calcium within the diet can ultimately lead to progressive bone diseases such as osteoporosis, which results in a loss of bone density due to the overactive osteoclasts reabsorbing bone matrix and overpowering the action of osteoblasts, which build calcium into the bone matrix. Early onset calcium deficiency can result in children developing brittle bones, inhibiting their ability to participate in sporting activities and general weight bearing activities, without an increased risk of fracture and permanent bone damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157877",
"title": "Calcium deficiency (plant disorder)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Calcium (Ca) deficiency is a plant disorder that can be caused by insufficient level of biologically available calcium in the growing medium, but is more frequently a product of low transpiration of the whole plant or more commonly the affected tissue. Plants are susceptible to such localized calcium deficiencies in low or non-transpiring tissues because calcium is not transported in the phloem. This may be due to water shortages, which slow the transportation of calcium to the plant, poor uptake of calcium through the stem, or too much nitrogen in the soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58446217",
"title": "Calcium cycle",
"section": "Section::::Human/animal use of this calcium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Being an essential element, calcium is obtained through dietary sources, the majority of which comes from dairy products. The three most significant mechanisms controlling calcium use within the body are intestinal absorption, renal absorption and bone turnover, which is controlled predominantly by hormones and their corresponding receptors in the gut, kidneys and bones respectively. This allows for calcium use throughout the body, namely in bone growth, cellular signalling, blood clotting, muscle contraction and neuron function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51579279",
"title": "Calcium supplement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Calcium supplements are salts of calcium used in a number of conditions. Supplementation is generally only required when there is not enough calcium in the diet. By mouth they are used to treat and prevent low blood calcium, osteoporosis, and rickets. By injection into a vein they are used for low blood calcium that is resulting in muscle spasms and for high blood potassium or magnesium toxicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2y50t2
|
when i close my eyes and blow my nose, i feel an air bubble in the inner corner of my eye. why?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your tear duct (nasolacrimal duct) is connected to your sinuses.\n\nThere's a flap that's supposed to keep the two separate, but in some people, it doesn't quite seal.\n\nYou're trying to blow air through your nose, but because of the pressure, some of the air leaks through your tear duct.\n\nIf you're bored, search the internet for \"squirt milk from eye\". It's a very clear indication of the connection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because the tear duct is connected to your sinuses. Not everybody can do it. My wife can but she refuses to squirt milk out of her eye because it freaks her out. If I could do it, I'd do it all the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "328853",
"title": "Vitrectomy",
"section": "Section::::Recovery after vitrectomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "A gas bubble may be placed inside the eye, to keep the retina in place. If a gas bubble is used, sometimes a certain head positioning (\"posturing\") has to be maintained, such as face down or sleeping on the right or left side. The gas bubble will dissolve over time, but this takes several weeks. Flying should be avoided while the gas bubble is still present. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12217254",
"title": "Ear clearing",
"section": "Section::::Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "BULLET::::- The \"Lowry Technique\". A combination of Valsalva and Toynbee: pinching the nose to close the nostrils, and blow and swallow at the same time. The nose can be closed without using a hand, using the compressor naris muscles; it can be described as \"wrinkling the nose as if there was a bad smell\". A hand cannot be got to the nose if using a full facemask. Many eyes-and-nose diving masks have two small pockets in their underside, or are like goggles with the soft edge extended downwards over the nose, to let two fingers reach the nose and pinch it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "848560",
"title": "Nasolacrimal duct",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "This is the reason the nose starts to run when a person is crying or has watery eyes from an allergy, and why one can sometimes taste eye drops. For the same reason when applying some eye drops it is often advised to close the nasolacrimal duct by pressing it with a finger to prevent the medicine from escaping the eye and having unwanted side effects elsewhere in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3512524",
"title": "Respiratory sounds",
"section": "Section::::Abnormal breath sounds.:Continued.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rales: Small clicking, bubbling, or rattling sounds in the lungs. They are heard when a person breathes in (inhales). They are believed to occur when air opens closed air spaces. Rales can be further described as moist, dry, fine, and coarse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52819587",
"title": "Romanisation of Sindhi",
"section": "Section::::Indus Roman Sindhi.:Basics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "To get the air to come out of your nose, you lower your velum. This opens up your nasal cavity and lets the air out through your nostrils. You can let air out through your nose and mouth at the same time: This makes a nasalized sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33954949",
"title": "Tympanic membrane retraction",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.:Negative middle ear pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "When gas pressure within the middle ear is less than atmospheric pressure, the eardrum can become sucked into the middle ear space. This is caused by inadequate opening of the Eustachian tube and absorption of air from the middle ear space. People with a patulous Eustachian tube may also cause negative middle ear pressure by repeatedly sniffing to try to keep their Eustachian tube closed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3005129",
"title": "Blepharospasm",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Uncontrollable contractions or twitches of the eye muscles and surrounding facial area. Some sufferers have twitching symptoms that radiate into the nose, face and sometimes, the neck area\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
75gzoc
|
what happens to caterpillars who haven't stored the usual amount of calories when they try to turn into butterflies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Edit: This is an incorrect answer to the original question and could be misleading. This is an example of what could happen if the caterpillar cocoons early due to disease or infection NOT say climate or environmental pressure. \n\nThey generally don't survive once they are out. The body will usually form but wings and legs and such don't come out so well. There are a number of different environmental pressures that would force a caterpillar to try early including food pressure or disease but I'm not aware of a mechanism internal to the pupae to regulate conservation of limited resources when transforming early. \n\nI raise Monarchs and had one go into chrysalis fairly early in its life cycle and come out earlier than expected. It made an attempt at being a butterfly but the second wing wasn't formed and not all of its legs worked. \n\nImagine you planned for a $100,000 house and hired your contractor but only gave them $75,000. With no adjustments to the original plan the contractor would build until they ran out of money and then quit leaving you with say a roof and walls but nothing on the inside. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on just how much they are short... The way full metamorphosis works for things like butterflies.. almost the all of the internals of the caterpillar turns to goop and a butterfly starts forming just like it would as if the cocoon were an egg. So slightly /smaller caterpillars just end up becoming slightly smaller butterflies. However if its a huge deficit, then there just isnt enough material to form a functional adult and they dont make it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two hormones governing moulting and metamorphosis in insects. Ecdysone is a fat soluble hormone and increases towards the end of each instar (it accumulates in body fat). Once a threshold is crossed, a moult is triggered. Ecdysone levels drop immediately after the moult, then slowly build up again towards the next peak.\n\nJuvenile hormone (JH) shows declining expression with age. It tells the body what the next stage should be at the ecdysone peak when moulting is triggered. In a caterpillar, once JH levels drop below a predefined threshold, the next ecdysone peak initiates the pupal stage. If the caterpillar is underfed, this ecdysone peak (and hence the next moult) is delayed until sufficient energy reserves are available. \n\nTl;dr - Metamorphosis is delayed till the caterpillar has enough stored energy available",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Or this happens.. there is a particular caterpillar found in arctic regions that may spend up to 14 years as a caterpillar due to the short summer season and extreme winters.. \n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can there be an additional question added to this. \n\nAre caterpillars aware of this transformation? Do they ever have the opportunity to be aware of themselves liquifying and reforming?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is it possible for a caterpillar to live out until its natural death as a caterpillar and never become a butterfly? Or is the likelihood of death too great in that form?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Caterpillars can and do fail to pupate. Have a look at this site:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nStress can cause them to pupate early, when they're not ready, and they'll simply die in the middle of pupating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many good answers so far but I will add that sometimes they do in fact just end up tiny as adults if they do not get enough food or improper nutrition. I import 40,000+ butterflies a year in the chrysalis and can tell you that every year we see a few that are probably 75% smaller than they should be. \n\nI have personally raised an Atlas moth, the largest moth in the world, on palm fronds which are basically nutritionally void (it's mom picked the food, not me). It should have been the size of a dinner plate as an adult. Instead it was about 3 inches across. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not really possible to answer your question about awareness, but the emergent butterfly does have some of the *memories* of the caterpillar. \n\nScientists tested this by making caterpillars averse to a particular smell. As a butterfly, it is also averse to the smell, despite its brain liquefying and re-forming. \n\nI'll try and find a cite. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What happens to all the caterpillars I found eating my dam weed plants when I went to harvest yesterday? Do they turn into lazy video game playing butterflies?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a question that sort of relates to this. If we say that the caterpillar has a conciousness, after the whole process, is it still the same conciousness or is it a 'new' being?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do butterflies still feel like they're caterpillars? Just like how former fat people still fell fat?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I’ve been raising caterpillars for years. \n\nOne year, they had eaten all of the host plant and there was none available in town. \n\nDue to lack of food, they absolutely skipped their 5th instar (stage of caterpillars in between when they shed their skin). \n\nThey pupated after their 4th molt, and all of them (probably about 100 or so) came out very deformed and unable to fly\n\nI didn’t let them suffer, but I feel a syringe with isopropyl is a much easier and humane to kill them. \n\nJust my two cents. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I love how throughout twelve years of school, we were always told that caterpillars turned into butterflies, but I don’t remember them ever saying how.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My dads a high school biology teacher who had a student who gave him a caterpillar. My dad tried to refuse him but ended up with it anyways and told the student he better feed it cause he sure as hell wasnt gonna take care of it. Long story short, the caterpillar didn't eat enough and ended up with only four legs. \n\nOnly reason I found out about this story was because ironically, that student ended up being MY high school biology teacher. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone please explain how that goop turns into a butterfly and how life is sustained in the chrysalis?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What if you very very carefully and gently sliced open a chrysalis while its all liquid inside, and poured it into a tiny ice tray and resealed it with thin wax? would we have square butterflies?\n\nor if you added more super nutrients into the mix.... or added two butterflies worth of goo together... \n\nGiant butterfly or two headed butterfly with four wings?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many things can happen depending on the species of lepidoptera (butterfly/moth). Host quality (their food) plays an important role in many kairmone, allomone, and pheromone production (these are chemicals used for self defense, mating, deterring, calling, etc.) If host quality is bad sometimes the larvae (caterpillars) don't make it to pupation (cocoons and chrysales). Sometimes the larvae develop to adults and lack the ability to lay eggs, adults are undersized, or malformed. Sometimes host quality can affect which females get mated first or not at all. It's complicated but can you imagine if eating steak all the time made you an attractive female? That would be cool",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read a study once that actually touched on your edit question. In it they produced negative outside stimulus on the cocoon i.e. electric shocks or high temperature if I remember correctly. And when they brought the stimulus near the adult butterflies they reacted negatively without the researchers actually doing anything to them. \n\nEdit. I am on my phone so sorry for any misspelling.\n\nAlso I could be wrong on the \"stimulus\" but suficit to say the result were conclusive enough to determine that yes indeed they are conscious of they're environment and themselves while in that state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I raised a couple hundred monarch caterpillars this year. I had a few caterpillars that did not grow to their full size before pupating. Their chrysalis was smaller than usual and as a result the butterfly was also smaller than normal. \nThe very last caterpillar I had stopped growing around the 3rd instar. It stayed that size for a week or so before pupating. Its chrysalis was so tiny but didn't form right. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The specific plant matters to the caterpillar, but most butterflies aren’t picky. Any nectar flower is usually good for them. \n\nNot all flowers have nectar, some have pollen. Butterflies and moths usually like to drink nectar. Bees however, like both. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166898",
"title": "Papilio machaon",
"section": "Section::::Breeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Caterpillars are very fast eaters; they will spend their time eating or resting before they resume their eating again. Once a sufficient size has been attained, they will attach themselves to any available structure with their silky threads. They will then stay still until they become pupae. This will take about a day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2120827",
"title": "Junonia coenia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "Caterpillars of these butterflies appear to prefer plants that produce iridoid glycosides, which are bitter compounds that release a hormone called gastrin that activates the digestive system (i.e. hunger); therefore, iridoid glycoside producing plants stimulate and attract their appetites particularly when found in plants like \"Plantago lanceolata\". In fact, the presence of these metabolites may trigger oviposition behaviors in female butterflies so that descendant larval bodies may better incorporate iridoid glycosides. Iridoid glycolyside metabolites appear to have a growth-stimulating effect on caterpillars but a growth-reducing effect on predators. Predators like ants, wasps, birds, and small animals prefer to feed on iridoid glycoside poor caterpillars rather than iridoid glycoside rich larvae, potentially due to these effects. Therefore, immunity of \"J. coenia\" larvae to predators like ants appears to be strongly related to the concentration of iridoid glycosides sequestered in their bodies. However, too much iridoid glycosides in the diet can negatively affect the immune response of these larvae and lead to increased susceptibility to parasitism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12547531",
"title": "Phengaris rebeli",
"section": "Section::::Lifecycle.:Parasitism of ants.:Integration into host's life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "On the other hand, \"M. schencki\" prefers to feed \"P. rebeli\" during times of food shortage. Thus, in periods of starvation, \"P. rebeli\" caterpillars overall exhibit a higher survival rate than those of the \"M. schencki\" larvae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25647057",
"title": "Aphrissa statira",
"section": "Section::::Social behavior.:Caterpillars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Caterpillars often form very large populations, which then damages their host plants. They may cluster into dense populations along with other species to take advantage of the safety that comes with large numbers. The diversity of caterpillar species in the area can help divert predators to other species. Further, the excess of caterpillars can help prevent the majority from being eaten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48337",
"title": "Caterpillar",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Caterpillars have been called \"eating machines\", and eat leaves voraciously. Most species shed their skin four or five times as their bodies grow, and they eventually enter a pupal stage before becoming adults. Caterpillars grow very quickly; for instance, a tobacco hornworm will increase its weight ten-thousandfold in less than twenty days. An adaptation that enables them to eat so much is a mechanism in a specialized midgut that quickly transports ions to the lumen (midgut cavity), to keep the potassium level higher in the midgut cavity than in the hemolymph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13730906",
"title": "Larval food plants of Lepidoptera",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Caterpillars (larvae) of Lepidoptera species (i.e. of butterflies and moths) are mostly (though not exclusively) herbivores, often oligophagous, i.e. feeding on a narrow variety of plant species (mostly on their leaves, but sometimes on fruit or other parts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18676219",
"title": "Ephestia elutella",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The caterpillars are often considered a pest, as they feed on dry plant produce, such as cocoa beans and tobacco, as well as cereals and dried fruit and nuts. Less usual foods include dried-out meat and animal carcasses, specimens in insect collections, and dry wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qbbd9
|
Question about shuffling a new deck of cards.
|
[
{
"answer": "And as a fun point of fact, the order of the cards you get in a well shuffled deck of standard paying cards has never been seen before, ever. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you perfectly shuffle(cut a deck in half perfectly, and then shuffle exactly one card at a time) the deck 4 times, it will go back to same order. Magicians trick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**EDIT: I'm done**\n\nSorry for the delay, real work called. So, I wrote a program that takes n 52 card decks, and shuffles them the standard way (so many chunks, front to back). User setable are: how many decks you use, how many times you drop the cards from front to back, how many times you get the same card in a row before you consider it poorly shuffled, how many times you get the same suite in a row before it is poorly shuffled, and how many times cards need to be in consecutive order before you consider it poorly shuffled. \n\nDecks were initialized using the order than new decks normally come in, all the cards of a single suite in numeric order from smallest to largest. \n\nUsing a single deck of cards, assuming for \"drops\" per shuffle, that you would dislike having three of the same type of card in a row, 4 of the same suite in a row, or three consecutive cards in a row, and running it 10,000 times you get an answer of 12.4 shuffles. \n\nUsing two decks instead of 1, but then doubling the amount of drops per shuffle from 4 to 8, running 10,000 times, the answer is 16.8. \n\nThe number of cards consecutive in a suite being raised to 5 lowers the average of the single deck from 12.4 to 9.3. \n\nI'll copy my MATLAB code to a comment on this topic.\n\nAlso, if you want any other specific tests run, I'll be glad to do it. Sadly, at work google docs is blocked, so I can't put up a spreadsheet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seven shuffles.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > It seems \"fuzzy\" as to when a deck becomes satisfactorily random due to shuffling, compared to its start \"position.\"\n\nThis is right. First, to be clear, what we mean by \"random\" is a probability distribution that covers all possible decks evenly. I assume this depends on how you shuffle - as mbseid mentions, a perfect shuffle creates the same deck every time, the opposite of random. \n\nThis 1990 NYT article says the minimum number of times you have to thoroughly shuffle a deck is 7. Less is not good enough, more is unnecessary:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > And, what method of shuffling (by hand) can be used to generate this random deck using the least number of shuffles?\n\nDoing a wash randomizes the cards better than multiple riffles. It would be preferable to do one wash, over doing several riffles.\n\nAt the WSOP, a legitimate shuffle consists of a wash, a riffle, a box (continuously cutting the deck), another riffle, and a final cut. Doing this for the first time you open a pack of cards would be enough to sufficiently randomize the order of cards in the deck. For normal use, I would suggest just doing a wash and a riffle.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "can you simulate \"washing\" a deck in your computer analysis? Poker dealers do this when new decks are handed out or at a players request. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Science has a number for riffle shuffles, but poker rooms use the following process with a new deck: wash, riffle, riffle, strip, riffle, cut.\n\nwashing - just sort of spreading the cards out in front of the dealer, mixing them up in a few directions, then gathering them back into a deck\n\nriffle - the traditional imperfect interleave shuffle\n\nstrip - groups of cards are taken off the deck, and stacked to form a new deck on the table\n\ncut - split the deck into two parts, then put the top part on bottom\n\nThis is viewed as being far more verifiably random than just a large number of riffles, because if the dealer can execute a perfect riffle, the position of the cards has essentially no randomness at all, no matter how many riffles are executed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a poker dealer at one of a large chain of casinos, we have to sort the deck back into order in all the breaks in play, and shuffle before every hand. The shuffle we have to do is as follows:\n\nChemmy (some people seem to call this a \"wash\"\n\n2 Riffles\n\nSeveral \"strips\" (this involves taking a random number of cards from the top of the deck and placing them on top of the last strip. We normally strip the deck 4 times twice.)\n\n1 final Riffle\n\n1 Cut\n\nI guess if it's good enough for poker players it must be effective, those guys complain about EVERYTHING.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You could use the fisher yates algorithm to shuffle the deck.\nYou only have to go through the deck once.\n\nLook here:\n_URL_1_\nor _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem here is that you can't effectively quantize the shuffling effort.\n\nIt depends on the shuffling strategy you employ. You need to consider two things:\n\n* You want each card to travel as far as possible and have as few of their initial neighbours in their vicinity - a \"wash\" (as described in other comments) is, in theory good, if done on a large enough surface and with enough patience; on a small surface cards will partially overlap and **tend to maintain their order**. Also, cards will tend to form \"local groups\" and won't distribute uniformly.\n\n* Secondly, whatever strategy you use, it might be reversible and even worse, it might be its own reverse (repeating it will produce a deck identical or very similar to the initial state) - laying the cards in a matrix, rows of N cards and then reassembling the deck by picking the columns. Done twice, there is a chance you'll end up with lots of sequences from the initial deck. If you want to do it, do it an odd number of times and use different prime values for N each time.\n\nPersonally, I prefer to use the following technique: holding the deck, I grab a part of its top (or bottom), less than half, and ruffle it in a random spot into the remainder of the deck that's in my hand (I just press them against each other, the cards will mix quite easily). It can be done quickly and repeated indefinetely, with the possiblity of alternating the spot where you grab the small stack of cards from the deck.\n\nFor \"extra paranoid\" situations, you can split the deck into 2, 3, maybe 4 decks, shuffle them independently using them whatever techniques, ruffle them all together into one full deck again, shuffle it some more, repeat the whole process (split, ... ), until you've had your fill. Doing it twice should be enough for whatever purpose.\n\nP.S.: When opening a new deck, always check that cards aren't stuck together (literally), sometimes their coating will make them adhere to each other and, well, that's bad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you do a straightforward hand shuffle on a new deck, then there's going to be clumps of cards that are still in order (unshuffled), but the clumps will be in random positions - obviously not ideal because if someone sees two cards in order then they can recognise a pattern. \n\nHowever, if you follow an exact shuffling technique, wouldn't the result after shuffling, in theory, create the same order each time (not random)? How can you quantify a method of shuffling from order, without being able to determine the end result? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hope to not be deleted for being unscientific - but I read in the Book of Hoyle years ago that three shuffles is considered \"shuffled\". Riffle or mixing of any type, preferably a combination of three types of shuffling.\n\nYes, not math/statistics - but for some, cannon. Poker rooms are different, this is home type games (hearts, spades, 500 [not Rummy], etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a big card player, I like to shuffle a new deck using the the standard shuffle method then bridging them. I do it maybe 5 or 6 times then shuffle using the grab about a third from the middle then distribute them to the front and back do that a couple times cut the deck once and then once more classic shuffle. Seems extensive but if you dont give a new deck a good shuffle it will be skewed...or just throw the whole thing against the wall and that Gould make it random.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember reading something a while back about this. It said that in order to achieve total randomness, you must shuffle the deck at least 7 times. What I don't understand is how they come up with this number without knowing how well the person shuffled the deck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anyone ever play M:TG? \n\nStart with a wash, deal out 6 (or more) random piles, end with a (faro? interleave?). Wash ensures you don't know which cards are where when you do the 6 piles.\n\nOnly need the wash if you've dealt out the whole deck or if it's a new one.\n\nOnly need the interleave to make the cards easy to handle and for flair.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[My solution] (_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1513520",
"title": "Shuffling machine",
"section": "Section::::Early mechanical card shufflers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "In 1878, Henry Ash proposed an apparatus to shuffle cards. His device was a box with an open top where the operator would place the deck. The operator would then slightly shake the box to make the cards fall through a comb at the bottom of the box. About half of the cards would fall into the lower compartment while the rest was still in the upper compartment. The operator would take these upper cards, pack them together and do the same with the lower cards. The two packs would be placed upon each other to form a new deck and the operation could be repeated for better shuffling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23189",
"title": "Shuffling",
"section": "Section::::Shuffling techniques.:Riffle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "A common shuffling technique is called the \"riffle,\" or \"dovetail\" shuffle or \"leafing the cards\", in which half of the deck is held in each hand with the thumbs inward, then cards are released by the thumbs so that they fall to the table interleaved. Many also lift the cards up after a riffle, forming what is called a bridge which puts the cards back into place; it can also be done by placing the halves flat on the table with their rear corners touching, then lifting the back edges with the thumbs while pushing the halves together. While this method is more difficult, it is often used in casinos because it minimizes the risk of exposing cards during the shuffle. There are two types of perfect riffle shuffles: if the top card moves to be second from the top then it is an in shuffle, otherwise it is known as an out shuffle (which preserves both the top and bottom cards).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25190127",
"title": "Reservoir sampling",
"section": "Section::::Relation to Fisher-Yates shuffle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In the general case, the shuffle also needs to work even if the number of cards in the deck is not known in advance, a condition which is satisfied by the inside-out version of the Fisher-Yates shuffle:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8285744",
"title": "304 (card game)",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:532 (Card Game).:Dealing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The dealer shuffles the cards and the player to his left cuts the deck by giving a single shuffle to the cards. This is done to prevent any cheats by the dealer while shuffling. The dealer then deals five cards to each player in counter-clockwise motion, stacking the rest of the pack face down to the table. The shuffling rules as well as whether to deal in clockwise or counter-clockwise can be changed as per the players interests. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47534278",
"title": "Hammond Electric Bridge Table",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "The deck of cards did not need shuffling beforehand. It was simply placed into a built-in card deck holder in the table top. One of the players would push in the holder which triggered a switch that started an electric motor within the mechanism. This then swung a mechanical arm clockwise that had a rubber finger attached. It then picked up the top card and passed it onto a second arm that decided which bridge player hand would get that card. It had 635,013,559,600 different combinations of cards that any one player could be dealt. It took about a minute for the electric bridge table mechanism to deal out to all four players the 13 cards required. The complicated mechanical gears and levers of the mechanism were referred to by Hammond as a \"robot\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1773505",
"title": "Truco",
"section": "Section::::Truco in Brazil.:Truco Paulista.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "One of the players is chosen to be the first to shuffle and deal. The dealer is allowed to look at the faces of the cards while shuffling so as to be able to place certain cards at certain spots within the deck (e.g. placing the highest-ranking cards together). They are not allowed, however, to browse freely through the deck. After shuffling, the deck must be handed to the player to the left (the \"cortador\"), who can either reshuffle the deck (without looking at the faces of the cards), separate it into two or more parts or simply do nothing. The deck (or the part of it chosen by the \"cortador\", provided it contains at least than 12 cards) is then returned to the dealer who will deal the cards from the top or bottom of the deck (this is chosen by the \"cortador\"). The cards must be dealt counter-clockwise, starting with the player to the dealer's right. They can be dealt one at a time or, most commonly, three at a time. If the \"cortador\" chooses not to reshuffle, they can deal their and their partner's cards in advance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23189",
"title": "Shuffling",
"section": "Section::::Shuffling techniques.:Overhand shuffle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "One of the easiest shuffles to accomplish after a little practice is the overhand shuffle. Johan Jonasson wrote, \"The overhand shuffle... is the shuffling technique where you gradually transfer the deck from, say, your right hand to your left hand by sliding off small packets from the top of the deck.\" In detail as normally performed, with the pack initially held in the left hand (say), most of the cards are grasped as a group from the bottom of the pack between the thumb and fingers of the right hand and lifted clear of the small group that remains in the left hand. Small packets are then released from the right hand a packet at a time so that they drop on the top of the pack accumulating in the left hand. The process is repeated several times. The randomness of the whole shuffle is increased by the number of small packets in each shuffle and the number of repeat shuffles performed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20nta7
|
What is the consensus of the theory that Marcus Brutus is the illegitimate son of Julius Caesar?
|
[
{
"answer": "Very unlikely is the consensus since Caeser is only around 15 years older then Brutus which would have made him very young to be fathering children. Caesars affair with Servilla most likely started around 77bce after the death of her first husband.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15924",
"title": "Julius Caesar",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Name and family.:Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- Marcus Junius Brutus (born 85 BC): The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth. Caesar would have been 15 years old when Brutus was born.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "434750",
"title": "Porcia (wife of Brutus)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Marriage to Brutus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Brutus, along with many other co-conspirators, murdered Caesar in 44 BC. He promised to share the \"heavy secrets\" of his heart with his wife but it is unclear if he ever got the chance. Some historians believe Porcia may have known about the plot, and may have even been involved in the conspiracy itself. Plutarch claims that she happened upon Brutus while he was pondering over what to do about Caesar and asked him what was wrong. When he didn't answer, she suspected that he distrusted her on account of her being a woman, for fear she might reveal something, however unwillingly, under torture. In order to prove herself to him, she secretly inflicted a wound upon her own thigh with a barber's knife to see if she could endure the pain. As a result of the wound, she suffered from violent pains, chills and fever. Some believe that she endured the pain of her untreated wound for at least a day. As soon as she overcame her pain, she returned to Brutus and said:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3216799",
"title": "Marcus Junius Brutus (Rome character)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with the historical Marcus Junius Brutus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Although the rift between Brutus and Servilia is historical it was for different reasons. While the series explained it as Servilia's disappointment with Brutus at accepting favours from Caesar, historically it was Brutus' divorce of his first wife and marriage to Porcia. Modern historians agree that it was Brutus' wife Porcia, rather than his mother Servilia, who may have persuaded him to participate in the assassination of Caesar. However this is still theory based on the fact Porcia was the only woman privy to the plot prior to it being carried out. Again, Servilia fills this gap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15924",
"title": "Julius Caesar",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Name and family.:Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "BULLET::::- Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born \"ca.\" 85–81 BC): On several occasions Caesar expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. This Brutus was also named an heir of Caesar in case Octavius had died before the latter. Ronald Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son of Caesar, Decimus was more likely than Marcus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375349",
"title": "Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born April 27, \"ca.\" 85–81 BC, died 43 BC) was a Roman politician and general of the 1st century BC and one of the leading instigators of Julius Caesar's assassination. Decimus Brutus is not to be confused with the more famous Brutus among the conspirators, Marcus Brutus, though he often is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375349",
"title": "Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Ides of March and its aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "When Caesar returned to Rome as dictator after the final defeat of the Republican faction in the Battle of Munda (45 BC), Marcus Brutus joined the conspiracy against Caesar, after being convinced by Cassius and Decimus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "434750",
"title": "Porcia (wife of Brutus)",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Marriage to Brutus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Brutus marveled when he saw the gash on her thigh and after hearing this he no longer hid anything from her, but felt strengthened himself and promised to relate the whole plot. Lifting his hands above him, he is said to have prayed that he might succeed in his undertaking and thus show himself a worthy husband. Yet Brutus never got the chance as they were interrupted and never had a moment's privacy before the conspiracy was carried out. On the day of Caesar's assassination, Porcia was extremely disturbed with anxiety and sent messengers to the Senate to check that Brutus was still alive. She worked herself up to the point whereupon her fainting, her maids feared that she was dying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33o9h8
|
how can steam charge for mods? haven't mod communities been permitted by developers because they don't profit off the content?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some mods are free, other mods are payware. Mod communities aren't automatically given blanket permission by developers to give away free mods. It depends on the developer, the titles and the modder. They can charge for mods if they want. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So as a mod maker, you can make the mod free.\n\nNow that you can charge for it, steam takes a big chunk of the money. Probably most of it will go to the original content creators to prevent this very thing from becoming a legal issue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "407326",
"title": "Mod (video gaming)",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "There are also free content delivery tools available that make playing mods easier. They help manage downloads, updates, and mod installation in order to allow people who are less technically literate to play. Steam's \"Workshop\" service, for example, allows a user to easily download and install mods in supported games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43360843",
"title": "Aperture Tag: The Paint Gun Testing Initiative",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A general statement by purchasers of the game in reviews on Steam have been that it has a \"poorly written script, sub-par voice acting, and general lack of polish\". Others, however, have largely complained about the existence at all of a $7 price tag for a licensed mod, rather than the game being free of charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407326",
"title": "Mod (video gaming)",
"section": "Section::::Official status of mods.:Controversy surrounding paid mods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "In April 2015, Valve Corporation implemented a \"paid mod\" feature onto Steam; the first game to implement this feature was \"\". The move resulted in a swift backlash from the modding community, and after an enormous influx of complaints of overpriced mods, content that had been published without its creator's consent, and concerns over mods that contained third-party copyrighted content (i.e, material that neither Valve nor the mod creator owned), Valve discontinued the 'paid mod' feature entirely and agreed to refund those that spent money to purchase a mod. Other concerns identified included that being able to mod the game was a reason why players bought the game on PC in the first place, and a worry that newbie modders would not be able to stand on the shoulders of giants by modding pre-existing mods, and that mod teams would become unworkable. The removal of the system itself was also criticized. Nevertheless, Bethesda integrated paid mods into Skyrim Special Edition in 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56676228",
"title": "Playbour",
"section": "Section::::Controversy around playbour and modding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Not only is modding a big part of gaming culture, but it is also an increasingly important source of value for the digital games industry. Game companies usually retain the intellectual property rights of the modifications. Since players need to have a copy of the original game to run the modifications, mods may add to the shelf-life of the product. In addition to that, mods may help with establishing brands (e.g. Counter-Strike), thus saving companies a significant amount of money. Marketing costs often take up a large percentage of a game's budget, but successfully established brands require less marketing. Mods also increase customer loyalty and are an important source of innovation in the digital games industry. Another way that game companies can benefit from the modding culture is that they can recruit modders as employees who are already trained at no cost to the company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28059907",
"title": "Alien Swarm",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "An \"Alien Swarm\" software development kit (SDK) including buildable source code was released alongside the game. It is free to all users of Steam, rather than only to owners of existing Source games (as is the case with the 'mainline' Source SDK). This allows total conversion mods, which do not rely on content from other Valve games, to be free to all as well - a significant business decision that echoes the strategy of the Unreal Development Kit. The SDK and software license allows arbitrary usage and sharing but only for non-commercial purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49390570",
"title": "Minecraft mods",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "\"Minecraft\" mods are independent, user-made modfications to the 2011 Mojang video game \"Minecraft\". Thousands of these mods exist, and users can download them from the internet for free. Utilizing additional software, several mods are typically able to be used concurrently in order to enhance the gameplay and create an entirely different gaming experience when compared to standard issue \"Minecraft\". Mods are credited as one of the foremost reasons why \"Minecraft\" became as successful as it did, with the \"Minecraft\" modding community mentioned as one of the most active modding communities in gaming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14198146",
"title": "Civilization V",
"section": "Section::::Additional content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "In late 2012 the developers released the source code of the core game part to support the modding community. Mods may be downloaded via the Steam Workshop for either version. As of July 2013, the OS X version (Not to be confused with the steam version) does not officially support mods, although working around and moving files from and to certain folders will enable them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jldfz
|
the appeal and glamor of ivy league schools
|
[
{
"answer": "Perceived prestige, top-notch professors and networking.\n\nMany schools outside of the Ivy League offer all three, some for much cheaper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not what you know, it's who you know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hello, I went to an Ivy so I can offer a few anecdotal points. First, you must understand that there are, broadly speaking, two main academic pursuits, which I would categorize as:\n\n* Hard sciences/engineering\n* Soft sciences/business\n\nand of course some subjects in between. However these two are the most common. Now, on to the appeal. As far as the first category is concerned, for undergraduates these schools have some of the best reputations for engineering and premed, even though they are exceedingly difficult. Organic chemistry and thermodynamics suck no matter where you go, make no mistake, but the reputation of these schools in the eyes of Med School admissions boards, for example, can act to make up for slight disadvantages in GPA. Additionally, these institutions have some of the highest endowments/grants in the world, so for post-grad types, the research opportunities are really terrific (Cornell and Carl Sagan played a huge role in the development of the Mars Rover, for example).\n\nNow, as far as the second category, the real allure here is the alumni network. You are paying, in large part, to have access to these people when you start looking for a job after school ends. Finance at Penn's Wharton School isn't tremendously more difficult than Finance at Colgate, but you better believe that they will have more and better connected alumni, particularly in the NYC area. Many of my friends got jobs out of school because their first interview was arranged by an alumnus they knew in the company.\n\nTL;DR: For science, the academic reputation and research opportunities. For everything else, the huge networks of alumni.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perceived prestige, top-notch professors and networking.\n\nMany schools outside of the Ivy League offer all three, some for much cheaper.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not what you know, it's who you know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hello, I went to an Ivy so I can offer a few anecdotal points. First, you must understand that there are, broadly speaking, two main academic pursuits, which I would categorize as:\n\n* Hard sciences/engineering\n* Soft sciences/business\n\nand of course some subjects in between. However these two are the most common. Now, on to the appeal. As far as the first category is concerned, for undergraduates these schools have some of the best reputations for engineering and premed, even though they are exceedingly difficult. Organic chemistry and thermodynamics suck no matter where you go, make no mistake, but the reputation of these schools in the eyes of Med School admissions boards, for example, can act to make up for slight disadvantages in GPA. Additionally, these institutions have some of the highest endowments/grants in the world, so for post-grad types, the research opportunities are really terrific (Cornell and Carl Sagan played a huge role in the development of the Mars Rover, for example).\n\nNow, as far as the second category, the real allure here is the alumni network. You are paying, in large part, to have access to these people when you start looking for a job after school ends. Finance at Penn's Wharton School isn't tremendously more difficult than Finance at Colgate, but you better believe that they will have more and better connected alumni, particularly in the NYC area. Many of my friends got jobs out of school because their first interview was arranged by an alumnus they knew in the company.\n\nTL;DR: For science, the academic reputation and research opportunities. For everything else, the huge networks of alumni.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14975",
"title": "Ivy League",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Admissions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with acceptance rates since 2018 being 10% or less at each of the universities. Admitted students come from around the world, although students from New England and the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students. In 2018, seven of the eight Ivy League schools reported record-high application numbers; seven also reported record-low acceptance rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2565183",
"title": "Hidden Ivies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "In this book, the authors (using the same criteria often used to evaluate Ivy League schools) discuss 30 American schools that are small in size and are either liberal arts colleges or universities that emulate them. \"The Hidden Ivies: 50 Top Colleges - From Amherst to Williams - That Rival the Ivy League\", the second edition of the guide published in 2009, evaluates 50 \"renowned academic institutions.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14975",
"title": "Ivy League",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Ivy League schools are generally viewed as some of the most prestigious, and are ranked among the best universities worldwide by \"U.S. News & World Report\". All eight universities place in the top fourteen of the 2019 \"U.S. News & World Report\" national university rankings, including four Ivies in the top three (Columbia and Yale are tied for third). In the 2019 \"U.S. News & World Report\" global university rankings, three Ivies rank in the top ten (Harvard – 1st, Columbia – 8th, and Princeton – 9th) and six in the top twenty. Undergraduate-focused Ivies such as Brown University and Dartmouth College rank 99th and 197th, respectively. \"U.S. News\" has named a member of the Ivy League as the best national university in each of the past 18 years ending with the 2018 rankings: Princeton eleven times, Harvard twice, and the two schools tied for first five times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14975",
"title": "Ivy League",
"section": "Section::::Academics.:Prestige.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings. In addition to the broad rankings listed in the accompanying chart, several Ivy League schools are highly ranked in the current \"2018 US News & World Report\" assessment of Best Undergraduate Teaching: 1. Princeton; 2. Dartmouth; 3. Brown; 10. Yale. The \"Wall Street Journal\" rankings place all eight of the universities within the top 20 in the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30863982",
"title": "Big Three (colleges)",
"section": "Section::::Historic status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Ivy League schools including Harvard, Yale and Princeton have in the past been regarded as the goals for many children in WASP circles. Some educators have attempted to discourage this fixation. Jay Mathews, author of \"Harvard Schmarvard\", addresses seniors obsessed with Ivy League schools with the analysis: “It does not matter where you go to school, it matters what you do when you get there and what you do after you graduate.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14975",
"title": "Ivy League",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Social elitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old Money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes. Although most Ivy League students come from upper middle- and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse. The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students. Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3359997",
"title": "Southern Ivy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Southern Ivy is an informal term, and not an official body, that has been used in the U.S. to compare Southern universities to the schools of the northeastern Ivy League in some way, usually in academic quality or in social prestige. The \"Southern Ivy League,\" referred to as the \"Magnolia League\", was also a failed attempt to construct an athletic conference with schools that had similar \"academic missions and philosophies\". Given that the term is colloquial, there is no comprehensive, objective or definitive list of schools that are considered \"Southern Ivies\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27mnzg
|
If Arab and Middle Eastern countries did not recognize or support the state of Isreal, why did they allow much of their Jewish populations to emirgrate there from the late 40's to early 70's?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's important to contemplate what else was happening during this time. A lot of the countries involved were fighting against old colonial powers and remnants of imperialism, we have the Suez crisis in Egypt, intensifying Cold War in the region, tensions between Soviet aligned forces, US-leanings and the non-aligned movement. The Palestinian cause is often portrayed as an Arab cause, and the conflict with Israel as the defining element of the 20th century, but in practice there has been little done by Palestine's neighbouring Arabs that can be traced to a support of Palestine (when not beneficial to their own countries)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "407109",
"title": "One-state solution",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for and against.:Against.:Academia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 2095,
"text": "Scholars of the Middle East, including New Historian Benny Morris, have argued that the one-state solution is not viable because of Arab unwillingness to accept a Jewish national presence in the Middle East. Morris has dismissed claims that a binational state would be a secular democratic state and argues it would instead be an authoritarian, fundamentalist state with a persecuted Jewish minority, citing the racism and persecution minorities face throughout the Arab and Muslim world, and in particular, the fact that Jews in Islamic societies were historically treated as second-class citizens and subject to pogroms and discrimination. In his book \"One State, Two States\", he wrote \"What Muslim Arab society in the modern age has treated Christians, Jews, pagans, Buddhists, and Hindus with tolerance and as equals? Why should anyone believe that Palestinian Muslim Arabs would behave any differently\"? Pointing to specific examples of violence by Palestinian Muslims towards Palestinian Christians, Morris writes that \"Western liberals like or pretend to view Palestinian Arabs, indeed all Arabs, as Scandinavians, and refuse to recognize that peoples, for good historical, cultural, and social reasons are different and behave differently in similar or identical sets of circumstances.\" Morris notes the differences between Israeli Jewish society, which remains largely Westernized and secular, and Palestinian and Israeli-Arab society, which according to Morris is increasingly Islamic and fundamentalist, with secularism in decline. He also pointed to Hamas' 2007 takeover of Gaza, during which Fatah prisoners were shot in the knees and thrown off buildings, and the regular honor killings of women that permeate Palestinian and Israeli-Arab society, as evidence that Palestinian Muslims have no respect for Western values. He thus claimed that \"the mindset and basic values of Israeli Jewish society and Palestinian Muslim society are so different and mutually exclusive as to render a vision of binational statehood tenable only in the most disconnected and unrealistic of minds.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36197",
"title": "1948 Arab–Israeli War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Demographic outcome.:Jews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 250,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 250,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Jewish immigrants from Arab and Muslim countries left for numerous reasons. The war's outcome had exacerbated Arab hostilities to local Jewish communities. News of the victory aroused messianic expectations in Libya and Yemen; Zionism had taken root in many countries; active incentives for making aliyah formed a key part of Israeli policy; and better economic prospects and security were to be expected from a Jewish state. Some Arab governments, Egypt, for example, held their Jewish communities hostage at times. Persecution, political instability, and news of a number of violent pogroms also played a role. Some 800,000–1,000,000 Jews eventually left the Arab world over the next three decades as a result of these various factors. Approximately 680,000 of them immigrated to Israel; the rest mostly settled in Europe (mainly France) or the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47130494",
"title": "Mizrahi Jews in Israel",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-1948 dispersal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Anti-Jewish actions by Arab governments in the 1950s and 1960s, in the context of the founding of the State of Israel, led to the departure of large numbers of Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East. 25,000 Mizrahi Jews from Egypt left after the 1956 Suez Crisis, led to the overwhelming majority of Mizrahim leaving Arab countries. They became refugees and most went to Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143149",
"title": "Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries",
"section": "Section::::Middle East.:Iraq.:1948 Arab–Israeli War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Additionally, like most Arab League states, Iraq forbade any legal emigration of its Jews on the grounds that they might go to Israel and could strengthen that state. At the same time, increasing government oppression of the Jews fueled by anti-Israeli sentiment together with public expressions of antisemitism created an atmosphere of fear and uncertainty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "698511",
"title": "Mizrahi Jews",
"section": "Section::::Migration.:Post-1948 dispersal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Anti-Jewish actions by Arab governments in the 1950s and 1960s, in the context of the founding of the State of Israel, led to the departure of large numbers of Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East. The exodus of 25,000 Mizrahi Jews from Egypt after the 1956 Suez Crisis led to the overwhelming majority of Mizrahim leaving Arab countries. They became refugees. Most went to Israel. Many Moroccan and Algerian Jews went to France. Thousands of Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Jews emigrated to the United States and to Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7960202",
"title": "Arab–Israeli conflict",
"section": "Section::::History.:1948 Arab–Israeli War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The status of Jewish citizens in Arab states worsened during the 1948 Israeli-Arab war. Anti-Jewish riots erupted throughout the Arab World in December 1947, and Jewish communities were hit particularly hard in Aleppo and British-controlled Aden, with hundreds of dead and injured. In Libya, Jews were deprived of citizenship, and in Iraq, their property was seized. Egypt expelled most of its foreign community, including Jews, after the Suez War 1956, while Algeria denied its French citizens, including Jews, of citizenship upon its independence in 1962. Over the course of twenty years, some 850,000 Jews from Arab countries immigrated to Israel and other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "675582",
"title": "New antisemitism",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and arguments for and against the concept.:A third wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Into this mix entered the United Nations. Lewis argues that the international public response and the United Nations' handling of the 1948 refugee situation convinced the Arab world that discrimination against Jews was acceptable. When the ancient Jewish community in East Jerusalem was evicted and its monuments desecrated or destroyed, they were offered no help. Similarly, when Jewish refugees fled or were driven out of Arab countries, no help was offered, but elaborate arrangements were made for Arabs who fled or were driven out of the area that became Israel. All the Arab governments involved in the conflict announced that they would not admit Israelis of any religion into their territories, and that they would not give visas to Jews, no matter which country they were citizens of. Lewis argues that the failure of the United Nations to protest sent a clear message to the Arab world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fl538
|
Are the relativistic time differences between clocks on the Earth and the clocks in GPS satellites, due to the reduced gravity 12,500 miles up or the speed at which the satellites travel or both?
|
[
{
"answer": "Both, but the gravitational effect is stronger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The velocity causes the clocks to fall behind by 7 microseconds per day. The lower gravity causes them to go faster by 45 microseconds per day. Net result is that they go about 38 microseconds per day faster than clocks on the surface. So the gravity has a bigger effect and also the two effects are in opposite directions. [Source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The clocks on the satellites run slower than those on the ground by about 7 microseconds per day due to the (special) relativistic effect of their high speed. They run *faster* by about 45 microseconds per day due to the (general) relativistic effect of the \"reduced\" gravity.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27616141",
"title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.:Special and general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The effect of gravitational frequency shift on the GPS due to general relativity is that a clock closer to a massive object will be slower than a clock farther away. Applied to the GPS, the receivers are much closer to Earth than the satellites, causing the GPS clocks to be faster by a factor of 5×10^(−10), or about 45.9 μs/day. This gravitational frequency shift is noticeable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6083924",
"title": "Clock drift",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Time dilation is of practical importance. For instance, the clocks in GPS satellites experience this effect due to the reduced gravity they experience (making their clocks appear to run more quickly than those on Earth) and must therefore incorporate relativistically corrected calculations when reporting locations to users. If general relativity were not accounted for, a navigational fix based on the GPS satellites would be false after only 2 minutes, and errors in global positions would continue to accumulate at a rate of about 10 kilometers each day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27616141",
"title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.:Special and general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height relative to the Earth-centered, non-rotating approximately inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites are affected by their speed. Special relativity predicts that the frequency of the atomic clocks moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly than stationary ground clocks by a factor of formula_54, or result in a delay of about 7 μs/day, where the orbital velocity is v = 4 km/s, and c = the speed of light. This time dilation effect has been measured and verified using the GPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27616141",
"title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.:Special and general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "When combining the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift, the discrepancy is about 38 microseconds per day, a difference of 4.465 parts in 10. Without correction, errors in the initial pseudorange of roughly 10 km/day would accumulate. This initial pseudorange error is corrected in the process of solving the navigation equations. In addition the elliptical, rather than perfectly circular, satellite orbits cause the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift effects to vary with time. This eccentricity effect causes the clock rate difference between a GPS satellite and a receiver to increase or decrease depending on the altitude of the satellite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11866",
"title": "Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earth's observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to . This was corrected for in the design of GPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27616141",
"title": "Error analysis for the Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Relativity.:Sagnac distortion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "GPS observation processing must also compensate for the Sagnac effect. The GPS time scale is defined in an inertial system but observations are processed in an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (co-rotating) system, a system in which simultaneity is not uniquely defined. A coordinate transformation is thus applied to convert from the inertial system to the ECEF system. The resulting signal run time correction has opposite algebraic signs for satellites in the Eastern and Western celestial hemispheres. Ignoring this effect will produce an east–west error on the order of hundreds of nanoseconds, or tens of meters in position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1784313",
"title": "Tests of general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Modern tests.:The equivalence principle.:Gravitational redshift.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Although the Global Positioning System (GPS) is not designed as a test of fundamental physics, it must account for the gravitational redshift in its timing system, and physicists have analyzed timing data from the GPS to confirm other tests. When the first satellite was launched, some engineers resisted the prediction that a noticeable gravitational time dilation would occur, so the first satellite was launched without the clock adjustment that was later built into subsequent satellites. It showed the predicted shift of 38 microseconds per day. This rate of discrepancy is sufficient to substantially impair function of GPS within hours if not accounted for. An excellent account of the role played by general relativity in the design of GPS can be found in Ashby 2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6x97rj
|
William III of England (or Holland, take your pick) was installed by a foreign power. How did this happen and what were the consequences?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tiny correction: William III was stadholder of the Netherlands, not *just* Holland, and he installed *himself* with a bit of help from Parliament. Two years ago [Scott Sowerby held an AMA](_URL_0_) on England in the seventeenth century, including a lot of questions on the nature of the event you're describing, the so-called Glorious Revolution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12466",
"title": "Glorious Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "As stadtholder of Holland, William was de facto ruler of the Dutch Republic; the coalition he built after 1678 to defend it against French expansion was threatened by an Anglo-French alliance. With political support from allies in England, Scotland and Europe, a fleet of 463 ships landed William and 14,000 men in Torbay on 5 November. As he advanced on London, desertions reduced the 30,000 strong Royal Army to 4,000; James ordered these remnants disbanded and went into exile in December. A Convention Parliament met in April 1689, making William and Mary joint monarchs of England; a separate but similar Scottish settlement was made in June. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12466",
"title": "Glorious Revolution",
"section": "Section::::The decision to invade is taken.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The biggest concern for the States of Holland was the impact on the Dutch economy and politics of William becoming ruler of England; the claim he had no intention of \"removing the King from the throne\" was not believed. Their fears were arguably justified; William's access to English resources permanently diminished Amsterdam's power within the Republic and its status as the world's leading commercial and financial centre. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18516324",
"title": "Second Stadtholderless period",
"section": "Section::::Background.:The stadtholderate of William III.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "The new, extended prerogatives of the stadtholder mostly regarded his powers of patronage and these enabled him to build a strong powerbase. But his power was in large manner checked by other centers of power, especially the States of Holland and the city of Amsterdam within that province. Especially that city was able to obstruct William's policies if they were perceived to conflict with its interest. But if they coincided William was able to forge a coalition that could override any opposition. This was demonstrated for instance in the summer months of 1688 when Amsterdam was persuaded to support the invasion of England, which later led to the Glorious Revolution and William and Mary's accession to the British thrones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416611",
"title": "Monarchy of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::The monarchy in Dutch society.:Importance and position within Dutch society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Direct political power and influence of the king continued until 1890, although it slowly declined in the meantime. Both William I and William II proved quite conservative rulers (although William II was less inclined to interfere with policy than his father was), William I resisted major reforms until eventually conflict with the States-General and his own government forced his abdication. William III's reign was a continuous saga of power struggles between the monarch and the parliamentary government (which he forced out a couple of times), plus major international crises due to the same stubbornness (including the Luxembourg Crisis). As a result, the Dutch government used the succession of William III by a female regent as an opportunity to make a power play and establish government authority over royal authority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142103",
"title": "William II, Prince of Orange",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "In 1650 William II became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland and the powerful Regents of Amsterdam, Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis de Graeff. With the Peace of Münster, the Regents wanted to reduce the army, saving money. That would also diminish William's authority. William imprisoned eight members of the States of Holland (including Jacob de Witt) in the castle of Loevestein. In addition, he sent his cousin, Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz with an army of 10,000 men to seize Amsterdam by force. Bad weather foiled this campaign, but Amsterdam did give in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15775121",
"title": "William de la Pole (Chief Baron of the Exchequer)",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "William was increasingly in the service of the king during the 1330s, both acquiring supplies as well as providing ships for his wars with the Scots, and commissioning and commandeering ships for the dynastic dispute with France that became known as the Hundred Years War. He jointly managed the \"English Wool Company,\" set up by the king to finance his war through control of the wool trade. Smuggling of wool caused financial hardship and the collapse of the scheme. From June 1338 to October 1339 the king had to borrow over £100,000 from Pole; he acquired the estate of Burstwick (or lordship of Holderness) from the financially stricken king for £22,650, which brought about the king's resentment. In 1339 he settled a loan of 50,000 florins from the Archbishop of Trier (Treves) in place of the king's crown, which had been used as collateral. The same year De la Pole achieved the rank of Knight Banneret, and on 26 September 1339 he was made Baron of the Exchequer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18516324",
"title": "Second Stadtholderless period",
"section": "Section::::Crisis and the Orangist revolution of 1747.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "Similar developments ensued in other Holland cities: William's purges of the city governments in response to popular demand were halfhearted and fell short of expectations, causing further disaffection. William was ready to promote change, but only as far as it suited him. He continued to promote the introduction of government regulations, like those of the inland provinces, in Holland also. These were intended to give him a firm grip on government patronage, so as to entrench his loyal placements in all strategic government positions. Eventually he managed to achieve this aim in all provinces. People like Bentinck hoped that gathering the reins of power in the hands of a single \"eminent head\" would soon help restore the state of the Dutch economy and finances. Such high hopes for an \"enlightened despot\" were not unique to the Republic at the time. In Portugal people had the same hopes of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal and king Joseph I of Portugal, as had people in Sweden of Gustav III of Sweden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m1q58
|
e: keynesian economics
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a relatively complicated concept, and your inquiry is rather open-ended, but I'll do by ELI5 best:\n\nKeynesian economics is a theory of economics conceived (at least, among others) by John Maynard Keynes in 1936, in the book *The General Theory of Eployment, Interest and Money.* To a large extent, his theory was a response to the Great Depression.\n\nThe central premise of Keynesian economics is that the private market, on its own, gets things wrong from time to time, which results in (at times, vast) inefficiencies and economic harm. While this wasn't new thinking in 1936, Keynes beleived that - in the short term - a floundering economy could be corrected by the government intervening and injecting artificial demand into the private sector. (By the term \"artificial\" in this response, I mean something that is imposed by the government, as opposed to something resulting from the operation of the private sector left on its own.)\n\nKeynesian economics proposes that demand can be increased - and the economy improved - by employing two tools simultaneously: (i) artificially reduced interest rates, usually accomplished when the central bank cuts rates; and (ii) massive investment in public works (building roads and the like), and other forms of government spending.\n\nThe idea is that there has been some hiccup in the private market that has caused things like wages, employment, and consumer spending to fall short of what the economy can sustain. So the government pumps resources into the economy to get people buying and borrowing more, which would in turn (hopefully) coax private enterprise to grow.\n\nKeynesian economics rests on the concept of a \"Keynesian multiplier,\" which is the concept that the government can spend money that generates additional spending in some multiple of that amount. In other words, the idea is that by spending $1 on roads (for example), the government actually adds $1.50 or $2 to the total economy. Of course, if you're trying to grow the economy with Keynesianism, your government has to deliver a multiplier greater than 1. Otherwise the government is producing less value than it's taking out of the private economy.\n\nI won't weigh in on whether Keynesianism works or not. If you want historical examples, western countries have tried it to some extent. Here in the U.S., our approach to the economy was substantially Keynesian from post-WWII into the Carter years. More recently, the Obama administration's recovery efforts have been classically Keynesian.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "80327",
"title": "New Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "New Keynesian economics is a school of contemporary macroeconomics that strives to provide microeconomic foundations for Keynesian economics. It developed partly as a response to criticisms of Keynesian macroeconomics by adherents of new classical macroeconomics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50406",
"title": "Post-Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Post-Keynesian economics is a school of economic thought with its origins in \"The General Theory\" of John Maynard Keynes, with subsequent development influenced to a large degree by Michał Kalecki, Joan Robinson, Nicholas Kaldor, Sidney Weintraub, Paul Davidson, Piero Sraffa and Jan Kregel. Historian Robert Skidelsky argues that the post-Keynesian school has remained closest to the spirit of Keynes' original work. It is a heterodox approach to economics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "8693555",
"title": "Schools of economic thought",
"section": "Section::::Keynesian economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 244,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 244,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "Keynesian economics has developed from the work of John Maynard Keynes and focused on macroeconomics in the short-run, particularly the rigidities caused when prices are fixed. It has two successors. Post-Keynesian economics is an alternative school—one of the successors to the Keynesian tradition with a focus on macroeconomics. They concentrate on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes, and research micro foundations for their models based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. Generally associated with Cambridge, England and the work of Joan Robinson (see Post-Keynesian economics). New-Keynesian economics is the other school associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. These researchers tend to share with other Neoclassical economists the emphasis on models based on micro foundations and optimizing behavior, but focus more narrowly on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of these models, rather than simply assumed as in older style Keynesian ones (see New-Keynesian economics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "17326",
"title": "Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Keynesian economics ( ; sometimes called Keynesianism) are a group of various macroeconomic theories about how in the short run – and especially during recessions – economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total demand in the economy). In the Keynesian view, named for British economist John Maynard Keynes, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "852972",
"title": "Neo-Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Neo-Keynesian economics is a school of macroeconomic thought that was developed in the post-war period from the writings of John Maynard Keynes. A group of economists (notably John Hicks, Franco Modigliani and Paul Samuelson), attempted to interpret and formalize Keynes' writings and to synthesize it with the neo-classical models of economics. Their work has become known as the neo-classical synthesis and created the models that formed the core ideas of neo-Keynesian economics. These ideas dominated mainstream economics in the post-war period and formed the mainstream of macroeconomic thought in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17326",
"title": "Keynesian economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973), though it lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s. The advent of the financial crisis of 2007–08 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought, which continues as new Keynesian economics. Keynesian economics developed during and after the Great Depression from the ideas presented by Keynes in his 1936 book, \"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money\". Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply-focused classical economics that preceded his book. The interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17326",
"title": "Keynesian economics",
"section": "Section::::Other schools of economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The Keynesian schools of economics are situated alongside a number of other schools that have the same perspectives on what the economic issues are, but differ on what causes them and how to best resolve them. Today, most of these schools of thought have been subsumed into modern macroeconomic theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fjty4g
|
How were 15h century halberdiers typically equipped?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fellow 15th century reenactor here, here's my main advice: have a more specified goal.\n\nThe 15th century is a large time period with lots of changes. Not only that, but the definition of \"Halberdier\" will change depending on where you are. A halberd could be the traditional image of halberds we have in X place, but go to Y place and it could mean some complete other thing\n\nThat's how we did with my 15th century group. We said \"we want to do 15th century Pikemen\" and after two years we realised it was too difficult to have something coherent, so we narrowed it down to \"1470's Burgundian Pikemen\". Notice how we picked a precise place and time. From there we started exploring, studying, etc. We still have a lot to work on,but overall were getting better and better\n\nOnce you picked a more precise location and time, you can start researching sources from that precise setting and it maybe easier like that, since you probably will have less contradicting sources. Sources you can look for are Ordinances, manuscript miniatures and pretty much any contemporary source like written texts or surviving objects.\n\nHoping this helps",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4197690",
"title": "Royal Corps of Halberdiers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The Halberdiers are commanded by an officer called a 'Captain-Commandant' — a rank derived from the Corps's purported origins as the \"Earl Of Essex's Honourable Company Of Free Halberdiers\" during the reign of Elizabeth I (the halberd being a popular heavy infantry weapon of the time). The rank is analogous with Colonel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1412058",
"title": "Shock troops",
"section": "Section::::Before 1914.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Grenadiers originated as specialized assault soldiers for siege operations. First established with a distinct role in the mid- to late-17th century, grenadier units would throw grenades and storm breaches, while leading the forefront of a breakthrough. Even after abandoning the use of the original black-powder grenade, armies retained the grenadier companies and regiments as specialist assault troops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308084",
"title": "Grande Armée",
"section": "Section::::Forces of the Grande Armée.:Infantry.:Line Infantry.:Grenadiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Regulations required that Grenadiers recruits were to be the tallest, most fearsome men in the regiments, and all were to have moustaches. To add to this, Grenadiers were initially equipped with a \"bonnet à poil\" or bearskin, as well as red epaulettes on their coat. After 1807 regulations stipulated that line Grenadiers were to replace their bearskin with a shako lined red with a red plume; however, many chose to retain their bearskins. In addition to the standard Charleville model 1777 and bayonet, Grenadiers were also equipped with a short sabre. This was to be used for close combat, but most often ended up serving as a tool to cut wood for campfires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71349",
"title": "Grenadier",
"section": "Section::::World War I and beyond.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The last known unit to serve as grenadiers, and employing grenades as their weapons, was a special \"Grenadier brigade\" formed by the Red Army within the 4th Army during the Tikhvin defensive operation in October 1941. It was a measure taken because of lack of firearms, and the commander of the brigade was appropriately General Major G.T. Timofeyev who had served in one of the Russian Imperial Army's grenadier regiments during the First World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4197690",
"title": "Royal Corps of Halberdiers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The Royal Corps of Halberdiers is a fictional British regiment from Evelyn Waugh's \"Sword of Honour\" trilogy. In the novel, the regiment is described as being composed of four battalions: The 1st (Regular Infantry) 2nd (Territorial Army), 3rd (Commandos), and 4th (Militia). The Corps is derived from Waugh's own experiences in the Royal Marines throughout World War II. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6281644",
"title": "5th Guards Grenadiers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The 5th Guard Grenadiers (German: Garde-Grenadier-Regiment Nr. 5) was a regiment of the Prussian Army prior to and during the First World War. Established in 1897, it was part of the 5th Guard Infantry Brigade. The regiment was disbanded following the war and perpetuated by 5th and 6th Company, 4th Infantry Regiment of the Reichswehr.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71349",
"title": "Grenadier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "A grenadier (, ; derived from the word grenade) was originally a specialized soldier, first established as a distinct role in the mid-to-late 17th century, for the throwing of grenades and sometimes assault operations. At that time grenadiers were chosen from the strongest and largest soldiers. By the 18th century, dedicated grenade throwing of this sort was no longer relevant, but grenadiers were still chosen for being the most physically powerful soldiers and would lead assaults in the field of battle. Grenadiers would also often lead the storming of fortification breaches in siege warfare, although this role was more usually fulfilled by all-arm units of volunteers called forlorn hopes, and might also be fulfilled by sappers or pioneers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4p048u
|
if i hold a green light and i go into a dark i would see everything in that room not only green things(i.e things that reflect green color)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Things that normally absorb green light will show up as darker, but you could still see them because of the shadows they will cast, and they will be next to things that absorb a different amount of green light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The walls of the room are probably white, so they reflect green light just fine. Even things that appear dark because they absorb green light would be visible because they would be black against the green background of the wall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coloured objects work by absorbing all light to different levels. This is not quite as simple as 'red colours absorb EVERYTHING but red', the outgoing spectrum has significantly more red than other things, but it doesn't absorb ALL of the other light. That way you can dimly see non green things with your green light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Objects that reflect no green at all will appear dark black. Many objects have a blend of colors, so even though there don't look green, they still reflect *some* green light -- for example white and gray objects, and many yellow and blue and brown objects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of what a black object looks like under normal white light. It's not invisible, it's just dark. \n\nNow, the purity of your green light might not be perfect, but let's assume that it is for a moment. A blue object (again, we'll assume it's a pure blue) wouldn't become transparent under green light; instead, it would simply absorb the green light and therefore appear dark. \n\nDoes that make sense?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6778965",
"title": "Pedrocchi Café",
"section": "Section::::Architecture.:Ground Floor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Green Room: The Green Room is similar in size and decoration to the parallel white room, except for the color of the tapestry that is green, and has a mirror over the fireplace. The social function of the room is for the poorest people of the city, or students from the nearby university to meet. Students knew that in this room they could stay undisturbed for warmth during the winter, to make conversation or to study without a waiter disturbing them. Hence the Italian expression “\"essere al verde\"” (literally - \"to be green\"), signifies \"to be penniless\", or \"to be broke\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2022036",
"title": "Closed-eye hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 1: Visual noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "This can be seen when the eyes are closed and looking at the back of the eyelids. In a bright room, a dark red can be seen, owing to a small amount of light penetrating the eyelids and taking on the color of the blood it has passed through. In a dark room, blackness can be seen or the object can be more colourful. But in either case it is not a flat unchanging redness/blackness. Instead, if actively observed for a few minutes, one becomes aware of an apparent disorganized motion, a random field of lightness/darkness that overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37626053",
"title": "Taoist meditation",
"section": "Section::::Han Dynasty.:\"Taiping jing\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "In a state of complete concentration, when the light first arises, make sure to hold on to it and never let it go. First of all, it will be red, after a long time it will change to be white, later again it will be green, and then it will pervade all of you completely. When you further persist in guarding the One, there will be nothing within that would not be brilliantly illuminated, and the hundred diseases will be driven out. (tr. Kohn 1989b:140) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3011300",
"title": "Stéblová train disaster",
"section": "Section::::Disaster course.:Events before disaster.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The source of the green light (if it existed at all) was never determined. The most likely possibility would have been a junior conductor's lantern, as they were equipped with filters in multiple colors, including green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29150377",
"title": "Empirical theory of perception",
"section": "Section::::Wholly empirical approach to visual perception.:The wholly empirical strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "The wholly empirical approach holds that this experience is the sole determinant of perceptual qualities. The reason percipients see an object as dark or light, the argument goes, is that in both our own past and the past of the species it paid off to see it that particular way. Returning to the bucket analogy, imagine that each of the three hoses pumps out water of a different color: one pumps out black water, one pumps out gray water, and one pumps out clear water. All one sees is the water in the bucket, which can be clear, gray, black, or any shade in between. As expected, it is impossible to perform some calculation on the color of the water in the bucket to find out how much water came out of each hose. Now imagine that it is your job to bet on how much water came out of the gray hose. The output ratios of the hoses are not random, but co-vary in all kinds of complicated ways based on the time of day, how long it takes to fill up the bucket, etc. At first your behavior in response to the color of the bucket might not be so good, but over time this would gradually improve as different shades and behaviors in response became associated by trial and error. The key is that in order to improve you have to know whether or not your behaviors worked by interacting with the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39234119",
"title": "Over the Love",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The lyrics \"Now there’s green light in my eyes\" and \"I can see the green light, I can see it in your eyes\", bring a connection to the metaphors of the green light of the lighthouse constantly described in the book.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37626053",
"title": "Taoist meditation",
"section": "Section::::Han Dynasty.:\"Taiping jing\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light as bright the rising sun. This is a brilliance as strong as that of the sun at noon. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely green. When this green is pure, it is the light of lesser yang. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely red, just like fire. This is a sign of transcendence. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely yellow. When this develops a greenish tinge, it is the light of central harmony. This is a potent remedy of the Tao. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely white. When this is as clear as flowing water, it is the light of lesser yin. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely black. When this shimmers like deep water, it is the light of greater yin. (tr. Kohn 1993:195-6) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ruhfr
|
What is a chance of a number to be prime?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you randomly pick a number between 1 and N, then the chances for it to be prime are approximately 1/log(N). This is the [Prime Number Theorem](_URL_0_), one of the most important results in Number Theory and is kinda like a Riemann Hypothesis-Lite.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23666",
"title": "Prime number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "There are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. No known simple formula separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes within the natural numbers in the large can be statistically modelled. The first result in that direction is the prime number theorem, proven at the end of the 19th century, which says that the probability of a randomly chosen number being prime is inversely proportional to its number of digits, that is, to its logarithm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17860",
"title": "Logarithm",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Number theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "in the sense that the ratio of and that fraction approaches 1 when tends to infinity. As a consequence, the probability that a randomly chosen number between 1 and is prime is inversely proportional to the number of decimal digits of . A far better estimate of is given by the\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21527",
"title": "Number theory",
"section": "Section::::Other subfields.:Probabilistic number theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Take a number at random between one and a million. How likely is it to be prime? This is just another way of asking how many primes there are between one and a million. Further: how many prime divisors will it have, on average? How many divisors will it have altogether, and with what likelihood? What is the probability that it will have many more or many fewer divisors or prime divisors than the average?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91127",
"title": "Fermat number",
"section": "Section::::Primality of Fermat numbers.:Heuristic arguments for density.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "If (more sophisticatedly) we regard the \"conditional\" probability that \"n\" is prime, given that we know all its prime factors exceed \"B\", as at most \"A\" ln(\"B\") / ln(\"n\"), then using Euler's theorem that the least prime factor of \"F\" exceeds , we would find instead\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23666",
"title": "Prime number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that cannot be formed by multiplying two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways of writing it as a product, or , involve 5 itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23666",
"title": "Prime number",
"section": "Section::::Analytic properties.:Number of primes below a given bound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "and means that the ratio of formula_88 to the right-hand fraction approaches 1 as formula_1 grows to infinity. This implies that the likelihood that a randomly chosen number less than formula_1 is prime is (approximately) inversely proportional to the number of digits in formula_1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3843453",
"title": "Strong prime",
"section": "Section::::Definition in number theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "It is possible for a prime to be a strong prime both in the cryptographic sense and the number theoretic sense. For the sake of illustration, 439351292910452432574786963588089477522344331 is a strong prime in the number theoretic sense because the arithmetic mean of its two neighboring primes is 62 less. Without the aid of a computer, this number would be a strong prime in the cryptographic sense because 439351292910452432574786963588089477522344330 has the large prime factor 1747822896920092227343 (and in turn the number one less than that has the large prime factor 1683837087591611009), 439351292910452432574786963588089477522344332 has the large prime factor 864608136454559457049 (and in turn the number one less than that has the large prime factor 105646155480762397). Even using algorithms more advanced than trial division, these numbers would be difficult to factor by hand. For a modern computer algebra system, these numbers can be factored almost instantaneously. A cryptographically strong prime has to be much larger than this example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fpiow
|
after wwi and wwii, why doesn't america hate germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "After WWII, Germany was completely destroyed and remade as the Allies saw fit, it was almost a completely different country than pre-war Germany. Plus, Germany was an essential ally during the Cold War, which made it easier to forgive them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, to your first question, America hated the Nazis, not Germany. Once they were out of power and the new West German government became an ally, most of the anti-German sentiment was redirected at the USSR.\n\nTo your second question, it's because of the 11 million that died in the Holocaust, more than half were Jews. There were other groups that were targeted, but since the majority of victims were Jews, most remember them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many people use the term \"Holocaust\" specifically to refer to the Jewish deaths. But even if you're including all the other groups you mentioned, you still get Jews accounting for roughly six out of the eleven million deaths.\n\nAs for why we don't hate Germany, it's because we killed or captured the Nazis responsible and the remaining Germans accepted responsibility for what happened. Even your average German citizen who didn't like Jews was horrified to discover the concentration camps. After a certain point, you can't hold every citizen responsible for the actions of their government and the Nazi government was destroyed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "America doesn't tend to hold a lot of grudges. We're best friends with the UK after we had to fight for independence. \n\nAfter WWII, the Allies, mostly led by the US, took over half of Germany and set up the government how they wanted. When reunification happened, it was the US-guided western Germany that dominated the transition. Germany today is like the successful little brother America always wanted. Well, so is Japan. America has a lot of successful siblings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First the causes of the wars are very different. Arguably Germany caused the first one, but the conditions of the international system were in such a shape that the balance of power was off and secret alliances didn't help this. Second the causes of the second world War are just as complex but that's more complicated.\n\nTo strike at the root of your question I think there might be a few answers. First in 1945 the us knew the Soviet Union would be a threat and our leaders knew we needed allies in western Europe and thus Germany and Berlin were the place the hammer would fall first. Second, the people of the US can recognize that Germans weren't to blame, the nazi party was and it's leaders. Third, taking into consideration the first two and the existential threat posed by the Soviet Union we can see why close ties were forged and once forged these sorts of ties are not easily broken thus Germany is still a member of nato.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There certainly was hatred and racism towards germans during WW1 and WW2, and a bit after WW2 as well. \n\nEven small things, like frankfurters were renamed as hotdogs to deemphasize their German origin. Sauerkraut was renamed as liberty cabbage, Salisbury steak became meatloaf.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54041",
"title": "Talcott Parsons",
"section": "Section::::Early academic career.:Anti-Nazism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Most of the US thought also that the country should have stayed out of the First World War and that the Nazis were, regardless of what they did in Germany or even Europe, no threat to the US. Many Americans even sympathized with Germany, as many had ancestry from there, and the latter both was strongly anticommunist and had gotten itself out of the Great Depression while the US was still suffering from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48094733",
"title": "Ethnocultural politics in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Progressive era: 1890–1932.:World War I.:Germania.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1329,
"text": "German Americans by 1910 typically had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German-descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English-languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German-American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany's position. Chicago's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916 large crowds in Chicago's Germania celebrated the Kaiser's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was \"one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history.\" German-American Socialists actively campaigned against entry into the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265082",
"title": "History of the United States (1918–1945)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "By 1939, isolationist sentiment in America had ebbed, and after the stunning fall of France in 1940 to Nazi Germany the United States began rearming itself and sent a large stream of money and military supplies to Britain, China and the Soviet Union. After the sudden Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war against Imperial Japan, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany, known as the \"Axis Powers\". Italy surrendered in 1943, and Germany and Japan in 1945, after massive devastation and loss of life, while the US emerged far richer and with few casualties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290327",
"title": "German Americans",
"section": "Section::::History.:World Wars.:World War I anti-German sentiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "During World War I (1914–18, American involvement 1917-18), German Americans were often accused of being too sympathetic to Imperial Germany. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced \"hyphenated Americanism\", insisting that dual loyalties were impossible in wartime. A small minority came out for Germany, or ridiculed the British (as did H. L. Mencken). Similarly, Harvard psychology professor Hugo Münsterberg dropped his efforts to mediate between America and Germany, and threw his efforts behind the German cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55832",
"title": "Lend-Lease",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cash and carry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "During December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the United States would be the \"Arsenal of Democracy\" and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves. Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz, as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after Germany conquered France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290327",
"title": "German Americans",
"section": "Section::::Assimilation.:The apparent disappearance of German American identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 330,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 330,
"end_character": 2389,
"text": "While its impact appears to be less well-known and studied than the impact which World War One had on German Americans, World War Two was likewise difficult for them and likewise had the impact of forcing them to drop distinctive German characteristics and assimilate into the general US culture. According to Melvin G. Holli, \"By 1930, some German American leaders in Chicago felt, as Dr. Leslie Tischauser put it, \"the damage done by the wartime experience had been largely repaired.\" The German language was being taught in the schools again; the German theater still survived; and German Day celebrations were drawing larger and larger crowds. Although the assimilation process had taken its toll of pre-1914 German immigrants, a smaller group of newer postwar arrivals had developed a vocal if not impolitic interest in the rebuilding process in Germany under National Socialism. As the 1930s moved on, Hitler's brutality and Nazi excesses made Germanism once again suspect. The rise of Nazism, as Luebke notes, \"transformed German ethnicity in America into a source of social and psychological discomfort, if not distress. The overt expression of German-American opinion consequently declined, and in more recent years, virtually disappeared as a reliable index of political attitudes. . . .\"\" Holli goes on to state that \"The pain increased during the late 1930s and early 1940s, when Congressman Martin Dies held public hearings about the menace of Nazi subversives and spies among the German Americans. In 1940 the Democratic party's attack on anti-war elements as disloyal and pro-Nazi, and the advent of the war itself, made German ethnicity too heavy a burden to bear. As Professor Tischauser wrote, \"The notoriety gained by those who supported the German government between 1933 and 1941 cast a pall over German-Americans everywhere. Leaders of the German-American community would have great difficulty rebuilding an ethnic consciousness. . . . Few German-Americans, however, could defend what Hitler . . . had done to millions of people in pursuit of the 'final solution,' and the wisest course for German-Americans was to forget any attachment to the German half of their heritage.\"\" Jennifer Hansler has stated that \"Fred Trump sought to pass himself off as Swedish amid anti-German sentiment sparked by World War II\"; Donald reaffirmed this myth in \"The Art of the Deal\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25162935",
"title": "American entry into World War I",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.:German Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1360,
"text": "German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German-descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English-languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German-American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany's position. Chicago's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago's Germania celebrated the Kaiser's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was \"one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history.\" German-American Socialists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o1ots
|
how is it possible that animals can fit so much complexity into such tiny brains?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because nature creates bajillions of them, each of them a little different from the other, and lets them run wild. The survivors get to breed. With our technology we don't tend to create bajillions of experiments running in parallel. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If they couldn't perform basic functions, they would cease to exist. All we see are the lucky ones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17682224",
"title": "Evolution of the brain",
"section": "Section::::Randomizing access and scaling brains up.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1617,
"text": "Some animal phyla have gone through major brain enlargement through evolution (e.g. vertebrates and cephalopods both contain many lineages in which brains have grown through evolution) but most animal groups are composed only of species with extremely small brains. Some scientists argue that this difference is due to vertebrate and cephalopod neurons having evolved ways of communicating that overcome the scalability problem of neural networks while most animal groups have not. They argue that the reason why traditional neural networks fail to improve their function when they scale up is because filtering based on previously known probabilities cause self-fulfilling prophecy-like biases that create false statistical evidence giving a completely false worldview and that randomized access can overcome this problem and allow brains to be scaled up to more discriminating conditioned reflexes at larger brains that lead to new worldview forming abilities at certain thresholds. This is explained by randomization allowing the entire brain to eventually get access to all information over the course of many shifts even though instant privileged access is physically impossible. They cite that vertebrate neurons transmit virus-like capsules containing RNA that are sometimes read in the neuron to which it is transmitted and sometimes passed further on unread which creates randomized access, and that cephalopod neurons make different proteins from the same gene which suggests another mechanism for randomization of concentrated information in neurons, both making it evolutionarily worth scaling up brains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425938",
"title": "Animal cognition",
"section": "Section::::Biological constraints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "Animal ability to process and respond to stimuli is correlated with brain size. Small-brain animals tend to show simple behaviors that are less dependent on learning than those of large-brained animals. Vertebrates, particularly mammals, have large brains and complex behavior that changes with experience. A formula called the encephalization quotient (EC) expresses a relationship between brain and body size; it was developed by H.J. Jerison in the late 1960s. When the encephalization quotient is plotted as a curve, an animal with an EC above the curve is expected to show more cognitive ability than the average animal of its size, whereas an animal with an EC below the curve is expected to have less. Various formulas been suggested, but the equation Ew(brain) = 0.12w(body) has been found to fit data from a sample of mammals. The formula is suggestive at best, and should only be applied to non-mammals with extreme caution. For some of the other vertebrate classes, the power of 3/4 rather than 2/3 is sometimes used, and for many groups of invertebrates, the formula may not give meaningful results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065970",
"title": "Brain-to-body mass ratio",
"section": "Section::::Brain-body size relationship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "In animals, it is thought that the larger the brain, the more brain weight will be available for more complex cognitive tasks. However, large animals need more neurons to represent their own bodies and control specific muscles; thus, relative rather than absolute brain size makes for a ranking of animals that better coincides with the observed complexity of animal behaviour. The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity of behaviour is not perfect as other factors also influence intelligence, like the evolution of the recent cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding, which increase the surface of the cortex, which is positively correlated in humans to intelligence. The noted exception to this, of course, is swelling of the brain which, while resulting in greater surface area, does not alter the intelligence of those suffering from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425938",
"title": "Animal cognition",
"section": "Section::::Research questions.:Reasoning and problem solving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "It is clear that animals of quite a range of species are capable of solving problems that appear to require abstract reasoning; Wolfgang Köhler's (1917) work with chimpanzees is a famous early example. He observed that chimpanzees did not use trial and error to solve problems such as retrieving bananas hung out of reach. Instead, they behaved in a manner that was \"unwaveringly purposeful,\" spontaneously placing boxes so that they could climb to reach the fruit. Modern research has identified similar behavior in animals usually thought of as much less intelligent, if appropriate pre-training is given. Causal reasoning has also been observed in rooks and New Caledonian crows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36738932",
"title": "Sentiocentrism",
"section": "Section::::Gradualism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "In the animal kingdom, there is a gradation in the nervous complexity, taking examples from the marine sponges that lack neurons, intestinal worms with ~ 300 neurons or humans with ~ 86 billion. While the existence of neurons is not sufficient to demonstrate the existence of sentience in an animal, it is a necessary condition, without neurons there is no place where it can happen (and the fewer the neurons, the lower the maximum capacity of intelligence an organism).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31565681",
"title": "Pain in invertebrates",
"section": "Section::::Suitable nervous system.:Central nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others) and modern cephalopods (octopuses, squid, cuttlefish) and other molluscs. The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optic lobes behind each eye for visual processing. The brains of the modern cephalopods in particular are highly developed, comparable in complexity to the brains of some vertebrates (See also: Invertebrate brains). Emerging results suggest that a convergent evolutionary process has led to the selection of vertebrate-like neural organization and activity-dependent long-term synaptic plasticity in these invertebrates. Cephalopods stand out by having a central nervous system that shares prime electrophysiological and neuroanatomical features with vertebrates like no other invertebrate taxon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065970",
"title": "Brain-to-body mass ratio",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons between groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "In the essay \"Bligh's Bounty\", Stephen Jay Gould noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotient, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords, or in some cases, central nervous systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hvrrp
|
Did the Romans Commemorate their dead in yearly ceremonies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Keep in mind you're asking about a time period of 1-2,000 years.\n\nThe closest I can give you resides in the triumphal arches erected to celebrate victories. Whereas it's not a remembrance of the dead as we think about it, it is a remembrance to the victorious wars the Romans engaged in.\n\nOtherwise the closest would be Roman funerals of at least the late republic. Aristocratic Romans would keep life-like masks of their ancestors that achieved great deeds and on the death of a member of their family they would hold public funerals where actors would wear these masks and don clothing appropriate to the dead person. This in a sense brought the dead back to life to welcome their newly deceased family member to the ancestors. In practical senses, it was a reminder of the great deeds their family members in the past did and to remind the public of these events and the part their family had in them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1832050",
"title": "Roman funerary practices",
"section": "Section::::Commemorations.:Festivals of the dead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "In February, the last month of the original Roman calendar when March 1 was New Year's Day, the dead were honored at a nine-day festival called the Parentalia, followed by the Feralia on February 21, when the potentially malign spirits of the dead were propitiated. During the Parentalia, families gathered at cemeteries to offer meals to the ancestors, and then shared wine and cakes among themselves (compare veneration of the dead in other cultures). Tombs for wealthy, prominent families were constructed as \"houses\", with a decorated room for these banqueting festivities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11182",
"title": "Funeral",
"section": "Section::::Western funerals.:Classical antiquity.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Several Roman holidays commemorated a family's dead ancestors, including the \"Parentalia\", held February 13 through 21, to honor the family's ancestors; and the Feast of the Lemures, held on May 9, 11, and 13, in which ghosts (\"larvae\") were feared to be active, and the \"pater familias\" sought to appease them with offerings of beans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38169947",
"title": "Mortuary cult",
"section": "Section::::Forms of mortuary cults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The Ancient Romans celebrated their mortuary cult at the end of every year. This feast was called \"Parentalia\" (derived from lat. \"parens\" and meaning \"concerning the parents\"). To celebrate it, the crypt or tomb was visited, the bereaved family members prayed, sang and ate food at the tomb, as if the deceased were still alive. Some weeks after that, another feast was celebrated: \"Caristia\", the \"feast of reconciliation\". To strengthen the memorising effect of a mortuary cult the Ancient Romans placed palatial stelae at the burial site. The inscriptions on the stelae were full of hymns and glorifications in attempt to hold up an always positive picture of the deceased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5290395",
"title": "Bustuarius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "According to Valerius Maximus and Florus, Marcus and Decimus, sons of Brutus, were the first, at Rome, who honored the funerals of their father with spectacles of this kind, in the year of Rome 489. Some authors in the previous century claimed that the Romans borrowed this custom from the Etrurians, though the evidence now points to Campania, and to a campanian influence and thus to a Greek borrowing since the Greeks settled in Campania since the eighth century BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32632",
"title": "Veneration of the dead",
"section": "Section::::Ancient cultures.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "The Romans, like many Mediterranean societies, regarded the bodies of the dead as polluting. During Rome's Classical period, the body was most often cremated, and the ashes placed in a tomb outside the city walls. Much of the month of February was devoted to purifications, propitiation, and veneration of the dead, especially at the nine-day festival of the Parentalia during which a family honored its ancestors. The family visited the cemetery and shared cake and wine, both in the form of offerings to the dead and as a meal among themselves. The Parentalia drew to a close on February 21 with the more somber Feralia, a public festival of sacrifices and offerings to the Manes, the potentially malevolent spirits of the dead who required propitiation. One of the most common inscriptional phrases on Latin epitaphs is \"Dis Manibus\", abbreviated \"D.M,\" \"for the Manes gods\", which appears even on s. The Caristia on February 22 was a celebration of the family line as it continued into the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11182",
"title": "Funeral",
"section": "Section::::Western funerals.:Classical antiquity.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Nine days after the disposal of the body, by burial or cremation, a feast was given (\"cena novendialis\") and a libation poured over the grave or the ashes. Since most Romans were cremated, the ashes typically were collected in an urn and placed in a niche in a collective tomb called a \"columbarium\" (literally, \"dovecote\"). During this nine-day period, the house was considered to be tainted, \"funesta\", and was hung with Taxus baccata or Mediterranean Cypress branches to warn passersby. At the end of the period, the house was swept out to symbolically purge it of the taint of death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5025849",
"title": "Radonitsa",
"section": "Section::::Ancient tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "The practice of greeting the dead with the Resurrection is not merely a \"baptism\" of pagan practices, but has antecedents in the ancient Church. S. V. Bulgakov records the following:The commemoration of the departed after Pascha was also done in extreme antiquity. St. Ambrose of Milan (340 – 397) says in one of his sermons: \"It is truly meet and right, brethren, that after the celebration of Pascha, which we have celebrated, to share our joy with the holy martyrs and by them as participants in the suffering of the Lord, to announce the glory of the resurrection of the Lord\". Although these words of St. Ambrose relate to martyrs, they may be an indication of our custom to commemorate the departed after Pascha on Monday or Tuesday of Thomas Week because the beginning of the solemn commemorations in the faith of those who died is established in the New Testament Church as a pious custom to the memory of the martyrs, [both] among the martyrs buried in antiquity and the others who have died.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cxl90
|
Has there been a case of a soldier in WW2 being killed by ordnance from WW1?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have not heard a case of a soldier on land being killed by ordnance from WW1, but I have heard of cases in which sailors have died on ships that hit naval mines laid during WW1. \n\nI have a link saved somewhere since I used the source on a recent term paper. I'll find it and post it when I return home from work\n\nEdit: Added sailors",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [Blücher](_URL_0_) was sunk by a torpedo made in 1900. Norway was neutral in WWI, so this example may not count.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Marines at Wake island might have still been using ww1 equipment,",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On a similar note, I've heard that the RAF were severely underfunded between the wars. Did they or any other Air Force use WWI aircraft in a battlefield role during WWII?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the [Browning Automatic Rifle](_URL_0_) was used by US soldiers in WWI, WWII, Korea, and Vietnam",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55698551",
"title": "November 1917",
"section": "Section::::November 3, 1917 (Saturday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "BULLET::::- Soldiers Thomas Enright, James Bethel Gresham, and Merle Hay of the 16th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division of the United States Army became the first official American military casualties of World War One. All three were killed in action during a German attack near Artois, France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33111",
"title": "World War I casualties",
"section": "Section::::Footnotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "BULLET::::- The report of the UK War Office listed a summary figures from 4 August 1914 up until 31 December 1920 for the army from the British Isles, not including other colonies of 702,410 war dead, 1,662,625 wounded and 170,389 taken prisoner of war. The War Office report lists those \"killed in action; died of wounds; died as prisoners of war and missing officers and other ranks whose deaths have been accepted for official purposes\". According to the report these figures include the casualties of the army and the Royal Naval Division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33111",
"title": "World War I casualties",
"section": "Section::::Footnotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- The UK War Office Based on a telegram from Petrograd to Copenhagen in December 1918 listed military casualties of 9,150,000 (including 1,700,000 killed, 1,450,000 disabled, 3,500,000 wounded and 2,500,000 POW).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33111",
"title": "World War I casualties",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "BULLET::::- The official \"final and corrected\" casualty figures for British Army, including the Territorial Force (not including allied British Empire forces) were issued on 10 March 1921. The losses were for the period 4 August 1914 until 30 September 1919, included 573,507 \"killed in action, died from wounds and died of other causes\"; 254,176 missing less 154,308 released prisoners; for a net total of 673,375 dead and missing. There were 1,643,469 wounded also listed in the report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233721",
"title": "Commonwealth War Graves Commission",
"section": "Section::::Ongoing projects and issues.:Reburials and identifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence, with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually. For example, in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the 78th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEF were discovered in a backyard in Hallu, France. In April 2013, the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with a metal detector in 2009 were re-interred at H.A.C. Cemetery near Arras, France. In March 2014, the remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered in Vendin-le-Vieil, France, with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery. When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the Commission is notified, and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artifacts that may help identify the individual. The details are then registered and archived at the Commission's headquarters. Evidence used for identification purposes may include artifacts found with the remains, anthropological data and DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36429973",
"title": "43rd (Wessex) Reconnaissance Regiment",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The first casualty of WWII suffered by the 43rd Wessex Reconnaissance was Leslie George Allen on 19 June 1942 (now interred at Greenbank Cemetery, Bristol) who suffered a gunshot wound to the back of his head whilst out on patrol on a small boat off the coast of Dover.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13081110",
"title": "Dreis-Brück",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "On 23 August 1945, shortly after the Second World War had ended, the war claimed three more victims locally. Three youths, Helmut Keul, Ernst Josef Probst and Werner Ullrich, went to the Dreis munitions depot to undertake the disarming of the weapons there, left over from the war. Their efforts resulted in a tremendous explosion that killed all three of them. A memorial cross now stands near the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
66foch
|
how do banks make profit from "free" products?
|
[
{
"answer": "they make money using your money to loan out to others. \n\nyou deposit $1000. the bank isn't just sitting on it. they're using that $800-900 of that money pooled with other people's checking account money to make loans for people's mortgages, personal loans, business loans. etc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Overdraft fees and service charges are the more known sort of thing. But when you are banking and say, make a deposit, you are giving the bank money to reinvest into something else, like a loan. It is still your money, you're just technically letting the bank use it without you really know that they're using it. It's all net profit margins. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a lot of these, hoping for people who aren't 100% financially responsible. \n\nChecking account: fees they don't tell you about. ATM, overdraft, etc.\n\nSavings account: using your money to be able to loan out more money (read about fractional reserve banking -- sorry for not eli5ing this) \n\nDebit card: hidden fees, more chance for overdrafts\n\nCredit card: Interest! Hoping you make the minimum payment, and only the minimum payment monthly. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While banks seemingly have begun preferring overdrafting and other fee-based revenue, the other big way they make money is through your money.\n\nWhen you open a bank account, you're essentially giving your money to the bank and they write you an IOU. When you buy things with a check or debit card, you're essentially just saying \"this person owes me a lot of money, so they'll pay you for me.\" In the meantime though, they invest your money and earn interest on that investment (which is why they offer you a percentage of that interest). Any single bank account isn't going to make enough interest to keep the lights on, but taken as a whole it's quite a lot of money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56040091",
"title": "Law on State Enterprises in Republic of Moldova.",
"section": "Section::::Law No. 146 of 16 June 1994 on state enterprise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The company sells its production, works, services and production waste at prices and tariffs established on the basis of supply and demand, and in the cases stipulated by the normative acts - at prices and tariffs regulated by the state. The enterprise's profit (loss) is determined in the manner prescribed by law. Net profit is formed after tax and other mandatory payments are paid and remains available to the enterprise. Net profit can be used for:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32266803",
"title": "Customer cost",
"section": "Section::::The marketer perspective.:Post-use Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "In the case of indirect costs, the producer manages the disposal, resale or recycling of products after their period of use, following the ‘extended producer responsibility’ concept which is already common in several OECD countries. Consumers may barter used products, return them for money, donate them or receive leasing return. The purpose of this concept is to encourage the companies to reduce waste. This may be achieved by designing processes more efficiently, increasing recycling and establishing markets for secondary materials. Emerging new cost structures may lead to increasing or decreasing market prices, depending on the trade-off between material savings and compliance costs for disposal and recycling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7601602",
"title": "Carry (investment)",
"section": "Section::::Interest rates carry trade / Maturity transformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "For instance, the traditional revenue stream from commercial banks is to borrow cheap (at the low overnight rate, i.e., the rate at which they pay depositors) and lend expensive (at the long-term rate, which is usually higher than the short-term rate).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23104618",
"title": "Bank of the City of Buenos Aires",
"section": "Section::::Branch offices.:Córdoba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The Bank offers free Savings, Checking and Remuneration Accounts, credit and debit cards, and personal and mortgage loans. Companies, as well as small and medium size enterprises will benefit from personalized customer service and counseling, and will have at their disposal the wide range of products the bank has to offer, such as funding lines for working capital and capital and leasing goods, with the most competitive rates and terms of the market, to allow to development of productive, farming and service activities in the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236999",
"title": "Money market",
"section": "Section::::Functions of the money market.:Profitable investment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The Money Market enables the commercial banks to use their excess reserves in profitable investment. The main objective of the commercial banks is to earn income from its reserves as well as maintain liquidity to meet the uncertain cash demand of the depositors. In the money market, the excess reserves of the commercial banks are invested in near-money assets (e.g., short-term bills of exchange), which are easily converted into cash. Thus, commercial banks earn profits without sacrificing liquidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70157",
"title": "Recycling",
"section": "Section::::Cost–benefit analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Most free-market thinkers detest subsidy and intervention because they waste resources. Terry Anderson and Donald Leal think that all recycling programmes should be privately operated, and therefore would only operate if the money saved by recycling exceeds its costs. Daniel K. Benjamin argues that it wastes people's resources and lowers the wealth of a population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190450",
"title": "Appropriate technology",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 174,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 174,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Through financial systems envisioned especially for the poor/developed world, many companies have been able to get started with only limited capital. Often banks lend the money to people wishing to start a business (such as with microfinance). In other systems, people for a Rotating Savings and Credit Association or ROSCA to purchase costly material together (such as Tontines and Susu accounts). Organisations, communities, cities or individuals can provide loans to other communities/cities (such as with the approach followed by Kiva, World Vision Microloans MicroPlace and LETS). Finally, in certain communities (usually isolated communities such as small islands or oases) everything of value is shared. This is called gift economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4k7b12
|
why do we have different lotions and creams for out face and body? isn't it the exact same skin? (for example when you have a dry skin)
|
[
{
"answer": "No. Some skin is thicker. The soles of your feet for example are much thicker than your eyelids. That's one difference at least.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at body lotion and a face moisturiser - body lotion is pretty thick and, depending on the cream, scented. The lotion is too thick to wear on the face, and those lotions which are scented are too strong for the skin on the face, as it's more sensitive than, for example, your legs. Face moisturiser is much lighter, easily absorbed by the skin and some are scented, but not as strong as body lotion. \n\nThe skin is different all over your body. As someone already mentioned, the skin on your feet is much dryer and thicker than your face. So putting foot cream on your face wouldn't be a good idea, they're made to break down calluses and are way too thick for the face. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "A lotion is a low-viscosity topical preparation intended for application to the skin. By contrast, creams and gels have higher viscosity, typically due to lower water content. Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, or cotton wool. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "Section::::Medicine delivery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Dermatologists can prescribe lotions to treat or prevent skin diseases. It is not unusual for the same drug ingredient to be formulated into a lotion, cream and ointment. Creams are the most convenient of the three but are inappropriate for application to regions of hairy skin such as the scalp, while a lotion is less viscous and may be readily applied to these areas (many medicated shampoos are in fact lotions). Historically, lotions also had an advantage in that they may be spread thinly compared to a cream or ointment and may economically cover a large area of skin, but product research has steadily eroded this distinction. Non-comedogenic lotions are recommended for use on acne prone skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3068500",
"title": "Cream (pharmaceutical)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "A cream is a preparation usually for application to the skin. Creams for application to mucous membranes such as those of the rectum or vagina are also used. Creams may be considered pharmaceutical products as even cosmetic creams are based on techniques developed by pharmacy and unmedicated creams are highly used in a variety of skin conditions (dermatoses). The use of the finger tip unit concept may be helpful in guiding how much topical cream is required to cover different areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7320592",
"title": "Indoor tanning lotion",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.:Moisturizing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "One of the primary purposes for using indoor tanning lotions is to moisturize the skin. This is because tanning (indoors or out) can dehydrate the skin so additional moisturization is needed to compensate and leave the skin looking smooth and healthy. One of the most popular moisturizing elements in tanning lotions is hempseed oil, although other oils are also common. The primary moisturizing ingredients in tanning lotions are essentially the same as in regular hand lotions, although they tend to have less alcohol in them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7320592",
"title": "Indoor tanning lotion",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.:Bronzers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Some lotions have a bronzing effect to them. There are three different types of bronzers; cosmetic, natural and DHA. DHA (dihydroxyacetone) is a higher level of bronzer that stays on the skin for about 4–5 days depending on how much one exfoliates. Natural bronzers that are made from plant extracts and stay on the skin for about 3–4 days. Cosmetic bronzers stain the skin the most, they stay on the skin for about 1–3 days and can be easily washed off in the shower. These bronzers work with the skin to provide a darker cosmetic color. They take approximately 4–6 hours to develop full color. Having a base tan before using a bronzer produces a more natural looking color. Natural bronzers use natural ingredients, such as caramel, riboflavin, etc. These ingredients provide a slight instant boost of color, but will wash off in the shower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12892943",
"title": "Face powder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Because of the wide variation among human skin tones, there is a corresponding variety of colors of face powder. There are also several types of powder. A common powder used in beauty products is talc (or baby powder), which is absorbent and provides toning to the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions using a substance such as cetearyl alcohol to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1huu96
|
What were the training regimes for heavy cavalry in the Napoleonic era?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Cuirassiers are of greater use than all other cavalry. This arm...needs to be well instructed. It is in the heavy cavalry that the science of the mounted man should be carried to the highest degree.\n\n-Napoleon\n\n\"Heavy Cavalry\" probably denotes multiple types and styles of units during this period. Heavy Calvary in this age (at the onset of the 1800's) fought simliarly as in the previous centuries in that they were still primarily relient on charges and functioned overall as [\"shock units\"](_URL_10_).\n\n[In Napoleon's army,](_URL_6_) it at one point might have consisted of a selection and assortment of the following regiments of [\"heavy cavalry\"](_URL_5_):\n\n* [x2 Horse Carabiniers](_URL_0_)\n* [x12-x15 Cuirassiers](_URL_2_)\n* [x15-x30 Dragoons](_URL_1_)\n\nWhen Napoleon first took control he had very few cavalry units that could compete with other nations such as Austria. At the time, there were not enough trained horsemen to fill his ranks. Upon centralizing his power and increasing the size of his *\"Grand Armee\"* he also knew the importance of increasing his selection and assortment of light and heavy cavalry regiments in which the following years after gaining control instituted several actions in order to bolster his calvary ranks.\n\n\nAt the initial onset of integrating a easier to manage horseback rifle/musket [carbines,](_URL_4_) and cavalry firearms in battle, these types of units eventually transformed from a heavy shock troop value to mobile and robust units capable of different platforms and fighting with the increased use of firearm technology. Thus, the training would have transitioned from this shock value to use more firearms and mounted tactics to incorporate the technology. Scouting, skirmishing, directly engaging, and chasing down enemies were all roles that the cavalry would continue to play which would require training of different sorts with the changing and different equipment as time progresses.\n\n[This](_URL_7_) PDF talking about Cuirassier swords and some tactics and methods may give a slight clue as to some of the training that would be needed to perform the duties. For instance the PDF states:\n\n > Figure 2 [17] :The sabre in action. This ink demonstrates the manner in which the sabre was wielded in the charge, and\nsecondly what became of the well dressed lines once the charge got under way. **The trooper therefore leaned well forward in\nthe saddle, right arm thrust out as far as it's would stretch with sabre continuing the plunge towards the enemy; in this\nillustration the trooper's elbows are bent to a rather marked degree whereas, in fact, they would be trained never to bend the\nsword arm lest the enemy's edged weapons slide off their sabre guard and amputate the elbow.**\n\nThese are types of methods and training requirements that more than likely would have applied to soldiers. Cuirssaiers relied on their sabers that had an edge, but most of the time it was the trauma and blow or a thrusting stab that caused the most damage. Correct sword play and sword handling would have been a very critical aspect of further training. Classically, cavalry troops were garnered from the upper class ranks. Owning horses were not cheap and having experience on one usually meant you were from a more privledged family. Learning how to handle a sword on both foot and horseback would have been an important training focus regardless of the experience level.\n\n[One of Napoleon's cavalry commanders notes in one](_URL_9_) of the opening battles of his offensive in 1813 (Lutzen):\n\n > In his report on the battle of Lutzen, for example, Marshal Ney praised the spirit and courage of his young horsemen but lamented that the attacks by the raw recruits were poorly coordinated and that they had the distrubing habit of falling off their horses during charges....Indeed, when Napoleon decided to seek an armistice in the summer of 1813, a move generally regarded as a major mistake, he stated that while he knew the risks, he needed time to train and equipe his cavalry properly...\n\nWe can see here some of the percieved failures and also deduce that training at the onset of the green Napoleonic cavalry was horseback skills and horse riding skills. Although there were more than likely veterans, because of the lack of horsemen when he started his military build up, there were recruits with little experience and bad skills in horseback. Training would have almost certaintly entailed basic horsemanship. Ensuring the soldiers knew how to care for their horses and ensure they were well fed and healthy during campaigns would have been another large aspect of the cavalry troops' training at first.\n\nBut, the difficult and more advanced training would have been formations and orientations as a group and a unit. [The future Duke of Wellington would say about cavalry training](_URL_3_):\n\n > The formation and discipline of a body of cavalry are very difficult and tedious, and require great experience and patience in the persons who attempt it...\n\nManeuvers and shifts and drill tactics would have encompassed much of the training life of a cavalryman during this day and age, as well as many other time periods. Learning maneuvers like [this](_URL_8_) would have been very difficult without lots of practice and training and repitition.\n\nOverall, the training for a cavalry man in the Napoleonic era would have been decided on a few factors such as country of origin and previous experience. Horseman ship and the ability to ride a horse was the first needed skill and the roles of a cavalry soldier were then added to those. More than likely, all soldiers would have been needed to exensively train on formations, drill and ceremony, and assault/defense tactics. This would have been done through reps and reps and reps of doing these tactics over and over again. Because cavalry played such a critical role in this era, these units were revered as important tactical units that were a necesity and mainstay of the armies during the 19th century.\n\nEdit: Sp\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17743855",
"title": "British Army during the Napoleonic Wars",
"section": "Section::::Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "At the start of the French Revolutionary Wars, the \"heavy\" cavalry were equivalent to dragoons or \"medium\" cavalry in the French and other armies. They consisted of three regiments of Household Cavalry, seven regiments of Dragoon Guards and six regiments of Dragoons. The Dragoon Guards had been regiments of heavy cavalry in the eighteenth century, but had been converted to dragoons to save money. The heavy cavalry wore red uniforms and bicorne hats. From 1796, they were armed with the straight 1796 Heavy Cavalry Sword, a heavy hacking sword which was reckoned to be useless for thrusting, and also carried a long carbine. (The Scots Greys wore a bearskin headdress and had a more curved sword.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20662156",
"title": "Cavalleggeri",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "After 1600 this specialist cavalry was more and more streamlined and made more practical in the age of gunpowder. Such units were split up to increase numbers in heavy cavalry units, or turned into such units themselves. The \"cavalleggeri\" of this era were armed with carbines or pistols. In 1799, new \"cavalleggeri\"/\"chevau-légers\" units were created, and under Napoleon these were once again armed with lances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8767",
"title": "Dragoon",
"section": "Section::::19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "During the Napoleonic Wars, dragoons generally assumed a cavalry role, though remaining a lighter class of mounted troops than the armored cuirassiers. Dragoons rode larger horses than the light cavalry and wielded straight, rather than curved swords. Emperor Napoleon often formed complete divisions out of his 30 dragoon regiments and used them as battle cavalry to break the enemy's main resistance. In 1809, French dragoons scored notable successes against Spanish armies at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1079264",
"title": "Mounted infantry",
"section": "Section::::Dragoons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Dragoons originally were mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel. Dragoon regiments were established in most European armies during the late 17th century and early 18th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "734679",
"title": "Uhlan",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "During and after the Napoleonic Wars, cavalry regiments armed with lances were formed in many states throughout Europe, including the armies of Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sweden and Russia. While cavalry carrying this weapon were usually specifically designated as lancers or uhlans, in some instances the front rank troopers of hussar or dragoon regiments were also armed with lances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8767",
"title": "Dragoon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Dragoons originally were a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 18th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry, trained for combat with swords from horseback.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8767",
"title": "Dragoon",
"section": "Section::::19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "British heavy dragoons made devastating charges against French infantry at the Battle of Salamanca in 1812 and at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. 31 regiments were in existence at the height of the Napoleonic Wars: seven Dragoon Guards regiments and 24 cavalry of the line regiments. The Dragoon Guards and Dragoon regiments were the heavy cavalry regiments of the British Army, although by continental standards they were not the heaviest type of cavalry since they carried no armour (unlike cuirassiers). While some of the cavalry regiments of the line were simply designated as regiments of \"dragoons\", the lighter cavalry regiments, which were particularly mobile, became regiments of \"Light Dragoons\", employing the 1796-pattern light cavalry sabres. From 1805 four regiments of Light Dragoons were designated Hussars (7th, 10th, 15th and 18th Regiments), differentiated by uniform, and the wearing of mustaches. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars (starting in 1816) some regiments became \" lancers\", identified by the lances that they carried.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b9ldod
|
how does the male body (idk if females experience this too) reach post nut clarity?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't have the answer. It's neurochemical stuff.\n\nBut way to go asking the question like you're five! That shows commitment to the sub.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1482236",
"title": "Leftvent",
"section": "Section::::Life history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Once a female is located, the male latches onto her with his otherwise useless teeth. Through enzymatic processes, the tissues of the male gradually begin to coalesce with the tissues of the female, resulting in a permanent attachment and a shared circulatory system, forming a hermaphroditic chimera. The development of the male's large testes — which was delayed prior to this point — begins, and all other organs in the male's body degenerate. Several males may thus attach to the same female with no apparent ill effects befalling her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1069504",
"title": "Lordosis behavior",
"section": "Section::::Neurobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1203,
"text": "During the copulation, when a male approaches the female, male pheromones (part 1 of the above diagram) are detected by the olfactory circuits (part 2). The pheromonal signals stimulate, among other things, the hypothalamus, which facilitates the lordosis reflex. Then when the male mounts the female (part 3), tactile stimuli on the flanks, the perineum and the rump of the female are transmitted via the sensory nerves in the spinal cord. In the spinal cord and lower brainstem, they are integrated with the information coming from the brain, and then, in general, a nerve impulse is transmitted to the muscles via the motor nerves. The contraction of the longissimus and transverso-spinalis muscles causes the ventral arching of the vertebral column (part 4). The lordosis position which results from it makes it possible to present properly the vagina to the male (part 5), facilitating penile intromission. Then, during intromission, tactile and deep sensations from the genital area and clitoris accentuate the lordosis reflex (part 6). It is thus observed that the physiological and neurobiological organization of the lordosis behavior reflex is specifically adapted to heterosexual copulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55907997",
"title": "Ovulatory shift hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Estrus in humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "However, research has shown that human females may in fact experience subtle but distinct physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes during the high-fertility phase of their ovulatory cycle, and that both men and other women can detect signals that indicate high-fertility in a woman, which may indicate that humans have retained an estrus-like state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20431688",
"title": "Osmia bicornis",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Mating behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "In male-female interactions, males sense potential mates by observing the body shape of females, and by evaluating the female's sense, determine whether a specific female will be receptive to copulation. Females use such cues as the vibrational bursts of the male thorax, which has been suggested to be a sign of male health and overall fitness, color, and odor to select mates. Successful mating of females does not depend on male body size, but on the speed with which males discover female mates. Further, females do not always choose the male with the largest body size, a choice that possibly indicates a preference exists for an optimum male body size; often, females choose males with intermediate body sizes. Yet, the sperm supply of each male limits males to only performing seven copulations in their lifetimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11988867",
"title": "Agrotis ipsilon",
"section": "Section::::Mating.:Pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Females produce a sex pheromone in the pheromone gland on their abdominal tips that attracts males for mating. Biosynthesis of the sex pheromone is controlled by a neurohormone called pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (PBAN). This 33-amino-acid-long peptide is present in both sexes in the brain-suboesophageal ganglions (Br-SOG) during both scotophase and photophase. It has been shown that the juvenile hormone is involved in the release of PBAN in both males and females. PBAN aids in pheromone production in females and pheromone responsiveness in males. In another species, PBAN release has been shown to be stimulated by external factors including photoperiod, temperature and odorants from host plants\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181805",
"title": "Menarche",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Onset.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "When menarche occurs, it confirms that the girl has had a gradual estrogen-induced growth of the uterus, especially the endometrium, and that the \"outflow tract\" from the uterus, through the cervix to the vagina, is open.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11579935",
"title": "Spotted eagle ray",
"section": "Section::::Description and behavior.:Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "One male, or sometimes several, will pursue a female. When one of the males approaches the female, he uses his upper jaw to grab her dorsum. The male will then roll the female over by grabbing one of her pectoral fins, which are located on either side of her body. Once he is on her ventral side, the male puts a clasper into the female, connecting them venter to venter, with both undersides together. The mating process lasts for 30–90 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6hfeb6
|
what is "starvation mode", in terms of dieting?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a largely debunked idea based on a few poorly designed studies decades ago.\n\nThe idea is that if your body is deprived of calories for too long, it will start hoarding what calories it does have, thus increasing stored fat.\n\nThe main reason most people advocate not eating too little has more to do with sustainability of a dietary change rather than any sort of rebound effect. The other thing that goes into eating too little is the tendency many people have to \"eat back\" what they missed. \n\nFor example, if you don't eat for a day and your TDEE (total daily energy expenditure, or how many calories you burn in a day) is 2000 calories, you're 2000 calories ahead. However, if over the next week you \"reward\" yourself every day with an extra doughnut, then you can easily offset the calorie deficit. \n\nThis is what often leads people to say \"I ate less and gained weight, it must be starvation mode.\" \n\nAt the end of the day, I highly reccomend both /r/loseit for good advice, and even cautiously recommend /r/fatlogic as a way to see what really works for people, as well as to hear all of the bunk science that repeatedly gets tossed around. If a point is made in /r/fatlogic it's inevitably backed up with science, and I actually tend to find most of the people there willing to actually discuss things. A lot of the other \"dietary\" advice I see on the internet seems to revolve around self-referential blogs, or people trying to sell you something, and rarely actual studies and reputable sources.\n\n/Edit to add the one true part of the starvation mode idea: the more weight you lose, the less you burn every day. For instance, if you weigh 300 lbs, your TDEE might be ~3000 calories. If you drop a hundred pounds, it may be closer to 2000. So the less you eat, the less you CAN eat and maintain the same weight. That is true, but it's because of the lost weight and your body not needing to fuel the extra fat, burn as much energy to get around etc. not because of starvation mode.\n\n/edit again to mention one of the things I like the most about /r/fatlogic. Most of the people there (myself included, though on a different account) have struggled with being fat, and many of the regulars include their heaviest weight as well as current weight in their flair. It's not a bunch of theory and echo chambering. It's people who used to believe a lot of the bunk science, but learned better and are now supporting themselves and the community by pointing out all of the logical/scientific flaws we tend to believe. It's NOT Fatpeoplehate, and I do see people get banned for inappropriate/hateful comments. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7617805",
"title": "Starvation response",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Equivalent or closely related terms include famine response, starvation mode, famine mode, starvation resistance, starvation tolerance, adapted starvation, adaptive thermogenesis, fat adaptation, and metabolic adaptation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215891",
"title": "Starvation",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Starvation is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. The body expends more energy than it takes in. This imbalance can arise from one or more medical conditions or circumstantial situations, which can include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215891",
"title": "Starvation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, death. The term inanition refers to the symptoms and effects of starvation. Starvation may also be used as a means of torture or execution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501591",
"title": "Starvation (computer science)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In computer science, resource starvation is a problem encountered in concurrent computing where a process is perpetually denied necessary resources to process its work. Starvation may be caused by errors in a scheduling or mutual exclusion algorithm, but can also be caused by resource leaks, and can be intentionally caused via a denial-of-service attack such as a fork bomb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501591",
"title": "Starvation (computer science)",
"section": "Section::::Scheduling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Starvation is usually caused by an overly simplistic scheduling algorithm. For example, if a (poorly designed) multi-tasking system always switches between the first two tasks while a third never gets to run, then the third task is being starved of CPU time. The scheduling algorithm, which is part of the kernel, is supposed to allocate resources equitably; that is, the algorithm should allocate resources so that no process perpetually lacks necessary resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6300451",
"title": "Very-low-calorie diet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "Very low calorie diet (VLCD), or sometimes called starvation diet, is a diet with very or extremely low daily food energy consumption. It is defined as a diet of per day or less. VLCDs are formulated, nutritionally complete, liquid meals containing 800 kilocalories or less per day. VLCDs also contain the recommended daily requirements for vitamins, minerals, trace elements, fatty acids and protein. Carbohydrate may be entirely absent, or substituted for a portion of the protein; this choice has important metabolic effects. The VLCD products are usually a powder which is mixed with water or another low-food-energy liquid. The VLCD is prescribed on a case to case basis for rapid weight loss (about 1.5 to 2.5 kilograms or 3 to 5 pounds per week) in people with body mass index (BMI) of 30 and above. The health care provider can recommend the diet to a patient with a BMI between 27 and 30 if the medical complications the patient has due to being overweight present serious health risks. It results in 4% more weight loss over the short term as compared to control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497722",
"title": "Hyperuricemia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Mixed type.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Starvation causes the body to metabolize its own (purine-rich) tissues for energy. Thus, like a high purine diet, starvation increases the amount of purine converted to uric acid. A very low calorie diet without carbohydrate can induce extreme hyperuricemia; including some carbohydrate (and reducing the protein) reduces the level of hyperuricemia. Starvation also impairs the ability of the kidney to excrete uric acid, due to competition for transport between uric acid and ketones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fqssst
|
could my immune system hypothetically "run out of storage space" for new diseases and thus be unable to become immune to any new ones?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, your immune system forgets bacterias and viruses over time. That's why a vaccine will eventually not work anymore. But your body remember most bacterias and viruses for years. So no worries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the ways your immune system \"remembers\": your body makes a bunch of B-cells and each one has a different random antigen (foreign particle) they react to. If they are presented with that antigen, they change and will split to produce plasma cells (that mass produce antibodies) and memory b-cells that are long-lived and will be around for the next time your body encounters that antigen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664060",
"title": "Adaptive immune system",
"section": "Section::::Immunological diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Note that the innate and acquired portions of the immune system work together, not in spite of each other. The acquired arm, B, and T cells couldn't function without the innate system' input. T cells are useless without antigen-presenting cells to activate them, and B cells are crippled without T cell help. On the other hand, the innate system would likely be overrun with pathogens without the specialized action of the adaptive immune response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "958031",
"title": "Compartmental models in epidemiology",
"section": "Section::::Elaborations on the basic SIR model.:The SEIS model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "In this model an infection does not leave any immunity thus individuals that have recovered return to being susceptible again, moving back into the \"S\"(\"t\") compartment. The following differential equations describe this model:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14958",
"title": "Immune system",
"section": "Section::::Disorders of human immunity.:Immunodeficiencies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or 'acquired'. Chronic granulomatous disease, where phagocytes have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or congenital, immunodeficiency. AIDS and some types of cancer cause acquired immunodeficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11026468",
"title": "Antigenic escape",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Antigenic escape occurs when the immune system is unable to respond to an infectious agent. This means that the response mechanisms a host's immune system normally utilizes to recognize and eliminate a virus or pathogen is no longer able to do so. This process can occur in a number of different mechanisms of both genetic and environmental nature. Such mechanisms include homologous recombination, and manipulation and resistance of the host's immune responses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11026468",
"title": "Antigenic escape",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Different antigens are able to escape through a variety of mechanisms. For example, the African trypanosome parasites are able to clear the host's antibodies, as well as resist lysis and inhibit parts of the innate immune response. Another bacteria, \"Bordetella pertussis\", is able to escape the immune response by inhibiting neutrophils and macrophages from invading the infection site early on. One cause of antigenic escape is that a pathogen's epitopes (the binding sites for immune cells) become too similar to a person's naturally occurring MHC-1 epitopes. The immune system becomes unable to distinguish the infection from self-cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604783",
"title": "Seroconversion",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The immune system maintains an immunological memory of infectious pathogens to facilitate early detection and to confer protective immunity against a rechallenge. This explains why many childhood diseases never recur in adulthood (and when they do, it generally indicates immunosuppression or failure of a vaccine).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49005",
"title": "Atlantic slave trade",
"section": "Section::::Diseases.:Immunity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Levels and extent of immunity varies from disease to disease. For smallpox and measles for example, those who survive are equipped with the cellular immunity to combat the disease for the rest of their life in that they cannot contract the disease again. There are also diseases in which immunity does not guarantee that an individual is not susceptible to becoming reinfected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ezvzuz
|
New Orleans was a French possession for only about 45 years and had a very small population for most of that time. How did French influence manage to remain so strong there?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm assuming that you mean the French influence is strong in New Orleans as compared to other territories of French Louisiana added to the United States in the Louisiana purchase? Obviously, the French influence in New Orleans pales in comparison to that in Quebec. So taking the question as why is the French influence more obvious in New Orleans than in, say, St. Louis, I think the underlying answer is population. In 1810, New Orleans was a city of 17,000 inhabitants -- nearly all of them French speaking. As discussed below, Spanish Louisiana was really a continuation of French Louisiana and another 8,000 or so French speaking immigrants arrived in New Orleans in 1809. So, 1810 New Orleans was a large, well-established, Francophone city. The other cities of the Louisiana territory were not and so did not have the same cultural persistence.\n\nAs you note, New Orleans went through two colonial powers: France (to 1762) and essentially Spain -- though with the briefest return to France to the Louisiana purchase in 1803. You should, however, really think of this as a century of French influence -- not a half century each of divided French and Spanish influence.\n\nDuring the Spanish period after 1762, Spanish cultural influence on the Louisiana territory broadly was limited. The first Spanish governor arrived in New Orleans in 1766 and was driven from the city by a Francophile revolt in 1768. The Spanish suppressed the revolt (oddly enough the governor sent to do this, Alejandro O'Reilly was Irish by birth) and then installed Luis de Unzaga as governor. To prevent further difficulties, Unzaga decided to embrace the francophone Louisiana elite. Unzaga married a francophone Louisian Creole woman (Marie Elizabeth St. Maxent), allowed significant cultural and political autonomy, and allowed the francophone Creole elite to continue to dominate affairs. Spanish culture simply did not penetrate Louisiana.\n\nNew Orleans also received several waves of French-speaking immigration. After the Haitian revolution, a large number of French speaking refugees (including much of the colonial elite) fled to New Orleans beginning in the 1790s. A number of French monarchists also fled France for New Orleans during the French revolution. A number of other Francophones fled Haiti for Cuba. In 1809 many of these were expelled and fled to New Orleans. In 1809 alone, over 9,000 of these (almost exclusively French speaking) refugees arrived, roughly doubling the population of the city.\n\nThus, we get to the early 19th century with a large, well-developed and French influenced city, so the next question is why this didn't unravel over the next 200 years. Of course, it did to a considerable extent. Again, New Orleans is not Montreal -- it's a clearly American, English-speaking city. There was simply a large enough cultural force to have some persistence over time -- thus, the French street names, French cuisine, fondness for the -eaux suffix and so on.\n\nIn 1812, Louisiana (as a whole, I don't know of New Orleans statistics) was 75% French speaking. Thereafter, there was large scale English speaking immigration, and Louisiana (again as a whole) was 70% English speaking in 1860. The French culture was stronger in rural South Louisiana than in New Orleans. In 1852, the New Orleans *Knickberbocker* [declared](_URL_0_): \"The New-Orleans of 1852 is not the New-Orleans of twenty years ago. The innovations of the Anglo-Saxon race have been steadily undermining the manners and customs of the aborigines of the country ... The Creole influenced breathed its last breath ... New-Orleans is now an Anglo-Saxon city.\" The aftermath of the Civil War dealt the death blow to Louisiana French speakers -- the Reconstruction-era constitution mandated English language education. The French speaking newspapers in Louisiana largely closed in the second half of the 19th century.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310995",
"title": "Shrinking cities",
"section": "Section::::Case study: New Orleans, Louisiana.:History of New Orleans' changing demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 1819,
"text": "French colonists founded the city of New Orleans in 1718, traveling from Mobile, Alabama to the Mississippi River. Because the area was a major hub for the slave trade, there was an increase of African slaves from 300 to 1,000 between the years of 1726 to 1732. By 1800, the population of the city included Anglo-Americans, Creoles, and enslaved Africans that were intermixed. However, a large demographic shift took place as a result the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Driven by the 1791 slave insurgency of Saint Domingue and threat of war with England, the French sold 530,000,000 acres west of the Mississippi including New Orleans to the United States Government. After the purchase, over 10,000 refugees from Saint Domingue doubled the size of the city, changing the population to \"1/3 white, 1/3 free people of color and 1/3 African slaves\" by 1810. The city's population expanded even more and experienced shifts between 1830 and 1860 when the city's population grew three times as large, as a result of an influx of European immigrants whose population overtook the slave population. As a result of the end of the Civil War in 1865, the emancipated African American population in the city doubled to 50,000 by 1870. The subsequent Jim Crow laws segregated blacks to more low-lying and marginalized areas of the city, including black Creoles who previously resided in the French Quarter. However, by 1900 migration to New Orleans slowed, lowering it from the 5th to 12th largest among all American cities, placing it below the growth rate of Chicago, Detroit, and Milwaukee. This change took place largely because of New Orleans' reliance on agricultural exports that did not require urban laborers. This decline was somewhat lessened by the railway that passed through the city and connected to ocean freighters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "282220",
"title": "Colonial history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::New France.:Louisiana.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "French claims to French Louisiana stretched thousands of miles from modern Louisiana north to the largely unexplored Midwest, and west to the Rocky Mountains. It was generally divided into Upper and Lower Louisiana. This vast tract was first settled at Mobile and Biloxi around 1700, and continued to grow when 7,000 French immigrants founded New Orleans in 1718. Settlement proceeded very slowly; New Orleans became an important port as the gateway to the Mississippi River, but there was little other economic development because the city lacked a prosperous hinterland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53842",
"title": "New Orleans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris (1763), following France's defeat by Great Britain in the Seven Years' War. During the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, and transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Beginning in the 1760s, Filipinos began to settle in and around New Orleans. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779. \"Nueva Orleans\" (the name of New Orleans in Spanish) remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French rule. Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré (French Quarter) dates from the Spanish period, notably excepting the Old Ursuline Convent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63876",
"title": "History of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Colonial period.:Spanish, Dutch, and French colonization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "New France was the area colonized by France from 1534 to 1763. There were few permanent settlers outside Quebec and Acadia, but the French had far-reaching trading relationships with Native Americans throughout the Great Lakes and Midwest. French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were based in farming communities that served as a granary for Gulf Coast settlements. The French established plantations in Louisiana along with settling New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171090",
"title": "Zydeco",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The original French settlers came to Louisiana in the late 1600s, sent by the Regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, to help settle the Louisiana Territory. Arriving in New Orleans on seven ships, the settlers quickly moved into the bayous and swamps. There the French culture permeated those of the Irish, Spanish, Native Indian and German peoples already populating the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16766671",
"title": "Demographics of Louisiana",
"section": "Section::::Ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "In 1840 New Orleans was the third largest and most wealthy city in the nation and the largest city in the South. Its bustling port and trade economy attracted numerous Irish, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German immigrants, of which the first four groups mostly Catholic, with some Germans also being Catholic, thus adding to the Catholic culture in southern Louisiana. New Orleans is also home to sizable Dutch, Greek and Polish communities, and Jewish populations of various nationalities. More than 10,000 Maltese were reported to come to Louisiana in the early 20th century. Croatians are credited with developing the state's commercial oyster industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53842",
"title": "New Orleans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Religion and architecture from across the world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In the city of New Orleans an inspiring mixture of foreign influences created a melting pot of culture that is still celebrated today. By the end of French colonization in Louisiana, New Orleans was recognized commercially in the Atlantic world. Its inhabitants traded across the French commercial system. New Orleans was this hub for trade both physically and culturally because it served as the exit point to the rest of the globe for the interior of the North American continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67bfo3
|
WW2 Tanks - British/Soviet Commander Hatch machineguns?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were two official types of roof mounted AA machineguns for Soviet WWII era vehicles: the 7.62 mm DT in a P-40 mount and the 12.7 mm DShK.\n\nThe [P-40 mount](_URL_3_) was developed before the war, in 1937, with an improved version built in 1938. This mount was installed on a wide variety of vehicles, including BT, T-26, T-28, T-35, and KV tanks. The A-20 also had it, but the production T-34 did not.\n\nBT and T-26 tanks with these mounts were also called \"AA tanks\" and were considered a special kind of tank, much like commander's tanks. According to the table of organization, every fifth light tank would have an AA machinegun (one per platoon). \n\nThe P-40 was phased out of production since it was made clear during the Spanish Civil War that the DT was not powerful enough to shoot down modern aircraft. Self propelled AA guns in larger calibers were given preference. Nevertheless, you see KV tanks with cast turrets and ZIS-5 guns (at least late 1941) with these mounts, plus DT machineguns installed in ad-hoc manner for AA on tanks that weren't supposed to have them at all, like T-34s. \n\nHowever, the idea of SPAAGs didn't work out despite many attempts, and the tankers still wanted mobile AA cover. The presence of a 12.7 mm machinegun on the M4A2 Sherman tanks delivered via Lend Lease was found to be a very desirable quality. The evaluation of the tank highlights that the presence of such a machinegun makes the tank superior in firepower to other domestic and foreign medium tanks.\n\nEven though that evaluation was written in 1942, the wheels of bureaucracy turned slowly, and an [AA gun mount](_URL_2_) for a domestic 12.7 mm machinegun was only approved in October of 1944. Even then, it was only installed on heavy tanks and SPGs. I've read arguments that the T-34-85 was too unstable a platform for DShKs, but there are many photos of Syrian T-34-85s with that exact machinegun, so its absence from medium tanks is a mystery to me.\n\n\n\nM.V. Kolomiets *T-26 Tyazhelaya Sud'ba Lyogkogo Tanka*\n\nA.G. Solyankin et al *Sovetskiye Lyogkiye Tanki 1920-1941*\n\nA.G. Solyankin et al *Sovetskiye Sredniye Tanki 1924-1941*\n\nP. Samsonov [*M4A2 Sherman Assessment*](_URL_0_)\n\nP. Samsonov [*AA MG*](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "488398",
"title": "Churchill tank",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The Tank, Infantry, Mk IV (A22) Churchill was a British heavy infantry tank used in the Second World War, best known for its heavy armour, large longitudinal chassis with all-around tracks with multiple bogies, its ability to climb steep slopes, and its use as the basis of many specialist vehicles. It was one of the heaviest Allied tanks of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37998925",
"title": "U-5TS",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The U-5TS (production designation 2A20) tank gun is a 115 mm-calibre weapon that was fitted exclusively to the Soviet Union's T-62 main battle tank. It was the first smoothbore weapon designed for tanks and heralded the change in main armament from rifled cannons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6821",
"title": "Military engineering vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Tank-based combat engineering vehicles.:Churchill tank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The British Churchill tank because of its good cross-country performance and capacious interior with side hatches became the most adapted with modifications, the base unit being the AVRE carrying a large demolition gun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "672117",
"title": "Škoda Works",
"section": "Section::::History.:1899–1945: before and during World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Škoda manufactured the triple-barreled gun turrets for the s of the Austro-Hungarian navy. Prior to World War II Škoda produced \"LT-35\" tanks, which are better known under their German designation \"Panzer 35(t)\". These tanks were originally produced for the Czechoslovak army and were used extensively by the Wehrmacht in the Polish campaign, the Battle of France, and the German invasion of the Soviet Union. In July 1944 Škoda started production of the Jagdpanzer 38(t).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188217",
"title": "IS tank family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "The IS Tank was a series of heavy tanks developed as a successor to the KV-series by the Soviet Union during World War II. The IS acronym is the anglicized initialism of Joseph Stalin (, \"\"). The heavy tanks were designed with thick armor to counter German 88 mm guns and carried a main gun capable of defeating Tiger II, Tiger I, and Panther tanks. They were mainly designed as breakthrough tanks, firing a heavy high-explosive shell that was useful against entrenchments and bunkers. The IS-2 went into service in April 1944 and was used as a spearhead by the Red Army in the final stage of the Battle of Berlin. The IS-3 served on the Chinese-Soviet border, the Soviet invasion of Hungary, the Prague Spring and on both sides of the Six-Day War. The series eventually culminated in the T-10 heavy tank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199469",
"title": "BT tank",
"section": "Section::::Combat history.:World War II in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "During the Second World War in Europe, BT-5 and BT-7 tanks were used in the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland and in large numbers in the battles of 1941, during which thousands were abandoned or destroyed. A few remained in use in 1942, but were rare after that time. The Red Army planned to replace the BT tank series with the T-34 and had just begun doing so when the German invasion (Operation Barbarossa) began.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334933",
"title": "American armored fighting vehicle production during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Light tanks.:Stuart series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "By the time the United States entered the Second World War in 1942 they had only two tanks ready for combat: the M1 Combat Car and the M2 Light Tank. Originally both tanks only came equipped with machine guns but in 1940, the M2A4 was upgraded to a 37mm anti-tank gun. The machine gun-armed tanks were never used in combat, and only a handful of cannon-armed vehicles saw service in the Pacific; but their design formed the basis of the later M3/M5 Light Tank. The British officially called their M3s' Stuarts, and often referred to them as \"Honeys\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8443vu
|
How did professions that used lots of paper, like bankers and lawyers, preserve the hundreds of pages of documents in the 19th Century?
|
[
{
"answer": "This has always been a problem and fire was a common enemy. You don't even have to go back as far as the 1800's. You can read about [The 1973 Fire, National Personnel Records Center](_URL_0_) to get a basic idea of what kind of loss could occur and how they might go about reconstructing as much of that data as possible. Redundancy, indexing, backups, and disperate storage methods have always been important in data retention, still to this day.\n\nI'd love to read a 'Salt' like book about your very question and will be eagerly watching this thread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4883340",
"title": "Photostat machine",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "The growth of business during the industrial revolution created the need for a more efficient means of transcription than hand copying. Carbon paper was first used in the early 19th century. By the late 1840s copying presses were used to copy outgoing correspondence. One by one, other methods appeared. These included the \"manifold writer,\" developed from Christoph Scheiner's pantograph and used by Mark Twain; copying baths; copying books; and roller copiers. Among the most significant of them was the Blue process in the early 1870s, which was mainly used to make blueprints of architectural and engineering drawings. Stencil duplicators (more commonly known as \"Mimeograph machines\") surfaced in 1874, and the Cyclostyle in 1891. All were manual and most involved messy fluids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "495664",
"title": "Information overload",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "To combat information overload, scholars developed their own information records for easier and simply archival access and retrieval. Modern Europe compilers used paper and glue to cut specific notes and passages from a book and pasted them to a new sheet for storage. Carl Linnaeus developed paper slips, often called his botanical paper slips, from 1767 to 1773, to record his observations. Blair argues that these botanical paper slips gave birth to the \"taxonomical system\" that has endured to this present, influencing both the mass inventions of the index card and the library card catalog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145306",
"title": "Howell Harris",
"section": "Section::::The papers of Howell Harris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "By 1913 the scale of the work needing to be done on the papers became apparent. As many of the papers were in Latin, it was estimated that it would take much of a decade and a vast sum of money to ready the papers for publication. In 1913, it was decided that a better use of resources would be to set up a Historical Society of the Presbyterian church of Wales that would be responsible for publishing a regular journal to include, amongst other articles, some of Howell Harris’s papers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71608",
"title": "Document management system",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Beginning in the 1980s, a number of vendors began to develop software systems to manage paper-based documents. These systems dealt with paper documents, which included not only printed and published documents, but also photographs, prints, etc...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "718348",
"title": "Paper marbling",
"section": "Section::::History in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "In the 17th century European travelers to the Middle East collected examples of these papers and bound them into \"alba amicorum\", which literally means \"books of friendship\" in Latin, and is a forerunner of the modern autograph album. Eventually the technique for making the papers reached Europe, where they became a popular covering material not only for book covers and end-papers, but also for lining chests, drawers, and bookshelves. The marbling of the edges of books was also a European adaptation of the art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43976319",
"title": "National archives",
"section": "Section::::Conceptual development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "From the Middle Ages into the Early modern period archives generated by royal and clerical institutions retained proofs of political and genealogical claims as a \"bastion of authenticity.\" The emerging Enlightenment concept of studying history as a science rather than as literature was influenced by Leopold von Ranke and brought archives into the limelight of serious historical study. In the late 18th century, the storage of old records was divided. Business records in the \"archives courantes\" went the way of records management while documents of cultural import in the \"archives historiques\" formed the core of Western-conceived archives. As the popularity of archives increased as a function of substantiating historical narratives, national archives were purposed towards telling their respective nation's story. For example, the National Historical Archive of Spain as created excluded contemporary records in favor of documenting defunct institutions as a matter of national heritage. Historian Nicholas Dirks has said that national archives are the \"primary site of state monumentality.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1835316",
"title": "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society",
"section": "Section::::Origins and history.:Twentieth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "Authors were increasingly expected to submit manuscripts in a standardized format and style. From 1896, they were encouraged to submit typed papers on foolscap-folio-sized paper to lighten the work of getting papers ready for printing, and to reduce the chance of error in the process. A publishable paper now had to present its information in an appropriate manner, as well as being of remarkable scientific interest. For a brief period between 1907 and 1914, authors were under even more pressure to conform to the society's expectations, due to a decision to discuss cost estimates of candidate papers alongside referees' reports. The committees could require authors to reduce the number of illustrations or tables or, indeed, the overall length of the paper, as a condition of acceptance. It was hoped that this policy would reduce the still-rising costs of production, which had reached £1747 in 1906; but the effect appears to have been negligible, and the cost estimates ceased to be routine practice after 1914.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j7yb1
|
Help me understand why my speed of light loophole is probably wrong.
|
[
{
"answer": " > If gravitational attraction leads to constant acceleration, why can't two objects with mass be placed far enough apart in a sufficiently empty universe to accelerate towards each other and eventually reach the speed of light.\n\nBecause the acceleration becomes less and less, the closer you get to the speed of light.\n\nYou may or may not be aware of this, but in the theory of special relativity, when you add velocities, the relationship is **not** linear.\n\nIn classical mechanics, you have a very simple relationship between two speeds *v* and *u*:\n\n*s = v + u*\n\nIn relativity, however, [the relationship has an additional factor](_URL_0_) that keeps the total speed *s* below the speed of light:\n\n*s = (v + u) / (1 + vu/c^(2))*\n\nAt ordinary speeds, the term *(1 + vu/c^(2))* is very close to 1, so the factor is negligible. However, at high speeds (where the product *vu* is large compared to *c^(2)*), the factor is no longer negligible, and you get results like this:\n\n*v = u = .5c*\n\n*s = (v + u) / (1 + vu/c^(2))*\n\n*s = (.5c + .5c) / (1 + .25c^(2)/c^(2))*\n\n*s = 1c / (1.25)*\n\n*s = 0.8c*\n\nSimilarly, if you plug in *v = u = c*, you get *s = c*. So, the composition of any two velocities *always* adds up to the speed of light or less, in every reference frame.\n\nSo in short, there is *no distance* for which *v + u* can possibly equal *c*. This is equivalent to saying: An infinite amount of energy is required to accelerate a massive body beyond the speed of light, and there is no distance for which the gravitational potential energy between two bodies is infinite.\n\nHope that helps!\n\n > I'm assuming that the speed of the objects would actually be asymptotic to the speed of light, if that's the case, why? If acceleration is constant, shouldn't speed increase linearly?\n\nWell, when dealing with gravity, the acceleration *won't* be constant -- it will increase with the decreasing distance between the two masses, according to [Newton's law of universal gravitation](_URL_1_):\n\n_F = G (m1\\*m2)/r^(2)_\n\nBut even if the acceleration was constant, acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity over time. But velocity is different in different reference frames! That means, while the acceleration may be a certain magnitude in a certain frame of reference, in a different frame of reference, the acceleration will be scaled down proportionally to the object's current velocity. That is to say, the faster an object is travelling (in a reference frame), the less it accelerates, when a certain (frame-invariant) force is applied -- or equivalently, the more force is required to accelerate it by the same magnitude as if it were stationary.\n\nAnother way of saying this is that the force law in relativity is not Newton's force law, *F = ma*, but rather it is *F = γma* where *γ* is the [Lorentz factor](_URL_2_).\n\n > I'm also assuming relativistic principles play a part (increased mass of objects as they approach the speed of light, time dilation, other magical stuff)\n\nActually, mass *doesn't* increase as objects approach the speed of light -- these days, it is understood that \"mass\" means the *rest mass* of a body (its measured mass in the body's center of momentum frame), and kinetic energy is not considered part of an object's mass. The term that includes kinetic energy and scales according to *m = E/c^(2)* is known as \"relativistic mass,\" and it is rather well established these days that relativistic mass is not the term *m* which appears in equations like *E = mc^(2)*, rather it is the term *M = γm* where *γ* is the Lorentz factor and *m* is the body's rest mass.\n\nAnd by the way, in case you weren't aware, *E = mc^(2)* is actually a reduction of the complete formula, and it *only* applies to *massive* bodies, when the body is at rest. The full equation for an arbitrary body's energy at any speed is:\n\n*E^(2) = p^(2)c^(2) + m^(2)c^(4)* where *p* is the momentum\n\nAs you may be able to tell, if you plug in *p = 0* you get *E = mc^(2)*. Similarly, for a massless body, if you plug in *m = 0*, you get *E = pc* which is the familiar energy of a photon (this is how a photon can carry energy and momentum despite being massless and having an infinite range). And for a massive body which is moving, the mass remains the same, while the momentum contributes to the additional energy of the body.\n\nHope that helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2703885",
"title": "Route dependence",
"section": "Section::::Spatial route dependence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "If we repeat the exercise with light signals sent around the other side of the hole, the resulting anisotropy in the speed of light will now act in the opposite direction, and B will appear to be \"uphill\" of A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "643769",
"title": "Quantum tunnelling",
"section": "Section::::Faster than light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Some physicists have claimed that it is possible for spin-zero particles to travel faster than the speed of light when tunnelling. This apparently violates the principle of causality, since there will be a frame of reference in which it arrives before it has left. In 1998, Francis E. Low reviewed briefly the phenomenon of zero-time tunnelling. More recently experimental tunnelling time data of phonons, photons, and electrons have been published by Günter Nimtz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Quantum mechanics.:Hartman effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "However, the Hartman effect cannot actually be used to violate relativity by transmitting signals faster than \"c\", because the tunnelling time \"should not be linked to a velocity since evanescent waves do not propagate\". The evanescent waves in the Hartman effect are due to virtual particles and a non-propagating static field, as mentioned in the sections above for gravity and electromagnetism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34043",
"title": "Wormhole",
"section": "Section::::Faster-than-light travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The impossibility of faster-than-light relative speed only applies locally. Wormholes might allow effective superluminal (faster-than-light) travel by ensuring that the speed of light is not exceeded locally at any time. While traveling through a wormhole, subluminal (slower-than-light) speeds are used. If two points are connected by a wormhole whose length is shorter than the distance between them \"outside\" the wormhole, the time taken to traverse it could be less than the time it would take a light beam to make the journey if it took a path through the space \"outside\" the wormhole. However, a light beam traveling through the same wormhole would beat the traveler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Faster-than-light observations and experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Another quantum effect that predicts the occurrence of faster-than-light speeds is called the Hartman effect: under certain conditions the time needed for a virtual particle to tunnel through a barrier is constant, regardless of the thickness of the barrier. This could result in a virtual particle crossing a large gap faster-than-light. However, no information can be sent using this effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608886",
"title": "Tests of special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Sagnac and Fizeau.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Special relativity also predicts that two light rays traveling in opposite directions around a spinning closed path (e.g. a loop) require different flight times to come back to the moving emitter/receiver (this is a consequence of the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the source, see above). This effect was actually observed and is called the Sagnac effect. Currently, the consideration of this effect is necessary for many experimental setups and for the correct functioning of GPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28751",
"title": "Faster-than-light communication",
"section": "Section::::Fictional devices.:Quantum entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "BULLET::::- Charles Stross's books \"Singularity Sky\" and \"Iron Sunrise\" make use of \"causal channels\" which use entangled particles for instantaneous two-way communication. The technique has drawbacks in that the entangled particles are expendable and the use of faster-than-light travel destroys the entanglement, so that one end of the channel must be transported below light speed. This makes them expensive and limits their usefulness somewhat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9zua7f
|
Did the dinosaur-apocalypse meteor's impact change the Earth's orbit or rotation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Slightly. Every collision results in the transfer of linear and angular momentum. But the mass of the impactor was so small in relation to the Earth that if it happened, it would be difficult, but not impossible, to measure the affect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Back of the envelope estimate: Earth has a ~~diameter~~ radius of 6370 km. An object with a ~~diameter~~ radius of 5 km and the same density (overestimate) has (5/6370)^3 or roughly 5\\*10^(-10) times the mass of Earth. If it hits Earth at 40 km/s (quite fast), its velocity is about 100 times the surface velocity from rotation. As order of magnitude estimate we would expect the length of the day change by 100\\*5\\*10^(-10) = 5\\*10^(-8) or 4 milliseconds (in either direction). 40 km/s is a bit faster than Earth's orbital velocity, so we expect changes of the order of the mass ratio, half of a billionth. The length of a day might change by ~10 milliseconds and the semi-major axis could change by tens of meters. While such a change would be measurable with today's technology it was completely irrelevant for Earth and life on it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Hadean and Archean Eons.:Formation of the Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent Chicxulub impact that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. It was enough to vaporize some of the Earth's outer layers and melt both bodies. A portion of the mantle material was ejected into orbit around the Earth. The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material, explaining its abnormal composition. The ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical body: the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536187",
"title": "Alvarez hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Previously, in a 1953 publication, geologists Allan O. Kelly and Frank Dachille analyzed global geological evidence suggesting that one or more giant asteroids impacted the Earth, causing an angular shift in its axis, global floods, fire, atmospheric occlusion, and the extinction of the dinosaurs. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but without strong confirming evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6794",
"title": "Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9",
"section": "Section::::Jupiter as a \"cosmic vacuum cleaner\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally thought to have been caused by the Cretaceous–Paleogene impact event, which created the Chicxulub crater, demonstrating that impacts are a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter to mop up potential impactors, extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth, and complex life might not have been able to develop. This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174069",
"title": "Asteroid impact avoidance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "A collision 66 million years ago between the Earth and an object approximately wide is thought to have produced the Chicxulub crater and the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, widely held responsible for the extinction of most dinosaurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320445",
"title": "Luis Walter Alvarez",
"section": "Section::::Dinosaur extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Publication of the 1980 paper brought criticism from the geologic community, and an often acrimonious scientific debate ensued. Ten years later, and after Alvarez's death, evidence of a large impact crater called Chicxulub was found off the coast of Mexico, providing support for the theory. Other researchers later found that the end-Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs may have occurred rapidly in geologic terms, over thousands of years, rather than millions of years as had previously been supposed. Others continue to study alternative extinction causes such as increased volcanism, particularly the massive Deccan Traps eruptions that occurred around the same time, and climate change, checking against the fossil record. However, on March 4, 2010, a panel of 41 scientists agreed that the Chicxulub asteroid impact triggered the mass extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174609",
"title": "Chicxulub crater",
"section": "Section::::Impact specifics.:Chicxulub and mass extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "The Chicxulub Crater lends support to the theory postulated by the late physicist Luis Alvarez and his son, geologist Walter Alvarez, that the extinction of numerous animal and plant groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, may have resulted from a bolide impact (the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). Luis and Walter Alvarez, at the time both faculty members at the University of California, Berkeley, postulated that this enormous extinction event, which was roughly contemporaneous with the postulated date of formation for the Chicxulub crater, could have been caused by just such a large impact. The age of the rocks marked by the impact shows that this impact structure dates from roughly 66 million years ago, the end of the Cretaceous period, and the start of the Paleogene period. It coincides with the K–Pg boundary, the geological boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene. The impact associated with the crater is thus implicated in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, including the worldwide extinction of non-avian dinosaurs. This conclusion has been the source of controversy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1248351",
"title": "Yucatán Peninsula",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "According to the Alvarez hypothesis, the mass extinction of the dinosaurs at the transition from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene Period, the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), 65 million years ago was caused by an asteroid impact somewhere in the greater Caribbean Basin. The deeply buried Chicxulub crater is centered off the north coast of the peninsula near the town of Chicxulub. The now-famous \"Ring of Cenotes\" (visible in NASA imagery) outlines one of the shock-waves from this impact event in the rock of ~66 million years of age, which lies more than 1 km below the modern ground surface near the centre, with the rock above the impact strata all being younger in age. The presence of the crater has been determined first on the surface from the Ring of Cenotes, but also by geophysical methods, and direct drilling with recovery of the drill cores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3n580y
|
Is one side of the brain emotional/creative while the other side is logical/factual?
|
[
{
"answer": "Things such as logical or creative can be complex behaviors and are not limited to a single area in the brain. There are some aspects of brain function that are lateralized (e.g., language on the left and visuospatial on the right), but even these are not only done on one side of the brain and are not the same for all people. There has been a great deal of research on so-called [\"split-brain\" patients](_URL_2_) which clearly show this [lateralization](_URL_1_). But, and here is a big but, most people do not have a severed corpus callosum and therefore the hemispheres of the brain communicate with each other and share in behaviors. Therefore, in the end, [both of the sides of the brain work together](_URL_0_). \n\nAnything that you see from educational materials, brain training, self-help books, philosophy, etc. that tries to draw large truths about people in general from a left/right brain perspective, are taking an ounce of research findings and turning it into a metaphor instead of scientific truth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25513705",
"title": "The Master and His Emissary",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Part One: The Divided Brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "In \"The Divided Brain\", McGilchrist digests study after study, replacing the popular and superficial notion of the hemispheres as respectively logical and creative in nature with the idea that they pay attention in fundamentally different ways, the left being detail-oriented, the right being whole-oriented. These two modes of perception cascade into wildly different hemispheric personalities, and in fact reflect yet a further asymmetry in their status, that of the right's more immediate relationship with physical bodies (our own as well as others) and external reality as represented by the senses, a relationship that makes it the mediator, the first and last stop, of all experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50460577",
"title": "Evolutionary theory of the self",
"section": "Section::::Evidence to support the theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "The results displayed that the brain areas that we use for thinking about ourselves may also be used for thinking about those who are important to us. The fact that there is this relationship with multiple parts of the brain being active during both goes to show that there is an association between the two, furthering to suggest that one area in the brain nor one unified mechanism is not responsible for the self. The results also support the evolutionary expectation of a connection between self and the preparedness for action. The activation of key areas in the basal ganglia and the differential activation of BA 31 by the self-conditions in contrast with the Best Friend conditions in this study, further support the idea of personality being a product of the unconscious self.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3665897",
"title": "Lateralization of brain function",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Sex differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "In the 19th century and to a lesser extent the 20th, it was thought that each side of the brain was associated with a specific gender: the left corresponding with masculinity and the right with femininity and each half could function independently. The right side of the brain was seen as the inferior and thought to be prominent in women, savages, children, criminals, and the insane. A prime example of this in fictional literature can be seen in Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19378",
"title": "Mind",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The attributes that make up the mind are debated. Some psychologists argue that only the \"higher\" intellectual functions constitute mind, particularly reason and memory. In this view the emotions — love, hate, fear, and joy — are more \"primitive \"or subjective in nature and should be seen as different from the mind as such. Others argue that various rational and emotional states cannot be so separated, that they are of the same nature and origin, and should therefore be considered all part of it as mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2628506",
"title": "Neuropsychiatry",
"section": "Section::::The case for the rapprochement of neurology and psychiatry.:Mind/brain monism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In sum, a reason for the division between psychiatry and neurology was the distinction between mind or first-person experience and the brain. That this difference is taken to be artificial by proponents of mind/brain monism supports a merge between these specialties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23785",
"title": "Phrenology",
"section": "Section::::Mental faculties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Phrenologists believe that the human mind has a set of various mental faculties, each one represented in a different area of the brain. For example, the faculty of \"philoprogenitiveness\", from the Greek for \"love of offspring\", was located centrally at the back of the head (see illustration of the chart from \"Webster's Academic Dictionary\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2665685",
"title": "A Treatise of Human Nature",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Book 2: Of the Passions.:Part 1: Of pride and humility.:Sections 1–6.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "Hume's account relies on three mechanisms. First, the \"association of ideas\": the mind tends to move from one idea to another idea that is naturally related to it. Second, the \"association of impressions\": the mind tends to move from one passion to another passion that resembles it in feeling (e.g., from joy to love). Third, their \"mutual assistance\": if we feel a passion towards something, we will tend to feel a resembling passion towards something else naturally related to it (e.g., from anger at one person to impatience at a related person). Applying all this to pride, Hume argues that the pleasant sensation of pride, directed at ourselves, naturally tends to be called up when something naturally related to ourselves produces a pleasant sensation of its own. Likewise with humility: when something naturally related to ourselves produces an unpleasant sensation of its own, it tends to make us ashamed of ourselves. These indirect passions are thus the product of the \"double relation of impressions and ideas\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6te4rg
|
What keeps food from ‘going down the wrong pipe’ and doesn’t when said event occurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Swallowing is a pretty complex process that takes place in three different stages. Esophageal stage isn't as important to your question. The oral phase is important in food bolus preparation for pharyngeal transit. Without the phase, food going down the wrong tube is more likely but not a given. \n\n The pharyngeal phase is most responsible for preventing penetration and aspiration. What you're talking about is aspiration, food going through the vocal folds into the trachea. Swallowing in the pharyngeal phase takes place in less than a seconds time. The larynx elevates and the epiglottis folds down over the glottis to allow for a conduit into the hypopharynx. This is the main preventer of food going down the wrong tube. The glottis and false cords are also closed, you can't breathe during this time. If there is penetration for whatever reason due to some dysfunction of the pharyngeal phase and food enters the larynx, then you have your larynx, specifically the false and true vocal folds, that are extremely well innervated and the food induces a cough reflex. Even with aspiration into the windpipe, the trachea, which is also well innervated, will induce a cough. \n\nThere are many insults that can alter each part of this, but there is a lot of redundancy built in. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The epiglottis is what prevents the food from entering the respiratory tract. When this fails it is usually because the person inhaled, even a little bit, and a piece of food or drink got into the respiratory tract causing them to cough until it is out. \n\nCompromised patients, such as elderly folks, have less of a cough reflex and weaker muscles and often the food/drink particles will get into the lungs. Because they are not super healthy this will lead to pneumonia. (Healthy individuals who get food/drink particles into their lungs will have it cleared out by their immune system)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15378759",
"title": "There's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "There's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip is a very old proverb, similar in meaning to \"don't count your chickens before they hatch\". It implies that even when a good outcome or conclusion seems certain, things can still go wrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254058",
"title": "Five-second rule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "The five-second rule, sometimes also the three-second rule, is a western cultural food hygiene myth that states that there is a defined window where it is permissible to pick up food (or sometimes cutlery) after it has been dropped and thus exposed to contamination. Some may believe this assertion, whereas most people employ the rule as an amusing social fiction that allows them to eat a dropped piece of food, despite the potential reservations of their peers. How many and what type of bacteria would stick to a piece of dropped food depends on many factors, the food or the floor being wet or dry among them. There is also a social dimension as eating dropped food in a restaurant or when guests are around is simply unacceptable, but in a family or private situation it may still be tolerated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3780915",
"title": "Table manners",
"section": "Section::::North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "If food must be removed from the mouth for some reason—a pit, bone, or gristle—the rule of thumb according to Emily Post, is that it comes out the same way it went in. For example, if olives are eaten by hand, the pit may be removed by hand. If an olive in a salad is eaten with a fork, the pit should be deposited back onto the fork inside one's mouth, and then placed onto a plate. The same applies to any small bone or piece of gristle in food. A diner should never spit things into a napkin, certainly not a cloth napkin. Since the napkin is always laid in the lap and brought up only to wipe one's mouth, hidden food may be accidentally dropped into the lap or onto the host's floor. Food that is simply disliked should be swallowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11161239",
"title": "Aquarium fish feeder",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of electronic aquarium feeders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "There are also disadvantages that come with the electronic feeders. First, fish tend to get used to where and when the timer is going to trigger and food is going to fall which can create a feeding frenzy when the feeder drops the food. This usually results in a lot of splashing which may wet the rest of the food. Mold can then grow and the leftover food is likely to go bad or to clog the feeder's mechanism. The humidity and moisture due to close proximity to the water can also cause this type of problem with an electronic feeder. Second, one has to make sure that the food containers are properly sealed and the food is kept fresh. At this time electronic feeders are not able to adjust to the changing needs of the fish over longer periods which may result in either overfeeding or underfeeding. Too much food in the water is not only bad for the fish, but also for their environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10614477",
"title": "Aphagia",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Behavioural aphagia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Mixed aphagia: When presented with food, the animal initially does not react positively or negatively. However, when food is placed in the mouth, the animal demonstrates active aphagia, spitting out the food and refusing to eat thereafter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196983",
"title": "Swallowing",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Phases.:Oral phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Food is mechanically broken down by the action of the teeth controlled by the muscles of mastication (V) acting on the temporomandibular joint. This results in a bolus which is moved from one side of the oral cavity to the other by the tongue. Buccinator (VII) helps to contain the food against the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. The bolus is ready for swallowing when it is held together by saliva (largely mucus) , sensed by the lingual nerve of the tongue (VII—chorda tympani and IX—lesser petrosal)(V). Any food that is too dry to form a bolus will not be swallowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2633725",
"title": "Puzzle Bobble 4",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Chain reactions occur only on the two player (or player and CPU) modes. When a bubble is dropped, it can move to another place on the board if this causes more bubbles to pop. If this, in turn, causes more bubbles to drop, then the chain reaction can continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4w10av
|
how old black and white photos, that pre-date colored photography, can accurately have color added into them.
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't do recolors, but to my knowledge when one is doing a recolor, he/she guesses approximately what the colors would be. There's no real science behind it. Hope that helps. If anyone has more knowledge, please chime in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25080",
"title": "Photograph",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "Color photography is almost as old as black-and-white, with early experiments including John Herschel's Anthotype prints in 1842, the pioneering work of Louis Ducos du Hauron in the 1860s, and the Lippmann process unveiled in 1891, but for many years color photography remained little more than a laboratory curiosity. It first became a widespread commercial reality with the introduction of Autochrome plates in 1907, but the plates were very expensive and not suitable for casual snapshot-taking with hand-held cameras. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type. These early processes produced transparencies for use in slide projectors and viewing devices, but color prints became increasingly popular after the introduction of chromogenic color print paper in the 1940s. The needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738971",
"title": "Frederic Eugene Ives",
"section": "Section::::Color photography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Three separate black-and-white photographs of the subject were taken through carefully adjusted red, green and blue filters, a method of photographically recording color first suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and imperfectly demonstrated in 1861, but subsequently forgotten and independently reinvented by others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "444758",
"title": "Color photography",
"section": "Section::::History.:Three-color processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "The first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome \"color separations\", was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect ultraviolet light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton's red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra-violet, blue-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25080",
"title": "Photograph",
"section": "Section::::Types of photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color. Although methods for developing color photos were available as early as 1861, they did not become widely available until the 1940s or 1950s, and even so, until the 1960s most photographs were taken in black and white. Since then, color photography has dominated popular photography, although black and white is still used, being easier to develop than color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23604",
"title": "Photography",
"section": "Section::::History.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855. The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue filters. This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21556842",
"title": "Photographic film",
"section": "Section::::History of film.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Experiments with color photography began almost as early as photography itself, but the three-color principle underlying all practical processes was not set forth until 1855, not demonstrated until 1861, and not generally accepted as \"real\" color photography until it had become an undeniable commercial reality in the early 20th century. Although color photographs of good quality were being made by the 1890s, they required special equipment, long exposures, complex printing or display procedures and highly specialized skills, so they were then exceedingly rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2435889",
"title": "History of photography",
"section": "Section::::Colour process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green, and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image. Maxwell's method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s and beyond, and Polachrome, an \"instant\" slide film that used the Autochrome's additive principle, was available until 2003, but the few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kiamy
|
what is penicillin? and how do we get it from mold to curing things?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a chemical that forms in the namesake fungus. A scientist noticed by serendipity that a sample of the fungus prevented bacterial growths.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28830965",
"title": "Penicillium chrysogenum",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The discovery of penicillin ushered in a new age of antibiotics derived from microorganisms. Penicillin is an antibiotic isolated from growing \"Penicillium\" mold in a fermenter. The mold is grown in a liquid culture containing sugar and other nutrients including a source of nitrogen. As the mold grows, it uses up the sugar and starts to make penicillin only after using up most of the nutrients for growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23312",
"title": "Penicillin",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Penicillin is a secondary metabolite of certain species of \"Penicillium\" and is produced when growth of the fungus is inhibited by stress. It is not produced during active growth. Production is also limited by feedback in the synthesis pathway of penicillin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23312",
"title": "Penicillin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Penicillin (PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G (intravenous use), penicillin V (use by mouth), procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin (intramuscular use). Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci. They are still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23312",
"title": "Penicillin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. People began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria; these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins and the antipseudomonal penicillins. They are derived from \"Penicillium\" fungi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38799631",
"title": "Eagle effect",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Penicillin is a bactericidal antibiotic that works by inhibiting cell wall synthesis but this synthesis only occurs when bacteria are actively replicating (or in the log phase of growth). In cases of extremely high bacterial burden (such as with Group A Strep), bacteria may be in the stationary phase of growth. In this instance since no bacteria are actively replicating (presumably due to nutrient restriction) penicillin has no activity. This is why adding an antibiotic like clindamycin, which acts ribosomally, kills some of the bacteria and returns them to the log phase of growth .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19419701",
"title": "Pharmaceutical engineering",
"section": "Section::::History.:Beginning of mass production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered a mold named Penicillium chrysogenum which prevented many types of bacteria from growing. Scientists identified the potential of this mold to provide treatment in humans against bacteria which cause infections. During World War II, the United Kingdom and the United States worked together to find a method of mass producing Penicillin, a derivative of the Penicillium mold, which had the potential to save many lives during the war since it could treat infections common in injured soldiers. Although Penicillin could be isolated from the mold in a laboratory setting, there was no known way to obtain the amount of medication needed to treat the quantity of people who needed it. Scientists with major chemical companies such as Pfizer were able to develop a deep-fermentation process which could produce a high yield of penicillin. In 1944, Pfizer opened the first penicillin factory, and its products were exported to aid the war efforts overseas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::History.:Penicillin and other natural antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming postulated the existence of penicillin, a molecule produced by certain molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a green mold, \"Penicillium chrysogenum\", in one of his culture plates. He observed that the presence of the mold killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria. Fleming postulated that the mold must secrete an antibacterial substance, which he named penicillin in 1928. Fleming believed that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7w5al1
|
why are you not guaranteed a trial by a jury of your peers in the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "IANAL, but in some states, the right to a jury trial may not be guaranteed if the possible sentence is a very short imprisonment or just a small fine. The accused may be encouraged to waive their right, but generally the right to a trial by jury stands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Supreme Court decided that \"petty crimes\" that have a punishment of less than 6 months in prison or only result in a fine do not require a jury. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has been rules several times by the supreme Court that this doesn't apply to pretty crimes (District of Columbia v. Clawans). This generally means cases where the punishment is less than. 6 months in jail. \n\nBasically it's a reasonableness limit applied so that very minor crimes aren't clogging up the legal process. There is still an appeal process for these cases as well that help ensure they are handled well by the judge. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have this right for cases that involve a sentence of less than six months. The Supreme Court has decided that states may waive trial by jury in lesser cases. Some states still require trial by jury in petty cases, some give you the right to one but usually don’t as a matter of routine and expediency, some states remove the option altogether if the sentence is under six months. \n\nIf everyone up for a traffic ticket or petty shoplifting could demand trial by jury, it’s clog up courts to no end.\n\nNow if you do something felonious, in any state, you have the right to a jury. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is really only true for minor cases where you get a fine or suspension. Something small like speeding. If jail time is involved then yes you can get a trail by jury of your peers.\n\nHere is information that you can get a trail by jury with a misdemeanor: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27158787",
"title": "Stealth juror",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Clay Conrad has stated that libertarian-minded voir dire members can and should increase their odds of getting on a jury by telling the prosecutors what they want to hear, without actually lying. Jurors who lie to get on a jury can be charged with such offenses as contempt of court and obstruction of justice. Background checks are increasingly being used to catch jurors who lie about their criminal records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16367",
"title": "Jury trial",
"section": "Section::::Pros and cons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "A major issue in jury trials is the secretive nature of the process. While proponents may say that secrecy allows the jury to remain impartial by protecting it from undue pressure or attention, opponents contend that this prevents there from being a transparent trial. The fact that juries do not often have to give a reason for their verdict is also criticized, since opponents argue it is unfair for a person to be deprived of life, liberty or property without being told why it is being done so. In contrast where there is a decision by a judge or judges, they are required to provide often detailed reasons of both fact and law as to why their decision was made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22993290",
"title": "Virginia Circuit Court",
"section": "Section::::Rules specific to the Circuit Court.:Jury trial.:Right to a jury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "There is no Seventh Amendment right to jury trials in state courts, but the state provides for jury trials to the same extent as in federal courts. This means that juries are available to try cases at law, but usually not in equity. However, a party may request a jury to decide facts regarding the facts of an equitable matter. If the contested matter is a special plea, then the decision of the jury is binding, but where there is a conflict of evidence as to other matters, the jury is merely advisory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31658",
"title": "Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Rights secured.:Impartial jury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "When, under the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court extended the right to a trial by jury to defendants in state courts, it re-examined some of the standards. It has been held that twelve came to be the number of jurors by \"historical accident,\" and that a jury of six would be sufficient, but anything less would deprive the defendant of a right to trial by jury. The Sixth Amendment mandates unanimity in a federal jury trial. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, while requiring states to provide jury trials for serious crimes, does not incorporate all the elements of a jury trial within the meaning of the Sixth Amendment. Thus, states are not mandated to require jury unanimity, unless the jury has only six members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1616509",
"title": "Peremptory challenge",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "A further criticism of this kind of jury selection is that it makes it easier to achieve a conviction, which critics argue leads to a higher chance of wrongful convictions. In most (if not all) jury systems a super-majority (or unanimity) is required to convict (e.g. in the UK over 83% of jurors are required for a conviction - a 10 to 2 majority can be accepted if a unanimous decision cannot be reached). If both sides are able to challenge jurors one would expect the prosecution to try to remove those with a general tendency to wish to acquit. Of course one would expect the defense to challenge those they think have a general tendency to convict, but if both sides do their job equally well then the tendency will be to turn what would have been a small majority (one way or the other) into a strong majority in the same direction, potentially causing the proportion to rise over the super-majority threshold required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17324315",
"title": "Baylis v. Travelers' Insurance Co.",
"section": "Section::::Opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In this particular, the court thought error was well assigned. The right of trial by jury in the courts of the United States is expressly secured by the Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution, and Congress has, by statute, provided for the trial of issues of fact in civil cases by the court without the intervention of a jury, only when the parties waive their right to a jury by a stipulation in writing. Rev.Stat. §§ 648, 649.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16367",
"title": "Jury trial",
"section": "Section::::Pros and cons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "In countries where jury trials are common, juries are often seen as an important check against state power. Other common assertions about the benefits of trial by jury is that it provides a means of interjecting community norms and values into judicial proceedings and that it legitimizes the law by providing opportunities for citizens to validate criminal statutes in their application to specific trials. Alexis de Tocqueville also claimed that jury trials educate citizens about self-government. Many also believe that a jury is likely to provide a more sympathetic hearing, or a fairer one, to a party who is not part of the government—or other establishment interest—than would representatives of the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3n86ci
|
Did 'Bloody' Mary Tudor deserve her title?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think it's fair to say she wasn't significantly worse than her contemporaries, even her lauded successor, Elizabeth I; it was a period where religion and politics were deeply intertwined, and warfare was constant across Europe. It's worth nothing that she killed fewer people over the course of her reign (283 is the exact number, I think) than her father did in single years of his, and her nickname and that of her sister were actually reversed in Ireland; instead of Bloody Mary, Irish Catholics were cursing Bloody Bess. English troops caused massive destruction in putting down Irish revolts, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths by starvation, in addition to the actual fighting. \n\nPart of the reason we have the famous one-note perception of Mary is because her reign was ultimately quite short, so we only see the results of her immediate activities (suppressing Protestantism and losing Calais), rather than her long term policies (fiscal reform, naval expansion, and colonization), which bore fruit under Elizabeth. Her short reign was especially irksome with regards to Calais, since she was alive long enough to lose it upon entering war in support of her husband, Philip II, but not long enough to have a seat at the negotiating table at the end of the war, whereupon Spain and England passed out of personal union, and Philip had no problems letting the French keep Calais. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20713",
"title": "Mary I of England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. She is best known for her aggressive attempt to reverse the English Reformation, which had begun during the reign of her father, Henry VIII. The executions that marked her pursuit of the restoration of Roman Catholicism in England and Ireland led to her denunciation as \"Bloody Mary\" by her Protestant opponents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7274737",
"title": "The Queen's Fool",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1445,
"text": "Portrayal of Mary Tudor: Gregory attempts to present Mary I in a sympathetic light, where in most other cases, she is demonised. In the novel, much of the blame for the Inquisition being brought to England is placed on her husband, Philip II of Spain, and her ministers, where Mary herself seems hardly at fault. Despite the fact that her own mother was burned at the stake for her religious beliefs, Hannah Green remains loyal and sympathetic to Mary, even though Mary has been burning Protestants. In addition, Mary is portrayed as much kinder to her younger half-sister Elizabeth than was the actuality. (They got along well enough before the death of Henry VIII, but Mary became increasingly hostile towards her younger half-sister upon ascending the throne, viewing her as a threat and the hope of the Protestants.) Readers may either find this portrayal to be refreshing or untrue to history. Mary is given many negative overviews in later Protestant works, especially that of John Foxe. Some modern historians attempt to provide a more balanced and even sympathetic view on Mary's life by examining and pointing out her difficult experiences in her later teenage years, the impacts of the behavior of her father and those around her, such as Alison Weir, while others, such as Joanna Denny, consider such aspects of her life irrelevant to her disregard for the lives of Protestants. However, such attitudes weren't uncommon for the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25209522",
"title": "Mary Fiennes (lady-in-waiting)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Mary Fiennes (1495–1531) was an English noblewoman and the wife of Sir Henry Norris who was executed for treason as one of the alleged lovers of her cousin, Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII of England. Mary lived for six years at the French court as a Maid of Honour to queens consort, Mary Tudor and Claude of France, queen consort of Francis I of France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20713",
"title": "Mary I of England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "Mary was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI (son of Henry and Jane Seymour) succeeded their father in 1547 at the age of nine. When Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because he supposed, correctly, that she would reverse the Protestant reforms that had begun during his reign. On his death, leading politicians proclaimed Lady Jane Grey as queen. Mary speedily assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England. In 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20603",
"title": "Mary, Queen of Scots",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1586,
"text": "Assessments of Mary in the sixteenth century divided between Protestant reformers such as George Buchanan and John Knox, who vilified her mercilessly, and Catholic apologists such as Adam Blackwood, who praised, defended and eulogised her. After the accession of James I in England, historian William Camden wrote an officially sanctioned biography that drew from original documents. It condemned Buchanan's work as an invention, and \"emphasized Mary's evil fortunes rather than her evil character\". Differing interpretations persisted into the eighteenth century: William Robertson and David Hume argued that the casket letters were genuine and that Mary was guilty of adultery and murder, while William Tytler argued the reverse. In the latter half of the twentieth century, the work of Antonia Fraser was acclaimed as \"more objective ... free from the excesses of adulation or attack\" that had characterised older biographies, and her contemporaries Gordon Donaldson and Ian B. Cowan also produced more balanced works. Historian Jenny Wormald concluded that Mary was a tragic failure, who was unable to cope with the demands placed on her, but hers was a rare dissenting view in a post-Fraser tradition that Mary was a pawn in the hands of scheming noblemen. There is no concrete proof of her complicity in Darnley's murder or of a conspiracy with Bothwell. Such accusations rest on assumptions, and Buchanan's biography is today discredited as \"almost complete fantasy\". Mary's courage at her execution helped establish her popular image as the heroic victim in a dramatic tragedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70449",
"title": "Mary Tudor, Queen of France",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Mary Tudor (; March 1496 – 25 June 1533) was an English princess who was briefly Queen of France, the progenitor of a family that eventually claimed the English throne. She was the younger surviving daughter of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York, and the third wife of Louis XII of France, who was more than 30 years older than she. Following his death, she married Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. The marriage was performed secretly in France during the reign of her brother Henry VIII and without his consent. This necessitated the intervention of Thomas Wolsey; Henry eventually pardoned the couple, but they were forced to pay a large fine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7340745",
"title": "The Boleyn Inheritance",
"section": "Section::::Historical inaccuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the book, Henry's eldest daughter Mary I of England is openly referred to as Princess Mary but, in reality, she was legally illegitimate at the time and addressed as Lady Mary. His younger daughter Elizabeth, likewise, was only restored to the line of succession after the king's sixth wife, Katherine Parr, persuaded him to reinstate both of his daughters in the line of succession, although both Mary and Elizabeth remained legally illegitimate. Henry's daughters never regained their titles of Princess.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1th202
|
Why does a silencer reduce the bullets velocity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most modern silencers, more correctly known as \"suppressors,\" in fact do *not* affect a bullet's velocity in any significant way. Early suppressors contained a rubber gasket (called a wipe if memory serves) that would briefly be in contact with the bullet, and the idea is that the resulting friction would slow the ~~gun~~ bullet down a bit. But modern suppressors don't have such wipes anymore, and they are manufactured with high accuracy such that they do not influence the bullet's trajectory in any way.\n\nEdit: I might add that suppressors have been known to cause subtle inaccuracies in target shooting because the added weight to the gun is harder to aim.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As I understand it (and has already been said), modern suppressors do not *themselves* reduce the velocity of a bullet significantly. The largest effect on bullet velocity is going to be from the ammo that you shoot through it. Suppressors can only dampen the sound of the powder burning. Any supersonic ammo you shoot through a suppressor will still create a loud sonic-boom once it leaves the barrel. To quiet the shot, you need to [shoot sub-sonic \\(reduced powder\\) loads](_URL_0_) - which do not create a sonic boom. The subsonic ammo is naturally slower than the regular ammo. Less velocity, less range, less kinetic energy.\n\nEdit: Similar and more dramatic difference in [this video](_URL_1_); shooting .22LR.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38048372",
"title": "Silencer (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Silencers reduce firing recoil significantly, primarily by diverting and trapping the propellant gas. The gas generally has much less mass than the projectile, but it exits the muzzle at multiples of the projectile velocity, so reducing the speed and quantity of the gas expelled can significantly reduce the total momentum of the matter (gas and projectile) leaving the barrel, the negation of which, because momentum is conserved, is transferred to the gun as recoil. Paulson \"et al.\", discussing low-velocity pistol calibers, suggest the recoil reduction is around 15%. With high-velocity calibers, recoil reduction runs in the range of 20–30%. The added mass of the suppressor—normally 300 to 500 grams—also helps to manage the recoil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7665043",
"title": "Sniper equipment",
"section": "Section::::Ammunition.:Velocity of a sniper bullet.:Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Conversely, slower subsonic bullet velocities might be desirable at close ranges because it will drastically reduce the sound or noise generated by the bullet (and rifle), especially when the rifle is also fitted with a sound suppressor (commonly known as \"silencers\"). This would help the sniper to remain concealed or undetected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38048372",
"title": "Silencer (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Aside from reductions in volume, suppressors tend to alter the sound to something that is not identifiable as a gunshot. This reduces or eliminates attention drawn to the shooter. A Finnish expression dating from the Winter War says that \"A silencer does not make a soldier silent, but it does make him invisible.\" Silencers are particularly useful in enclosed spaces where the sound, flash and pressure effects of a weapon being fired are amplified. Such effects may disorient the shooter, affecting situational awareness, concentration and accuracy, and can permanently damage hearing very quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38048372",
"title": "Silencer (firearms)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "A typical silencer is a metal cylinder with internal sound baffles that slow and cool the escaping propellant gas, dissipating its energy over a longer time and over a larger area, thus reducing the blast intensity and decreasing both the sound volume and recoil generated during shooting. A flash suppressor, on the other hand, specifically cools or disperses burning gases typically already exited the muzzle of a carbine-length weapon to reduce the amount of flash, without reference to sound reduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38048372",
"title": "Silencer (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Subsonic ammunition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Without using subsonic ammunition, the muzzle velocity of a supersonic bullet can be lowered by other means, before it leaves the barrel. Some silencer designs, referred to as \"integrals\", do this by allowing gas to bleed off along the length of the barrel before the projectile exits. The MP5SD is an example of this, with holes right after the chamber of the barrel used to reduce a regular 115 or 124 gr ammunition to subsonic velocities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7665043",
"title": "Sniper equipment",
"section": "Section::::Ammunition.:Velocity of a sniper bullet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "In sniping, it is generally considered essential that the bullet still be traveling at a supersonic speed by the time it reaches the target, because accuracy is compromised when a bullet's velocity enters the transonic speed region. In the case of the typical 7.62 × 51 mm NATO (.308 Winchester) sniping round, this equates to a maximum theoretical range of about 800 meters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1257062",
"title": "Transitional ballistics",
"section": "Section::::The transitional period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Most firearms have muzzle velocities in excess of the ambient speed of sound, and even in subsonic cartridges the escaping gases will exceed the speed of sound, forming a shock wave. This wave will quickly slow as the expanding gas cools, dropping the speed of sound within the expanding gas, but at close range this shockwave can be very damaging. The muzzle blast from a high powered cartridge can literally shred soft objects in its vicinity, as careless benchrest pistol shooters occasionally find out when the muzzle slips back onto their sandbag and the muzzle blast sends sand flying.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ih2yj
|
what is it that can make similar guns from different brands sound different when firing the same cartridge?
|
[
{
"answer": "Barrel length affects the amount of propellant that is burned. Shorter barrel means louder blast. \n\nMuzzle brakes/compensators/flash hiders on ends of barrels affects how the burned propellant is directed, which can change how the shot sounds. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "684649",
"title": "Gunshot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Multiple discharges of one or more firearms are referred to as gunfire. The word can connote either the sound of a gun firing, the projectiles that were fired, or both. For example, the statement \"gunfire came from the next street\" could either mean the sound of discharge, or it could mean the bullets that were discharged. It is better to be a bit more specific while writing however. \"The sound of gunfire\" or \"we came under gunfire\" would be more descriptive and prevent confusion. In the latter phrase, in particular, \"fire\" is more commonly used (i.e. \"under fire\"), as both words hold the same general meaning within the proper context\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76630",
"title": "The Wild Bunch",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "He also had the gunfire sound effects changed for the film. Before, all gunshots in Warner Bros. movies sounded identical, regardless of the type of weapon being fired. Peckinpah insisted that each different type of firearm have its own specific sound effect when fired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175965",
"title": "Caliber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "While modern firearms are generally referred to by the name of the cartridge the gun is chambered for, they are still categorized together based on bore diameter. For example, a firearm might be described as a \"30 caliber rifle\", which could be any of a wide range of cartridges using a roughly projectile; or a \"22 rimfire\", referring to any rimfire firearms firing cartridges with a .22 caliber projectile. However, there can be significant differences in nominal bullet and bore dimensions and all cartridges so \"categorized\" are not automatically identical in actual caliber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1213294",
"title": "Glaser Safety Slug",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The company produces bullets in calibers from .25 to .45 for pistols and from .223 to .30-06 for rifles. Each caliber comes in two forms, \"blue\" and \"silver\", the latter having greater penetrating power due to the use of no. 6 birdshot rather than no. 12.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4778800",
"title": "Gunfire locator",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Discriminating gunfire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Many techniques can be used to discriminate gunfire (also referred to as “classifying gunfire”) from similar noises such as cars backfiring or fireworks. As discussed previously, the SPL and corresponding acoustic propagation characteristics of high SPL impulsive sounds gave rise to the ‘spatial filter’ technique patented and used by ShotSpotter in its Gunshot Location System. This is just one of several methods used to distinguish between gunfire and other impulsive sounds. Analysis of the spectral content of the sound, its envelope, and other heuristics are also commonly used methods to distinguish and correctly classify impulsive sounds as gunfire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26185276",
"title": "ETrace",
"section": "Section::::Basics of ATF tracing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::- Model: Many firearms are not marked with a model designation, and many models look identical. The configuration of a firearm can sometimes be easily changed by exchanging parts to conform to a completely different model, or a completely different manufacturer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2412550",
"title": "The Rifleman",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Rifle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The now-defunct Stembridge Gunsmiths provided the rifles and ammunition. Ammunition was quarter-load 5-in-1 blank cartridges containing smokeless powder, which did not produce the thick clouds of smoke the genuine black powder cartridges of the 1880s did. Most (if not all) of the sound effects for the rifle shots were dubbed, which is why the rifle sounded so different from the other gunshots on the show.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ysgqp
|
why is iran having nuclear capabilities such a big concern when the u.s. and plenty of other countries already do?
|
[
{
"answer": "Essentially, it's problematic because nuclear powers are harder to bully, and a Nuclear Iran would make it harder for the established powers to continue containing Iran's influence.\n\nPlus, there's the \"they just might be crazy enough to do it\" concern. If the situation in Iran gets bad enough (attempted coup, public uprising, etc), you'd prefer if they didn't have the option of turning Jerusalem into a smoking ruin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Iran is not under US influence. Anything that helps them resist US policy objectives will cause what we're seeing now. why it's seems so intense is complicated; Israel clamoring for action certainly adds to the tension, but I think a lot of the tension comes from Iran's middle east position, oil, and competing regional policy objectives with Russia and China.\n\nNukes would mean Iran doesn't need to worry much about US hard power intervention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no nuclear weapons program in Iran, according even to Israel and the US:\n\n**The United States, European allies and even Israel generally agree on three things about Iran's nuclear program: Tehran does not have a bomb, has not decided to build one, and is probably years away from having a deliverable nuclear warhead.**\n_URL_0_\n\nThe US instead accuses Iran of having the \"intention to obtain the capability\" to make nukes. A \"capability\" to make nukes is a deliberately vague accusation since the technology is 60 years old, and so practically any country with some technological development is \"capable\" theoretically of making nukes.\n\nIn fact according to the IAEA 40 nations have this \"capability\" right now -- that's 1 out of every 4 or 5 nations on the planet:\n\n**More than 40 countries with peaceful nuclear programs could retool them to make weapons, the head of the U.N. atomic watchdog agency said yesterday amid new U.S. and European demands that Iran give up technology capable of producing such arms.**\n_URL_1_\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1757165",
"title": "Iran and weapons of mass destruction",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons.:U.S. stance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "BULLET::::- A potential reason behind U.S. resistance to an Iranian nuclear program lies in Middle Eastern geopolitics. In essence, the US feels that it must guard against even the possibility of Iran obtaining a nuclear weapons capability. Some nuclear technology is dual-use; i.e. it can be used for peaceful energy generation, and to develop nuclear weapons, a situation that resulted in India's nuclear weapons program in the 1960s. A nuclear-armed Iran would dramatically change the balance of power in the Middle East, weakening US influence. It could also encourage other Middle Eastern nations to develop nuclear weapons of their own further reducing US influence in a critical region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10246099",
"title": "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747",
"section": "Section::::Justification for the programme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Iran has stated that its programme is motivated by economic needs and scientific progress only. Iran has said its large petroleum reserves will inevitably extinguish, given its increasing domestic energy consumption and because of its oil exports. Iran has referred to U.S. government reports from the time of the Shah and independent U.S. estimates as recent as 2006 to justify its position. Iran has also referred to Russia's recent decision to withhold fuel delivery for its nuclear power plant as an additional reason why it cannot rely on other countries for its nuclear fuel needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34579",
"title": "2000s (decade)",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:Nuclear threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "BULLET::::- Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the Western world due to suspicions that Iran could divert the civilian nuclear technology to a weapons program. This has led the UN Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic isolation on the international scene. The U.S. Director of National Intelligence said in February 2009 that Iran would not realistically be able to a get a nuclear weapon until 2013, if it chose to develop one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34928360",
"title": "Views on the nuclear program of Iran",
"section": "Section::::Middle Eastern views.:Arab views.:2007.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "\"The New York Times\" reported in 2007 that Iran's nuclear program had spurred interest in establishing nuclear power programs by a number of neighboring countries, including Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Egypt. According to the report, \"roughly a dozen states in the region have recently turned to the IAEA in Vienna for help in starting\" nuclear programs. The article also described neighbouring states as very hostile to any nuclear weapons program Iran might embark on, stating \"many diplomats and analysts say that the Sunni Arab governments are so anxious about Iran's nuclear progress that they would even, grudgingly, support a United States military strike against Iran.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3022965",
"title": "Iran–Israel relations",
"section": "Section::::Disputed issues.:Nuclear program of Iran.:Speculations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Iran consistently claimed that its nuclear program is purely for civilian purposes, and that it has no intention of ever utilizing its peaceful nuclear program to develop nuclear weapons. During the course of Iran's recent history, specifically during the Iran-Iraq war, Iran has experienced significant outages of its commercial electricity grid. Iran has also continuously claimed that it intends to ultimately export part of the electricity produced by its nuclear reactors to its regional neighbors, as a way of diversifying its mainly oil-based economy to more diversified revenue streams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7582561",
"title": "Opposition to military action against Iran",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.:Opposition to an attack.:Polls with leading information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "as well as U.S. involvement in a potential war between Israel and Iran over Iran’s nuclear program. The experience of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan is likely related to this declining desire to use force.\" Still as the report notes later 64% say Iran's nuclear problem is a critical threat to the United States and that \"Americans are...willing to take measures to counter the nuclear threat in both Iran and North Korea, but are much more guarded, stopping short of supporting military strikes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11565829",
"title": "Support for military action against Iran",
"section": "Section::::Polls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "A poll conducted in July 2012 found that 80% of Americans view Iran's nuclear program as a threat to the United States and its NATO allies. 39% viewed it as a very big threat, 41% viewed it was a moderate threat, 12% viewed it as not much of a threat, and 6% viewed it as not being a threat. In regards to how much of a threat the nuclear program is to Israel, 60% viewed it as a very big threat to Israel while 27% viewed it as a moderate threat. 80% believe that Iran is building nuclear weapons, including 72% of Democrats, 81% of Independents, and 89% of Republicans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12hyar
|
Because of the time it takes for the light of distant stars to reach us, how different would the sky have looked hundreds of years in the past?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are very few stars that will change on such short time scales. One example is Eta Carinae. It used to be one of the brightest stars in the sky, but \"burped\" a hundred years ago or so, and is now obscured by its own dust cloud. \n\nAlso, the time that light takes to reach us plays no part whatsoever into how many stars are in the night sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "695215",
"title": "Horizon problem",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Astronomical distances and particle horizons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "When one looks out into the night sky, distances also correspond to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to allow it to occur. In a more general sense, there are portions of the universe that are visible to us, but invisible to each other, outside each other's respective particle horizons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40874497",
"title": "Z8 GND 5296",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "The light reaching Earth from z8_GND_5296 shows its position over 13 billion years ago, having traveled a distance of more than 13 billion light-years. Due to the expansion of the universe, this position is now at about (comoving distance) from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203433",
"title": "Orders of magnitude (length)",
"section": "Section::::100 petametres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 821,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 821,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "BULLET::::- 260 Pm – 27 light years – Distance to Chara, a star approximately as bright as our Sun. Its faintness gives us an idea how our Sun would appear when viewed from even so close a distance as this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1572317",
"title": "HD 150706",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Distance to the star, 92 light years, is enough that it is not visible to the unaided eye. However, it is an easy target for binoculars. It is located only about 10° from the northern celestial pole so it is always visible on the northern hemisphere except for near the equator. Likewise, it is never visible in most of the southern hemisphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18412860",
"title": "Gliese 445",
"section": "Section::::Location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The \"Voyager 1\" probe and Gliese 445 will pass one another within 1.6 light-years in about 40,000 years. By that time Gliese 445 will be in a part of the sky different from its present location. The probe will no longer be operational. Also, given the star's inherent low brightness, even at that distance it would be barely visible to the naked eye of a hypothetical human being, with an apparent magnitude of only 5.72.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1433230",
"title": "Rendlesham Forest incident",
"section": "Section::::Main events.:28 December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Later, according to Halt's memo, three star-like lights were seen in the sky, two to the north and one to the south, about 10 degrees above the horizon. Halt said that the brightest of these hovered for two to three hours and seemed to beam down a stream of light from time to time. Astronomers have explained these star-like lights as bright stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2692613",
"title": "Pleione (star)",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "With an apparent magnitude of +5.05 in V, the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye, especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3.7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away. Beginning in October of each year, Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn. To see it after sunset, one will need to wait until December. By mid-February, the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, with only those south of 66° unable to see it. Even in cities like Cape Town, South Africa, at the tip of the African continent, the star rises almost 32° above the horizon. Due to its declination of roughly +24°, Pleione is circumpolar in the northern hemisphere at latitudes greater than 66° North. Once late April arrives, the cluster can be spotted briefly in the deepening twilight of the western horizon, soon to disappear with the other setting stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2frz5n
|
Japan and USSR during 1938-1939. Were the USSR's armies actually superior to those of Japan? In what ways?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Red Army was superior to the Kwantung Army in three main ways, all of which feed into each other. They had a superior doctrine, were superior technologically, and were superior numerically. The last two were both dictated by, and enabled the first.\n\nThe Red Army in the region, under Georgy Zhukov, used the ideas of Deep Battle formulated by Mikhail Tukhachevsky. While this had been discredited by Tukhachevsky's purge, Zhukov was willing to put it into practice in this case. This doctrine dictated broad-front attacks to open the enemy rear to strong combined-armed forces. These could then be used to destroy the enemy ability to fight, by occupying territory, or, as it was used in this case, by encircling the forward forces of the opposition. It would later be used successfully in WWII. In comparison, Japanese doctrine was static, with armour being used separately from infantry. Attacks were made using small groups of infiltrating infantry similar to the German stormtrooper groups of the later part of WWI. Defensively, the doctrine mandated a thin forward defence, where a defence-in-depth is the best way to deal with Deep Battle. \n\nThe Soviet doctrine relied on fast tanks, supported by motorised infantry. This resulted in production of the BT series of tanks, ancestors of the T-34. These tanks were fast, and well armed with a high-velocity 45mm gun. While they were lightly armoured, their guns had an effective range far higher than those used by the Japanese. Japanese tanks were much slower, with less effective guns. At the same time, they had the same low armour as their Soviet counterparts.The motorised infantry required large amounts of trucks, which allowed Zhukov to ship supplies forwards from his railheads with ease. The Japanese, who didn't have the same access to motorised transport, struggled with this. In the air, the contest was surprisingly even. The Zero and Ki-48 Oscar of WWII had not yet entered Japanese service. Instead, Ki-27 Nates took on I-16s. This was a more even contest than that with the tanks, but still in favour of the Soviets. The I-16 was more heavily armed, and armoured than its Japanese counterpart. The Ki-27 was more manoeuvrable, but the I-16 was faster in a dive. With the advantage of numbers and improved tactics, the Soviet Air Force was able to prevent the IJA from affecting the battle significantly.\n\nFinally, as was common for the Soviets, they had numerical superiority. They had 3 rifle divisions, 2 armoured divisions, 2 motor rifle divisions and 2 tank brigades. They also had the support of 2 Mongolian cavalry divisions. At the point of attack, the Japanese had a single division. In general in war, the side with more forces wins - there's a Patton quote to the effect of \"war being decided by the side who gets there first with the most\". \n\nThe second part of your question has two answers. The first is doctrinal.The Japanese doctrine of 1938 had a clear family resemblance to that of 1905. They had taken the wrong lessons from 1905 and from WWI. The Sino-Japanese War had done nothing to disprove this doctrine. As a result, their doctrine was heavily focussed on infantry combat supported by light artillery. This was fine in 1905 and 1914, and worked against poorly led Chinese infantry. This led to Japanese army procurement being focussed on weaponry that fitted this plan. In 1905, these were the most modern things on the market - bolt action rifles, machine guns, light field artillery. In 1938, the same types of weapons were being bought. Armour was experimental, and used low-velocity guns for infantry support. Heavier artillery pieces were neglected - some of the heaviest guns used by the IJA in 1938 had been bought to deal with the forts of Port Arthur in 1905. However, the rest of the world had moved on. Heavy artillery, tanks and trucks were the most important things an army could have, and Japan had only the most basic of these. \n\nEven had their doctrine been in favour of producing these, they would have run into trouble doing so. Japan didn't have the greatest heavy industry in 1938. When the country is only producing a limited amount of armour plate per year, and the navy wants most of it for building battleships, the army can't build tanks. There were not enough trained mechanics to support a large tank or motorised corps. Even the IJN's aircraft carriers only had just enough mechanics for their air groups - the most significant losses at Midway were in ground crew, not pilots. The Soviets had the heavy industry, and the technically skilled manpower to support the demands of modern war. Japan did not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53182738",
"title": "Kantokuen",
"section": "Section::::Soviet response.:Strengths and weaknesses of the combatants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Organizationally, although Soviet forces in the Far East on paper amounted to some 32 division-equivalents by December 1941, they were regarded as only barely sufficient for defensive operations. Compared to a typical Japanese division, pre-war Red Army units possessed slightly less manpower, but had greater access to long-range, higher caliber artillery. After the German invasion, however, the Red Army was reorganized so that each division had scarcely half the manpower and a fraction of the firepower of either its German or Japanese counterpart. Hence, to achieve superiority on the battlefield the Soviets would have to concentrate several divisions to counter each of the opponent's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26779",
"title": "Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::History.:Stalin era.:1930s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2947802",
"title": "Japan–Soviet Union relations",
"section": "Section::::Russian Civil War and recognition (1917–1925).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The poor relations between the Soviet Union and Japan from the 1920s until the late 1940s originated in Japan's victory over imperial Russia, the predecessor state of the Soviet Union, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. During the Russian Civil War (1918–21), Japan (as a member of the Allied interventionist forces) occupied Vladivostok from 1918 until 1922, using as many as 70,000 troops. Japanese forces also penetrated as far west as Lake Baikal and Buryatia, occupying the city of Chita in Transbaikal until October 1920.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2140913",
"title": "Germany–Japan relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rapprochement, Axis and World War II (1920–1945).:Consolidation of cooperation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Although tentative plans for a joint German-Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact, the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan's decision to not expand northward (i.e., against the USSR) but to the south. The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets, the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol, thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army, lacking heavy tanks and the like, would be in no position to challenge the Red Army at that time. Nevertheless, Hitler's anti-Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan, since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union, either actively by invading southeast Siberia, or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army, which was fearing an attack of Japan's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo, numbering ca. 700,000 men as of the late 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38560714",
"title": "Project Hula",
"section": "Section::::Origins of Project Hula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "The Russian Empire and Japan had previously fought the Russo-Japanese War, in 1904–1905, followed by Japan sending troops into Siberia during the Russian Civil War in the Siberian Intervention of 1918–1920, with animosities continuing as the two countries remained rivals in Northeast Asia after the establishment of the Soviet Union. Japans increasingly aggressive political and military behavior in East Asia during the 1930s led to border clashes between Soviet forces and Japanese forces in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria in 1937 at Kanchatzu Island in the Amur River and in 1939 in the Khalkhin Gol/Nomonhan Incident. But after 1939 the two countries turned their attention elsewhere – Japan to focus on the Second Sino-Japanese War in China and the Soviet Union to the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Eventually, the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed on 13 April 1941.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "481708",
"title": "Imperial Japanese Army",
"section": "Section::::Conflict with the Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "From 1932 to 1945 the Empire of Japan and the Soviet Union had a series of conflicts. Japan had set its military sights on Soviet territory as a result of the \"Hokushin-ron\" doctrine, and the Japanese establishment of a puppet state in Manchuria brought the two countries into conflict. The war lasted on and off with the last battles of the 1930s (the Battle of Lake Khasan and the Battles of Khalkhin Gol) ending in a decisive victory for the Soviets. The conflicts stopped with the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on April 13, 1941. However, later, at the Yalta Conference, Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan; and on August 5, 1945, the Soviet Union voided their neutrality agreement with Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29974",
"title": "Total war",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.:Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The Soviet Union (USSR) was a command economy which already had an economic and legal system allowing the economy and society to be redirected into fighting a total war. The transportation of factories and whole labour forces east of the Urals as the Germans advanced across the USSR in 1941 was an impressive feat of planning. Only those factories which were useful for war production were moved because of the total war commitment of the Soviet government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ujv2c
|
Many questions about recent /r/science posts about our universe being inside a black hole.
|
[
{
"answer": "1) Not very. It's mostly just that one guy working on it. It's a cool story, so they picked up on it.\n\n2) The arrow of time markers shouldn't be viewed as something causative: time doesn't advance because of entropy increasing or the universe expanding. Rather, they're ways to figure out which way is which. It's similar to losing your bearings while scuba diving, and watching the bubbles to figure out which way is up.\n\n2B) I'm not sure this is fully understood, but by the time it gets small enough for that to happen it is emitting high energy gamma radiation. In reality black holes are colder than the cosmic microwave background so they won't have a net loss of energy.\n\n3-5 I have to do more research and I'm not on a computer with journal access right now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12579875",
"title": "The Dreaming Void",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "What was formerly believed to be a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way is revealed to be an artificial construct, known as the Void. Inside, there is a strange universe where the laws of physics are very different from those we know. It is slowly consuming the other stars of the galactic core—one day it will have devoured the entire galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39516319",
"title": "Beyond the Blue Event Horizon",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The final chapter of the novel is told from the perspective of a Heechee \"Captain\" who lead the Australopithecus project on Heechee Heaven and the various expeditions to Earth. He and all of his kind are indeed hiding inside of a black hole at the center of the galaxy. Albert, the AI, is right and wrong: the fabric of the Universe has indeed been tampered with, but not by the Heechee. When the Heechee discovered this, they went into hiding, using gravitational manipulation technology to create a black hole around a large cluster of captive stars and planets. The Captain muses that the Australopithecus species (and some 15 other similar project races across the galaxy) are to the Heechee as the Heechee are to the mystery race who will reshape the entire Universe. He hopes that one day these project races will develop intelligence and travel the stars, not for any intellectual or cultural pleasure, but rather to act as buffer states between the Heechee and those mysterious others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42299382",
"title": "Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 unofficial disappearance theories",
"section": "Section::::Physically improbable theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "The theory that MH370 may have been consumed by a black hole received considerable attention when Don Lemon asked, on CNN, whether it was \"preposterous\" that it could have happened. Lemon was criticised for this by Jon Stewart on \"The Daily Show\", and by former U.S. Department of Transportation Inspector General Mary Schiavo, who, while appearing on CNN, said that \"...a small black hole would suck in our entire universe so we know it's not that.\" TheWire.com (which \"wasn't satisfied\" with Schiavo's answer) obtained detailed reasons why a black hole couldn't swallow a plane from Columbia University astronomy professor David J. Helfand and Peter Michelson, a professor of physics at Stanford University. It is possible that Schiavo was expressing herself humorously, and did not expect to be taken literally. Another hypothesis is that a meteor might have struck the plane; however, the statistical probability for this is extremely low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28201493",
"title": "Nikodem Popławski",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Nikodem Janusz Popławski (born March 1, 1975) is a Polish theoretical physicist, most widely noted for the hypothesis that every black hole could be a doorway to another universe and that the universe was formed within a black hole which itself exists in a larger universe. This hypothesis was listed by \"National Geographic\" and \"Science\" magazines among their top ten discoveries of 2010. Popławski appeared in an episode of the TV show \"Through the Wormhole\" titled \"Are There Parallel Universes?\" and in an episode of the Discovery Channel show \"Curiosity\" titled \"Is There a Parallel Universe?\", which were hosted by Morgan Freeman and aired in 2011. He was named by \"Forbes\" magazine in 2015 as one of five scientists in the world most likely to become the next Albert Einstein.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171915",
"title": "Lee Smolin",
"section": "Section::::Theories and work.:Cosmological natural selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "However, Susskind also argued that, since Smolin's theory relies on information transfer from the parent universe to the baby universe through a black hole, it ultimately makes no sense as a theory of cosmological natural selection. According to Susskind and many other physicists, the last decade of black hole physics has shown us that no information that goes into a black hole can be lost. Even Stephen Hawking, who was the largest proponent of the idea that information is lost in a black hole, later reversed his position. The implication is that information transfer from the parent universe into the baby universe through a black hole is not conceivable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6602116",
"title": "Doraemon: Nobita's New Great Adventure into the Underworld",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The story begins with Professor Mangetsu, a Japanese astrophysicist and his daughter, Miyoko, are informed and startled about the approach of a giant black hole that previously destroyed the space probe Voyager 5. It is confirmed that this black hole will completely destroy Earth and its inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8579903",
"title": "Black holes in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Literature.:Post 2000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Eater\" (2000), novel by Gregory Benford. In the early 21st century, astronomers detect what appears to be a distant gamma-ray burster, a black hole engulfing a star light years away. It soon becomes apparent that the hole is smaller and closer than that, and rapidly approaching the Earth, swallowing asteroids and interplanetary debris on the way, and finally that it hosts an intelligent being, one created by \"a very early, intelligent civilization whose planet was being chewed up by the black hole,\" and who had uploaded their consciousnesses to it. The \"Eater\" would like to similarly absorb the best and brightest minds of Earth, and the destruction of humanity looms unless three astronomer protagonists, collectively playing Theseus to the black hole's Minotaur, can interfere with the increasingly malevolent entity's plans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8e88c4
|
why technology "freezes"
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't unless your in the arctic. Sometimes things lock up, due to software conflicts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you want an in depth answer, you're gonna need a lot more than literally 3 words.\n\nSoftware freezing up is almost always due to some resource being hogged and not shared.\n\nFor example, if some logic is going real slow and it's using up 95% of the computer brain (called RAM or Memory), and something else needs 20% of the brain, then everything just kinda stops until that first one finishes up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One option could be that the computer only makes you think it's running many things at once when really only one thing is running at a time. A process could just be doing some work that takes a bit stopping other processes from running. But as others have said there are many possibilities",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1844451",
"title": "Freeze (software engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "In software engineering, a freeze is a point in time in the development process after which the rules for making changes to the source code or related resources become more strict, or the period during which those rules are applied. A freeze helps move the project forward towards a release or the end of an iteration by reducing the scale or frequency of changes, and may be used to help meet a roadmap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19484779",
"title": "Deep Freeze (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Deep Freeze can also protect a computer from harmful malware, since it automatically deletes (or rather, no longer \"sees\") downloaded files when the computer is restarted. The advantage of using Deep Freeze is that it uses very few system resources, and thus does not slow down computer performance greatly. The disadvantage is that it does not provide real-time protection, therefore an infected computer would have to be restarted in order to remove malware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19484779",
"title": "Deep Freeze (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Deep Freeze, by Faronics, is a software application available for the Microsoft Windows, and macOS operating systems which allows system administrators to protect the core operating system and configuration files on a workstation or server by restoring a computer back to the saved configuration, each time the computer is restarted. Also known as Reboot to Restore Software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002536",
"title": "Freeze-drying",
"section": "Section::::Applications of freeze drying.:Technological industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "In bioseparations, freeze-drying can be used also as a late-stage purification procedure, because it can effectively remove solvents. Furthermore, it is capable of concentrating substances with low molecular weights that are too small to be removed by a filtration membrane. Freeze-drying is a relatively expensive process. The equipment is about three times as expensive as the equipment used for other separation processes, and the high energy demands lead to high energy costs. Furthermore, freeze-drying also has a long process time, because the addition of too much heat to the material can cause melting or structural deformations. Therefore, freeze-drying is often reserved for materials that are heat-sensitive, such as proteins, enzymes, microorganisms, and blood plasma. The low operating temperature of the process leads to minimal damage of these heat-sensitive products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002536",
"title": "Freeze-drying",
"section": "Section::::Applications of freeze drying.:Pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Pharmaceutical companies often use freeze-drying to increase the shelf life of the products, such as live virus vaccines, biologics and other injectables. By removing the water from the material and sealing the material in a glass vial, the material can be easily stored, shipped, and later reconstituted to its original form for injection. Another example from the pharmaceutical industry is the use of freeze drying to produce tablets or wafers, the advantage of which is less excipient as well as a rapidly absorbed and easily administered dosage form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Mechanical freezers were the first to be used in the food industry and are used in the vast majority of freezing / refrigerating lines. They function by circulating a refrigerant, normally ammonia, around the system, which withdraws heat from the food product. This heat is then transferred to a condenser and dissipated into air or water. The refrigerant itself, now a high pressure, hot liquid, is directed into an evaporator. As it passes through an expansion valve, it is cooled and then vaporises into a gaseous state. Now a low pressure, low temperature gas again, it can be reintroduced into the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1844451",
"title": "Freeze (software engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "BULLET::::- A (complete) feature freeze, in which all work on adding new features is suspended, shifting the effort towards fixing bugs and improving the user experience. The addition of new features may have a disruptive effect on other parts of the program, due both to the introduction of new, untested source code or resources and to interactions with other features; thus, a feature freeze helps improve the program's stability.br For example: \"user interface feature freeze\" means no more features will be permitted to the user interface portion of the code; bugs can still be fixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
92pdgo
|
how did apex predators that existed millions of years ago go extinct? (i.e terror birds, megalodon, levyatan)
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to pinpoint the exact causes ~~of~~ for most prehistoric animals and plants, beyond trying to extrapolate data from the scarce info we have. We can look at extinction events nowadays for clues though. Overfeeding and loss of habitat from environmental changes are the two biggest causes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, the climate on earth changes constantly, always gradually, but sometimes dramatically. For massive predators, when the climate changed from what they evolved to fit, their adaptations stopped helping them in their environment. For example, Megalodon was an absolutely massive shark, needing a lot of food to keep it going. It likely feasted on large animals, so when those animals declined in number (say the ocean warmed, and they either left their habitat or went extinct), the Megalodon has nothing left to eat, so it died out too. Bigger isn’t always better.\n\nBasically, when talking about any animal that went extinct for natural, non-human reasons, it’s because a change in the environment made it uninhabitable for that species. They’re forced to either adapt as a species or die out. Apex predators (and humans) tend to be pretty genetically stable, so that adaptation often doesn’t happen fast enough to keep up with the environment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apex predators are especially prone to going extinct because they sit at the very top of the food chain. Thus they rely on a large chain of species below them to stay healthy in order for them to stay fed.\n\nGrass needs water, sun, and dirt, and a climate good for it. Deer needs lots of grass (and thus, indirectly, everything the grass needs), plus trees for a varied diet (and thus everything the trees need), plus a good climate for deer. Whatever _eats_ the deer needs deer (and thus everything the deer needs) plus other prey and whatever _they_ need, plus whatever environmental conditions the predator needs.\n\nSo top predators need a good, strong, healthy environment.\n\nComplicating things for them, there are a lot fewer predators. There's a huge amount of grass blades per 100 deer per 1 top predator. Top predators have small populations which makes it easier for them to die out",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872736",
"title": "Apex predator",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the Cambrian period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behaviour cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive. \"Anomalocaris\" was an aquatic apex predator, in the Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22644230",
"title": "Huffaker's mite experiment",
"section": "Section::::Underlying theory.:Predator–prey interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The Russian ecologist Georgii Gause demonstrated the tendency toward extinction among predator–prey populations with a series of experiments in 1934. He found that in experiments with \"Didinium nasutum\" (predator) and \"Paramecium caudatum\" (prey), \"D. nausatum\" overexploited \"P. caudatum\" leading first to its extinction and subsequently to its own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9438266",
"title": "List of creatures in Primeval",
"section": "Section::::T.:\"Troodon\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 289,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 289,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Several are encountered in \"Extinction Event\", where they are described as being intelligent, ruthless predators. They were first encountered feasting on the carcass of a dead \"Anatotitan\", which had apparently been killed by shock, as a result of a meteor strike. Later, Jenny and Helen Cutter are in the Cretaceous period, and one of the SAS soldiers assigned to help them, Tim Jenkins, was dragged away by the Troodons, who ate him alive due to his crippling caused by a Dimetrodon. The rest of the team were too late to save him. Later in the present, a pack of Troodon showed up at the overturned car Jenny and Hemple were in. Jenny attempted to keep them at bay by using a large metal rod that she had found in the truck's wreck. However, one of the Troodon then knocked her down to the ground, and pinned her down, with its foot. Just as it was about to kill her, the car's ruptured fuel tank caught on fire, scaring the Troodons away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314510",
"title": "Dire wolf",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "During the American megafaunal extinction event around 12,700YBP, 90genera of mammals weighing over became extinct. The extinction of the large carnivores and scavengers is thought to have been caused by the extinction of the megaherbivore prey upon which they depended. The cause of the extinction of the megafauna is debated but has been attributed to the impact of climate change, competition with other species including overexploitation by newly arrived human hunters, or a combination of both. One study proposes that several extinction models should be investigated because so little is known about the biogeography of the dire wolf and its potential competitors and prey, nor how all these species interacted and responded to the environmental changes that occurred at the time of extinction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45521521",
"title": "Mesopredator",
"section": "Section::::The Mesopredator Release Effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1524,
"text": "When populations of apex predators decrease, populations of mesopredators often increase. This is the mesopredator release effect. \"Mesopredator outbreaks often lead to declining prey populations, sometimes destabilizing communities and driving local extinctions\". When apex predators are removed from the ecosystem, this gives the mesopredators less competition and conflict. They are able to catch more prey and have lower mortality rates. Often, mesopredators can take over the role of apex predators. This happens when new species are introduced into an ecosystem or when species leave or are killed off. When this happens, and the new apex predator or former mesopredator, becomes the new species on top of the food chain, it is important to remember that they are not ecologically identical to the former apex predator, and is likely a smaller species, which will have different effects on the structure and stability of the ecosystem. The mesopredators that become the new apex predators are the species that benefit from this mesopredator release. Apex predators reduce mesopredator populations, and change mesopredator behaviors and habitat choices, by preying on and intimidating mesopredators. This can occur in any ecosystem with any type of relationship between predator and prey. However, in the case of the relationship between apex predator and mesopredator, it could mean that the apex predator causes the mesopredator to leave the ecosystem, again, creating room for a new species to become mesopredator. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162780",
"title": "Megafauna",
"section": "Section::::Megafaunal mass extinctions.:Timing and possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "The Holocene extinction (see also Quaternary extinction event), occurred at the end of the last ice age glacial period (a.k.a. the Würm glaciation) when many giant ice age mammals, such as woolly mammoths, went extinct in the Americas and northern Eurasia. An analysis of the extinction event in North America found it to be unique among Cenozoic extinction pulses in its selectivity for large animals. Various theories have attributed the wave of extinctions to human hunting, climate change, disease, a putative extraterrestrial impact, or other causes. However, this extinction near the end of the Pleistocene was just one of a series of megafaunal extinction pulses that have occurred during the last 50,000 years over much of the Earth's surface, with Africa and southern Asia (where the local megafauna had a chance to evolve alongside modern humans) being comparatively less affected. The latter areas did suffer a gradual attrition of megafauna, particularly of the slower-moving species (a class of vulnerable megafauna epitomized by giant tortoises), over the last several million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20718189",
"title": "Bawean deer",
"section": "Section::::Conservation threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Their past extinction was due to tigers—precisely, the Balinese tiger—and humans hunting them for their antlers and pelts. Their main predators now are humans, leopards, dholes (the Asiatic wild dog), pythons, and crocodiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kego7
|
In America during World War II, what would happen if a man was drafted, and it turns out he wouldn't have made a good soldier?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a draft, it's not like you get handed a uniform. It means you report for selection. People are turned down for all sorts of reasons, even in a draft. Poor vision, diabetes, epilepsy, heart problems, hearing problems, mental illness, being too short, or not strong enough to keep up. There are written tests, medical tests, physical fitness tests, and interviews to determine if you're a viable candidate for the military. Even though standards are usually lowered somewhat during a time of war, there are still standards to be met, and people who don't meet them will not be able to serve. \n\nKnowing that, there were a lot of people, particularly in Vietnam, who tried to avoid service by failing the tests. For example, the [Ishihara test for Colour Blindness](_URL_0_) includes a plate that can be seen by people of any colour blindness, and was used during the draft to find out who was lying to avoid military service. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "472220",
"title": "Draft evasion",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Canada.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The number of men who actively sought to evade the World War II draft in Canada is not known. Military historian Jack Granatstein says the evasion was \"widespread\". In addition, in 1944 alone approximately 60,000 draftees were serving only as NRMA men, committed to border defense but not to fighting abroad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41385439",
"title": "German Jewish Children's Aid",
"section": "Section::::One Child's Story: Werner S. Zimmt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "When the U.S. entered World War II, he volunteered to serve in the U.S. Marines, but was rejected because he was considered an enemy alien due to his German heritage. The following year, the U.S. Government changed its mind and he was drafted in the U.S. Army. \"He had the dangerous job of manning listening posts in front of the main line and sending back intelligence to headquarters or going on reconnaissance patrols. He also served as the interrogator of German prisoners of war.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472220",
"title": "Draft evasion",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "During World War II, there was no legal way to avoid the draft, and failure to obey was treated as insubordination, punished by execution or jail. Draft evaders were forced to escape to the forests and live there as outlaws, in what was called facetiously serving in the \"käpykaarti\" (Pine Cone Guard) or \"metsäkaarti\" (Forest Guard).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4787331",
"title": "Green Corn Rebellion",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "This decision of the United States government to enter World War I was backed up with additional legislation imposing military conscription in America to staff the nation's wartime Army and Navy. On May 18, 1917, a draft bill became law. The bill called for all eligible young men nationwide to register for the draft on a single day — June 5, 1917. While isolated hotspots of anti-conscription activity sprang up in some urban centers, the registration process was generally an orderly affair, with the vast majority of young American men accepting their fate with what has been characterized as \"a calm resignation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679421",
"title": "William McChesney Martin",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "During World War II he was drafted into the United States Army as a private. There he supervised the disposal of raw materials on the Munitions Allocation Board. He was also a liaison between the Army and Congress and the supervisor of the lend-lease program with the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485258",
"title": "Stanley Kunitz",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "During World War II, he was drafted into the Army in 1943 as a conscientious objector, and after undergoing basic training three times, served as a noncombatant at Gravely Point, Washington in the Air Transport Command in charge of information and education. He refused a commission and was discharged with the rank of staff sergeant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14049029",
"title": "George Koval",
"section": "Section::::Recruitment and espionage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1258,
"text": "During the beginning of World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had re-introduced the draft (conscription) in September 1940, and Koval registered for it on January 2, 1941. Raven Electric Company secured him a year's deferment from service until February 1942. According to historian Vladimir Lota, Koval's handlers wanted him to steal information about chemical weapons, and felt that he would not be able to do so while drafted. When the deferment expired, Koval was inducted into the United States Army. He received basic training at Fort Dix in New Jersey before being sent to the Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina. There, Koval served as a private in the 3410th Specialized Training and Reassignment Unit. On August 11, 1943, he was transferred to the Army Specialized Training Program, a unit established in December 1942 to provide talented enlistees with an education and technical training. Koval attended the City College of New York (CCNY) and studied electrical engineering. His CCNY classmates looked up to the older Koval as a role model and father figure who never did homework and was a noted ladies' man, never knowing about his Soviet education and wife. Colleagues recalled that he never discussed politics or the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25j643
|
Are the steroids that cause people to gain weight in medication the same as the steroids people use to build muscle?
|
[
{
"answer": "The term steroid refers to molecules that have a similar 4 ring, 17 carbon base skeleton. Additions to this skeleton are what make each steroid different, but still belong to the same family.\n\nSo the type of \"weight gaining\" steroid that most people are on would be something like prednisone. The weight gain is a side effect, since most people are using it to suppress their immune system. For anyone who has had to take it, they will tell you it makes them ravenously hungery and insatiable.\n\nThe type of bodybuilding steroid people take is an androgenic steroid (similar to testosterone). \n\nAgain both share a similar backbone, but are different. And it's not just these two types that have this similarity. Estrogens, progestogens, androgens, and mineralocorticoids (that maintain blood pressure), glucocorticoids (that help regulate immune function and blood sugar levels) are all steroid hormones. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34844533",
"title": "Health issues in athletics",
"section": "Section::::Supplements/Steroids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Anabolic steroids are artificially produced hormones called androgens, which are essentially male-type sex hormones in the body. The most powerful of the androgens is testosterone. Another group of steroids are steroidal supplements, a weaker form of androgens. Steroids and supplements are controversial when used for sports because of the health risks associated with them. Some serious and long-term effects on the body are hair loss, dizziness, mood swings, delusions, paranoia, high blood pressure, and increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and even cancer. More recent studies also suggest that steroid users have an increased risk of depression and alcohol use later in life. Doctors call this the 'snowball effect' of steroid-related health problems. Injury patterns suggest that joint ligaments are not able to adapt to steroid-enhanced muscles, leading to injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52251177",
"title": "Testosterone (medication)",
"section": "Section::::Non-medical use.:Athletics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), including testosterone and its esters, have also been taken to enhance muscle development, strength, or endurance. They do so directly by increasing the muscles' protein synthesis. As a result, muscle fibers become larger and repair faster than the average person's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43808354",
"title": "Designer Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2014",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Anabolic steroids were first made in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to stimulate muscle growth and appetite, induce male puberty and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. The American College of Sports Medicine acknowledges that AAS, in the presence of adequate diet, can contribute to increases in body weight, often as lean mass increases and that the gains in muscular strength achieved through high-intensity exercise and proper diet can be additionally increased by the use of AAS in some individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4111812",
"title": "Fitness and figure competition",
"section": "Section::::Steroids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1608,
"text": "Enhancing substances (steroids) are sometimes used in the fitness industry to promote the development of muscle in a shorter amount of time. It is easier for a male to gain muscle mass than for women to gain muscle due to the amounts of testosterone that males have. Steroids are illegal unless they are prescribed by Doctors. If they are not prescribed by Doctors, steroids are usually smuggled into the United States from places like Mexico and European countries where a prescription is not required. The [anabolic–androgenic steroids (AASs)] are a family of hormones that contain the innate male hormone, testosterone, and a group of synthetic testosterone derivatives. These medicines are widely misused by men and rarely women to increase muscle content and body fat lose. When female athletes use these substances, they have to make sure they know how much exactly to take as mistake can lead to a lifelong side effect. Steroids in females can have a great amount of side effects including liver disorder, enlargement of clitoris, and a masculine look. Another major effect that can occur is if you are not eating the right nutrients or working out enough you can gain a lot of weight from the misuse of steroids. In women, AASs may interrupt ovarian function. Chronic intense physical activity leads to menstrual irregularities and, in severe cases, to the female athletes’ triad (such as low energy intake, menstrual disturbance and low bone mass), making it difficult to abandon sports effects and AASs. Acne, hirsutism and deepening of the tone of voice are major outcomes of AASs misapplication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47677275",
"title": "Steroid use in Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Anabolic/androgenic steroids are drugs that are obtained from the male hormone, testosterone. Anabolic steroids are used for muscle-building and strength gain for cosmetic reasons as well as for performance-enhancement in athletics and bodybuilding. Anabolic steroids work in many ways by increasing protein synthesis in the muscles and by eliminating the catabolic process (the process of breaking down skeletal muscle for energy). It is common for teens and adults to use steroids as they stimulate and encourage muscle growth much more rapidly than natural body building.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860860",
"title": "Doping in sport",
"section": "Section::::By substance.:Anabolic steroids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased Low density lipoprotein and decreased High density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, and liver damage. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860860",
"title": "Doping in sport",
"section": "Section::::Non-endurance sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "In sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used anabolic steroids, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drug mimics the effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative effects, anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drug has been used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wcdr7
|
Do we have any idea how gender egalitarian Teryan early pre-Christian pagan England was? And how much the introduction of Christianity change to that?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you say \"early pre-Christian pagan England\", are you referring to:\npre-Roman pagan southern Britain (ie BC);\nthe early Roman period in southern Britain (pre-Christian pagan, so maybe the 2nd century AD); \nor the early Anglo-Saxon period prior to Christianisation (so about 500-600AD)?\n\n(Also, I confess I don't at all know what you mean by Teryan)\n\nChecking Wikipedia, I see that the Mists of Avalon is a work of Arthurian fantasy, set during the time of the Saxon invasion. So, then, I'd have thought you'd really want to know how gender-egalitarian post-Roman Christian Britain was, not early pre-Christian pagan England.\n\nRemember that Arthur is a fictional story set in what is essentially a fictional time; very few Arthurian romances portray the period accurately, because the source material (the original Arthur stories) is itself extremely inaccurate (it's portraying a legendary, mythical time, not an accurate picture of late Romano-British culture). \n\nSo, at the time prior to the Saxon invasions, what later became known as England (it was the Anglo-Saxons who named it England), was inhabited by the Romano-Brits; a somewhat Christianised, thoroughly Romanised culture. As Christianisation had been recent, it's quite likely that there were still many pagans; however, they were not the \"Mother Goddess\"-type pagans of Mists of Avalon; they were Roman-style pagans, worshipping gods like Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Venus, etc (though sometimes with British names; for example, Bath was a city where people worshipped the goddess Minerva/Sulis, using both a Roman and British name).\n\nThat doesn't directly answer your question about gender-egalitarianism. But I want to explain the background.\nArthur is set in a fictionalised, mythical golden age. Many modern works try to set him in a slightly more realistic time, before the Saxon invasions. What they often miss, however (as I think Mists of Avalon does, but then, it is just a work of fiction, it's not trying to be history), is that the pre-Saxon period was the post-Roman period, nearly half a millenia after the Romans had conquered Britain. In some medieval legends, Arthur is related to the Imperial family of Rome.\nSo, it's a mistake to think about gender equality or other cultural sociological phenomonen at this time as being about Brythonic culture, but rather, as being like Roman culture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2624098",
"title": "Anglo-Saxon paganism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1140,
"text": "Developing from the earlier Iron Age religion of continental northern Europe, it was introduced to Britain following the Anglo-Saxon migration in the mid 5th century, and remained the dominant belief system in England until the Christianisation of its kingdoms between the 7th and 8th centuries, with some aspects gradually blending into folklore. The pejorative terms \"paganism\" and \"heathenism\" were first applied to this religion by Christian Anglo-Saxons, and it does not appear that these pagans had a name for their religion themselves; there has therefore been debate among contemporary scholars as to the appropriateness of continuing to describe these belief systems using this Christian terminology. Contemporary knowledge of Anglo-Saxon paganism derives largely from three sources: textual evidence produced by Christian Anglo-Saxons like Bede and Aldhelm, place-name evidence, and archaeological evidence of cultic practices. Further suggestions regarding the nature of Anglo-Saxon paganism have been developed through comparisons with the better-attested pre-Christian belief systems of neighbouring peoples such as the Norse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2624098",
"title": "Anglo-Saxon paganism",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "At present, while some Anglo-Saxonists have ceased using the terms \"paganism\" or \"pagan\" when discussing the early Anglo-Saxon period, others have continued to do so, viewing these terms as a useful means of designating something that is not Christian yet which is still identifiably religious. The historian John Hines proposed \"traditional religion\" as a better alternative, although Carver cautioned against this, noting that Britain in the 5th to the 8th century was replete with new ideas and thus belief systems of that period were not particularly \"traditional\". The term \"pre-Christian\" religion has also been used; this avoids the judgemental connotations of \"paganism\" and \"heathenism\" but is not always chronologically accurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60603911",
"title": "Culture of England",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Christianity became the dominant religion in England in the 7th century. Polytheistic Indo-European religions, often referred to as paganism, were practised before Christianity took hold. The most notable of these religions were Celtic polytheism, Roman polytheism and Anglo-Saxon paganism, which was the religion of the early English people, or Anglo-Saxons, and which was in many ways very similar to the closely related Norse paganism practised by the Scandinavian peoples and that would later be introduced to England by the Danes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20590712",
"title": "Women in Anglo-Saxon society",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1797,
"text": "Churches in Anglo-Saxon England stressed doctrines that preached about virginity as a virtue and faithful monogamy; this is believed to have limited an individual’s chances of acquiring status, political power and property. Anglo-Saxon England was the first place in history that women had been raised to sainthood, and this was the strongest immediately following the acceptance of Christianity. Christianity provided lots of freedom for women. It helped them become powerful in society. Within the church women appeared to have been equal as well there are evidences of anti-feminism found in Homilies. Although anti-feminism was found in Homilies, it does not seem to hold true in practice. Women who went into the convent and took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience were glorified in the eyes of the Church and its Fathers. The convent offered self-development and social responsibility to women, something that women are fighting for today. Uniquely, the Anglo-Saxon church had institutions that consisted of male and female monasteries, located together but segregated, and in these the female abbot had the headship of the institution. Convents were run by abbesses, and this was an opportunity for women to have a position of authority. They were responsible for the finances and managing the property, with some the help of the other nuns. This control that women had did not survive the Viking invasion of 789, although women continued to play a major role in the church in late Anglo-Saxon England. Single gendered convents and monasteries had the chores that were commonly done by the other sex would have been performed by the common sex in that location; examples are men would have worked in the kitchens of monasteries and women would have worked in the gardens of nunneries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6007007",
"title": "Women in the Bible",
"section": "Section::::New Testament.:New Testament views on gender.:Women in the early church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "According to MacDonald, much of the vociferous pagan criticism of the early church is evidence of this \"female initiative\" which contributed to the reasons Roman society saw Christianity as a threat. Accusations that Christianity undermined the Roman family and male authority in the home were used to stir up opposition to Christianity and negatively influence public opinion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5686076",
"title": "Christian feminism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Some Christian feminists believe that the principle of egalitarianism was present in the teachings of Jesus and the early Christian movements, but this is a highly contested view by many feminist scholars who believe that Christianity itself relies heavily on gender roles. These interpretations of Christian origins have been criticized by secular feminists for \"anachronistically projecting contemporary ideals back into the first century.\" In the Middle Ages Julian of Norwich and Hildegard of Bingen explored the idea of a divine power with both masculine and feminine characteristics. Feminist works from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries addressed objections to women learning, teaching and preaching in a religious context. One such proto-feminist was Anne Hutchinson who was cast out of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts for teaching on the dignity and rights of women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196118",
"title": "Caesarius of Arles",
"section": "Section::::Religious beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "It is important to realize that Christianization in the late Roman and Early Medieval West was a slow, inconsistent and incomplete social and religious change. It required the building of churches, conversion of elites and a widespread adoption of Christian self-identity with a system of Christian values, practices and beliefs. The church was constantly struggling against the survival of superstitions and pagan practices that were widely common among communities and common folk. However, it was only with the consent and participation of local populations that these religious changes were able to take effect. Therefore, as Klingshirn so carefully puts it, this process was reciprocal. Although the elites and theologians implemented all of the goals and strategies, it was up to the peasants and townspeople of local communities to accept these practices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30etou
|
why do people choose to live in high crime areas (e.g. compton, ca and south side, chicago)
|
[
{
"answer": "High crime and low rent/property value go hand in hand. People live there because they can't afford to live anywhere else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because living there is cheap and that's all they can afford. I've never \"chosen\" to live anywhere, I live where I can afford to live.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live in a high crime area, on the \"good\" side of the city. We still have crime but usually just vandalism as opposed to gang violence in other parts. The cost of living is low here. We pay less for our mortgage for a nice house with a good amount of land than we paid for renting a 2 bedroom apartment in a nice, virtually crime-free village. So I'm gonna go ahead and say it's cheaper to live in bad areas and when you're not wealthy and have debt, children, etc. you're gonna need more space for your money. Which you can get here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People typically don't choose... they're stuck because they don't have the resources to move someplace better, whether the money for an apartment in a better part of town, the money to cover a move and/or a vehicle to do so, there are also commuting factors if they have a job, family/friends nearby. And some, because it's all they've known, don't know there are options out there. \n\nHere in Chicago, the bad neighborhoods do have only a fraction of the populations that they once did. Those who can leave, do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2603700",
"title": "South Side (Pittsburgh)",
"section": "Section::::South Side Flats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "The popularity of the neighborhood has costs. Older, lifelong residents often clash with the values of the young urban professionals and students moving in. Also, parking in the South Side is among the tightest in the city, as narrow streets and high density of buildings leave little empty street space. Nuisance crime has also been a growing issue, but in mid-2018, city leaders announced that crime in the South Side bar district dropped by roughly 30 percent from the previous year, possibly because of the addition of new outdoor security cameras and a larger police patrol presence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50542",
"title": "James Rouse",
"section": "Section::::Planned communities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "Familiar with bad housing in Baltimore and Washington, D.C., Rouse now had an opportunity to demonstrate what housing within a city's borders could be like. “There is a real need for residential development,” he said, “in which there is a strong sense of community; a need to feed into the city some of the atmosphere and pace of the small town and village; a need to create a community which can meet as many as possible of the needs of the people who live there; which can bring these people into natural contact with one another; which can produce out of these relationships a spirit and feeling of neighborliness and a rich sense of belonging to a community.” In a city that practiced strict racial segregation, Rouse intended Cross Keys to be open to all who could afford to live there. The development was a mixture of townhouses, garden apartments, a high-rise apartment house designed by Frank Gehry, stores grouped around a village square, and an office complex. By 1970, the Village of Cross Keys had become among the most desirable places to live in the Baltimore area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2651157",
"title": "Tepito",
"section": "Section::::Social structure and value system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "While the area has had a large amount of success, recent developments have weakened the social structure here. Drugs are a problem among youth, and the seemingly easy money to be made from counterfeit items, stolen goods and drugs has caused more individualistic attitudes. It also causes neighbors to not want to be involved with their other neighbors for risk of becoming involved in something unexpected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52962915",
"title": "Open space accessibility in California",
"section": "Section::::Accessibility.:Los Angeles County.:Barriers to equal accessibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Additionally, in Los Angeles inner-city residents, who are much more likely to be poor minorities, have significantly fewer parks than suburban residents. Furthermore, there is less likely to be proper maintenance at inner-city parks. Parks may play different roles in the lives of inner-city youth than they do for suburban, wealthy youth, who are more likely to have the backyards and private play areas that inner-city youth lack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33827504",
"title": "Housing quality and health outcomes in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Specific health outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Neighborhoods of low socioeconomic status are associated with higher rates of intentional injuries (violent crime). Poor investment in community property, and the lack of private and semi-private space can lead to the inability of residents to properly or adequately maintain defensible space. A lack of “eyes of the street” due to poor design or poor maintenance only makes crime prevention more difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1327280",
"title": "West Town, Chicago",
"section": "Section::::Neighborhoods.:Wicker Park.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Today, the neighborhood is best known for its numerous commercial and entertainment establishments and being a convenient place to live for downtown workers due to its proximity to public transportation and the Loop. Gentrification has made the area much more attractive to college-educated white-collar workers, although it faced considerable resistance from the working-class Puerto Rican community it displaced. Crime has drastically decreased and many new homes have been built as well as older homes being restored. The area has become a desirable neighborhood and this has led to increased business activity, with many new bars, restaurants, and stores opening to serve individuals. The neighborhood is known for hosting local art stores and independent businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "137185",
"title": "Hurricane, Utah",
"section": "Section::::Economy and tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The area enjoys the freedoms of rural life with some of the conveniences expected in modern life. Because it is so remote, crime is low (estimated to be under 1%, with almost no violent crime, historically). Social life centers around family/church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68jhd3
|
what causes airplane turbulence in a completely clear sky?
|
[
{
"answer": "Turbulence is caused when different currents of air mix, causing pressure differences in the air and thus affecting flight through it. This doesn't always form clouds or other detectable formation, called clear air turbulence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014417",
"title": "Clear-air turbulence",
"section": "Section::::Effects on aircraft.:Wake turbulence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1307,
"text": "Wake turbulence is another type of clear-air turbulence, but in this case the causes are quite different from those set out above. In the case of wake turbulence, the rotating vortex-pair created by the wings of a large aircraft as it travels lingers for a significant amount of time after the passage of the aircraft, sometimes more than a minute. When this occurs, the lingering turbulence caused by the wake of the wing tips can deflect or even flip a smaller aircraft on the ground or in the air awaiting landing. This phenomenon can also lead to accidents with large aircraft as well. Delta Air Lines Flight 9570 crashed at the Greater Southwest International Airport in 1972 while landing behind a DC-10. This accident led to new rules for minimum following separation time from \"heavy\" aircraft. American Airlines Flight 587 crashed shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport in 2001 due to pilot overreaction to wake turbulence from a Boeing 747. Many aircraft are now made with wingtip devices to improve both the lift-to-drag ratio and fuel economy - such devices may also marginally reduce the strength of the wingtip vortices. However, such changes are not operationally significant (i.e. do not change the distances or times at which it is safe to follow other aircraft).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014417",
"title": "Clear-air turbulence",
"section": "Section::::Detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Clear-air turbulence is usually impossible to detect with the naked eye and very difficult to detect with a conventional radar, with the result that it is difficult for aircraft pilots to detect and avoid it. However, it can be remotely detected with instruments that can measure turbulence with optical techniques, such as scintillometers, Doppler LIDARs, or N-slit interferometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51560627",
"title": "Cumulonimbus and aviation",
"section": "Section::::Dangers pertaining to downbursts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Safely landing a light aircraft in these conditions can be virtually impossible. Moreover, close to the ground, a glider or airplane pilot can be caught by surprise by a sudden reversal of the wind direction and transition from an upwind to a downwind situation. If the airspeed becomes too low, the aircraft will stall and may crash into the ground due to the altitude lost recovering from the stall. As a consequence of famous instances of crashes of this nature in the United States, a network of wind profilers and Terminal Doppler Weather Radars was developed in the vicinity of airports to monitor this wind shear. Based on FAA rules, every pilot must inquire about the wind speed and direction before landing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2014417",
"title": "Clear-air turbulence",
"section": "Section::::Effects on aircraft.:Cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Because aircraft move so quickly, they can experience sudden unexpected accelerations or 'bumps' from turbulence, including CAT - as the aircraft rapidly cross invisible bodies of air which are moving vertically at many different speeds. Although the vast majority of cases of turbulence are harmless, in rare cases cabin crew and passengers on aircraft have been injured when tossed around inside an aircraft cabin during extreme turbulence (and in a small number of cases, killed, as on United Airlines Flight 826 on December 28, 1997). BOAC Flight 911 broke up in flight in 1966 after experiencing severe lee-wave turbulence just downwind of Mount Fuji, Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "776591",
"title": "Cumulus humilis cloud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Air below the cloud base can be quite turbulent due to the thermals that formed the clouds, giving occupants of light aircraft an uncomfortable ride. To avoid turbulence where such clouds are present, pilots may climb above the cloud tops. However, glider pilots actively seek out the rising air to gain altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73231",
"title": "Weather forecasting",
"section": "Section::::Specialist forecasting.:Air traffic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "Because the aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather, accurate weather forecasting is essential. Fog or exceptionally low ceilings can prevent many aircraft from landing and taking off. Turbulence and icing are also significant in-flight hazards. Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft because of severe turbulence due to their updrafts and outflow boundaries, icing due to the heavy precipitation, as well as large hail, strong winds, and lightning, all of which can cause severe damage to an aircraft in flight. Volcanic ash is also a significant problem for aviation, as aircraft can lose engine power within ash clouds. On a day-to-day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency. Aircrews are briefed prior to takeoff on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination. Additionally, airports often change which runway is being used to take advantage of a headwind. This reduces the distance required for takeoff, and eliminates potential crosswinds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22477529",
"title": "Mimika Air Flight 514",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The National Transportation Safety Committee released a report and concluded that the plane crashed due to pilot lack of familiarization with the route and spatial disorientation after the aircraft entered clouds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5dbh8t
|
why do some people (like myself) have big booming voices and have difficulty speaking at an inside voice, but some people have really soft voices and struggle to speak up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Genetics. I think this question is similar to the question 'why am I blonde and my sibling is brunette?' Or 'why am I taller than my siblings?'. It's all in the genes. That being said, you can teach yourself to speak softly/loudly. It takes practice like everything else but it can be done.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7676",
"title": "Creaky voice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Creaky voice is prevalent as a peer-group affectation among young women in the United States. For example, researcher Ikuko Patricia Yuasa suggests that the tendency is a product of young women trying to infuse their speech with gravitas by means of reaching for the male register and found that \"college-age Americans ... perceive female creaky voice as hesitant, nonaggressive, and informal but also educated, urban-oriented, and upwardly mobile.\" However, according to a 2012 study in \"PLOS ONE\", young women using creaky voice are viewed as less competent, less educated, less trustworthy, less attractive and less employable. Some suggest that creaky voice can function as a marker of parentheticals in conversations; creaky voice may indicate that certain phrases, when uttered with creaky voice, contain less central information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4887910",
"title": "Speech and language pathology in school settings",
"section": "Section::::Common communication and language disorders.:Voice disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Children may experience problems with their voice due to misuse or abnormalities in the vocal mechanisms. There are two types of voice disorders: those of phonation, and those of resonance. Both types can be the result of either abuse or physical structure. Voice disorders are among the most successfully treated speech and language problems because they can be solved with surgery or reconditioning of the voice (Boone 286).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14714507",
"title": "Vocal fry register",
"section": "Section::::In speech.:Social implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Some people seek out the help of speech pathologists as they feel vocal fry makes them appear unsure and less confident. Researchers have found that young adult women who use vocal fry are perceived as less competent and less hireable (listeners have less of a negative reaction to male voices). Others argue that these perceptions are part of a broader attack on women's speech.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2569562",
"title": "Otto Sander",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Voice acting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Because of his warm, strong voice, which earned him the sobriquet \"The Voice\" (the English term is used), he has been used frequently as narrator for television documentaries, and numerous talking books in the 1990s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4775121",
"title": "Voice therapy (transgender)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "There is also some controversy regarding the use of a bigender voice. A person may want to have both a masculine and a feminine voice in their vocal repertoire, possibly to fit with their own bigender identity, or to read as a different gender in different contexts. Many clinicians will not train bigender voice, arguing that it decreases the opportunity for practice, and it may be difficult or even damaging to the vocal folds for the person to switch from one voice to another. However, Davies, Papp and Antoni (2015) reference the ability of actors to use different accents and dialects, and people to learn different languages as a sign that training a bigender voice may be a viable treatment goal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "980745",
"title": "Hypotonia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Developmental delay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Speech difficulties can result from hypotonia. Low-tone children learn to speak later than their peers, even if they appear to understand a large vocabulary, or can obey simple commands. Difficulties with muscles in the mouth and jaw can inhibit proper pronunciation, and discourage experimentation with word combination and sentence-forming. Since the hypotonic condition is actually an objective manifestation of some underlying disorder, it can be difficult to determine whether speech delays are a result of poor muscle tone, or some other neurological condition, such as intellectual disability, that may be associated with the cause of hypotonia. Additionally, lower muscle tone can be caused by Mikhail-Mikhail syndrome, which is characterized by muscular atrophy and cerebellar ataxia which is due to abnormalities in the ATXN1 gene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34307928",
"title": "Voice change",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The facial bones begin to grow as well. Cavities in the sinuses, the nose, and the back of the throat grow bigger, thus creating more space within the head to allow the voice to resonate. Occasionally, voice change is accompanied by unsteadiness of vocalization in the early stages of untrained voices. Due to the significant drop in pitch to the vocal range, people may unintentionally speak in head voice or even strain their voices using pitches which were previously chest voice, the lowest part of the modal voice register.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37ffmd
|
-why were fifa execs arrested, and what did the usa have to do with it?
|
[
{
"answer": "We don't know yet.\n\nEven FIFA don't know yet. They've issued a press statement saying they are \"seeking clarification\".\n\nWe also don't know who's been arrested - only one of the six men has been named, and he's a FIFA official from the Cayman Islands.\n\nThe FBI are due to give a press conference at 3.30pm BST. No doubt we will know a lot more then.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27825663",
"title": "Jérôme Valcke",
"section": "Section::::Career.:FIFA General Secretary.:Corruption allegations.:2015 accusations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "On 27 May 2015, the United States Department of Justice unsealed an indictment following the arrest of several past and present FIFA officials. It stated that \"a high-ranking FIFA official\" caused payments totalling US $10 million to be paid to bank accounts in the name of CONCACAF and Caribbean Football Union controlled by Warner. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11049",
"title": "FIFA",
"section": "Section::::Corruption.:Indictments and arrests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Fourteen FIFA officials and marketing executives were indicted by the United States Department of Justice in May 2015. The officials were arrested in Switzerland and are in the process of extradition to the US. Specific charges (brought under the RICO act) include wire fraud, racketeering, and money laundering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11049",
"title": "FIFA",
"section": "Section::::Corruption.:Indictments and arrests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "FIFA's top officials were arrested at a hotel in Switzerland on suspicion of receiving bribes totaling $100m (£65m). The US Department of Justice stated that nine FIFA officials and four executives of sports management companies were arrested and accused of over $150m in bribes. The UK Shadow Home Secretary and Labour Member of Parliament, Andy Burnham, stated in May 2015 that England should boycott the 2018 World Cup against corruption in FIFA and military aggression by Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17742072",
"title": "2022 FIFA World Cup",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Bidding corruption allegations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46812210",
"title": "2015 FIFA corruption case",
"section": "Section::::Timeline of events.:May 2015.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "On 27 May 2015, during the FIFA annual meeting at the Baur au Lac hotel in Zurich, authorities charged 14 officials, including nine current or former FIFA executives, including FIFA vice-president Jeffrey Webb. All faced extradition to the United States. On the same day, the Swiss attorney general's office said that other FIFA executives were being questioned on suspicion of \"criminal mismanagement\" and money laundering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46812210",
"title": "2015 FIFA corruption case",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "In total, seven current FIFA officials were arrested at the Hotel Baur au Lac in Zürich on 27 May. They were preparing to attend the 65th FIFA Congress, which was scheduled to include the election of the president of FIFA. They are expected to be extradited to the United States on suspicion of receiving in bribes. There was also a simultaneous raid on the CONCACAF headquarters in Miami, and later, two further men handed themselves in to police for arrest: Jack Warner and marketing executive Alejandro Burzaco. Two further arrests of FIFA officials at the hotel occurred in December 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "523531",
"title": "David Triesman, Baron Triesman",
"section": "Section::::Comments about FIFA bribery allegations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "On 10 May 2011, Triesman, speaking before a British parliamentary select committee, affirmed his suspicions of bribery concerning four FIFA members, claiming that they sought bribes in return for backing England's failed 2018 World Cup bid. Whilst the FIFA Executive Committee dismissed the allegations, all the FIFA officials named have subsequently been either convicted of offences, or face extradition to the USA for trial. They with other FIFA executives have been banned for different periods from all contact with football.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67zlb5
|
how hard is it to quit smoking?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it contains a drug and drug addiction is very hard to overcome. Even with willpower it's hard to overcome. Same with any addiction. I've never smoked so never been addicted to nicotine. But I have been addicted to medicine. I won't say \"drugs\" because of what that appears. I never abused my medicine but I sure as hell never missed a dose, and stayed on longer than I truly needed. My regular dr (different than prescriber-was a workmans comp dr), reg dr weaned me off and helped me. \n\nAddiction needs the desire to overcome it plus willpower and strength to do so. Many people can't or won't. \n\nSome people can quit cold turkey and not have any problems. Others relapse and or have bad withdrawal off add to rice substances. Everyone is different because of chemical biology. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former smoker here. Quitting is in fact super hard. The feeling is hard to describe but the closest thing I think I can relate it to is having a really itchy mosquito bite. You know you are not meant to scratch it, but sometimes you think, \"oh fuck it, Imma just give it one quick scratch, ohhh yeah, that feels better\". Now imagine feeling that itch, but 10 times worse, and it takes a good month or so to go away. And if you scratch it even once, you have to start all over again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The brightest minds in the chemical engineering world have been working on making cigarettes as addictive as possible for nearly 100 years. \nAs a reference, it's been said smoking addiction is harder to break than heroin. The withdrawal is lengthy, smoking is an addiction on many levels.. the habits are extremely difficult to break.. requiring a new way of life, a massive commitment for most anyone. And it can cause weight gain, that is a massive factor for many. The main factor in all of it is will, if someone wants to quit for their own sake, they are much more likely to succeed.\nA grade 11 teacher bet me a bacon double cheeseburger from the local ritzy burger joint I couldn't quit.. I collected that bacon double cheeseburger in grade 12. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've smoked on and off since I was 14. This August will be 2 years without smoking and every day, especially now that it's almost summer, I want a cigarette. It's really hard. Try giving up all sugar for a week and see how you feel. That's really the only day to day addiction we don't like to think is one that can come close to any drug addiction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you are addicted to a drug, your prefrontal cortex (part of the brain that helps you make good decisions, judgment, etc.) is no longer in control. Instead, your brain becomes re-wired into thinking that the drug, nicotine in this case, is just as or even more important than food, sex, sleep, etc. I am a recovering alcohol myself as well as current smoker, and let me tell you, there's a lot more to it than willpower. If it were simply a matter of willpower, then it wouldn't be an addiction; it would just be a bad habit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Quitting smoking is the easiest thing in the world, I have done it a thousand times\" - Mark Twain\n\nIt's hard to quit because you get addicted",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1233983",
"title": "Tobacco packaging warning messages",
"section": "Section::::South Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 750,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 750,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"From April 2009 to April 2011 (a prospectus)\" Front (Smoking damages your health. Once you start smoking, it is very difficult to quit) Back (It is illegal to sell cigarettes to people under 19! It hurts your children's health)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40586738",
"title": "The Easy Way to Stop Smoking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The Easy Way to Stop Smoking is a self-help book written by British author and accountant Allen Carr. The book aims to help people quit smoking, offering a range of different methods. It was first published in 1985. Although championed by many celebrities, there has been limited empirical study of Carr's method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73298",
"title": "Tobacco smoking",
"section": "Section::::Cessation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Smoking cessation, referred to as \"quitting\", is the action leading towards abstinence of tobacco smoking. Methods of \"quitting\" include advice from physicians or social workers, cold turkey, nicotine replacement therapy, contingent vouchers, antidepressants, hypnosis, self-help (mindfulness meditation), and support groups. A meta-analysis from 2018, conducted on 61 RCT, showed that one year after people quit smoking with the assistance of first‐line smoking cessation medications (and some behavioral help), only a little under 20% of smokers remained sustained abstinence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27555238",
"title": "Smoking in Syria",
"section": "Section::::Potential avenues for tobacco control.:Smoking cessation programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Smoking cessation programs are essential to those seeking to quit, as medical literature suggests that less than 5% of quitters abstain from cigarettes permanently when quitting without external sources of support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289607",
"title": "Smoking cessation",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Cut down to quit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Gradual reduction involves slowly reducing one's daily intake of nicotine. This can theoretically be accomplished through repeated changes to cigarettes with lower levels of nicotine, by gradually reducing the number of cigarettes smoked each day, or by smoking only a fraction of a cigarette on each occasion. A 2009 systematic review by researchers at the University of Birmingham found that gradual nicotine replacement therapy could be effective in smoking cessation. There is no significant difference in quit rates between smokers who quit by gradual reduction or abrupt cessation as measured by abstinence from smoking of at least six months from the quit day, suggesting that people who want to quit can choose between these two methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1233983",
"title": "Tobacco packaging warning messages",
"section": "Section::::South Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 747,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 747,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"From 1996 to March 2005\" Front (Smoking causes lung cancer and other diseases and it is especially dangerous for teenagers and pregnant women) Back (It is illegal to sell cigarettes to people under 19) and additionally, (You can be healthy and live longer if you quit), (Smoking also causes paralysis and heart diseases), (Smoking also damages your beloved children), (Smoking damages others)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30206738",
"title": "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Smoking cessation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In those who smoke, stopping smoking is the only measure shown to slow down the worsening of COPD. Even at a late stage of the disease, it can reduce the rate of worsening lung function and delay the onset of disability and death. Often, several attempts are required before long-term abstinence is achieved. Attempts over 5 years lead to success in nearly 40% of people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1383od
|
What are some other theories of gravity?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are plenty. It's very easy to construct a new theory of gravity - just put in some new ingredients and decide how those ingredients behave, and how they interact with the gravitational field. The real question isn't whether you can do it, it's a) whether you can make it fit with observations, and b) whether it's preferable to our current theory, general relativity (GR). GR fits practically all the data very well, especially if you consider two modifications - adding in dark energy and dark matter. Moreover GR is about as simple a theory of gravity as you can get - it has pretty much the simplest form for a theory with no extra ingredients. So any new theory is going to be more complex and less attractive, and seem fairly ad hoc.\n\nThe motivation for modifying this simple and elegant theory of GR is usually to explain dark energy or dark matter, and for various reasons people tend to prefer doing this for dark energy (there's just a lot of evidence out there that dark matter is a particle, and the modified gravity alternatives like TeVeS are really complicated and messy in comparison).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I once saw a thing on TV where this old man was trying to prove that gravity was a PUSH from the sun. Problem was he used magnets to prove his point, problem is I'm not made of Iron.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity (proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black hole, from which nothing—not even light—can escape once past the black hole's event horizon. However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes gravity as a force which causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other, with the force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1293340",
"title": "Classical field theory",
"section": "Section::::Non-relativistic field theories.:Newtonian gravitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The first field theory of gravity was Newton's theory of gravitation in which the mutual interaction between two masses obeys an inverse square law. This was very useful for predicting the motion of planets around the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25881839",
"title": "Entropic gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Entropic gravity, also known as emergent gravity, is a theory in modern physics that describes gravity as an \"entropic force\"—a force with macro-scale homogeneity but which is subject to quantum-level disorder—and not a fundamental interaction. The theory, based on string theory, black hole physics, and quantum information theory, describes gravity as an \"emergent\" phenomenon that springs from the quantum entanglement of small bits of spacetime information. As such, entropic gravity is said to abide by the second law of thermodynamics under which the entropy of a physical system tends to increase over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40496327",
"title": "Extended theories of gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Extended theories of gravity are alternative theories of gravity developed from the exact starting points investigated first by Einstein and Hilbert. These are theories describing gravity, which are metric theory, \"a linear connection\" or related affine theories, or metric-affine gravitation theory. Rather than trying to discover correct calculations for the matter side of the Einstein field equations; which include inflation, dark energy, dark matter, large-scale structure, and possibly quantum gravity; it is proposed, instead, to change the gravitational side of the equation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of physics, approximately 10 times weaker than the strong interaction, 10 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 10 times weaker than the weak interaction. As a consequence, it has no significant influence at the level of subatomic particles. In contrast, it is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation, shape and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. For example, gravity causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit the Sun, it also causes the Moon to orbit the Earth, and causes the formation of tides, the formation and evolution of the Solar System, stars and galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19989435",
"title": "F(R) gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "() is a type of modified gravity theory which generalizes Einstein's general relativity. () gravity is actually a family of theories, each one defined by a different function, , of the Ricci scalar, . The simplest case is just the function being equal to the scalar; this is general relativity. As a consequence of introducing an arbitrary function, there may be freedom to explain the accelerated expansion and structure formation of the Universe without adding unknown forms of dark energy or dark matter. Some functional forms may be inspired by corrections arising from a quantum theory of gravity. () gravity was first proposed in 1970 by Hans Adolph Buchdahl (although was used rather than for the name of the arbitrary function). It has become an active field of research following work by Starobinsky on cosmic inflation. A wide range of phenomena can be produced from this theory by adopting different functions; however, many functional forms can now be ruled out on observational grounds, or because of pathological theoretical problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Non-fundamental forces.:Fictitious forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, Kaluza–Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hg5nn
|
how/why does 'ghost pepper' cause vomiting, rectal bleeding, sweating?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm assuming the chemicals in the pepper cause a great deal of irritation to human tissues.\n\nRegular hot peppers cause similar irritation, but not to the same degree. At a certain point hot peppers are no longer foodstuffs and are just health hazards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Capscaicin, the active ingredient that causes spiciness in peppers of all sorts, binds with a receptor present on your skin, in your eyes and mouth and all through your digestive tract. These receptors usually open at above body temperature to warn your brain of excessive heat, but the capscaicin increases its sensitivity and it open at body temperature.\n\nThis makes your body think it's burning up, and it engages numerous bodily defences to try and cool down and expel the thing causing the heat. As far as your body knows it's on fire if you eat an obscenely hot pepper.\n\nIf you were one of the people born without these receptors - it happens - you'd have no sensation of spice and could sit down eating habaneros, scotch bonnets and anything else you pleased for hours without issue.\n\nIf you want to have the hot pepper experience without diarrhoea, rectal bleeding or any of the really nasty side effects, chew the pepper for a solid 10+ seconds and spit it out. That way your stomach and intestines deal with barely any of the capscaicin, but you get a full dose in the mouth and upper throat.\n\nI've eaten a moruga scorpion and carolina reaper as well as some other quite hot peppers that way and never had so much as a bit of burning when I next pooped. \n\nChewing and spitting, though, will still cause excessive salivation, sweating, tearing up, increase in blood pressure and heart rate, and really all the normal side effects of a big adrenaline rush. (Because it gives you one.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "433827",
"title": "Pepper's ghost",
"section": "Section::::Modern examples.:Television, film, and video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In CBS's \"The Mentalist\" episode \"Red Scare\" (Season 2, episode 5, 2009), Patrick Jane realises that Pepper's ghost was used in an attempt to scare one of the characters, an architect, from an old house he was developing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52319139",
"title": "Skunklock",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The makers of Skunklock compare the effects to those of pepper spray, but note that the formula for the chemical inside is proprietary. They say it will temporarily disable a thief by inducing vomiting in 99 percent of people, while making it difficult to see and breathe. The chemicals used are food-grade and non-toxic, sharing chemical similarities to Swedish fermented herring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11466299",
"title": "Phytophthora capsici",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.:Pepper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Infection of the pepper commonly starts at the soil line leading to symptoms of dark, water soaked areas on the stem. Dark lesions of the stem may girdle the plant resulting in death. Roots of the pepper plant appear brown and mushy. Leaf spots start out small and become water soaked, and as time progresses may enlarge turn tan and crack. Blighting of new leaves may also take place. The fruit of the pepper is infected through the stem giving way to water soaked areas on the fruit that are overgrown by signs of the pathogen which appear as, \"white-gray, cottony, fungal-like growth\" (hyphae). The fruit mummifies and stays attached to the stem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157302",
"title": "Pepper spray",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Pepper spray is an inflammatory agent. It inflames the mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, throat and lungs. It causes immediate closing of the eyes, difficulty breathing, runny nose, and coughing. The duration of its effects depends on the strength of the spray, but the average full effect lasts from 20 to 90 minutes, but eye irritation, redness and tears can last for up to 24 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738064",
"title": "Pinkeye (South Park)",
"section": "Section::::Cultural references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Kenny is turned into a zombie after a mortician accidentally knocks Worcestershire sauce, a fermented liquid condiment, into his embalming fluid. Parker and Stone originally planned to have a Dr Pepper fall into the embalming fluid (in a belated response to that product's slogan \"Dr Pepper, What's the Worst That Could Happen?\"), but it was changed after the soft drink company objected to that use of their product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157302",
"title": "Pepper spray",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Pepper spray (also known as capsicum spray) is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and temporary blindness) used in policing, riot control, crowd control, and self-defense, including defense against dogs and bears. Its inflammatory effects cause the eyes to close, taking away vision. This temporary blindness allows officers to more easily restrain subjects and permits people in danger to use pepper spray in self-defense for an opportunity to escape. It also causes temporary discomfort and burning of the lungs which causes shortness of breath. Although considered a less-than-lethal agent, it has been deadly in rare cases, and concerns have been raised about a number of deaths where being pepper sprayed may have been a contributing factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157302",
"title": "Pepper spray",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The effects of pepper spray are far more severe, including temporary blindness which lasts from 15–30 minutes, a burning sensation of the skin which lasts from 45 to 60 minutes, upper body spasms which force a person to bend forward and uncontrollable coughing making it difficult to breathe or speak for between 3 and 15 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
axa4j2
|
Where do stereotypical "redneck" names like Bubba, Skeeter, or Cletus come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "LIke many Colloquial things, the etemology of these names is tough to trace because their use is rarely documented very well. \n\nThe etemology of the word bubba has [reportedly](_URL_3_) traced to the german word \"Bube.\" (meaning boy), or a similar sounding Gullah Word [BuhBuh](_URL_0_) meaning brother. - See also [this article](_URL_1_) referencing different Gullah words for Brother, \"Buh\" \"Bruh,\" and other contractions of the term all meaning \"brother,\" and used as a familial term among African American Communities in the Antebellum south. \n\n > Animals in the tales refer to each other as 'brother' in the same manner that slaveholders referred to their chattel as 'family.' On one side, they are indeed 'brothers' and 'family,' for they belong to the same species. On the other hand, certain characteristics, such as race or class, circumvent true kinship. These lessons were not lost on the young. \n\nIt's notable that in many southern Baptist Communities \"Brother\" is still a fairly frequent term used to reference a man who's a member of the community. \"You should go see brother john.\" \n\nGiven the fairly limited German population in the South (Although a non-trivial population of German Catholics settled in the Mississippi Delta in the late 1800's and early 1900's, as well as significant german populations in Texas (per a comment) the Creole interpretation is more likely. And it's a fairly straightforward path as to how it would have gained more widespread use. \n\nAs to \"Skeeter\" - the root word is Mosquito. [Mirriam Webster](_URL_4_) lists the first known use of the word as referencing a mosquito to be 1839. It comes from earlier English origins describing something that is quick and darting (hence it also describing a small boat). Given the presence (or abundance I might say) of mosquitos in much of the South, it's not unusual that it might have some use as a nickname. \n\n\nCletus is trickier. Most sources seem to indicate the name is of greek origin. \" It actually had some popularity as a given name in the late 19th century. I'm unable to find any sources specifically identifying how it *specifically* became associated with rednecks that predate its use on the Simpsons for the Character [Cleetus Spuckler](_URL_2_) who is a stereotypical hillbilly character with his first appearance in 1994. Edit: a comment response did point out that the Dukes of Hazzard (airing 79-85) had a character named Cletus as one of the Sherrif's deputies.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2090541",
"title": "Bubba",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Because of its association with the southern part of the United States, \"Bubba\" is also often used outside the South as a pejorative to mean a person of low economic status and limited education. \"Bubba\" may also be taken to mean one who is a \"good ol' boy\". In the US Army and Marines, \"Bubba\" can mean a lay soldier, similar to \"grunt\", but with connotations of endearment instead of derision (e.g., \"Can you make that device easier to work with, because every Bubba is going to have to use it?\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1003359",
"title": "Redleg",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "In addition to \"Redlegs\", the term underwent extensive progression in Barbados and the following terms were also used: \"Redshanks\", \"Poor whites\", \"Poor Backra\", \"Backra Johnny\", \"Ecky-Becky\", \"Poor Backward Johnnie\", \"Poor whites from below the hill\", \"Edey white mice\" or \"Beck-e Neck\" (Baked-neck). Historically everything besides \"poor whites\" was used as derogatory insults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49069974",
"title": "Wolodumir “Walter” Stadnick",
"section": "Section::::Hells Angels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1736,
"text": "It remains a mystery why Stadnick's nickname is \"Nurget\"; one Hamilton police officer says it goes back to his high school days when as the neighborhood hash dealer, Stadnick always had a \"nugget\" of hash to sell. In 1987, Stadnick went to Toronto to try to persuade an outlaw biker club, the Vagabonds, to \"patch over\" to become Hells Angels, but the club were unwilling to submit to the sort of self-discipline that Stadnick wanted. From 1987 onward, Stadnick was closely associated with Maurice Boucher who had become a \"full patch\" Hells Angel on 3 May 1987. In 1988, Stadnick become the national president of the Canadian Hells Angels. In the spring of 1988, Langlois fled to Morocco to escape charges of first-degree murder in connection with his role in the Lennoxville massacre of 1985, and Stadnick was chosen to be his successor. Stadnick immediately appointed Boucher his Quebec lieutenant and informed him that he would largely run Hells Angels operations in Quebec while Stadnick focused on expanding the Angels into the rest of Canada. In one of his first acts as president, Stadnick together with Boucher went to Quebec City on 28 May 1988 to meet the leaders of an outlaw biker club called the Vikings. The meeting went so well that the Vikings agreed to \"patch over\" to become Hells Angels' Quebec City chapter the same night. On 23 August 1988, Stadnick was arrested at the home of Douglas Freeborn, a former Satan's Choice member and a prominent drug dealer in Hamilton. Found with him were 11 ounces of hash, which led the police to charge him with intention to sell drugs, but the charges were dropped were Freeborn sworn in court that the hash belonged to him and Stadnick had nothing to do with his drug-dealing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31389253",
"title": "Ikey Tigers",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The \"Ikey\" nickname originated in the 1910s as an anti-semitic epithet applied to UCT students by the students of Stellenbosch University, because of the supposed large number of Jewish students at UCT.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8779772",
"title": "Goofs and Saddles",
"section": "Section::::Production notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The Stooges' names in this short are Buffalo Billious (Curly), Wild Bill Hiccup (Moe), and Just Plain Bill (Larry). The cultural references are to, respectively, American Old West figures Buffalo Bill and Wild Bill Hickock, and \"Just Plain Bill\", the title of a long-running radio program of the era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18006792",
"title": "Redneck",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Redneck is a term that can range from joking (e.g. comedian Jeff Foxworthy \"You might be a redneck if...) to derogatory, depending on context and tone of delivery, chiefly but not exclusively applied to white Americans perceived to be crass and unsophisticated, closely associated with rural whites of the Southern United States. Its usage is similar in meaning to \"cracker\" (especially regarding Texas, Georgia, and Florida), \"hillbilly\" (especially regarding Appalachia and the Ozarks), and \"white trash\" (but without the last term's suggestions of immorality).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457621",
"title": "Bollocks",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:Rhyming slang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The rhyming slang for \"bollocks\" is \"\"Jackson Pollocks\"\". It can be shortened to \"Jacksons\", as in \"Modern art? Pile o' \"Jacksons\" if you ask me!\". \"Sandra Bullocks\" is occasionally used to approximate rhyming slang; it does not quite rhyme, but preserves meter and rhythm. The Beautiful South bowdlerised their original line \"\"sweaty bollocks\"\" as \"\"Sandra Bullocks\"\", as one of several changes to make their song \"Don't Marry Her\" acceptable for mainstream radio play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nwrku
|
How accurate, topographically speaking, was the Chernobyl level in CoD 4?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know about topography, but the way the game is styled is fairly accurate. Pripyat has been abandoned since the Chernobyl nuclear plant disaster, so everything has been left for mother nature to control. But the ferris wheel is actually real and is still in Pripyat and some of the more famous building are also worked into the game \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59803219",
"title": "Chernobyl groundwater contamination",
"section": "Section::::Migration pathways of contamination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1302,
"text": "Unfortunately, hydrological and geological conditions in Chernobyl area promoted rapid radionuclide migration to subsurface water network. These factors include flat terrain, abundant precipitation and highly permeable sandy sediments Main natural factors of nuclides migration in the region can be divided into four groups, including: weather and climate-related (evaporation and precipitation frequency, intensity and distribution); geological (sediment permeability, drainage regimes, forms of vegetation); soil-borne (physical, hydrological and mechanical properties of lands); and lithological (terrain structures and types of rock). In meliorated areas migration processes are additionally influenced by anthropogenic drivers related to human agricultural activities. In this relation, specific parameters and type of drainage regime, melioration practices, water control and sprinkling can substantially accelerate natural tempos of migration of contaminants. For example, artificial drainage leads to substantial increase of absorption and flushing rates. These technological factors are particularly significant for the regions along Pripyat river and Dnieper river, which are almost totally subject to artificial irrigation and drainage within the network of constructed reservoirs and dams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12772746",
"title": "Radioecology",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Collection of radioecological data from the Chernobyl disaster was performed on a private basis. Independent researchers collected data regarding the various dosage levels and geographical differences among the afflicted areas, allowing them to draw conclusions about the nature and intensity of the damage caused to ecosystems by the disaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59803219",
"title": "Chernobyl groundwater contamination",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "Recent revelations of facts concealed by the Soviet propaganda show that the problem of groundwater radioactive contamination in Chernobyl zone existed long before the actual disaster. The analyses conducted in 1983-1985 showed deviation of radioactive standards in 1,5-2 times, as a result of earlier accidental malfunctions of CNPP in 1982 When the catastrophe occurred, groundwater irradiation was caused due to contamination of lands in the area of the wrecked fourth reactor. Furthermore, subsurface water was contaminated through unconfined aquifer in correlation and proportionally to contamination of soil by isotopes of Strontium and Caesium . Upper groundwater aquifer and most of Artesian aquifers were damaged in first place due to massive surface contamination with radioactive isotopes Strontium-90 and Cesium-137. At the same time, considerable levels of radioactive content were fixed on the periphery of exclusion zone, including part of potable water delivery system. This revelation proved the fact of migration of radioactive contaminants through the groundwater aquifers \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4155456",
"title": "Effects of the Chernobyl disaster",
"section": "Section::::Long-term health effects.:Chernobyl Forum report and criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "In September 2005, a comprehensive report was published by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. This report titled: \"Chernobyl's legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts\", authored by about 100 recognized experts from many countries, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the disaster around 4,000 (of which 2,200 deaths are expected to be in the ranks of 200,000 liquidators). This predicted death toll includes the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster, nine children who died from thyroid cancer and an estimated 4000 people who could die from cancer as a result of exposure to radiation. This number was subsequently updated to 9000 excess cancer deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5700197",
"title": "Strontium-90",
"section": "Section::::Sr contamination in the environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The Chernobyl disaster released roughly 10 PBq, or about 5% of the core inventory, of strontium-90 into the environment. The Fukushima Daiichi disaster released 0.1-1 PBq of strontium-90 in the form of contaminated cooling water into the Pacific Ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59803219",
"title": "Chernobyl groundwater contamination",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1566,
"text": "Subsurface water was especially affected by radioactivity in the 30-km zone of evacuation (so called “exclusion zone”), surrounding the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, or CNPP (Kovar&Herbert, 1998. The major and most hazardous contaminant from the perspective of hydrological spread was Strontium-90. This nuclide showed the most active mobility in subsurface waters; its rapid migration through groundwater aquifer was first discovered in 1988-1989 Other perilous nuclear isotopes included Cesium-137, Cesium-143, Ruthenium-106, Plutonium-239, Plutonium-240, Americium-241 The primary source of contamination was the damaged 4th reactor, which had actually been a crash site and where concentration of Strontium-90 initially exceeded the admissible levels for drinking water in 103-104 times. The reactor remained an epicenter of irradiation even after the emergency personnel built “Sarcophagus”, or “Shelter”, a protective construction aimed to isolate it from the environment. The structure proved to be non-hermetic, permeable to rainfall, snow and dew concentrations in many parts of 1000 m2 area Additionally, high amounts of cesium, tritium and plutonium were delivered to groundwater due to leakage of enriched water from the 4th reactor while building of the “Shelter” was in progress As a result, considerable amounts of water condensed inside the “Shelter” and absorbed radiation from nuclides-containing dust and fuels. Although most of this water evaporated, some portions of it leaked to groundwater from the surface layers under the reactor chambers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59803219",
"title": "Chernobyl groundwater contamination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Substantial groundwater contamination is one of the gravest environmental impacts caused by Chernobyl disaster. As a part of overall freshwater damage, it relates to so-called “secondary” contamination, caused by the delivery of radioactive materials through unconfined aquifers to the groundwater network It proved to be particularly challenging because groundwater basins, especially deep-laying aquifers, were traditionally considered invulnerable to diverse extraneous contaminants. To the surprise of scientists, Radionuclides of Chernobyl origin were found even in deep-laying waters with formation period of several hundred years\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
156fn8
|
If you had a properly sized lens completely free of any imperfection, could you build a magnifying glass that could see atoms?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, because the wavelength of (visible) light is longer than the distances between atoms, so they cannot be distinguished are the therefore non-resolvable. 1000x magnification is about as far as light can go, which allows you to see bacteria, but not viruses.\n\nElectron microscopes are instead used because the wavelength of electrons...or something...is short enough to distinguish between two objects at that scale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the diffraction limit is what determines the smallest spot size of an imaging system (_URL_0_). If this spot size is smaller than the size of your object, than the object can be viewed. Otherwise, it cannot. So we are able to see cells that are larger than a few microns with a microscope because the spot size that is created from the imaging system is smaller than the cell. But that equation in the wiki page is what determines the spot size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No the size of the object being able to be viewed depends on the wavelength. You might be able to see stuff like viruses in the ultraviolet range. Maybe you could build a gamma ray microscope since that has a really tiny wavelength but electron microscope is still probably better.\n\nPerhaps the next step up from electron microscopes might be high energy neutrino microscopes.\n\nIn theory wavelengths can go down to the plank length but at this point it would be incredibly destructive to whatever you where viewing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I once read an article about metamaterials and negative refraction, to be used to enhance the focusing properties of lenses.\n\n[Here's a Wikipedia article.](_URL_0_)\n\n[And another on the superlens](_URL_1_)\n\nQuoting said page:\n\n > A superlens, super lens or perfect lens is a lens which uses metamaterials to go beyond the diffraction limit. The diffraction limit is an inherent limitation in conventional optical devices or lenses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many people have commented correctly that normal lenses are limited by diffraction; they work in an optical regime called the \"far-field\". The far-field is the light that propagates from a source away to infinity (and the intensity drops in proportion to the distance squared).\n\nHowever, there is also \"near-field\" radiation which does not propagate from the source. For example, there are evanescent waves that do not oscillate as they move but reduce exponentially with distance from the source.\n\nBy building as near-field lens of the appropriate size and shape (very difficult!), and by placing it very close to the source (also not easy!), it is possible in-principle to image things much smaller than the diffraction limit down to atomic resolution.\n\nSee wikipedia's article on the [SNOM](_URL_0_). EDIT: See Borskey's and MrBurd's comments, I didn't see it on my first read-through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As people have said, you can't use light directly to see things below the wavelength/2*NA of your system. Atoms are much much smaller than that. The only things that people use to image single atoms are scanning tips - AFM, STEM and variations on that theme.\n\nHowever, if you play some tricks with the physical system you're imaging, you can use light to get down to single-digit nanometer resolution in the far field (100x smaller than the wavelength of light). The most well-known technique for this is STED (_URL_0_), and there are some others including STORM and PALM if you want to look them up. The key with these techniques is that they only work with specific physical systems though - they aren't general-purpose light microscopy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "no, light stops working the way you are used to when it's on that scale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, you just need to make it out of magnets, send electrons through it, converge the beam, and then scan it. As a lens technically doesn't have to be a hunk of curved glass, I'd say that the lens system in one of these counts. \n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "not even almost. visible spectrum has waves too long for that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You cannot actually \"see\" an atom, our eyes can only see photons (electromagnetic radiation), they can't see electrons, protons, neutrons, or any other kind of particles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2886106",
"title": "Full-frame digital SLR",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages of full-frame digital SLRs.:35 mm lenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Lower size sensors also allow for the use of a wider range of lenses, since some types of optical impurities (specifically vignetting) are most visible around the edge of the lens. By only using the center of the lens, these impurities are not noticed. In practice, this allows for the use of lower cost glass without corresponding loss of quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513128",
"title": "Airy disk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The most important application of this concept is in cameras and telescopes. Due to diffraction, the smallest point to which a lens or mirror can focus a beam of light is the size of the Airy disk. Even if one were able to make a perfect lens, there is still a limit to the resolution of an image created by such a lens. An optical system in which the resolution is no longer limited by imperfections in the lenses but only by diffraction is said to be diffraction limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18320",
"title": "Lens (optics)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Convex lenses produce an image of an object at infinity at their focus; if the sun is imaged, much of the visible and infrared light incident on the lens is concentrated into the small image. A large lens creates enough intensity to burn a flammable object at the focal point. Since ignition can be achieved even with a poorly made lens, lenses have been used as burning-glasses for at least 2400 years. A modern application is the use of relatively large lenses to concentrate solar energy on relatively small photovoltaic cells, harvesting more energy without the need to use larger and more expensive cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "766202",
"title": "Anisometropia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Spectacle correction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "It is possible for spectacle lenses to be made which can adjust the image sizes presented to the eye to be approximately equal. These are called iseikonic lenses. In practice though, this is rarely ever done.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4408335",
"title": "Optical lens design",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Lenses can first be designed using paraxial theory to position images and pupils, then real surfaces inserted and optimized. Paraxial theory can be skipped in simpler cases and the lens directly optimized using real surfaces. Lenses are first designed using average index of refraction and dispersion (see Abbe number) properties published in the glass manufacturer's catalog and though glass model calculations. However, the properties of the real glass blanks will vary from this ideal; index of refraction values can vary by as much as 0.0003 or more from catalog values, and dispersion can vary slightly. These changes in index and dispersion can sometimes be enough to affect the lens focus location and imaging performance in highly corrected systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3088223",
"title": "Superlens",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Conventional lens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The conventional glass lens is pervasive throughout our society and in the sciences. It is one of the fundamental tools of optics simply because it interacts with various wavelengths of light. At the same time, the wavelength of light can be analogous to the width of a pencil used to draw the ordinary images. The limit becomes noticeable, for example, when the laser used in a digital video system can only detect and deliver details from a DVD based on the wavelength of light. The image cannot be rendered any sharper beyond this limitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21265886",
"title": "Precision glass moulding",
"section": "Section::::Tool and mould design.:Dimensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The precision glass moulding process is not limited to small optics. For the right element geometry, it can enable economical production of aspheric lenses up to 60 mm in diameter and more than 20 mm thick.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ad1ydr
|
why do all space launch pictures make the space ship look like it’s going in a full circle?
|
[
{
"answer": "The rocket doesn't go straight up to exit the atmosphere, it has to curve to conserve energy and reach the desired altitude. So the trail from the rocket explosion is really curved, because its trajectory was curved.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you jump, the Earth *does* move underneath you, but your inertia from being up to speed with the earth up until that point is so great that the amount of slowing down you experience compared to the Earth is negligable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what you mean here, but rockets don't go straight up. They turn and twist to go 'downrange' in order to reach their intended orbit.\n\nOften, the long exposure will include the ditching of the first stage and/or second stage.\n\nIn the case of SpaceX, they mostly land the first stage, which conducts a series of burns towards landing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34548693",
"title": "Spaced Out (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The section of spaceship that appears in the park scenes was created using scaffolding covered with plastic sheets. The lighting of these scenes was intended to pastiche \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\". The special effects shots of the ship in flight were recycled from the TV series \"\". Due to the variety of shots used the appearance of the ship changes over the course of the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18394422",
"title": "002 Operazione Luna",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Fulci has proclaimed that to film the scene where a space ship takes off in the film, he used four lights, a black cloth over a stage with a lot of little bulks on the floor for stars that was shot in slow motion. Fulci referred to this scene as \"a source of pride for me!\". Howarth, a Fulci biographer commented that Fulci's memory must have wrong, as the scene in the film is accomplished through stock footage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23941708",
"title": "2001: A Space Odyssey (film)",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "Shots where the spacecraft had parts in motion or the perspective changed were shot by directly filming the model. For most shots the model was stationary and camera was driven along a track on a special mount, the motor of which was mechanically linked to the camera motor—making it possible to repeat camera moves and match speeds exactly. Elements of the scene were recorded on same piece of film in separate passes to combine the lit model, stars, planets, or other spacecraft in the same shot. In moving shots of the long \"Discovery One\" spacecraft, in order to keep the entire model in focus, multiple passes had to be made with the lighting on it blocked out section by section. In each pass the camera would be focused on the one lit section. Many matting techniques were tried to block out the stars behind the models, with film makers sometimes resorting to hand tracing frame by frame around the image of the spacecraft (rotoscoping) to create the matte.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23941708",
"title": "2001: A Space Odyssey (film)",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In shots where there was no perspective change, still shots of the models were photographed and positive paper prints were made. The image of the model was cut out of the photographic print and mounted on glass and filmed on an animation stand. The undeveloped film was re-wound to film the star background with the silhouette of the model photograph acting as a matte to block out where the spaceship image was.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33239451",
"title": "Soyuz TMA-12M",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.:Launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Because of the nighttime launch and the fact that the International Space Station was orbiting over Baikonur at the time of lift-off, the launch of TMA-12M was visible from the ISS and NASA astronaut Richard Mastracchio was able to take a photograph of the view (see below in gallery).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6446062",
"title": "Moonraker (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Since NASA's Space Shuttle program had not been launched, Derek Meddings and his miniatures team had to create the rocket launch footage without any reference. Shuttle models attached to bottle rockets and signal flares were used for take-off, and the smoke trail was created with salt that fell from the models. The space scenes were done by rewinding the camera after an element was shot, enabling other elements to be superimposed in the film stock, with the space battle needing up to forty rewinds to incorporate everything. The climactic scenes of the space station disintegrating were created by Meddings and other members of the special effects team shooting the miniature model with shotguns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213246",
"title": "Alien Resurrection",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Visual effects and miniatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM \"Auriga\" was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pa91r
|
why have many pathogens evolved to be deadly if this constrains their ability to spread?
|
[
{
"answer": " > if this constrains their ability to spread?\n\nIt really depends on the disease. For example, let's look at cholera. When it infects you, it spreads by draining your body of water through your intestines, and all that water contains more cholera bacteria. In areas without much infrastructure, the contaminated water can spread really easily to drinking water. Even though draining more water out of the host kills them faster, it also lets the bacteria spread to more hosts faster. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is often a byproduct of their reproductive/dispersement schemes. For example, with Ebola, you turn into a human volcano, and all these bodily fluids in turn spread the disease. The more you spew, the more you spread. Unfortunately, you also tend to die of malnutrition/dehydration. AIDS tends to hijack your immune system to spread, unfortunately, that leaves you defenseless and you end up killed by a cold. Each disease is a balance, too lethal and it doesn't have a chance to spread before you die, too mild, and it is wiped out before it can be spread. \n\nEdit: also, as it is a good point brought up by others, we are often not the natural host of the disease, and the host animal suffers no harm from the disease. A fun example is armadillos and leprosy. I was constraining my argument simply to the affliction of humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We are not the natural host animal for many pathogens. The best way to find the host organism is to ask...which animal does it hurt the least but still grow in?\n\nThe really deadly ones are usually not regular human diseases....HIV has only been in us for 70-80 years. Ebola is usually in small forest animals.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they don't have to do things optimally, they just have to survive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44430316",
"title": "Host adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "While there might be pathogens that can infect other hosts and cause disease, the inability to pervade, or spread, throughout the infected host species indicates that the pathogen is not adapted to that host species. In this case, the ability or lack thereof of a pathogen to adapt to its host environment is an indicator of the pathogen's fitness or virulence. If a pathogen has high fitness in the host environment, or is virulent, it will be able to grow and spread quickly within its host. Conversely, if the pathogen is not well adapted to its host environment, then it will not spread or infect the way a well adapted pathogen would.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "443416",
"title": "Phagocyte",
"section": "Section::::Pathogen evasion and resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses. Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes, and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3913867",
"title": "Optimal virulence",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary hypotheses.:Trade-off hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "At one time, some biologists argued that pathogens would tend to evolve toward ever decreasing virulence because the death of the host (or even serious disability) is ultimately harmful to the pathogen living inside. For example, if the host dies, the pathogen population inside may die out entirely. Therefore, it was believed that less virulent pathogens that allowed the host to move around and interact with other hosts should have greater success reproducing and dispersing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40977477",
"title": "Cross-species transmission",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Many pathogens are thought to have host specialization, which explains the maintenance of distinct strains in host species. Pathogens would have to overcome their host specificity to cross to a new host species. Some studies have argued that host specializations may be exaggerated, and pathogens are more likely to exhibit CST than previously thought. Original hosts usually have low death rates when infected with a pathogen, with fatality rates tending to be much higher in new hosts\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "729317",
"title": "Transmission (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with virulence and survival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Pathogens must have a way to be transmitted from one host to another to ensure their species' survival. Infectious agents are generally specialized for a particular method of transmission. Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary perspective viruses or bacteria that cause their host to develop coughing and sneezing symptoms have a great survival advantage, as they are much more likely to be ejected from one host and carried to another. This is also the reason that many microorganisms cause diarrhea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5854506",
"title": "Aspergillosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The most frequently identified pathogens are \"Aspergillus fumigatus\" and \"Aspergillus flavus\", ubiquitous organisms capable of living under extensive environmental stress. Most humans are thought to inhale thousands of \"Aspergillus\" spores daily, but they do not affect most people’s health due to effective immune responses. Taken together, the major chronic, invasive, and allergic forms of aspergillosis account for around 600,000 deaths annually worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35038133",
"title": "Pathogen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "There are several pathways through which pathogens can invade a host. The principal pathways have different episodic time frames, but soil has the longest or most persistent potential for harboring a pathogen. Diseases in humans that are caused by infectious agents are known as pathogenic diseases, though not all diseases are caused by pathogens. Some diseases, such as Huntington's disease, are caused by inheritance of abnormal genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lzhre
|
why does a person's body stop the force of a grenade when the force is strong enough to break through walls?
|
[
{
"answer": "The person who is laying on the gernade catches all the srapnel (metal bits that used to be gernade). Without srapnel flying around the gernade has a highly reduced effective area. \n\nTo your point about walls; depending on the structure a wall is sometimes softer than a human. If you're talking concrete then not much of a gernade will even be noticed on the other side, but dry wall can be punched through bare handed if you have the will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hand grenades aren't anywhere NEAR as powerful as shown in the movies, and they are specifically not an explosive-damage weapon, they are a shrapnel weapon.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45051288",
"title": "Mecar M72",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The grenade has a lethal radius of , an injury radius of , but beyond radius the risk of injury is minimal. An untrained soldier could normally throw the grenade , making it safe to use as on offensive grenade, as well as a defensive grenade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20353360",
"title": "Grenade",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Throwing a grenade upstairs is dangerous, due to the risk of it falling back down; it is much safer to throw a grenade downstairs, so it is safer to capture a building from the top, rather than the bottom. Grenades generally explode near the floor, causing spalling downwards towards lower floors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20353360",
"title": "Grenade",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "A key concern is that the grenade is picked up and thrown away or back at the thrower. The USMC's preferred technique to prevent this is a hard-throw, skip/bounce technique, where the grenade is thrown hard enough that it bounces or skips around, being hard to pick up and throw back – this is applicable when clearing a room, for instance. In other uses, such as to reach upper floors of a building, a grenade may be lobbed for greater distance or accuracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6138641",
"title": "Blast wave",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Blast waves will wrap around objects and buildings. Therefore, persons or objects behind a large building are not necessarily protected from a blast that starts on the opposite side of the building. Scientists use sophisticated mathematical models to predict how objects will respond to a blast in order to design effective barriers and safer buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52400742",
"title": "Shadow Tactics: Blades of the Shogun",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "BULLET::::- Objects: Some objects such as vases, icicles, heavy cargo, wooden block, rocks, etc. can be knocked down from above to either create a distracting noise or kill enemies beneath (or both). If enemies are killed by objects, other enemies won't raise an alarm, thinking it's an accident. Other opportunities to create \"accidents\" may also present themselves; Hayato, for example, may provoke an ox to kick and kill an enemy standing behind it by throwing a rock at it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304883",
"title": "Grenade launcher",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rifle grenades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The disadvantage of this method is that when a soldier wants to launch a grenade, they must mount the grenade to the muzzle prior to each shot. If they are surprised by a close-range threat while preparing to fire the grenade, they have to reverse the procedure before they can respond with rifle fire. Due to the lack of a barrel, rifle grenades also tend to be more difficult to fire accurately compared to underbarrel or standalone designs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2194640",
"title": "Falling on a grenade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Falling on a grenade is the deliberate act of using one's body to cover a live time-fused hand grenade, absorbing the explosion and fragmentation in an effort to save the lives of others nearby. Since this is almost universally fatal, it is considered an especially conspicuous and selfless act of individual sacrifice in wartime; in United States military history, more citations for the Medal of Honor have been awarded for falling on grenades to save comrades than any other single act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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