id
stringlengths 5
6
| input
stringlengths 3
301
| output
list | meta
null |
|---|---|---|---|
1aw5h2
|
What's stopping a black hole from growing exponentially massive and destroying entire systems?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might be interested in reading about [Sagittarius A*](_URL_0_), which is likely a colossal black hole at the center of our galaxy. It's thought to be about 12 light hours across, or about the size of the orbit of Neptune, and have a mass of about 5 million stars. \n\nIn fact, it's now commonly believe that every spiral galaxy has a super-massive black hole at it's core. The only thing really keeping them from destroying everything is... time. It take a long time to destroy a galaxy, much less the universe, as evidence by our survival for the last 13.2 billion years or so. \n\nIn reality, the orbits of star systems around the galactic center are very stable, and it will take enormous amounts of time for them to decay to the point of being consumed by a black hole. Just like our planets have orbited relatively stably for billions of years, so does the sun. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might consider the fact that although the Sun is vastly more massive than anything else in the solar system, the planets don't fall into the Sun. Basically, the centrifugal force a planet's orbit around the Sun prevents it from falling inward.\n\nNow, a planet could fall into the Sun if it hit another planet head-on and they both lost all their orbital momentum, so that there wasn't any centrifugal force keeping them from falling in. This sort of thing can and does happen near black holes, so they can grow. But it's not a simple process of \"the black hole has a big gravitational field which sucks in everything nearby.\" You can orbit a black hole and be perfectly safe until you lose your orbital momentum to a collision.\n\nFurthermore, suppose the entire interior of the galaxy collapsed into a black hole. It wouldn't really affect us much. We already feel the gravity of the entire interior of the galaxy, and its gravitational pull won't increase just because it's concentrated into one black hole. The solar system would continue on its orbit around the galactic center more or less unaffected--unless, perhaps we had an encounter with another start system that robbed us of our orbital momentum around the galactic center. Then we would plunge in.\n\nThe point is, black holes don't grow as quickly as you might think.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gravity doesn't suck things in. Most objects are moving at a great speed and thus they orbit other things. A black hole has no special power to suck things in, it's just a lot bigger than many stellar objects. They don't get big enough to destroy galaxies.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe event horizon of a black hole with a mass of ten times our galaxy would have a radius of 0.5% of a light year. That's not even close to galaxy destroying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18478320",
"title": "Future of an expanding universe",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Black Hole Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The largest black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow. Larger black holes of up to (100 trillion) may form during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to years. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173724",
"title": "Hawking radiation",
"section": "Section::::Black hole evaporation.:1976 Page numerical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "If black holes evaporate under Hawking radiation, a solar mass black hole will evaporate over 10 years. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2×10 years. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10 years\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18478320",
"title": "Future of an expanding universe",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:Black Hole Era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "After years, black holes will dominate the universe. They will slowly evaporate via Hawking radiation.A black hole with a mass of around will vanish in around 2 years. As the lifetime of a black hole is proportional to the cube of its mass, more massive black holes take longer to decay. A supermassive black hole with a mass of (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Evaporation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "If black holes evaporate via Hawking radiation, a solar mass black hole will evaporate (beginning once the temperature of the cosmic microwave background drops below that of the black hole) over a period of 10 years. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2×10 years. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5595777",
"title": "Luminous infrared galaxy",
"section": "Section::::ELIRG.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "There are three reasons the black holes in the ELIRGs could be massive. First, the embryonic black holes might be bigger than thought possible. Second, the Eddington limit was exceeded. When a black hole feeds, gas falls in and heats, emitting light. The pressure of the emitted light forces the gas outward, creating a limit to how fast the black hole can continuously absorb matter. If a black hole broke this limit, it could theoretically increase in size at a fast rate. Black holes have previously been observed breaking this limit; the black hole in the study would have had to repeatedly break the limit to grow this large. Third, the black holes might just be bending this limit, absorbing gas faster than thought possible, if the black hole is not spinning fast. If a black hole spins slowly, it will not repel its gas absorption as much. A slow-spinning black hole can absorb more matter than a fast-spinning black hole. The massive black holes in ELIRGs could be absorbing matter for a longer time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "709427",
"title": "Micro black hole",
"section": "Section::::Primordial black holes.:Formation in the early Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Production of a black hole requires concentration of mass or energy within the corresponding Schwarzschild radius. It is hypothesized by Zel'dovich and Novikov first and independently by Hawking that, shortly after the Big Bang, the Universe was dense enough for any given region of space to fit within its own Schwarzschild radius. Even so, at that time, the Universe was not able to collapse into a singularity due to its uniform mass distribution and rapid growth. This, however, does not fully exclude the possibility that black holes of various sizes may have emerged locally. A black hole formed in this way is called a primordial black hole and is the most widely accepted hypothesis for the possible creation of micro black holes. Computer simulations suggest that the probability of formation of a primordial black hole is inversely proportional to its mass. Thus, the most likely outcome would be micro black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215706",
"title": "Supermassive black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "There is, however, an upper limit to how large supermassive black holes can grow. So-called ultramassive black holes (UMBHs), which are at least ten times the size of most supermassive black holes, at 10 billion solar masses or more, appear to have a theoretical upper limit of around 50 billion solar masses, as anything above this slows growth down to a crawl (the slowdown tends to start around 10 billion solar masses) and causes the unstable accretion disk surrounding the black hole to coalesce into stars that orbit it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
y7395
|
When they say that CERN achieved a heat record of ~5 trillion degrees, what does that actually mean/do?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is a really, really small space with very, very few particles in it. So the real world effect is incredibly, undetectably small. The temperature is measured by looking at the energy of released particles, or by the spectrum of emitted thermal photons. That's why the article says they have to convert the energy measurement to a temperature.\n\nInteresting follow up I don't know the answer to - can you then assign a temperature to the p-p collisions at the LHC? I would think those have an even higher average energy, and thus higher temperature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Physicists often use \"temperature\" as a way of describing the average kinetic energy of a group of particles. The total energy involved is small, but the energy per particle is large, thus the temperature is large. \n\n See [Wikipedia on the temperature of gasses](_URL_0_) for a somewhat relevant discussion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And, how the heck do they measure that? Wouldn't a thermometer melt?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\nIt's all a trick of chart conversions. Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of a particle(s). We have a system for converting wave and mass particle energies into temperature. \n\nThey are inducing stupidly high amounts of momentum into particles so when they collide they produce detectable energies that give silly temperature numbers when converted. \n\nNo physicist should use temperature as a measure of a system outside of basic chemical reactions. They do it because it makes sensational titles. To put this is perspective, that 5 trillion degree detection could go off next to your head and you wouldn't even know it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think about a spark given off from a circular saw on steel, try to estimate its temperature. Now estimate the temperature of boiling water in a kettle. Which is higher? Now, which would you rather have be dropped on you? Why?\n\nThere's an important difference between 'thermal energy' and 'temperature.' Heat is the transfer of thermal energy.\n\nThermal energy is the energy stored in a system, whereas temperature is the average energy of a single particle in the system.\n\nThere's a property called Specific Heat Capacity (usually denoted C). Essentially, the higher the C value is, the more heat energy has to be pumped into a substance in order to raise its temperature. Water has a very high specific heat capacity, which is why it takes a long time to boil water (and a lot of electricity), and also why it is used in industrial cooling - because it takes a lot of energy out of a system without getting hot too easily, acting as a buffer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain to me how CERN can make particles that hot without melting the machine itself?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dumb question... but how do they determine the temperature? Because to a simple guy like me a trillion degrees is really hot",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is the practical application of being able to do this? And is there a way to convert this to energy? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19595664",
"title": "Time in physics",
"section": "Section::::Time in cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Gamow's prediction was a 5–10-kelvin black-body radiation temperature for the universe, after it cooled during the expansion. This was corroborated by Penzias and Wilson in 1965. Subsequent experiments arrived at a 2.7 kelvins temperature, corresponding to an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849375",
"title": "Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider",
"section": "Section::::Current results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The RHIC physicists announced new temperature measurements for these experiments of up to 4 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature ever achieved in a laboratory. It is described as a recreation of the conditions that existed during the birth of the Universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1171044",
"title": "High-energy nuclear physics",
"section": "Section::::CERN operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "In August 2012 ALICE scientists announced that their experiments produced quark–gluon plasma with temperature at around 5.5 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature achieved in any physical experiments thus far. This temperature is about 38% higher than the previous record of about 4 trillion kelvins, achieved in the 2010 experiments at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. The ALICE results were announced at the August 13 \"Quark Matter 2012\" conference in Washington, D.C.. The quark–gluon plasma produced by these experiments approximates the conditions in the universe that existed microseconds after the Big Bang, before the matter coalesced into atoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34253810",
"title": "2012 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:June.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 338,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 338,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "BULLET::::- Physicists collide gold ions together to produce a quark–gluon plasma, similar to that which existed in the first instant after the Big Bang. In doing so, they momentarily produce what Guinness World Records reports is the highest man-made temperature ever: 4 trillion degrees Celsius (7.2 trillion degrees Fahrenheit). (\"Los Angeles Times\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2575969",
"title": "ALICE experiment",
"section": "Section::::Results.:Measuring the highest temperature on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In August 2012 ALICE scientists announced that their experiments produced quark–gluon plasma with temperature at around 5.5 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature mass achieved in any physical experiments thus far. This temperature is about 38% higher than the previous record of about 4 trillion kelvins, achieved in the 2010 experiments at the Brookhaven National Laboratory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3684088",
"title": "Color superconductivity",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Analogy with superconducting metals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "BULLET::::3. the critical temperature is expected to be given by the QCD scale, which is of order 100 MeV, or 10 kelvin, the temperature of the universe a few minutes after the Big Bang, so quark matter that we may currently observe in compact stars or other natural settings will be below this temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8020639",
"title": "Global Historical Climatology Network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures, and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions, that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) temperature set. The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~1650 records greater than 100 years and ~220 greater than 150 years (based on GHCN v2 in 2006). The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tmerk
|
Can you give any information about this flag?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! Do consider x-posting this to /r/vexillology (the flag sub!)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38980195",
"title": "Flag of Stellaland",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Green flag displaying a white star.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Some reference books give alternate versions of this flag, e.g. green with a white 6- or 8-pointed star, or green with a yellow star. None of the writers, however, cite any sources for their information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3659618",
"title": "Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem (Mexico)",
"section": "Section::::Chapter Four.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "This chapter, which describes about the national flag in detail, is the longest of the three chapters on each symbol. Consisting of thirty articles, this chapter lists dates on when the Mexican flag is flown and how it is flown, about the various honors that is presented to the flag and the various flag devices that can be used, such as the corbata.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417899",
"title": "Flag of Bhutan",
"section": "Section::::Historic evolution.:First national flag (1949).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "However, the CBS document does not illustrate the early versions of the flag and its description of the 1949 flag is not entirely consistent with the photos surviving from 1949. It describes the flag as \"square\", while the proportions of the flag in the photographs appear closer to 4:5. The document describes the dragon as \"facing the fly end\", while the dragon visible in the photos faces the hoist. The dragon is described as \"parallel to the fly\" (meaning, according to a diagram in the document, parallel to the length along the bottom edge of the flag), while the dragon in the photos appears to have a slightly rising vertical slant. The dragon is described as \"green\", but the shade in the photos, if indeed green, must be very pale. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18955303",
"title": "Flag of Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Design and symbolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The article dictates what must be featured on the flag and also its proportions. Copies of the national flag which are made according to this law are kept in two locations: the General National Archive (\"Archivo General de la Nación\") and the National Museum of History (\"Museo Nacional de Historia\"). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459284",
"title": "Flag of the Northern Mariana Islands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The flag consists of three symbols: a star representing the United States, a latte stone representing the Chamorros, and a \"mwarmwar\" (decorative wreath) representing the Carolinians; the blue background represents the ocean and the Mariana Trench.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417308",
"title": "Flag of Tunisia",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Article 4 of the 1959 constitution specifies the presence of a technical dossier containing a model of the flag, a guide to drawing it, which includes the proper measurements, and technical specifications of its colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417848",
"title": "Flag of Bangladesh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The flag is based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, which had a yellow map of the country inside the red disc. In 1972 this map was removed from the flag. One reason given was the difficulty for rendering the map correctly on both sides of the flag. The civil ensign and naval ensign place it in the canton of a red or white field, respectively. The Green part of the flag is irrelevant to Islam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35f0qm
|
why do we grow out of things.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because your tastes change as you get older and you learn more about the world and develop your social life. As you're exposed to more, better media, you start to realize how underdeveloped, uninteresting, and pandering a lot of children's media is. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "142910",
"title": "Creativity",
"section": "Section::::Creativity and personality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "From an evolutionary perspective, creativity may be a result of the outcome of years of generating ideas. As ideas are continuously generated, the need to evolve produces a need for new ideas and developments. As a result, people have been creating and developing new, innovative, and creative ideas to build our progress as a society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6912739",
"title": "Dustin Dollin",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Growing up is growing up. It doesn’t really matter where you are because you don’t really know any better when you’re a kid. I knew I was poor, but that again just teaches you how to swindle money. Also, where I grew up is one of the most beautiful places in the world. And I would know; I’ve been everywhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048130",
"title": "Autumn Visits",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.:Growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The forth of Growth represents progress and development, potential limited only by motivation. Unfortunately, Growth lacks direction, and has potential for both good and evil. Growth is, appropriately, represented by a teenager—a somewhat dour and cynical boy, who is implied to have lost his faith in the world. This Envoy and his Original begin to grow apart as the novel progresses, diverging, and even spending a lot of time away from each other, unlike most other Envoy/Original pairs. Unlike the other Envoys, Growth does not remember his past incarnations, as experience would defeat the purpose of growing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41067254",
"title": "Achievement orientation",
"section": "Section::::Mindsets.:Growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Growth mindsets are characterized by the belief that talents and abilities are things that are developed through effort, practice and instruction. Individuals with growth mindsets feel that they control their success, rather than external forces, so they are better able to problem solve and persist through setbacks. Research has shown that growth mindsets foster a more positive attitude toward practice and learning, a desire for feedback, a greater ability to deal with setbacks, and significantly better performance over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1737",
"title": "Anaxagoras",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Decease and growth represent a new aggregation () and disruption (). However, the original intermixture of things is never wholly overcome. Each thing contains in itself parts of other things or heterogeneous elements, and is what it is, only on account of the preponderance of certain homogeneous parts which constitute its character. Out of this process arise the things we see in this world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17070211",
"title": "Human development (economics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1182,
"text": "Development concerns expanding the choices people have, to lead lives that they value, and improving the human condition so that people have the chance to lead full lives. Thus, human development is about much more than economic growth, which is only a means of enlarging people's choices. Fundamental to enlarging these choices is building human capabilities—the range of things that people can do or be in life. Capabilities are \"the substantive freedoms [a person] enjoys to lead the kind of life [they have] reason to value\". Human development disperses the concentration of the distribution of goods and services underprivileged people need and center its ideas on human decisions. By investing in people, we enable growth and empower people to pursue many different life paths, thus developing human capabilities. The most basic capabilities for human development are to lead long and healthy lives, be knowledgeable (i.e., educated), have access to resources and social services needed for a decent standard of living, and be able to participate in the life of the community. Without these, many choices are not available, and many opportunities in life remain inaccessible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38106744",
"title": "SEED-SCALE",
"section": "Section::::Core argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Deep fundamental change happens because of what people do (not what they are given, not what is done to them). When people learn to make use of what they have, where they are, today—then people are moving forward to a future that they can shape according to their priorities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
59pxe6
|
What property decides if a material can be a superconductor?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is a really hard question to answer, mainly because there's several classes of superconductors and only for one of those we really understand all the details.\n**Conventional** superconductors can be explained by [BCS Theory](_URL_0_). The gist of this theory is that 2 electrons interact with each other via deformations/vibrations of the atomic lattice in the material. In this case they are no longer 2 independent electrons but can instead be thought of as a \"Cooper pair\". This cooper pair now has very different behavior compared to simple electrons (the details of why this is the case needs too much background information to just explain in this short answer) and can travel through the material without any resistance.\n\nWith that explanation of superconductivity it's perhaps easy to see that, to become superconducting, materials need a strong interaction between the electrons and the atomic lattice vibrations. The stronger the electrons interact with the lattice, the easier they can \"use\" those interactions to \"talk to each other\".\n\nThis also explains why you need low temperatures for superconductivity. The temperature of the material is nothing other than the lattice vibrations, so if you have too high a temperature, the lattice deformations of the electrons just get drowned out in all the thermal lattice vibrations happening.\n\n\n\nThis is only true for the conventional superconductors though. There are high temperature superconductors like YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide) and other cuprates where the mechanism of superconductivity is still mostly unclear. There are 2 main theories about this unconventional superconductivity, one supposes that you can explain it by a coupling between layers of conventional superconductors that boosts the transition temperature to higher values and the other theory explains these materials by antiferromagnetic spin fluctuations. Explaining the latter one is really beyond the scope of this answer and since I don't do research on high-temperature superconductors I'm not really the right person to answer that anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26884",
"title": "Superconductivity",
"section": "Section::::Elementary properties of superconductors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "On the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have \"exactly\" zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the applied field does not exceed a critical value. The existence of these \"universal\" properties implies that superconductivity is a thermodynamic phase, and thus possesses certain distinguishing properties which are largely independent of microscopic details.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26884",
"title": "Superconductivity",
"section": "Section::::Elementary properties of superconductors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Most of the physical properties of superconductors vary from material to material, such as the heat capacity and the critical temperature, critical field, and critical current density at which superconductivity is destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26884",
"title": "Superconductivity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Superconductivity is the set of physical properties observed in certain materials, wherein electrical resistance no longer exists and from which magnetic flux fields are expelled. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20373503",
"title": "Yttrium",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Superconductors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The actual superconducting material is often written as YBaCuO, where \"d\" must be less than 0.7 for superconductivity. The reason for this is still not clear, but it is known that the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal, the copper oxide planes, and chains, giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms, which somehow leads to the superconducting behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27801351",
"title": "Superconducting steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Superconducting steel is a concept in materials science, referring to the idea of a steel alloy that would behave as a superconductor. The term has appeared primarily in discussions of designs of imagined devices involving nuclear fusion or processes with still higher densities of power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12146531",
"title": "Proximity effect (superconductivity)",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Electrons in the superconducting state of a superconductor are ordered in a very different way than in a normal metal, i.e. they are paired into Cooper pairs. Furthermore, electrons in a material cannot be said to have a definitive position because of the momentum-position complementarity. In solid state physics one generally chooses a momentum space basis, and all electron states are filled with electrons until the Fermi surface in a metal, or until the gap edge energy in the superconductor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "101336",
"title": "High-temperature superconductivity",
"section": "Section::::Ongoing research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The question of how superconductivity arises in high-temperature superconductors is one of the major unsolved problems of theoretical condensed matter physics. The mechanism that causes the electrons in these crystals to form pairs is not known. Despite intensive research and many promising leads, an explanation has so far eluded scientists. One reason for this is that the materials in question are generally very complex, multi-layered crystals (for example, BSCCO), making theoretical modelling difficult. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1njwn9
|
my company has a wifi network for their employees to connect their "personal devices" to. can they see everything i do?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you log in by joining the network, then every time you try to go to a webpage it redirects you to a login form? Because if that's the case the certificate warning is probably just that the browser thinks your connection has been hijacked because it knows that Google (Assuming that's your home page) doesn't use the certificate that the login page does.\n\nTo be fair to your browser your connection **was** hijacked, but it's not malicious, just annoying and stupid for failing to use a proper login system. You can ignore it then.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Connections that are end-to-end encrypted should be secure, assuming that your company isn't doing some sort of man-in-the-middle attack on your traffic.\n\n\"Man in the middle\" would be that you try to get a secure connection to Site A, and a machine on the company network replies saying that it is Site A, and then you send all your encrypted data to that machine. Then it forwards the messages on to the actual Site A, but only after decrypting it and saving a copy somewhere.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "300602",
"title": "Internet access",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Wireless broadband access.:Wireless ISP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) operate independently of mobile phone operators. WISPs typically employ low-cost IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link up remote locations over great distances (Long-range Wi-Fi), but may use other higher-power radio communications systems as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6023289",
"title": "Wilmagate",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Steps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- The user's mobile terminal (laptop or PDA) physically connects to a network, either by plugging in a cable (Ethernet or Firewire) or by associating with a wireless access point via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6017407",
"title": "Motorola Homesight",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "As per Motorola's marketing material, the system uses a broadband Internet connection in order for the customer to stay connected to their home and its other residents through the kit owner's computer or compatible mobile phone. Sensor-detected activities\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "955781",
"title": "UTStarcom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The Company's products are designed to work with existing telecommunications infrastructure to provide low-cost voice and data services for access to both wireless (Wi-Fi) and fixed line) products, optimized for mobile backhaul, metro aggregation, broadband access and Wi-Fi data. As of 2015, the company focuses on two core areas: broadband and next-generation networks (NGN).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "471844",
"title": "WiMAX",
"section": "Section::::Technical information.:Spectral efficiency and advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Companies will begin to use WiMAX to communicate from office to office, relatively near to each other and provide campus wide wireless connectivity to employees. Employee's computers will need to use new WiMAX cards to connect to these new networks. Next, or at the same time, public places such as airports, parks and coffee shops will be outfitted with WiMAX access points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13458509",
"title": "Internet linguistics",
"section": "Section::::Main perspectives.:Sociolinguistic perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "At a professional level, it is a common sight for companies to have their computers and laptops hooked up onto the Internet (via wired and wireless Internet connection), and for employees to have individual e-mail accounts. This greatly facilitates internal (among staffs of the company) and external (with other parties outside of one’s organization) communication. Mobile communications such as smart phones are increasingly making their way into the corporate world. For instance, in 2008, Apple announced their intention to actively step up their efforts to help companies incorporate the iPhone into their enterprise environment, facilitated by technological developments in streamlining integrated features (push e-mail, calendar and contact management) using ActiveSync.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5204315",
"title": "WISPr",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "WISPr (pronounced \"whisper\") or Wireless Internet Service Provider roaming is a draft protocol submitted to the Wi-Fi Alliance that allows users to roam between wireless internet service providers in a fashion similar to that which allows cellphone users to roam between carriers. A RADIUS server is used to authenticate the subscriber's credentials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sj1pj
|
why aren't women allowed in the royal armoured corps?
|
[
{
"answer": "They *can* join the Household Cavalry, Armoured Corps and Infantry regiments, they are just not allowed an active combat role.\n\nI don't want to get into a debate about the reasons (can't be bothered to do this again) but remember that when people start to compare the physical fitness don't make the mistake of thinking Ronda Rousey vs Maurice Moss (without the gun) but think Ronda Rousey Vs Mike Tyson in his prime. I.E. people will start to compare well known physically fit women against the average guy on the street, not to well known physically fit men. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18044404",
"title": "Gender inequality in India",
"section": "Section::::Occupational inequalities.:Military service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Women are not allowed to have combat roles in the armed forces. According to a study carried out on this issue, a recommendation was made that female officers be excluded from induction in close combat arms. The study also held that a permanent commission could not be granted to female officers since they have neither been trained for command nor have they been given the responsibility so far. Although changes are appearing and women are playing important roles in army and the defence minister is also female.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6922352",
"title": "Special forces of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Functions and units.:Women in the Special forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "On 27 September 2011, the Defence Minister Stephen Smith announced that women will be allowed to serve in frontline combat roles by 2016, including special forces. Women in the Australian military have been known to pass the physical selection tests for the army's elite Commando Regiment for many years, such as notable Lieutenant Colonel Fleur Froggatt two decades before this announcement , but were barred from joining due to their gender. In January 2012, Senior Defence sources said that while several women had recently passed physical entry tests for special forces, they had prevented further advancement due to 'injury concerns'. In refusing to provide the numbers of women who had passed entry tests for the SAS or commandos, or when they passed, Defence cited security concerns. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21543315",
"title": "Women in the Australian military",
"section": "Section::::Integration.:Combat-related roles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "As a result of personnel shortages in the late 1980s the restriction against women in combat-related positions was dropped in 1990, and women were for the first time allowed to serve in warships, RAAF combat squadrons and many positions in the Army. Women were banned from positions involving physical combat, however, and were unable to serve in infantry, armoured, artillery and engineering units in the Army and clearance diving and ground defence positions in the RAN and RAAF respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26491558",
"title": "Women in the military by country",
"section": "Section::::Asia and Oceania.:New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "There are no restrictions on roles for women in the New Zealand Defence Force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service infantry, armour and artillery. (So far no woman has yet made it into the Special Air Service.) This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation, with a report in 2005 finding that the move helped drive a societal shift that \"values women as well as men\" but that integration of women into combat roles \"needed a deliberate and concerted effort\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26916262",
"title": "Women in the military in Europe",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Women may now join the British Armed forces in all roles except those whose \"primary duty is to close with and kill the enemy\": Infantry, Household Cavalry, Royal Armoured Corps, Royal Marines Commandos, RAF Regiment, Special Air Service and Special Boat Service. In addition medical reasons used to preclude service in the Royal Navy Submarine Service or as Mine Clearance Divers, but in May 2014 it was announced that three women had become the RN's first female submariners. They are however, permitted access to special force's support units, such as commando engineers and are cleared to join the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, a largely unknown branch of the United Kingdom Special Forces that does not bar women from joining.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7239865",
"title": "Women in combat",
"section": "Section::::Specific countries.:New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "New Zealand has no restrictions on roles for women in its defence force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27200925",
"title": "Women in the military in the Americas",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Today, women can serve on American combat ships, including in command roles, and on submarines. They are not permitted to participate in special forces programs such as Navy SEALs. Women enlisted soldiers are barred from serving in Infantry, Special Forces, however female enlisted members and officers can hold staff positions in every branch of the Army except infantry and armor. Women can however serve on the staffs of infantry and armor units at Division level and above, and be members of Special Operations Forces. Women can fly military aircraft and make up 2% of all pilots in the U.S. military. Although Army regulations ban women from infantry assignments, some females are detailed to accompany male infantry units to handle searches of Iraqi women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6rl0i7
|
what gives soap operas that “low quality” feeling to them? is it the lighting? the dialogue? it’s very distinct, but hard to pin down.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the frame rate. Most soap operas are shot at 30 frames per second (technically 29.976 but that's irrelevant). Film is shot at 24fps. We have been trained by experience to see higher frame rate video as being lower quality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's called [Motion Interpolation](_URL_0_) or the \"Soap Opera Effect\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a combination of all of the above, but I'd say that lighting is the most important.\n\nNormally, when a movie or higher-quality television show is filmed, each shot is individually lit. For example, for a dialog between two people, they would set up one camera pointing at one person and light the scene for that camera's benefit. Then, they'd switch it all around to point at the other person and shoot the scene again. Then they edit the two takes together to get one where the point of view changes.\n\nWith a soap opera or something else that has to be filmed quickly and/or on a budget, they set up two cameras and do the whole scene in one take. This means that the lighting has to be set up in a more bland way to accommodate two cameras at once.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've tried to figure it out too, and the best I can come up with is this:\n\n1) Everything is filmed on a soundstage. There are no outside shots, no city streets, not even any greenscreening. It's all very clearly done on a series of indoor sets. Fake cars, fake trees, no indications of what buildings look like from the outside. This above anything else makes a soap opera feel like some kind of community theatre play.\n\n2) No sound effects. Outside the occasional gunshot or screeching tires, the only sounds are the sappy music and the dialogue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The cinematography is also very rigid compared to movies IMO. Camera movement is minimal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is the lack of time to set up every scene. They are very rushed to get content out. Everything gets slammed together, from writing, to lighting, to number of takes, etc. A lot of crap makes it the screen that might be reshot or killed in editing because of the time pressure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the effect is due to the higher frame rate of 30 or sometime 48 or even 60 fps. As modern humans our brains have been trained to recognize the 24fps (ok fine 23.976 and don't even get me started on NTSC and PAL...) as \"cinematic\" and 30fps as \"live\". \n\n To use an example: Saturday night live vs. the SNl digital shorts. SNL proper has the \"live\" look and the shorts have the \"cinema\" quality to them.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apart from lighting/frame rate, if you watch closely, on almost every camera switch in a soap opera they slowly zoom in until the next camera switch.\n\nOnce you notice it the effect is maddening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What ive noticed is that american soap operas have that \"low quality\" feeling but mexican soap operas (Novelas) are just so well made for the same story every year ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can actually reproduce the FPS changing how a movie feels on a computer very easily.\n\nThere's a smooth video project out there that will add frames via interpolation. For action movies it sort of sucks. A lot of weird artifacts, but go watch something like game of thrones at 59.97 fps and 23.xx fps. You know it's game of thrones. But... different ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Omiglob - I have been thinking the SAME THING since childhood!!! Thank-you for asking this question!!!!! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This doesn't answer your question, but there is a setting on newer tv's that make everything look like a soap opera. I noticed when I was at my cousins house and watching The Godfather, and I'm like why does it look like a goddamn soap opera and who would want that? So, umm, what is that setting and how does it work?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here are a couple that I always notice:\n\n1. ) Audio quality. It makes a big difference to have someone's vocal audio sequestered from any foley that occurs in a scene, such as door closes, foot steps, clothing. Everything is normalized together, in the same input mic, so you hear EVERYTHING on the sound stage, including the echoes of every sound in the scene. It may appear that they're walking around in a tuscan villa, but it SOUNDS like they're walking on particle board with no insulation.\n\n2. ) Framerate. Not sure why they do this, but they run at 30 or 60 fps, yet snap to 24 FPS when they step outside. This inconsistency is jarring. A higher framerate doesn't make it bad, but it sets it apart from traditional cinematic features that run at 24 FPS.\n\n3. ) Everything is formulaic. Everything. You watch a soap opera from today, and put it next to a soap opera from 30 years ago, and you won't find much difference. Probably just the hair and fashion. LOL! The camera angles, the lighting, the music, and the plot lines are all the same. Scene opens. Music intro. Enter Actor A and Actor B. Actor A's body language clearly shows that they like/dislike Actor B. Camera films Actor A talking to Actor B. Camera films Actor B's reaction, and holds for a music stab on dramatic scene conclusion. It's amazing what simple things like establishing shots, higher/lower/closer/skewed/contextual camera shots do to a scene to make it more visually interesting, and how it changes the context of the dialog.\n\n4. ) There is no real story, no overarching character plot or development. You're essentially watching dramatic improv revolving around the personal lives of a collective group of individuals in a single location. The show is about how Actor A wrongs Actor B, and how it gets resolved by Actor B retaliating against Actor A, which somehow affects a third party, Actor C. Now, Actor B has done the wronging, Actor C retaliates, and Actor A is somehow wronged. Rinse and repeat. Add as many actors as you like to keep it varied, and maybe broaden the audience's demographic by letting more people connect with more actors with different identitarian traits (gender, race, culture, creed, age, etc...). It's gossip personified, which some people are absolutely fine with wasting their time on, but most of us aren't. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Higher frame rate lets you see more details in every second of footage. So you will notice things that are fake easier, like when the hobbit was shot at 48 fps, people complained it looked worse because it was a lot easier to tell it was people in costumes rather than actual dwarfs.\n\n\n\nSame goes for resolution, more pixels, easier to see details like tape holding the backdrop in place, or glue holding someone's wig on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It always amazed me how long a conversation takes in soap operas. \n\"Did you know Joe is missing?\" \n10 seconds passes\n\"I don't know Joe.\"\n15 seconds of staring at each other. \n\"Is he dead?!?!\" \n25 seconds of staring \nDun dun duuuuuuuuuuuuh! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Budget and time. The biggest reason is probably that they are shot on video instead of film. This is cheaper and allows them to get the project turned around much faster than film. Also, the lighting is much different, due in part to being video, and partly to backlighting being a more exopesinve option.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the image, and there are several parts to it; like some people have mentioned, the lighting tends to be very functional; the cameras are also often cheaper, (though even cheap cameras are excellent these days). As far as I know though, frame-rate has very little to do with it - though high frame-rates can give stuff a \"hyper-realistic\" look, that's not what's going on with soaps. I have no idea why people keep saying it's frame-rates, I mean there's a standard of 25 for PAL or 30 in the US, corresponding to 50Hz and 60Hz, and while you can get some cool effects these days by shooting at multiples of these, it's not like soaps looking cheap is a new phenomenon. \n\n*EDIT: Looking at some of the other answers, there may be something to this theory when it comes to modern soaps, on modern TVs - \"the Hobbit effect\". However, like I said, it's not a new phenomenon, so it's still just a piece of the puzzle.*\n\nMore than anything, there's a lack of serious color correction in post; like I said, most cameras today are actually very good, but just look at your own camera phone - a normal still shot can look terrible, and sometimes kind of \"flat\", but add a cool filter, and suddenly it looks almost professional. Same with \"home videos\" - even with a great camera, they often have this... soap-y look - but give me enough time with some good digital tools, and I (actually, my editor) will make your vacation video look like it was shot by Hoyte van Hoytema. For movies and TV, color correctors will spend ages making sure every single frame has *juuuuusst* the right look, and correcting any lighting/color errors (and this is where an expensive camera shines, often having more information in each frame, allowing for more correction) . For soap operas, not so much - you just go by the scene lighting, perhaps sometimes putting a general filter on a whole scene if something is actually offensively horrible.\n\n***However, all these are just symptoms of the real reason*** - soap operas are designed to be aired 4-5 nights a week, almost year-round. They are produced incredibly cheaply, at an incredible rate; some are shot \"as-live\", with almost no retakes (typically 60 minutes shot for 30 minutes on-air), and edited overnight. It's not that the people working with them are incompetent (often quite the opposite), it's just... there's no time. So it's original lighting, barely any color-correction, little to no retakes, and speedspeedspeed.\n\nSource: am TV Producer.\n\ntl;dr All the \"reasons\" are just symptoms of the fact that soaps are produced at an incredible rate, for almost no money. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it is because the soap opera seems like a stage performance. The charm (for lack of better word) of soap operas is that they make you feel like you aren't watching a real life scene. It's more like you're sitting in on a theater performance. \n\nThis same feeling is the feeling I get with all the new shows on 4k televisions. They seem so real that the setting seems staged now. I'm watching House of Cards these days and I feel like I'm watching a stage performance, when before it felt like I was a fly on the wall in the Oval Office. When you can see every single prop (coffee mugs, folded newspapers etc) you realize that this was intentionally placed by someone and it bothers me now.\n\nBut back to soap operas. Soaps have little time to get settings right so they seem natural since they are recording every day almost. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's compile a small list. I'm a film student and a radio television major so there's actually a lot of answers but in my opinion the biggest one is the first.\n\n1. Frame rate: Try looking up the hobbit shot at 60fps. It looks like a sitcom! There's also TVs that \"smooth\" between frames which make shows like Lost look like.. a sitcom. We associate the film standard, 24fps, with drama, fiction, etc. We associate 30-60 with documentaries, sitcoms, even low budget stuff!\n\n2. Lighting: it's cheaper, faster, simpler, to just stick some lights that light up everything on the set. These set ups are usually shot on a soundstage, with rows of lights overhead making it even easier. There's nothing dramatic about flat lighting and nothing super exciting.\n\n3. Dialogue: This one might surprise you! Some soap operas are on such a tight schedule the actors might read their lines from strategically placed cards around the set. We were shown an example in one of my classes (can't remember it right now) but someone who had been shot was on the ground very obviously looking at something and then looking back at their eyeline to deliver the lines he just read.\n\n4. Laugh tracks: This ones easy. Would the characters be pausing if there wasn't a laugh track?\n\n5. The rest: it can then boil down to production quality, acting, editing (sometimes done on set, while filming with a switcher) music and whatever. The lower the budget and tighter the schedule can make for some cheesy moments!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It took me forever to realize why I got the same feeling from sit-coms. For me, it's the characters' interactions with each other. They seem forced... why are they always standing so close to each other in the kitchen? In better shows, one will always be sitting at the table or looking through the fridge (only to be disappointed there's nothing they want) like normal people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It’s because they need to shoot one or more episodes a day. They don’t have time to polish it. They use nearly all the footage they shoot and rarely have time for multiples takes, unless something goes terribly wrong. This is increasingly made difficult when they have to shoot scenes outside without the controls offered by a studio environment where weather and lighting is often unpredictable, meaning they will someone shoot a scene that will be aired in two days time and ten minutes later shoot a scene that will be aired 3 weeks away just to make tha most of favourable conditions. That footage then has to be catalogued and edited. It’s a very quick turnaround with soaps. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Last summer I spent a week binging on Passions and I realized that I couldn't finish because it's the same rinse and repeat method. The 24 hour wait as well as the weekends really make it seem a bit more suspenseful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of people here are talking about lighting and sound. As someone who worked in television I can tell you it's probably due to the fact they don't have time to put it through proper post processing. No lighting or color correcting, no Additional Dialog Recording or ADR.\n\nIf you watch some deleted scenes that were unfinished in movies you can get a real soap opera feel to them.\n\n[Here is a link to an example from an old reddit post](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only soaps I've ever watched are either English (Coronation Street) and a few Mexican ones (because they're better than the nonexistent Spanish ones), and I've never really noticed any of that tbh.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27009",
"title": "Soap opera",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Daytime serials on television.:Traditional grammar of daytime serials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "BULLET::::- The visual quality of a soap opera is usually lower than prime time U.S. television drama series due to the lower budgets and quicker production times. This is also because soap operas are recorded on videotape using a multi-camera setup, unlike primetime productions that are usually shot on film and frequently use the single camera shooting style. Because of the lower resolution of video images, and also because of the emotional situations portrayed in soap operas, daytime serials make heavy use of close-up shots. Programs in the United States did not make the full conversion to high definition broadcasting until September 2011, when \"The Bold and the Beautiful\" became the last soap to convert to the format; \"One Life to Live\" was an exception to this, as it continued to be produced and broadcast in standard definition – albeit in the aspect ratio – until the end of its run on ABC in January 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27009",
"title": "Soap opera",
"section": "Section::::Plots and storylines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1325,
"text": "The main characteristics that define soap operas are \"an emphasis on family life, personal relationships, sexual dramas, emotional and moral conflicts; some coverage of topical issues; set in familiar domestic interiors with only occasional excursions into new locations\". Fitting in with these characteristics, most soap operas follow the lives of a group of characters who live or work in a particular place, or focus on a large extended family. The storylines follow the day-to-day activities and personal relationships of these characters. \"Soap narratives, like those of film melodramas, are marked by what Steve Neale has described as 'chance happenings, coincidences, missed meetings, sudden conversions, last-minute rescues and revelations, deus ex machina endings.'\" These elements may be found across the gamut of soap operas, from \"EastEnders\" to \"Dallas\". Due to the prominence of English-language television, most soap-operas are completely English (or in the case of a foreign soap opera, dubbed into English). However, several South African soap operas started incorporating a multi-language format, the most prominent being \"7de Laan\", which incorporates Afrikaans, English, Zulu and several other Bantu languages which make up the 11 Official Languages of South Africa (the subtitles are always in English).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1629142",
"title": "Glenroe",
"section": "Section::::Setting and characters.:Origins of the soap opera.:Reality vs fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The article discussed briefly the original characteristics of the soap opera as opposed to film. \"Soap operas concentrate mainly on dialogue and characters’ responses to happenings rather than on action.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1629142",
"title": "Glenroe",
"section": "Section::::Setting and characters.:Origins of the soap opera.:Reality vs fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Jeffers wrote; \"\"Soap operas are characterised by realism. They often feature topical social problems... Biddy and Miley’s marriage has come under stress in Glenroe. They also mostly take place in real time, with Christmas, Easter etc being marked. However, many soaps have a few characters who are exaggerated figures of fun, sources of 'comic relief.\"'\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15522867",
"title": "Motion interpolation",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Soap opera effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. For this reason, almost all manufacturers have built in an option to turn the feature off or lower the effect strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27009",
"title": "Soap opera",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Although melodramatically eventful, soap operas such as this also have a luxury of space that makes them seem more naturalistic; indeed, the economics of the form demand long scenes, and conversations that a 22-episodes-per-season weekly series might dispense with in half a dozen lines of dialogue may be drawn out, as here, for pages. You spend more time even with the minor characters; the apparent villains grow less apparently villainous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "747349",
"title": "Supercouple",
"section": "Section::::Soap operas.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "According to American soap opera writer and romance novelist Leah Laiman, soap operas are best known and most remembered for romance. The romances in daytime dramas are significantly characterized by bringing couples together, splitting them up, and starting the cycle over again to ensure that viewers remain invested in the pairings, if popular. This is a strategy that often succeeds within the medium. A supercouple storyline is typically detailed by the couple's facing seemingly insurmountable challenges, such as a difference in social class, strong family interference, simple disagreements, marriages to other people, children with other people, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
219td1
|
Is there a drug linked to brain growth and development similar to how testosterone and FSH are linked to muscle growth and developent?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll edit this post to include some more hard science later, but check out /r/Nootropics \n\nNootropics are 'cognitive enhancing drugs', and may increase \"intelligence\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58685",
"title": "Hypothalamus",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Sex steroids are not the only important influences upon hypothalamic development; in particular, pre-pubertal stress in early life (of rats) determines the capacity of the adult hypothalamus to respond to an acute stressor. Unlike gonadal steroid receptors, glucocorticoid receptors are very widespread throughout the brain; in the paraventricular nucleus, they mediate negative feedback control of CRF synthesis and secretion, but elsewhere their role is not well understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55412975",
"title": "Rhonda Voskuhl",
"section": "Section::::Research.:MS and Male Sex Hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In a 2009 review article discussing the effects of sex hormones on MS, Voskuhl and Gold noted that one small trial conducted by a research team headed by Dr. Nancy Sicotte suggested testosterone could be effective in preserving cognitive performance and reducing brain atrophy. However, this trial yielded no significant effect on the formation of brain lesions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3315213",
"title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
"section": "Section::::Brain and nervous system.:Brain.:Genetic and hormonal causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, as well as brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in \"Nature Reviews Neuroscience\" observed that \"because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes.\" It concluded that while \"the differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31781295",
"title": "Geir Bjørklund",
"section": "Section::::Autism research.:Neurotoxicants and the vulnerable male brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "According to the researchers, several reasons may explain why the male brain is more vulnerable to neurotoxicants than the female brain. The availability of glutathione may be greater in females. They may also have greater sulfate‑based detoxification capacity than males. Co‑exposure to testosterone may increase the harmful effects of neurotoxicants. Males may, therefore, be more vulnerable to neuroinflammatory responses and oxidative stress than the females. Besides, the hormones estrogen and progesterone may have a neuroprotective effect in females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37689148",
"title": "Neuroscience of sex differences",
"section": "Section::::Neurochemical differences.:Hormones.:Testosterone and the male brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The gonadal hormone testosterone an androgenic, or masculinizing, hormone that is synthesized in both the male testes and female ovaries, at a rate of about 14000 μg/day and 600 μg/day, respectively. Testosterone exerts organizational effects on the developing brain, many of which are mediated through estrogen receptors following its conversion to estrogen by the enzyme aromatase within the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39882976",
"title": "Empathy quotient",
"section": "Section::::Development of the measure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1373,
"text": "The extreme male brain theory has led to some controversy, and tests of the hypothesis had mixed findings on the correlation between biological indicators of prenatal testosterone and scores on the systemizing quotient and empathy quotient. Chapman et al. found that male children who had been exposed to more prenatal testosterone scored lower on the EQ, indicating that there is not only a sex difference in empathy but also a difference within the male population which is correlated with prenatal testosterone. There is also evidence against this theory. For example, one possible biomarker for prenatal testosterone's effect on the brain is a low ratio of the second to fourth finger (the 2D:4D ratio), which has been found to be associated with several male specific psychological factors. A significantly lower 2D:4D ratio than the general population has been found in autistic individuals, however there was no correlation between the empathizing and systemizing quotients and the 2D:4D ratio. The authors give many possible explanations for this finding which are contrary to the extreme male brain theory of autism, for example it is possible that the psychometric properties of the quotients are lacking or that the theory itself is incorrect and the difference in autistic brains is not an extreme of normal functioning but of a different structure altogether.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25260227",
"title": "Catamenial epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Our understanding of the major gonadal hormones, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, has significantly increased in the last century. These hormones are synthesized in various locations in the body, including the ovaries, adrenal gland, liver, subcutaneous fat, and brain. There is considerable research showing that these steroidal hormones take part in an important role in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Broadly defined, estrogen and its many forms are thought to be “proconvulsant,” whereas progesterone is thought to be “anticonvulsant” by virtue of its conversion to the neurosteroid allopregnanolone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44xsd2
|
Manichaeism seems almost unique in being a former major international world religion that was rendered completely extinct without even small remnant populations. Why did it disappear so entirely?
|
[
{
"answer": "What is a world religion? Roman paganism had millions of adherents, reduced to nothing. Ditto for the so-called mystery religions (besides possibly Christianity) that sprung out of: the cult of Isis, Mithraism, etc. Egyptian religion similarly had millions of adherents and died away. Aztec religion. Name a pre-Christian or Muslim society that had millions of people and, for the most part, the religions they once practiced are gone (the other major proselytizing contemporary religion, Buddhism, was less likely to annihilate pre-contact customs, though did it as well, depending on how you quite deal with religious mixing). \n\nMore importantly, you have Zoroastrianism, which survived on to the present day only with likely only a few hundred thousand people. \n\nNow, this doesn't fully explain which religions survive and which die, but generally, even before the ~~Treaty of Westphalia~~ Peace of Augsburg which coined the term, *cuius regio eius religio*, that is, he who rules, his religion. The Roman Empire, generally, tolerated a wide variety of cults and religions so long as their adherents remained subservient to the Emperor and partook the imperial cult in addition to whatever other practices they subscribed to.\n\nChristianity was very different, and generally only allowed Judaism in its territory until after the Enlightenment. Islam similarly only allowed Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. \n\nWithout either official support or a special recognized legal status and a loyal, ethnicized community, most religions falter. Manichaneanism reached China, for example, but like the early [Christian](_URL_3_) and [Jewish](_URL_1_) communities of China, which essentially disappeared (there is a small remnant which claims descent from the Jewish community in Kaifeng, but the community seems to have been permanently disrupted in the 19th century). The indigenous [ethnic Chinese Muslim community](_URL_0_) thrived, its survival likely due in part to the fact that it didn't end up isolated like the Jews and Christians. Religious communities can survive surprisingly long periods of isolation and persecution (see, for example, the Japanese [Kirishitans](_URL_2_)), but not forever. The Kaifeng Jews (Jews, with their strict bans on intermarriage, strong international ties, distinct identity, written tradition, and dietary laws the prevented too much socialization across community lines, have tended to have faired better in diaspora and out of power than most groups) are a good example: even by the 16th century when Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci is in contact with them, they complain that their isolation has left them with a lack of learning. We have Manichean documents going at least into the 11th and 12th centuries. Not bad for a millennium out of power as a universalist religion (another difference from the Jews, whose claims of spiritual chosenness were not as harmed by their obvious small numbers). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34533",
"title": "Zoroastrianism",
"section": "Section::::Relation to other religions and cultures.:Manichaeism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Manichaeism's basic doctrine was that the world and all corporeal bodies were constructed from the substance of Satan, an idea that is fundamentally at odds with the Zoroastrian notion of a world that was created by God and that is all good, and any corruption of it is an effect of the bad. From what may be inferred from many Manichean texts and a few Zoroastrian sources, the adherents of the two religions (or at least their respective priesthoods) despised each other intensely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19760",
"title": "Manichaeism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through the Aramaic-speaking regions. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was briefly the main rival to Christianity before the spread of Islam in the competition to replace classical paganism. Manichaeism survived longer in the east than in the west, and it appears to have finally faded away after the 14th century in south China, contemporary to the decline of the Church of the East in Ming China. While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19760",
"title": "Manichaeism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spread.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Manichaeism maintained a sporadic and intermittent existence in the west (Mesopotamia, Africa, Spain, France, North Italy, the Balkans) for a thousand years, and flourished for a time in Persia and even further east in Northern India, Western China, and Tibet. While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent archaeological discovery demonstrated that it was already known there in the second half of the 6th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2816803",
"title": "Iranian philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Iranian Philosophy.:Manichaeism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Manichaeism, founded by Mani, was influential from North Africa in the West, to China in the East. Its influence subtly continues in Western Christian thought via Saint Augustine of Hippo, who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism, which he passionately denounced in his writings, and whose writings continue to be influential among Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox theologians. An important principle of Manichaeism was its dualistic cosmology/theology, which it shared with Mazdakism, a philosophy founded by Mazdak. Under this dualism, there were two original principles of the universe: Light, the good one; and Darkness, the evil one. These two had been mixed by a cosmic accident, and man's role in this life was through good conduct to release the parts of himself that belonged to Light. Mani saw the mixture of good and bad as a cosmic tragedy, while Mazdak viewed this in a more neutral, even optimistic way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11440824",
"title": "Asoristan",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Manichaeism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The religion of Manichaeism, founded by Mani (216–276), originated in 3rd century Asorestan, and spread across a vast geographical area. In some instances, Manichaeism even surpassed the Church of the East in its reach, as it was for a time also widespread in the Roman Empire. While none of the six original Syriac scriptures of the Manichaeans have survived in their entirety, a long Syriac section of one of their works detailing key beliefs was preserved by Theodore Bar Konai (a Church of the East author from Beth Garmaï), in his book \"Ketba Deskolion\" written in about 792. Like the Church of the East, the traditional center of the Manichaean church was in Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Mani dedicated his only Middle Persian writing, the Shāpuragān, to Shapur I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19760",
"title": "Manichaeism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Persecution and extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "Manichaeism was repressed by the Sasanian Empire. In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 296, the Roman emperor Diocletian decreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean scriptures and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed. This policy of persecution was also followed by his successors. Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 AD. The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both the Christian Church and the Roman state. Augustine of Hippo, one of the early Doctors of the Catholic Church was a Manichaean until his conversion to Christianity in 386. He was never persecuted for this and he freely converted. Due to the heavy persecution upon its followers in the Roman Empire, the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the 5th century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12471",
"title": "Gnosticism",
"section": "Section::::Major movements.:Persian Gnosticism.:Manichaeism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Manichaeism conceives of two coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict. Certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness, and the purpose of material creation is to engage in the slow process of extraction of these individual elements. In the end the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism, in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7rfyig
|
can every single thing a computer does be broken down into binary code?
|
[
{
"answer": "...the signals going to the monitor are in binary. Once inside the monitor, the signals get reinterpreted by the controller ciruits, in binary and determine the brightness of each color pixel, whose data is in binary. The pixels themselves are sent binary signals. The brightness of the pixel is controlled by how long the pixel is pulsed at ON state vs OFF state. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. The computer only knows anything as ones and zeroes. Doesn't matter what it is. There is a very complicated process stuff goes through to be displayed as what you see, but it is all stored as binary and interpreted as binary when the computer does any operation on any data. Even the operations the computer does are stored as ones and zeroes. Code is broken down from the high level languages like C#/C++/C and Java and Python, into assembly instructions which are a series of simple statements like Add, Subtract, Move Data between two locations, skip to a specific instruction, etc. Each assembly instruction has a specific sequence of bits that denotes it so the CPU knows what operation to perform.\n\nAs such, there are hundreds of conventions set up as to how data/code is stored so a computer knows how to interpret it. I can try to give some examples but it might be difficult to understand or else pretty lengthy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At the core of everything, a computer *computes*. This means that *everything it does* involves working with numbers. If you remember this, you can ignore \"binary code\" - that's just another way of storing numbers. If you add five and five together, you are always getting ten; even if you have to spell that as \"101 + 101 = 1010\", the math doesn't change.\n\nBinary is used **because** it's really easy to transmit as an electrical signal. All you need is two voltages (e.g. 0V and +3V) to move those numbers along unambiguously.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Desktop computers are all binary. They work only in the realm of base2 numbers, IE 1's and 0's. Anything they do that is analog, IE not 1's and 0's is converted from 1's and 0's to analog wave forms by DAC's, but internally to the computer it is purely a digital information. \n\ncomputers do have higher levels of organization which can be broken up into base 8 numbers or hexadecimal, but those are ultimately decoded back into bytes and bits of 1's and 0's. \n\nBefore HDMI, DVI, and Display port, video monitors were analog using VGA connectors which sent sync, red, green, and blue analog signals. The video card has a DAC which converts the digital equivalents for the image, into analog signals that the monitor can understand. \n\nModern displays though are digital. The display and color information is sent purely as a bitstream of 1's and 0's, converted by the monitor into a matrix of pixels, and the LCD drivers convert those values into electrical signals that rapidly cycle off and on, to get the different colors, and brightness of pixels. \n\nThere are 2 main exceptions to this though. Analog computers were some of the first computers in use before digital computers became prevalent. They didn't operate using binary digits, but instead used analog voltages. Instead of digital logic gates like AND, NAND, OR, NOR, they used a series of connected motors and rotary encoders to twist knobs and have the results of those value twist other knobs, to perform calculations. Think of it like a feedback loop where a small difference is amplified physically by the motion of groups of servos. Some of the Vietnam era flight simulators used by the Air Force, were based on analog servo computers. \n\nThe other one is quantum computers, which use Q-bits instead of binary bits. They are capable of storing values other than just 1's and 0's. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "219202",
"title": "Binary code",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often \"0\" and \"1\" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238686",
"title": "Binary number",
"section": "Section::::Conversion to and from other numeral systems.:Hexadecimal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four bits. If the number of bits isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra 0 bits at the left (called padding). For example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4533924",
"title": "Binary multiplier",
"section": "Section::::Signed numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "A binary computer does exactly the same multiplication as decimal numbers do, but with binary numbers. In binary encoding each long number is multiplied by one digit (either 0 or 1), and that is much easier than in decimal, as the product by 0 or 1 is just 0 or the same number. Therefore, the multiplication of two binary numbers comes down to calculating partial products (which are 0 or the first number), shifting them left, and then adding them together (a binary addition, of course):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8214",
"title": "Decimal",
"section": "Section::::Decimal computation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364506",
"title": "Binary data",
"section": "Section::::In computer science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "In modern computers, binary data refers to any data represented in binary form rather than interpreted on a higher level or converted into some other form. At the lowest level, bits are stored in a bistable device such as a flip-flop. While most binary data has symbolic meaning (except for don't cares) not all binary data is numeric. Some binary data corresponds to computer instructions, such as the data within processor registers decoded by the control unit along the fetch-decode-execute cycle. Computers rarely modify individual bits for performance reasons. Instead, data is aligned in groups of a fixed number of bits, usually 1 byte (8 bits). Hence, \"binary data\" in computers are actually sequences of bytes. On a higher level, data is accessed in groups of 1 word (4 bytes) for 32-bit systems and 2 words for 64-bit systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9898864",
"title": "Berger code",
"section": "Section::::Unidirectional error detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "For case 3, where bits have changed in both the information and the check sections, notice that the number of zeros in the information section has \"gone up\", as described for case 1, and the binary value stored in the check portion has \"gone down\", as described for case 2. Therefore, there is no chance that the two will end up mutating in such a way as to become a different valid code word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219202",
"title": "Binary code",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In computing and telecommunications, binary codes are used for various methods of encoding data, such as character strings, into bit strings. Those methods may use fixed-width or variable-width strings. In a fixed-width binary code, each letter, digit, or other character is represented by a bit string of the same length; that bit string, interpreted as a binary number, is usually displayed in code tables in octal, decimal or hexadecimal notation. There are many character sets and many character encodings for them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c7gxo
|
How did Britain keep the value of its currency stable during its explosive growth in the 19th Century? [reposted because unanswered]
|
[
{
"answer": " > Was it just the growth in supply of gold?\n\nThat was a big part of it. You had gold strikes in California, the Yukon, South Africa, Colorado, Australia, and so on, all increasing the money supply.\n\nAnother big part was the growth in the private creation of paper money by [commercial banks](_URL_0_), as well as by the circulation of bills of exchange (essentially checks that were endorsed from hand to hand, sometimes dozens of times, sometimes crossing oceans, so a little bit of \"real\" money created a lot of paper money). \n\nYou also had periodic crashes when, essentially, the money supply would run out; the decision to maintain a gold standard was by no means without casualties. \n\nSo the British (and most of the rest of the world) maintained the value of their currency in part simply because they decided to--they chose enduring brutal depressions on a regular basis rather than printing money when it was needed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11493235",
"title": "Panic of 1825",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Financing war.:Expansionary monetary policy.:\"Falling exchange rates\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Throughout the period, expansionary monetary policy and easy credit also caused Britain's currency to depreciate and its exchange rate to fall. Concerned by this, the government appointed a committee to determine if convertibility should be resumed soon, regardless of whether the war was still going on. This Bullion Report of 1810 became influential in monetary policy for its analysis of how bank policy influences exchange rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25741057",
"title": "British Banking School",
"section": "Section::::Creation of Banking School vs Currency School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "During the early and mid 19th century Britain had been plagued economically due to the conversion of currency from gold to a paper currency. This switch to inconvertible currency spiraled Britain's economy into a financial crisis. Throughout this period of time two financial groups were formed, these groups were known as the British Banking School and the British Currency School.\"The goal of both camps was to discover the optimal method of limiting (or not limiting) banking practices so as to encourage economic stability.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52146245",
"title": "The World Is Curved",
"section": "Section::::1992, the British pound sterling crisis: there is nothing in it to stay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Since ignorance of the changing world, the British pound has experienced a tremendous value plummeted this change the currency systems of Europe, given the continued strong shock to the global economy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1489628",
"title": "Capital account",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Central bank operations and the reserve account.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "As an example of direct intervention to manage currency valuation, in the 20th century Great Britain's central bank, the Bank of England, would sometimes use its reserves to buy large amounts of pound sterling to prevent it falling in value. Black Wednesday was a case where it had insufficient reserves of foreign currency to do this successfully. Conversely, in the early 21st century, several major emerging economies effectively sold large amounts of their currencies in order to prevent their value rising, and in the process built up large reserves of foreign currency, principally the US dollar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177666",
"title": "Reserve currency",
"section": "Section::::Other reserve currencies.:Pound sterling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The United Kingdom's pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. The emergence of the USA as an economic superpower, and the establishment of the U.S. Federal Reserve System in 1913, and U.S. economic dominance from the second half of the 20th century onward, as well as economic weakness in the UK at various times during the second half of the 20th century, resulted in sterling losing its status as the world's most important reserve currency: in the 1950s 55% of global reserves were still held in sterling; but the share was 10% lower within 20 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1610496",
"title": "Economic history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early 19th century.:Finance, money and banking.:Economics of the War of 1812.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "The economy grew every year 1812–1815, despite a large loss of business by East Coast shipping interests. Wartime inflation averaged 4.8% a year. The national economy grew 1812–1815 at the rate of 3.7% a year, after accounting for inflation. Per capita GDP grew at 2.2% a year, after accounting for inflation. Money that would have been spent on imports—mostly cloth—was diverted to opening new factories, which were profitable since British cloth was not available. This gave a major boost to the industrial revolution, as typified by the Boston Associates. The Boston Manufacturing Company built the first integrated spinning and weaving factory in the world at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1813.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51593567",
"title": "Peel's Bill",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Britain remained on the gold standard until World War I, something which helped entrench sterling as the global currency of choice throughout the 19th century. However, in the short term, the bill produced a sharply deflationary effect, and falling prices strongly favored holders of money over borrowers of money: agriculturalists were doubly squeezed, with mortgages costing more in real terms, and produce selling for less. Country gentlemen clamoured for relief, whether from the issuing of small paper notes (briefly tried), by a return to bimetalism, or by a debt restructuring to allow for the changing value of money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cev5k2
|
how do treadmills and other machines track your hearts bpm by those silver things on the handle?
|
[
{
"answer": "The basic concept to be aware of here is what makes the heart beat.\n\nOur heartbeat is driven by an electrical signal generated by a small group of cells (sometimes called pacemaker cells) located within our heart. The electric pulse generated by this group spreads through the heart, causing first one part, then the other to contract and relax. (As an aside, this is why electric shocks are so dangerous; they disrupt that group of cells and stop our hearts from effectively beating.)\n\n***However***, this pulse isn't confined to the heart; it spreads through the body, because our insides conduct electricity rather well. So, we constantly have an electrical pulse in our body as well.\n\nWhen we touch the silvery section of an exercise machine, the circuitry inside the machine can actually detect those minute changes in voltage caused by the pacemaker cells in our heart; from there, it can do some fancy math to separate one beat from the next, and arrive at an estimation of your heart rate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The silver things on the handle are electrodes. Think like those little pads that you see taped on a patient in movies and TV that give the hospital a patient's vital signs. those pads run a low level current (being sweaty makes them contact better, which helps get the reading, too) that checks the resistance of your skin.\n\nWhen you have a heart beat, it causes the blood vessels in your hands to expand and contract. This causes the resistance between those two pads to change a little bit, and the machine is able to track those changes and count them as heartbeats.\n\nIt's worth noting that yes, there's a lot that can throw those readings off, and yes, they aren't always reliable- you wouldn't use them for something important like a life or death situation, but they are close enough for exercising to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39579267",
"title": "Atrial Fibrillation Association",
"section": "Section::::Campaigns and activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Know Your Pulse - Since 2009 the AF Association has been campaigning for manual pulse checks to be included in all routine medical checkups carried out by the NHS in England. A manual pulse check is one of the easiest ways to detect a cardiac arrhythmia, which otherwise often goes untreated until a stroke or other serious illness occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60916665",
"title": "Pulse watch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "A pulse watch, also known as a pulsometer or pulsograph, is an individual monitoring and measuring device with the ability to measure heart or pulse rate. Detection can occur in real time or can be saved and stored for later review. The pulse watch measures electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) data while the user is performing tasks, whether it be simple daily tasks or intense physical activity. The pulse watch functions without the use of wires and multiple sensors. This makes it useful in health and medical settings where wires and sensors may be an inconvenience. Use of the device is also common in sport and exercise environments where individuals are required to measure and monitor their biometric data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60916665",
"title": "Pulse watch",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "From this point onwards, physicians started to make medical observations based on the number of heart beats in a minute (bpm). The functions and mechanisms of the pulse watch were updated and redeveloped by many professionals throughout history. The use of pulse detecting devices have been implemented consistently by medical schools and facilities, as a form of medical technology, to accurately time the pulse and respiration of patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56406075",
"title": "Samsung Health",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Heart rate measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The application also supports heart sensors from other manufacturers. It is able to generate a graph as a function of time of the different frequencies reached during a sports session as well as other information such as the average and maximum heart rate reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "684716",
"title": "Photoplethysmogram",
"section": "Section::::Sites for measuring PPG.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "While pulse oximeters are a commonly used medical device, the PPG derived from them is rarely displayed and is nominally only processed to determine heart rate. PPGs can be obtained from transmissive absorption (as at the finger tip) or reflection (as on the forehead).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "656548",
"title": "Treadmill",
"section": "Section::::Exercise treadmills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Medical treadmills are also active measuring devices. When connected through an interface with ECG, ergospirometry, blood pressure monitor (BPM), or EMG, they become a new medical system (e.g., stress test system or cardiopulmonary rehabilitation system) and can also be equipped to measure VO2max and various other vital functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60916665",
"title": "Pulse watch",
"section": "Section::::Current and future uses.:Current uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "Pulse watches are utilised on a daily basis by a wide range of people, this is due to the vast availability and accessibility to the device. Pulse watch devices are used in the medical industry where a transcript of user's heart rate data over a period of time can be stored and automatically sent to the user's physician. This is also the case where calorie intake and physical activity levels of users can be stored and sent to their physicians for the purpose of weight management. Wearable devices which use pulse watch mechanisms are also used in the management of patient health. The ability of these devices to efficiently monitor and store health data, provides a solution for patients who require ongoing self-management to monitor the progression of the illness. One study created a data recording system for participants with type-1 diabetes, using these wearable devices. Participants used the device to track their daily intake of carbohydrates, their insulin and blood glucose levels and their amount of physical activity. The results of the study found that the use of these wearable wrist devices provided a simple way for patients to monitor the requirements of their health challenges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q3j1g
|
why is it illegal to not hire somebody because of their race/religion?
|
[
{
"answer": "Access to the public market requires public accommodation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The technical why?\n\n- Private sector: the commerce clause of the US Const gives power to congress to enact legislation to regulate interstate commerce > employment discrimination affects interstate commerce > congress creates agencies and statutes (most notable is the Civil Rights Act of 1964) that prevent discrimination. This flow can also be followed for most, if not all, states.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are no quotas. No one is forced to hire minorities, you just can't discriminate against them. Given a choice between equal white and black candidates you can't choose on race. Many people prefer this because they wanted a society where merit was more important than race.\n\nEven with non-discriminatory practices whites are still hired at greater rates, not due to any overt racism, but because of inherent advantages at birth that mean by the time they get to the job interview and compete with a black candidate, they have a more competitiveness resume and can get the job on merit. \n\nIt is pretty much impossible to enforce on an individual level, but if a company does it enough to establish a pattern then you have a case. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the USA there are what are called protected classes. A example would be the handicapped but race and religion are also protected. The law is about preventing discrimination. I.E if two people are equally qualified you should hire whoever you want. But if the black dude is more qualified he should get the job assuming experience is the only difference between the two individuals.\n\nThere a couple reason why this is a good idea socially\n\n1.) It's good for buisness as it encourages people to hire the most qualified people.\n\n2.) It prevents tribialism (I.E prevent there being seperate communities of Black, Asian, White, etc people that don't mingle.)\n\n3.) It allow for greater class mobility.\n\nThe law does not say you need to hire minorities. There is nothing stopping a majority individual I.E Rich White dude, sueing if his position is givien to a less qualified individual that is a minority. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1803590",
"title": "Job interview",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 238,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 238,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "In many countries laws are put into place to prevent organizations from engaging in discriminatory practices against protected classes when selecting individuals for jobs. In the United States, it is unlawful for private employers with 15 or more employees along with state and local government employers to discriminate against applicants based on the following: race, color, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or over), disability, or genetic information (note: additional classes may be protected depending on state or local law). More specifically, an employer cannot legally \"fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privilege of employment\" or \"to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or applicants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67084",
"title": "Transphobia",
"section": "Section::::Manifestations.:In the workplace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "In the hiring process, discrimination may be either open or covert, with employers finding other ostensible reasons not to hire a candidate or just not informing prospective employees at all as to why they are not being hired. Additionally, when an employer fires or otherwise discriminates against a transgender employee, it may be a \"mixed motive\" case, with the employer openly citing obvious wrongdoing, job performance issues or the like (such as excessive tardiness, for example) while keeping silent in regards to transphobia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27073037",
"title": "Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario",
"section": "Section::::Notable Rulings and Case Law.:Employment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "An employer's refusal to employ a qualified job applicant on prohibited grounds is clearly discriminatory with respect to employment. It is also clearly discriminatory with respect to employment to refuse to continue current employment (meaning to dismiss, demote, retire, deny any benefit or promotion, etc.) based on prohibited grounds. However, any differential treatment based on prohibited grounds may constitute discrimination, including dress codes and appearance requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11493826",
"title": "Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.",
"section": "Section::::Background of the case.:Statutory provisions at issue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer… --to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27165",
"title": "Sexism",
"section": "Section::::Occupational sexism.:Transgender discrimination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Transgender people also experience significant workplace discrimination and harassment. Unlike sex-based discrimination, refusing to hire (or firing) a worker for their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most U.S. states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15461919",
"title": "Sex workers' rights",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Discrimination and stigmatization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "In most countries, even those where sex work is legal, sex workers of all kinds feel that they are stigmatized and marginalized, and that this prevents them from seeking legal redress for discrimination (for e. g., racial discrimination by a strip club owner, dismissal from a teaching position because of involvement in the sex industry), non-payment by a client, assault, or rape. Activists also believe that clients of sex workers may also be stigmatized and marginalized, in some cases even more so than sex workers themselves. For instance, in Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, it is illegal to buy sexual acts, but not to sell them (the buyer is said to have committed a crime, but not the prostitute).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17455433",
"title": "Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The main provisions of the regulations are to make direct and indirect discrimination against an employee or potential employee on the grounds of religion unlawful. They also make it unlawful to discriminate by way of victimization, or to harass an employee on grounds of religious belief. The regulations also extend to cover providers and of vocational training in relation to those undergoing training for any employment, and to those acting as employment agencies and giving careers advice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4g93ry
|
why people trust crystal healing when there is no scientific evidence to support its claims?
|
[
{
"answer": "The same as with most things people believe. There is a lot of anecdotal evidence, and when that evidence is put forward by a source someone already trusts - an actor, a family member, a community leader - the stories are believed without double-blind testing to back them up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably because of how incredibly strong the Placebo Effect is. If people believe that what they're doing is beneficial to their health, their health will (in many/most cases) tend to improve as a result. Also, people are likely to ascribe any successes to their chosen homeopathic/ new age cure, and ascribe failures to chance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we're looking at the sorts of people who would believe in magic if their friend-of-a-friend said it worked for them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why do people believe in God when there is no scientific evidence to support his claims?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "923251",
"title": "Crystal healing",
"section": "Section::::Scientific evaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "There is no peer-reviewed scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect; it is considered a pseudoscience. Alleged successes of crystal healing can be attributed to the placebo effect. Furthermore, there is no scientific basis for the concepts of \"chakras\", being \"blocked\", energy grids requiring grounding, or other such terms; they are widely understood to be nothing more than terms used by adherents to lend credibility to their practices. Energy, as a scientific term, is a very well-defined concept that is readily measurable and bears little resemblance to the esoteric concept of energy used by proponents of crystal healing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923251",
"title": "Crystal healing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Crystal healing is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine technique that uses semiprecious stones and crystals such as quartz, amethyst or opals. Adherents of the technique claim that these have healing powers, although there is no scientific basis for this claim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267014",
"title": "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience",
"section": "Section::::Applied sciences.:Health and medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "BULLET::::- Crystal healing – belief that crystals have healing properties. Once common among pre-scientific and indigenous peoples, it enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in the 1970s with the New Age movement. There is no scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354009",
"title": "Crystal skull",
"section": "Section::::Paranormal claims and spiritual associations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Some individuals believe in the paranormal claim that crystal skulls can produce a variety of miracles. Anna Mitchell-Hedges claimed that the skull she allegedly discovered could cause visions, cure cancer, that she once used its magical properties to kill a man, and that in another instance, she saw in it a premonition of the John F. Kennedy assassination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "354009",
"title": "Crystal skull",
"section": "Section::::Paranormal claims and spiritual associations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Claims of the healing and supernatural powers of crystal skulls have had no support in the scientific community, which has found no evidence of any unusual phenomena associated with the skulls nor any reason for further investigation, other than the confirmation of their provenance and method of manufacture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923251",
"title": "Crystal healing",
"section": "Section::::Scientific evaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "In 1999, researchers French and Williams conducted a study to investigate the power of crystals compared with a placebo. Eighty volunteers were asked to meditate with either a quartz crystal, or a placebo stone which was indistinguishable from quartz. Many of the participants reported feeling typical \"crystal effects\"; however, this was irrespective of whether the crystals were real or placebo. In 2001 Christopher French, head of the anomalistic psychology research unit at the University of London and colleagues from Goldsmiths College outlined their study of crystal healing at the British Psychological Society Centenary Annual Conference, concluding \"There is no evidence that crystal healing works over and above a placebo effect.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923251",
"title": "Crystal healing",
"section": "Section::::Ethnography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "In the English speaking world, crystal healing is heavily associated with the New Age spiritual movement: \"the middle-class New Age healing activity \"par excellence\"\". In contrast with other forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), participants in crystal healing view the practice as \"individuated\", i.e., dependent on extreme personalization and creative expression. Practitioners of crystal healing purport that certain physical properties—e.g., shape, color, and markings—determine the ailments that a stone can heal; lists of such links are published in commonly distributed texts. Paradoxically, practitioners also \"hold the view that crystals have no intrinsic qualities but that, instead, their quality changes according to both\" participants. After selecting the stones by color or their believed metaphysical qualities, they place them on parts of the body. Color selection and placement of stones are done according to concepts of grounding, \"chakras\", or energy grids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38nbj3
|
Why is it that we are losing helium into space, while hydrogen stays around?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your intuition is correct. Lighter gases are more likely to escape Earth's gravity. If you look at the [composition of the atmosphere](_URL_0_) you can see that helium is about ten times as abundant as hydrogen.\n\nWhen we purify hydrogen, it's often from electrolysis of water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Helium, a noble gas, is too light to be held under earths gravity. Hydrogen is lighter, and free hydrogen will also escape, however, it is also reactive, and unlike helium, is mostly bound up in compounds with other elements. Free hydrogen will still escape. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm super tired, so this won't be the best explanation of what I'm getting at, but it should give you a decent idea.\n\nI'm not entirely sure of the answer, but if I had to guess, I'd say it's probably because helium doesn't react with anything to form compounds (normally), so it stays at the atomic weight for helium, making it the second lightest component of the atmosphere.\n\nHydrogen, on the other hand, very easily forms bonds with oxygen, which means molecular hydrogen isn't very common in the atmosphere. Water is the most abundant source of hydrogen on Earth, and water doesn't float into space like molecular helium.\n\nBoth exist in the atmosphere, but because of how easily hydrogen forms bonds compared to helium, there's much, much more helium in the upper atmosphere, and what hydrogen we do have on the planet is mostly in water or water vapor, and water vapor doesn't exist high enough in the atmosphere to float off into space (at least not in any significant amounts).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1440511",
"title": "Isotope geochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Noble gas isotopes.:Helium-3.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "All degassed helium is lost to space eventually, due to the average speed of helium exceeding the escape velocity for the Earth. Thus, it is assumed the helium content and ratios of Earth's atmosphere have remained essentially stable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2743476",
"title": "Atmospheric escape",
"section": "Section::::Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes in the Solar System.:Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Atmospheric escape of hydrogen on Earth is due to Jeans escape (~10 - 40%), charge exchange escape (~ 60 - 90%), and polar wind escape (~ 10 - 15%), currently losing about 3 kg/s of hydrogen. The Earth additionally loses approximately 50 g/s of helium primarily through polar wind escape. Escape of other atmospheric constituents is much smaller. A Japanese research team in 2017 found evidence of a small number of oxygen ions on the moon that came from the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55397",
"title": "Hadean",
"section": "Section::::Atmosphere and oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "A sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. Hydrogen and helium are expected to continually escape (even to the present day) due to atmospheric escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55557578",
"title": "Hydrogen-deficient star",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Hydrogen deficiency results from stellar evolution. Over the course of a star's evolution, both the consumption of hydrogen in nuclear fusion and the removal of hydrogen layers by explosive processes can lead to a deficiency of hydrogen in its atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Atmosphere.:Upper atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25783324",
"title": "Helium planet",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Hydrogen evaporation from giant planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "A helium planet might form via hydrogen evaporation from a gaseous planet orbiting close to a star. The star will drive off lighter gases more effectively through evaporation than heavier gasses, and over time deplete the hydrogen, leaving a greater proportion of helium behind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18995926",
"title": "Lifting gas",
"section": "Section::::Gases theoretically suitable for lifting.:Helium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- Although abundant in the universe, helium is very scarce on Earth. The only commercially viable reserves are a few natural gas wells, mostly in the US, that trapped it from the slow alpha decay of radioactive materials within Earth. By human standards helium is a non-renewable resource that cannot be practically manufactured from other materials. When released into the atmosphere, e.g., when a helium-filled balloon leaks or bursts, helium eventually escapes into space and is lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kihib
|
Are all elements produced in stars?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. \n\nOr at least there are some elements that we cannot possibly detect even if they were produced in stars. There are some elements which have extremely short half-lives. Which means that they can be created in laboratories, and there's a very short time within which these can be detected before they decay into other elements. That means that even if they are made within stars or through chance chemical reactions, we wouldn't be able to detect them ( considering the distance and the very short time period they would exist)\n\nEarlier all transuranic elements were thought to be like this, so that they could only be produced synthetically. But now we know that there are those that exist naturally as well (like Plutonium).\n\nThose with atomic numbers above 99 have only been created in laboratories and have not been generated in stars. I think also Technetium (Tc 43) is not present in nature, but not sure about that one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fusion is only energetically favorable for elements up to ^(56)Fe, as visualized by this [plot of binding energy vs. atomic mass](_URL_0_). Elements heavier than ^(56)Fe are primarily formed by rapid neutron capture (r-process). This generates very neutron-rich isotopes, which are unstable and undergo beta decay until they become stable isotopes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "Section::::Abundance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus rarer than heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659",
"title": "Chemical element",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen, helium and a very small quantity of lithiumin the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Other three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process inside stars, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21285",
"title": "Nuclear physics",
"section": "Section::::Modern nuclear physics.:Production of \"heavy\" elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the \"heavier elements\" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater atomic number) that we see today, were created inside stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27680",
"title": "Supernova",
"section": "Section::::Other impacts.:Role in stellar evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The Big Bang produced hydrogen, helium, and traces of lithium, while all heavier elements are synthesized in stars and supernovae. Supernovae tend to enrich the surrounding interstellar medium with elements other than hydrogen and helium, which usually astronomers refer to as \"metals\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48903",
"title": "Nucleosynthesis",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "A star gains heavier elements by combining its lighter nuclei, hydrogen, deuterium, beryllium, lithium, and boron, which were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang. Larger quantities of these lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been restored through billions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include the light elements Li, Be and B.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392828",
"title": "Abundance of the chemical elements",
"section": "Section::::Universe.:Solar system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The abundance of elements is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b16jz
|
why do cars need transmissions but planes and boats don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "Transmissions carry work from the engine to wherever generates thrust. In plane engines and outboard boat motors, this task happens inside the same mechanical unit.\n\nSome inboard boat motors however do have an actual transmission.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some planes and boats can adjust the pitch of their propellors which makes the propellor easier or more difficult to turn which serves a similar function to a transmission.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Engines have a relatively narrow range of RPM where they perform efficiently.\n\nPlanes and boats propel themselves in a viscous atmosphere/fluid. As a result, plane and boat engines can operate in a fairly narrow range of RPM and still be effective. Within that narrow RPM range, the propeller/fan generates sufficient thrust into the viscous atmosphere/fluid to propel the aircraft/boat forward.\n\nOn the other hand, car engines are \"rigidly\" connected to the ground via ground- > tires- > wheels- > driveshaft- > transmission- > clutch- > engine. This means that without a transmission, a car's engine would have to operate on a much wider range of RPM's - including RPM's where the engine performs poorly or not at all. A transmission allows the car engine to remain in its efficient RPM range while the car can travel from a crawl to over 100mph.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8379893",
"title": "Marine propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Power sources.:Reciprocating diesel engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "As modern ships' propellers are at their most efficient at the operating speed of most slow speed diesel engines, ships with these engines do not generally need gearboxes. Usually such propulsion systems consist of either one or two propeller shafts each with its own direct drive engine. Ships propelled by medium or high speed diesel engines may have one or two (sometimes more) propellers, commonly with one or more engines driving each propeller shaft through a gearbox. Where more than one engine is geared to a single shaft, each engine will most likely drive through a clutch, allowing engines not being used to be disconnected from the gearbox while others keep running. This arrangement lets maintenance be carried out while under way, even far from port.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "609147",
"title": "Transmission (mechanics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and where different rotational speeds and torques are adapted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Applications and popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Sports cars are also often equipped with manual transmissions because they offer more direct driver involvement and better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13086317",
"title": "Fastest propeller-driven aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Propeller versus jet propulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1264,
"text": "Aircraft that use propellers as their prime propulsion device constitute a historically important subset of aircraft, despite inherent limitations to their speed. Aircraft powered by piston engines get virtually all of their thrust from the propeller driven by the engine. A few piston engined aircraft derive some thrust from the engine's exhaust gases, and there are certain hybrid types like the Motorjet that use a piston engine to drive the compressor of a jet engine, which supplies the primary thrust (although some types also have a propeller powered by the piston engine for low speed efficiency). All aircraft prior to World War II (except for a tiny number of early jet aircraft and rocket aircraft) used piston engines to drive propellers, so all Flight airspeed records prior to 1944 were necessarily set by propeller-driven aircraft. Rapid advances in first liquid-fueled rocket engine-powered aircraft – with a 1004 km/h record set in October 1941 by a German example — and axial-flow jet engine technology during World War II meant that no propeller-driven aircraft would ever again hold an absolute air speed record. Shock wave formation in propeller-driven aircraft at speeds near sonic conditions, impose limits not encountered in jet aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41834",
"title": "Uninterruptible power supply",
"section": "Section::::Other designs.:Rotary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Because the flywheels are a mechanical power source, it is not necessary to use an electric motor or generator as an intermediary between it and a diesel engine designed to provide emergency power. By using a transmission gearbox, the rotational inertia of the flywheel can be used to directly start up a diesel engine, and once running, the diesel engine can be used to directly spin the flywheel. Multiple flywheels can likewise be connected in parallel through mechanical countershafts, without the need for separate motors and generators for each flywheel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Longevity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck vehicle can destroy automatic transmissions. Clutches are a wear item that may need to be replaced at some point in the vehicle's lifespan, however the service life of the clutch depends on the operating conditions that it is subjected to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4778319",
"title": "Unmanned underwater vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1807,
"text": "A major concern with unmanned underwater vehicles is communication. Communication between the pilot and unmanned vehicle is crucial, however there are multiple factors that might hinder the connection between the two. One of the major problems involves the distortion of transmissions underwater, because water can distort underwater transmissions and delay them which can be a very major problem in a time sensitive mission. Communications are usually disturbed due to the fact that unmanned underwater vehicles utilize acoustic waves rather than the more conventional electromagnetic waves. Acoustic wave transmissions are often delayed anywhere from 1–2 seconds because they move more slowly than other types of waves. This is not including environmental conditions that can also hinder communications such as reflection, refraction, and the absorbing of signal. These effect within the water overall scatter and degrade the signal, making this communication system fairly delayed when compared to other communication sources. Another system that utilizes the acoustic waves is within the navigation of these unmanned vehicles, precise navigation is a must for these unmanned vehicles to complete their missions. A popular navigation system aboard these unmanned underwater vehicles is acoustic positioning, which is also faces with the same problems as acoustic communication because they use the same system. The Royal Netherlands Navy has published an article detailing their concerns surrounding unmanned marine vehicles. The Royal Netherlands Navy is strongly concerned with the ability of UUV's to evade detection and complete tasks not possible in manned vessels. The adaptability and utility of Unmanned Underwater vehicles means it will be difficult to predict and counter their future actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29h95b
|
How fast does a torus need to rotate to simulate earth gravity?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are right. A larger diameter requires a smaller angular speed. The formula is *g = omega*^(2)*r*, where:\n\n* *g* is the Earth's gravity (9.8 m/s^(2))\n* *r* is the radius of the ring\n* *omega* is the angular speed of the ring.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33643424",
"title": "O'Neill cylinder",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Artificial gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The cylinders rotate to provide artificial gravity on their inner surface. At the radius described by O'Neill, the habitats would have to rotate about twenty-eight times an hour to simulate a standard Earth gravity; an angular velocity of 2.8 degrees per second. Research on human factors in rotating reference frames\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140447",
"title": "Stanford torus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "It consists of a torus, or doughnut-shaped ring, that is 1.8 km in diameter (for the proposed 10,000 person habitat described in the 1975 Summer Study) and rotates once per minute to provide between 0.9g and 1.0g of artificial gravity on the inside of the outer ring via centrifugal force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36187709",
"title": "RELAP5-3D",
"section": "Section::::Recent Major Upgrades.:Moving System Modeling Capability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The ability to simulate movement, such as could be encountered in ships, airplanes, or a terrestrial reactor during an earthquake becomes available in the 2013 release of RELAP5-3D. This capability allows the user to simulate motion through input, including translational displacement and rotation about the origin implied by the position of the reference volume. The transient rotation can be input using either Euler or pitch-yaw-roll angles. The movement is simulated using a combination of sine functions and tables of rotational angles and translational displacement. Since the gravitational constant is also an input quantity, this capability is not limited to the surface of the Earth. It allows RELAP5-3D to model reactor systems on space craft, a space station, the moon, or other extraterrestrial bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80918",
"title": "Orbital (The Culture)",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Interior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "Orbitals spin to mimic the effects of gravity and are sized so that the rate of rotation necessary to produce a comfortable gravity level is approximately equal to one day. In the case of the standard Culture day and gravity, this diameter is around three million kilometres. For such an orbital to reproduce the equivalent to the Earth's gravity (9.8 m/s at sea level), whilst maintaining Earth's 24-hour period of rotation, it would need to have a diameter of approximately 3.71 million kilometres, and spinning at 486,000 km/hr. By tilting the axis of the Orbital relative to its orbit around a star a convenient day-night cycle can be experienced by the inhabitants. Since the edges of the Orbital are built as high walls, the rotation prevents the atmosphere from escaping, thus protecting the inhabitants from radiation. The walls are typically hundreds or thousands of kilometres high, made of a 'monocrystal' material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3803112",
"title": "Cosmic treadmill",
"section": "Section::::Abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The cosmic treadmill allows any being with sufficient super-speed to precisely time travel, and Pre-\"Crisis\" it allowed travel between the multiple Earths. The treadmill works by generating vibrations that will shift the user into a specific time. The vibrations require a high amount of speed to generate and attempts to use the treadmill without it have proven dangerous. Initially, the vibrations had to be kept up internally, or one would fade back into the time from whence they came. This was fixed by John Fox in \"Flash\" #112.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6249673",
"title": "Jig grinder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1114,
"text": "The machine operates by a high speed air spindle rotating a grinding bit. The air spindles are removable and interchangeable to achieve varying surface speeds. Some spindles are fixed speed (60000 rpm), others are adjustable (30000-50000 rpm), and still others are very high speed (175000 rpm). The machines have a standard X-Y table with the notable exception of knee travel. All axes are indexed to .0001\" via a vernier scale on the handwheels, with higher accuracy available with the use of measuring bars. The machine head has two vertical travels, one rough head adjustment and the other a precise spindle adjustment. The spindle to which the detachable air spindle mounts also rotates at a variable speed and can typically outfeed .100\" while running, again with an accuracy of .0001\" on the handwheel or greater, for very precise hole, peg and surface grinding. A well-kept jig grinder will reliably position work to a higher degree of accuracy than is possible with handwheels alone. These features are all critical in positioning a hole and peg system a precise distance from a reference surface or edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18420982",
"title": "Artificial gravity in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Rotational gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "In the \"Expanse\" series by James S. A. Corey, space stations generate artificial gravity by rotating, as do spun-up, hollowed-out asteroids, usually at around 0.3 g. Moving ships under constant thrust also simulate gravity by linear acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8lctg6
|
Why is it called "Missionary position"? Where does the term come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may be interested in u/yodatsracist's recent 4-part answer to [I saw an article today claiming that the \"missionary\" position derives its name from Native Americans/Africans who saw missionaries having sex. How true is this?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "224070",
"title": "Missionary position",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and other usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "It is commonly believed that the term \"missionary position\" arose in connection with English-speaking Christian missionaries, who supposedly encouraged the sexual position in new converts in the colonial era. However, the term probably originated from Alfred Kinsey's \"Sexual Behavior in the Human Male\" through a confluence of misunderstandings and misinterpretations of historical documents. The French refer to it as the 'classical' position. Tuscans refer to the position as \"the Angelic position\" while some Arabic-speaking groups call it \"the manner of serpents.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53831",
"title": "Missionary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to promote their faith or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word \"mission\" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin \"missionem\" (nom. \"missio\"), meaning \"act of sending\" or \"mittere\", meaning \"to send\". The word was used in light of its biblical usage; in the Latin translation of the Bible, Christ uses the word when sending the disciples to preach The gospel in his name. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2336506",
"title": "Missionary (LDS Church)",
"section": "Section::::Missionary conduct.:Slang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Missionaries are instructed to avoid slang and casual language including when they are alone in their apartment and in their letters to family. They are also instructed to refer to missionary leaders by only their correct titles. However, as with the members of any organization, some missionaries use certain missionary-specific jargon when communicating with one another. Some words and expressions are mission- or language-specific, while others are universal, such as calling the halfway point of a mission the \"hump\" or hump day, or describing a missionary who is excited about returning home as \"trunky\" as he has already packed his trunk. Foreign-language missionaries often develop a \"mission language\", distinct from but combining aspects of their first and acquired languages, that they use when communicating with each other; the senkyoshigo of Japan is an example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224070",
"title": "Missionary position",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Though there are a number of variations and adoptions of the missionary position, the classic missionary position involves a man and a woman, with the woman lying on her back and the man on top. Variations in the positions may vary the angle and depth of penile penetration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224070",
"title": "Missionary position",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The missionary position or man-on-top position is a sex position in which, generally, a woman lies on her back and a man lies on top of her while they face each other and engage in vaginal intercourse. The position may also be used for other sexual activity, such as anal sex. It is commonly associated with heterosexual sexual activity, but is also used by same-sex couples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53831",
"title": "Missionary",
"section": "Section::::Missionaries by religion.:Christian missions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "A Christian missionary can be defined as \"one who is to witness across cultures\". The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, \"to form a viable indigenous church-planting movement\". Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14011855",
"title": "Frontier missions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In the 1960s, missiologists began to re-employ the term to distinguish between two kinds of missionary work: that which was being done among peoples where the indigenous church was already established, and new efforts among peoples where the Christian Church was very weak or non-existent. The contemporary usage of the term is part of a general trend to look at the missionary task more in terms of social, cultural and linguistic isolation from the gospel, rather than strictly geographic isolation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f2w7lp
|
Are bats the only carriers for Ebola that do not die from it?
|
[
{
"answer": "*Technically*, we don't know for certain that bats even are the carriers, although they are the likeliest suspect. [This paper from 2005](_URL_1_) sampled a whole spread of animals to try and find a carrier, so that might help you on your search for different species. \n\nInterestingly, [dogs can become infected](_URL_0_) with Ebola by eating carcasses, but are asymptomatic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12537935",
"title": "Peters's dwarf epauletted fruit bat",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Bats are transporters of many viruses that do not affect them due to their unusually high immune system efficiency. M. pusillus have been known to carry antibodies specific to Ebola. Mitochondrial analysis was conducted on multiple fruit bats following the Ebola viruses outbreak in 2014 and one of the bat species testing positive for the virus was M. pusillus. With M. pusillus being highly frugivore, human contact in greatly increased in agricultural regions of Africa, increasing the risk for virus transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35324563",
"title": "Health in Guinea",
"section": "Section::::Health status.:Ebola.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in Guinea. In response, the health ministry banned the sale and consumption of bats, thought to be carriers of the disease. Despite this measure, the virus eventually spread from rural areas to Conakry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333398",
"title": "Henipavirus",
"section": "Section::::Hendra virus.:Australian outbreaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "There is no evidence of transmission to humans directly from bats, and, as such it appears that human infection only occurs via an intermediate host, a horse. Despite this in 2014 the NSW Government sanctioned the destruction of flying fox colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40817590",
"title": "Ebola virus disease",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Reservoir.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The natural reservoir for Ebola has yet to be confirmed; however, bats are considered to be the most likely candidate species. Three types of fruit bats (\"Hypsignathus monstrosus\", \"Epomops franqueti\" and \"Myonycteris torquata\") were found to possibly carry the virus without getting sick. , whether other animals are involved in its spread is not known. Plants, arthropods, rodents, and birds have also been considered possible viral reservoirs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "956106",
"title": "Ebolavirus",
"section": "Section::::Hosts of the Ebolavirus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Researchers have now found evidence of Ebola infection in three species of fruit bat. The bats show no symptoms of the disease, indicating that they may be the main natural reservoirs of the Ebolavirus. It is possible that there are other reservoirs and vectors. Understanding where the virus incubates between outbreaks and how it is transmitted between species will help protect humans and other primates from the virus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40817590",
"title": "Ebola virus disease",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Initial case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Although it is not entirely clear how Ebola initially spreads from animals to humans, the spread is believed to involve direct contact with an infected wild animal or fruit bat. Besides bats, other wild animals sometimes infected with EBOV include several monkey species, chimpanzees, gorillas, baboons, and duikers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41785662",
"title": "Bat as food",
"section": "Section::::Dangers of disease and toxin transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The hunting and consumption of bats as bushmeat is a public health risk in West Africa due to the danger of wildlife-to-human transmission of disease. Bats are a natural reservoir for filoviruses, including the Ebola virus and Marburg virus, and infected bats can introduce ebolavirus to humans who come in close contact with them. Bats may also host henipaviruses and lyssaviruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9p168t
|
what are the rules in the music industry that govern how one artist’s song can be covered by another?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the US you make and sell cover versions of other artists' songs \\*without their permission\\* as long as you do certain things, including paying them a fixed rate royalty. Here's a link with more information: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere is a slightly different process for cover bands that are preforming live versions of someone else's music. You need to pay a fee to ASCAP which is an organization that collects royalties for songwriters. Usually the venue where the cover band performs will have a blanket ASCAP license that covers any cover songs a band it likely to play. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You pay a royalty - you can either ask permission beforehand and negotiate a rate, or just do it and pay the standard rate. Recording royalties are based on sales, while performance royalties are usually covered by a performance fee to ASCAP. Royalties go to the songwriter(s), not the band, because the band might have been covering someone else's material in the first place (for example, Elvis Presley didn't write any of his own songs).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23642023",
"title": "Rock Band Network",
"section": "Section::::Authoring process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Artists must have publishing rights for songs they release through the \"Rock Band\" Network, thus limiting the use of covers or remixes. However, Harmonix only seeks to gain non-exclusive licenses for songs, allowing artists to also have their songs used in other rhythm games. Artists will be able to remove songs from the Network if they want.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3929577",
"title": "Mechanical license",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Musicians often use this license for self-promotion. For instance, a cellist who performed a musical work on a recording may obtain a mechanical license so he can distribute copies of the recording to others as an example of his cello playing. Recording artists also use this when they record cover versions of songs. This is common among artists who don't usually write their own songs. In the United States, this is required by copyright law regardless whether or not the copies are for commercial sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159031",
"title": "Cover version",
"section": "Section::::U.S. copyright law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Since the Copyright Act of 1909, United States musicians have had the right to record a version of someone else's previously recorded and released tune, whether it is music alone or music with lyrics. A license can be negotiated between representatives of the interpreting artist and the copyright holder, or recording published tunes can fall under a mechanical license whereby the recording artist pays a standard royalty to the original author/copyright holder through an organization such as the Harry Fox Agency, and is safe under copyright law even if they do not have any permission from the original author. A similar service was provided by Limelight by RightsFlow, until January 2015, when they announced they will be closing their service. The U.S. Congress introduced the mechanical license to head off an attempt by the Aeolian Company to monopolize the piano roll market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2247616",
"title": "Mxtabs",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The site does appear to work in the United States but some songs are not licensed yet and if you come across a song with no license the website ask you to fill out information about the song and the band to help them gain licenses quicker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2399872",
"title": "Music licensing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Music licensing is the licensed use of copyrighted music. Music licensing is intended to ensure that the owners of copyrights on musical works are compensated for certain uses of their work. A purchaser has limited rights to use the work without a separate agreement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40047986",
"title": "The Hit (Irish TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The artists meet with both songwriters and discuss possible changes to the song to make it more suitable to the artist releasing the song. The artist produces one song and their choice is revealed when they return to the live show to perform their chosen song. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1898660",
"title": "Music on hold",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.:Mechanical copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Therefore, persons or businesses wishing to play music that falls \"in the public domain\" are still legally required to obtain permission to use the mechanical recording of this music, from the mechanical copyright holder. And where the use is of copyrighted music, the same applies. In all cases, before a song title may be broadcast on a telephone MOH, said use must be approved and licensed from BOTH the \"song title\" copyright owner (if it is NOT in public domain) and the \"mechanical\" copyright owner. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kg29b
|
why do we have ear lobes ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The general shape of our ears actually helps us determine the direction of sounds, as they reflect sounds differently based upon where they are coming from. If you change the shape of someone's ear then it takes a little bit for their brain to learn how to interpret the echoes properly again. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where else would you put your 00 gauge plug? - WAIT! Don't answer that, I don't want to know.\n\nThere is no known biological function for the ear lobe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a handle for your mother.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "826850",
"title": "Maitum anthropomorphic pottery",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Ears.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The ears either have (1) a hole in the center or (2) an ovaloid shape with an extended curl. In the former style, the upper outer ear is formed into an ovaloid shaped with a hole in the center while the lower outer ear is formed by a lobe. On the other hand, the latter style explains the formation of the upper outer ear into an ovaloid shape with an extended curl going inside and the lower outer part consisting of the earlobe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "747239",
"title": "Body odor",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Humans have few olfactory receptor cells compared to dogs and few functional olfactory receptor genes compared to rats. This is in part due to a reduction of the size of the snout in order to achieve depth perception as well as other changes related to bipedalism. However, it has been argued that humans may have larger brain areas associated with olfactory perception compared to other species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10923250",
"title": "Southern marsupial mole",
"section": "Section::::Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The external ear openings are covered with fur and do not have a pinnae. The nostrils are small vertical slits right below the shield-like rostrum. Although the brain has been regarded as very primitive and represents the \"lowliest marsupial brain\", the olfactory bulbs and the rubercula olfactoria are very well developed. This seems to suggest that the olfactory sense plays an important role in the marsupial moles' life, as it would be expected for a creature living in an environment lacking visual stimuli. The middle ear seems to be adapted for the reception of low-frequency sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405548",
"title": "Caecilian",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The middle ear consists of only the stapes and the oval window, which transfer vibration to the inner ear through a reentrant fluid circuit as seen in some reptiles. The species within the Scolecomorphidae lack both stapes and an oval window, making them the only known amphibians missing all the components of a middle ear apparatus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6829488",
"title": "Wagner's mustached bat",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The ears are long and pointed, with sharp serrations along the medial edges and a spatulate tragus including a shelf-like fold. The upper lip has a number of heavy bristles and surrounds the nose, with numerous folds and small projections along its edge. The snout is raised upwards, while the remainder of the skull is relatively flattened. The incisor teeth are reduced in size, but have a complex shape with two or three lobes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46037",
"title": "Porpoise",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "The porpoise ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance equaliser between the outside air's low impedance and the cochlear fluid's high impedance. In whales, and other marine mammals, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, porpoises receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance fat-filled cavity to the inner ear. The porpoise ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater. Odontocetes send out high frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. The large bulge on top of the porpoises head is caused by the melon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1261740",
"title": "Otoplasty",
"section": "Section::::Surgical anatomy of the external ear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "In the practice of otoplasty, the term prominent ears describes external ears (pinnae) that, regardless of their size, protrude from the sides of the head. The abnormal appearance exceeds the normal head-to-ear measures, wherein the external ear is less than 2.0 cm, and at an angle of less than 25 degrees, from the side of the head. Ear configurations, of distance and angle, that exceed the normal measures, appear prominent when the man or the woman is viewed from either the front or the back perspective. In the occurrence of prominent ears, the common causes of anatomic defect, deformity, and abnormality can occur individually or in combination; they are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
787sz3
|
Life in 1910, London
|
[
{
"answer": "We've allowed this post, but you're unlikely to get a thorough answer. Questions like \"were life conditions good?\" and \"were people happy?\" are not really answerable: some people had a high standard of living and some did not; some people were happy most of the time and some were desperately unhappy, with every nuance in between. People in good circumstances had personal setbacks that made them unhappy, and people in desperate circumstances had times of joy.\n\nI would recommend that you pose your more concrete questions to the sub separately:\n\n*What sort of art was being produced in England around 1910? What decorative arts movements were relevant?*\n\n*How was garbage and sewage collected in early twentieth century England?*\n\n*How common was electricity in England in 1910? When did \"ordinary people\" start to have access to it?*\n\nFor the overall view of the period, I think you will find *Edwardian England: A Guide to Everyday Life, 1900-1914*, by Evangeline Holland, useful. It seems to be a well-researched guide to politics and popular culture, and may help you get more specific questions to ask. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3939949",
"title": "A London Life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "A London Life is a novella by Henry James, first published in \"Scribner's Magazine\" in 1888. The plot revolves around a crumbling marriage and its impact on many other people, especially Laura Wing, the sister of the soon-to-be-divorced wife. Laura is a classic Jamesian \"central consciousness,\" whose reflections and emotions color the presentation of the storyline and the other characters. The tale is notable for its straightforward, even hard-edged approach to sexuality and divorce. This might reflect the influence of French naturalism on James during the 1880s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13608196",
"title": "London (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "London is a historical novel by Edward Rutherfurd published in 1997, which charts the history of London from 54 B.C. to 1997. The novel begins with the birth of the River Thames and moves to 54 B.C., detailing the life of Segovax, a curious character with slightly webbed hands and a flash of white hair. Seqovax becomes the ancestor of the Ducket and Dogget families, prominent fictional families woven into the novel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14563484",
"title": "19th-century London",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "One of the most famous events of 19th century London was the Great Exhibition of 1851. Held at The Crystal Palace, the fair attracted visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14020",
"title": "History of London",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the Great Exhibition of 1851. Held at The Crystal Palace, the fair attracted 6 million visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17867",
"title": "London",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Literature, film and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 200,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 200,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Also of significance is Letitia Elizabeth Landon's \"Calendar of the London Seasons\" (1834). Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a \"biography\" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16887917",
"title": "History of London (1900–1939)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "This article covers the history of London of the early 20th century, from 1900 to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. London entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of the largest empire in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges. London was the largest city in the world from about 1825 until it was overtaken by New York City in 1925.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36666358",
"title": "Paul Atherton",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "\"Our London Lives\" opened in The Museum of London on 8 January 2016 and closed on 11 February 2016. Atherton's recorded visits of his estranged son's visits to London over 16 years (1999 - 2015) was shown as part of Recording A Life exhibition in the Show Space gallery and subsequently became the first video diary taken into the museum's permanent collection\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cd0evh
|
Why is strep throat, caused by a commensal bacteria, contagious?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because there are different forms found in different people much like blood types, therefore it is fine for yourself to carry but not other people\n\nThe exact reason strep throat is contagious.\nBecause if a new type of streptococcus is found the body sends infection markers and can be potentially fatal if it's not your own type",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "92398",
"title": "Streptococcal pharyngitis",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Strep throat is caused by group A β-hemolytic \"streptococcus\" (GAS or \"S. pyogenes\"). Other bacteria such as non–group A β-hemolytic \"streptococci\" and \"fusobacterium\" may also cause pharyngitis. It is spread by direct, close contact with an infected person; thus crowding, as may be found in the military and schools, increases the rate of transmission. Dried bacteria in dust are not infectious, although moist bacteria on toothbrushes or similar items can persist for up to fifteen days. Contaminated food can result in outbreaks, but this is rare. Of children with no signs or symptoms, 12% carry GAS in their pharynx, and, after treatment, approximately 15% of those remain positive, and are true \"carriers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "903516",
"title": "Tonsillitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The second most common cause is bacterial infection of which the predominant is Group A β-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS), which causes strep throat. Bacterial infection of the tonsils usually follows the initial viral infection. Less common bacterial causes include: \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (including methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus or MRSA ), \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\", \"Chlamydia pneumoniae\", \"Bordetella pertussis\", \"Fusobacterium\" sp., \"Corynebacterium diphtheriae\", \"Treponema pallidum\", and \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18637388",
"title": "Wooden reed care",
"section": "Section::::Reed care.:Types of Bacteria found in reeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Streptococcal bacteria have been found living inside the walls of water-conducting xylem cells in spent reeds. Streptococcal bacterium is a common bacterium that causes illness to the throat, including sore throat and strep throat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "903516",
"title": "Tonsillitis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Tonsillitis is most commonly caused by a viral infection, with about 5% to 40% of cases caused by a bacterial infection. When caused by the bacterium group A streptococcus, it is referred to as strep throat. Rarely bacteria such as \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\", \"Corynebacterium diphtheriae\", or \"Haemophilus influenzae\" may be the cause. Typically the infection is spread between people through the air. A scoring system, such as the Centor score, may help separate possible causes. Confirmation may be by a throat swab or rapid strep test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "223208",
"title": "Pharyngitis",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Bacterial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Streptococcal pharyngitis or strep throat is caused by a group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS). It is the most common bacterial cause of cases of pharyngitis (15–30%). Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, and large lymph nodes. It is a contagious infection, spread by close contact with an infected individual. A definitive diagnosis is made based on the results of a throat culture. Antibiotics are useful to both prevent complications (such as rheumatic fever) and speed recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1051772",
"title": "Staphylococcal enteritis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Staphylococcal enteritis is an inflammation that is usually caused by eating or drinking substances contaminated with staph enterotoxin. The toxin, not the bacterium, settles in the small intestine and causes inflammation and swelling. This in turn can cause abdominal pain, cramping, dehydration, diarrhea and fever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3640445",
"title": "Blind loop syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Due to the disruption of digestive processes by the overgrowth of intestinal bacteria; malabsorption of bile salts, fat and fat-soluble vitamins, protein and carbohydrates results in damage to the mucosal lining of the intestine by bacteria or via the production of toxic metabolites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n5vjh
|
could it be possible that a black hole in our universe turns out to be a big bang in some other universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "[There's a Polish cosmologist who thinks this might be possible.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's totally untestable, though. At least, for a very long time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is actual a concept/idea that is being tossed around.\n\nThe idea is that all matter compresses down to a single infinitely dense and infinitely small point. What's on the 'other side' of that hole? Some scientists have come up with the concept of a ['white hole'](_URL_0_). It's all very theoretical, but some of the great minds (like Stephan Hawking) have considered it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[There's a Polish cosmologist who thinks this might be possible.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's totally untestable, though. At least, for a very long time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is actual a concept/idea that is being tossed around.\n\nThe idea is that all matter compresses down to a single infinitely dense and infinitely small point. What's on the 'other side' of that hole? Some scientists have come up with the concept of a ['white hole'](_URL_0_). It's all very theoretical, but some of the great minds (like Stephan Hawking) have considered it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54244",
"title": "Gravitational singularity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "The initial state of the universe, at the beginning of the Big Bang, is also predicted by modern theories to have been a singularity. In this case the universe did not collapse into a black hole, because currently-known calculations and density limits for gravitational collapse are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not necessarily apply in the same way to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang. Neither general relativity nor quantum mechanics can currently describe the earliest moments of the Big Bang, but in general, quantum mechanics does not permit particles to inhabit a space smaller than their wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55985697",
"title": "ULAS J1342+0928",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "A small minority of sources argue that distant supermassive black holes whose large size is hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang, such as ULAS J1342+0928, may be evidence that our universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215706",
"title": "Supermassive black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "A small minority of sources argue that distant supermassive black holes whose large size is hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang, such as ULAS J1342+0928, may be evidence that our universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240972",
"title": "White hole",
"section": "Section::::1980s–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe. See also Fecund universes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "709427",
"title": "Micro black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "It is possible that such quantum primordial black holes were created in the high-density environment of the early Universe (or Big Bang), or possibly through subsequent phase transitions. They might be observed by astrophysicists through the particles they are expected to emit by Hawking radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240972",
"title": "White hole",
"section": "Section::::1980s–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "A 2012 paper argues that the Big Bang itself is a white hole. It further suggests that the emergence of a white hole, which was named a 'Small Bang', is spontaneous—all the matter is ejected at a single pulse. Thus, unlike black holes, white holes cannot be continuously observed; rather, their effect can only be detected around the event itself. The paper even proposed identifying a new group of gamma-ray bursts with white holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 3: The Expanding Universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Evgeny Lifshitz and Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov also tried to avoid the Big Bang theory but also failed. Roger Penrose used light cones and general relativity to prove that a collapsing star could result in a region of zero size and infinite density and curvature called a Black Hole. Hawking and Penrose proved together that the Universe should have arisen from a singularity, which Hawking himself disproved once Quantum effects are taken into account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lfuxz
|
How big is our solar system in non-planar directions (up & down rather than out)
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't answer your actual question but Voyager 1's mission wasn't to leave the solar system. It was to photograph the solar system and we were lucky that we launched when we did because it's a very rare occasion (not sure exactly how rare but I think it's hundreds of years at least) that we can take advantage of planetary alignment to slingshot the Voyagers across the solar system. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the mass orbits in the same plane but there is stuff that doesn't. Pluto's orbit, for example, is tilted 17° to the plane, while long period comets can have any inclination. So there is \"stuff\" all around, just far less of it outside the plane. \n\nAs to the \"edge\" of the solar system it depends what exactly you see this as but if you consider it as the heliopause, where the stellar wind meets the interstellar medium, then that is spherical (the heliosphere); the sun emits stellar wind in all directions not just in the plane of the planets, so it is the same distance away from the sun whichever way you go. \n\nIt would actually take substantially *longer* to reach the heliopause going straight \"up\" as a probe would be unable to make use of gravitational slingshot manoeuvres off planets to increase speed; most of Voyager's speed comes from this, not its launch propulsion.\n\nBut note its all pretty empty up there, the distinction between \"inside\" and \"outside\" the solar system is really very subtle if you are talking about the space rather than actual bodies orbiting the sun. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "blorg is on the right track except for two things:\n\n1) The heliopause (and associated other surfaces between the solar wind and the interstellar medium [ISM]) is thought to be more comet shaped than spherical. The sun is moving through the ISM, and thus toward the nose it is more compressed, and in the opposite direction it has a long tail. \n\n2) While the difference between the inside and outside of the heliopause would be hard to detect if you were just floating around out there, the characteristics of the material (magnetic field strength and orientation, ionization state, density, temperature...) are really quite different, which is why it's exciting as Voyager starts to encounter the effects of the ISM as it reaches the edge of the solar system. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42398299",
"title": "Barycentric celestial reference system",
"section": "Section::::Purpose and implementation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "The geocentric system is simpler, being smaller and involving few massive objects: that coordinate system defines its center as the center of mass of the Earth itself. The barycentric system can be loosely thought of as being centered on the Sun, but the Solar System is more complicated. Even the much smaller planets exert gravitational force upon the Sun, causing it to shift position slightly as they orbit. Those shifts are very large in comparison to the measurement precisions that are required for astrometry. Thus, the BCRS defines its center of coordinates as the center of mass of the entire Solar System, its barycenter. This stable point for gravity helps to minimize relativistic effects from any observational frames of reference within the Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23253",
"title": "Parallax",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.:Solar parallax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "After Copernicus proposed his heliocentric system, with the Earth in revolution around the Sun, it was possible to build a model of the whole Solar System without scale. To ascertain the scale, it is necessary only to measure one distance within the Solar System, e.g., the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (now called an astronomical unit, or AU). When found by triangulation, this is referred to as the \"solar parallax\", the difference in position of the Sun as seen from the Earth's centre and a point one Earth radius away, i. e., the angle subtended at the Sun by the Earth's mean radius. Knowing the solar parallax and the mean Earth radius allows one to calculate the AU, the first, small step on the long road of establishing the size and expansion age of the visible Universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9264",
"title": "Ecliptic",
"section": "Section::::Plane of the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk. Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the \"invariable plane of the Solar System\". Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, Jupiter's orbit is within a little more than ° of it, and the other major planets are all within about 6°. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41412701",
"title": "(66063) 1998 RO1",
"section": "Section::::Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "From the surface of , would have an apparent diameter of roughly 41°. For comparison, the Sun appears to be 0.5° from Earth. The secondary orbits its primary in a manner very similar to the adjunct image, where the red cross is the center of mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26903",
"title": "Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Structure and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids, and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four giant planets. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3615656",
"title": "Iota Horologii b",
"section": "Section::::Detection and discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "It revolves around the host star in a somewhat elongated orbit. If it were located in the Solar System, this orbit would stretch from just outside the orbit of Venus (at 117 million km or 0.78 astronomical unit [AU] from the Sun) to just outside the orbit of the Earth (at 162 million km or 1.08 AU). Because the planet is at least 720 times more massive than the Earth, it is predicted that Iota Horologii b is more similar to planet Jupiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997097",
"title": "Elliptic orbit",
"section": "Section::::Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "In the Solar System, planets, asteroids, most comets and some pieces of space debris have approximately elliptical orbits around the Sun. Strictly speaking, both bodies revolve around the same focus of the ellipse, the one closer to the more massive body, but when one body is significantly more massive, such as the sun in relation to the earth, the focus may be contained within the larger massing body, and thus the smaller is said to revolve around it. The following chart of the perihelion and aphelion of the planets, dwarf planets and Halley's Comet demonstrates the variation of the eccentricity of their elliptical orbits. For similar distances from the sun, wider bars denote greater eccentricity. Note the almost-zero eccentricity of Earth and Venus compared to the enormous eccentricity of Halley's Comet and Eris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
briy0t
|
In the early 19th century why did it take so long for major powers to adopt the rifle over the musket?
|
[
{
"answer": "One piece of the puzzle was ammunition design. Until the introduction of bullets like the Minie Ball, loading a rifled musket was a difficult, time-consuming endeavor. With the round ball that was standard for ammunition at the time, the ball was close to the same size as the bore, with wadding used to provide a tighter seal and help hold the ball in the gun until fired. Unfortunately, for rifling to work, it needs a tighter fit between bore and ball to allow for the rifling to engage the ball effectively. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nModern rifling gives some idea of how tight you need the seal to be for the best effect. American 30-06 M2 Ball of WW1 vintage had bullets 0.3086 inches in diameter. Standard bores, however, were .300 inches in diameter, while the rifling grooves were about 0.005 inches deep. The result is that the bullet ends up being formed to the rifling, and on fired bullets the imprint of the rifling is generally very clear on the bullet.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nGoing back to muzzle-loaders, the problem becomes pretty apparent. Rifled muskets pre-Minie Ball didn't have as tight a fit to the bore as modern rifles, but they still used a significantly tighter fit than a standard smoothbore and thus became significantly more difficult to load. That translated to slower rates of fire and ultimately resulted in something that was found to be unsatisfactory for standard line infantry.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThat's where the Minie Ball comes in. The Minie Ball and systems like it made muzzle-loading rifles practical by being small enough to fit down the bore easily like on a smoothbore and expanding upon firing to engage the rifling. For the Minie Ball, this was accomplished by a cavity in the back of the bullet that would be forced outwards by the pressure of the expanding gases. Though not perfect by modern standards, it finally provided armies with a bullet that could be loaded as easily as an old smoothbore musket but work well with rifling. These new types of ammunition also afforded some other beneficial side effects, including higher velocities (thanks to a better gas seal) and longer effective ranges thanks to not only the use of rifling, but their more aerodynamic shape. These types of ammunition were developed in the 1830s and 1840s, and relatively soon afterwards is when we see armies all over the world adopting rifled muskets like the Pattern 1853 Enfield and Springfield Model 1855.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rifles achieved their increased accuracy by taking a small lead ball (the bullet) and wrapping it in a wad of cloth (usually felt). The felt wad would then grip the spiral grooves of the bore which would in turn \"spin\" the bullet as it traveled down the barrel, this spin stabilized the ball as it traveled through the air toward its target leading to an increase in accuracy. The increased accuracy of the rifle was an obvious advantage, but not without its consequences. These rifles were more costly to produce and a smaller number could be made owing to the need for specially trained gunsmiths to manufacturer them; tens of thousands of the famous Pennsylvania (Kentucky) long rifle were made, but in that same time millions of the standard \"Brown Bess\" musket were produced. Second, for a rifle to be effectively employed required specialized training and experience in handling and using the rifle, this was not a weapon for the common infantry man. The rifle was the weapon of choice for hunters, sharpshooters, and Jägers. The rifle holds a special place in the American psyche because it was the weapon for the individual, not the closed ranks of most military formations. There is also the issue of the rifles battlefield performance, trained rifleman could get off roughly two shots (optimistically) in the time it took a man armed with a musket to fire three shots. In close range fighting between lines of infantry volume of fire is more important than individual accuracy. A rifleman would spend considerable time just trying to back the tightly wrapped lead ball into the barrel of his rifle, often times relying on a small mallet to drive it in. Rifles also commonly lacked a bayonet plug on the end of the barrel which would be used to affix...a bayonet. In hand to hand fighting or in repelling cavalry the advantages afforded by the reach of a bayonet and its use by closed formation of infantry was considerable. And over time after repeated firing in battle gunpowder residue would build up in the barrel reducing the accuracy of the rifle until it was cleaned, not something you want to do in the middle of a firefight.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nRifles were not exclusive to the American continent, the Austrians had introduced the Girandoni air rifle in 1780, the Germans had their famous Jäger light infantry, and the British had introduced the Baker rifle in 1800. The Girandoni air rifle was expensive and somewhat difficult to use while the Baker rifle solved many of the problems associated with muzzle loading rifles, it was still only produced in small number owing and used by specially trained soldiers. What was needed was a weapon that could be manufactured cheaply and in great numbers and was easy enough to use that even a common infantry man could do it. Something that often goes overlooked is the issue of battlefield command and control. You'll notice that previously rifles were almost exclusively used by specialist military units (riflemen, sharpshooters, light infantry, etc.) Men were selected for these units because of their technical skills, physical stamina, and self reliance. Light infantry ere expected to operate in rough terrain over great distances away from the main body of the army. But when battle was joined between two armies it would take thousands of officers and non-commissioned officers to effectively maneuver tens or hundreds of thousands of men in tight formations, (individualists need not apply). The battlefield was a chaotic and smokey arena, its why soldiers wore such brightly colored and distinct uniforms. It was hard enough to see what you were firing it or who was firing at you, and near impossible to even see individual targets. The infantry regiment was simplest and easiest method of commanding a few hundred men to move together and ideally all fire at the same target at the same time. Their volume and weight of fire as a massed formation was what gave the infantry their killing punch.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nHowever, the landscape of infantry combat changed dramatically in 1847, the year French officers Claude-Étienne Minié and Henri-Gustave Delvigne introduced their conical-cylindrical bullet with a hollow base, hence known as the \"Minié ball\". Compared to earlier rifle technology the Minié ball was revolutionary for both its ease of use and economics. The Minié ball would be loaded into the muzzle of a rifle base first (pointy end up) and when fired the rapidly expanding and super heated gasses of the powder charge would fill and expand the base of the Minié ball allowing it to then grip the grooves the rifling. Minié balls were easy and cheap to manufacture in tremendous numbers, they were simply cast lead. The industrial revolution increasingly made the manufacturing of rifles cheap and easy, and even muskets were converted into rifles by milling grooves into their barrels. The Minié ball was also easy to use for even the common infantry soldier, it could be loaded into the muzzle of his rifle and rammed down the barrel in much the same way a musket would be loaded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50502333",
"title": "Armies in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Weapons.:Infantry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "During the 1850s, in a technological revolution of major proportions, the rifle musket began to replace the relatively inaccurate smoothbore musket in ever-increasing numbers, both in Europe and America. This process, accelerated by the Civil War, ensured that the rifled shoulder weapon would be the basic weapon used by infantrymen in both the Federal and Confederate armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "691301",
"title": "Skirmisher",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:Early modern.:Napoleonic Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "While muskets were the predominant infantry weapon of the late 18th century, the British Army learned firsthand of the importance of rifles in the American Revolutionary War and began experimenting with them shortly thereafter, resulting in the Baker rifle. Although slower to reload and more costly to produce than a musket, they were much more accurate and proved their worth in the Peninsular War. Throughout the conflict, British riflemen were able to selectively target and eliminate the officers and NCOs of French forces from outside of musket range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34958624",
"title": "M1752 Musket",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The Spanish M1752 Musket was a muzzle-loading firearm invented in 1752 and used by the Spanish Army from then until it was widely replaced by the much more effective Minié rifles during the mid-19th century. The M1752 was the first standardized long gun utilized by the Spanish Army and was deployed in the Spanish American Colonies, where it saw action during the British invasion of Cuba. Spain also provided around 10,000 up to 12,000 muskets to the American rebels during their struggle against the British.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55135369",
"title": "Royal Sardinian Army",
"section": "Section::::Armament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The musket developed in parallel with this. The first nineteenth century models appear in 1833 and they were modified in 1844 to make them more like actual infantry rifles, except shorter and more manageable on account of their lighter weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20394",
"title": "Tatmadaw",
"section": "Section::::History.:Burmese Monarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Firearms, first introduced from China in the late 14th century, became integrated into strategy only gradually over many centuries. The first special musket and artillery units, equipped with Portuguese matchlocks and cannon, were formed in the 16th century. Outside the special firearm units, there was no formal training program for the regular conscripts, who were expected to have a basic knowledge of self-defence, and how to operate the musket on their own. As the technological gap between European powers widened in the 18th century, the army was dependent on Europeans' willingness to sell more sophisticated weaponry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32831625",
"title": "Royal Burmese armed forces",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Firearms, first introduced from China in the late 14th century, became integrated into strategy only gradually over many centuries. The first special musket and artillery units, equipped with Portuguese matchlocks and cannon, were formed in the 16th century. Outside the special firearm units, there was no formal training program for the regular conscripts, who were expected to have a basic knowledge of self-defense, and how to operate the musket on their own. As the technological gap between European powers widened in the 18th century, the army was dependent on Europeans' willingness to sell more sophisticated weaponry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2134805",
"title": "Rolling block",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The first rifle based on this design was introduced at the Paris Exposition in 1867, and within a year it had become the standard military rifle of several nations, including Sweden, Norway and Denmark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9pvgd2
|
the difference between piston plane engines and car engines
|
[
{
"answer": "if car engine breaks down, you putter to side of the road and call AAA.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nif your plane engine breaks down, you fall out of the sky and call FAA. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nif you maintained your car engine at same level of your plane engine, you'd be doing inspection every morning before leaving for work. oil changes every month, certified mechanic inspections every year. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A plane engine is built for power density, a normal car engine is built for reliability\n\nFor a daily drive you really just want moderate performance in a reliable package. It doesn't particularly matter if the engine is 110 or 130 horse power or if its 10 kg heavier, it'll still work just fine for a daily driver. For a plane, you want an engine powerful enough to get you moving and light enough so you can still take off, this requires some trade offs that are more inline with racing engines than daily drivers. A propeller powered aircraft may have a power to weight ratio on the order of 1 kW/kg, but a sports car engine(no body) may have a power to weight ratio at the same level so planes are looking for far more performance out of the same sized package which means more stress and less reinforcement\n\nYou end up with the same odd maintenance requirements whenever you get to any high power density engine. GT3 cars(mid tier racing cars) have engines rated for about 60 hours of racing, and back in 2005 Formula One cars couldn't use more than 1 engine every 2 races(they were using a whole new engine), they're now restricted to three engines in a season. Races are only 305 km....\n\nAny system trying to eek every last bit of performance out ends up with maintenance and reliability issues because durable systems are heavier and the durability isn't necessary in these scenarios.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "708520",
"title": "Internal combustion engine cooling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Aircraft design more strongly favors lower weight and air-cooled designs. Rotary engines were popular on aircraft until the end of World War I, but had serious stability and efficiency problems. Radial engines were popular until the end of World War II, until gas turbine engines largely replaced them. Modern propeller-driven aircraft with internal-combustion engines are still largely air-cooled. Modern cars generally favor power over weight, and typically have water-cooled engines. Modern motorcycles are lighter than cars, and both cooling fluids are common. Some sport motorcycles were cooled with both air and oil (sprayed underneath the piston heads).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205435",
"title": "Jet fuel",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a high volatility to improve its carburetion characteristics and high autoignition temperature to prevent preignition in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (like diesel engines) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and gas turbine (turboprop, helicopter) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60323001",
"title": "Aircraft engine performance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "Aircraft engines are a mechanical component of the propulsion system on an airplane, helicopter, rocket or UAV which produces rotary energy to be transferred to a propeller or kinetic energy as a high pressure air exhaust stream. The most common aircraft engine types are turboprop, turbojet, turbofan and turboshaft, however electric engines and piston engines, both used more predominantly in recreational personal aircraft and older model aircraft also exist. Aircraft engine performance has improved dramatically since the advent of the first powered flight in 1848 by John Stringfellow. Aircraft engine manufacturers are constantly innovating to produce more efficient and more reliable engines for aircraft manufacturers. The first jet aircraft and subsequent powered flight occurred on the 27th of August 1939 by a Heinkel He 178. Today, most commercial aircraft are powered by jet engines for long-haul journeys. Efficient aircraft engines have significant positive economic impacts, as they reduce fuel costs for airline companies, enabling cheaper ticket prices and greater flight distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158681",
"title": "Aircraft engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "An aircraft engine is a component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, except for small multicopter UAVs which are almost always electric aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41236711",
"title": "Multi-cylinder engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1333,
"text": "Although there are 1, 3 and 5-cylinder engines, almost all other inline engines are built with even numbers of cylinders, as it is easier to balance out the mechanical vibrations. Another form of multiple-cylinder internal combustion engine is the radial engine, with cylinders arranged in a star pattern around a central crankshaft. Radial engines are most commonly used as aircraft engines, and in basic single-row configuration are built with odd numbers of cylinders (from 3 to 9). An odd number of cylinders is necessary in a four stroke radial, since the firing order is such that every other cylinder fires as the crankshaft rotates. Only with an odd number of cylinders will all cylinders evenly fire in this manner in two crankshaft revolutions (first the odd cylinders, followed by the even cylinders). \"Twin-row\" or \"multi-row\" radials are also built, which is basically two or more single-row radials connected front-to-back and driving a common crankshaft. In this \"twin row\", or \"multi-row\" configuration, the total number of cylinders will be an even number, although each row still has an odd number. For example, a typical single row radial such as the Wright Cyclone has 9 cylinders. The twin row Wright Twin Cyclone is based on this engine and thus has two banks of 9 cylinders, for a total of 18, an even number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1396249",
"title": "Airplane",
"section": "Section::::Propulsion.:Propeller.:Reciprocating engine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Reciprocating engines in aircraft have three main variants, radial, in-line and flat or horizontally opposed engine. The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders \"radiate\" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel and was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant. An inline engine is a reciprocating engine with banks of cylinders, one behind another, rather than rows of cylinders, with each bank having any number of cylinders, but rarely more than six, and may be water-cooled. A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158681",
"title": "Aircraft engine",
"section": "Section::::Shaft engines.:Reciprocating (piston) engines.:Horizontally opposed engine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far the most common engines used in small general aviation aircraft requiring up to per engine. Aircraft that require more than per engine tend to be powered by turbine engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
l6qgo
|
Has there ever been a mathematical "Piltdown Man"? That is, a mathematical theorem that was accepted as valid for many years, only to have a fatal flaw discovered much later?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to insult the folks here, but you could try x-posting over at /r/math.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There have been several mathematical theorems that had proofs or claims thereof that contained flaws that were later fixed. However, I can't think of an example where a theorem was \"proven\" with a flawed proof and (much) later shown to be wrong.\n\nOne interesting related anecdote I can think of is due to the advance of AI: A long open problem in checkers that was thought to be solved turned out to have a wrong solution. The original problem, the incorrect solution, and the correct solution (due to AI) were separated by about a century each! [Here is the link](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia has a partial [list of several examples]( _URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are discussions about this [here](_URL_7_) (and the opposite case, [here](_URL_2_)) full of (quite-technical) examples for which copying & pasting would be redundant. They're partially collated on [this page](_URL_4_), apparently. Nevertheless, I like [Malfati's Problem](_URL_0_), which is simple to understand but had its original solution proven completely wrong 150+ years after being published (although for most of that time nobody was trying to, and it was never exactly a cornerstone of modern mathematics).\n\nI don't know if Piltdown Man was the best comparison to make, by the way. If nothing else, these aren't outright hoaxes - the errors were from incorrect assumptions, gaps/exceptions in incomplete proofs or just mistakes - and none really gained the same exposure or public attention. If a paper comes along with similarly big implications (\"The set of real numbers is countable! I have an elementary proof of Fermat's Last Theorem! There's another integer between 3 & 4!\")... it's easier to check the evidence yourself in mathematics than it was in 1950s paleontology^1. If I can indulge my opinion for a moment, math is right in the 'sweet spot' of avoidance - it doesn't have the errors of experimental data and chance that can affect just about all scientific fields, but it's not as far-removed as pure Philosophy where almost nothing is truly certain.\n\nKnowing nothing of your level of mathematical knowledge, I suppose it does no harm to mention [Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem(s)](_URL_1_)(more Gödel ELI5: [1](_URL_6_), [2](_URL_3_)) - which *grossly* simplified means there will always be statements that are true but cannot be proven so. Mathematics can't be 'finished'. That is, it's impossible to have a perfect world - short of having a computer that can count to infinity in ten seconds^2 and check every case individually, there will always be theorems that cannot be proven and assumptions that have to be made^3. And it's hardly a stretch of the imagination to imagine that some day one or two of those turn out to be wrong after all.\n\n1. Though that doesn't mean it's *easy*... The foremost example being Fermat's Last Theorem, which took three centuries and the creation of new branches of mathematics to be proven true, or the Four-Colour Theorem which used a computer to individually check nearly two-thousand specific examples after first proving that those were all the possible variations.\n2. Which, since that's impossible, becomes a [whole other problem](_URL_5_).\n3. This is still a gross simplification, but I'm okay with it now.\n4. Markdown is really irritating sometimes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Euclid claimed that tetrahedra could be close packed to fill a volume, but in the early renaissance it was realized that his proof was flawed, and it wasn't until 2010 that someone found that they could only be packed to below something like 1-10^-58",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, it's kind of mathy, but in cryptography the [Needham-Schroeder Public Key protocol](_URL_0_) was proven secure, and subsequently shown to be vulnerable to attack, causing us to have to rethink what it means to prove something secure. Probably not what OP had in mind though",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [\"Piltdown Man\"](_URL_0_) was completely falsified and is considered a hoax. This is different than a theorem that was accepted until proven false (which happens all the time in science). Unfortunately the Piltdown Man was knowingly faked (by its creator(s)) from the beginning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fermat's last theorem has this flavor, This guy spent 9 years in his attic trying to prove the theorem, thought he did, only to realize that previous work was shaky. Not maliciously shaky, as in piltdown, but thats how science works.\nfrom Wikipedia:\n\nBy mid-1993, Wiles was sufficiently confident of his results that he presented them in three lectures delivered on June 21–23, 1993 at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences.[112] Specifically, Wiles presented his proof of the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture for semistable elliptic curves; together with Ribet's proof of the epsilon conjecture, this implied Fermat's Last Theorem. However, it soon became apparent that Wiles' initial proof was incorrect. A critical portion of the proof contained an error in a bound on the order of a particular group. The error was caught by several mathematicians refereeing Wiles' manuscript,[113] including Katz, who alerted Wiles on 23 August 1993.[114]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not to insult the folks here, but you could try x-posting over at /r/math.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There have been several mathematical theorems that had proofs or claims thereof that contained flaws that were later fixed. However, I can't think of an example where a theorem was \"proven\" with a flawed proof and (much) later shown to be wrong.\n\nOne interesting related anecdote I can think of is due to the advance of AI: A long open problem in checkers that was thought to be solved turned out to have a wrong solution. The original problem, the incorrect solution, and the correct solution (due to AI) were separated by about a century each! [Here is the link](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia has a partial [list of several examples]( _URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are discussions about this [here](_URL_7_) (and the opposite case, [here](_URL_2_)) full of (quite-technical) examples for which copying & pasting would be redundant. They're partially collated on [this page](_URL_4_), apparently. Nevertheless, I like [Malfati's Problem](_URL_0_), which is simple to understand but had its original solution proven completely wrong 150+ years after being published (although for most of that time nobody was trying to, and it was never exactly a cornerstone of modern mathematics).\n\nI don't know if Piltdown Man was the best comparison to make, by the way. If nothing else, these aren't outright hoaxes - the errors were from incorrect assumptions, gaps/exceptions in incomplete proofs or just mistakes - and none really gained the same exposure or public attention. If a paper comes along with similarly big implications (\"The set of real numbers is countable! I have an elementary proof of Fermat's Last Theorem! There's another integer between 3 & 4!\")... it's easier to check the evidence yourself in mathematics than it was in 1950s paleontology^1. If I can indulge my opinion for a moment, math is right in the 'sweet spot' of avoidance - it doesn't have the errors of experimental data and chance that can affect just about all scientific fields, but it's not as far-removed as pure Philosophy where almost nothing is truly certain.\n\nKnowing nothing of your level of mathematical knowledge, I suppose it does no harm to mention [Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem(s)](_URL_1_)(more Gödel ELI5: [1](_URL_6_), [2](_URL_3_)) - which *grossly* simplified means there will always be statements that are true but cannot be proven so. Mathematics can't be 'finished'. That is, it's impossible to have a perfect world - short of having a computer that can count to infinity in ten seconds^2 and check every case individually, there will always be theorems that cannot be proven and assumptions that have to be made^3. And it's hardly a stretch of the imagination to imagine that some day one or two of those turn out to be wrong after all.\n\n1. Though that doesn't mean it's *easy*... The foremost example being Fermat's Last Theorem, which took three centuries and the creation of new branches of mathematics to be proven true, or the Four-Colour Theorem which used a computer to individually check nearly two-thousand specific examples after first proving that those were all the possible variations.\n2. Which, since that's impossible, becomes a [whole other problem](_URL_5_).\n3. This is still a gross simplification, but I'm okay with it now.\n4. Markdown is really irritating sometimes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Euclid claimed that tetrahedra could be close packed to fill a volume, but in the early renaissance it was realized that his proof was flawed, and it wasn't until 2010 that someone found that they could only be packed to below something like 1-10^-58",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, it's kind of mathy, but in cryptography the [Needham-Schroeder Public Key protocol](_URL_0_) was proven secure, and subsequently shown to be vulnerable to attack, causing us to have to rethink what it means to prove something secure. Probably not what OP had in mind though",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [\"Piltdown Man\"](_URL_0_) was completely falsified and is considered a hoax. This is different than a theorem that was accepted until proven false (which happens all the time in science). Unfortunately the Piltdown Man was knowingly faked (by its creator(s)) from the beginning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fermat's last theorem has this flavor, This guy spent 9 years in his attic trying to prove the theorem, thought he did, only to realize that previous work was shaky. Not maliciously shaky, as in piltdown, but thats how science works.\nfrom Wikipedia:\n\nBy mid-1993, Wiles was sufficiently confident of his results that he presented them in three lectures delivered on June 21–23, 1993 at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences.[112] Specifically, Wiles presented his proof of the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture for semistable elliptic curves; together with Ribet's proof of the epsilon conjecture, this implied Fermat's Last Theorem. However, it soon became apparent that Wiles' initial proof was incorrect. A critical portion of the proof contained an error in a bound on the order of a particular group. The error was caught by several mathematicians refereeing Wiles' manuscript,[113] including Katz, who alerted Wiles on 23 August 1993.[114]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2696057",
"title": "Victor Thébault",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Victor Michael Jean-Marie Thébault (1882–1960) was a French mathematician best known for propounding three problems in geometry. The name Thébault's theorem is used by some authors to refer to the first of these problems and by others to refer to the third.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19021953",
"title": "Fermat's Last Theorem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The unsolved problem stimulated the development of algebraic number theory in the 19th century and the proof of the modularity theorem in the 20th century. It is among the most notable theorems in the history of mathematics and prior to its proof was in the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" as the \"most difficult mathematical problem\" in part because the theorem has the largest number of unsuccessful proofs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871906",
"title": "George David Birkhoff",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "George David Birkhoff (March 21, 1884 – November 12, 1944) was an American mathematician best known for what is now called the ergodic theorem. Birkhoff was one of the most important leaders in American mathematics in his generation, and during his time he was considered by many to be the preeminent American mathematician.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19081514",
"title": "List of examples of Stigler's law",
"section": "Section::::P.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pythagorean theorem, named after the mathematician Pythagoras, although it was known before him to Babylonian mathematicians (although it is not known if the Babylonians possessed a proof of the result; yet it is not known either, whether Pythagoras proved the result).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102567",
"title": "John Forbes Nash Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Major contributions.:Other mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In the Nash biography \"A Beautiful Mind\", author Sylvia Nasar explains that Nash was working on proving Hilbert's nineteenth problem, a theorem involving elliptic partial differential equations when, in 1956, he suffered a severe disappointment. He learned that an Italian mathematician, Ennio de Giorgi, had published a proof just months before Nash achieved his. Each took different routes to get to their solutions. The two mathematicians met each other at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University during the summer of 1956. It has been speculated that if only one had solved the problem, he would have been given the Fields Medal for the proof.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3124337",
"title": "Nachlass",
"section": "Section::::Notable Nachlasse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866) left notable mathematical problems, which remain unsolved, within his Nachlass. Marcus Du Sautoy writes:Most mathematicians passing through Göttingen take the time to visit the library to examine Riemann's famous unpublished scribblings, his \"Nachlass\". Not only is it a moving experience to feel a bond with such an important figure in the history of mathematics, but the \"Nachlass\" still contains many unsolved mysteries, locked inside Riemann's illegible scribbles. It has become the Rosetta stone of mathematics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19021953",
"title": "Fermat's Last Theorem",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In \"The Royale\", a 1989 episode of the 24th-century-set TV series \"\", Picard tells Commander Riker about his attempts to solve the theorem, \"still unsolved\" after 800 years. He concludes, \"In our arrogance, we feel we are so advanced. And yet we cannot unravel a simple knot tied by a part-time French mathematician working alone without a computer.\" (Andrew Wiles's insight leading to his breakthrough proof happened four months after the series ended.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4d6i4w
|
How was FDR's decision to run for a third term received by the Democratic Party? By his 4th election was there "Roosevelt Fatigue"?
|
[
{
"answer": "To ask a follow up question if I may - why was he constitutionally allowed to run for a third term and then a fourth? \nEDIT: Thanks for the replies - question answered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question - How much did WWII play in the decision to run, if any?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow-up question: What was the political sentiment when the amendment was first introduced? How did Congress know that there was political will to pass it when America has just re-elected FDR?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Roosevelt’s decision to run for a third term was heavily influenced by the foreign affairs of the time re: Germany and the struggle of the British to defend and fight back. The national sentiment towards isolationism, especially among politicians, ultimately convinced Roosevelt to seek a third term. He viewed this less as a political coup and more as a necessity to prepare the nation for war. \n\nIf anything, the Democratic Party was happy he chose to run due to Wilkie’s popularity (the Republican nominee) at the time.\n“When the delegates to the DNC convened in Chicago on July 15, 1940, there was no serious doubt he (Roosevelt) would accept the renomination.” \n\nThat’s not to say the the whole of the Democratic party rallied right away around Roosevelt. Roosevelt did not attend the convention and preferred to have his associates Perkins, Hopkins, and Ickes take care of things in Chicago. Roosevelt did not want to come out right away and declare that he wanted to nomination, so he literally played a game of telephone with Kentucky Senator Barkley, an old-timer who had a penchant for delivering emotional keynote addresses that brought the people to a frenzy. He too gave a keynote in 1940 ending with a personal note from Roosevelt: “The President has never had, and has not today, any desire or purpose to continue in the office of President, to be a candidate for that office, or to be nominated by the convention for that office. He wishes in earnestness and sincerity to make it clear that all of the delegates in this convention are free to vote for any candidate.”\n\nI’ll quote directly from FDR here: “The vast crowd in Chicago Stadium was speechless for a moment. What did Roosevelt mean? The statement said neither yes nor no. Five, ten, fifteen seconds, and then bedlam broke loose. From loudspeakers all over convention hall a powerful voice boomed out “WE WANT ROOSEVELT. WE WANT ROOSEVELT,” over and over. \n\nRoosevelt did not really want to run for a fourth term unless the war was still going on - as he was in terrible health. That being said he made his intentions clear early on this time around: “he put his cards on the table early. In a message to party chairman Robert E. Hannegan well over a week before the delegates would assemble, the president said that although he did not wish to run, his duty compelled him to do so. ‘Reluctantly, but as a good soldier, I will accept and serve in this office, if I am ordered to do so by the Commander In Chief of us all - the sovereign people of the United States.” \n\nHe won renomination on the first ballot.\n\nAll info taken from Jean Edward Smith’s fantastic “[FDR](_URL_0_)” \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57435106",
"title": "Al Smith 1932 presidential campaign",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "On July 2, H. L. Mencken declared that, by his observation, the party lacked confidence in both Roosevelt's ability to deliver a general election victory and his physical fitness for the office of president. He opined that the party had nominated the weakest candidate that had been presented before them. Mencken faulted Smith, believing that his pure spite towards Roosevelt had left him blind to the strategy that was necessary to successfully thwart Roosevelt's candidacy. Mencken also felt that Smith had lost his edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57237141",
"title": "Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms",
"section": "Section::::Election of 1940.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "As the campaign drew to a close, Willkie and other Republicans stepped up their attacks on Roosevelt's foreign policy. Willkie warned that Roosevelt's re-election would lead to the deployment of U.S. troops abroad. In response, Roosevelt stated that \"Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars.\" Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and almost 85% of the electoral vote (449 to 82). Willkie won ten states: strongly Republican states of Vermont and Maine, and eight isolationist states in the Midwest. The Democrats retained their congressional majorities, but the conservative coalition largely controlled domestic legislation and remained \"leery of presidential extensions of executive power through social programs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57237179",
"title": "Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms",
"section": "Section::::Election of 1940.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "As the campaign drew to a close, Willkie and other Republicans stepped up their attacks on Roosevelt's foreign policy. Willkie warned that Roosevelt's re-election would lead to the deployment of U.S. troops abroad. In response, Roosevelt stated that \"Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars.\" Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and almost 85% of the electoral vote (449 to 82). Willkie won ten states: strongly Republican states of Vermont and Maine, and eight isolationist states in the Midwest. The Democrats retained their congressional majorities, but the conservative coalition largely controlled domestic legislation and remained \"leery of presidential extensions of executive power through social programs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34134",
"title": "Wendell Willkie",
"section": "Section::::1940 presidential election.:General election campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Roosevelt had been surprised by the outcome of the Republican convention, having expected to oppose a conservative isolationist. The polls showed Willkie behind by only six points, and the president expected this to be a more difficult race than he had faced in his defeats of Hoover and Landon. Roosevelt felt that Willkie's nomination would remove the war issue from the campaign. Roosevelt was nominated by the Democratic convention in Chicago in July, though he stated that because of the world crisis, he would not actively campaign, leaving that to surrogates. The fact that both major-party presidential candidates favored intervention frustrated isolationists, who considered wooing Charles Lindbergh as a third party candidate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34134",
"title": "Wendell Willkie",
"section": "Section::::1940 presidential election.:General election campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Willkie concluded his campaign on November 2 with a large rally at New York's Madison Square Garden. Polls showed him four points behind Roosevelt, but with a trend towards the Republicans. Many pundits expected a tight race. On Election Day, November 5, 1940, the returns were initially encouraging, but quickly turned against Willkie. By 11 pm, radio commentators were reporting that Roosevelt had won a third term. Willkie received 45 percent of the popular vote to Roosevelt's 55 percent. The president received 27.2 million votes to Willkie's 22.3 million, and won 449 to 82 in the Electoral College. Willkie won 10 states to the president's 38 though he did better than Hoover and Landon had against Roosevelt. Willkie's popular vote total of 22,348,480 set a record for a Republican not broken until Eisenhower in 1952.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36856552",
"title": "Historical polling for United States presidential elections",
"section": "Section::::1944 United States presidential election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Roosevelt also actively campaigned in this election against his doctors' advice in order to counter Republican claims that he was close to death. Roosevelt maintained a consistent (albeit sometimes narrow) lead in the polls at all times and won a solid victory in this election due to the American successes in World War II and Roosevelt's popularity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33522",
"title": "William Howard Taft",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1909–1913).:1912 presidential campaign and election.:Moving apart from Roosevelt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Roosevelt was receiving many letters from supporters urging him to run, and Republican office-holders were organizing on his behalf. Balked on many policies by an unwilling Congress and courts in his full term in the White House, he saw manifestations of public support he believed would sweep him to the White House with a mandate for progressive policies that would brook no opposition. In February, Roosevelt announced he would accept the Republican nomination if it was offered to him. Taft felt that if he lost in November, it would be a repudiation of the party, but if he lost renomination, it would be a rejection of himself. He was reluctant to oppose Roosevelt, who helped make him president, but having become president, he was determined to be president, and that meant not standing aside to allow Roosevelt to gain another term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wroyj
|
what keeps a panting dog from hyperventilating ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Panting in dogs tends to be shallow breaths an they're not moving a ton of air, which prevents them from blowing off all their carbon dioxide (CO2) and getting respiratory alkalosis (high blood pH which causes an acid/base imbalance). But not always... dogs that are taking fast, deep breaths will suffer from the same hyperventilation syndrome as people. The body is more sensitive to a build-up of CO2 to tell us when to breathe than a lack of oxygen. Hyperventilating causes you to expel more CO2 than usual which will cause your body to stop signaling you to take a breath and you won't get sufficient oxygen. It also causes alkalosis where the blood pH increases. A dog panting regularly isn't moving more air than a dog taking in slower, deep breaths, so hyperventilation isn't an issue. The issue comes when there is labored breathing or heavy panting, which will cause these issues. Dogs are also more prone to aerophagia, where they gulp air while panting heavily and distend out their stomachs. Aerophagia can rarely lead to bloat, but can be quite uncomfortable. Questions?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The other part to this is that there is part of each breath which does not take part in gas exchange. This is that part of the breath which only reaches the upper airways rather than the lungs. This part of the airway is called the dead space and so what panting does is move air in and out of the dead space which because it doesn't reach the lungs doesn't drop the CO2",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Panting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Unlike dogs, panting is a rare occurrence in cats, except in warm weather environments. Some cats may pant in response to anxiety, fear or excitement. It can also be caused by play, exercise, or stress from things like car rides. However, if panting is excessive or the cat appears in distress, it may be a symptom of a more serious condition, such as a nasal blockage, heartworm disease, head trauma, or drug poisoning. In many cases, feline panting, especially if accompanied by other symptoms, such as coughing or shallow breathing (dyspnea), is considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044754",
"title": "Dog communication",
"section": "Section::::Auditory.:Panting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Panting is an attempt to regulate body temperature. Excitement can raise the body temperature in both humans and dogs. Although not an intentional communication, if the dog pants rapidly but is not exposed to warm conditions then this signals excitement due to stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855383",
"title": "Dik-dik",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Apparently to prevent overheating, dik-diks have elongated snouts with bellows-like muscles through which blood is pumped. Airflow and subsequent evaporation cools this blood before it is recirculated to the body. However, this panting is only implemented in extreme conditions; dik-diks can tolerate air temperatures of up to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20903424",
"title": "Breathing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Breathing has other important functions. It provides a mechanism for speech, laughter and similar expressions of the emotions. It is also used for reflexes such as yawning, coughing and sneezing. Animals that cannot thermoregulate by perspiration, because they lack sufficient sweat glands, may lose heat by evaporation through panting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22544",
"title": "Common ostrich",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Thermoregulation.:Breathing adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "The common ostrich has no sweat glands, and under heat stress they rely on panting to reduce their body temperature. Panting increases evaporative heat (and water) loss from its respiratory surfaces, therefore forcing air and heat removal without the loss of metabolic salts. Panting allows the common ostrich to have a very effective respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). Heat dissipated by respiratory evaporation increases linearly with ambient temperature, matching the rate of heat production. As a result of panting the common ostrich should eventually experience alkalosis. However, The CO concentration in the blood does not change when hot ambient temperatures are experienced. This effect is caused by a lung surface shunt. The lung is not completely shunted, allowing enough oxygen to fulfill the bird's metabolic needs. The common ostrich utilizes gular fluttering, rapid rhythmic contraction and relaxation of throat muscles, in a similar way to panting. Both these behaviors allow the ostrich to actively increase the rate of evaporative cooling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3303843",
"title": "Dog anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Temperature regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 236,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 236,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Primarily, dogs regulate their body temperature through panting and sweating via their paws. Panting moves cooling air over the moist surfaces of the tongue and lungs, transferring heat to the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21234727",
"title": "Pug",
"section": "Section::::Health problems.:Common conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Pugs, like other short-snouted breeds, have elongated palates. When excited, they are prone to \"reverse sneezing\" which causes them to quickly (and seemingly laboriously) gasp and snort. The veterinary name for this is pharyngeal gag reflex and it is caused by fluid or debris getting caught under the palate and irritating the throat or limiting breathing. Reverse sneezing episodes are usually not harmful, and massaging the dog's throat or covering its nose in order to make it breathe through its mouth can often shorten a sneezing fit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bqsf2
|
Did the Union Jack ever have a red background with a blue central cross?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. The Union Jack has only ever had a red cross (from the flag of England) and a blue background (from the flag of Scotland). Whoever coloured this image made an error. And whoever drew it too, for that matter. The British flag being lowered seems to be an illustration of the *current* Union Jack, which was adopted in 1801 after the Union with Ireland. In 1783 it would have looked [like this](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "70760",
"title": "Union Jack",
"section": "Section::::Use in other flags.:Other nations and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The Union Jack also appeared on both the 1910–1928 and 1928–1994 flags of South Africa. The 1910–1928 flag was a red ensign with the Union coat of arms in the fly. The 1928–1994 flag, based on the Prinsenvlag and commonly known as the \"oranje-blanje-blou\" (orange-white-blue), contained the Union Jack as part of a central motif at par with the flags of the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. To keep any one of the three flags from having precedence, the Union Jack is spread horizontally from the Orange Free State flag towards the hoist; closest to the hoist, it is in the superior position but since it is reversed it does not precede the other flags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189155",
"title": "Flags of the Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::Other flags.:Naval jacks and ensigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The Second Confederate Navy Jack was a rectangular cousin of the Confederate Army's battle flag and was in use from 1863 until 1865. It existed in a variety of dimensions and sizes, despite the CSN's detailed naval regulations. The blue color of the diagonal saltire's \"Southern Cross\" was much lighter than the dark blue of the battle flag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53837612",
"title": "Flag of the Socialist Republic of Romania",
"section": "Section::::Military colors.:Military colours, 1968 pattern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The jack was “an ordinary square canvas, having printed on both sides the flag colors and coat of arms of the Romanian Socialist Republic. Two crossed white anchors of the same size as the coat of arms are affixed to the blue area”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304258",
"title": "Flag of the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The current design of the Union Jack dates from the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. It consists of the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England), edged in white, superimposed on the Cross of St Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which are superimposed on the Saltire of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland). Wales is not represented in the Union Flag by Wales's patron saint, Saint David, as at the time the flag was designed Wales was part of the Kingdom of England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70760",
"title": "Union Jack",
"section": "Section::::History.:Since 1801.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "The current and second Union Jack dates from 1 January 1801 with the Act of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The new design added a red saltire, the cross of Saint Patrick, for Ireland. This is counterchanged with the saltire of St Andrew, such that the white always follows the red clockwise. The arrangement has introduced a requirement to display the flag \"the right way up\"; see specifications for flag use, below. As with the red cross, so too the red saltire is separated by a white fimbriation from the blue field. This fimbriation is repeated for symmetry on the white portion of the saltire, which thereby appears wider than the red portion. The fimbriation of the cross of St George separates its red from the red of the saltire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70760",
"title": "Union Jack",
"section": "Section::::Use in other flags.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The Union Jack is the third quarter of the 1939 coat of arms of Alabama, representing British sovereignty over the state prior to 1783. The version used is the modern flag, whereas the 1707 flag would have been used in colonial Alabama.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619595",
"title": "Jack (flag)",
"section": "Section::::Union jacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "United or confederated states have in many cases adopted a jack representing their national union. The best known is the Union Jack of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy, composed in 1606 by joining together the flags of England and Scotland. When the Kingdom of Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801, a red saltire (St Patrick's Cross) was added to form the present Union Flag. The design of the British Union Jack probably inspired later jacks of other nations, e.g. Russia and the Union Jack of Norway and Sweden. The Russian jack in its turn inspired the jacks of Bulgaria, Estonia and Latvia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
293ryd
|
why are we training so many kids to code?
|
[
{
"answer": "We teach all kids history, it doesn't make them grow into historians. (It doesn't even grow many of them into history-aware people, kids forget most of what they learn or never gain much competence at it anyway.)\n\nAdditionally a lot of the cheaper overseas folk are sub-par programmers too. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's the combination of the age-old political hot button \"we must improve education\" mixed with the current belief that only \"computer jobs\" will remain during/after automation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This article](_URL_0_) has a pretty good argument as to why people should learn to code: ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is not so that they all go and become programmers; it is because programming helps instill a certain logical way of approaching problem that is applicable in almost any situation. A well taught basic programming course should focus almost exclusively on the logic, not the language (the language is a method to gauge how the student understands the logic - this is why languages like Turing and basic are good; they allow for the logic rather than the intricacies of the language to determine the output); if the logic is taught well and the students are shown how to apply it, then it can be applied in almost any situation. For example, let's say you are working on a car. You have a problem where the steering wheel shakes back and forth as you drive. To begin with, you determine what can cause the symptoms (loose tie rod, worn wheel bearing, worn steering gear, bad ball joints...). The next step is to see how to narrow it down (the wheels don't have any play, hub and ball joints are good, the tie rods are tight, but when the steering wheel is turned, the steering box gets the input, but doesn't provide any output): the steering box is broken.\n\nAfter you have ruled out the possibilities, you then are left with the (most likely) solution. This method of thinking can be used to solve almost any problem of any size by breaking it down into it's component parts and testing each individually. In the end, programming is essentially applied problem solving, and it gives skills that can be used no matter what field they end up working in.\n\nTL;DR: We are raising a generation of Vulcans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1987302",
"title": "Children's Creativity Museum",
"section": "Section::::Exhibits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In the Tech Lab, children are introduced to coding by learning how to program a robot to complete a series of tasks, navigate mazes, and play games. Each activity is designed to promote creative problem-solving in novice programmers. More experienced coders can program robots to respond to sensor inputs and use loops to avoid obstacles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44165655",
"title": "Ladies Learning Code",
"section": "Section::::Program of Canada Learning Code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "\"Teens Learning Code\" offers those too old for \"Girls Learning Code\" yet too young for \"Ladies learning Code\" a program that is tailored to teens. It is open to female-identified, trans, and non-binary youth ages 13-17 and teaches various technological skills such as webmaking, gamemaking, and even app inventing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58112175",
"title": "Kids Code Jeunesse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Kids Code Jeunesse (KCJ) is a Canadian not for profit organization based in Montreal, Quebec which helps children in Canada have an opportunity to learn computational thinking through code. This organization, founded in 2013 by Kate Arthur, is primarily used by children, teachers, and parents with the skills needed for the modern society. KCJ wants more creatures than producers. The intent is not to replace existing courses with computer science, but rather complement them with coding. Kids Code Jeunesse uses intuitive, open source, free tools such as Scratch and Trinket. Its education materials are developed for children aged 5 to 12 years old. By targeting a younger age group, KCJ is helping boost the children's abilities in communication, collaboration, problem-solving, and creative thinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89842",
"title": "Sociolinguistics",
"section": "Section::::Differences according to class.:Social language codes.:The codes and child development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Bernstein explains language development according to the two codes in light of their fundamentally different values. For instance, a child exposed solely to restricted code learns extraverbal communication over verbal, and therefore may have a less extensive vocabulary than a child raised with exposure to both codes. While there is no inherent lack of value to restricted code, a child without exposure to elaborated code may encounter difficulties upon entering formal education, in which standard, clear verbal communication and comprehension is necessary for learning and effective interaction both with instructors and other students from differing backgrounds. As such, it may be beneficial for children who have been exposed solely to restricted code to enter pre-school training in elaborated code in order to acquire a manner of speaking that is considered appropriate and widely comprehensible within the education environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36475843",
"title": "Code Club",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Code Club is a voluntary initiative, founded in 2012, which aims to provide opportunities for children aged 9 to 13 to developing coding skills through free after-school clubs. As of November 2015, over 3,800 schools and other public venues had established a Code Club, regularly attended by an estimated 44,000 young people across the United Kingdom. The organisation has also expanded internationally, and there are now over 6,000 Code Club operating worldwide. Volunteer programmers and software developers give their time to run Code Club sessions, passing on their programming skills and mentoring the young students. Children create their own computer games, animations and websites, learning how to use technology creatively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5481447",
"title": "C++11",
"section": "Section::::Design goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Attention to beginners is considered important, because most computer programmers will always be such, and because many beginners never widen their knowledge, limiting themselves to work in aspects of the language in which they specialize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46367882",
"title": "Made with Code",
"section": "Section::::Projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Made with Code revolves primarily around providing online activities for young girls to learn coding on its website. Many of Made with Code's projects use Blockly programming, a visual editor that writes programs by assembling individual blocks. Step by step instructions are provided to guide users. Along the way, works may either be discarded or saved and downloaded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9b3z7w
|
why is a sugary drink sticky when spilled, but an artificially sweetened one not?
|
[
{
"answer": "Artificial sweeteners are much more concentrated. So, when they dry out, there is less leftover. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sugary drinks contain sugar, which is highly attracted to water. Even when the spilled drink \"dries,\" it's not completely dry. The sugar in the liquid (which of course does not evaporate like water), is still holding onto a lot water molecules causing a sticky feeling. Essentially, a spilled sugary drink is a dilute syrup. Now, diet drinks have a far less concentration of sweetener, thus, they are much less sticky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "300696",
"title": "Syrup",
"section": "Section::::For beverages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "A variety of beverages call for sweetening to offset the tartness of some juices used in the drink recipes. Granulated sugar does not dissolve easily in cold drinks or ethyl alcohol. Since the following syrups are liquids, they are easily mixed with other liquids in mixed drinks, making them superior alternatives to granulated sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "581712",
"title": "Diet drink",
"section": "Section::::Sweetening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Multiple artificial sweeteners can be used to give diet soft drinks a sweet taste without sugar. Sometimes two sweeteners are used in the same beverage. Opinion is mixed as to the taste of these beverages: some think they lack the taste of their sugar-sweetened counterparts, while others think the taste is similar. Some also note an unusual non-sugary aftertaste. Some feel the opposite—that diet drinks have no aftertaste and that drinks sweetened by high fructose corn syrup have a gritty, over-sweet aftertaste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39164260",
"title": "Sweetened beverage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "562526",
"title": "Sugar alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Sugar alcohols are used widely in the food industry as thickeners and sweeteners. In commercial foodstuffs, sugar alcohols are commonly used in place of table sugar (sucrose), often in combination with high intensity artificial sweeteners to counter the low sweetness. Xylitol and sorbitol are popular sugar alcohols in commercial foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "581712",
"title": "Diet drink",
"section": "Section::::Sweetening.:Sucralose and acesulfame potassium; \"sugar-free\" soft drinks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Advocates say drinks employing these sweeteners have a more natural sugar-like taste than those made just with aspartame, and do not have a strong aftertaste. The newer aspartame-free drinks can also be safely consumed by phenylketonurics, because they do not contain phenylalanine. Critics say the taste is not better, merely different, or note that the long-term health risks of all or certain artificial sweeteners is unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2948536",
"title": "Rocket candy",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Fuels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Many different sugars can be used as the fuel for rocket candy, including glucose, fructose, and sucrose; however, sucrose is the most common. Sorbitol, a sugar alcohol commonly used as a sweetener in food, produces a less brittle propellant with a slower burn rate. This reduces the risk of cracking propellant grains. Sugars with a double bonded oxygen, such as fructose and glucose, are less thermally stable and tend to caramelize when overheated, but have a lower melting point for ease of preparation. Sugars that only have alcohol groups, like sorbitol, are much less prone to this decomposition. Some other commonly used sugars include erythritol, xylitol, lactitol, maltitol, or mannitol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17448605",
"title": "Truvia",
"section": "Section::::Safety and health effects.:Gastrointestinal side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Most of Truvia's side effects are related to erythritol which is a sugar alcohol. Sugar alcohols are valuable as sweeteners since they cause little to no rise in blood glucose levels as sugar does. However, the downside to most sugar alcohols is their propensity to cause gastrointestinal side effects. Erythritol is unique in that among these compounds it has one of the most favorable nutritional profiles. Erythritol is almost as sweet as sucrose, is virtually non-caloric, and cannot be fermented by gut bacteria present in the small intestine. According to Truvia's website, up to 90% of erythritol is absorbed by the small intestine and excreted unchanged in the urine. Only a small amount of it will reach the large intestine where GI symptoms, like bloating, flatulence, and cramping usually originate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zu37a
|
Benedict Arnold is regarded as the biggest traitor of the American Revolution. I've heard that he was treated poorly by America beforehand though. What's his story?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here's a previous thread](_URL_0_) with a response by /u/zuzahin that goes in-depth into Arnold's story and motivations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "417858",
"title": "Benedict Arnold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Benedict Arnold (June 14, 1801) was an American military officer who served as a general during the American Revolutionary War, fighting for the American Continental Army before defecting to the British in 1780. George Washington had given him his fullest trust and placed him in command of the fortifications at West Point, New York. Arnold planned to surrender the fort to British forces, but the plot was discovered in September 1780 and he fled to the British. His name quickly became a byword in the United States for treason and betrayal because he led the British army in battle against the very men whom he had once commanded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6245560",
"title": "William Arnold (settler)",
"section": "Section::::Notable descendants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "A great-great grandson named Benedict Arnold became notorious for his betrayal of America during the American Revolutionary War. Other descendants include US Presidents George Herbert Walker Bush and George W. Bush; Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry, American hero of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812, and his younger brother Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, who was sent across the Pacific Ocean in 1852 by President Millard Fillmore to open Japan to western trade; and Stephen Arnold Douglas, who debated Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858 while vying for an Illinois Senate seat, afterwards losing to Lincoln in the 1860 United States presidential election. A published line of descent from Arnold to U.S. President James A. Garfield was later disproven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1545248",
"title": "To the Inhabitants of America",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1411,
"text": "Benedict Arnold entered the American Revolution as a patriot fighting for American independence. Arnold had many successful campaigns, and was considered by many to be the best general and most accomplished leader in the Continental Army. In September 1777 he led a division of the army commanded by Horatio Gates against British General John Burgoyne at the Battle of Freeman's Farm. Following that battle, disagreements between Arnold and Gates boiled over, for reasons including Gates' failure to credit Arnold for his role in the battle, and Gates removed Arnold from command. In the Battle of Bemis Heights in early October, Arnold, against Gates' orders, took to the battlefield, where he played a key role in rallying the troops to attack the British position. In 1778 the American rebels formed an alliance with France, which Arnold was very much opposed to (as demonstrated by the letter). Arnold also made enemies everywhere he went, including politically well-connected military officers and members of the Continental Congress. Charges and countercharges between Arnold and his enemies led to multiple courts martial and investigations of Arnold's financial management of his various commands. These actions, and the influence of his second wife, Peggy Shippen, the daughter of a wealthy Philadelphia Loyalist, led Arnold to begin negotiations to change sides with British Major John André in 1779.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151011",
"title": "François Barbé-Marbois",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Written in 1780, while secretary to the French Legation to the US Army: \"D'Complot du Benedict Arnold & Sir Henri Clinton contre Eunas` States du America General George Washington\" One of the first accounts of Arnold's treason, was not published until 1816.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27526505",
"title": "Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1781",
"section": "Section::::British Army service.:New London.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Arnold was not in a position to influence what transpired at Fort Griswold, as he remained in New London and observed the action at Fort Griswold across the river. He was blamed by many on both sides for the affair, however, because he was the commanding officer who bore full responsibility for the actions of his men. American sentiments were further inflamed against him for the simple fact that he had betrayed and killed those among whom he had grown up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2475215",
"title": "Boot Monument",
"section": "Section::::Arnold's perceived offenses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Arnold suffered what he considered a series of slights and insults by the Continental Congress in the months and years following Saratoga, as the Revolutionary War continued. He also opposed treaties that brought French military assistance to the Americans. The wounded Arnold began negotiations with British agents that culminated in his changing sides in September 1780. As part of these negotiations, Arnold attempted unsuccessfully to hand his American command, the key fortification of West Point, over to the British. This attempt failed because of the capture of Major John André, and Arnold escaped to the British lines, was given the rank of a British brigadier general, and the British exchequer paid him £6,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1545248",
"title": "To the Inhabitants of America",
"section": "Section::::American reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Many New England newspapers published responses to Arnold's letter. The \"Connecticut Courant\" published a response by Noah Webster that answered Arnold with \"patriotic ardor.\" Washington's reaction to Arnold's treason was very bitter; he saw Arnold as villainous, misguided, and completely evil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6sf7rp
|
why are puns generally frowned upon (albeit humorously)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they're low effort, short jokes. They're like a reddit shit post. It can be funny, but it can't be elaborate and abstract.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [Do people actually hate puns or do they just pretend not to like them whenever they hear one? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [Why are puns considered \"bad\" jokes? ](_URL_0_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do people hate puns so much? I feel like they can be some of the most clever forms of jokes. ](_URL_2_)\n1. [Why are puns considered \"bad\"? ](_URL_3_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because groaning and rolling your eyes is the response we hope for when we make a terrible pun. It's basically applause",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Puns are like the Country Music of jokes:\n\nThere is a section of the community who absolutely love them, but the majority hate them (or at least profess to). They would say (with some justification, perhaps) that they are shallow, repetitive, and have little artistic merit.\n\nAnd while that is true of the majority, the best ones can really make you think.\n\nIt's no coincidence, I think, that puns proliferate in the titles and lyrics of country songs: All Over Me; Cleopatra, Queen of Denial; There Goes my Life; She Let Herself Go; I Can't Love You Back etc, etc.\n\nTl;dr: Puntry Music",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24145",
"title": "Pun",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Comedy and jokes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Puns are a common source of humour in jokes and comedy shows. They are often used in the punch line of a joke, where they typically give a humorous meaning to a rather perplexing story. These are also known as feghoots. The following example comes from the movie \"\", though the punchline stems from far older Vaudeville roots. The final line puns on the stock phrase \"the lesser of two evils\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24145",
"title": "Pun",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Non-humorous puns were and are a standard poetic device in English literature. Puns and other forms of wordplay have been used by many famous writers, such as Alexander Pope, James Joyce, Vladimir Nabokov, Robert Bloch, Lewis Carroll, John Donne, and William Shakespeare, who is estimated to have used over 3,000 puns in his plays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24145",
"title": "Pun",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Comedy and jokes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Puns often are used in the titles of comedic parodies. A parody of a popular song, movie, etc., may be given a title that hints at the title of the work being parodied, replacing some of the words with ones that sound or look similar. For example, collegiate a cappella groups are often named after musical puns to attract fans through attempts at humor. Such a title can immediately communicate both that what follows is a parody and also which work is about to be parodied, making any further \"setup\" (introductory explanation) unnecessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24145",
"title": "Pun",
"section": "Section::::In the media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Paronomasia is prevalent orally as well. Salvatore Attardo believes that puns are verbal humor. He talks about Pepicello and Weisberg's linguistic theory of humor and believes the only form of linguistic humor is limited to puns. This is because a pun is a play on the word itself. Attardo believes that only puns are able to maintain humor and this humor has significance. It is able to help soften a situation and make it less serious, it can help make something more memorable, and using a pun can make the speaker seem witty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24145",
"title": "Pun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic, or figurative language. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is an incorrect variation on a correct expression, while a pun involves expressions with multiple (correct or fairly reasonable) interpretations. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, especially as their usage and meaning are usually specific to a particular language or its culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179375",
"title": "Comedian",
"section": "Section::::Jokes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "There are many established formats for jokes. One example is the pun or double-entendre, where similar words are interchanged. The Two Ronnies often used puns and double-entendre. Stewart Francis and Tim Vine are examples of current comedians who deploy numerous puns. Jokes based on puns tend to be very quick and easy to digest, which sometimes leads to other joke forms being overlooked, for example in the Funniest Joke of the Fringe awards. Other jokes may rely on confounding an audience's expectations through a misleading setup (known as a 'pull back and reveal' in the UK and a 'leadaway' in the US). Ed Byrne is an example of a comedian who has used this technique. Some jokes are based on ad absurdum extrapolations, for example much of Richard Herring and Ross Noble's standup.. In ironic humour there is an intentional mismatch between a message and the form in which it is conveyed (for example the work of Danielle Ward). Other joke forms include observation (Michael McIntyre), whimsy (David O'Doherty), self-deprecation (Robin Williams) and parody (Diane Morgan).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24145",
"title": "Pun",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Rhetoric.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Puns can function as a rhetorical device, where the pun serves as a persuasive instrument for an author or speaker. Although puns are sometimes perceived as trite or silly, if used responsibly a pun \"…can be an effective communication tool in a variety of situations and forms\". A major difficulty in using puns in this manner is that the meaning of a pun can be interpreted very differently according to the audience's background and can significantly subtract from a message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1syhs2
|
why does it seem that most movies have a "happy" ending?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because most people like happy endings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why would you want to leave the theater depressed? The point is to have a closing that let's you leave on a positive note. There are French (and of course other places) movies however, that end without happiness. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most movies the writer has a specific story to tell and the ending is determined by the story. Take a movie like Fever Pitch. It doesn't matter that the Red Sox won the Series the year the movie was made. It only matters that the boy-meets-girl, boy-loses-girl, boy-wins-girl story be told. The movie re-shot and added a couple scenes to reflect the Sox in the Series. \n\nCounter that with a movie like Suicide Kings. It has a dark ending. A couple different endings were shown to test audiences and the highest ratings were for the dark ending. \n\nAnother example would be the Jennifer Anison/Vince Vaughn flick, The Break Up. That had a happy ending that the test audiences didn't like. It was re-shot and the less happy ending was added. \n\nSo, the movie ends how the film-maker and the audience want the movie to end. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that's how the story telling formula works.\n\nMeet the hero. Hero faces adversity. Hero overcomes adversity.\n\nThat is 90% of all movies (and TV shows and books) out there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5083366",
"title": "Johnny Handsome",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 2302,
"text": "A lot of people, it just kicks 'em right in the head. This is a strange thing to say, but 30 or 40 years ago, I don't think the ending would have been quite so surprising. Because, even though Hollywood is built upon the convention of happy endings, in the old days there was always the 20 percent, or something like that, that weren't. And therefore, if you didn't give 'em a happy ending it wasn't, like, out of nowhere. Now, there's just no movies that are like this. They'll have muted, sad endings ... but the idea that you're gonna shoot down your protagonist, shoot him dead ... But, you know, at the same time I think the film does have a positive ending. It's not a happy ending, but it's a positive ending. I mean, the character does achieve redemption on his own terms. And he always understood what the stakes were, he understood the code he was living by ... But I suspect that that's probably too difficult a calculation for most observers ... I think there's a problem with audiences coming into the movie, because they don't know what to expect. I always thought the proper title of the movie should be, in the Elizabethan sense, \"The Tragedy of Johnny Handsome\". If you told everybody that's what the title of the movie was, they'd kind of be prepared. The story is organized along the lines of a rather more classic tragedy. It's certainly organized around the principle that character is destiny. ... I think it's a movie about moral choice, not psychological truth. If there is such a thing as psychological truth. I think my movies are very much about character. I take the view of character that has basically prevailed for about 2,000 years, up until the end of the second World War. Which is -- this is a vulgar oversimplification -- but it's that `What I do is my character, my actions define my character.' After the second World War, thanks to theories of modern psychology and confusion about what was scientific and what wasn't, the definition of character became much more, `How did I become what I am?' I am not so much interested in that theory as I am in the previous theory. And I think that throws you profoundly out of step with your peers and with the critical community. Not so much around the world, but certainly in the United States. But I think it's changing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55312356",
"title": "Happy Wedding (2018 film)",
"section": "Section::::Critical Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "\"123telugu\" gave the film three stars and stated, \"On the whole, Happy Wedding is a passable family drama which showcases a contemporary theme which is synonymous with the current generation. The emotions work well but the film takes its own time to register as it is based on urban relationships and bonding. Because of this, some might really like it and a few other sections may disown it right away giving the film a limited appeal this weekend.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217793",
"title": "The Happy Ending",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The Happy Ending is a 1969 drama film written and directed by Richard Brooks, which tells the story of a repressed housewife who longs for liberation from her husband and daughter. It stars Jean Simmons (who received an Oscar nomination), John Forsythe, Shirley Jones, Lloyd Bridges and Teresa Wright.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301456",
"title": "Happy ending",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "In storylines where the protagonists are in physical danger, a happy ending mainly consists of their survival and successful completion of the quest or mission; where there is no physical danger, a happy ending may be lovers consummating their love despite various factors which may have thwarted it. A considerable number of storylines combine both situations. In Steven Spielberg's version of \"War of the Worlds\", the happy ending consists of three distinct elements: The protagonists all survive the countless perils of their journey; humanity as a whole survives the alien invasion; \"and\" the protagonist father regains the respect of his estranged children. The plot is so constructed that all three are needed for the audience's feeling of satisfaction in the end. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56779815",
"title": "The Happys",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Responding to festival screenings of \"The Happys\", critics called the movie \"one ironically fun film about what it means to be happy\" that \"jumps fearlessly into its subject matter.\" Variety described \"The Happys\" as a \"middling work,\" \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote that it is a \"quirky, insiderish L.A. dramedy,\" the \"Los Angeles Times\" said it was \"a cutesy classic Hollywood tale adapted for modern times,\" and \"The Advocate\" called \"The Happys\" \"charming and thoughtful.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34737518",
"title": "Aah (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:Theme and plot change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The end of the film was then changed from a tragic one to the happy one, but the change destroyed the thematic unity of the text. Bunny Reuben, who wrote Kapoor's biography \"Raj Kapoor, The Fabulous Showman\", gives his rationale for the change: \"The film had some of Shankar-Jaikishan's loveliest music, and a 'Devdas'-ian tragic ending which was changed to the conventional happy ending because the film didn't do well in its first release.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32070836",
"title": "The Happy Ending (1931 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The Happy Ending is a 1931 British drama film directed by Millard Webb and starring George Barraud, Daphne Courtney and Alfred Drayton. Its plot concerns a father who deserted his family some years before returning home only to find his wife has told his children and neighbours that he died as a hero when he abandoned them. A silent version, of \"The Happy Ending\" had been made in 1925 based on the same play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2up5za
|
How popular were the Odyssey and the Iliad in Ancient and Classical Greece?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! you may be interested in these posts\n\n* [how commonly known would the story of the Iliad, have been in the second century BC classical world?](_URL_3_)\n\n* [How well known would the stories in the Odyssey have been to the average Greek citizen at the highest point of its popularity?](_URL_2_)\n\n* [How influential were Homer's works The Iliad and The Odyssey throughout history and how would the world be different if those stories never existed?](_URL_1_)\n\n* [Are the Iliad/Odyssey and the Epic of Gilgamesh famous for still existing or were they the best of their age?](_URL_4_)\n\nof possible tangential interest\n\n* [Did the ancient Greeks view Homer's Iliad and Odyssey as fact? How historical are these two works?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [Were stories such as The Iliad and The Odyssey considered religious \"text\" in ancient Greece?](_URL_5_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For these works to have survived for so long, it must be assumed that they were popular, but in a different sense than you might think. To understand their popularity we have to note two things: First that it is accepted that these works were originally told orally, and were later written down into more or less the form we have today. Second is that for the works to survive to today they must have been written down several times in several places. \n\nThe First Part: This is called Oral-formulaic Composition and was first noted by Milman Parry and Albert Lord in what would later be called the Parry-Lord Theory. This theory essentially stated that epics were NOT originally written down, but instead passed down through oral tradition, particularly through bards. These bards remembered the key plot points of the stories (e.g. Achilles killing hector, or Patroclus' aristeia), and then filled in the rest of the details as they sang. If you read certain translations of the works, you will notice how they could do this. Things like \"swift-footed Achilles\" or \"Enduring Odysseus\" are repeated often and are examples of how the bards might sing the song while maintaining meter and reminding the audience of what the characters were like. This is just an example of the legacy of the oral tradition remaining in Homer's work.\n\nTypically the bard would sing these songs over the course of a few days. You will notice the Iliad is 24 books long, with climactic moments in the 8th and 16th book (The Trojans pushing back, and the death of Patroclus) which would suggest the story was told over three days, so that people would be excited to return the next day, making the bard more money.\n\nNow *what does this mean?* There were likely many tales sung by bards before writing even existed. For these two tales to be chosen to be written down is significant in itself. Ancient writing took a long, they didn't have the printing press or any other machine to mass produce these works, so they must have been important for anyone to even bother writing them down. On top of this, the fact that they survived until today (or the Renaissance to be exact) is even more significant. \n\nIn short, a huge amount of the written works of the world were lost from the time these stories were first written (~760 B.C.) until today. So for us to have essentially complete editions of these works, on top of the fact that they wrote them down at all, is incredibly significant, and would indicate their popularity to the Greeks and the scholars who followed them (of every age). \n\nThis is my first post here, and a lot of this comes from my own knowledge through classes, I included a few sources but if you would like more let me know. \n\nEdits for grammar.\n\n-------\nSources:\nA summary of the original work: Parry, Adam (editor) (1971), The making of Homeric verse. The collected papers of Milman Parry, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n\nA more recent analysis of the Oral Tradition:\n_URL_0_\n\nAlso a former professor of mine was the son of Albert Lord, I took two classes from him, one on epics, and one on Tolkien.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Homeric poems seem to have been composed in the early-to-mid-7th century BCE, ca. 670-650 in the case of the *Iliad*, but though the stories of the Trojan War and of Odysseus' return were popular throughout the Greek and Etruscan worlds from a very early date, the poems themselves seem to have had only limited dissemination for the first 100-150 years of their existence. From about 550-520 BCE onwards, they experienced a meteoric rise in popularity, and they have never lost that popularity since.\n\nWe first hear of Homer in a historical context in Sikyon, ca. 570 BCE, when the local king allegedly banned performances of Homer because his poetry praised his rivals the Argives. However, that story only makes sense if we understand it as talking about the lost *Thebaid*, not the two epics that have actually survived. An even more doubtful reference tells us that the 7th century BCE poet Kallinos attributed the *Thebaid* to Homer. These stories are the only references to Homer or to Homeric poetry that we can be confident of prior to 550 BCE: we have no evidence of anyone knowing the *Iliad* and *Odyssey* at all.^1\n\nAfter 550, everything changes. Previously, vase-paintings of Trojan War scenes used material from throughout the legend of the war; after 550 there is a sudden, very sharp increase in popularity of scenes relating to the *Iliad*, and by the early 400s it's possible to see direct influence from the *Iliad* in the pictorial tradition. Stesichoros, Herakleitos, the *Hymn to Apollo*, and Simonides making explicit references to Homer or \"the man from Chios\". Theagenes of Rhegion writes the first piece of scholarship on Homer, giving an allegorical interpretation of the gods. A fairly compelling argument has been made that the *Iliad* was first popularised at the Panathenaia of 523/522 BCE; the argument is conjectural in parts, but we do have good evidence that Homer wasn't performed in Syracuse until 504, so it's certainly not implausible. And finally, any kind of fixation of the Homeric epics in writing relies on writing having a particular cultural function, and Jesper Svenbro has shown from epigraphic evidence that it was only ca. 540 that written texts began to acquire the function of *reproducing* an utterance, as opposed to *being* an utterance (that is: earlier inscriptions refer to the inscribed object as \"I\", or address the reader as \"you\"; writing was supposed to be an utterance that made sense at the moment of reading, not an archive of an old utterance).\n\nWhat seems to have happened is that up to this point, the *Iliad* and *Odyssey* were transmitted orally in a poetic tradition on Chios, as the heritage of a group of poets there who were called (or who called themselves) the *Homeridai*, \"sons of Homer\". This appears to be why Simonides and the *Hymn to Apollo* treat \"Homer\" as Chian. The name \"Homer\" itself was a marker of a poetic heritage; whether or not a real man of that name had ever existed, that was the meaning it had for people of the 6th century BCE -- a label for a body of poetry linked by the affiliation of the poets who created it: the *Iliad* and *Odyssey*, but also the *Thebaid*, the *Epigonoi*, the *Hymn to Apollo*, the *Margites*, and other pieces. Similar heritage labels emerged elsewhere, under the names of \"Orpheus\", \"Mousaios\", \"Hesiod\", and possibly others (I suspect Sappho and Solon should also be regarded more as heritage labels than as historical individuals, even if those individuals actually existed).\n\nAfter 550-520, the *Iliad* and *Odyssey* were both treated as classics, memorised by the elite, recited at aristocratic parties, performed in major civic competitions, imitated and excerpted by other poets, quoted by philosophers, and studied by scholars. From 520 BCE up to the present, their status as the preeminent classics of Greek literature has been unchallenged. In western Europe they were much less read in the period ca. 300 CE-1500 CE, but before and after that date-range they have also reigned there as the key foundational works of Western literature.\n\n---\n\n**Note** \n^(1)There are several other pre-550 BCE references that have been *interpreted as* references to Homer, or as quotations, but since the nature of Homeric poetry and the mythical content of the poems is in every way traditional, it is more parsimonious to interpret these as cognate with Iliadic/Odyssean material, rather than derived from Iliadic/Odyssean material. These references are: (1) \"Nestor's cup\", ca. 730 BCE; (2) Tyrtaios fr. 10.21-30 West; (3) Alkman fr. 80 Page; (4) Mimnermos fr. 2.1-4, fr. 14.1-3; (5) Mousaios fr. 5 D-K; (6) Alkaios fr. 44 and fr. 395; (7) the Hesiodic *Shield* as a supposed imitation of *Iliad* 18; (8) knowledge of the *Iliad* attributed to Solon (Plutarch *Solon* 10, Strabo 9.1.10).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22349",
"title": "Odyssey",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The Odyssey (; \"Odýsseia\", in Classical Attic) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the \"Iliad\", the other Homeric epic. The \"Odyssey\" is fundamental to the modern Western canon; it is the second-oldest extant work of Western literature, while the \"Iliad\" is the oldest. Scholars believe the \"Odyssey\" was composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the Greek coastal region of Anatolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19381951",
"title": "Iliad",
"section": "Section::::Influence on the arts and literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The \"Iliad\" was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the \"Oresteia\", comprising \"Agamemnon\", \"The Libation Bearers\" and \"The Eumenides\", follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19381951",
"title": "Iliad",
"section": "Section::::Warfare in the \"Iliad\".:Influence on classical Greek warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "While the Homeric poems (the \"Iliad\" in particular) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, \"it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" by heart.\" Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the \"Iliad\", and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148363",
"title": "Ancient Greek",
"section": "Section::::Dialects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems, the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\", and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19381951",
"title": "Iliad",
"section": "Section::::Date and textual history.:The \"Iliad\" as oral tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "In antiquity, the Greeks applied the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\" as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed \"consistent\" epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena's birthday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13151",
"title": "Gilgamesh",
"section": "Section::::Later influence.:In antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "The \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" exerted substantial influence on the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\", two epic poems written in ancient Greek during the eighth century BC. According to Barry B. Powell, an American classical scholar, early Greeks were probably exposed to Mesopotamian oral traditions through their extensive connections to the civilizations of the ancient Near East and this exposure resulted in the similarities that are seen between the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" and the Homeric epics. Walter Burkert, a German classicist, observes that the scene in Tablet VI of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" in which Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar's advances and she complains before her mother Antu, but is mildly rebuked by her father Anu, is directly paralleled in Book V of the \"Iliad\". In this scene, Aphrodite, the later Greek adaptation of Ishtar, is wounded by the hero Diomedes and flees to Mount Olympus, where she cries to her mother Dione and is mildly rebuked by her father Zeus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455379",
"title": "Hellenistic period",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Around 240 BC Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave from southern Italy, translated Homer's \"Odyssey\" into Latin. Greek literature would have a dominant effect on the development of the Latin literature of the Romans. The poetry of Virgil, Horace and Ovid were all based on Hellenistic styles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gsv7q
|
Could someone clear this whole thing up? (When smoking from a bowl made of aluminum, can aluminum enter the lungs?)
|
[
{
"answer": "This guy has been smoking too much and not taking enough science courses. The list of ignorant things is kind of long, and my patience for stoners in pretty short, so I'm going to keep this brief and to the point. (In case anyone decides to nitpick details.)\n\nA Butane lighter simply doesn't have the actual heat out put needed to melt aluminum. Even if it did, you would not be able to hold a piece of aluminum with your hand and melt the other end, it would burn you. There is more to melting metal than temperature. Oxidizing aluminum foil is not the same as melting it.\n\nI seriously doubt the guy died of aluminum poisoning, unless he ingested a significant about of aluminum from some other source. his lungs were shot from smoking weed, it's every bit as bad for your lungs are smoking cigarettes, probably worse because they are unfiltered typically. \n\nCommon antacids contain aluminum [Wiki](_URL_0_) if it was so poisonous we'd be seeing people die all the time and it would have been banned a while ago.\n\nEdit: Reading the linked thread makes me hope that a lot of those guys die before having children.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You don't have to melt the Al to get it into the lungs, you just have to mince it fine enough to get it suspended in the air. I can see this happening with heating Al foil, especially repeated heating. \n\nI don't know exactly how they are using it in the linked discussion, though, and I don't know the exact chemistry involved, so take that as you will.\n\nAlthough aluminum in your digestive tract isn't an issue at any sane dose, ANY particulate matter, especially metals, can really mess up your lungs. I'm not talking about vaporized aluminum (I actually think that would be less dangerous), I'm thinking more along the lines of a fine aluminum powder. \n\nThis would get down into the lungs and make your clearance system go nuts, eventually leading to COPD-like symptoms and possible brochiectasis. \n\nI doubt this would happen from a single exposure, or even multiple infrequent exposures. And it is certainly not specific to aluminum. But chronic regular exposure could cause serious problems, especially in people prone to COPD. And there is a mechanistic posibility of marijuana use increasing COPD risk over that of tobacco smoking at the same level. To my knowledge it has not been linked statistically, but the mechanism is there).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263888",
"title": "Aluminium arsenide",
"section": "Section::::Effects of exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Inhalation of aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation to the respiratory system. It may also cause chronic arsenic poisoning, ulceration of the nasal septum, liver damage and cancer/diseases of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. Aluminum arsenide is poisonous if ingested and may cause gastrointestinal and skin effects and acute arsenic poisoning. Chronic implications from ingestion include arsenic poisoning, gastrointestinal disturbances, liver damage, and cancer/disease of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. If applied to the skin, aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation, but there are no chronic health effects recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402681",
"title": "Aluminum can",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Use of aluminum in cans began in 1957. Aluminum offers greater malleability, resulting in ease of manufacture; this gave rise to the two-piece can, where all but the top of the can is simply stamped out of a single piece of aluminum, rather than laboriously constructed from two pieces of steel. The inside of the can is lined by spray coating an epoxy lacquer or polymer to protect the aluminum from being corroded by acidic contents such as carbonated beverages and imparting a metallic taste to the beverage. The epoxy may contain bisphenol A. A label is either printed directly on the side of the can or will be glued to the outside of the curved surface, indicating its contents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "402681",
"title": "Aluminum can",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Most aluminum cans are made of two pieces. The bottom and body are \"drawn\" or \"drawn and ironed\" from a flat plate or shallow cup. After filling, the can \"end\" is sealed onto the top of the can. This is supplemented by a sealing compound to ensure that the top is air tight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382986",
"title": "Hydrogen storage",
"section": "Section::::Proposals and research.:Chemical storage.:Synthesized hydrocarbons.:Aluminum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Aluminum has been proposed as an energy storage method by a number of researchers. Hydrogen can be extracted from aluminum by reacting it with water. To react with water, however, aluminum must be stripped of its natural oxide layer, a process which requires pulverization, chemical reactions with caustic substances, or alloys. The byproduct of the reaction to create hydrogen is aluminum oxide, which can be recycled back into aluminum with the Hall–Héroult process, making the reaction theoretically renewable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39022925",
"title": "Aluminium powder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Aluminum powder is powdered aluminum. This was originally produced by mechanical means using a stamp mill to create flakes. Subsequently, a process of spraying molten aluminum to create a powder of droplets was developed by E. J. Hall in the 1920s. The resulting powder might then be processed further in a ball mill to flatten it into flakes for use as a coating or pigment. Aluminum powder is non-toxic and is not harmful unless injected directly in a major blood vessel such as the aorta. Aluminum powder, if breathed in, is not particularly harmful and will only cause minor irritation. The melting point of aluminum powder is 660 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12349988",
"title": "Aluminium bottle",
"section": "Section::::Fabrication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Aluminium is a silver-white, soft metal and the most abundant metallic element, comprising 1/12 of the Earth's crust. Aluminum is always found combined with oxygen or other elements in nature and must be processed from ore to produce workable aluminium metal. Aluminum metal is one of the most widely recycled industrial materials due to ease of remelting used aluminum and the expense of processing natural aluminum ores. Bottlecans are made from 100 percent recyclable aluminium through either an extrusion or Coil to Can (C2C) process to a wide range of shapes and sizes. Impact extruded bottles are produced with three times the aluminium of a traditional beer can, which provides for increased insulation. C2C bottles use 30%-40% to less aluminium than impact extruded aluminium bottles. Exal Corporation has pioneered the use C2C technology to manufacture aluminium bottles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263888",
"title": "Aluminium arsenide",
"section": "Section::::Reactivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Aluminum arsenide is a stable compound; however, acid, acid fumes and moisture should be avoided. Hazardous polymerization will not occur. Decomposition of aluminum arsenide produces hazardous arsine gas and arsenic fumes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xy8fa
|
how do floors get mopped, garbage cans get emptied, plumbing get repaired etc. in top secret areas? are there janitors with high level security clearance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Areas like that have \"clean desk\" policies where everything has to be secured in locked drawers when you are not at your desk. If it is somewhere with constant activities then the people there take their trash to somewhere outside the room where it gets collected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like at military facilities? Such maintenance would be carried out by low-ranking service members. In cases where equipment goes bad and you need a specialist (read: civilian contractor who only works on X equipment), usually they hire prior service-members who have gone into a relevant field and have secret or top secret clearances, and then those contractors are only allowed to go where their work requires them to be. Depending on the facility/base/wherever, they may be escorted some or all of the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The area is first cleared of all classified material. Documents are placed in safes with electronic locks. Equipment is moved to other classified areas. All workers are notified ahead of time that the area is under maintenance and not to discuss nor work on anything classified in the area during that time. A guard is placed to watch the open doors to ensure the only people going in and out are the intended service people. Once the job is done, the area can be secured again to resume classified work.\n\nAs for garbage cans, workers just leave them outside the area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* yes, often they do have high clearance\n* when you are away from your desk, and classified material much be secured, so there is really nothing to see\n* workers are notified when a uncleared personnel enter the area, and are required to secure documents immediate",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "411528",
"title": "Drain cleaner",
"section": "Section::::Hydro-mechanical drain cleaners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. I.E., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a -inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping, the vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6871841",
"title": "Piping and plumbing fitting",
"section": "Section::::Drain-waste-vent (DWV) and related fittings.:Clean-out.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Clean-outs are fittings with removable elements, allowing access to drains without the removal of plumbing fixtures. They are used to allow an auger (or plumber's snake) to clean out a plugged drain. Since clean-out augers are limited in length, clean-outs should be placed in accessible locations at regular intervals throughout a drainage system (including outside the building). Minimum requirements are typically at the end of each branch in piping, just ahead of each water closet, at the base of each vertical stack and inside and outside the building in the main drain or sewer. Clean-outs usually have screw-on caps or screw-in plugs. They are also known as \"rodding eyes\", because of the eye-shaped cover plates often used on external versions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822294",
"title": "Drain-waste-vent system",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "All plumbing waste fixtures use traps to prevent sewer gases from leaking into the house. Through traps, all fixtures are connected to waste lines, which in turn take the waste to a \"soil stack\", or \"soil vent pipe\". At the building drain system's lowest point, the drain-waste vent is attached, and rises (usually inside a wall) to and out of the roof. Waste exits from the building through the building's main drain and flows through a sewage line, which leads to a septic system or a public sewer. Cesspits are generally prohibited in developed areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9493727",
"title": "New York City Department of Sanitation",
"section": "Section::::Bureaus and Units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The Cleaning Office oversees the removal of litter and debris from city streets, collects material for recycling and garbage from public litter bins and coordinates with Derelict Vehicle Operations to remove abandoned vehicles. The Lot Cleaning Unit cleans vacant lots and the areas around them, and around city-owned buildings in order to meet the city's Health Code standards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13281619",
"title": "Floor drain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "A floor drain is a plumbing fixture that is installed in the floor of a structure, mainly designed to remove any standing water near it. They are usually round, but can also be square or rectangular. They usually range from ; most are in diameter. They have gratings that are made of metal or plastic. The floor around the drain is also sloped to allow the water to flow to the drain. Many residential basements have one or more floor drains, usually near a water heater or washer/dryer. Floor drains can also be found in commercial basements, restrooms, kitchens, refrigerator areas, locker/shower rooms, laundry facilities, and near swimming pools, among other places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3053725",
"title": "Glass recycling",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States of America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Apartment dwellers usually use shared containers that may be collected by the city or by private recycling companies which can have their own recycling rules. In some cases, glass is specifically separated into its own container because broken glass is a hazard to the people who later manually sort the co-mingled recyclables. Sorted recyclables are later sold to companies to be used in the manufacture of new products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216188",
"title": "Toxic waste",
"section": "Section::::Classifying toxic materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental agencies develop and enforce regulations on the storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous waste. The EPA requires that toxic waste be handled with special precautions and be disposed of in designated facilities around the country. Also, many US cities have collection days where household toxic waste is gathered. Some materials that may not be accepted at regular landfills are ammunition, commercially generated waste, explosives/shock sensitive items, hypodermic needles/syringes, medical waste, radioactive materials, and smoke detectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15fnu6
|
if you are able to look at somebody's reflection, this person must also be able to look at yours. does this concept apply always?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way light bounces, this will always happen on a *flat* surface. If the surface is warped, skewed, or bent, the light will bounce back according to that angle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you can see their eyes, then they can see your eyes. It always *works* with cameras because the camera IS the eye.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you put a camera in front of a mirror and watch someone's reflection through the camera feed, then you can see their reflection and they can't see yours.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the other person is blind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the light is bouncing from their reflection off the mirror into your eyes. this means the light bouncing from you is reflecting back at them too, as the mirror is _always_ reflecting light. \n\nthe exception to this rule is if you are in complete darkness, but the other person is in the light. then they cannot see you, but you can see them (as long as the light isn't bouncing off the mirror)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "422247",
"title": "Self-awareness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Developmental stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Level 3: Identification. This stage is characterized by the new ability to identify self: an individual can now see that what's in the mirror is not another person but actually them. It is seen when a child, instead of referring to the mirror while referring to themselves, refers to themselves while looking in the mirror.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422247",
"title": "Self-awareness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Developmental stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "BULLET::::- Level 0: Confusion. At this level the individual has a degree of zero self-awareness. This person is unaware of any mirror reflection or the mirror itself. They perceive the mirror as an extension of their environment. Level 0 can also be displayed when an adult frightens himself in a mirror mistaking his own reflection as another person just for a second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25269475",
"title": "Sense data",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Consider a reflection which appears to us in a mirror. There is nothing corresponding to the reflection in the world external to the mind (for our reflection appears to us as the image of a human being apparently located inside a wall, or a wardrobe). The appearance is therefore a mental object, a sense datum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422247",
"title": "Self-awareness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Developmental stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Level 2: Situation. At this point an individual can link the movements on the mirror to what is perceived within their own body. This is the first hint of self-exploration on a projected surface where what is visualized on the mirror is special to the self.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "976335",
"title": "Mirror test",
"section": "Section::::Rouge test.:Methodological flaws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "On a more general level, it remains debatable whether recognition of one's mirror image implies self-awareness. Likewise, the converse may also be false—one may hold self-awareness, but not present a positive result in a mirror test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3153635",
"title": "Mirrored-self misidentification",
"section": "Section::::Self-recognition in patients without mirrored-self misidentification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Viewing one's own facial reflection in the mirror causes neurological changes in the right inferior frontal gyrus, the right inferior occipital gyrus, the right inferior parietal lobe, and the right parietal area. These changes, which all occur in the right hemisphere, highlight the role of the right hemisphere in self-related cognition and processing and support the theory that the right hemisphere is the most likely substrate for the \"self\" in the brain. When the right hemisphere is damaged in any way, the patient will most likely lose the ability to recognize one's face - the most common feature of self-recognition. When paired with mirror agnosia or impaired facial processing, damage in any of these areas of the right hemisphere of the brain can lead to difficulties in self-recognition. Delusions such as mirrored-self misidentification can then develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3153635",
"title": "Mirrored-self misidentification",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "Mirrored-self misidentification is the delusional belief that one's reflection in the mirror is another person – typically a younger or second version of one's self, a stranger, or a relative. This delusion occurs most frequently in patients with dementia and an affected patient maintains the ability to recognize others' reflections in the mirror. It is caused by right hemisphere cranial dysfunction that results from traumatic brain injury, stroke, or general neurological illness. It is an example of a monothematic delusion, a condition in which all abnormal beliefs have one common theme, as opposed to a polythematic delusion, in which a variety of unrelated delusional beliefs exist. This delusion is also classified as one of the delusional misidentification syndromes (DMS). A patient with a DMS condition consistently misidentifies places, objects, persons, or events. DMS patients are not aware of their psychological condition, are resistant to correction and their conditions are associated with brain disease – particularly right hemisphere brain damage and dysfunction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6meoid
|
what happens to clinically insane people after committing crimes that if a non-insane person did, they would receive the death penalty?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of a crime is intent and knowledge of the likely outcome of one's actions.\n\nIf a person is \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" it means that durring that *specific* crime they did not know what they were doing, similar to how a person is not guilty of a crime if a crane unexpectedly breaks and it's load crushes someone.\n\nSimply *being* clinically insane is insufficient to get off the hook for a crime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a concept in criminal law, that requires that the person understand what they did was wrong. This concept can be directly traced back to Roman legal codes (though like many Roman concepts, they borrowed it from a [Greek thinker](_URL_1_)). It's not true for certain type of crimes (crimes stemming from criminal negligence or strict liability crimes). \n\nIf someone is found not guilty for reason of insanity, they are usually confined to a mental health facility until they are declared sane. One of the most famous, successful [insanity defenses](_URL_0_.) was recently released from institutional confinement last year, after 30 years of institutional treatment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Clinically insane doesn't matter, you need to be *criminally* insane.\n\nCriminal insanity means you are so detached from reality you can't see that your action are wrong. If you attacked a snake person who was using mind control beams to steal your precious bodily fluids, cleverly disguised as your mailman, that would be criminal insanity.\n\nIf you were institutionalized because your severe OCD made it difficult for you to lead a normal life, murdering someone would still be a crime and you would face normal criminal penalties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To expand on what others have said, *CRIMINAL* insanity is when you have such a lack of grip on reality that you cannot possibly understand you were committing a crime.\n\nAn example from The Law Of Superheroes, written by two Harvard lawyers who were comic book fans, showed how most versions of The Joker would be clinically insane, but WOULD be declared competent to stand trial. This would be due to the fact that most versions of The Joker have demonstrated premeditation of the crime, and spoke of the act in ways that demonstrated he knew it was a crime.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "427590",
"title": "High treason in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Liability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Insane individuals are not punished for their crimes. During the reign of Henry VIII, however, it was enacted that in the cases of high treason, an idiot could be tried in his absence as if he were perfectly sane. In the reign of Mary I, this statute was repealed. Today there are powers to send insane defendants to a mental hospital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358",
"title": "Insanity defense",
"section": "Section::::Psychiatric treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Those found to have been not guilty by reason of mental disorder or insanity are generally then required to undergo psychiatric treatment in a mental institution, except in the case of temporary insanity (see below). In England and Wales, under the Criminal Procedure (Insanity and Unfitness to Plead) Act of 1991 (amended by the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act, 2004 to remove the option of a guardianship order), the court can mandate a hospital order, a restriction order (where release from hospital requires the permission of the Home Secretary), a \"supervision and treatment\" order, or an absolute discharge. Unlike defendants who are found guilty of a crime, they are not institutionalized for a fixed period, but rather held in the institution until they are determined not to be a threat. Authorities making this decision tend to be cautious, and as a result, defendants can often be institutionalized for longer than they would have been incarcerated in prison.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26212398",
"title": "Insanity in English law",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "In many cases, the insane defendant was released and allowed to go home; in some, he was held in prison until the King decided to grant him a pardon. A lunatic who became insane prior to the trial could not be executed, nor, after 1542, trialled for felonies up to and including high treason. It was then established that somebody found not guilty due to insanity should be immediately released; up until the beginning of the 19th century, this was almost all that could be done, although the Vagrancy Act 1714 allowed two Justices of the Peace to confine a dangerous lunatic. The test of insanity was extremely narrow; defendants had to prove that they were incapable of distinguishing between good and evil, and, following the trial of John Firth in 1790, that they suffered from a mental disease which made them incapable of \"forming a judgment upon the consequences of [their] actions\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12779402",
"title": "English criminal law",
"section": "Section::::Criminal defences.:Partial defences to murder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 344,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 344,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "If one succeeds in being declared \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" then the result is going to an asylum, a clearly inadequate result for somebody suffering from occasional epileptic fits, and many conditions unrecognized by nineteenth century medicine. The law has therefore been reformed in many ways. One important reform, introduced in England and Wales by statute is the diminished responsibility defence. The requirements are usually more lax, for instance, being \"an abnormality of mind\" which \"substantially impair[s] mental responsibility for his acts and omission in doing or being a party to the killing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51910119",
"title": "Hendershott v. People",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Hendershott v. People, Supreme Court of Colorado, 653 P.2d. 385 (1982), is a criminal case that a defendant who was not excused by being legally insane, might still be exculpated because he lacked a guilty mind (mens rea) due to a mental disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18717835",
"title": "Jones v. United States (1983)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Historically, those persons acquitted of a crime by reason of insanity (insanity acquittees) were subjected to commitment procedures to institutions for the \"criminally insane\" with little attention or oversight provided as to what these procedures were. In the early 1970s, the procedures began to be examined legally on constitutional as well as therapeutic grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45531607",
"title": "Involuntary commitment internationally",
"section": "Section::::Finland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "If found insane, criminal offenders may not be sentenced. Instead, they must be referred to THL (National Institute for Health and Welfare) for involuntary treatment. Niuvanniemi hospital specializes in involuntary commitment of criminal patients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6u3rr6
|
Do doppelgängers have extremely similar DNA like siblings or twins do? Or do they appear unrelated when taking a DNA test?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you are asking whether people that look superficially the same as you would show up as related to you if they took a DNA test, then no. These types of genetic testing look primarily at so called junk DNA, the ~98% of you DNA that is not actively involved in how your body is created, so any similarities between people are due to either ancestry or coincidence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12110212",
"title": "DNA database",
"section": "Section::::Monozygotic Twins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "Each person’s DNA is unique to them to the slight exception of identical (monozygotic and monospermotic) twins, who start out from the identical genetic line of DNA but during the twinning event have incredibly small mutations which can be detected now (for all intents and purposes, compared to all other humans and even to theoretical \"clones, [who would not share the same uterus nor experience the same mutations pre-twinning event]\" identical twins have more identical DNA than is probably possible to achieve between any other two humans). Tiny differences between identical twins can now (2014) be detected by next generation sequencing. For current fiscally available testing, \"identical\" twins cannot be easily differentiated by the most common DNA testing, but it has been shown to be possible. While other siblings (including fraternal twins) share about 50% of their DNA, monozygotic twins share virtually 99.99%. Beyond these more recently discovered twinning-event mutation disparities, since 2008 it has been known that people who are identical twins also each have their own set of copy number variants, which can be thought of as the number of copies they each personally exhibit for certain sections of DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44290",
"title": "DNA profiling",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different that it is possible to distinguish one individual from another, unless they are monozygotic (identical) twins. DNA profiling uses repetitive sequences that are highly variable, called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), in particular short tandem repeats (STRs), also known as microsatellites, and minisatellites. VNTR loci are similar between closely related individuals, but are so variable that unrelated individuals are unlikely to have the same VNTRs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12110212",
"title": "DNA database",
"section": "Section::::Monozygotic Twins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Monozygotic twins share around 99.99% of their DNA, while other siblings share around 50%. Some next generation sequencing tools are capable of detecting rare de novo mutations in only one of the twins (detectable in rare single nucleotide polymorphisms). Most DNA testing tools would not detect these rare SNPs in most twins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2282128",
"title": "Genealogical DNA test",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Autosomal DNA tests can identify relationships but they can be misinterpreted. For example, transplants of stem cell or bone marrow will produce matches with the donor. In addition, identical twins (who have identical DNA) can give unexpected results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10511",
"title": "Epilepsy",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "In identical twins, if one is affected there is a 50–60% chance that the other will also be affected. In non-identical twins the risk is 15%. These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than focal seizures. If both twins are affected, most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome (70–90%). Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population. Between 1 and 10% of those with Down syndrome and 90% of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79238",
"title": "Twin",
"section": "Section::::Types and zygosity.:Dizygotic (fraternal) twins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Dizygotic twins, like any other siblings, have an extremely small chance of having the same chromosome profile. Even if they happen to have the same chromosome profile, they will always have different genetic material on each chromosome, due to chromosomal crossover during meiosis. Like any other siblings, dizygotic twins may look similar, particularly given that they are the same age. However, dizygotic twins may also look very different from each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11436091",
"title": "Babies switched at birth",
"section": "Section::::In reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 2001, it was reported that a 35-year-old woman from the Canary Islands had discovered that she was one of a set of identical twins and that she had been accidentally switched at birth with another girl. She grew up as an only child, until a friend of her twin mistook her for being that twin. But the person was shocked by the striking similarity in appearance and summoned them together. They took a DNA test, which proved they were identical twins. The twin who had grown up thinking that another girl was her twin said that the girl she thought was her twin looked nothing like her. Since the women were born in a state hospital, they sued the government for damages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5bltbq
|
how are there enough cows to supply the over 15k macdonalds and burger kings in u.s.
|
[
{
"answer": "First, a single cow produces an awful lot of hamburgers. A grown steer produces about 500 pounds of beef, which is 2000 quarter-pound hambugers.\n\nSecond, there are enormous herds of cattle on ranches in the rural parts of the US, which you generally don't see because they're not along highways, but the US is enormous and can easily hold them. The state of Texas alone has more than 11 million cattle, or 22 billion hambugers worth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The average carcass weight was 475 in 1975. As of 2005 it was over 600 pounds. A Holstein female can weigh up to 1500 pounds. My father in law raises cows, have about 100 pounds in my freezer. The taste is more like a high end restaurant than store beef. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cheap beef is sourced from farms which use a feed lot system, rather than traditional grazing. In a traditional grazing system you might expect to have about one cow per acre.\n\nIn contrast, the stocking density in a feedlot is often well in excess of 100 cows per acre (and that *includes* the space requirement allocated for driving routes, feed stalls, waste mangagement, etc, so not just space for cows).\n\nTo be clear - many traditional farms use feed lot systems in the winter months when grazing can be difficult. The difference with intensive farming practices is that they use feedlot year-round.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, the answer to your question is very simple. So I'll just answer with a question: what do you do when you run out of something? You buy more, right? Well, same thing happens here. Demand creates a feedback loop where the more hamburgers you want, the more cows are raised for slaughter. \n\nIronically, these cows are significant contributors to global warming due to the methane they... exhaust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My company makes a product out of collagen , I was amazed how many cows there are in the world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are fields, /u/Hipposeverywhere, endless fields, where cattle are no longer born. They are grown.\n\nHere's a few pictures:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I lived in amarillo tx for a few years. Just outside the city Cows/steer outnumbered the population of the city like 2 to 3. \nAnd it smelled like it. \n\nThat isnt the smell of shit son, that is the smell of money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You REALLY don't want to see the *factories* in Texas where cows are raised for cheap meat. You can smell their putrid odor from miles away (not kidding).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you realize how big the US is?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an answer to how many cows, but does answer some questions on where mcdonalds gets their beef _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all of it is 100% beef\nSoy and other product are added into the patties heavily (unless marked 100% beef).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not only are there an awful lot of cows, [they are one of the leading contributors to climate change](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are approximately 92 million cattle in the US today. Of which, about 30 million are beef cows (adult breeding females) and 9 million are dairy cows. The rest are essentially calves and bulls.\n\nBeef cattle: Obviously, beef cattle are selected, bred and raised specifically for their meat-producing traits. Ranchers want breeding cows that easily give birth to calves that can add muscle and fat quickly, convert feed efficiently and produce well-marbled and delicious beef. Therefore, they select breeds and purchase bulls/semen that have these characteristics. Most ranchers will spend a lifetime building a herd to their liking and thus typically keep the best heifers (females that have yet to give birth) born on their ranch for breeding. They buy new bulls every year or two OR they purchase semen and artificially inseminate their heifers/cows. This promotes genetic diversity and quality and prevents inbreeding in the herd. A beef cow will typically give birth to 10-12 calves in her lifetime. The bull calves born on a ranch are typically castrated (thereby becoming \"steers\") and are weaned from their mothers at about 8 months of age and then sent to a feedlot for \"finishing,\" usually with corn or some other grain. They will often be on grass with their mothers until that time and the cows will spend virtually their entire life outside on grass (sometimes supplemented with hay in the winter). The best heifers are kept and put in with the bulls at about 15 months of age to give birth at 24 months. The heifer calves that don't make the cut as breeding stock take the same path as their steer cohorts. After these \"feeder calves\" reach between 1100 and 1300 pounds, they are sent to the packing plant and become steaks, roasts, burgers, etc.\n\nBeef Terminology: Ranchers who own breeding cattle and raise baby beef calves have \"cow/calf\" operations. They own pastures and harvest hay to feed their critters and tend to be relatively small. An average cow/calf operation has only 40 cows and a large one might have 400 cows, but it's too land- and labor-intensive to get much larger. Ranchers then sell their calves to people who run feedlots, called \"feeders.\" A feedlot might have several hundred to several hundred thousand animals. These guys, in turn, sell to folks who run slaughterhouses: \"packers.\" These are usually completely separate entities.\n\nDairy Cattle: These bovine are bred for their ability to produce milk. Some breeds are renowned for the amount they produce while others tend to have more fat in their milk which is valuable for butter, cream, etc. When a dairy cow gives birth, the calf is taken away from her within 3 days or so and is fed by humans -- usually a manufactured powdered milk. The cow is milked 2 or 3 times per day, every day, until she goes dry after several months. She is then bred again. The cow's milk goes to the dairy. Many dairy heifer calves are kept to become milk cows but the rest, along with the steer calves (they also get castrated), become veal or are sold at approximately 6 months of age and also go to a feedlot to be fed up to 1000 pounds or more. Because these calves are not bred for their meat traits, their roasts and steaks are a lower quality than muscle cuts from beef cattle and the entire animal is often ground up for hamburger. Dairy cows usually have 4 or 5 calves and live to be about 6 or 7 years of age and many (although certainly not all) are kept in barns during their lifetimes and do not get to go outside and graze. Dairy farms have grown exponentially in size over the past 30 years. Most are now milk at least several hundred cows and many have several thousand.\n\nOld bulls and beef and dairy cows do not die of old age. They have value -- also mostly as ground beef -- and are sent to feeders/packers when they can no longer breed. We slaughtered about 29 million head of cattle in the US in 2015 and many of them weren't young, fattened beef cattle full of restaurant-quality steaks and roasts. This is why we have so much ground product and why a good steak costs so much more than 80/20 ground beef and how we're able to keep the fast-food restaurants supplied. The structure of the industry also explains why you see huge feedlots of cattle in Texas, Nebraska and Kansas. It's not because all cows now live in feedlots but because that's the system we've developed in order to efficiently fatten certain cattle in a short window of time and meet consumers' taste demands. \n\nSource: Grew up on a beef cattle ranch, father and brother-in-law still ranch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32731011",
"title": "Cow–calf operation",
"section": "Section::::In the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Cow–calf operations are widespread throughout the United States. A 1997 census found that this sector of the U.S. beef market produced over $40.5 billion. As of 2007 there were more than 765,000 cow–calf operators in the country, mostly concentrated in the Western and Southeastern U.S. states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34931824",
"title": "Steak",
"section": "Section::::Marketing and sales.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Beef production is the largest single agricultural venture in the United States, with 687,540 farms raising cattle and over a million in the production process, as of the 2007 Agriculture Census. On average, a single farm typically raises about 50 cattle at a time, with 97% of the cattle farms classified as one of these small family farms. These smaller farms average a gross cash income of $62,286 per year as of 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20006105",
"title": "Farm water",
"section": "Section::::Livestock water use.:Cattle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1227,
"text": "The beef and dairy industries are the most lucrative branches of the U.S. agricultural industry, however, they are also the most resource intensive. To date, beef is the most popular of the meats; the U.S. alone produced 25.8 billion pounds in 2013. In this same year, 201.2 billion pounds of milk were produced. These cattle are mostly raised in centralized animal feeding operations, or CAFOs. On average, a mature cow will consume anywhere from seven to twenty-four gallons of water a day; cows that are lactating require about twice as much water. The amount of water that cattle may drink in a day also depends upon the temperature. Cattle have a feed conversion ratio of 6:1, for every six pounds of food consumed, the animal should gain one pound. Thus, there is also a substantial \"indirect\" need for water in order to grow the feed for the livestock. Growing the amount of feed grains necessary for raising livestock accounts for 56 percent of the U.S water consumption. Of a 1,000 pound cow, only 430 pounds make it to the retail markets. This 18 percent loss, creates an even greater demand for cattle, being that CAFOs must make up for this lost profitable weight, by increasing the number of cows that they raise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38949614",
"title": "Miles Smith Farm",
"section": "Section::::Marketing and distribution.:USDA grant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "In August 2014, the United States Department of Agriculture awarded the farm a $127,000 grant to produce and market local burgers made from a blend of grass-fed beef and pork. The grant was part of the 2008 Farm Bill given to nearly farms 250 in the United States to help farmers generate new products, create and expand marketing opportunities, and increase income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52414043",
"title": "Agriculture in Nova Scotia",
"section": "Section::::Major agricultural products.:Livestock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The beef production in Nova Scotia come from approximately 1200 producers. In 2005 there was a total of 108, 500 head produced. The cattle can be slaughtered on a farm if it is for direct sale while if it is to be shipped internationally it must be slaughtered in a federally inspected processing plant. There is only one of these such facilities in the Atlantic region of Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15275325",
"title": "Lamba people",
"section": "Section::::People.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The Lambas are primarily engaged in subsistence farming and small animal husbandry, especially chickens, guinea fowl, goats, pigs, and sheep. They grow millet and sorghum that they make into a thick porridge (\"la pâte\") that is the staple of their diet and that they brew into thick low-alcohol beer. They also grow yams and cassava, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, and fonio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6461408",
"title": "Beef cattle",
"section": "Section::::Cattle maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Most Beef cattle are finished in feedlots. The first feedlots were constructed in the early 1950s. Some of these feedlots grew so large they warranted a new designation, \"Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation\" (CAFO). Most American beef cattle spend the last half of their lives in a CAFO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9uqghw
|
why do my hands feel weak after i watch doctors taking blood.
|
[
{
"answer": "Likely because some part of the process makes you anxious and you experience a mini fight-or-flight reaction of blood being drained from your extremities to be pumped into things your body deems more important in the moment. Possibly resulting in your hands even becoming totally numb. \n\nSource: Am deathly afraid of needles and experienced what I described last trip to the doctor. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22894823",
"title": "Medicine in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Surgery and health outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "Men were generally partially sedated with chloroform or alcohol before surgery. When properly done, the patient would feel no pain during their surgery, but would not be totally unconscious. Stonewall Jackson, for example, recalled the sound of the saw cutting through the bone of his arm, but recalled no pain. Infection was the most common cause of death of injured soldiers. Infection occurred for a variety of reasons. Surgeons would typically go from surgery to surgery without cleaning their equipment or their hands; surgeons would use sponges that they only rinsed in water on multiple patients. These practices caused bacteria to spread from patient to patient, from all surgical surfaces, and from the environment, which caused infections in many.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320355",
"title": "Blood-borne disease",
"section": "Section::::Occupational exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Blood poses the greatest threat to health in a laboratory or clinical setting due to needlestick injuries (\"e.g.\", lack of proper needle disposal techniques and/or safety syringes). These risks are greatest among healthcare workers, including: nurses, surgeons, laboratory assistants, doctors, phlebotomists, and laboratory technicians. These roles often require the use of syringes for blood draws or to administer medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172321",
"title": "Hand, foot, and mouth disease",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25897574",
"title": "Hand injury",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Nerve injuries occur as a result of trauma, compression or over-stretching. Nerves send impulses to the brain about sensation and also play an important role in finger movement. When nerves are injured, one can lose ability to move fingers, lose sensation and develop a contracture. Any nerve injury of the hand can be disabling and results in loss of hand function. Thus it is vital to seek medical help as soon as possible after any hand injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4518361",
"title": "Subclavian steal syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "BULLET::::- hands showing circulation problems (hands can have blotchy patches of red and white) (associated with other stigmata of vascular disease (e.g. vascular insufficiency ulcers of the Fingers).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29316473",
"title": "Surgical positions",
"section": "Section::::Risks to extremities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The most common nerve injuries during surgery occur in the upper and lower extremities. Injuries to the nerves in the arm or shoulder can result in numbness, tingling, and decreased sensory or muscular use of the arm, wrist, or hand. Many operating room injuries could be solved by simply restraining the arms and legs. Other causes of nerve or muscular damage to the extremities is caused by pressure on the body by the surgical team leaning on the patient's arms and legs. The patient's arms can be protected from these risks by using an arm sled. Separation of the sternum during a heart procedure can also cause the first rib to put pressure on the nerves in the shoulder. The lithotomy position is also known to cause stress on the lower extremities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69279",
"title": "Angioplasty",
"section": "Section::::Recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Patients who experience swelling, bleeding or pain at the insertion site, develop fever, feel faint or weak, notice a change in temperature or color in the arm or leg that was used or have shortness of breath or chest pain should immediately seek medical advice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
arg2iy
|
if black absorbs all colors on the visible spectrum, then how are there glossy black finishes that reflect light
|
[
{
"answer": "There are more ways light interacts with a surface than by absorption. Reflection is a different mechanic where the light is bounced off the surface based mostly on the smoothness of the surface. This is only a surface effect.\n\nDifferent materials will have different reflectivity, the tendency for a material to reflect light.\n\nThere is also emissivity which is the tendency for a material to produce light from it's heat or absorbed light. A black material is as perfect an emitter as it is an absorber. Though it's emitted light is directly related to the temperature of the object, or the energy lost by absorbtion. Emitted light is usually in the infrared range, invisible to us but felt as heat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pure black would absorb all colours, however pure black doesn't exist. Glossy black reflects some of the light.\n\nThere is the nanotubes based black called Vantablack which reflects only 0.04% of the light. And that is the blackest black we have at this moment: People who see it for the first time go from \"There is an empty hole in this\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it has more to do with how the surface interacts with light at. More microscopic level. When you have a glossy finish, the light hits and is generally reflected straight outwards, when you have a stain finish, the surface in more 'bumpy' which makes the light more prone to reflecting into another interaction with the material.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ideal black paint would absorb all light. Regular black paint are not ideal and will reflect light black, it is easy to see the it is the case by pointing a flashlight on the object if you can see a difference in brightness then some light is reflected back.\n\nThere is not material that absorb all light the best is [Vantablack](_URL_0_) that absorb 99.96% of all visible light and regular object that you thing is black absorb a lot less light then that.\n\nWhite paint and a regular mirror reflect only 80-90% of all light that hits them so you might reflect a couple of percent of the light and we consider it black. For a mirror the aluminium coating reflect 90% ad a bit more is absorbed by the glass.\n\n\nGlossy is the amount of light that is reflected by specular reflection, that is when all light that is reflected bounce in one direction like a mirror. A matte/flat paint reflect light in all direction ie diffuse reflection. \n\nSo matte white paint and a mirror reflect the same amount of light. A mirror has almost only specular reflection and matte paint almost only diffuse reflection. So the glossy matte is how it reflect light not the amount.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A perfect black body would not be visible to the naked eye if it absorbed all colors on the visible spectrum. Black holes aren't even perfect black bodies since they reflect light, albeit an extremely small amount of it. The color black that we can see reflects a small amount of light, which makes it possible for us to view it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "In the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors. Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye. Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye \"look black\". A black pigment can, however, result from a \"combination\" of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called \"black\". This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18802785",
"title": "Finishing (textiles)",
"section": "Section::::Finishing of cotton.:Coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Color is a sensation caused when white light from a source such as the sun is reflected off a pigment on the surface. The pigment selectively reflects certain wavelengths of light while absorbing others. A dye can be considered as a substance that can be fixed to a material that has these properties. The colour it reflects is defined by the structure of the molecule, and particular the parts of the chromogen molecule called the chromophore group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44682",
"title": "CMYK color model",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of using black ink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- Although a combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks should, in theory, completely absorb the entire visible spectrum of light and produce a perfect black, practical inks fall short of their ideal characteristics and the result is actually a dark muddy color that does not quite appear black. Adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18500380",
"title": "Dispersion staining",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Darkfield illumination dispersion staining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "The result is that the background is black. All of the features of objects in the field of view that don't match the refractive index of the mounting medium appear as bright white. When a particle is mounted in a liquid that matches its refractive index somewhere in the visible wavelengths then those wavelengths are not refracted by the particle and are not collected by the objective. The image of the object is formed by all of the wavelengths that remain. These wavelengths combine to produce a single color that can be used to indicate which band of wavelengths are missing (see Chart 2). Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at the microlabgallery.com site for Darkfield Dispersion Staining. This method is more difficult to interpret due to the single color rather than two bracketing colors but is relatively accurate near the center of the visible range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291338",
"title": "Carmine",
"section": "Section::::Properties and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "A reflectance spectroscopy study of one commercially available dye based on carminic acid found that it reflects mostly red light with wavelengths longer than about 603 nm, which provides its saturated red color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238528",
"title": "Nitrogen dioxide",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The reddish-brown color is a consequence of preferential absorption of light in the blue (400 – 500 nm), although the absorption extends throughout the visible (at shorter wavelengths) and into the infrared (at longer wavelengths). Absorption of light at wavelengths shorter than about 400 nm results in photolysis (to form NO + O, atomic oxygen); in the atmosphere the addition of O atom so formed to O results in ozone formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11kabv
|
Can chivalry in the Middle ages be seen as an attempt to rein in the violence of the warrior classes?
|
[
{
"answer": "That sort of thing is difficult to measure.\n\nChivalry may have more of a literary basis. The chivalric code appears in stories like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight or in El Cid, but in actual battle field scenarios, finding evidence of chivalry can prove more difficult. The simple fact is that in medieval warfare, peasants and noncombatants were almost always caught up in the fighting. In sieges, if peasants weren't kept out to begin with, they could expect no quarter. Women would be raped and murdered. In warfare, peasants could be expected to be robbed of their livestock or wealth (such as it was). Nobles somehow captured in battle could potentially be imprisoned and ransomed, sometimes.\n\nAnd we're talking Christians against Christians at this point. The situation gets even more dire when one considers Christian interaction with Jews, Muslims, or pagans.\n\nChivalry could also motivate toward violence. Chivalric competition among French knights leading up to the Battle of Agincourt propelled them to outdo one another in the field, to commit even more lunatic acts (being a blind man and riding into battle, for instance) in the name of courage and, yes, chivalry.\n\nWas chivalry initially intended to prevent violence, somehow? No, probably not. And if it was, it didn't do a very good job of it.\n\nHope this helped.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A partial answer: a part of the idea of 'chivalry' in western Europe came from the [Peace and Truce of God](_URL_0_) a movement traced to the tenth century that resulted in quite a few proclamations by both religious and secular leaders. It was an attempt to govern internal violence, setting aside days of the year on which war could not be fought and people against which violence could not be committed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Much of the chivalric code, isn't particularly chivalrous in the modern sense. For example, while the lady of your liege lord was to be treated with deference and respect, the lady of an enemy lord could expect to be raped and murdered if captured.\n\nThe code legitimised much of the violence of the warrior class rather than constraining it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See my response to BarbarianKing for some critiques of his answer.\n\n It is fundamentally important to remember how complicated a) people and b) social systems can be. The Middle Ages is not a neat or a clean period (frankly none is). \n\nChivalry is, at its heart, a system of conduct meant to regulate interactions between the elites. It simultaneously glorifies the martial aspects which are fundamental to the aristocrats of the period and sets limits and strictures on them.\n\nWhere things get tricky is that there is no *set* rule-book, no system of formal arbitration and, frankly, no consensus. This is not a system that a person or a group of people set down logically. It is an organic system that evolves over time, responding to and shaping the ways in which people think and act. \n \nWhat we can see, however, is that the 10th and 11th centuries are a period where violence is largely unregulated in Europe, and there is *intense* anxiety about it. Whether the actual levels of violence are higher is a debate that is still raging among medievalists. But either way *feelings* about violence (as expressed in charters, sermons, literature, history etc.) all indicate how worrisome it was.\n\nWe see, as the 11th century moves on and the 12th begins the development of a whole series of social constructs and systems which in many different ways work to allay that anxiety, either practically or mentally. Both the crusades and chivalry function as release valves and channels for aristocratic violence.\n\nalfonsoelsabio mentioned the Peace and Truce of God below (which I've also mentioned elsewhere). This is another, earlier, example of attempts to regulate and channel violence. So too are attempts to end feud and curb private justice which are so prevalent in the judicial and governmental reforms of monarchies n the High Middle Ages.\n\nBut what you have to remember is that none of these actions are being undertaken with a clear, conscious rational. They are responses to societal pressures and concerns. No one is sitting in a board room saying 'there is too much violence, how can we mitigate it?'.\n\nFinally I should make it clear that there is literally nothing weird or contradictory about a system or a culture that simultaneously extols violence and peace. We live in one now. We market video games that let you play the soldier while simultaneously suspending children for playing with pretend guns in the school yard. Societies are not neat nor are they one tone.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59639",
"title": "Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins in military ethos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "Chivalry was developed in the north of France around the mid-12th century but adopted its structure in a European context. New social status, new military techniques, and new literary topics adhered to a new character known as the knight and his ethos called chivalry. A regulation in the chivalric codes includes taking an oath of loyalty to the overlord and perceiving the rules of warfare, which includes never striking a defenceless opponent in battle. The chivalric ideals are based on those of the early medieval warrior class, and martial exercise and military virtue remains an integral part of chivalry until the end of the medieval period, as the reality on the battlefield changed with the development of Early Modern warfare increasingly restricted to the tournament ground and duelling culture. The joust remained the primary example of knightly display of martial skill throughout the Renaissance (the last Elizabethan Accession Day tilt was held in 1602).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59639",
"title": "Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Historian of chivalry Richard W. Kaeuper, saw chivalry as a central focus in the study of the European middle ages that was too often presented as a civilizing and stabilizing influence in the turbulent middle ages. On the contrary, Kaueper argues “that in the problem of public order the knights themselves played an ambivalent, problematic role and that the guides to their conduct that chivalry provided were in themselves complex and problematic.” Many of the codes and ideals of chivalry were of course contradictory, however, when knights did live up to them, they did not lead to a more “ordered and peaceful society”. The tripartite conception of medieval European society (those who pray, those who fight, and those who work) along with other linked subcategories of monarchy and aristocracy, worked in congruence with knighthood to reform the institution in an effort “to secure public order in a society just coming into its mature formation.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59639",
"title": "Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "Chivalry underwent a revival and elaboration of chivalric ceremonial and rules of etiquette in the 14th century that was examined by Johan Huizinga, in \"The Waning of the Middle Ages\", in which he dedicates a full chapter to \"The idea of chivalry\". In contrasting the literary standards of chivalry with the actual warfare of the age, the historian finds the imitation of an ideal past illusory; in an aristocratic culture such as Burgundy and France at the close of the Middle Ages, \"to be representative of true culture means to produce by conduct, by customs, by manners, by costume, by deportment, the illusion of a heroic being, full of dignity and honour, of wisdom, and, at all events, of courtesy. ...The dream of past perfection ennobles life and its forms, fills them with beauty and fashions them anew as forms of art\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59639",
"title": "Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::Terminology and definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The \"code of chivalry\" is thus a product of the Late Middle Ages, evolving after the end of the crusades partly from an idealization of the historical knights fighting in the Holy Land and from ideals of courtly love.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "Section::::Knightly culture in the Middle Ages.:Chivalric code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Chivalry and religion were mutually influenced during the period of the Crusades. The early Crusades helped to clarify the moral code of chivalry as it related to religion. As a result, Christian armies began to devote their efforts to sacred purposes. As time passed, clergy instituted religious vows which required knights to use their weapons chiefly for the protection of the weak and defenseless, especially women and orphans, and of churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59639",
"title": "Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::Literary chivalry and historical reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Fans of chivalry have assumed since the late medieval period that there was a time in the past when chivalry was a living institution, when men acted chivalrically, when chivalry was alive and not dead, the imitation of which period would much improve the present. This is the mad mission of Don Quixote, protagonist of the most chivalric novel of all time and inspirer of the chivalry of Sir Walter Scott and of the U.S. South: to restore the age of chivalry, and thereby improve his country. It is a version of the myth of the Golden Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "Section::::Knightly culture in the Middle Ages.:Chivalric code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1136,
"text": "Chivalry developed as an early standard of professional ethics for knights, who were relatively affluent horse owners and were expected to provide military services in exchange for landed property. Early notions of chivalry entailed loyalty to one's liege lord and bravery in battle, similar to the values of the Heroic Age. During the Middle Ages, this grew from simple military professionalism into a social code including the values of gentility, nobility and treating others reasonably. In \"The Song of Roland\" (c. 1100), Roland is portrayed as the ideal knight, demonstrating unwavering loyalty, military prowess and social fellowship. In Wolfram von Eschenbach's \"Parzival\" (c. 1205), chivalry had become a blend of religious duties, love and military service. Ramon Llull's \"Book of the Order of Chivalry\" (1275) demonstrates that by the end of the 13th century, chivalry entailed a litany of very specific duties, including riding warhorses, jousting, attending tournaments, holding Round Tables and hunting, as well as aspiring to the more æthereal virtues of \"faith, hope, charity, justice, strength, moderation and loyalty.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3r3tvw
|
what is going through my cat's head when he runs back and forth seemingly aimlessly?
|
[
{
"answer": "Although there are a bunch of factors to consider, (sterilization, age, etc) if I had to make a personal guess, I'd say he has a natural instinct to prowl and hunt like in the wild and since he can't exactly do those things, he just aimlessly runs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11609074",
"title": "The A-Tom-Inable Snowman",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1644,
"text": "In the cabin earlier, Tom chases Jerry in circles, until the mouse breaks off and runs directly near the open door outside, as Tom does also. Unbeknownst to the cat, he got too fast, and in a similar fashion to Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, he is far off the cliff, with Jerry still on the ground, safe. Tom then got worried that he was stupid and then lets himself fall with a waving goodbye. As he fell, he then got rolled up into a giant snowball while being rolled down from a slope, as the end point causes him to be thrown up to the sky. Jerry then calls on the St. Bernard, who is still digging, by a whistle. The dog then stops after he hears Jerry's whistle. The mouse then points the dog to an approaching giant snowball with Tom inside. After the ball lands with Tom inside flat, the St. Bernard then attempts to save the flattened cat with a keg of brandy. After he left the cat standing, Tom fell and \"shattered\" into pieces. However, he is then reconstructed by the St. Bernard with the brandy. The alcohol makes Tom drunk. He starts seeing hallucinations, like five Jerrys, which he has to count in between hiccups. He later sees hallucinations of a hole and he seems to see countless holes. Tom hiccups to the real hole, causing him to get frozen solid, requiring the St. Bernard's assistance once again. At the end of this part, once again, Tom becomes intoxicated, causing himself to ski on his feet as he hiccups. Jerry and the dog watch at him, as they shake hands for his \"cure\". Tom then unintentionally bumps his head onto a tree, causing himself to be unconscious as the dog felt worried, trying to make him cure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6986799",
"title": "The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The Cat becomes upset with the Grinch's hijinks and has a psychiatric session with him in a thought bubble to find out what makes him so mean-spirited. Predictably, he gets nowhere with the imaginary Grinch, so he then decides to go over and have a talk with him, but the Grinch makes it so dark that he can't see where he's going, and he crashes his car when he passes a \"Dead End\" sign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3814144",
"title": "The Whizzard of Ow",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "It turns out that the reason for the cat's uncontrollable transformations was the Road Runner, who found the book of magic and decided to test his powers. He then turns a mailbox into a gracious and beautiful female roadrunner and the two leave, walking and holding \"hands\", while the Coyote suffers being shark food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Communication.:Body postures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "BULLET::::- Anxious/ovulating posture – The cat is lying on its belly. The back of the body is more visibly lower than the front part when the cat is standing or moving. Its breathing may be fast, and its legs are tucked under its body. The tail is close to the body and may be curled forward (or close to the body when standing), with the tip of the tail moving up and down (or side to side).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11141613",
"title": "Tops with Pops",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Tom holds up his right hand and sees nothing, then holds up his left hand, and drops Tyke in fear. Tom smiles nervously, attempting to run off, until Spike grabs Tom by the whiskers and issues him an ultimatum: the cat \"had better\" leave Tyke alone or Spike will make him suffer the consequences. Tom flees blindly, crashing into a tree, fountain, clothesline pole and trash can.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5379523",
"title": "One Piece: Pirates' Carnival",
"section": "Section::::Versus Game.:Captain Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The Cat Out of the Bag: Players battle Kuro in Kaya's front yard while avoiding Jango's hypnosis. Kuro himself can create a trail of light when he starts running, and can surround players with it, attacking them all at once with his \"Out of the Bag Attack\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31530086",
"title": "Merlin the Magic Mouse (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "The cat starts crying because he knows what is going to happen. He bawls, \"You're gonna hurt my itsy-bitsy body... with a sharp saw... boo-hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo!\" Merlin has Second Banana go get the (rubber) saw in the trunk. Second Banana finds trick cards and magic flowers but no rubber saw, so he is forced to give Merlin a real one. Merlin starts sawing the box and Second Banana finally finds the rubber saw. Merlin throws the real one away and he apologizes to the cat. When he bends over, his moustache falls off. The cat says, \"Hey! You're a mouse! I hate mouses!\" The cat breaks out of the box and goes after the two mice. Merlin calls on some real magic to turn out the lights and, once the lights come back on, the cat is entangled in a locked chain. The cat chomps down on the chain, breaking it. He then goes back to the mice. They stop him and Merlin tells him that they have a gift for him, and he \"will get a bang out of it.\" It's actually a large piece of dynamite. The cat blows out the one fuse, not knowing there is one at the bottom. The fuse ends and it blows up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
710po8
|
In physics, why is the formula to calculate force F=ma instead of F=mv (mass x velocity)?
|
[
{
"answer": "The problem is that you are not calculating an impact force correctly. The equation **F** = m**a** tells you the net force on an object. But the equation does not tell you directly the impact force of one object on another when they crash.\n\nFor instance, if an object of mass *M* traveling at speed *V* just before impact crashes into a rigid wall and comes to rest over a time period *T*, then Newton's second law tells you that the average impact force felt by the object was F = MV/T because its average acceleration was just V/T. So, indeed, the impact force increases with impact velocity, as expected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > instead of F=mv (mass x velocity)?\n\nMass times the velocity is the momentum. It's also a useful quantity. \n\n > But the formula states that since the car is not accelerating and is at a constant speed, a=0, since 2,000 x 0 = 0 the formula says that the car hits you with a force of 0 newtons (which I don't think is accurate)\n\nThink about it this way, if you suddenly go from 60 MPH down to 0 MPH due to your car smashing into a wall what does that imply about the acceleration? \n\nThe problem with your thinking here is that the equation a = 0 only holds until the car actually crashes, once the crash happens you need a different equation. F=ma is true in both cases.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The force you feel as a result of a car hitting you is based on your acceleration the moments after the collision, not the car's acceleration. There is an equal and opposite force that actually slows the car down (not by much, because the car has much greater mass and to someone sitting in the car it feels like a speed bump). \n\nForces are much easier to understand when they are long duration forces, like gravity, or a rocket engine. For collisions it's easier to think in terms of kinetic energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to clarify, your example about the car constantly moving at 31 meters a second and that car crashing at you are two different situation.\n\nWith the car travelling at constant speed of 31m/s, the notion that the force is zero is correct (assuming ideal frictionless, lossless car). Because there's no *force* imparted upon the car at the moment, there's no *change* in the car's speed.\n\nWhen the car is crashing at you, the force you feel is proportional to the deceleration caused by the impact. Usually the deceleration is quite fast, so the force is quite high too. Modern car construction, like deformable bumper or bonnet are designed to deform upon impact, cushioning the impact force, while also somewhat lessening the deceleration imparted upon your body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "277468",
"title": "Two-body problem",
"section": "Section::::Reduction to two independent, one-body problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "where F is the force on mass 1 due to its interactions with mass 2, and F is the force on mass 2 due to its interactions with mass 1. The two dots on top of the x position vectors denote their second derivative with respect to time, or their acceleration vectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52920749",
"title": "Acceleration (special relativity)",
"section": "Section::::Acceleration and force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Therefore, the Newtonian definition of mass as the ratio of three-force and three-acceleration is disadvantageous in SR, because such a mass would depend both on velocity and direction. Consequently, the following mass definitions used in older textbooks are not used anymore:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14838",
"title": "Inertial frame of reference",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "with F the net force (a vector), \"m\" the mass of a particle and a the acceleration of the particle (also a vector) which would be measured by an observer at rest in the frame. The force F is the vector sum of all \"real\" forces on the particle, such as electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear and so forth. In contrast, Newton's second law in a rotating frame of reference, rotating at angular rate \"Ω\" about an axis, takes the form:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28692",
"title": "Sabermetrics",
"section": "Section::::Higher mathematics.:Quantitative analysis in baseball.:Momentum and force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Momentum and force is a similar application of calculus in baseball. Particularly, the average force on a bat while hitting a ball can be calculated by combining different concepts within applied calculus. First, the change in the ball's momentum by the external force F(t) must be calculated. The momentum can be found by multiplying the mass and velocity. The external force F(t) is a continuous function of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34180753",
"title": "Variable-mass system",
"section": "Section::::Forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "This form shows that a body can have acceleration due to thrust even if no external forces act on it (F = 0). Note finally that if one lets F be the sum of F and F then the equation regains the usual form of Newton's second law:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32123511",
"title": "Einstein's unsuccessful investigations",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "In the special relativity paper, in 1905, Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word \"force\" (a definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at formula_1 as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, \"it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form\", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression formula_2 for the transverse mass. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1559922",
"title": "Flight dynamics (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "where F is the vector sum of all forces exerted on the vehicle, m is its current mass, and a is the acceleration vector, the instantaneous rate of change of velocity (v), which in turn is the instantaneous rate of change of displacement. Solving for a, acceleration equals the force sum divided by mass. Acceleration is integrated over time to get velocity, and velocity is in turn integrated to get position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6b9jzz
|
What stopped Nixon's push for Universal Healthcare?
|
[
{
"answer": "Politics, plain and simple.\n\nUntil the end of his life Sen. Edward Kennedy said his greatest regret during his political career was turning down President Nixon's deal on healthcare.\n\n[This column] (_URL_1_) from 2009 and [this one] (_URL_0_) from 2012 do a good job explaining the plan and the dynamics of the 1970s that caused it to fail.\n\nThe plan was not true universal healthcare, but it would have been a step towards universal coverage and possibly single payer.\n\nWhat failure to make a deal came down to was interest groups lobbying Congress and throwing their electoral weight around. Once elections were on the line, elected officials chose not to risk those groups support next election.\n\nI think those two columns only touch on, but do not really emphasize Ted Kennedy's prominence during these years. JFK was assassinated in 1963 and RFK in 1968, Ted Kennedy was the heir to the Kennedy political dynasty and heir to the party's Presidential nomination. Despite not being his party's official Senate leader, as the favorite for the nomination in 1972 he was in many ways the de facto party leader.\n\nIf Ted Kennedy agreed to a deal he would have brought with him Democratic votes in the House and Senate. Once Kennedy turned down the deal due to lack of union support there was nobody in a position to pickup negotiations. Unions made up a significant portion of Democratic voters and donors and no Democrat around 1970 would want to put that at risk, especially after it caused Kennedy to step away from the deal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25473",
"title": "Richard Nixon",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1969–1974).:Domestic policy.:Governmental initiatives and organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate, federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973. In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and cost sharing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25473",
"title": "Richard Nixon",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1969–1974).:Domestic policy.:Governmental initiatives and organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for sickle-cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972. While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a War on Cancer, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5150707",
"title": "Political history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)",
"section": "Section::::Labour Government, 1945–51.:Welfare state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "In the estimation of historians, and later politicians of the major parties, the most successful and permanent program was the creation of a National Health Service which started operations in 1947. It entitled all citizens to healthcare, which, funded by taxation, was free at the point of delivery. The opposition from physicians was bought off by allowing them to keep lucrative private practices on the side. All hospitals were nationalized and brought into the system. John Carrier and Ian Kendall find that the mission for Minister of Health Aneurin Bevan was resolving \"The potential conflict between the aim of providing a universalist, comprehensive health service of a good standard and that of containing health costs to a reasonable level, and how to finance the system in such a way that certainty and sufficiency of funds could be guaranteed.\" Michael Foot adds that Bevan had to persuade \"the most conservative and respected profession in the country to accept and operate the Labour government's most intrinsically socialist proposition. In the end historians give Bevan the major credit for the success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25473",
"title": "Richard Nixon",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1969–1974).:Domestic policy.:Civil rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43383526",
"title": "1970 State of the Union Address",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Nixon later goes on to talk about health care and providing each American with quality health care, \"It is time to bring comprehensive, high quality health care within the reach of every American. [We should] assure comprehensive health insurance protection to millions who cannot now obtain it or afford it, with improved protection against catastrophic illnesses. This will be a plan that maintains the high standards of quality in America's health care. And it will not require additional taxes.\" Nixon mentions many topics that the American people stressed about the most. The security, freedom, and health of the nation was the most stagnant points in the address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184136",
"title": "Ted Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::United States Senator.:1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "In February 1971, President Nixon proposed health insurance reform—an employer mandate to offer private health insurance if employees volunteered to pay 25 percent of premiums, federalization of Medicaid for the poor with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations. Hearings on national health insurance were held in 1971, but no bill had the support of House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committee chairmen Representative Wilbur Mills and Senator Russell Long. Kennedy sponsored and helped pass the limited Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973. He also played a leading role, with Senator Jacob Javits, in the creation and passage of the National Cancer Act of 1971.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14458938",
"title": "Presidency of Richard Nixon",
"section": "Section::::Domestic affairs.:Social programs.:Welfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Determined to dismantle much of Johnson's Great Society and its accompanying federal bureaucracy, Nixon defunded or abolished several programs, including the Office of Economic Opportunity, the Job Corps, and the Model Cities Program. Nixon advocated a \"New Federalism\", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, but Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted only a few of them. During Nixon's tenure, spending on Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid all increased dramatically. Total spending on social insurance programs grew from $27.3 billion in 1969 to $67.4 billion in 1975, while the poverty rate dropped from 12.8 percent in 1968 to 11.1 percent in 1973.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cy4svt
|
how is liquid nitrogen kept cold? can it be kept in a bottle for a long period and still be cold?
|
[
{
"answer": "LN2 is stored in dewar's for smaller amounts or in cryogenic tanks for larger quantities. Dewar's are just high efficiency thermos tanks usually with a vented lid. Why the vent? Because no thermos is perfect at retaining temperature, so as temp goes up, the volume increases and there is a phase change from liquid to gas. \nThe cryo tanks usually have a mechanism for keeping the tanks chilled so as to keep the LN in a steady state.\n\nEdit: typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok, so if you have a bit of water, and you blow on it, it gets cold. That's basically because you're encouraging it to evaporate. It's evaporation (the transition from liquid to gas) that makes it cold.\n\nIf you have liquid nitrogen in an open container at Sea level pressure, it will also evaporate, but at a much higher rate than water does. It will boil in that container, and that rapid evaporation is what makes liquid nitrogen cold under those conditions.\n\nBut if you have liquid nitrogen in a sealed container at room temperature, and at Sea level pressure when you seal it up, some of the liquid will evaporate inside that container. Since the gas has nowhere to escape, the pressure will build up. The container will get cold while this is happening.\n\nEventually, the pressure in the container will be so great that the nitrogen will reach an equilibrium between gas and liquid. For every molecule of nitrogen that escaped into the gas phase, one molecule will go from had to liquid phase.\n\nThe container will gradually warm to room temperature, even though there is liquid nitrogen inside it. If you put the container on a heater, the liquid nitrogen will boil, and the pressure in the container will increase, and the nitrogen will adjust to the new, warm temperature.\n\nThe container will largely stay at it's surrounding temperature, as long as the gas does not escape, so you cannot actually keep such a container cold forever. The number of nitrogen molecules, the volume of the container the pressure, and the temperature are in a constant balance that is largely described by the Ideal Gas Law\n\nPV = nRT\n\nPressure x Volume = (number of molecules) x (Ideal Gas Constant) x Temperature",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "306364",
"title": "Liquid nitrogen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic fluid that can cause rapid freezing on contact with living tissue. When appropriately insulated from ambient heat, liquid nitrogen can be stored and transported, for example in vacuum flasks. The temperature is held constant at 77 K by slow boiling of the liquid, resulting in the evolution of nitrogen gas. Depending on the size and design, the holding time of vacuum flasks ranges from a few hours to a few weeks. The development of pressurised super-insulated vacuum vessels has enabled liquefied nitrogen to be stored and transported over longer time periods with losses reduced to 2% per day or less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "306364",
"title": "Liquid nitrogen",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Liquid nitrogen is a compact and readily transported source of dry nitrogen gas, as it does not require pressurization. Further, its ability to maintain temperatures far below the freezing point of water makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications, primarily as an open-cycle refrigerant, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1588525",
"title": "Fog machine",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Chilled.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Liquid nitrogen (N) is used to create low lying fog effects in a manner similar to dry ice. A machine heats water to at or near the boiling point, creating steam and increasing the humidity in a closed container. When liquid nitrogen is pumped into the container, the moisture rapidly condenses, creating a thick white fog. A fan placed at the output of the container directs the fog where it is needed, creating a rolling fog that lies low to the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9292180",
"title": "Theatrical smoke and fog",
"section": "Section::::Types of effects.:Nitrogen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Liquid nitrogen (N) is used to create low-lying fog effects in a manner similar to dry ice. A machine heats water to at or near the boiling point, creating steam and increasing the humidity in a closed container. When liquid nitrogen is pumped into the container, the moisture rapidly condenses, creating a thick white fog. A fan placed at the output of the container directs the fog where it is needed, creating a rolling fog that lies low to the ground. These types of machines are commonly referred to as \"dry foggers\" because the fog created by this method consists solely of water droplets, and as it dissipates there is little to no residue left on any surfaces. Dry Fogger is also a trademarked name for a particular brand of this style of fog machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143689",
"title": "Vacuum flask",
"section": "Section::::Research and industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "In laboratories and industry, vacuum flasks are often used to hold liquefied gases (often LN2) for flash freezing, sample preparation and other processes where maintaining an extreme low temperature is desired. Larger vacuum flasks store liquids that become gaseous at well below ambient temperature, such as oxygen and nitrogen; in this case the leakage of heat into the extremely cold interior of the bottle results in a slow boiling-off of the liquid so that a narrow unstoppered opening, or a stoppered opening protected by a pressure relief valve, is necessary to prevent pressure from building up and eventually shattering the flask. The insulation of the vacuum flask results in a very slow \"boil\" and thus the contents remain liquid for long periods without refrigeration equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59156",
"title": "Dry ice",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Commercial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "It is occasionally used to freeze and remove warts. However, liquid nitrogen performs better in this role, since it is colder so requires less time to act, and less pressure. Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56563719",
"title": "Dragon's Breath (dessert)",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Liquid nitrogen is used in several foods and drinks to quickly freeze them or for the vapors it produces. Its consumption poses several dangers to humans. The extreme cold temperature can cause damage to human tissue, and the displacement of oxygen by nitrogen can cause asphyxiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7iwdqw
|
how does left-cardiac hypertrophy lead to cardiac arrhythmias?
|
[
{
"answer": "With left-sided hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the left ventricle is very muscular and that leaves little room for blood to fill up in it between beats. As a result, you can get blood backing up into the left atrium. This stretching can cause electrical signals to get \"messed up\" (simple way to put it), resulting in the heart doing weird stuff as it tries to keep up with the blood flowing into it.\n\nThere's also the issue of that super muscular chamber contracting really hard, which can throw off the normal rhythm. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's less about size and blood perfusion than \"disarray.\" Those who develop what you could call an \"induced hypertrophy\" (high blood pressure or tight valves leading muscle growth on response to resistance) aren't at the same risk as someone with Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM, 'the young athlete killer'). \n\nThe cells in the heart of those with a primary hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (like HOCM) don't grow right, they align poorly, and they don't conduct right electrically. Those messy electrical pathways are where trouble happens... Extra signals, stacked signals, etc can lead to arrhythmias (total chaos). \n\nThat messy muscle cell growth can also happen somewhat in really bad heart disease from valves or high blood pressure, like I mentioned, but that's not generally the issue that leads those folks to medical attention (or death), but it does happen occasionally. \n\nDisclaimer: this is a major simplification \n(source: I'm an internist) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23371046",
"title": "Complications of hypertension",
"section": "Section::::Complications affecting the heart.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Hypertensive heart disease is the result of structural and functional adaptations leading to left ventricular hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, CHF, abnormalities of blood flow due to atherosclerotic coronary artery disease and microvascular disease, and cardiac arrhythmias. Individuals with left ventricular hypertrophy are at increased risk for, stroke, CHF, and sudden death. Aggressive control of hypertension can regress or reverse left ventricular hypertrophy and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20254750",
"title": "Syncope (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Cardiac.:Cardiac arrhythmias.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Two major groups of arrhythmias are bradycardia and tachycardia. Bradycardia can be caused by heart blocks. Tachycardias include SVT (supraventricular tachycardia) and VT (ventricular tachycardia). SVT does not cause syncope except in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Ventricular tachycardia originate in the ventricles. VT causes syncope and can result in sudden death. Ventricular tachycardia, which describes a heart rate of over 100 beats per minute with at least three irregular heartbeats as a sequence of consecutive premature beats, can degenerate into ventricular fibrillation, which is rapidly fatal without cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7013320",
"title": "Lorcainide",
"section": "Section::::Arrhythmia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 955,
"text": "Cardiac dysrhythmia is a heart rate disorder that manifests as an altered cardiac rhythm. It results from either abnormal pacemaker activity or a disturbance in impulse propagation, or both. [6] Arrhythmias can be caused by various conditions including ischemia, hypoxia, pH disruptions, B adrenergic activation, drug interactions or the presence of diseased tissue. [5] These events can trigger the development of ectopic pacemaker in the heart, which emit abnormal impulses at random times during the cardiac cycle. An arrhythmia can present itself as either bradycardia or tachycardia. [5] Untreated arrhythmias may progress to atrial fibrillation or ventricular fibrillation. [5] Treatment is aimed at normalizing cardiac rhythm by altering ion flow across the membrane. Antiarrhythmic agents can reduce arrhythmia related symptoms such as palpitations or syncope; however, they often have a narrow therapeutic index and can also be proarrhythmic[6].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304942",
"title": "Heart rate",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Arrhythmia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Arrhythmias are abnormalities of the heart rate and rhythm (sometimes felt as palpitations). They can be divided into two broad categories: fast and slow heart rates. Some cause few or minimal symptoms. Others produce more serious symptoms of lightheadedness, dizziness and fainting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "978149",
"title": "Eisenmenger's syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Eventually, due to increased resistance and decreased compliance of the pulmonary vessels, elevated pulmonary pressures cause the myocardium of the right heart to hypertrophy (RVH). The onset of Eisenmenger's syndrome begins when right ventricular hypertrophy causes right heart pressures to exceed that of the left heart, leading to reversal of blood flow through the shunt (i.e., blood moves from the right side of the heart to the left side). As a consequence, deoxygenated blood returning from the body bypasses the lungs through the reversed shunt and proceeds directly to systemic circulation, leading to cyanosis and resultant organ damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262572",
"title": "Ventricle (heart)",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Cardiac dysrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat that can occur in the ventricles or atria. Normally the heartbeat is initiated in the SA node of the atrium but initiation can also occur in the Purkinje fibres of the ventricles, giving rise to premature ventricular contractions, also called ventricular extra beats. When these beats become grouped the condition is known as ventricular tachycardia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "869496",
"title": "Mitral insufficiency",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Acute phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Acute MR (as may occur due to the sudden rupture of a chorda tendinae or papillary muscle) causes a sudden volume overload of both the left atrium and the left ventricle. The left ventricle develops volume overload because with every contraction it now has to pump out not only the volume of blood that goes into the aorta (the forward cardiac output or forward stroke volume) but also the blood that regurgitates into the left atrium (the regurgitant volume). The combination of the forward stroke volume and the regurgitant volume is known as the total stroke volume of the left ventricle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ubixe
|
would there be any temperature difference if the speed of the light were slower?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure I can ELI5 this, but i'll just try and explain it anyway. I'm not really sure what the best answer, but my best guess is that it depends on what other physical constants changed. Assuming that everything was held constant and you just halve c, going with the [plank einstein relation](_URL_0_) E=c/wavelength, then as c decreases, E decreases, and so temperature would go down.\n \nAnother way to look at this is that since frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength multiplied by c as a constant, so as c goes down, the frequency at a particular wavelength of light would be lower. If the photo frequency is lower, then things are moving around slower. Slower moving is less energy, is lower temperature. \n\nHowever, it'd also say it probably wouldn't *feel* colder, because the whole system would have adjusted down, including melting/boiling points, etc.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24372574",
"title": "One-way speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Theories in which the one-way speed of light is not equal to the two-way speed.:Theories equivalent to special relativity.:Lorentz ether theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "In the theory, the one-way speed of light is principally only equal to the two-way speed in the aether frame, though not in other frames due to the motion of the observer through the aether. However, the difference between the one-way and two-way speeds of light can never be observed due to the action of the aether on the clocks and lengths. Therefore, the Poincaré-Einstein convention is also employed in this model, making the one-way speed of light isotropic in all frames of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11647860",
"title": "Minkowski diagram",
"section": "Section::::The speed of light as a limit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "These considerations show that the speed of light as a limit is a consequence of the properties of spacetime, and not of the properties of objects such as technologically imperfect space ships. The prohibition of faster-than-light motion, therefore, has nothing in particular to do with electromagnetic waves or light, but comes as a consequence of the structure of spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30694430",
"title": "Criticism of the theory of relativity",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Principle of the constancy of the speed of light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Some consider the \"principle of the constancy of the velocity of light\" insufficiently substantiated. However, as already shown by Robert Daniel Carmichael (1910) and others, the constancy of the speed of light can be interpreted as a natural consequence of \"two\" experimentally demonstrated facts:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30694430",
"title": "Criticism of the theory of relativity",
"section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Superluminal speeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Another apparent contradiction lies in the fact that the group velocity in anomalously dispersive media is higher than the speed of light. This was investigated by Arnold Sommerfeld (1907, 1914) and Léon Brillouin (1914). They came to the conclusion that in such cases the signal velocity is not equal to the group velocity, but to the front velocity which is never faster than the speed of light. Similarly, it is also argued that the apparent superluminal effects discovered by Günter Nimtz can be explained by a thorough consideration of the velocities involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1267762",
"title": "Variable speed of light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The speed of light in vacuum instead is considered a constant, and defined by the SI as 299792458 m/s. Variability of the speed of light is therefore equivalent with a variability of the SI meter and/or the SI second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44142",
"title": "Metric system",
"section": "Section::::Realisation of units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Because the speed of light is now exactly defined in terms of the metre, more precise measurement of the speed of light does not result in a more accurate figure for its velocity in standard units, but rather a more accurate definition of the metre. The accuracy of the measured speed of light is considered to be within 1 m/s,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167840",
"title": "Chronology of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Very early universe.:Inflationary epoch and the rapid expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, in this case it was the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changed in scale. Changes to the metric are not limited by the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1a6p6i
|
why are x-rays emitted through high powered lights, and just how dangerous could it be with prolonged exposure?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those aren't actually stage lights; they're the CRT picture tubes from a [rear projection TV](_URL_0_). \n\nCRTs work by accelerating a beam of electrons in a vacuum tube to high energy, and letting the beam hit the phosphor-coated inner surface of the screen. Some of the energy excites atoms in the phosphorecent coating, and is released as light. But the electrons can also hit metal components inside the tube, releasing X-rays. Normally this isn't a concern, because the amount of radiation is small, and the front surface of the screen is made of glass that contains lead to absorb a lot of it.\n\nIt's exceedingly unlikely that there was anything radioactive in those tubes. The warning is there because radiation can be produced when they're operating at high voltage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In answer to your question about how dangerous they could be, it depends on exactly how much X-ray radiation they would be giving off.\n\nThe world average for background radiation is 2.40 mSv a year from natural causes. A full body CT scan [X-ray radiation] would equate to 10 to 30 mSv (different websites seem to differ on this) in about 30 seconds, so worst case scenario there would be 1mSv/s. A fatal dose has been reported at [4.5-6 Sv](_URL_0_)\nas well as 21Sv.\n\n1mSv/s doesn't sound like much, but then that's just under half (41%) of the average natural background radiation per year, in a second. \n\nI'm only taking the worst case scenarios here though, the actual amount you'd receive if you was using the lights normally (though without the X-ray shielding for God knows what reason) at a distance that would be reasonable for a stage light (lets say it's 4m directly above you) you'd be receiving 1/16th the radiation than you would if it was a metre away. But in any case, prolonged exposure to just about any ionising radiation is dangerous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "95807",
"title": "Radiography",
"section": "Section::::Radiation dose.:Shielding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Lead is the most common shield against X-rays because of its high density (11340 kg/m), stopping power, ease of installation and low cost. The maximum range of a high-energy photon such as an X-ray in matter is infinite; at every point in the matter traversed by the photon, there is a probability of interaction. Thus there is a very small probability of no interaction over very large distances. The shielding of photon beam is therefore exponential (with an attenuation length being close to the radiation length of the material); doubling the thickness of shielding will square the shielding effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8281241",
"title": "UV marker",
"section": "Section::::How a UV-marker works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Such wavelength are very narrow and will fall within a much broader band than regular fluorescent black lights. Therefore, UV LEDs are completely safe. It will cause no damage to your eyes nor risks of skin cancer. When the black light falls upon the UV-visible ink, it makes the ink fluoresce, where it emits visible light and make the message readable for human eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34197",
"title": "X-ray",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer. In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23593959",
"title": "LED street light",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages of LED street lights.:Health concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "BULLET::::- There is a risk from glare. A French government report published in 2013 indicated that a luminance level higher than 10,000 cd/m2 causes visual discomfort whatever the position of the lighting unit in the field of vision. As the emission surfaces of LEDs are highly concentrated point sources, the luminance of each individual source can be 1000 times higher than the discomfort level. The level of direct radiation from this type of source can therefore easily exceed the level of visual discomfort\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "Section::::Common tools.:Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "\"X-ray detector\" All plasma loses energy by emitting light. This covers the whole spectrum: visible, IR, UV, and X-rays. This occurs anytime a particle changes speed, for any reason. If the reason is deflection by a magnetic field, the radiation is Cyclotron radiation at low speeds and Synchrotron radiation at high speeds. If the reason is deflection by another particle, plasma radiates X-rays, known as Bremsstrahlung radiation. X-rays are termed in both hard and soft, based on their energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6014",
"title": "Cathode-ray tube",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Ionizing radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "CRTs can emit a small amount of X-ray radiation as a result of the electron beam's bombardment of the shadow mask/aperture grille and phosphors. The amount of radiation escaping the front of the monitor is widely considered not to be harmful. The Food and Drug Administration regulations in are used to strictly limit, for instance, television receivers to 0.5 milliroentgens per hour (mR/h) (0.13 µC/(kg·h) or 36 pA/kg) at a distance of from any external surface; since 2007, most CRTs have emissions that fall well below this limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "895033",
"title": "Macular degeneration",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Environment and lifestyle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "BULLET::::- Exposure to UV light from the sun or blue light from the sun or LEDs may be weakly associated with an increased risk of developing AMD. These potential risk factors are inconclusive and exposure to UV light or blue light may slightly increase the risk as compared to major risk factors like smoking and hypertension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p0bea
|
what process has happened over the years that makes things i found as a child hilarious to me then but now not finding them as humorous.
|
[
{
"answer": "You've developed more sophisticated tastes. Maybe not much more sophisticated, but still, at least a little. You've seen things that are far funnier than simple rude jokes or silly cartoons, and you've also seen so many rude jokes that the idea has gotten old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41122131",
"title": "Cognitive humor processing",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Early age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "The cognitive component of humor is clearly exemplified during the years of childhood, which is characterized by evolving cognitive structures. As a child advances from one degree of cognition to the next, what is considered humorous and what is not should also manifest a meaningful progression. Understanding any particular joke may call upon an array of cognitive processes such as condensations, awareness of incongruities (the cognitive component), and the ability to comprehend unusual verbal representations. The intrinsic gratification involved in the brain activity underlying humor is also encountered in mental activities such as solving puzzles and decoding mysteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27006902",
"title": "Peter McGraw",
"section": "Section::::The Humor Code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "In 2010, McGraw met journalist Joel Warner, who was fascinated by McGraw's humor research and unified theory of humor. Starting in 2011, the two created \"The Humor Code Project,\" a two-year, 91,000-mile global search for what makes things funny. Their travels took them to Tanzania, Scandinavia, Japan, Israel, Peru, and several other destinations in North America. McGraw and Warner authored The Humor Code, a book about their travels and the experiments they conducted along the way. The two maintained multiple blogs about their adventures on Wired, Huffington Post, and Psychology Today. McGraw's research and the book have been widely covered by the media, including the Wall Street Journal, NPR, MSNBC, The Boston Globe, Scientific American, The Atlantic, Denver Post, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50174610",
"title": "Toni Erdmann",
"section": "Section::::Genre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Hüller said that she always thinks \"about how humor works\" and it was this question \"we were asking ourselves during the process. What is it that makes people laugh? What is funny about Toni? I think...desperation...is the origin of comedy.\" Falling out of a chair is \"the oldest joke.\" But even when things don't work, \"you really have to try, seriously. I think that’s what we did — you never have to play the joke.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17893852",
"title": "Humor research",
"section": "Section::::Measuring responses to humor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1191,
"text": "When someone finds something funny, there are different ways of expressing it. Common responses of humor include laughing and smiling. In 2008, a study was conducted using 155 undergraduate students at North London University in order to measure responses to humor using a British comedy. The participants were divided into one of three categories: watched a video of the comedy, listened to an audiotape of the comedy, or read a script of the comedy. Approximately half of the participants were observed by an overt video camera and half were observed by a covert video camera. Results showed that participants laughed and smiled much more frequently when watching a video of the comedy and listening to the audiotape of the comedy than when reading a script. The difference in the frequency of smiling and laughing between the video and the audiotape was not significant. Participants laughed and smiled more frequently when observed by a covert video camera than an overt video camera. Aspects of the video and audiotape such as visualization of the acting, auditory representation, and also the presence of audience laughter significantly increase the frequency of laughter and smiling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17909855",
"title": "Theories of humor",
"section": "Section::::Other theories.:Benign violation theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "From an evolutionary perspective, humorous violations likely originated as apparent physical threats, like those present in play fighting and tickling. As humans evolved, the situations that elicit humor likely expanded from physical threats to other violations, including violations of personal dignity (e.g., slapstick, teasing), linguistic norms (e.g., puns, malapropisms), social norms (e.g., strange behaviors, risqué jokes), and even moral norms (e.g., disrespectful behaviors). The BVT suggests that anything that threatens one's sense of how the world \"ought to be\" will be humorous, so long as the threatening situation also seems benign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41122131",
"title": "Cognitive humor processing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1713,
"text": "Cognitive humor processing refers to the neural circuitry and pathways that are involved in detecting incongruities of various situations presented in a humorous manner. Over the past decade, many studies have emerged utilizing fMRI studies to describe the neural correlates associated with how a human processes something that is considered \"funny\". Conceptually, humor is subdivided into two elements: cognitive and affective. The cognitive element, known as humor detection, refers to understanding the joke. Usually, this is characterized by the perceiver attempting to comprehend the disparities between the punch line and prior experience. The affective element, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is involved with enjoying the joke and producing visceral, emotional responses depending on the hilarity of the joke. This ability to comprehend and appreciate humor is a vital aspect of social functioning and is a significant part of the human condition that is relevant from a very early age. Humor comprehension develops in parallel with growing cognitive and language skills during childhood, while its content is mostly influenced by social and cultural factors. A further approach is described which refers to humor as an attitude related to strains. Humorous responses when confronted with troubles are discussed as a skill often associated with high social competence. The concept of humor has also been shown to have therapeutic effects, improving physiological systems such as the immune and central nervous system. It also has been shown to help cope with stress and pain. In sum, humor proves to be a personal resource throughout the life span, and helps support the coping of everyday tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42349903",
"title": "Joel Warner",
"section": "Section::::The Humor Code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "In 2010, Warner met Peter McGraw, a professor at the University of Colorado. Warner was fascinated by McGraw's research and unified theory of humor, the Benign Violation Theory. Starting in 2011, the two created \"The Humor Code Project,\" a two-year, 91,000-mile global search for what makes things funny. Their travels took them to Tanzania, Scandinavia, Japan, Israel, Peru, and several other destinations in North America. McGraw and Warner authored \"The Humor Code\", a book about their travels and the experiments they conducted along the way. The two maintained multiple blogs about their adventures on Wired, Huffington Post, and Psychology Today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ptbqx
|
How much air do various plants need to live relative to humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "The short answer is very little. You can keep a [plant in a glass jar]( _URL_0_) forever.\n\nIn principle a plant could run out of CO2, but in practice a plant will survive indefinitely in a sealed jar with a bit of soil because bacteria and nematodes tend to breathe in the O2 and exhale CO2. Plants also like to have oxygen so they can use stored sugars for energy at night, but in a jar they tend to supply themselves.\n\nThis works best with a jar that closes tightly filled with humidity-tolerant weedy plants that do not get very big like small ferns, dollarweed and mosses. If you use wild plants you tend to get some volunteer algae as well, and cyanobacteria (the green slime) can fix nitrogen from the air if they want to. Earth-in-a-jar is a fun little experiment. Just leave it in a windowsill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "202898",
"title": "Atmosphere of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044136",
"title": "Aeroponics",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of aeroponics for earth and space.:Less nutrient solution throughout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Plants grown using aeroponics spend 99.98% of their time in air and 0.02% in direct contact with hydro-atomized nutrient solution. The time spent without water allows the roots to capture oxygen more efficiently. Furthermore, the hydro-atomized mist also significantly contributes to the effective oxygenation of the roots. For example, NFT has a nutrient throughput of 1 liter per minute compared to aeroponics’ throughput of 1.5 milliliters per minute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28541818",
"title": "Bellavista Cloud Forest Reserve",
"section": "Section::::Wildlife and ecosystem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The New York Botanical Gardens wrote that the diversity of epiphytes (\"air plants\" that grow on other plants) is higher in the cloud forests of Ecuador, Colombia and Peru than anywhere else on the planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044136",
"title": "Aeroponics",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Increased air exposure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Air cultures optimize access to air for successful plant growth. Materials and devices which hold and support the aeroponic grown plants must be devoid of disease or pathogens. A distinction of a true aeroponic culture and apparatus is that it provides plant support features that are minimal. Minimal contact between a plant and support structure allows for 100% of the plant to be entirely in air. Long-term aeroponic cultivation requires the root systems to be free of constraints surrounding the stem and root systems. Physical contact is minimized so that it does not hinder natural growth and root expansion or access to pure water, air exchange and disease-free conditions .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47850038",
"title": "Staple food",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Just 15 plant crops provide 90 percent of the world's food energy intake (exclusive of meat), with rice, maize, and wheat comprising 2/3 of human food consumption. These three are the staples of about 80 percent of the world population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044136",
"title": "Aeroponics",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Benefits of oxygen in the root zone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Clean air supplies oxygen which is an excellent purifier for plants and the aeroponic environment. For natural growth to occur, the plant must have unrestricted access to air. Plants must be allowed to grow in a natural manner for successful physiological development. The more confining the plant support becomes, the greater incidence of increasing disease pressure of the plant and the aeroponic system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47492",
"title": "Biomass (ecology)",
"section": "Section::::Global biomass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Humans comprise about 100 million tonnes of the Earth's dry biomass, domesticated animals about 700 million tonnes, earthworms over 1,100 million tonnes, and annual cereal crops about 2.3 billion tonnes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5d6juj
|
What were the average prices of firearms in the 1890 era american west?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would suggest finding a period Sears Roebuck catalogue. Sears Roebuck was the Amazon of its day, and sold everything from clothing to medicines to firearms by mail-order.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is something that should be simple but incredibly difficult. Store records and sales logs are one of the more common preserved records in local historical society archives. Long-operating stores usually kept records of what they bought or sold, but afaik, there's no central database of these. You'd have to do a lot of footwork to dig through primary sources and construct a database. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3352206",
"title": "Colt Army Model 1860",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The Colt 1860 cost approximately $20 per revolver. This was rather expensive during the 1860s, both for the United States Army and private citizens. Colt had been criticized for this high price, and by 1865 the revolver was reduced to $14.50.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3294141",
"title": "Barriere, British Columbia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Depending upon where one resided, $25 could purchase an acre of land, a saddle, or double-barreled shotgun. To give some sense of proportion to these figures: Comparing $25 of daily productivity per hired hand to the price of a barrel of crude oil in 1861 ($0.49), the gold production would yield roughly more than of oil per hand per day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43387420",
"title": "Frank Wesson Rifles",
"section": "Section::::Use and sales following the American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In 1869, the War Department purchased far fewer weapons of all kinds than it had in the Civil War. Only three Frank Wesson carbines were purchased during the year, for $20 each. At the same time, it purchased, or had modified 13,098 Sharps carbines (listed as 'Sharps carbines, altered'), at approximately $4 each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "840050",
"title": "Meindert Hobbema",
"section": "Section::::Reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "By the 1820s prices could be over £1,000, and by 1900 over £10,000. A record price of £33,000 (equivalent) was reached in 1933 with a sale to America of a work from the Jan Six collection. The highest recent prices include a painting now in the Mauritshuis, The Hague, sold in December 1995 for £3.74 million (illustrated above), and a larger picture now in the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, sold in July 2001 for £6.5 million, both at Sotheby's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59048586",
"title": "Transport vessels for the British Government's importation of rice from Bengal (1795–1796)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The price of a \"Winchester bushel\" averaged about 6s 6d in 1794, but peaked at 13s 6d in August 1795. The price did not return 6s 6d until March 1796. During the period of high prices municipal governments in towns such as Oxford and Cambridge seized cargoes of wheat passing through them, something that was illegal. There were bread riots in July-August 1795 in some 14 towns, which came to be known as the revolt of the housewives. Burials increased substantially in 1795 relative to 1794 and 1796. In response, the British Government took over the import of grains from abroad. All wheat imported up to the end of 1795 had been purchased on government account. It came either on government vessels or vessels chartered to the government. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21391154",
"title": "FN Barracuda",
"section": "Section::::Collectability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Prices vary strongly based on the availability of the various cylinders and the condition of the revolver. It has been imported to the US, and previous sellers (among them being Century Arms (CAI)) have sold imported guns at $275, but auction prices for a complete set in good condition will reach close to $600.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18190185",
"title": "2000s commodities boom",
"section": "Section::::Background of depressed prices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The prices of raw materials were depressed and declining from, roughly, 1982 until 1998. From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. Since 1968 the price of gold has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31o4s8
|
hpv -- so there's an std that basically everyone has and it's benign except when it isn't?
|
[
{
"answer": "Everyone is crawling with bacteria and viruses all the time. Having benign bacteria all over helps keep pathogenic ones away. Even different strains of the same bacteria/virus can behave quite differently.\n\nHPV infection is very common, so yes, it pretty much *is* the common cold of STDs. you can get it, fight it off, and get it again later. You can get it and have zero symptoms. You can get it and get cancer.\n\nHere are the facts on HPV, presented is a pretty easy-to-read format _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't want to tell you whether or not to worry about HPV, but here's what I know about it. There are several different strains. Some of them cause warts, some of them don't. The ones that don't cause warts can sometimes turn cells cancerous, but generally don't have any other noticeable side effects. There's a vaccine that protects against the most common cancer-causing strains.\n\nA lot of people have HPV and most don't know it. Unless you have warts, or an abnormal pap smear, or get cancer from it there's not really a way to know whether or not you have it. In fact, there's not even a test for men to tell whether or not they have it (other than the \"see if you have a wart\" test).\n\nSo the strains that cause warts and the strains that cause cancer are generally separate. Men are rarely directly affected by strains that cause cancer. I think if a man gets it anally then the cancer becomes a bigger deal, but I’m not positive. Women who have strains that cause cancers sometimes get abnormal precancerous cells that show up on a pap smear. These cells may become cancer or they may not turn into anything. I don’t really know more beyond that and am not a doctor so I’m hesitant to speculate. \n\nSo to sum it up: A lot of people have HPV. A lot of those people don’t know they have it because they don’t show any symptoms and there are no tests for it. HPV generally only does two things: give you warts and/or cancer. If you’re aguy who doesn’t have sex with other men then the cancer probably isn’t a big concern. If you’re a woman, make sure to get regular pap smears and if one of them is abnormal see what your doctor says about it. If your doctor tells you something that sounds crazy like “you can’t have sex for a year” consider getting a second opinion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9064442",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Physical effects.:Sexually transmitted infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "HPV (Human papillomavirus) is the most common STI among teens (as well as adults). In a CDC study, 18% of teen girls were infected with HPV. Another study found that HPV infections account for about half of STIs detected among 15- to 24-year-olds each year. While HPV infections may not cause any disease and is often asymptomatic, it can cause genital warts and even cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60747908",
"title": "Effects of human sexual promiscuity",
"section": "Section::::Promiscuity in adolescents.:Physical health effects.:Sexually transmitted diseases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "In the United States, Human papillomavirus is the most common STD. Routine use of HPV vaccines have greatly reduced the prevalence of HPV in specimens of females aged 14-19 and 20-24, the age group most at risk of contracting HPV, in 2011-2014 since 2003-2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188518",
"title": "Human papillomavirus infection",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Sexually transmitted HPV is divided into 2 categories: low-risk and high-risk. Low-risk HPVs cause warts on or around the genitals. Type 6 and 11 cause 90% of all genital warts and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis that causes benign tumors in the air passages. High-risk HPVs cause cancer and consist of about a dozen identified types. Type 16 and 18 are two that are responsible for causing most of HPV-caused cancers. These high-risk HPVs cause 5% of the cancers in the world. In the United States, high-risk HPVs cause 3% of all cancer cases in women and 2% in men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188518",
"title": "Human papillomavirus infection",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "About a dozen HPV types (including types 16, 18, 31, and 45) are called \"high-risk\" types because persistent infection has been linked to cancers such as cancer of the oropharynx, larynx, vulva, vagina, cervix, penis, and anus. These cancers all involve sexually transmitted infection of HPV to the stratified epithelial tissue. Individuals infected with both HPV and HIV have an increased risk of developing cervical or anal cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53227269",
"title": "HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer awareness and prevention",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "HPV is the sexually transmitted virus that is known to be the cause of genital warts. There are currently more than 100 different strains of HPV, half of which can cause genital infections. It is worth noting here that although it is not usually the HPV strains that cause genital warts that are associated with the oropharyngeal cancers, they are transmitted the same way through oral-genital sexual contact, and consumers should protect themselves accordingly and adhere to a routine health and dental screening schedule to monitor and maintain their health status. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19019270",
"title": "Sexually transmitted infection",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Main types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "BULLET::::- The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common STI in the United States. There are more than 40 different strands of HPV and many do not cause any health problems. In 90% of cases the body's immune system clears the infection naturally within 2 years. Some cases may not be cleared and can lead to genital warts (bumps around the genitals that can be small or large, raised or flat, or shaped like cauliflower) or cervical cancer and other HPV related cancers. Symptoms might not show up until advanced stages. It is important for women to get pap smears in order to check for and treat cancers. There are also two vaccines available for women (Cervarix and Gardasil) that protect against the types of HPV that cause cervical cancer. HPV can be passed through genital-to-genital contact as well as during oral sex. It is important to remember that the infected partner might not have any symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188518",
"title": "Human papillomavirus infection",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Some HPV types, such as HPV-5, may establish infections that persist for the lifetime of the individual without ever manifesting any clinical symptoms. HPV types 1 and 2 can cause common warts in some infected individuals. HPV types 6 and 11 can cause genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mgnr7
|
why did the dea decide to make cbd a schedule 1 narcotic?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because there is a long history of pharmaceutical companies lobbying to have anything that might take some of their money made illegal. CBD oil is making headlines and deserves to be researched. By lobbying to have it made schedule I, there will be little to no research done in the U.S. ensuring that we will have to buy pharma products.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10024",
"title": "MDMA",
"section": "Section::::History.:Media attention and scheduling.:United Nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "While engaged in scheduling debates in the United States, the DEA also pushed for international scheduling. In 1985 the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule I of the 1971 United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The committee made this recommendation on the basis of the pharmacological similarity of MDMA to previously scheduled drugs, reports of illicit trafficking in Canada, drug seizures in the United States, and lack of well-defined therapeutic use. While intrigued by reports of psychotherapeutic uses for the drug, the committee viewed the studies as lacking appropriate methodological design and encouraged further research. Committee chairman Paul Grof dissented, believing international control was not warranted at the time and a recommendation should await further therapeutic data. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs added MDMA to Schedule I of the convention on 11 February 1986.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1012823",
"title": "Designer drug",
"section": "Section::::History.:United States of America.:1980s–early 1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "Because the government was powerless to prosecute people for these drugs until after they had been marketed successfully, laws were passed to give the DEA power to emergency schedule chemicals for a year, with an optional 6-month extension, while gathering evidence to justify permanent scheduling, as well as the analogue laws mentioned previously. Emergency-scheduling power was used for the first time for MDMA. In this case, the DEA scheduled MDMA as a Schedule I drug and retained this classification after review, even though their own judge ruled that MDMA should be classified Schedule III on the basis of its demonstrated uses in medicine. The emergency scheduling power has subsequently been used for a variety of other drugs including 2C-B, AMT, and BZP. In 2004, a piperazine drug, TFMPP, became the first drug that had been emergency-scheduled to be denied permanent scheduling and revert to legal status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9120802",
"title": "Methylenedioxypyrovalerone",
"section": "Section::::Legality.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "In the United States, MDPV is a DEA federally scheduled drug. On October 21, 2011, the DEA issued a temporary one-year ban on MDPV, classifying it as a schedule I substance. Schedule I status is reserved for substances with a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted use for treatment in the United States and a lack of accepted safety standards for use under medical supervision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34435472",
"title": "National Take Back Initiative",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Four days following the DEA’s first Take-Back Day on September 25, 2010, Congress approved legislation that amended the Controlled Substances Act. This action provided the DEA with the option to develop a permanent process for people to safely and conveniently dispose of their prescription drugs. After October 12, President Obama signed the Safe and Secure Drug Disposal Act of 2010, and the DEA immediately began installing regulations for a more permanent solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "785808",
"title": "5-Methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine",
"section": "Section::::Drug prohibition laws.:USA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "On April 4, 2003, the United States DEA added both 5-MeO-DiPT and alpha-methyltryptamine (AMT) to Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act under \"emergency scheduling\" procedures. The drugs were officially placed into Schedule I on September 29, 2004. Prior to its prohibition in the U.S., 5-MeO-DiPT was sold online alongside psychoactive analogues such as DiPT, and DPT, neither of which have yet been expressly outlawed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1232085",
"title": "Cannabidiol",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Legal status.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "In 2013 a CNN program that featured Charlotte's Web cannabis brought increased attention to the use of CBD in the treatment of seizure disorders. Since then, 16 states have passed laws to allow the use of CBD products with a doctor's recommendation (instead of a prescription) for treatment of certain medical conditions. This is in addition to the 30 states that have passed comprehensive medical cannabis laws, which allow for the use of cannabis products with no restrictions on THC content. Of these 30 states, eight have legalized the use and sale of cannabis products without requirement for a doctor's recommendation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481886",
"title": "Cannabis (drug)",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and strains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "CBD is a 5-HT receptor agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic effect. This likely means the high concentrations of CBD found in \"Cannabis indica\" mitigate the anxiogenic effect of THC significantly. The cannabis industry claims that sativa strains provide a more stimulating psychoactive high while indica strains are more sedating with a body high. However this is disputed by researchers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hwlzm
|
A (probably) dumb question about dimensions...
|
[
{
"answer": "Absolutely. The [Klein bottle](_URL_0_) is one such example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I did some googleing and found this for you, kinda lengthy but it looks like it has the potential to answer your questions\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but it might not be so useful. Mapping 3D onto 2D usually provides a useful depiction since we are used to seeing a 3D world in 2D (our eyes really see a 2D image of the world).\n\nBut mapping 4D into 3D isn't very intuitive in many cases. Especially since that image will eventually be interpreted by us as being 2D (either when you see a picture of it, or if you stand in front of a 3D representation of the object).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Carl Sagan explains 4th Dimension](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. The picture you see [here](_URL_0_) is of a 3D model of a 4D object called a tesseract, a 4D hypercube. Just like when going from 3D - > 2D a dimension is 'flattened', the same thing happens when going 4D - > 3D.\n\nThe added wrinkle here is that you're looking at a 2D representation of a 3D model of a 4D object.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973446",
"title": "Geometry",
"section": "Section::::Important concepts in geometry.:Dimension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "The issue of dimension still matters to geometry as many classic questions still lack complete answers. For instance, many open problems in topology depend on the dimension of an object for the result. In physics, dimensions 3 of space and 4 of space-time are special cases in geometric topology, and dimensions 10 and 11 are key ideas in string theory. Currently, the existence of the theoretical dimensions is purely defined by technical reasons; it is likely that further research may result in a \"geometric\" reason for the significance of 10 or 11 dimensions in the theory, lending credibility or possibly disproving string theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3264084",
"title": "Dimension (data warehouse)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "A dimension is a structure that categorizes facts and measures in order to enable users to answer business questions. Commonly used dimensions are people, products, place and time.. (Note: People and time sometimes are not modeled as dimensions).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8398",
"title": "Dimension",
"section": "Section::::In literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "The idea of other dimensions was incorporated into many early science fiction stories, appearing prominently, for example, in Miles J. Breuer's \"The Appendix and the Spectacles\" (1928) and Murray Leinster's \"The Fifth-Dimension Catapult\" (1931); and appeared irregularly in science fiction by the 1940s. Classic stories involving other dimensions include Robert A. Heinlein's \"—And He Built a Crooked House\" (1941), in which a California architect designs a house based on a three-dimensional projection of a tesseract; and Alan E. Nourse's \"Tiger by the Tail\" and \"The Universe Between\" (both 1951). Another reference is Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle In Time\" (1962), which uses the fifth dimension as a way for \"tesseracting the universe\" or \"folding\" space in order to move across it quickly. The fourth and fifth dimensions are also a key component of the book \"The Boy Who Reversed Himself\" by William Sleator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3173612",
"title": "Inductive dimension",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The small and large inductive dimensions are two of the three most usual ways of capturing the notion of \"dimension\" for a topological space, in a way that depends only on the topology (and not, say, on the properties of a metric space). The other is the Lebesgue covering dimension. The term \"topological dimension\" is ordinarily understood to refer to Lebesgue covering dimension. For \"sufficiently nice\" spaces, the three measures of dimension are equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973446",
"title": "Geometry",
"section": "Section::::Important concepts in geometry.:Dimension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "Where the traditional geometry allowed dimensions 1 (a line), 2 (a plane) and 3 (our ambient world conceived of as three-dimensional space), mathematicians have used higher dimensions for nearly two centuries. The concept of dimension has gone through stages of being any natural number \"n\", to being possibly infinite with the introduction of Hilbert space, to being any positive real number in fractal geometry. Dimension theory is a technical area, initially within general topology, that discusses \"definitions\"; in common with most mathematical ideas, dimension is now defined rather than an intuition. Connected topological manifolds have a well-defined dimension; this is a theorem (invariance of domain) rather than anything \"a priori\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Consequences derived from the Lorentz transformation.:Length contraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The dimensions (e.g., length) of an object as measured by one observer may be smaller than the results of measurements of the same object made by another observer (e.g., the ladder paradox involves a long ladder traveling near the speed of light and being contained within a smaller garage).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28557850",
"title": "Dimensional fact model",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "A \"dimension\" is a property, with a finite domain, that describes an analysis coordinate of the fact. A fact generally has multiple dimensions that define its minimum representation granularity. Typical dimensions for the sales fact are products, stores, and dates; in which case, the basic information that can be represented is product sales in one store in one day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2svhly
|
Historians, can you help me identify this money found in my granddad's WWII warchest?
|
[
{
"answer": "These are some interesting but commonly found banknotes.\n\nFrom top to bottom, left to right:\n\n10 000 German Mark, 1920's Weimar Republic/Germany.\n\n1 Pound - Japanese Occupation Currency for Oceania.\n\n10 Pesos - Japanese Occupation Currency for the Philippines.\n\n5 Pesos - Japanese Occupation Currency for the Philippines.\n\n1/2 Schilling - Japanese Occupation Currency for Oceania.\n\n5 French Francs - Wartime issue.\n\n1 Peso - Japanese Occupation Currency for the Philippines.\n\n10 Francs - Allied Military Currency.\n\n2 Francs - Allied Military Currency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30111973",
"title": "Philippine fifty peso note",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1916-1920: \"PNB issued notes\". This note is never officially issued by the Philippine National Bank. 10,000 pieces were captured and issued during World War II by the Japanese. The others were looted by Moros in the Province of Mindanao who sold them at tenth of their face value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50462606",
"title": "Bribery of senior Wehrmacht officers",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Nature of payments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The money from \"Konto\" 5 was deposited for the officer's lifetime and did not stop when he retired. In the last months of the war, Erich von Manstein, Wilhelm List, Georg von Küchler and Maximilian von Weichs kept on changing the bank accounts into which Lammers had to deposit the money from \"Konto\" 5 to avoid the Allied advance. Much correspondence went back and forth between the officers and Lammers, as they kept writing anxiously to make certain that he was depositing their monthly bribes into the right accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1227337",
"title": "War Finance Corporation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The War Finance Corporation was a government corporation in the United States created to give financial support to industries essential for World War I, and to banking institutions that aided such industries. It continued to give support to various efforts during the interwar period. The corporation was created by a Congressional act of April 5, 1918, and abolished on July 1, 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4479676",
"title": "Thomas Huey Farm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "According to family legend Mr. Huey, who was born at Big Bone, in 1805, buried his money, all gold and silver, in a great chest before the war. He dug it up after the war and used the money to build the house. Burying money is a very common story, though it is common because so many people actually did it; in this case it may or may not have actually been so, but there can be little doubt that many people probably did bury their money before or during the war with so many rascally Yankees about.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53648571",
"title": "Richard Sidney Sayers",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1308,
"text": "Throughout the 1950s, Sayers produced or edited six books, including \"Financial Policy, 1939-45\" and his history of Lloyd Banks. \"Financial Policy\", which was published in 1956 and took Sayers five years to complete, gave a gripping yet truthful account of the wartime Treasury and the economic and political challenges it had to deal at that time. A testament to Sayers' skill as a historian and writer, the book became part of the official war history. which became part of the official war history and on which he worked for more than five years. In 1957 Sayers was appointed to the Committee on the Working of the Monetary System, where he examined most witnesses and drafted key section of the committee's official report. However, Sayers grew to be bitterly disappointed with the report's reception after it was published in 1959. This disappointment notwithstanding, Sayers went on to publish dozens of essays, articles and books in the following three decades, and was very often requested as a historian of financial institution. In this context, he was considered as a possible historian of the U.S. federal reserve system and wrote a post-1914 sequel to the official history of the Bank of England. This history was completed in 1976 and earned Sayers the offer of a knighthood, which he refused.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12402227",
"title": "Johnny Ramensky",
"section": "Section::::Hidden loot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Although this was never proven, there were certain looted items of little monetary value which survived him and remain, along with personal items, in a vault in a Glasgow bank. These include banners from Goering's Carinhall, Ramensky's commando beret, compass and his commando knife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51129304",
"title": "RR Auction",
"section": "Section::::Notable Items and Auctions.:Historical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- John F. Kennedy's diary was sold at RR Auction in April 2017 for $718,750. That was the diary that John F. Kennedy kept as a Hearst reporter during the summer of 1945 and which included a series of remarkable comments and personal observations regarding notable historical figures of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32km16
|
When the Germans were attacking Russia, and winter began, why didnt the Germans simply not take Russian clothing available on site?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Soviets implemented a \"scorched earth\" policy designed to deprive the occupying Germans of anything and everything they might use to sustain themselves. This included burning down all usable buildings and their contents, killing any livestock that could not be brought east, poisoning wells and food, destroying machinery, burning oil fields and crops, ect. From what I understand although the Germans were not properly clothed for winter, once this problem became strikingly apparent this was attempted to be remedied by salvaging Russian clothes like you said, military issued winter wear, but also through clothing drives back home, where German families would send winter clothes and blankets to those deployed. However and getting back to \"scorched earth\", no matter how many pairs of socks or coats you have you need more then that to survive a long Russian winter of living, traveling, and fighting outside. You need shelter, downtime to rest (sweating can kill you), warm food, dry clothes to change into (harder to salvage), oils to keep your weapons and machines from seizing up in the cold (as well as spare parts), and most importantly fuel. This last bit was most scarce, with Panzer divisions and units of mechanized infantry running out of fuel throughout the campaign, and a reason why it was imperative for the Germans to strike south and capture the Baku oilfields in the Caucuses. This obviously did not happen, as the advance was stopped at Stalingrad.\n\nWhile it might have been theoretically possible to supply the troops with all these necessities, the Germans treated occupied populations as sub-humans. This deprived them of potential assistance (Soviet occupied people like the Ukrainians initially welcomed the Germans as liberators, but soon turned against them for obvious reasons) and created (along with the rapid German advance that left behind many Red Army units) partisan resistance that harried the rear and made supply, rest, and downtime from the front, very difficult. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14830996",
"title": "Uniforms of the Heer (1935–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Winter uniform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Early in the war, this consisted of heavy wool greatcoats (a similar pattern was issued to East German border guards until 1989). They had silver dimpled buttons that did not reflect the light and were sometimes painted green to provide further camouflage. Following Hitler's invasion of the USSR, the Germans found themselves ill-equipped to deal with the Russian winter at the end of 1941 and had to improvise. German civilians back home were called upon to donate fur coats and other winter clothing for the war effort until enough specialized military gear for the extreme cold had been produced. Hooded waterproof parkas were issued later in the war, in white for troops on the Eastern Front and in field-grey for mountain troops (Gebirgsjäger soldiers). In addition to the standard-issue snow camouflage, the Germans made extensive use of captured Red Army equipment, especially so the fur boots, which provided better protection from the sub-zero temperatures. German troops took drastic action to obtain their winter uniform and gear from dead Russian soldiers, including even cutting off the legs of the corpses to get off their thick boots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2370996",
"title": "Operation Spark (1940)",
"section": "Section::::Later attempts.:The winter uniform suicide bomb.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Standard German army uniforms had proven inadequate for the harsh conditions of the Russian winter, thus the Army had a new winter uniform designed. A viewing of the new uniform by Hitler was arranged. The uniform was also to be adopted by the \"Waffen-SS\" and the Luftwaffe Field Divisions, so SS chief Heinrich Himmler and \"Luftwaffe\" commander Hermann Göring were expected to be present as well. This made for a great opportunity: the three most important and powerful Nazis could all be removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2194173",
"title": "Home front during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Allies.:Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "During the invasion of the Soviet Union in the early months of the war, rapid German advances almost captured the cities of Moscow and Leningrad. The bulk of Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricultural production was interrupted, with grain crops left standing in the fields. This caused hunger reminiscent of the early 1930s. In one of the greatest feats of war logistics, factories were evacuated on an enormous scale, with 1,523 factories dismantled and shipped eastwards along four principal routes to the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Ural, and Siberia. In general, the tools, dies and production technology were moved, along with the blueprints and their management, engineering staffs and skilled labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9976193",
"title": "Telogreika",
"section": "Section::::Issue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "In contrast to the usual shortages in the Red Army, soldiers received regular issues of winter clothing, as their combat effectiveness could be hampered in cold conditions otherwise. The Wehrmacht also regularly made use of captured Red Army winter uniforms, often taking them from the deceased, due to the ineffectiveness of their own winter uniforms. Similarly in the Winter War, due to a poor preparation and lack of materiel, Finnish rank-and-file troops were not issued uniforms, and had to survive with whatever of their own clothing they could bring (facetiously \"malli Cajander\" (model Cajander) after Prime Minister Aimo Cajander), or resort to capturing them from dead Red Army soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1511596",
"title": "Russian Winter",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:German invasion of 1941.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "During World War II, the Wehrmacht lacked necessary supplies, such as winter uniforms, due to the many delays in the German army's movements. At the same time, Hitler's plans for Operation Barbarossa actually miscarried before the onset of severe winter weather: he was so confident of a quick victory that he did not prepare for even the possibility of winter warfare in Russia. In fact his eastern army suffered more than 734,000 casualties (about 23% of its average strength of 3,200,000) during the first five months of the invasion before the winter started. On 27 November 1941, Eduard Wagner, the Quartermaster General of the German Army, reported that \"We are at the end of our resources in both personnel and material. We are about to be confronted with the dangers of deep winter.\" Also of note is the fact that the unusually early winter of 1941 cut short the \"rasputitsa\" season, improving logistics in early November, with the weather still being only mildly cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "380350",
"title": "Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"section": "Section::::Era of Kalnbērziņš, 1940–1959.:The Horrible Year, 1940–41.:June 14 deportations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Some of the deportees had received warnings to stay away from home and were hiding either among friends or in forests. After the German-Soviet war began many of them organized small guerrilla units and attacked the retreating Red Army soldiers and greeted Germans with the flag of independent Latvia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33787401",
"title": "Operation Greif",
"section": "Section::::Action.:Commandos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "In all, 44 German soldiers wearing U.S. uniforms were sent through U.S. lines, and all but eight returned, with the last men being sent through the lines on 19 December; after this, the element of surprise had been lost and they reverted to wearing German uniforms. It was not an uncommon practice at the time to send camouflaged reconnaissance units behind enemy lines, but because of the impact of Operation Greif, every occurrence of this was attributed to Skorzeny's men. In addition, German infantry often salvaged any items of U.S. Army clothing they found, thus it was not out of the question that regular German troops might be killed or captured wearing items of U.S. uniforms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cc5gl6
|
What did Thomas Jefferson think of the Haitian Revolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Thomas Jefferson's letter to Lafayette in 1791, he wrote about the American, French, and Haitian revolutions. He praised the French for \"exterminating the monster aristocracy, & pulling out the teeth & fangs of it’s associate monarchy.\" However it is clear that he does not see the plight of the Haitians in the same light:\n\n > what are you doing for your colonies? they will be lost if\nnot more effectually succoured. indeed no future efforts you can make will ever be able to reduce the blacks. all that can be done in my opinion will be to compound with them as has been done formerly in Jamaica. we have been less zealous in aiding them, lest your government should feel their restoration, and their connection with you, as you do yourselves.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)\n\nHere Jefferson speaks of the need for the French to placate and control the Haitians. He alludes to the peace treaties of the Jamaican First Maroon War, where the British offered a level of self governance to the rebelling slaves.\n\nAs president, Jefferson attempted to economically isolate the new, black-led Haitian government. This was in part an attempt to discourage similar rebellions in the American South, and calm the fears of slave-owners. (Jefferson and the Nonrecognition of Haiti, Matthewson)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not a specialist in either American history, or Haitian History, but I've read [this](_URL_0_) book on the subject, called *Le Spectre de la Révolution Noire: L'impact de la Révolution Haitiene dans le monde atlantique* by Alejandro Gomez. The focus of this book is to address the répercussions of the Haitian revolution in the Caribbean; mainly in southern United States, Cuba, Venezuela and Jamaica. These repercussions varies from the initials notices of the revolution, to the creation of a significance on the revolution, to the usage of the revolution on political debate.\n\nWell, firstly, what are the main ideas, in the class that Jefferson belongs, about the revolution that I can give to guide you? Those are 3: The fear of revolutionary ideas (Jacobins); Racism ; and combining the two, the fear of the black Jacobins to bring violence to the beloved colonies. On the last subject, there was fear of uprising of black slaves on American colonies even before the haitian revolution, the revolution only made it worse.\n\nNow, to your question, the author uses some Thomas Jefferson letters as documents for his book on the southern United States, and that is what I can answer. He mainly saw it as a consequence to the most radical ideas of the French revolution, and said ideas would come like wind to America. Also, he hoped that it's passage on the USA wouldn't be violent. Because that's his view on the Haitian revolution, **violence**. He thought that the revolution had a bad interpretation on the rights of men, in a violent way.\n\nHe also thought that blacks and whites couldn't live together due to the prejudices of the whites and the \"grudge\" of the blacks, one would like the other. That's why he had the idea of sending away black people to Africa, they couldn't be in America. A utopia of the white nation. Then, Haiti could be an option to send black people away.\n\nIn another document, in 179, it is also noted that he feared that Haiti would become a land of pirates, an \"American Alger\".\n\nSince the book isn't about Jefferson, I can only give some very general lines on what he thought, based on the thesis and arguments of the author, that I also presented very generally. I hope I could grive you some guidelines to your question, if it's not clear I can try to give a more detailed response *on the subjects of book.* \n\nEdit to provide the link.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23484924",
"title": "Thomas Jefferson and slavery",
"section": "Section::::As President (1801–1809).:Haitian independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "That year and once the Haitians declared independence in 1804, President Jefferson had to deal with strong hostility to the new nation by his southern-dominated Congress. He shared planters' fears that the success of Haiti would encourage similar slave rebellions and widespread violence in the South. Historian Tim Matthewson noted that Jefferson faced a Congress \"hostile to Haiti\", and that he \"acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad.\" Jefferson discouraged emigration by American free blacks to the new nation. European nations also refused to recognize Haiti when the new nation declared independence in 1804. In his short biography of Jefferson in 2005, Christopher Hitchens noted the president was \"counterrevolutionary\" in his treatment of Haiti and its revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23484924",
"title": "Thomas Jefferson and slavery",
"section": "Section::::As President (1801–1809).:Haitian independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "Jefferson expressed ambivalence about Haiti. During his presidency, he thought sending free blacks and contentious slaves to Haiti might be a solution to some of the United States' problems. He hoped that \"Haiti would eventually demonstrate the viability of black self-government and the industriousness of African American work habits, thereby justifying freeing and deporting the slaves\" to that island. This was one of his solutions for separating the populations. In 1824, book peddler Samuel Whitcomb, Jr. visited Jefferson in Monticello, and they happened to talk about Haiti. This was on the eve of the greatest emigration of U.S. Blacks to the island-nation. Jefferson told Whitcomb that he had never seen Blacks do well in governing themselves, and thought they would not do it without the help of Whites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23484924",
"title": "Thomas Jefferson and slavery",
"section": "Section::::As President (1801–1809).:Haitian independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "After Toussaint Louverture had become governor general of Saint-Domingue following a slave revolt, in 1801 Jefferson supported French plans to take back the island. He agreed to loan France $300,000 \"for relief of whites on the island.\" Jefferson wanted to alleviate the fears of southern slave owners, who feared a similar rebellion in their territory. Prior to his election, Jefferson wrote of the revolution, \"If something is not done and soon, we shall be the murderers of our own children.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50568318",
"title": "Cabinet Battle",
"section": "Section::::Cabinet Battle #2.:Jefferson's verse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Jefferson and Madison start the rap battle by questioning the cabinet as to who aided the American Revolutionaries during their hour of need (the answer: France). Jefferson also argues that because the Americans signed a treaty between themselves and the King of France, they are honor bound to give aid to them as they enter a war with Britain. Jefferson then insults Hamilton, accusing him of being greedy and stating that he is disloyal. Jefferson notes that he is Secretary of State, not Hamilton, implying that he should have more influence on this decision than the Secretary of Treasury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016931",
"title": "Presidency of Thomas Jefferson",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.:Florida and Haiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "After early 1802, when he learned that Napoleon intended to regain a foothold in Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, Jefferson proclaimed neutrality in relation to the Haitian Revolution. The U.S. allowed war contraband to \"continue to flow to the blacks through usual U.S. merchant channels and the administration would refuse all French requests for assistance, credits, or loans.\" The \"geopolitical and commercial implications\" of Napoleon's plans outweighed Jefferson's fears of a slave-led nation. After the rebels in Saint-Domingue proclaimed independence from France in the new republic of Haiti in 1804, Jefferson refused to recognize Haiti as the second independent republic in the Americas. In part he hoped to win Napoleon's support over the acquisition of Florida. American slaveholders had been frightened and horrified by the slave massacres of the planter class during the rebellion and after, and a southern-dominated Congress was \"hostile to Haiti.\" They feared its success would encourage slave revolt in the American South. Historian Tim Matthewson notes that Jefferson \"acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad.\" According to the historian George Herring, \"the Florida diplomacy reveals him [Jefferson] at his worst. His lust for land trumped his concern for principle.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61312670",
"title": "History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829",
"section": "Section::::Other issues and incidents.:Haiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "After early 1802, when he learned that Napoleon intended to regain a foothold in Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, Jefferson proclaimed neutrality in relation to the Haitian Revolution. The U.S. allowed war contraband to \"continue to flow to the blacks through usual U.S. merchant channels and the administration would refuse all French requests for assistance, credits, or loans.\" The \"geopolitical and commercial implications\" of Napoleon's plans outweighed Jefferson's fears of a slave-led nation. After the rebels in Saint-Domingue proclaimed independence from France in the new republic of Haiti in 1804, Jefferson refused to recognize Haiti as the second independent republic in the Americas. In part he hoped to win Napoleon's support over the acquisition of Florida. American slaveholders had been frightened and horrified by the slave massacres of the planter class during the rebellion and after, and a southern-dominated Congress was \"hostile to Haiti.\" They feared its success would encourage slave revolt in the American South. Historian Tim Matthewson notes that Jefferson \"acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad.\" According to the historian George Herring, \"the Florida diplomacy reveals him [Jefferson] at his worst. His lust for land trumped his concern for principle.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5376636",
"title": "Jean-Nicolas Démeunier",
"section": "Section::::Lycée.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Thomas Jefferson also was the source of \"\"Précis historique de la révolution des États Unis d'Amérique, précédé de l'histoire de ses provinces, jusq'à l'époque de la révolution, et suivi du Manifeste ou de l'acte d'Indépendance des treize États-Unis\"\", anonymously published in Ghent by Goessin in 1789.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2btftz
|
why hasnt a large group of people filed a class action suite against verizon or comcast
|
[
{
"answer": "Many service providers in the US, including Comcast, have clauses in their user agreements which actually forbid customers from engaging in class-action lawsuits against the company. In fact, many of these user agreements prevent you from taking any legal action and mandate that all disputes (that can't be resolved directly with the company) must be settled outside of court through binding arbitration.\n\nYes, it is true that these clauses are not legally enforceable in all jurisdictions, but it still prevents and discourages many customers from trying to get a class action lawsuit going. Also, these lawsuits are extremely expensive and unless you have demonstrable proof that the company caused widespread harm/damage and/or acted illegally then it simply doesn't make sense to proceed with such a lawsuit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For what, exactly?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why has not each individual citizen sued the US government for stalking???",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1653981",
"title": "Bandwidth throttling",
"section": "Section::::Court cases.:\"Comcast Corp. v. FCC\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "In 2007, Free Press, Public Knowledge, and the Federal Communications Commission filed a complaint against Comcast's Internet service. Several subscribers claimed that the company was interfering with their use of peer-to-peer networking applications. The Commission stated that it had jurisdiction over Comcast's network management practices and that it could resolve the dispute through negotiation rather than through rulemaking. The Commission believed that Comcast had \"significantly impeded consumers' ability to access the content and use the applications of their choice\", and that because Comcast \"ha[d] several available options it could use to manage network traffic without discriminating\" against peer-to-peer communications, its method of bandwidth management \"contravene[d] ... federal policy\". At this time, \"Comcast had already agreed to adopt a new system for managing bandwidth demand, the Commission simply ordered it to make a set of disclosures describing the details of its new approach and the company's progress toward implementing it\". Comcast complied with this Order but petitioned for a review and presented several objections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3460155",
"title": "NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Legal action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Dozens of civil suits against the government and telecommunications companies over the program were consolidated before the chief judge of the Northern District of California, Vaughn R. Walker. One of the cases was a class-action lawsuit against AT&T, focusing on allegations that the company had provided the NSA with its customers' phone and Internet communications for a data-mining operation. Plaintiffs in a second case were the al-Haramain Foundation and two of its lawyers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30312247",
"title": "US Copyright Group",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "The EFF, ACLU and Time Warner have joined forces to try to quash most of the lawsuits. The ACLU and EFF argued that the lawsuits were not closely related and therefore improperly joined, and that it was improper to file all suits in Washington DC even though most of the alleged offenders resided elsewhere. Time Warner argued that it could only handle 28 IP address lookup requests per month. In July 2010, the Washington D.C. District Court judge rejected these arguments, but ordered UCSG, EFF and ACLU to work together to draft notification letters to be sent to the targeted individuals by their ISPs. The letters would inform them about the process and their legal options to fight the subpoena and would have to be approved by the court. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6126365",
"title": "Room 641A",
"section": "Section::::Lawsuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) filed a class-action lawsuit against AT&T on January 31, 2006, accusing the telecommunication company of violating the law and the privacy of its customers by collaborating with the National Security Agency (NSA) in a massive, illegal program to wiretap and data-mine Americans' communications. On July 20, 2006, a federal judge denied the government's and AT&T's motions to dismiss the case, chiefly on the ground of the state secrets privilege, allowing the lawsuit to go forward. On August 15, 2007, the case was heard by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals and was dismissed on December 29, 2011, based on a retroactive grant of immunity by Congress for telecommunications companies that cooperated with the government. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3540442",
"title": "Apple Inc. litigation",
"section": "Section::::Antitrust.:Apple and AT&T Mobility antitrust class action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "In October 2008, the court denied the defendants' motions to dismiss the case on the federal claims and granted their motions to dismiss the state unfair trade practice claims except in California, New York, and Washington, but gave the plaintiffs leave to amend those claims. In December 2011, the district court granted Apple and AT&T's motions to compel arbitration, following the Supreme Court decision in \"AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion\", and decertified the class; in April 2012 the Ninth Circuit denied plaintiffs permission to appeal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35714069",
"title": "Net bias",
"section": "Section::::The FCC and Data Discrimination.:FCC Appeals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "BULLET::::- “It has been a very long and drawn out fight, and it has certainly distracted the FCC for the last year. It has distracted the carriers as well, who have spent a lot of time, effort and money in terms of publicly fighting about it and privately fighting about it,\" says Larry Downes an industry consultant and author...\"It is very, very unlikely that AT&T will file suit,\" said Downes. \"They've said publicly and repeatedly that they are comfortable with the net neutrality order and I take that as a pretty strong indication that they are not going to litigate it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55974",
"title": "Federal Communications Commission",
"section": "Section::::Wireline policy.:Internet.:Net neutrality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "On January 14, 2014 Verizon won their lawsuit over the FCC in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Court. Verizon was suing over increased regulation on internet service providers on the grounds that \"even though the Commission has general authority to regulate in this arena, it may not impose requirements that contravene express statutory mandates. Given that the Commission has chosen to classify broadband providers in a manner that exempts them from treatment as common carriers, the Communications Act expressly prohibits the Commission from nonetheless regulating them as such.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wyjzk
|
why don't we have nintendo wii styled controls for a computer instead of the conventional mouse?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because The wii mote is very imprecise for clicking. The ergonomics don't really work well for the complexities of computers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have a bluetooth adapter in your computer, [you can absolutely use your Wiimote that way](_URL_0_).\n\nTurns out most people just don't want to do this. The novelty wears off quickly. Mice were designed to provide maximum control with minimum effort. Wiimotes were designed almost exactly the opposite. Large gestures with less focus on precision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17354569",
"title": "Skate It",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Because the Nintendo DS and Wii lack the dual analog joysticks that were used for control in the original game, the controls for \"Skate It\" were redesigned to take advantage of each platform's respective control methods. For example, the Wii version utilizes the motion sensing of the Wii Remote to control the player's skateboard, with gestures used to perform tricks, while the Nintendo DS version features stylus and touchscreen control. The Wii version also features support for the Wii Balance Board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9566406",
"title": "Classic Controller",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "Classic Controller can be used with the Virtual Console as well as with certain Wii and WiiWare games. Along with the Nintendo GameCube controller, the Classic Controller is one of the controllers required to play certain Virtual Console games, such as SNES or Nintendo 64 titles, which require more buttons than the Wii Remote. However, the Classic Controller cannot be used to play GameCube games. When in the Wii Menu, the left analog stick takes control of the cursor when the Wii Remote is not pointed at the screen. The Classic Controller can navigate through the Message Board, settings menus, and Wii Shop Channel, but becomes inactive on all other channels except for the YouTube channel which the directional button is the only way to navigate through YouTube (except for using keyboard). It is also compatible with the Wii U, and some Wii U-specific games support it as well, such as \"Trine 2: Director's Cut\". The Classic Controller can also be used to navigate the Wii U home screen and menus. The Classic Controller is also compatible with the NES Classic Edition and Super NES Classic Edition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053053",
"title": "Command & Conquer (1995 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reviews.:Ports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "\"Next Generation\" commented that, while earlier ports had trouble recreating the mouse controls of the original, the Nintendo 64 version \"handles it beautifully\". The review's author stated that the controller's analog stick \"allow[s for] the same simple point and click interface as the PC\", adding that \"the entire interface is equally responsive and well planned.\" The reviewer praised its graphics and audio, even calling the voice acting \"the most competent [...] ever to appear en masse on the platform\", but disliked its lack of multiplayer support, and concluded that the port \"keeps the spirit of the game perfectly while adapting it wonderfully to the limitations of the N64\". James Bottorff of \"The Cincinnati Enquirer\" believed that advancements in the real-time strategy genre rendered the Nintendo 64 port outdated, despite its new \"bells and whistles\". However, Bottorff wrote that those who had not played earlier \"Command & Conquer\" releases would find it \"highly addictive\", adding that its \"controls are surprisingly good for a PC port.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51200514",
"title": "NES Classic Edition",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "The controllers in the international version of the console feature the Wii Nunchuk's connector, which allows the controller to be connected to the Wii Remote for use with Virtual Console games on the Wii and Wii U. Accessories for the Wii such as the Classic Controller may be used with the NES Classic. The controllers for the Japanese version are hardwired into the console just like in the original Famicom, so they cannot be used in conjunction with the Wii. The Famicom Mini controllers are also proportioned to the size of the console, resulting in them being smaller than their North American or European counterpart. They fit into small holding slots on the side of the console. The Famicom Mini comes with two controllers. The microphone on the Player 2 controller is superficial only and does not work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32552065",
"title": "Wii U GamePad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The Wii U GamePad is the standard game controller for Nintendo's Wii U home video game console. Incorporating traits from tablet computers, the GamePad has traditional input methods (such as buttons, dual analog sticks, and a D-pad), touchscreen controls, and motion controls. The touchscreen can be used to supplement a game by providing alternate, second screen functionality or an asymmetric view of a scenario in a game. The screen can also be used to play a game strictly on the GamePad screen, without the use of a television display. Conversely, non-gaming functions can be assigned to it as well, such as using it as a television remote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56600344",
"title": "List of Nintendo controllers",
"section": "Section::::Wii U.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The Wii U GamePad is the standard controller for Nintendo's eighth generation video game console. It incorporates traits from tablet computers and also has traditional input methods, such as buttons, dual analog sticks, and a D-pad. It also features touchscreen and motion controls. The touchscreen can be used to supplement a game by providing second screen functionality or an asymmetric view of a scenario in a game. The screen can also be used to play a game strictly on the GamePad screen, without the use of a television display. Conversely, non-gaming functions can be assigned to it as well, such as using it as a television remote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32552065",
"title": "Wii U GamePad",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Nintendo's first presentation of the controller in 2011 led to confusion upon whether the Wii U would support the use of multiple GamePads. A Nintendo spokesperson stated that the GamePad would not be sold individually from a Wii U console, and Shigeru Miyamoto had not ruled out the possibility of using multiple GamePads with a single console—but also felt that it may be more convenient to use the Nintendo 3DS as a controller in this scenario as well—implying potential compatibility. During Nintendo's E3 2012 presentation, it was confirmed that Wii U games could theoretically support up to two GamePads simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xmc03
|
what is a typical career path taken to become a us ambassadors?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can be anything you want! You just have to earn a lot of money. Then you donate it to a political party, and use that donation as leverage to get the position!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25602913",
"title": "History of United States foreign policy",
"section": "Section::::Diplomats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Since the late 20th century, high-profile ambassadorships typically are selected by the White House and go to prominent political or financial supporters of the president. These amateurs are mostly sent to Western Europe or nations with strong economic ties to the U.S. Professional career ambassadors move up through the State Department hierarchy and typically are posted to smaller countries and those with lower trade with the United States. The vast majority of semiprofessional diplomats were appointed to the most powerful countries. The pattern varies according to presidential style. For example, under President George W. Bush (2001–2009) the foreign service and the U.S. Agency for International Development were underfunded and often used for political rather than diplomatic reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3535048",
"title": "Foreign Service Officer",
"section": "Section::::FSO career tracks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Many leadership roles at U.S. embassies are filled from the ranks of career FSOs. Recently, about two-thirds of U.S. Ambassadors have been career Foreign Service members primarily drawn from the Department of State, although other foreign affairs agencies have produced Ambassadors from time to time. Almost all of the remaining third are political appointees, though a handful of State Department Senior Executive Service personnel have received Ambassadorships. FSOs also help fill critical management and foreign policy positions at the headquarters of foreign affairs agencies in Washington, D.C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16965338",
"title": "List of ambassadors of the United States to Switzerland and Liechtenstein",
"section": "Section::::Political appointees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The position is generally held by a political appointee rather than a career Foreign Service Officer (FSO); in the United States ambassadors are nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. According to the American Foreign Service Association, only two career FSOs since 1960 have been appointed to the Swiss and Liechtenstein ambassadorship (both times were in the 1970s), whereas the remaining twenty ambassadors were political appointees, typically those known as \"campaign bundlers\" who raise large sums of money for presidential campaigns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56643662",
"title": "United States Ambassadors appointed by Donald Trump",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Ambassadorships are often used as a form of political patronage to reward high-profile or important supporters of the president. The most visible ambassadorships are often distributed either in this way or to the president's ideological or partisan confreres. Most ambassadorships, however, are assigned to foreign service officers who have spent their career in the State Department. Regardless, all ambassadors must be formally appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. While all ambassadors serve at the president's pleasure and may be dismissed at any time, career diplomats usually serve tours of roughly three years before receiving a new assignment, and political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857149",
"title": "List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The position is regarded as one of the most prestigious positions in the United States Foreign Service due to the so-called \"Special Relationship\". The ambassadorship has been held by various notable politicians, including five who would later become presidents: John Adams, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren and James Buchanan. However, the modern tendency of American presidents (of both parties) is to appoint keen political fundraisers from previous presidential campaigns, despite the importance and prestige of the office.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153068",
"title": "Ambassadors of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "An ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer (career diplomat – CD) or a political appointee (PA). In most cases, career foreign service officers serve a tour of approximately three years per ambassadorship whereas political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president. As embassies fall under the State Department's jurisdiction, ambassadors answer directly to the Secretary of State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48014345",
"title": "List of ambassadors of Nicaragua",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "An ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer or a political appointee. In most cases, career foreign service officers serve a tour of approximately three years per ambassadorship whereas political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president. As embassies fall under the Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de la República de Nicaragua (Chancellery of Nicaragua) jurisdiction, ambassadors answer to the Foreign Ministers of Nicaragua, Denis Moncada or to the President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega Saavedra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zz6ls
|
what do pets think about all day? they must get bored.
|
[
{
"answer": "Some do which is sometimes why bored dogs for instance destroy furniture",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4899489",
"title": "Three-toed box turtle",
"section": "Section::::Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "As pets, they have been reported to eat mealworms, corn, melon, crickets, waxworms, tomatoes, cooked eggs, fruit, and even moist dog food. They can be shy about being watched while eating, and may stop and stare back motionless if this happens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "847723",
"title": "Drentse Patrijshond",
"section": "Section::::Exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Happiest when working alongside a hunter, the Drent enjoys the company of humans in the great outdoors. Several brisk turns around the park will satisfy it as well. Although it will come home and quietly assume its position on its bed, it should not be mistaken for a sedentary dog - the breed will suffer if insufficiently exercised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "728513",
"title": "Laziness",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \"satisfice\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third to eating and resting for foraging animals. When more time must be spent foraging, animals are more likely to sacrifice time spent on aggressive behavior than time spent resting. Extremely efficient predators have more free time and thus often appear more lazy than relatively inept predators that have little free time. Beetles likewise seem to forage lazily due to a lack of foraging competitors. On the other hand, some animals, such as pigeons and rats, seem to prefer to respond for food rather than eat equally available \"free food\" in some conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37196157",
"title": "Pet travel",
"section": "Section::::Animal stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Pets may experience stress and anxiety from unfamiliar situations and locations. Cats are especially stressed by change. Instead of travelling with their owner on vacation, pets can be boarded at kennels or kept at home with a friend or pet sitter. However, that also includes unfamiliar situations and locations. This is not an option when moving permanently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "518938",
"title": "Puli dog",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "but they do best when not kept indoor pets in small living spaces. Pulis kept indoors need a lot of exercise to use up their energy, or they can become either shy or overactive. They need to get the kind of exercise they were created for. A Puli without enough exercise can become mischievous and cause trouble. The right kind of exercise includes running, running with a biker, hiking, jogging and field work; not just a walk around the corner. Pulis are best kept in a house with a garden. Cozy and very friendly especially towards children, they are sensitive and prone to resentment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2729179",
"title": "Robotic pet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Robot pets also keep elderly people from being depressed and also keep them active. In New Zealand, a study was conducted on elders to show the impact of robotic pets on their mental well-being and standards of living. The study found that the senior adults who interacted with the pets had a much more beneficial outlook on life, including a more positive mindset. The company Tombot created a prototype robotic pet that is specifically for elders who are lonely and have low-budgets. These pets will promote an easier yet more affordable lifestyle for older adults and a more low maintenance way to have the companionship of a pet. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215013",
"title": "Cats (musical)",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Featured characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "BULLET::::- Jennyanydots a.k.a. the Old Gumbie Cat – She sits around all day and is seemingly very lazy, but at night, she becomes very active as she rules the mice and cockroaches, forcing them to undertake helpful functions and creative projects to curb their naturally destructive habits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45s5wb
|
excess reserves
|
[
{
"answer": " > Watched Janet Yellen's testimony to congress last week. \n\nFor those of who do not want to use up all of our bandwidth, or week-end time, watching 6 hours of very boring you-tube, could you point us to the part that you are talking about?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37477571",
"title": "Abundance Investment",
"section": "Section::::Risks of investing in renewable energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Abundance debentures are usually long-term investments which investors should expect to hold for the full 20 years. Although Abundance facilitates a process for debentures to be bought and sold before the end of their life, there is no guarantee that this can be done, or what the value will be. However, 2015 saw Abundance raise over £2 million for its first \"short-term\" debenture—one year—supporting the construction of a wind turbine, which it expects to re-finance with a long-term debenture. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39102457",
"title": "Negative interest on excess reserves",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Negative interest on excess reserves is an instrument of unconventional monetary policy applied by central banks to encourage lending by making it costly for commercial banks to hold their excess reserves at central banks so they will lend more readily to the private sector. Such a policy is usually a response to very slow economic growth, deflation, and deleveraging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "317064",
"title": "Balance of payments",
"section": "Section::::History of issues.:2009 and later: post Washington Consensus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Economists such as Gregor Irwin and Philip R. Lane have suggested that increased use of pooled reserves could help emerging economies not to require such large reserves and thus have less need for current account surpluses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053440",
"title": "Oil reserves",
"section": "Section::::Classifications.:Unproven reserves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Unproven reserves are based on geological and/or engineering data similar to that used in estimates of proven reserves, but technical, contractual, or regulatory uncertainties preclude such reserves being classified as proven. Unproven reserves may be used internally by oil companies and government agencies for future planning purposes but are not routinely compiled. They are sub-classified as \"probable\" and \"possible\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11770045",
"title": "Proven reserves",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Proven reserves, also called measured reserves, 1P, and reserves, are industry specific terms regarding fossil fuel energy sources. They are defined as a \"Quantity of energy sources estimated with reasonable certainty, from the analysis of geologic and engineering data, to be recoverable from well established or known reservoirs with the existing equipment and under the existing operating conditions.\" A reserve is considered a proven reserve if it is probable that 90% or more of the resource is recoverable while being economically profitable. These terms relate to common fossil fuel reserves such as oil reserves, natural gas reserves, or coal reserves . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4504293",
"title": "Reserve (accounting)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Reserve is the profit achieved by a company where a certain amount of it is put back into the business which can help the business in their rainy days. The preceding sentence may give the unwary reader the sense that this item is an asset, a debit balance. This is false. A reserve is always a credit balance. Retained Earnings typically has a credit balance. If a firm wants to label part of Retained Earnings as a Reserve for Reinvestment, then that labeling does not harm, but neither does it do anything about making assets, liquid or otherwise, available for any day, rainy or otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34753118",
"title": "Income drawdown",
"section": "Section::::Differences between income draw-down and annuities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "There is a risk that if too much is taken from drawdown that the funds will be depleted. This can happen because the pensioner lives significantly longer than expected. In contrast the annuity is guaranteed to be paid for life. However, if an annuity is not index linked then inflation can eat away at the spending power most significantly at those later years. The other way that the pot can be depleted is if investment performance is poor, for example if stock markets go down significantly and withdrawals are not adjusted to take this into account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5rwsvb
|
how can gov officials get away with giving seemingly classified information to news outlets?
|
[
{
"answer": " > The official was not authorized to speak publicly on the subject\n\nThat is not the same thing and does not imply that they gave out classified information. What it means is that the employee was not designated as the public spokesperson for the organization. The information they are giving is not secret, but not the official line either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17942372",
"title": "United States v. Arnold",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent developments.:Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Other critics have cited that there are some documents and data that need to be legitimately kept secret or discreet, and are worried that there is nothing to prevent the officials involved in a search from disclosing this sensitive data. They give examples of trade secrets, acquisition plans, plans for a new product, security data about private customers. The concern is that officials in the process of searching may copy and leak this information without consent. Most are unwilling to trust government officials and employees to not misuse what they seize or negligently disclose confidential information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439456",
"title": "Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal",
"section": "Section::::Context for the investigation.:Media reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Wouldn't that cover news reporting of leaked information? We can understand laws to keep government officials from leaking sensitive secrets, but once that information is out, do we really want to start prosecuting journalists and others who publish it? That sounds more like Britain's Official Secrets Act than an American law consonant with the 1st Amendment. When Congress passed the Espionage Act, it explicitly rejected a version that would have punished newspapers for printing information \"useful to the enemy.\" That was the right decision then, and there's no rationale for undoing it now.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3539962",
"title": "Classified information in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "A 2013 report to Congress noted that the relevant laws have been mostly used to prosecute foreign agents, or those passing classified information to them, and that leaks to the press have rarely been prosecuted. The legislative and executive branches of government, including US presidents, have frequently leaked classified information to journalists. Congress has repeatedly resisted or failed to pass a law that generally outlaws disclosing classified information. Most espionage law only criminalizes national defense information; only a jury can decide if a given document meets that criterion, and judges have repeatedly said that being \"classified\" does not necessarily make information become related to the \"national defense\". Furthermore, by law, information may not be classified merely because it would be embarrassing or to cover illegal activity; information may only be classified to protect national security objectives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252857",
"title": "Classified information",
"section": "Section::::Government classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "However, classified information is frequently \"leaked\" to reporters by officials for political purposes. Several U.S. presidents have leaked sensitive information to get their point across to the public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8216055",
"title": "Source protection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Regardless of whether the right to source confidentiality is protected by law, the process of communicating between journalists and sources can jeopardize the privacy and safety of sources, as third parties can hack electronic communications or otherwise spy on interactions between journalists and sources. News media and their sources have expressed concern over government covertly accessing their private communications. To mitigate these risks, journalists and sources often rely on encrypted messaging. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17123820",
"title": "Failure in the intelligence cycle",
"section": "Section::::Collection.:OSINT.:Information Reliability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Source reliability is one of the major points that hinders collection with this method. If you are viewing the paper of country where the dictator government runs the media, it is unlikely that you are reading an unbiased account of the facts. The same thing applies to use of the internet to gain information. Censorship controls over the internet in some countries will limit the amount of information that is made available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1928055",
"title": "United States v. Reynolds",
"section": "Section::::Discussion and criticism of privilege in \"Reynolds\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "There has been much discussion about the use of government privilege to classify information. On the one hand, there is the need to protect government secrecy. On the other, there is always suspicion that \"classified documents\" are merely a way to cover-up government malfeasance or bad faith actions of the executive branch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9zus8o
|
why don’t you bleed out when you get an injection?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is about 50 processes that occur to act together to clot your blood and plug the hole.\nSome people could bleed out, they are called haemophiliacs, and their blood clotting system malfunctions in one way or another.\nBonus fun fact for you, if you take too many blood thinners, you can bleed out through your skin, don't even need a hole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The needle hole you get from an injection is so tiny that the blood can't get out that much. Even when you get stung by a sowing needle, which is considerably larger, it doesn't bleed that much either. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on where the injection is.\n\nMost simple injections are intramuscular, given into the deltoid or quadriceps muscles in the upper arm or thigh, respectively.\n\nThese muscles are chosen because they don't have any major blood vessels running through them, only really really tiny ones that supply the local tissue. These get torn, but not enough to create significant amounts of blood. As these microscopic vessels are ruptured, tiny little cells in the blood called platelets come into contact with the muscle tissue. Usually, platelets are inside the blood, but when the vessels breaks they spill out.\n\nAs soon as the platelets recognise that they're not inside the blood vessel, they start to 'vomit' lots of 'glue' into the local area. This causes more platelets to stick, and vomit more glue. This glue is like an epoxy -- you need to mix it so that it sticks. Because the platelets are vomiting their part, it can now mix with the parts in the blood, causing more stickiness to happen.\n\nThe end result is that you get this big ball of platelets, red blood cells, and other stuff all stuck together. If you scrape your knee, you'd call this a scab, however it's happening hundreds of times inside your muscle after any injection. Sometimes, this glue doesn't form very well, and you get bruises where you got the injection. That's because the glue took too long to form and too much blood leaked out!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your blood hates oxygen. When your blood touches oxygen, it turns into an Iron Snow Flake in order to stop it getting into your body. When the needle goes into your skin, some blood will come back out the hole when the needle leaves. The Iron Snow Flakes that your blood turns into lock together, and \"freeze\" in place. This \"Frozen\" blood blocks any more blood from escaping.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "62745",
"title": "Lethal injection",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Procedure in U.S. executions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "The drugs are not mixed externally because that can cause them to precipitate. Also, a sequential injection is key to achieve the desired effects in the appropriate order: administration of the pentobarbital essentially renders the person unconscious; the infusion of the pancuronium bromide induces complete paralysis, including that of the lungs and diaphragm rendering the person unable to breathe. If the person being executed were not already completely unconscious, the injection of a highly concentrated solution of potassium chloride could cause severe pain at the site of the IV line, as well as along the punctured vein, but it interrupts the electrical activity of the heart muscle and causes it to stop beating, bringing about the death of the person being executed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501723",
"title": "Takifugu",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The poison paralyzes the muscles while the victim stays fully conscious, and eventually dies from asphyxiation. There is currently no antidote, and the standard medical approach is to try to support the respiratory and circulatory system until the effect of the poison wears off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62745",
"title": "Lethal injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Lethal injection is the practice of injecting one or more drugs into a person (typically a barbiturate, paralytic, and potassium solution) for the express purpose of causing immediate death. The main application for this procedure is capital punishment, but the term may also be applied in a broader sense to include euthanasia and other forms of suicide. The drugs cause the person to become unconscious, stops their breathing, and causes a heart arrhythmia, in that order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6447865",
"title": "Drug injection",
"section": "Section::::Recreational drugs.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Of all the ways to ingest drugs, injection carries the most risks by far as it bypasses the body's natural filtering mechanisms against viruses, bacteria, and foreign objects. There will always be much less risk of overdose, disease, infections, and health problems with alternatives to injecting, such as smoking, insufflation (snorting or nasal ingestion), or swallowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6447865",
"title": "Drug injection",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "BULLET::::- Increased chance of overdose — Because IV injection delivers a dose of drug straight into the bloodstream, it is harder to gauge how much to use (as opposed to smoking or snorting, where the dose can be increased relatively incrementally until the desired effect is achieved; this gives a user who is in danger of overdosing a chance to seek medical treatment before respiratory arrest sets in). In addition, because of the rapid onset of intravenous drugs, overdose can occur very quickly, requiring immediate action. Another reason that overdose is a risk is because the purity of street drugs varies a great deal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334816",
"title": "Route of administration",
"section": "Section::::Choice of routes.:Parenteral.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14034",
"title": "Heroin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction. Side effects of use by injection can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia. After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use. When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine. It typically comes as a white or brown powder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b6ja5e
|
how does property line surveying work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Property lines is often described using features in the terrain and not necessarily coordinates. And even if there is coordinates they may not have been measured with high accuracy, using old datum or the terrain might have changed. So a surveyor is walking around trying to make sense of the previous descriptions of the property lines and writing down his own descriptions. This makes it easier for you to know where the property line is. He often returns with detailed coordinates of the property line. These can be written as two sets of degree, minute, second coordinates. A latitude and longitude. A circle have 365 degrees, a degree have 60 minute and a minute have 60 seconds. So by using two such values you are able to uniquely place a point on the surface of the Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's all about making maps align with reality. Property is defined, for ownership reasons, by polygons on a map. Usually the local government maintains master maps reflecting agreed upon boundaries between each parcel of land.\n\nIn most of the 20^th century, these were literal maps, sheets of paper in big books in the county's land records department. When you filed a deed and filed for title, the map you provided was compared, by a skilled map reader, with the book. Many title defects were detected this way, and many, many more were not.\n\nIn modern times, most jurisdictions are digitizing these maps. The resulting GIS (geodesy information system) allows computers to find all the zillions of other boundary defects, and arithmetically fix them. Today, all good plots have coordinates on them, like your car's GPS uses; rocks and landmarks are part of the sad past.\n\nWell, it's super good that all the county's records are now in unified GIS, but that's little help to the contractor on the ground. Surveyors take those maps and use them to put matching stakes in the ground. They measure from a nearby reference point, shown on the map and perhaps by a marker on the ground, to locate a site point of reference. From there, it's measuring and following the map, and hammering stakes with pretty ribbons tied to them. Most measurement is optical, but differential GPS is accurate enough for some applications.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "721336",
"title": "Plat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In the United States, a plat ( or ) (plan or cadastral map) is a map, drawn to scale, showing the divisions of a piece of land. United States General Land Office surveyors drafted township plats of Public Lands Surveys to show the distance and bearing between section corners, sometimes including topographic or vegetation information. City, town or village plats show subdivisions into blocks with streets and alleys. Further refinement often splits blocks into individual lots, usually for the purpose of selling the described lots; this has become known as subdivision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "721336",
"title": "Plat",
"section": "Section::::Types of plats/plans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "A plat of subdivision or plan of subdivision appears when a landowner or municipality divides land into smaller parcels. If a landowner owns an acre of land, for instance, and wants to divide it into three pieces, a surveyor would have to take precise measurements of the land and submit the survey to the governing body, which would then have to approve it. A plat of subdivision also applies when a landowner/building owner divides a multi-family building into multiple units. This can apply for the intention of selling off the individual units as condominiums to individual owners. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60891",
"title": "Surveying",
"section": "Section::::Profession.:Cadastral surveying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "One of the primary roles of the land surveyor is to determine the boundary of real property on the ground. The surveyor must determine where the adjoining landowners wish to put the boundary. The boundary is established in legal documents and plans prepared by attorneys, engineers, and land surveyors. The surveyor then puts monuments on the corners of the new boundary. They might also find or resurvey the corners of the property monumented by prior surveys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43306929",
"title": "Cadastral surveying",
"section": "Section::::Duties and role of a cadastral surveyor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "One of the primary roles of the land surveyor is to determine the boundary of real property on the ground. That boundary has already been established and described in legal documents and official plans and maps prepared by attorneys, engineers, and other land surveyors. The corners of the property will either have been monumented by a prior surveyor, or monumented by the surveyor hired to perform a survey of a new boundary which has been agreed upon by adjoining land owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2377056",
"title": "Cadastre",
"section": "Section::::Map.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "A \"cadastral map\" is a map that shows the boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels, certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to prior maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60891",
"title": "Surveying",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Cadastral or boundary surveying\": a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a parcel using a legal description. It involves the setting or restoration of monuments or markers at the corners or along the lines of the parcel. These take the form of iron rods, pipes, or concrete monuments in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt. The \"ALTA/ACSM\" Land Title Survey is a standard proposed by the American Land Title Association and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. It incorporates elements of the boundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1208835",
"title": "Metes and bounds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Typically the system uses physical features of the local geography, along with directions and distances, to define and describe the boundaries of a parcel of land. The boundaries are described in a running prose style, working around the parcel in sequence, from a point of beginning, returning to the same point; compare with the oral ritual of beating the bounds. It may include references to other adjoining parcels (and their owners), and it, in turn, could also be referred to in later surveys. At the time the description is compiled, it may have been marked on the ground with permanent monuments placed where there were no suitable natural monuments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jn9fc
|
Isn't it somehow obvious that mathematics don't work with infinite values?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hidden inside your question is another very philosophically deep question: how does math work? As philosophers and mathematicians have concluded over the last few millienia, mathematics \"works\" by establishing a set of ground rules (called \"axioms\") and deducing consequences based on these rules.\n\nMany of the currently-used axioms are quite obtuse, but here's an example of some axioms for arithmetic on the natural numbers (these are often called the Peano Axioms). Note that I'm not hoping to do this in full formality, but mostly to give an example of how math is built from the bottom up.\n\n1. There is a natural number called 0.\n2. Every natural number *x* has a successor, S(x), that is also natural.\n3. If x and y have the same successor (i.e. S(x) = S(y)), then x = y.\n4. For no natural number x is S(x) = 0.\n5. For any x, x + 0 = x (\"additive identity\").\n6. For any x and y, x + S(y) = S(x + y) (this can be interpreted as saying x + (y + 1) = (x + y) + 1, but we use this weird notation because we haven't even defined \"1\" yet!)\n7. For any x, x \\* 0 = 0.\n8. For any x and y, x \\* S(y) = x + (x \\* y) (this is like distributing x\\*(y+1) to get x\\*y + x).\n\nIt's important to note that we never actually defined \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", and so on. Those are taken to be representations of numbers that correspond to S(0), S(S(0)), and S(S(S(0))), respectively. \n\nFrom here, we can prove the obvious things like commutativity (eg. x + y = y + x), associativity (eg. (x \\* y) \\* z = x \\* (y \\* z)), that S(S(0)) \\* S(S(0)) = S(S(S(S(0)))) (i.e. 2 \\* 2 = 4), and tons of other facts. Thus, we have an established set of ground rules from which addition and multiplication are defined. We built these rules to agree with our intuition for addition and multiplication, but once we accept these rules they take a life of their own and allow us to begin proving other facts (that may or may not themselves not be immediately intuitive) without any philosophical quarrels about the underlying essence of the plus sign butting in.\n\nNow let's get back to infinity. For this, we need to skip a few steps (I don't want to get into defining what a set is, or what the size of a set is), but one of the simplest ways to define an infinity is by looking at he number of natural numbers there are. Certainly, the collection of natural numbers does *not* take the form S(x) for any number x, so we want to say that its size is \"infinity\" (as it turns out, reasonable definitions of infinity allow for it to take various sizes, and this one ends up being given the name \"countable infinity\" or \"aleph-zero\", but that is slightly tangential to our ongoing discussion).\n\nOkay, so the set of naturals is {0, S(0), S(S(0)), ...}. I don't think there's any disagreement there. But now let's look at the set of natural numbers that are successors of other naturals. That is, the set {S(0), S(S(0)), S(S(S(0))), ...}, i.e. taking the successor of every element in the set defined two sentences ago. This is almost like the set of natural numbers, but it's missing zero! Put another way throw 0 into this set, we get the natural numbers again. This is exactly what's going on inside Hilbert's hotel: bump everyone up a room, and now we have room for one more before we're full again.\n\nThough initially counterintuitive, this isn't a problem for mathematicians who deal with infinity on a daily basis. Further, if you want to say that this is \"wrong\", you'd have to argue that one of the axioms used to build up to this conclusion is incorrect; as this \"paradox\" is what we get by simply putting a few of them together. Importantly, this ability to seemingly make room out of thin air ends up being very useful in practice, and is implicitly used all the time in number theory, programming, and so on, without any major hitches.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't even obvious to me what you mean by \"Isn't it somehow obvious that mathematics don't work with infinite values\".\n\nInfinity is in many ways a surprising, counterintuitive, and complicated topic, and many things about it are difficult to understand, especially if by way of human-language analogy. In fact there have been great mathematicians of relatively recent times who thought that some modern notions of infinity, now virtually universally accepted by mathematicians, were outright nonsense. For example, not much more than 100 years ago, Leopold Kronecker thought that theories about infinity developed by his contemporary Georg Cantor were ridiculous, garbage, and non-mathematical. Cantor's work is now viewed by modern mathematicians as completely uncontroversial (and not merely \"completely uncontroversial\" - they're viewed as the underlying basis of one of the most important, fundamental topics in mathematics).\n\nSo thinking \"that doesn't make sense\" upon hearing various things about infinity actually puts you in good mathematical company. But you thinking it doesn't make sense doesn't change the fact that it does, in fact, make sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45754",
"title": "Where Mathematics Comes From",
"section": "Section::::Human cognition and mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The authors argue that mathematics goes far beyond this very elementary level due to a large number of metaphorical constructions. For example, the Pythagorean position that all is number, and the associated crisis of confidence that came about with the discovery of the irrationality of the square root of two, arises solely from a metaphorical relation between the length of the diagonal of a square, and the possible numbers of objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1697555",
"title": "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge",
"section": "Section::::Part I (Note: Part II was never published).:Consequences.:Ideas, or unthinking things.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1177,
"text": "Errors made by mathematicians occur because of (1) their reliance on general abstract ideas and (2) their belief that an object exists as such without being an idea in a spectator's mind. In arithmetic, those things which pass for abstract truths and theorems concerning numbers are, in reality, concerned with particular things that can be counted. In geometry, a source of confusion is the assumption that a finite extension is infinitely divisible or contains an infinite number of parts. Every particular finite line, surface, or solid which may possibly be the object of our thought is an \"idea\" existing only in the mind, and consequently each part of it must be perceived. Any line, surface, or solid that I perceive is an idea in my mind. I can't divide my idea into an infinite number of other ideas. We can't conceive of an inch–long line being divided into a thousand parts, much less infinities of infinities. There is no such thing as an infinite number of parts contained in a finite quantity. In order to use mathematics, it is not necessary to assume that there are infinite parts of finite lines or any quantities smaller than the smallest that can be sensed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19216956",
"title": "(ε, δ)-definition of limit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "This is not to say that the limiting definition was free of problems as, although it removed the need for infinitesimals, it did require the construction of the real numbers by Richard Dedekind. This is also not to say that infinitesimals have no place in modern mathematics as later mathematicians were able to rigorously create infinitesimal quantities as part of the hyperreal number or surreal number systems. Moreover, it is possible to rigorously develop calculus with these quantities and they have other mathematical uses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1930406",
"title": "Impredicativity",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The rejection of impredicatively defined mathematical objects (while accepting the natural numbers as classically understood) leads to the position in the philosophy of mathematics known as predicativism, advocated by Henri Poincaré and Hermann Weyl in his \"Das Kontinuum\". Poincaré and Weyl argued that impredicative definitions are problematic only when one or more underlying sets are infinite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17860",
"title": "Logarithm",
"section": "Section::::Analytic properties.:Logarithmic function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "This property can be shown to hold for the function . Because \"\" takes arbitrarily large and arbitrarily small positive values, any number lies between and for suitable and . Hence, the intermediate value theorem ensures that the equation has a solution. Moreover, there is only one solution to this equation, because the function \"f\" is strictly increasing (for ), or strictly decreasing (for ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38106",
"title": "Actual infinity",
"section": "Section::::Opposition from the Intuitionist school.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Proponents of intuitionism, from Kronecker onwards, reject the claim that there are actually infinite mathematical objects or sets. Consequently, they reconstruct the foundations of mathematics in a way that does not assume the existence of actual infinities. On the other hand, constructive analysis does accept the existence of the completed infinity of the integers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4845297",
"title": "Infinitism",
"section": "Section::::Epistemological infinitism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1380,
"text": "The finite mind objection (attributed to John Williams): The human mind is finite and has a limited capacity. \"It is impossible to consciously believe an infinite number of propositions (because to believe something takes some time) and it is impossible to \"unconsciously believe\"...an infinite number of propositions because the candidate beliefs are such that some of them \"defeat human understanding.\" It is simply an impossibility that a subject has an infinite chain of reasons which justify their beliefs because the human mind is finite. Klein concedes that the human mind is finite and cannot contain an infinite number of reasons, but the infinitist, according to Klein, is not committed to a subject actually possessing infinite reasons. \"The infinitist is not claiming that in any finite period of time...we can consciously entertain an infinite number of thoughts. It is rather that there are an infinite number of propositions such that each one of them would be consciously thought were the appropriate circumstances to arise.\" So, an infinite chain of reasons need not be present in the mind in order for a belief to be justified rather it must merely be possible to provide an infinite chain of reasons. There will always be another reason to justify the preceding reason if the subject felt compelled to make the inquiry and had subjective access to that reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28qe4v
|
why do computers need screen savers but not tvs?
|
[
{
"answer": "My TV has a screen saver",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of [screen burn-in](_URL_0_).\n\nIf you let an old CRT screen display the same image for a longer period of time, that image can be permanently burnt into the screen. (check the link for examples.)\n\nOn TVs this wasn't a huge problem since TVs don't tend to show a lot of static images for long periods of time. Although you could sometimes find a TV with the faint ghost of a channel logo in one corner because it had been on one channel for too long. \n\nOn computer monitors the problem was much greater since you could end up with an entire document burnt into your screen if you forgot to turn it off. So screen savers were implemented that could either blank the screen or show a continuously moving image, screen savers literally saved screens.\n\nBurn-ins aren't that likely to happen on modern displays. It used to be a problem with plasma TVs and it can apparently even happen on an LCD display although I've never seen it. Plus most TVs and computers today will turn the screen off automatically if it sits idle for too long and that's a better solution than a screen saver since it saves power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Slightly unrelated, but my Grandmother watched QVC so much in the late 1990s/early 2000s that the phone number was permanently burned into her CRT tv screen. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21592276",
"title": "Digital newspaper technology",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:PC's.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Most modern computer screens are LCDs. To provide an image on a screen, LCD technology emits light from the screen towards the reader. This makes reading this screen harder than reading a printed sheet of paper where a reader will see the image because it reflects light. For this reason some people argue that a computer screen is not suitable to read long articles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89769",
"title": "Screensaver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A screensaver (or screen saver) is a computer program that blanks the screen or fills it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use. The original purpose of screensavers was to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors (hence the name). Though modern monitors are not susceptible to this issue, screensavers are still used for other purposes. Screensavers are often set up to offer a basic layer of security, by requiring a password to re-access the device. Some screensavers use the otherwise unused computer resources to do useful work, such as processing for distributed computing projects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89769",
"title": "Screensaver",
"section": "Section::::Considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Monitors running screensavers consume the same amount of power as when running normally, which can be anywhere from a few watts for small LCD monitors to several hundred for large plasma displays. Most modern computers can be set to switch the monitor into a lower power mode, blanking the screen altogether. A power-saving mode for monitors is usually part of the power management options supported in most modern operating systems, though it must also be supported by the computer hardware and monitor itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17932",
"title": "Liquid-crystal display",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they rarely suffer image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89769",
"title": "Screensaver",
"section": "Section::::Considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Using a screensaver with a flat panel or LCD screen not powering down the screen can actually decrease the lifetime of the display, since the fluorescent backlight remains lit and ages faster than it would if the screen is turned off and on frequently. . As fluorescent tubes age they grow progressively dimmer, and they can be expensive or difficult to replace. A typical LCD screen loses about 50% of its brightness during a normal product lifetime In most cases, the tube is an integral part of the LCD and the entire assembly needs to be replaced. This is not true of LED backlit displays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7677",
"title": "Computer monitor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Modern computer monitors are easily interchangeable with conventional television sets. However, as computer monitors do not necessarily include integrated speakers, it may not be possible to use a computer monitor without external components.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1661475",
"title": "Green computing",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Power management.:Display.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Unlike other display technologies, electronic paper does not use any power while displaying an image. CRT monitors typically use more power than LCD monitors. They also contain significant amounts of lead. LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for the display. Some newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in place of the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used by the display. Fluorescent back-lights also contain mercury, whereas LED back-lights do not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30sfp2
|
Why did China move to simplified characters instead of the traditional ones?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short version: because traditional characters, while they make more sense while learning them, are a pain in the ass to write and look very intimidating. The stated benefit was that more people would become literate, which happened (for various reasons)\n\nLonger version deals with Mao's apparent desire to replicate the First Emperor, revolutionary doctrine saying out with the old, and just general \"uplifting the workers\" themes in Communism. The benefits of switching to simplified can be seen by comparing the character 认, \"to know\" with its traditional counterpart, which I can't write on mobile.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "91231",
"title": "Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Variants.:Regional standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The nature of Chinese characters makes it very easy to produce allographs (variants) for many characters, and there have been many efforts at orthographical standardization throughout history. In recent times, the widespread usage of the characters in several nations has prevented any particular system becoming universally adopted and the standard form of many Chinese characters thus varies in different regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91231",
"title": "Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Simplification.:Simplification in China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12799449",
"title": "Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Practicality.:Practicality of traditional characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "BULLET::::- Another common practical reason for the continuation of traditional characters is the expansive cultural legacy of Chinese history and art prior to simplification. The written form did evolve over the centuries but the traditional character set used today is much more closely related to the written Chinese which has been in use for thousands of years. As such the traditional characters are said to provide access to Chinese culture prior to simplification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3804048",
"title": "Second round of simplified Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Continuing the work of previous reformers, in 1956 the People's Republic of China promulgated the Scheme of Simplified Chinese Characters, later referred to as the \"First Round\" or \"First Scheme.\" The plan was adjusted slightly in the following years, eventually stabilizing in 1964 with a definitive list of character simplifications. These are the simplified Chinese characters that are used today in Mainland China and Singapore. Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau did not adopt the simplifications, and the characters used in those places are known as traditional Chinese characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261949",
"title": "Simplified Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Education.:Chinese as a foreign language.:Southeast Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In the Philippines, the use of simplified characters is getting more and more popular. Before the 1970s, Chinese schools in the Philippines were under the supervision of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. Hence, most books were using the Traditional Characters. Traditional Characters remained prevalent until the early 2000s. However, institutions like the Confucius Institute, being the cultural arm of the People's Republic of China, are strong proponents of the use of Simplified Characters. Also, many new schools are now importing their Mandarin textbooks from Singapore instead of Taiwan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12799449",
"title": "Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::Practicality.:Practicality of simplified characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "BULLET::::- Acceptance of simplified characters is increasing, mirroring acceptance of the pinyin romanization system that was once a PRC and now an international standard, although with much greater resistance and to a significantly lesser extent. In the 1960s and 1970s, Chinese as a foreign language was taught in countries like France and the United States solely in traditional characters. In the 1990s, universities in the United States were split between simplified and traditional, with simplified growing and traditional being taught mainly for the benefit of those who wish to learn Classical Chinese, or Chinese for use in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, or overseas Chinese communities. Today, in terms of teaching and learning Chinese as a foreign language outside of China, the simplified characters has \"become the first choice because of student demand\". Regardless, some instructors allow students the choice to write in either simplified or traditional characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261949",
"title": "Simplified Chinese characters",
"section": "Section::::History.:China.:Before 1949.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Although most of the simplified Chinese characters in use today are the result of the works moderated by the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the 1950s and 60s, character simplification predates the PRC's formation in 1949. Cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print are attested as early as the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1026ju
|
Is there any evidence or possibility of truth to the theory that Psilocybin Mushrooms Contributed to Human Evolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. It's a fun theory to entertain if you do a lot of drugs, but that's not how evolution (at this stage) works. Basically, evolution comes from mutations that are passed down through heredity. In other words, even if you gained a higher level of consciousness through pscilocybin mushrooms, this trait wouldn't be passed on to your offspring. Perhaps the innate desire to eat them would be passed on, but then we would still be eating them just to stay more \"intelligent\" than apes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "241681",
"title": "Terence McKenna",
"section": "Section::::Thought.:\"Stoned ape\" theory of human evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Therefore, according to McKenna, access to and ingestion of mushrooms was an evolutionary advantage to humans' omnivorous hunter-gatherer ancestors, also providing humanities first religious impulse. He believed that psilocybin mushrooms were the \"evolutionary catalyst\" from which language, projective imagination, the arts, religion, philosophy, science, and all of human culture sprang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3674853",
"title": "Ethnomycology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "While Wasson views historical mushroom use primarily as a facilitator for the shamanic or spiritual experiences core to these rites and traditions, McKenna takes this further, positing that the ingestion of psilocybin was perhaps primary in the formation of language and culture and identifying psychedelic mushrooms as the original \"Tree of Knowledge\". There is indeed some research supporting the theory that psilocybin ingestion temporarily increases neurochemical activity in the language centers of the brain, indicating a need for more research into the uses of psychoactive plants and fungi in human history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38468",
"title": "Psilocybin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Imagery found on prehistoric murals and rock paintings of modern-day Spain and Algeria suggests that human usage of psilocybin mushrooms predates recorded history. In Mesoamerica, the mushrooms had long been consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies before Spanish chroniclers first documented their use in the 16th century. In 1959, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated the active principle psilocybin from the mushroom \"Psilocybe mexicana\". Hofmann's employer Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide for use in psychedelic psychotherapy. Although the increasingly restrictive drug laws of the late 1960s curbed scientific research into the effects of psilocybin and other hallucinogens, its popularity as an entheogen (spirituality-enhancing agent) grew in the next decade, owing largely to the increased availability of information on how to cultivate psilocybin mushrooms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20264",
"title": "Mushroom",
"section": "Section::::Human use.:Psychoactive mushrooms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as \"magic mushrooms\" or shrooms\", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38468",
"title": "Psilocybin",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "Because of a lack of clarity about laws about psilocybin mushrooms, retailers in the late 1990s and early 2000s commercialized and marketed them in smartshops in the Netherlands and the UK, and online. Several websites emerged that have contributed to the accessibility of information on description, use, effects and exchange of experiences among users. Since 2001, six EU countries have tightened their legislation on psilocybin mushrooms in response to concerns about their prevalence and increasing usage. In the 1990s, hallucinogens and their effects on human consciousness were again the subject of scientific study, particularly in Europe. Advances in neuropharmacology and neuropsychology, and the availability of brain imaging techniques have provided impetus for using drugs like psilocybin to probe the \"neural underpinnings of psychotic symptom formation including ego disorders and hallucinations\". Recent studies in the United States have attracted attention from the popular press and thrust psilocybin back into the limelight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241681",
"title": "Terence McKenna",
"section": "Section::::Thought.:\"Stoned ape\" theory of human evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1468,
"text": "McKenna's hypothesis was that low doses of psilocybin improve visual acuity, particularly edge detection, meaning that the presence of psilocybin in the diet of early pack hunting primates caused the individuals who were consuming psilocybin mushrooms to be better hunters than those who were not, resulting in an increased food supply and in turn a higher rate of reproductive success. Then at slightly higher doses, he contended, the mushroom acts to sexually arouse, leading to a higher level of attention, more energy in the organism, and potential erection in the males, rendering it even more evolutionarily beneficial, as it would result in more offspring. At even higher doses, McKenna proposed that the mushroom would have acted to \"dissolve boundaries,\" promoting community bonding and group sexual activities. Consequently, there would be a mixing of genes, greater genetic diversity, and a communal sense of responsibility for the group offspring. At these higher doses, McKenna also argued that psilocybin would be triggering activity in the \"language-forming region of the brain\", manifesting as music and visions, thus catalyzing the emergence of language in early hominids by expanding \"their arboreally evolved repertoire of troop signals.\" He also pointed out that psilocybin would dissolve the ego and \"religious concerns would be at the forefront of the tribe's consciousness, simply because of the power and strangeness of the experience itself.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38468",
"title": "Psilocybin",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "Although dozens of species of psychedelic mushrooms are found in Europe, there is little documented usage of these species in Old World history besides the use of \"Amanita muscaria\" among Siberian peoples. The few existing historical accounts about psilocybin mushrooms typically lack sufficient information to allow species identification, and usually refer to the nature of their effects. For example, Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius (1526–1609) described the \"bolond gomba\" (crazy mushroom), used in rural Hungary to prepare love potions. English botanist John Parkinson included details about a \"foolish mushroom\" in his 1640 herbal \"Theatricum Botanicum\". The first reliably documented report of intoxication with \"Psilocybe semilanceata\"—Europe's most common and widespread psychedelic mushroom—involved a British family in 1799, who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London's Green Park.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30vr4s
|
why is the proportion of left-handed people so small in comparison to right-handed people? shouldn't it be closer to 50:50 than the 10:90 ratio we see today?
|
[
{
"answer": "Once humans starting using tools, handedness started to matter. A left handed person would be a disadvantage using tools make for right handed people.\n\nOn the other hand, with weapons, being left handed could be an advantage, if everyone was used to fighting right handed people. So there would be an evolutionary reason to keep some left handed people around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Correlation with other factors.:Income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "However, more recently, in a 2014 study published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Harvard economist Joshua Goodman finds that left-handed people earn 10 to 12 percent less over the course of their lives than right-handed people. Goodman attributes this disparity to higher rates of emotional and behavioral problems in left-handed people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Left-handedness\" is far less common than right-handedness. Left-handed people are more skillful with their left hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 10% of the world population is left-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Correlation with other factors.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Studies in the U.K., U.S. and Australia have revealed that left-handed people differ from right-handers by only one IQ point, which is not noteworthy ... Left-handers' brains are structured differently from right-handers' in ways that can allow them to process language, spatial relations and emotions in more diverse and potentially creative ways. Also, a slightly larger number of left-handers than right-handers are especially gifted in music and math. A study of musicians in professional orchestras found a significantly greater proportion of talented left-handers, even among those who played instruments that seem designed for right-handers, such as violins. Similarly, studies of adolescents who took tests to assess mathematical giftedness found many more left-handers in the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25312513",
"title": "Twins and handedness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Left-handedness always occurs at a lower frequency than right-handedness. Generally, left-handedness is found within 10.8% of the overall population. However, left-handedness is more common in twins than in single individuals, occurring in 21% of people who are twins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Correlation with other factors.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Conversely, Joshua Goodman found evidence that left-handers were overrepresented amongst high end of the cognitive spectrum was weak due to methodological and sampling issues in conducted studies. Goodman also found that left-handers were overrepresented at the low end of the cognitive spectrum, with the mentally disabled being twice as likely to be left-handed compared to the general population, as well as generally lower cognitive and non-cognitive abilities amongst left-handed children. Moreover, Ntolka and Papadatou-Pastou in a systematic review and meta-analysis found that it is right-handers who have higher IQ scores, but this difference is negligible (about 1.5 points).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Correlation with other factors.:Income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "In a 2006 U.S. study, researchers from Lafayette College and Johns Hopkins University concluded that there was no statistically significant correlation between handedness and earnings for the general population, but among college-educated people, left-handers earned 10 to 15% more than their right-handed counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172644",
"title": "Handedness",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Right-handedness\" is by far the most common type. Right-handed people are more skillful with their right hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 90% of the world's population is right-handed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17no3n
|
Can tungsten survive lava?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tungsten **melts** at 3422°C (it boils at a much higher temperature). Pāhoehoe is one of the hotter types of lava, at about 1200°C.\n\nSo nothing would happen. It would get hot, but not melt. There are plenty of elements/metals that have melting temperatures hotter than 1200°C, like titanium, platinum, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30046",
"title": "Tungsten",
"section": "Section::::Health factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Because tungsten is a rare metal and its compounds are generally inert, the effects of tungsten on the environment are limited. The abundance of tungsten in the Earth's crust is thought to be about 1.5 parts per million. It is one of the more rare elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181556",
"title": "Period 6 element",
"section": "Section::::d-block elements.:Tungsten.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "A hard, rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined, tungsten is found naturally on Earth only in chemical compounds. It was identified as a new element in 1781, and first isolated as a metal in 1783. Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite. The free element is remarkable for its robustness, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second highest of all the elements after carbon. Also remarkable is its high density of 19.3 times that of water, comparable to that of uranium and gold, and much higher (about 1.7 times) than that of lead. Tungsten with minor amounts of impurities is often brittle and hard, making it difficult to work. However, very pure tungsten, though still hard, is more ductile, and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46219227",
"title": "Evolution of metal ions in biological systems",
"section": "Section::::Metal ions.:Tungsten.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "Tungsten is one of the oldest metal ions to be incorporated in biological systems, preceding the Great Oxygenation Event. Before the abundance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, oceans teemed with sulfur and tungsten, while molybdenum, a metal that is highly similar chemically, was inaccessible in solid form. The abundance of tungsten and lack of free molybdenum likely explains why early marine organisms incorporated the former instead of the latter. However, as cyanobacteria began to fill the atmosphere with oxygen, molybdenum became available (molybdenum becomes soluble when exposed to oxygen) and molybdenum began to replace tungsten in the majority of metabolic processes, which is seen today, as tungsten is only present in the biological complexes of prokaryotes (methanogens, gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative aerobes and anaerobes), and is only obligated in hyperthermophilic archaea such as P. furiosus. Tungesten's extremely high melting point (3,422 °C), partially explains its necessity in these archaea, found in extremely hot areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30046",
"title": "Tungsten",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Electronics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point, elemental tungsten is used in many high-temperature applications, such as light bulb, cathode-ray tube, and vacuum tube filaments, heating elements, and rocket engine nozzles. Its high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high-temperature uses such as electrical, heating, and welding applications, notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process (also called tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49768384",
"title": "Brine mining",
"section": "Section::::Materials recovered from brines.:Tungsten.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Some near-surface brines in the western United States contain anomalously high concentrations of dissolved tungsten. Should recovery ever prove economic, some brines could be significant sources of tungsten. For instance, brines beneath Searles Lake, California, with concentrations of about 56 mg/l tungsten (70 mg/l WO), contain about 8.5 million short tons of tungsten. Although 90% of the dissolved tungsten is technically recoverable by ion exchange resins, recovery is uneconomic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60921122",
"title": "USAF-96",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "An earlier material, Eglin Steel, ES-1, resolved these issues but the tungsten used in it was expensive, difficult to melt, and the resulting tungsten carbide particles made the material difficult to process in thick sections. However, the tungsten also gave ES-1 excellent high-temperature strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66321",
"title": "Group 6 element",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historical development and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In World War II, tungsten played a significant role in background political dealings. Portugal, as the main European source of the element, was put under pressure from both sides, because of its deposits of wolframite ore at Panasqueira. Tungsten's resistance to high temperatures and its strengthening of alloys made it an important raw material for the arms industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g139e
|
ferrofluid carrier fluid?
|
[
{
"answer": "Did you make the carrier fluid yourself?\n\nWhat was it already made out of?\n\nA quick perusal of google suggests it's most commonly made with Kerosene and Oleic acid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "533793",
"title": "Ferrofluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The difference between ferrofluids and magnetorheological fluids (MR fluids) is the size of the particles. The particles in a ferrofluid primarily consist of nanoparticles which are suspended by Brownian motion and generally will not settle under normal conditions. MR fluid particles primarily consist of micrometre-scale particles which are too heavy for Brownian motion to keep them suspended, and thus will settle over time because of the inherent density difference between the particle and its carrier fluid. These two fluids have very different applications as a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533793",
"title": "Ferrofluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "Ferrofluids are colloidal liquids made of nanoscale ferromagnetic, or ferrimagnetic, particles suspended in a fluid (usually an organic solvent or water). Each tiny particle is thoroughly coated with a surfactant to inhibit clumping. Large ferromagnetic particles can be ripped out of the homogeneous colloidal mixture, forming a separate clump of magnetic dust when exposed to strong magnetic fields. The magnetic attraction of nanoparticles is weak enough that the surfactant's Van der Waals force is sufficient to prevent magnetic clumping or agglomeration. Ferrofluids usually do not retain magnetization in the absence of an externally applied field and thus are often classified as \"superparamagnets\" rather than ferromagnets.. In 2019, researchers at the University of Massachusetts and Beijing University of Chemical Technology succeeded in creating a permanently magnetic ferrofluid which retains its magnetism when the external magnetic field is removed. The researchers also found that the droplet's magnetic properties were preserved even if the shape was physically changed or it was divided. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533793",
"title": "Ferrofluid",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Particles in ferrofluids are dispersed in a liquid, often using a surfactant, and thus ferrofluids are colloidal suspensions – materials with properties of more than one state of matter. In this case, the two states of matter are the solid metal and liquid it is in. This ability to change phases with the application of a magnetic field allows them to be used as seals, lubricants, and may open up further applications in future nanoelectromechanical systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156932",
"title": "Peristalsis",
"section": "Section::::Machinery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "A peristaltic pump is a positive-displacement pump in which a motor pinches advancing portions of a flexible tube to propel a fluid within the tube. The pump isolates the fluid from the machinery, which is important if the fluid is abrasive or must remain sterile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8573560",
"title": "Ferrofluidic seal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Ferrofluidic is the brand name of a staged magnetic liquid rotary sealing mechanism made by the Ferrotec Corporation and was first patented by the predecessor company's co-founder R.E.Rosensweig (USP 3,620,584). The seals are the most important commercialization of ferrofluids to date. The seals are used in rotating equipment to enable rotary motion while maintaining a hermetic seal by means of a physical barrier in the form of a ferrofluid. The ferrofluid is suspended in place by use of a permanent magnet. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533793",
"title": "Ferrofluid",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Actual.:Mechanical engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Ferrofluids can also be used in semi-active dampers in mechanical and aerospace applications. While passive dampers are generally bulkier and designed for a particular vibration source in mind, active dampers consume more power. Ferrofluid based dampers solve both of these issues and are becoming popular in the helicopter community, which has to deal with large inertial and aerodynamic vibrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533793",
"title": "Ferrofluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "A process for making a ferrofluid was invented in 1963 by NASA's Steve Papell to create liquid rocket fuel that could be drawn toward a pump inlet in a weightless environment by applying a magnetic field. The name ferrofluid was introduced, the process improved, more highly magnetic liquids synthesized, additional carrier liquids discovered, and the physical chemistry elucidated by R. E. Rosensweig and colleagues; in addition Rosensweig evolved a new branch of fluid mechanics termed ferrohydrodynamics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
73s4xx
|
how can an mri show the side of the body if the person is lying on their back?
|
[
{
"answer": "It scans all around you, not just from one direction. \n\n[MRI machine](_URL_0_). See how it is round and surrounds your entires body?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "MRI machine image all around you producing a 3d image. You can then view this image from multiple directions (known as planes) and move in and out of that plane. The side image is known as a saggital plane. You can also view it front to back (coronal), top to bottom (transverse) or I think it also possible to view it at other angles (oblique). Usually the image you see is the just the image that shows what they are looking for best, after the whole scan has passed through the computer and been reviewed by the radiographers, radiologist and doctor who is showing you it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5679046",
"title": "Pentalogy of Cantrell",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be performed to assess the degree of certain anomalies such as abdominal wall and pericardial defects. An MRI uses a magnetic field and radio waves to produce cross-sectional images of particular organs and bodily tissues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6737633",
"title": "Spinal disc herniation",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Physical examination.:Spinal imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "BULLET::::- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) without contrast is a diagnostic test that produces three-dimensional images of body structures using powerful magnets and computer technology. It can show the spinal cord, nerve roots, and surrounding areas, as well as enlargement, degeneration, and tumors. It shows soft tissues better than CAT scans. An MRI performed with a high magnetic field strength usually provides the most conclusive evidence for diagnosis of a disc herniation. T2-weighted images allow for clear visualization of protruded disc material in the spinal canal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727775",
"title": "Cervical spine disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1359,
"text": "The diagnosis process might include a physician who tests that the movement, strength, and sensation of the arms and legs are normal. The spine is examined for its range of motion and any pain that may arise from movement. Blood work might be utilized in addition to radiographic imaging in order to identify spinal cord diseases. Basic imaging techniques, which includes x-ray imaging, can reveal degenerative changes of the spine, while more advanced imaging techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), can allow visualization of more detailed anatomical structures, including that of the associated nerves and muscles. The most detailed and specific testing is electrodiagnostic, which helps to uncover whether the appropriate electrical signals are being sent to each muscle from the correlate nerves. This aids in localizing a problem's source. There are risks to be considered with any diagnostic testing. For example, in the case of CT imaging, there is obvious benefit over x-ray in that a more thorough picture of the anatomy is exposed, but there is a trade-off in that CT has around a 10-fold increased radiation exposure; alternatively, while MRI provides highly detailed imaging of the anatomy with the benefit of no radiation exposure to the patient, the high cost of this test must be taken into account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2844680",
"title": "Corticobasal degeneration",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Neuroimaging.:MRI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "MRI images are useful in displaying atrophied portions of neuroanatomical positions within the brain. As a result, it is especially effective in identifying regions within different areas of the brain that have been negatively affected due to the complications associated with CBD. To be specific, MRI of CBD typically shows posterior parietal and frontal cortical atrophy with unequal representation in corresponding sides. In addition, atrophy has been noted in the corpus callosum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2186340",
"title": "Achilles tendon rupture",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "MRI can be used to discern incomplete ruptures from degeneration of the Achilles tendon, and MRI can also distinguish between paratenonitis, tendinosis, and bursitis. This technique uses a strong uniform magnetic field to align millions of protons running through the body. These protons are then bombarded with radio waves that knock some of them out of alignment. When these protons return they emit their own unique radio waves that can be analysed by a computer in 3D to create sharp cross sectional image of the area of interest. MRI can provide unparalleled contrast in soft tissue for an extremely high quality photograph making it easy for technicians to spot tears and other injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723453",
"title": "Back injury",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Diagnosis of a back injury begins with a physical examination and thorough medical history by health-care personnel. Some injuries, such as sprains and strains or herniated discs, can be diagnosed in this manner. To confirm these diagnoses, or to rule out other injuries or pathology, imaging of the injured region can be ordered. X-rays are often used to visualize pathology of bones and can be ordered when a vertebral fracture is suspected. CT scans produce higher resolution images when compared to x-rays and can be used to view more subtle fractures which may otherwise go undetected on x-ray. MRI is commonly referred to as the gold standard for visualizing soft tissue and can be used to assist with diagnosing many back injuries, including herniated discs and neurological disorders, bleeding, and edema.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19633042",
"title": "Shoulder impingement syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Plain x-rays of the shoulder can be used to detect some joint pathology and variations in the bones, including acromioclavicular arthritis, variations in the acromion, and calcification. However, x-rays do not allow visualization of soft tissue and thus hold a low diagnostic value. Ultrasonography, arthrography and MRI can be used to detect rotator cuff muscle pathology. MRI is the best imaging test prior to arthroscopic surgery. Due to lack of understanding of the pathoaetiology, and lack of diagnostic accuracy in the assessment process by many physicians, several opinions are recommended before intervention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
egxzul
|
how is digesting liquids possible?
|
[
{
"answer": "Digesting is just breaking down things into small things, then breaking those down into tiny things so you can absorb them. You break proteins down into little amino acid blocks, break down carbs into small pieces, and break down fats into little fatty acids. Your body absorbs those, along with a lot of the water you ingest. Everything being liquid means you can mix the digestive liquids with the food more easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It kind of depends what liquid we're talking about, because liquids can be digested. Like olive oil is made up of mostly unsaturated fatty acids, which is the good kind of fat. Your body then breaks down the fatty acids in to smaller fatty acids that can be absorbed (olive oil is kind of a bad example as it's mostly simple fatty acids which can't be broken down more, but other fats are more complex and need to be broken down).\n\nBut some liquids can't, something like soda has dissolved solids in it but the carbonated water isn't 'digested' in the sense that something gets broken down. Water can't really be broken down. However stuff in water can be broken down. Like some sugars. \n\nWhat's interesting is for things to be digested they have to be a liquid. This is why we chew and then our stomach dissolves everything into a big soup which the small intestine puts out stuff to breakdown the stuff we need if it's too complex.\n\nStomach acid does get a little diluted, but your body just makes more and puts plenty to soupify any food that goes in. It also gets a little bit more complicated because your body also uses something with the acid to break stuff down, but that's not important to what you were asking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3077180",
"title": "Rumen",
"section": "Section::::Stratification and mixing of digesta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Water and saliva enter through the rumen to form a liquid pool. Liquid will ultimately escape from the reticulorumen from absorption through the wall, or through passing through the reticulo-omosal orifice, as digesta does. However, since liquid cannot be trapped in the mat as digesta can, liquid passes through the rumen much more quickly than digesta does. Liquid often acts as a carrier for very small digesta particles, such that the dynamics of small particles is similar to that of liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165423",
"title": "Digestion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33469088",
"title": "Creatorrhea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical and chemical processes. Failure to produce or secrete chemicals known as digestive enzymes can lead to failure digesting or breaking down specific components of ingested food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165423",
"title": "Digestion",
"section": "Section::::Overview of vertebrate digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1545608",
"title": "Anaerobic digestion",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Digestate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Digestate is the solid remnants of the original input material to the digesters that the microbes cannot use. It also consists of the mineralised remains of the dead bacteria from within the digesters. Digestate can come in three forms: fibrous, liquor, or a sludge-based combination of the two fractions. In two-stage systems, different forms of digestate come from different digestion tanks. In single-stage digestion systems, the two fractions will be combined and, if desired, separated by further processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37930465",
"title": "Fish physiology",
"section": "Section::::Digestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it is broken down chemically. It then moves to the intestine, where the process of breaking the food down into simple molecules continues and the results are absorbed as nutrients into the circulatory and lymphatic system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165423",
"title": "Digestion",
"section": "Section::::Human digestion process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d442w
|
Why was human anatomy poorly drawn in ancient works of art?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not a professional historian, but I have read much on this on my own. Really the question here is fundamentally about the purpose of representational art.\n\nIn many cultures, paintings were not meant to be interpreted at face value, but rather as symbols. Anatomy is rather irrelevant when a culture simply uses painting as a tool to narrate a story or glorify a particular religion.\n\nI'll give one example. It's pretty clear the ancient Egyptians were perfectly capable of creating naturalistic depictions of human beings, just look at this [bust of Nefertiti](_URL_0_). But the relief sculptures/paintings that come to mind when one thinks of \"Ancient Egyptian art\" have nothing to do with naturalism and everything to do with symbolism. There is a complex language of artistic rules there that speaks to their mythological narratives, which requires a basic understanding of their culture to interpret. European romanesque and gothic painting can be explained in a similar way. Outside of the western historical tradition, just look up Mughal or Edo-period Japanese paintings for further examples of stylistic symbolism over naturalism.\n\n(Of course, the Renaissance artists, Mannerists, Neo-Classicists etc were heavy on symbolism as well, symbolism and naturalism aren't mutually exclusive.)\n\nSo it's not so much a question of whether certain cultures *could* create art with naturalistic anatomy or not, but rather the question is what purpose did painting serve in different cultures, and why?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*I'm not an art historian.*\n\nSomething that bothers me about these answers is that the development of sculpture is independent of the development of painting. There's no reason to think the Greeks or Romans could paint realistically just because they could sculpt realistically. To claim painting would have been realistic if it wasn't so symbolic is a bit pat. Techniques for realistic painting took centuries to develop. \n\n* There's no reason to think Fra Angelico would not have liked to paint in a more realistic style, and some evidence that he did. For example, his San Marco Annunciation of 1450 features improved perspective over his more famous Cortona Annunciation of 1433. The San Marco Annunciation indeed features less symbolic elements, but I find it hard to take that as an *explanation* for the improvement in perspective.\n\n* The Miraflores Altarpiece c 1435 of Van der Weyden looks like a 3D version of a perspective-less painting of the Middle ages. The figures feel planted upon the same dioramic stage, yet shadow rounds their features, and architectural perspective gives realistic depth to the background.\n\n* The Flagellation c. 1450-1460 of della Francesca features more depth of figures, with a group appearing larger and closer to the viewer, and another smaller group appearing further away. But the perspectival powers of della Francesca is not that of Van der Weyden, and the columns feel all wrong. \n\n* Botticelli's The Birth of Venus c. 1485 is clearly cartoonish, even though it attempts to represent realistic figures. And this is true of everything he painted. Was it a choice? I don't think so. There is no variation in this fundamental fact. See Titan's painting of the same for contrast.\n\n* Bosch managed to paint somewhat realistic figures. See his The Crowning of Thorns c. 1490-1510. Yet his Christ Carrying the Cross c. 1510-1516 features grotesque figures. This must be explained by his obsession with grotesques and not his ability. Yet scenes featuring numerous bodies do always feel simplistic and flat. And this may be due to his inability to overcome past representations. I'm not aware of any full figure realism in Bosch.\n\n* Compare to Bronzino's Venus Disarming Cupid c. 1545 which clearly shows mastery of shadows to produce three dimensional human figures. All of his work leads up to this or features it. I see no regression to flat figures for the sake of symbolic expression.\n\nNone of this proves anything, but \n\n1. if you look at the style of each individual painter, you'll notice they do not vary their work especially depending on how symbolic it is. Instead, you get the distinct feeling that all of these artists are trying as best they can to present realistic figures, with the possible exception of Bosch. \n\n2. there is a definite feeling of advancement over time from flat perspective-less representations to full figuration featuring control over perspective. \n\nSo it is quite possible, especially if the extant Ancient paintings are crude, that painting never attained to the level of sculpture in its realism or anatomical correctness, perhaps for lack of proper materials, or lack of sustained cultural or institutional interest in painting. Realism in painting isn't something that just falls off the brush.\n\nEdit: There is one reason to think the Ancients could draw anatomically: anatomically correct sculpture followed anatomically correct painting during the Renaissance. It suggests the ability to see figure in sculpture is somehow related to the ability to see it in painting. However, in a culture that began with monumental sculpture and gradually humanized it, painting might still be a superfluous addition, rather than a point of origin. But the reliefs of the Elgan Marbles suggest a graphic intention. Flatness there is nearing that of paper... I still think it's quite plausible ancient painting was just not an important craft. There was, to my knowledge, never a period of realistic portraiture on Greek pottery. Byzantine portraiture (and icons) are well known for being cartoonish and not realistic. Shall we explain its anatomical simplicity by way of style or regression or simply the absence of sufficient art? I choose the latter.\n\nEdit: \n\n > Is this why painting such as the Mona Lisa are so profound?\n\nThe Mona Lisa apparently only became world famous once it was stolen in the early 20th century.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54176",
"title": "Human body",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Depiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Anatomy has served the visual arts since Ancient Greek times, when the 5th century BC sculptor Polykleitos wrote his \"Canon\" on the ideal proportions of the male nude. In the Italian Renaissance, artists from Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) onwards, including Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and his collaborator Luca Pacioli (c. 1447–1517), learnt and wrote about the rules of art, including visual perspective and the proportions of the human body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12974846",
"title": "Cadaver",
"section": "Section::::Cadavers in art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "The study of the human body was not isolated to only medical doctors and students, as many artists reflected their expertise through masterful drawings and paintings. The detailed study of human and animal anatomy, as well as the dissection of corpses, was utilized by early Italian renaissance man Leonardo da Vinci in an effort to more accurately depict the human figure through his work. He studied the anatomy from an exterior perspective as an apprentice under Andrea del Verrocchio that started in 1466. During his apprenticeship, Leonardo mastered drawing detailed versions of anatomical structures such as muscles and tendons by 1472.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12974846",
"title": "Cadaver",
"section": "Section::::Cadavers in art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "For centuries artists have used their knowledge gleaned from the study of anatomy and the use of cadavers to better present a more accurate and lively representation of the human body in their artwork and mostly in paintings. It is thought that Michelangelo and/or Raphael may have also conducted dissections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48985",
"title": "History of anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Early modern anatomy.:17th and 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the beginning of the 17th century, the use of dissecting human cadavers influenced anatomy, leading to a spike in the study of anatomy. The advent of the printing press facilitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to take part. Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin. Contrary to popular belief, the Church neither objected to nor obstructed anatomical research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3229777",
"title": "Medical illustration",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Since the time of the Leonardo da Vinci, and his depictions of the human form, there has been great advancements in the art of representing the human body. The art has evolved over time from illustration to digital imaging using the technological advancements of the digital age. Berengario da Carpi was the first known anatomist to include medical illustration within his textbooks. Gray's Anatomy, originally published in 1858, is one well-known human anatomy textbook that showcases a variety of anatomy depiction techniques.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12974846",
"title": "Cadaver",
"section": "Section::::Cadavers in art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The study and teaching of anatomy through the ages would not have been possible without sketches and detailed drawings of discoveries when working with human corpses. The artistic depiction of the placement of body parts plays a crucial role in studying anatomy and in assisting those working with the human body. These images serve as the only glance into the body that most will never witness in person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10327607",
"title": "Écorché",
"section": "Section::::History.:Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "During the Renaissance in Italy, around the 1450 to 1600, the rebirth of classical Greek and Roman characteristics in art led to the studies of the human anatomy. The practice of dissecting the human body was banned for many centuries due to the belief that body and soul were inseparable. It wasn’t until the election of Pope Boniface VIII that the practice of dissection was once again allowed for observation. Many painters and artists documented and even performed the dissections themselves by taking careful observations of the human body. Among them were Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius, two of the most influential artists in anatomical illustrations. Leonardo da Vinci, in particular, was very detailed in his studies that he was known as the “artist-anatomist” for the creation of a new science and the creative depiction to anatomy. Leonardo’s anatomical studies contributed to artistic exploration of the movement of the muscles, joints and bones. His goal was to analyze and understand the instruments behind the postures and gestures in the human body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ezz0t4
|
what is technical the difference between a thread and an async-operation?
|
[
{
"answer": "A thread is a *long-lived* independent running part which is *initiated by the main program*, for example receiving traffic from a network device and once it has received enough, inform the main program that the data is there.\n\nAn asynchronous operation is a *short-lived* independent running *stub part* which can be initiated by anything, for example the writing of analysed data to disk.\n\nNow it is fair to say that asynchronous operations are threads also and could be implemented as threads by the coder too and that is 100% true. It is just that their purpose is different (Long lived versus long lived) and where they are started (main program versus at the end of some process).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A thread is when you ask the operating system to start running another part of the program at the same time. If there are more parts running than CPU cores, the operating system will switch between them. Threads have a bunch of features (like separate stacks) that make them relatively \"expensive\". A program shouldn't have thousands of threads because it will waste memory and time.\n\n\"Async tasks\" depend on the programming language, but they're generally things you can do in the background that are too short to be their own thread. The program will create one thread (or a few) and then that thread (or those threads) will do async tasks whenever they are ready to be done. This means a new thread doesn't need to be created for every task.\n\n\"Async tasks\" can also be things that don't use a thread at all, as long as the program can remember it's waiting for something to happen. For example, waiting for the user to type something could be an async task. The program won't use a thread to wait for the user to type something (because that's a waste of a thread) but it knows that when the user does type something, the task should be marked as completed.\n\n\"Async tasks\" got a big boost in popularity some time ago because: people wanted to do more things asynchronously (in the background), people realised that having a thread for every single thing is not efficient, and because JavaScript basically forces you to use them so people got used to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is an analogy that might help.\n\nLets say you're busy but you need to drop your car to the garage for a service then pick it up later. \n\nYou could delegate this to someone else: they bring your car to the garage, sit around until its fixed and drop it back. The upside is you can work away as normal. The downside is you need to find someone else, and they're wasting their time waiting for your car to be fixed.\n\nOr you could try to find 10 spare minutes in the morning to drop it down, and 10 minutes in the afternoon to collect it. The downside is its 20 minutes out of your day, and more work coordinating your time. The upside is you can do it all yourself and nobody is waiting around.\n\nThe first is kind of like a thread, the second is kind of like an async task.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "863608",
"title": "AN thread",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The AN thread is a particular type of fitting used to connect flexible hoses and rigid metal tubing that carry fluid. It is a US military-derived specification that dates back to World War II and stems from a joint standard agreed upon by the Army and Navy, hence AN.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47767",
"title": "Threaded code",
"section": "Section::::Threading models.:Direct threading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Addresses in the thread are the addresses of machine language. This form is simple, but may have overheads because the thread consists only of machine addresses, so all further parameters must be loaded indirectly from memory. Some Forth systems produce direct-threaded code. On many machines direct-threading is faster than subroutine threading (see reference below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4244144",
"title": "Handel-C",
"section": "Section::::Additional features.:Channels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "A thread may simultaneously wait on multiple channels, synchronous or asynchronous, acting upon the first one available given a specified order of priority or optionally executing an alternate path if none is ready.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45634",
"title": "Thread safety",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Thread safety is a computer programming concept applicable to multi-threaded code. Thread-safe code only manipulates shared data structures in a manner that ensures that all threads behave properly and fulfill their design specifications without unintended interaction. There are various strategies for making thread-safe data structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45303",
"title": "Thread (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler, which is typically a part of the operating system. The implementation of threads and processes differs between operating systems, but in most cases a thread is a component of a process. Multiple threads can exist within one process, executing concurrently and sharing resources such as memory, while different processes do not share these resources. In particular, the threads of a process share its executable code and the values of its dynamically allocated variables and non-thread-local global variables at any given time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30830244",
"title": "RT-Thread",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "RT-Thread is an open source real-time operating system for embedded devices. It is distributed under the Apache 2.0+ licence. RT-Thread is developed by the RT-Thread Development Team based in China, after ten years' fully concentrated development. It is aimed to change the current situation in China that there is no well used open source real-time operating system in the microcontroller area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2361143",
"title": "ThreadX",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "The name ThreadX is derived from the fact that threads are used as the executable elements and the letter \"X\" represents context switching, i.e., it switches threads. ThreadX provides priority-based, preemptive scheduling, fast interrupt response, memory management, interthread communication, mutual exclusion, event notification, and thread synchronization features. Major distinguishing technology characteristics of ThreadX include preemption-threshold, priority inheritance, efficient timer management, picokernel design, event-chaining, fast software timers, and compact size. The minimal footprint of ThreadX on an ARM processor is on the order of 2KB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
112zx6
|
What started the European explorers craze that got them discovering the new world and Asia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Money, prestige, and the struggle for dominance over rival nations. The usual suspects.\n\nIt started with Portuguese attempts to corner the spice trade to and from the East Indies by getting ships around Africa (to circumvent the Ottoman control of the ancient overland routes), which was made more complicated by the fact that their instruments didn't work well as one approached the equator. In any event, since one voyage could at times result in a profit of 400% or more, this dangerous effort was more than worthwhile.\n\nAlso, it wasn't just Europeans. China sent out large fleets to explore Asia and East Africa as well. This stopped when a later emperor decided to end the expeditions. As a unified state, they could do that. If a European king chose to end such efforts, all that would mean is that one of the neighbours would eventually take up the challenge instead. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7375831",
"title": "Voyages of Christopher Columbus",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 1339,
"text": "With the Age of Discovery starting in the 15th century, Europeans explored the world by ocean, searching for particular trade goods, humans to enslave, and trading locations and ports. The most desired trading goods were gold, silver and spices. Columbus did not reach Asia but rather found what was to the Europeans a New World, the Americas. For the Catholic monarchies of Spain and Portugal, a division of influence became necessary to avoid conflict. This was resolved by Papal intervention in 1494 when the Treaty of Tordesillas purported to divide the world between the two powers. The Portuguese were to receive everything outside of Europe east of a line that ran 270 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, thought to include the continents of Africa and Asia, but none of the New World. The Spanish received everything west of this line, territory that was still almost completely unknown, and proved to be primarily the vast majority of the continents of the Americas and the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. This arrangement was somewhat subverted in 1500, when the Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived at a point on the eastern coast of South America, and realized that it was on the Portuguese side of the dividing line between the two empires. This would lead to the Portuguese colonization of what is now Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690842",
"title": "Age of Discovery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "European overseas exploration led to the rise of global trade and the European colonial empires, with the contact between the \"Old World\" (Europe, Asia and Africa) and the \"New World\" (the Americas and Australia) producing the Columbian Exchange, a wide transfer of plants, animals, food, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This represented one of the most significant global events concerning ecology, agriculture and culture in history. The Age of Discovery and later European exploration allowed the global mapping of the world, resulting in a new worldview and distant civilizations coming into contact, but also led to the propagation of diseases that decimated populations not previously in contact with Eurasia and Africa and to the enslavement, exploitation, military conquest and economic dominance by Europe and its colonies over native populations. It also allowed for the expansion of Christianity throughout the world: with the spread of missionary activity, it eventually became the world's largest religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14532",
"title": "Italy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1567,
"text": "Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics played a key role in ushering the Age of Discovery and the European colonization of the Americas. The most notable among them were: Christopher Columbus, who led led the first European expeditions to the Caribbean and Central and South America, and he is credited with discovering the New World and the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans; John Cabot, the first European to explore parts of the North American continent in 1497; Amerigo Vespucci, who first demonstrated in about 1502 that the New World was not Asia as initially conjectured, but a fourth continent previously unknown to people of the Old World (America is named after him); and Giovanni da Verrazzano, renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524. Furthermore, the Papal States was involved in resolving disputes between competing colonial powers. The only attempt by an Italian state to colonise the Americas was taken into consideration by Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who organised an expedition in 1608 under the command of Robert Thornton to northern Brazil and the Amazon river; after Ferdinando's death the following year, nobody after him was interested in the establishment of an overseas colony. However, Italian nobleman Giovanni Paolo Lascaris, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller of Malta at that time part of Sicily, possessed some Caribbean islands that were colonized from 1651 to 1665.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31642145",
"title": "European and American voyages of scientific exploration",
"section": "Section::::Maritime exploration in the Age of Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 2306,
"text": "From the early 15th century to the early 17th century the Age of Discovery had, through Spanish and Portuguese seafarers, opened up southern Africa, the Americas (New World), Asia and Oceania to European eyes: Bartholomew Dias had sailed around the Cape of southern Africa in search of a trade route to India; Christopher Columbus, on four journeys across the Atlantic, had prepared the way for European colonisation of the New World; Ferdinand Magellan had commanded the first expedition to sail across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans to complete the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Over this period colonial power shifted from the Portuguese and Spanish to the Dutch and then the British and French. The new era of scientific exploration began in the late 17th century as scientists, and in particular natural historians, established scientific societies that published their researches in specialist journals. The British Royal Society was founded in 1660 and encouraged the scientific rigour of empiricism with its principles of careful observation and deduction. Activities of early members of the Royal Society served as models for later maritime exploration. Hans Sloane (1650–1753) was elected a member in 1685 and travelled to Jamaica from 1687 to 1689 as physician to the Duke of Albemarle (1653–1688) who had been appointed Governor of Jamaica. In Jamaica Sloane collected numerous specimens which were carefully described and illustrated in a published account of his stay. Sloane bequeathed his vast collection of natural history 'curiosities' and library of over 50,000 bound volumes to the nation, prompting the establishment in 1753 of the British Museum. His travels also made him an extremely wealthy man as he patented a recipe that combined milk with the fruit of \"Theobroma cacao\" (cocoa) he saw growing in Jamaica, to produce milk chocolate. Books of distinguished social figures like the intellectual commentator Jean Jacques Rousseau, Director of the Paris Museum of Natural History Comte de Buffon, and scientist-travellers like Joseph Banks, and Charles Darwin, along with the romantic and often fanciful travelogues of intrepid explorers, increased the desire of European governments and the general public for accurate information about the newly discovered distant lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2946786",
"title": "Republic of Ragusa",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline of the Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "With the great Portuguese explorations which opened up new ocean routes, the spice trade no longer went through the Mediterranean. Moreover, the discovery of the Americas started a crisis of Mediterranean shipping. That was the beginning of the decline of both the Venetian and Ragusan republics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13299",
"title": "History of Spain",
"section": "Section::::Early Modern Spain.:Dynastic union of the Catholic Monarchs.:Conquest of the Canary Islands, colombian expeditions to the New World and African expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Isabella and Ferdinand authorized the 1492 expedition of Christopher Columbus, who became the first known European to reach the New World since Leif Ericson. This and subsequent expeditions led to an influx of wealth into Spain, supplementing income from within Castile for the state that would prove to be a dominant power of Europe for the next two centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46947",
"title": "Elizabethan era",
"section": "Section::::Government.:Colonising the New World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The discoveries of Christopher Columbus electrified all of western Europe, especially maritime powers like England. King Henry VII commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to find a northern route to the Spice Islands of Asia; this began the search for the North West Passage. Cabot sailed in 1497 and reached Newfoundland. He led another voyage to the Americas the following year, but nothing was heard of him or his ships again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
atrl6u
|
investing: buying stocks, selling stocks. eh?
|
[
{
"answer": "A stock is a piece of the company. If the company issues 1000 stocks, and you own 100 stocks, you essentially own 10% of the company.\n\nThe main reason for buying stocks is investment. If the company makes a profit, the company is worth more, so your share of the company is worth more. The company may also pay out dividends to shareholders, essentially splitting part of their earnings with the owners.\n\nThe price of a stock depends heavily on investor confidence. If you believe a company will do well, you are willing to buy their stock and this raises share prices. If the company is failing, you will sell off the stock, and the share price falls.\n\nYou can buy stocks through a stock broker, or sometimes directly from the company (if you are rich).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8271399",
"title": "The Only Three Questions That Count",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In the book, Fisher says that because the stock market is a discounter of all widely known information, the only way to make, on average, winning market bets is knowing something most others don’t. The book claims investing should be treated as a science, not a craft, and details a methodology for testing beliefs and uncovering information not widely known or understood. The book’s scientific method consists of asking three questions:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14895889",
"title": "Davis Selected Advisers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Davis believes stocks represent ownership interests in real businesses and therefore devotes significant time and resources to rigorous fundamental analysis of companies, all while maintaining a strict valuation discipline based on a concept known as “owner earnings” (i.e., the normalized cash earnings power of a business).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Selling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Selling stock is procedurally similar to buying stock. Generally, the investor wants to buy low and sell high, if not in that order (short selling); although a number of reasons may induce an investor to sell at a loss, e.g., to avoid further loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19623444",
"title": "Financial betting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Financial betting refers to the wagering on the price development of a financial instrument at some later date relative to the current price or level of the instrument, against odds offered by a bookmaker. Maximum potential pay-off of the wager is known when the bet is taken and as a corollary risk is known beforehand by being limited to the initial stake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9331386",
"title": "Financial market participants",
"section": "Section::::Investor vs. Speculator.:Speculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Speculation, in the narrow sense of financial speculation, involves the buying, holding, selling, and short-selling of stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, collectibles, real estate, derivatives or any valuable financial instrument to profit from fluctuations in its price as opposed to buying it for use or for income via methods such as dividends or interest. Speculation or agiotage represents one of three market roles in western financial markets, distinct from hedging, long term investing and arbitrage. Speculators in an asset may have no intention to have long term exposure to that asset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Buying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "When it comes to financing a purchase of stocks there are two ways: purchasing stock with money that is currently in the buyer's ownership, or by buying stock on margin. Buying stock on margin means buying stock with money borrowed against the value of stocks in the same account. These stocks, or collateral, guarantee that the buyer can repay the loan; otherwise, the stockbroker has the right to sell the stock (collateral) to repay the borrowed money. He can sell if the share price drops below the margin requirement, at least 50% of the value of the stocks in the account. Buying on margin works the same way as borrowing money to buy a car or a house, using a car or house as collateral. Moreover, borrowing is not free; the broker usually charges 8–10% interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14923182",
"title": "Odds compiler",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "The odds are derived from a variety of factors through analysis of information. Certain markets are highly statistical, whereas other markets require more intuition and insight. An odds compiler may be required to monitor the financial position the bookmaker is in and adjust their position (and odds) accordingly. They may also be consulted as to whether to accept a bet or not, usually in the case where a very large bet is being placed, so as to not incur dangerously-high liabilities. Odds are usually not set completely independent from other bookmakers but are influenced by what others are quoting. This is particularly important when the overround is below 100% and hence arbitrage betting, where betters can make a profit regardless of the outcome, is possible (see mathematics of bookmaking). In this case, the bookmaker with the most aberrant odds would usually alter their odds closer to other bookmakers' prices. The odds are influenced by betting volume so that a selection receiving a high volume of liquidity may have the odds for it cut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ew4ev5
|
why does a yawn filter out any deep bass sounds?
|
[
{
"answer": "The inner ear is normally sealed, air can’t get in or out. However there is a tube connecting it to the throat so that pressure can be equalised. When you yawn these tubes open. The same thing happens when you swallow and is why when your ears ‘pop’ , like in a plane, swallowing or yawning can fix it. It equalises the pressure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you are describing what I think you are, the \"tingling\" is most likely the tensing of a muscle in your ear, the tensor tympani. some people can voluntarily flex this muscle which is usually referred to as \"ear rumbling\". check out /r/earrumblersassemble for more info!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234857",
"title": "Yawn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, creating a rumbling noise from within the head. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body, including arms, neck, shoulders and back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18568365",
"title": "Growling (wind instruments)",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The most common and effective method of woodwind growling is to hum, sing, or even scream into the mouthpiece of the instrument. This method introduces interference within the instrument itself, breaking up the normal quality of sound waves produced. Furthermore, the vibration of the vocal note in the mouth and lips creates rustle noise in the instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4207",
"title": "Bassoon",
"section": "Section::::Technique.:Embouchure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "The bassoon embouchure is a very important aspect of producing a full, round, and dark bassoon tone. The bassoon embouchure is made by opening one's mouth, rolling lips inward to cover the teeth, and then dropping the jaw down as in a yawning motion (without actually yawning or opening the mouth). Both upper and lower teeth should be covered by the lips in order to protect the reed and control applied pressure. The reed is then placed in the mouth, with the lips and facial muscles maintaining an airtight seal around the reed. The upper lip will usually be farther forward on the reed than the lower lip, as in an \"overbite\" of the upper jaw. As with other orchestral double reeds, embouchure must be adjusted constantly for good intonation; this is achieved by adjusting the oral cavity with jaw movement. As with the oboe, it takes a great deal of experience to form an embouchure technique that will maintain sound quality and intonation at all pitches, volumes, and across various reeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18568365",
"title": "Growling (wind instruments)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The growl gives the performer's sound a dark, guttural, gritty timbre resulting largely from the rustle noise and desirable consonance and dissonance effects produced. The technique of simultaneous playing a note and singing into an instrument is also known as horn chords or multiphonics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2186011",
"title": "Tensor tympani muscle",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Voluntary control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Some individuals can voluntarily produce this rumbling sound by contracting the tensor tympani muscle of the middle ear. The rumbling sound can also be heard when the neck or jaw muscles are highly tensed as when yawning deeply. This phenomenon has been known since (at least) 1884.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860600",
"title": "Saxophone technique",
"section": "Section::::Extended techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Growling\" is a technique used whereby the saxophonist sings, hums, or growls, using the back of the throat while playing. This causes a modulation of the sound, and results in a gruffness or coarseness of the sound. It is rarely found in classical or band music, but is often utilized in jazz, blues, rock 'n' roll, and other popular genres. Some notable musicians who utilized this technique are Earl Bostic, Boots Randolph, Gato Barbieri, Ben Webster, Clarence Clemons, Nelson Rangell, David Sanborn, Greg Ham, Hank Carter, Bobby Keys, Keith Crossan, and King Curtis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18568365",
"title": "Growling (wind instruments)",
"section": "Section::::Alternate methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A woodwind growl can also be produced by allowing air to escape from around the corners of the mouth, causing a vibration in the lips and mouthpiece. Although this method does not set up patterns of interference, it does produce the characteristic rustle noise of the growl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2h0ahi
|
If fusion naturally occurs in stars, does fission occur naturally anywhere or only under manmade conditions?
|
[
{
"answer": "A few nuclei, including some uranium isotopes, fission spontaneously. However this process is very rare. Most fission processes are induced by neutrons, which requires a large assemblage of radioactive and fissile material, and the right geological environment. This happened naturally at least once in the Earth's history. See these articles [[1]](_URL_0_), [[2]](_URL_1_). The second one is more technical.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20766780",
"title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid",
"section": "Section::::Hybrid concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Fission occurs naturally because each event gives off more than one neutron capable of producing additional fission events. Fusion, at least in D-T fuel, gives off only a single neutron, and that neutron is not capable of producing more fusion events. When that neutron strikes fissile material in the blanket, one of two reactions may occur. In many cases, the kinetic energy of the neutron will cause one or two neutrons to be struck out of the nucleus without causing fission. These neutrons still have enough energy to cause other fission events. In other cases the neutron will be captured and cause fission, which will release two or three neutrons. This means that every fusion neutron in the fusion–fission design can result in anywhere between two and four neutrons in the fission fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22054",
"title": "Nuclear fission",
"section": "Section::::Physical overview.:Mechanism.:Nuclear reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "The most common fission process is binary fission, and it produces the fission products noted above, at 95±15 and 135±15 u. However, the binary process happens merely because it is the most probable. In anywhere from 2 to 4 fissions per 1000 in a nuclear reactor, a process called ternary fission produces three positively charged fragments (plus neutrons) and the smallest of these may range from so small a charge and mass as a proton (Z=1), to as large a fragment as argon (Z=18). The most common small fragments, however, are composed of 90% helium-4 nuclei with more energy than alpha particles from alpha decay (so-called \"long range alphas\" at ~ 16 MeV), plus helium-6 nuclei, and tritons (the nuclei of tritium). The ternary process is less common, but still ends up producing significant helium-4 and tritium gas buildup in the fuel rods of modern nuclear reactors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409529",
"title": "Spontaneous fission",
"section": "Section::::Poisson process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Spontaneous fission gives much the same result as induced nuclear fission. However, like other forms of radioactive decay, it occurs due to quantum tunneling, without the atom having been struck by a neutron or other particle as in induced nuclear fission. Spontaneous fissions release neutrons as all fissions do, so if a critical mass is present, a spontaneous fission can initiate a self-sustaining chain reaction. Radioisotopes for which spontaneous fission is not negligible can be used as neutron sources. For example, californium-252 (half-life 2.645 years, SF branch ratio about 3.1 percent) can be used for this purpose. The neutrons released can be used to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge the moisture content of soil in highway and building construction, or to measure the moisture of materials stored in silos, for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26808",
"title": "Star",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear fusion reaction pathways.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "A variety of nuclear fusion reactions take place in the cores of stars, that depend upon their mass and composition. When nuclei fuse, the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts. This lost mass is converted to electromagnetic energy, according to the mass–energy equivalence relationship \"E\" = \"mc\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043836",
"title": "Nuclear binding energy",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear binding energy curve.:Binding energy and nuclide masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21188370",
"title": "Fuel",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear.:Fusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by humans but are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21285",
"title": "Nuclear physics",
"section": "Section::::Modern nuclear physics.:Nuclear fusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "In nuclear fusion, two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or nuclear forces to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
skwpw
|
What natural disaster significantly changed the course of history?
|
[
{
"answer": "I guess pompeii might be one, but did that really alter the course of history by a large degree?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [Lisbon earthquake](_URL_0_) of 1755 had a profound effect on enlightenment philosophy. All the churches were destroyed and a huge number of people killed on All Saints Day. This led an entire generation of influential philosophers, including Voltaire and Kant, to question the existence or benevolence of God.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, there's the [Year Without a Summer](_URL_0_) which was the result of a volcanic eruption which had worldwide effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you don't want the Black Death (aka the Plague, you shouldn't mix and match the names here), or [other pandemics](_URL_1_) (see also [this](_URL_0_), I've got a related thing:\n\n[The Little Ice Age](_URL_10_) after the [Medieval Warm Period](_URL_7_). Fascinating bit about researching by using paintings of winter scenes as sources for this [here](_URL_6_). In this context, there's also the [Great Famine](_URL_2_).\n\nAnd while we're on the topic of famines, there's of course the [Great Irish Famine](_URL_4_), that more or less kick-started Irish emigration to the US.\n\nThe wiki also has a [List of natural disasters](_URL_8_) throughout history.\n\n\nEdit: I almost forgot: There's also the original [Kamikaze](_URL_9_), a storm that prevented the Mongols from conquering Japan - **twice**!\n\nSecond Edit/Addendum: The Famines especially, were significant in an intellectual way: They were, among others, the inspiration for [Malthus](_URL_3_), who in turn influenced Darwin and, subsequently [Social Darwinism](_URL_5_), and, subsequently, the Nazis, and on and on and on....\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Strictly speaking, this isn't an historical natural disaster - it's a *pre*historic event. But, it was definitely one of the most significant natural disasters in human existence.\n\nThe Toba volcano super-eruption about 71,000 years ago [\"plunged the planet into a 6-to-10-year volcanic winter and possibly an additional 1,000-year cooling episode.\"](_URL_0_)\n\n\n\n > [Mount Toba's eruption](_URL_1_) is marked by a 6 year period during which the largest amount of volcanic sulphur was deposited in the past 110,000 years. This dramatic event was followed by 1000 years of the lowest ice core oxygen isotope ratios of the last glacial period. In other words, for 1000 years immediately following the eruption, the earth witnessed temperatures colder than during the Last Glacial Maximum at 18-21,000 years ago.\n\nIt is believed that the ancestral population of Homo Sapiens reduced to less than 10,000 people during this period. And, because this event occurred just after a mass exodus of Homo Sapiens from Africa, there were pockets of small populations left surviving in a few places across Eurasia.\n\nIt's likely that these small isolated populations became the various races we see today.\n\nSo, the Toba eruption may have *caused* humans to differentiate into different races. That's significant.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Mongols attempted to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281. Both times, their fleets heavily outnumbered the Japanese fleets, and both times the Mongols were repelled by typhoons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I immediately thought of the [Laki Eruption of 1783](_URL_0_). This volcanic eruption in Iceland disrupted weather patterns throughout Europe which led to numerous crop failures. These crop failures led to food shortages which in turn put great stress on the lower classes of French society. The stress of food shortages as well as the disruption to trade (in some areas ships were stuck in their ports due to the volcanic haze) set the stage for the French Revolution. \n\nThe eruption may not have been a necessary or sufficient cause of the Revolution, so it may not qualify for the question, but it was definitely a contributing factor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm surprised the [Santorini eruption](_URL_0_) wasn't mentioned yet. The extent to which it was destructive, and the effects of the preceding earthquakes and ensuing tsunami, are all contested, but it seems to have been a major catalyst in the downfall of the Minoan civilization, and might have served as a basis in part for Plato's Atlantis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm surprised someone hasn't mentioned the [desertification of the Sahara](_URL_0_), which wikipedia dates to reaching its modern extent at 3400 BC. Given the extensive records of people living at least partially sedantary lives there quite comfortably beforehand, it must have displaced quite a lot of people.\n\nLikewise, it has been suggested that the climate becoming more hostile contributed to the change between the circa 300bc-300AD Arabia that seems to have been very prosperous and its more arid state today. This seems to have been most noticeable in the south, as modern Yemen was referred to as 'Arabia Felix', 'lucky' Arabia or 'happy' Arabia, supposedly due to its immensely wealthy cities.\n\nI also had it suggested in a BBC documentary that the growth in aridness of the climate of Somalia and Ethiopia contributed to the collapse and dispersal of the groups that had been part of the Kingdom of Aksum. But that documentary was a while ago and I haven't seen many references to it since.\n\nMy overall point is that it's clear that the changing climate of the earth has had a massive impact on development, habitable areas, and population sustainability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is widely assumed that a tornado actually drove the British from Washington, DC during the War of 1812.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there has been a theory floated around that the [Hekla 3 Eruption](_URL_0_) threw enough soot and dust into the air that the resulting change in temperature lead to several years of famine in Europe and the Middle East. These famines directly lead to the collapse of the bronze age civilizations, essentially reseting Western Civilization.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"On September 29, 1717, an estimated 7.4 magnitude earthquake hit Antigua Guatemala, and destroyed over 3,000 buildings. Much of the city's architecture was ruined. The damage the earthquake did to the city made authorities consider moving the capital to another city.\"\nTaken from _URL_0_\n\n\nBasically a big earthquake caused Spanish officials to change the capital city from Antigua to what is now Guatemala City.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20064",
"title": "Maritime archaeology",
"section": "Section::::Submerged sites.:Historic sites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Throughout history, seismic events have at times caused submergence of human settlements. The remains of such catastrophes exist all over the world, and sites such as Alexandria and Port Royal now form important archaeological sites. As with shipwrecks, archaeological research can follow multiple themes, including evidence of the final catastrophe, the structures and landscape before the catastrophe and the culture and economy of which it formed a part. Unlike the wrecking of a ship, the destruction of a town by a seismic event can take place over many years and there may be evidence for several phases of damage, sometimes with rebuilding in between.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166164",
"title": "The Long Emergency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The Long Emergency: Surviving the Converging Catastrophes of the Twenty-first Century is a book by James Howard Kunstler (Grove/Atlantic, 2005) exploring the consequences of a world oil production peak, coinciding with the forces of climate change, resurgent diseases, water scarcity, global economic instability and warfare to cause major trouble for future generations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17238567",
"title": "Guatemala",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Natural disasters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Natural disasters have a long history in this geologically active part of the world. For example, two of the three moves of the capital of Guatemala have been due to volcanic mudflows in 1541 and earthquakes in 1773.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22223876",
"title": "Rare disaster",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:The Equity Premium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Barro and subsequent economists have provided historical evidence to support this claim. Using this evidence, Barro shows that rare disasters occur frequently and in large magnitude, in economies around the world from a period from the mid-19th century to the present day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "723412",
"title": "Outburst flood",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Overflow of lakes formed by landslides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "An example is the lake overflow that caused one of the worst landslide-related disasters in history on June 10, 1786. A landslide dam on Sichuan's Dadu River, created by an earthquake ten days earlier, burst and caused a flood that extended downstream and killed 100,000 people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469815",
"title": "Utopian Community of Modern Times",
"section": "Section::::Modern Times becomes Brentwood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1593,
"text": "Different reasons are posited for the inability of Modern Times to continue beyond its fourteen-year life span. Vern Dyson wrote that “the economic panic of 1857 undermined the business enterprises of the village and the civil war completed the task of annihilation.” William Bailie also stated his opinion about the deleterious effects of the Panic of 1857 on Modern Times.Roger Wunderlich felt that Bailie exaggerated the impact of the 1857 crash on Modern Times and states that after the crash a slow but steady influx of settlers continued. Wunderlich further says that even before 1857, more of the skilled workers of Modern Times “were beginning to be disinclined to trade their skills at par without financial gain,” and so worked outside of Modern Times. Charles Codman who was a resident of Modern Times, wrote many years later that the lack of a charismatic leader who was able to spread the ideas about Modern Times to a wider audience and the fact that a good deal of the settlers were not dedicated to the ideals of equitable commerce led to its inability to continue as a utopian village. Finally, Roger Wunderlich wrote that the Civil war presented the residents of Modern Times with a situation and choices that were contrary to their personal beliefs. Could one be believer in individual sovereignty and join the army to fight or pay taxes for the war effort? In the end, out of the 168 men from Islip town who enlisted in the Union Army, 15 of them were from Modern Times. Modern Times had sent a higher proportion of its men to serve than did the Town of Islip as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2835257",
"title": "Iron Savior (album)",
"section": "Section::::Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "\"But the rest of the world was also affected by this catastrophe. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, atomic fallout and dramatic changes in climate turned Earth into a living hell. Those who survived, slowly, from generation to generation , degenerated more and more. Finally evolution was thrown back into the stone age where the dawning of another mankind began…\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b0v5tc
|
how do photographers who print a lot of tourist photos make a profit if not everything they printed is sold? how does their business model work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Selling 1 photo pays for a LOT of unsold ones and people are more likely to buy something they can physically see in front of them then on a screen and then wait for it to be printed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Printing them takes time, particularly drying time so that they don't smudge. You will sell more if the person doesn't have to wait 5 minutes when they are on vacation. If they sell them for $10 and they cost $.27 [ref](_URL_0_), then they break even at 1 out of 35 sales. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3104952",
"title": "Wedding photography",
"section": "Section::::Albums, prints, other products, types of photos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Most photographers allow clients to purchase additional prints for themselves or their families. Many photographers now provide online sales either through galleries located on their own websites or through partnerships with other vendors. Those vendors typically host the images and provide the back end sales mechanism for the photographer; the photographer sets his or her own prices and the vendor takes a commission or charges a flat fee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17811393",
"title": "Fotki",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Professional Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Professional photographers can sell their photos at their own price, higher than the printing cost imposed by Fotki. The difference in price minus 15% commission fee goes to the photographer. Earned money is remitted by PayPal, check or bank transfer. Photographers who offer their photos for sale can upload small size, low-res or watermarked images to avoid theft. When such photo is requested, the photographer has the option to securely upload the full size image for printing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1478728",
"title": "Image sharing",
"section": "Section::::Revenue models.:Subscription-based.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "In return for a fee, subscription-based photo sharing sites offer their services without the distraction of advertisements or promotions for prints and gifts. They may also have other enhancements over free services, such as guarantees regarding the online availability of photos, more storage space, the ability for non-account holders to download full-size, original versions of photos, and tools for backing up photos. Some offer user photographs for sale, splitting the proceeds with the photographer, while others may use a disclaimer to reserve the right to use or sell the photos without giving the photographer royalties or notice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84303",
"title": "Photographer",
"section": "Section::::Selling photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Photos taken by a photographer while working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. Professional portrait and wedding photographers often stipulate by contract that they retain the copyright of their photos, so that only they can sell further prints of the photographs to the consumer, rather than the customer reproducing the photos by other means. If the customer wishes to be able to reproduce the photos themselves, they may discuss an alternative contract with the photographer in advance before the pictures are taken, in which a larger up front fee may be paid in exchange for reprint rights passing to the customer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84303",
"title": "Photographer",
"section": "Section::::Duties and types of photographers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a particular planned event such as a wedding or graduation, or to illustrate an advertisement. Others, like fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making an image and then licensing or making printed copies of it for sale or display. Some workers, such as crime scene photographers, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, depending on the commercial context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23604",
"title": "Photography",
"section": "Section::::Modes of production.:Commercial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Many people take photographs for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84303",
"title": "Photographer",
"section": "Section::::Selling photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 959,
"text": "The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright. Countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. The photographs seen on magazine covers, in television advertising, on greeting cards or calendars, on websites, or on products and packages, have generally been purchased for this use, either directly from the photographer or through an agency that represents the photographer. A photographer uses a contract to sell the \"license\" or use of his or her photograph with exact controls regarding how often the photograph will be used, in what territory it will be used (for example U.S. or U.K. or other), and exactly for which products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees (payment for the actual creation of a photograph or photographs). An additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6l8aj6
|
How did people precisely control the temperature of ovens for baking at specific temperatures?
|
[
{
"answer": "A bake oven is a very big pile of masonry. Get all that thermal mass up to temperature, and it will fluctuate fairly little, and occasional stoking with a little wood can keep it hot. This is why baking was commonly done either by bakers, all day/night long, or by housewives one day a week: once the oven was hot, you wanted to make full use of it. The alternative for housewives was a Dutch oven, a deep covered cast-iron pot that could have coals placed on the lid, that could be used in the fireplace. But it couldn't do loaves of bread and pies as well as a bake oven.\n\nFor how to judge the oven temperature, here's what Lydia M Child said, in her *The American Frugal Housewife* :\n\n > Heating ovens must be regulated by experience and observation. There is a difference in wood in giving out heat; there is a great difference in the construction of ovens; and when an oven is extremely cold, either on account of the weather, or want of use, it must be heated more. Economical people heat ovens with pine wood, fagots, brush, and such light stuff. If you have none but hard wood, you must remember that it makes very hot coals, and therefore less of it will answer. A smart fire for an hour and a half is a general rule for common sized family ovens, provided brown bread and beans are to be baked. An hour is long enough to heat an oven for flour bread. Pies bear about as much heat as flour bread: pumpkin pies will bear more. If you are afraid your oven is too hot, throw in a little flour, and shut it up for a minute. If it scorches black immediately, the heat is too furious; if it merely browns, it is right. Some people wet an old broom two or three times, and turn it round near the top of die oven till it dries; this prevents pies and cake from scorching on the top. When you go into a new house, heat your oven two or three times, to get it seasoned, before you use it. After the wood is burned, rake the coals over the bottom of the oven, and let them lie a few minutes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31302381",
"title": "Oven temperatures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Common oven temperatures (such as terms: cool oven, very slow oven, slow oven, moderate oven, hot oven, fast oven, etc.) are set to control the effects of baking in an oven, for various lengths of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31302381",
"title": "Oven temperatures",
"section": "Section::::Estimating oven temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Before ovens had thermometers or thermostats, these standard words were used by cooks and cookbooks to describe how hot an oven should be to cook various items. Custards require a slow oven for example, bread a moderate oven, and pastries a very hot oven. Cooks estimated the temperature of an oven by counting the number of minutes it took to turn a piece or white paper golden brown, or counting the number of seconds one could hold one's hand in the oven. Another method was to put a layer of flour or a piece of white tissue paper on a pan in the oven for five minutes. The resulting colors range from delicate brown in a slow oven through golden brown in a moderate oven to dark brown in a hot oven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445536",
"title": "Oven",
"section": "Section::::Cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Ovens also vary in the way that they are controlled. The simplest ovens (for example, the AGA cooker) may not have any controls at all; the ovens simply run continuously at various temperatures. More conventional ovens have a simple thermostat which turns the oven on and off and selects the temperature at which it will operate. Set to the highest setting, this may also enable the broiler element. A timer may allow the oven to be turned on and off automatically at pre-set times. More sophisticated ovens may have complex, computer-based controls allowing a wide variety of operating modes and special features including the use of a temperature probe to automatically shut the oven off when the food is completely cooked to the desired degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636035",
"title": "Convection oven",
"section": "Section::::Culinary convection ovens.:Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "A convection oven allows a reduction in cooking temperature compared to a conventional oven. This comparison will vary, depending on factors including, for example, how much food is being cooked at once or if airflow is being restricted, for example by an oversized baking tray. This difference in cooking temperature is offset as the circulating air transfers heat more quickly than still air of the same temperature. In order to transfer the same amount of heat in the same time, the temperature must be lowered to reduce the rate of heat transfer in order to compensate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445536",
"title": "Oven",
"section": "Section::::Cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Ovens usually can use a variety of methods to cook. The most common may be to heat the oven from below. This is commonly used for baking and roasting. The oven may also be able to heat from the top to provide broiling (US) or grilling (UK/Commonwealth). A fan-assisted oven that uses a small fan to circulate the air in the cooking chamber, can be used. Both are also known as convection ovens. An oven may also provide an integrated rotisserie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17198809",
"title": "Hot air oven",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "A complete cycle involves heating the oven to the required temperature, maintaining that temperature for the proper time interval for that temperature, turning the machine off and cooling the articles in the closed oven till they reach room temperature. The standard settings for a hot air oven are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9406595",
"title": "Reach-in oven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Reach-in ovens are meant for different industrial applications that may need uniform temperature throughout. The ovens normally use horizontal re-circulating air to ensure the uniform temperature, and can use fans that circulate air, creating the airflow. Reach-in ovens can be used in numerous production and laboratory applications, including curing, drying, sterilizing, aging, and other process-critical applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cm3xvu
|
pcr's (polymer chain reactions)
|
[
{
"answer": "So it's been a while since I've done it but here goes : Think of DNA like a zipper. Pull the 2 sides apart and then cut the 2 single strands into chunks. With spare zipper teeth (ACTG) you can build 2 new strands, zip it back together and now you have 2 full zippers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4087965",
"title": "Genetic analysis",
"section": "Section::::Various types of genetic analysis.:PCR.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a biochemical technology in molecular biology to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12006607",
"title": "Detection of genetically modified organisms",
"section": "Section::::Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a biochemistry and molecular biology technique for isolating and exponentially amplifying a fragment of DNA, via enzymatic replication, without using a living organism. It enables the detection of specific strands of DNA by making millions of copies of a target genetic sequence. The target sequence is essentially photocopied at an exponential rate, and simple visualisation techniques can make the millions of copies easy to see.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19081158",
"title": "Bio-MEMS",
"section": "Section::::Bio-MEMS for diagnostics.:PCR chips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1916,
"text": "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a fundamental molecular biology technique that enables the selective amplification of DNA sequences, which is useful for expanded use of rare samples e.g.: stem cells, biopsies, circulating tumor cells. The reaction involves thermal cycling of the DNA sequence and DNA polymerase through three different temperatures. Heating up and cooling down in conventional PCR devices are time-consuming and typical PCR reactions can take hours to complete. Other drawbacks of conventional PCR is the high consumption of expensive reagents, preference for amplifying short fragments, and the production of short chimeric molecules. PCR chips serve to miniaturize the reaction environment to achieve rapid heat transfer and fast mixing due to the larger surface-to-volume ratio and short diffusion distances. The advantages of PCR chips include shorter thermal-cycling time, more uniform temperature which enhances yield, and portability for point-of-care applications. Two challenges in microfluidic PCR chips are PCR inhibition and contamination due to the large surface-to-volume ratio increasing surface-reagent interactions. For example, silicon substrates have good thermal conductivity for rapid heating and cooling, but can poison the polymerase reaction. Silicon substrates are also opaque, prohibiting optical detection for qPCR, and electrically conductive, preventing electrophoretic transport through the channels. Meanwhile, glass is an ideal material for electrophoresis but also inhibits the reaction. Polymers, particularly PDMS, are optically transparent, not inhibitory, and can be used to coat an electrophoretic glass channel. Various other surface treatments also exist, including polyethylene glycol, bovine serum albumin, and silicon dioxide. There are stationary (chamber-based), dynamic (continuous flow-based), and microdroplet (digital PCR) chip architectures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26450640",
"title": "Hot start PCR",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a method in molecular biology used to amplify a single copy or a few copies of specific pieces of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a target DNA sequence. In conventional PCR, the DNA polymerase is slightly active at room temperature, and to a lesser degree, even on ice. In some instances, when all the reaction components are put together, nonspecific primer annealing can occur at these low temperatures. This nonspecific annealed primer can then be extended by the DNA polymerase, generating nonspecific products and lowering product yields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11344743",
"title": "Biomolecular engineering",
"section": "Section::::Of molecules.:Polymerase chain reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique that is used to replicate a piece of a DNA molecule by several orders of magnitude. PCR implements a cycle of repeated heated and cooling known as thermal cycling along with the addition of DNA primers and DNA polymerases to selectively replicate the DNA fragment of interest. The technique was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983 while working for the Cetus Corporation. Mullis would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 as a result of the impact that PCR had in many areas such as DNA cloning, DNA sequencing, and gene analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:1980s and the early 1990s (1980–1991).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 415,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 415,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "BULLET::::- The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique widely used in molecular biology. It derives its name from one of its key components, a DNA polymerase used to amplify a piece of DNA by \"in vitro\" enzymatic DNA replication. As PCR progresses, the DNA generated is used as a template for replication. The polymerase chain reaction was invented in 1984 by Kary Mullis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36347942",
"title": "Weak-Link Approach",
"section": "Section::::PCR Mimic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is utilized in biochemistry and molecular biology for exponentially amplifying nucleic acids by making copies of a specific region of a nucleic acid target. When coupled with diagnostic probes, this technique allows one to detect a small collection of molecules under very dilute conditions. A limitation of PCR is that it only works with nucleic acid targets, and there are no known analogues of PCR for other target molecular candidates. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
40v454
|
how do news agencies decide what is a national story?
|
[
{
"answer": "Great question. The short version is that the news outlets have an editorial meeting every day or every shift to discuss ideas and assign reporting staff to the stories. Many stories come from press releases or public tips. Many more come from routine events, like a city council meeting, a parade, or a local business declaring its quarterly earnings.\n\nIn most places, the easier a story is to report, the more likely it is to be printed. Interstate closed for construction? Go talk to people for 20 minutes at a truck stop about how inconvenient it is. Story is done in an hour. Do another celebratory story when it re-opens. In both cases, the reporter is now free quickly to work on a more complicated longer-term story that may take a couple of weeks to put together.\n\nMainstream news is relatively unlikely to report on politically divisive topics, like a right to life march or a union rally because it might give ammo to those who shout \"The Daily Planet is pinko commie!\" Keeping in mind that The Daily Planet probably has no newspaper competition and has nothing to gain by being controversial.\n\nHow things generally get to \"the wire\": if something important is expected to happen, wire service staff reporters will already be there. If it is something more unexpected, like a mayor saying something nasty about Hillary, normally it will be reported by a local newspaper first, then sent to a regional or state wire editor, who may send it further to the national wire.\n\nSome national news outlets (Cable news in particular) have producers scour local news outlets to see if there were stories that never made it to the wire services that may still be interesting to their audiences. This is why a lot of times you'll see stories on talk shows like Greta Van Susteren or Rachael Maddow that don't get mainstream coverage.\n\nTL;DR: You have editors at every level who decide if a story is important enough to report, or to send on to a higher level editor for broader distribution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29071145",
"title": "World news",
"section": "Section::::News agencies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services (originally they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations, individuals, analysts and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47917",
"title": "News agency",
"section": "Section::::Commercial services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services (originally they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations, individuals, analysts, and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47917",
"title": "News agency",
"section": "Section::::Commercial services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "News agencies can be corporations that sell news (e.g., Press Association, Thomson Reuters and United Press International). Other agencies work cooperatively with large media companies, generating their news centrally and sharing local news stories the major news agencies may choose to pick up and redistribute (i.e., Associated Press (AP), Agence France-Presse (AFP) or American Press Agency (APA)) and Indian Press Agency PTI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19641",
"title": "Mass media",
"section": "Section::::Professions involving mass media.:Journalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "News-oriented journalism is sometimes described as the \"first rough draft of history\" (attributed to Phil Graham), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines. While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organizations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organization's standards of accuracy, quality and style. Many news organizations claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountable to the standards of professional journalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29071145",
"title": "World news",
"section": "Section::::News agencies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A news agency is an organization of journalists established to supply news reports to news organizations: newspapers, magazines, and radio and television broadcasters. Such an agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire or news service. The bulk of major news agency services contains foreign news.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304097",
"title": "Press release",
"section": "Section::::Distribution models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "In the traditional distribution model, the business, political campaign, or other entity releasing information to the media hires a publicity agency to write and distribute written information to the newswires. The newswire then disseminates the information as it is received or as investigated by a journalist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47451340",
"title": "Newspaper production process",
"section": "Section::::Content gathering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "News production starts with the reporters going out to their respective beat to gather stories and cover events and also the marketing department getting advertisement into the newspaper on daily basis. It starts with reporters getting their stories ready daily and sending their stories in electronically through their mails to the editor. Each reporter works with a particular desk in the newsroom, some of these desks are: Metro desk, Sport desk, Business desk, Political desk, Education desk and others. News gathering and dissemination is paramount to every newspaper as this is the responsibility of the newspaper house to the people and this can determine their level of advertiser’s patronage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xa4ju
|
What would a tub full of viruses look like?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey there! I work with viruses, and this is what I can tell you: \n\nWhen we infect cells, we use vials of virus stockseed, which, depending on which virus you're working with, is essentially a purified suspension of virus that's been frozen and stored until it's needed for use. It's not 100% pure virus, which would be fairly unstable and hard to store. These vials of stockseed pretty much look like whatever media they were grown in - they often appear clear (as opposed to murky), and are the color of the media we use. \n\nOn the other hand, if I were to purify out virus from this solution, which I've also done before, it kind of looks like an off-white colored, thick gloop at the bottom of the test tube.\n\nThat's just personal experience, though, and I imagine it differs with different viruses. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Viruses can be crystallized, which might get you a better idea about what color they are. All the pictures I've seen of virus crystals have been transmitted-light or electron micrographs, so I have no idea what they look like by reflected light.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167679",
"title": "Virus",
"section": "Section::::Microbiology.:Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Viruses display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes, called \"morphologies\". In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria. Most viruses that have been studied have a diameter between 20 and 300 nanometres. Some filoviruses have a total length of up to 1400 nm; their diameters are only about 80 nm. Most viruses cannot be seen with an optical microscope, so scanning and transmission electron microscopes are used to visualise them. To increase the contrast between viruses and the background, electron-dense \"stains\" are used. These are solutions of salts of heavy metals, such as tungsten, that scatter the electrons from regions covered with the stain. When virions are coated with stain (positive staining), fine detail is obscured. Negative staining overcomes this problem by staining the background only.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6576473",
"title": "Smallest organisms",
"section": "Section::::Microorganisms.:Viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The smallest viruses in terms of genome size are single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. Perhaps the most famous is the bacteriophage Phi-X174 with a genome size of 5386 nucleotides. However, some ssDNA viruses can be even smaller. For example, Porcine circovirus type 1 has a genome of only 1759 nucleotides and a capsid diameter of only 17 nm. As a whole, the viral family geminiviridae is only about 30 nm in length. However, the two capsids making up the virus are fused; divided, the capsids would be 15 nm in length. Other environmentally characterized ssDNA viruses such as CRESS DNA viruses as well as others can have genomes that are considerably less than 2,000 nucleotides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449429",
"title": "Hepadnaviridae",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Several other viruses have been described from fish and from a frog: Bluegill hepadnavirus (BGHB), African cichlid hepadnavirus (ACHBV) and Tibetan frog hepadnavirus. It seems likely that new genera in this family will need to be created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1582352",
"title": "Circoviridae",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Two yet-uncategorized circovirus-like viruses have been identified in fish— Barbel circovirus (BaCV) 1 and 2. Their genomes are similar in length and contain two major open reading frames similar to the capsid and replication associated protein genes found in other circoviruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47516161",
"title": "Aquamavirus",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Viruses in \"Aquamavirus\" are nonenveloped, with icosahedral, spherical, and round geometries, and T=pseudo3 symmetry. The diameter is around 30 nm. Genomes are linear and nonsegmented, around 6.7 kb in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14579421",
"title": "Introduction to viruses",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Viruses are among the smallest infectious agents, and most of them can only be seen by electron microscopy. Most viruses cannot be seen by light microscopy (in other words, they are sub-microscopic); their sizes range from 20 to 300 nm. They are so small that it would take 30,000 to 750,000 of them, side by side, to stretch to one cm. By contrast bacterial sizes are typically around 1 micrometre (1000 nm) in diameter, and the cells of higher organisms a few tens of micrometres. Some viruses such as megaviruses and pandoraviruses are relatively large. At around 1 micrometer, these viruses, which infect amoebae, were discovered in 2003 and 2013. They are around a thousand times larger than influenza viruses and the discovery of these \"giant\" viruses astonished scientists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56007469",
"title": "Virus nanotechnology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Viruses consist of a genome and a capsid; and some viruses are enveloped. Most virus capsids measure between 20-500 nm in diameter. Because of their nanometer size dimensions, viruses have been considered as naturally occurring nanoparticles. Virus nanoparticles have been subject to the nanoscience and nanoengineering disciplines. Viruses can be regarded as prefabricated nanoparticles. Many different viruses have been studied for various applications in nanotechnology: for example, mammalian viruses are being developed as vectors for gene delivery, and bacteriophages and plant viruses have been used in drug delivery and imaging applications as well as in vaccines and immunotherapy intervention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vzatt
|
if websites like youtube can shorten their url for "sharing" purposes, why can't the url just naturally be shorter?
|
[
{
"answer": "Taking Youtube as an example, if you actually pay attention to what is in the URI, you might see that this is where different options are passed about what you want to see. For example, if you watch a video and decide to send a link to someone which starts at a certain timestamp, you will get slightly different text with something like \" & t=105s\" added into the last section. The number of combinations of options is huge and creating a unique string for each and every one which will still work in a somewhat distant future means storing all of the links anybody has ever made. It also means looking up that extra information every time somebody wants to see anything at all, which isn't free (although not very expensive). Also, it would require extra steps for third-parties who are comfortable editing the URI string themselves to get that converted into an encoded, shortened URI every time they need to make a link which may, possibly be clicked.\n\nThey could do it, sure, but except for people sharing links in very special formats such as Twitter, there isn't really much reason to and there are some annoying costs associated with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be fair with Youtube - they're not really shortening/altering it that much.\n\nSay you want to share:\n > _URL_7_\n\nWhen you press the share button, which shortens the link for posting wherever, you only end up with:\n\n > http://_URL_0_/dQw4w9WgXcQ\n\nAll that happens is they switch the domain to \"**_URL_0_**\" (saving 3 characters) and loose the \"**watch?v**\" bit (saving 7 characters).\n\nBut, if you go to the _URL_0_ link you just get redirected to the _URL_3_ video. It's just a link.\n\nI think the main reason this isn't more common with other sites is:\n- Not everything has an easy link structure (Reddit's for example) that can be condensed down to shorter links and still properly communicate where you're going/retain your brand.\n- In YouTube's example, it required them registering another domain in Belgium.\n- If they really need a short link they can use services like [_URL_5_](_URL_2_), [_URL_4_](http://_URL_4_/) or [bitly](_URL_6_). If you look on Bitly's homepage they do claim a number of well known brands as clients.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One reason is that long (and human readable) URL's are a part of search engine optimization (SEO), because URL's containing keywords from the content of the page tend to be ranked better than just random looking ones. Youtube is not a very good example for this though, because even the regular URL's are not human readable (but being owned by Google is probably much more significant in the search engine ranking anyway ;)\n\nAnother reason is usability. It's much easier to remember (and tell someone about) the URL \"_URL_0_\" rather than \"compa.ny/93HkdI1\" and if you happen to see such an URL you can more or less tell where the first one will lead you to when you click it, but not with the shortened one. You probably wouldn't open \"_URL_1_\" at work - but who knows if \"compa.ny/93HkdI1\" is actually safe for work or not? \n\nAnd last but not least, when using a URL shortening service out of your control: What happens if for example _URL_2_ goes bankrupt? all the links using that service are down and there is no way to tell or recover the original content behind that link.\n\nIn my opinion, shortened URL's are fine for Twitter and other services where available space is an issue, but usability and transparency for the user suffers pretty much.\n\nEDIT: some typos.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "There are several reasons to use URL shortening. Often regular unshortened links may be aesthetically unpleasing. Many web developers pass descriptive attributes in the URL to represent data hierarchies, command structures, transaction paths or session information. This can result in URLs that are hundreds of characters long and that contain complex character patterns. Such URLs are difficult to memorize, type-out or distribute. As a result, long URLs must be copied-and-pasted for reliability. Thus, short URLs may be more convenient for websites or hard copy publications (e.g. a printed magazine or a book), the latter often requiring that very long strings be broken into multiple lines (as is the case with some e-mail software or internet forums) or truncated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636686",
"title": "URL redirection",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.:Short aliases for long URLs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Web applications often include lengthy descriptive attributes in their URLs which represent data hierarchies, command structures, transaction paths and session information. This practice results in a URL that is aesthetically unpleasant and difficult to remember, and which may not fit within the size limitations of microblogging sites. URL shortening services provide a solution to this problem by redirecting a user to a longer URL from a shorter one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "URL shortening is a technique on the World Wide Web in which a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) may be made substantially shorter and still direct to the required page. This is achieved by using a redirect which links to the web page that has a long URL. For example, the URL \"\" can be shortened to \"\", and the URL \"\" can be shortened to \"\". Often the redirect domain name is shorter than the original one. A friendly URL may be desired for messaging technologies that limit the number of characters in a message (for example SMS), for reducing the amount of typing required if the reader is copying a URL from a print source, for making it easier for a person to remember, or for the intention of a permalink. In November 2009, the shortened links of the URL shortening service Bitly were accessed 2.1 billion times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Expiry and time-limited services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "A permanent URL is not necessarily a good thing. There are security implications, and obsolete short URLs remain in existence and may be circulated long after they cease to point to a relevant or even extant destination. Sometimes a short URL is useful simply to give someone over a telephone conversation for a one-off access or file download, and no longer needed within a couple of minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Shortcomings.:Linkrot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The convenience offered by URL shortening also introduces potential problems, which have led to criticism of the use of these services. Short URLs, for example, will be subject to linkrot if the shortening service stops working; all URLs related to the service will become broken. It is a legitimate concern that many existing URL shortening services may not have a sustainable business model in the long term. In late 2009, the Internet Archive started the \"301 Works\" projects, together with twenty collaborating companies (initially), whose short URLs will be preserved by the project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046120",
"title": "Canonicalization",
"section": "Section::::Usage cases.:Search engines and SEO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "In web search and search engine optimization (SEO), URL canonicalization deals with web content that has more than one possible URL. Having multiple URLs for the same web content can cause problems for search engines - specifically in determining which URL should be shown in search results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919945",
"title": "URL shortening",
"section": "Section::::Shortcomings.:Additional layer of complexity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "Short URLs, although making it easier to access what might otherwise be a very long URL or user-space on an ISP server, add an additional layer of complexity to the process of retrieving web pages. Every access requires more requests (at least one more DNS lookup, though it may be cached, and one more HTTP/HTTPS request), thereby increasing latency, the time taken to access the page, and also the risk of failure, since the shortening service may become unavailable. Another operational limitation of URL shortening services is that browsers do not resend POST bodies when a redirect is encountered. This can be overcome by making the service a reverse proxy, or by elaborate schemes involving cookies and buffered POST bodies, but such techniques present security and scaling challenges, and are therefore not used on extranets or Internet-scale services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
602s6d
|
how come when having a sickness that requires medicine, i have to do it in a span of a week or a few days?
|
[
{
"answer": "Accomodating the poor English, are you asking why you can't take the whole course of medication at once?\n\nLet's use the antibiotic 'Gentamycin' for example. The drug is not easily filtered out by the kidneys, and an overdose would cause the kidneys to not work. That results in kidney failure and you'd potentially die.\n\nDoses are often set to what is safe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5176305",
"title": "Esophageal candidiasis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The current first-line treatment is fluconazole, 200 mg. on the first day, followed by daily dosing of 100 mg. for at least 21 days total. Treatment should continue for 14 days after relief of symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22737230",
"title": "Pinworm infection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Treatment is typically with two doses of the medications mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, or albendazole two weeks apart. Everyone who lives with or takes care of an infected person should be treated at the same time. Washing personal items in hot water after each dose of medication is recommended. Good handwashing, daily bathing in the morning, and daily changing of underwear can help prevent reinfection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5759935",
"title": "Thiamine deficiency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Treatment is by thiamine supplementation, either by mouth or by injection. With treatment symptoms generally resolve in a couple of weeks. The disease may be prevented at the population level through the fortification of food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61970",
"title": "Trichuriasis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Prevention is by properly cooking food and hand washing before cooking. Other measures include improving access to sanitation such as ensuring use of functional and clean toilets and access to clean water. In areas of the world where the infections are common, often entire groups of people will be treated all at once and on a regular basis. Treatment is with three days of the medication: albendazole, mebendazole or ivermectin. People often become infected again after treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3485964",
"title": "Allergic contact dermatitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Commonly, the symptoms may resolve without treatment in 2 to 4 weeks but specific medication may hasten the healing as long as the trigger is avoided. Also, the condition might become chronic if the allergen is not detected and avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1856289",
"title": "Miliary tuberculosis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The standard treatment recommended by the WHO is with isoniazid and rifampicin for six months, as well as ethambutol and pyrazinamide for the first two months. If there is evidence of meningitis, then treatment is extended to twelve months. The U.S. guidelines recommend nine months' treatment. \"Common medication side effects a patient may have such as inflammation of the liver if a patient is taking pyrazinamide, rifampin, and isoniazid. A patient may also have drug resistance to medication, relapse, respiratory failure, and adult respiratory distress syndrome.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973869",
"title": "Psychiatry",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Outpatient treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "Outpatient treatment involves periodic visits to a psychiatrist for consultation in his or her office, or at a community-based outpatient clinic. Initial appointments, at which the psychiatrist conducts a psychiatric assessment or evaluation of the patient, are typically 45 to 75 minutes in length. Follow-up appointments are generally shorter in duration, i.e., 15 to 30 minutes, with a focus on making medication adjustments, reviewing potential medication interactions, considering the impact of other medical disorders on the patient's mental and emotional functioning, and counseling patients regarding changes they might make to facilitate healing and remission of symptoms (e.g., exercise, cognitive therapy techniques, sleep hygiene—to name just a few). The frequency with which a psychiatrist sees people in treatment varies widely, from once a week to twice a year, depending on the type, severity and stability of each person's condition, and depending on what the clinician and patient decide would be best.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
400x08
|
Do we believe the figures for Ancient Battles?
|
[
{
"answer": "This topic, depending on the battle, can be hotly debated among historians. Occasionally archeological evidence can shed light on the battles, but often historians must defer to the written record. That said, most historians won't take the figues exactly at face value. If the army in question is Egyptian, there may be less available. The point I am trying to make is that the written record should not be completely thrown out just because numbers are inflated, nor typically is it. There are certainly historians who do that, however for the most part the written record is trusted until there is something that brings it into question. \n\nWith Caesar, often times there are so many sources showing both sides that historians can typically discern a fairly reliable timeline. With figures, it is best not to throw out evidence simply because there may be bias. Every historian is biased in some way and that is not necessarily a bad thing. It can potentially provide a balanced account, if paired with others. Unfortunately, if (such as in the case of Zozimus) that is the only account of that battle, it can't be thrown out simply because the facts may be skewed due to bias. If a source is to be doubted, there needs to be more than that. If there were, say, archeological evidence, or other written evidence showing that this could be reasonably questioned, then it could be doubted. \nTL;DR The rule of thumb for most historians is \"innocent until proven guilty\".\n\nPurely historically speaking, I think it is entirely likely that Zozimus had the numbers correct. The ancient mediterranean world was quite populous. Rome had at this time a population of 1,000,000. Alexandria had a population of 500,000 (both roughly speaking). Palmyra was a major trade hub and It absolutely could have afforded an army of that size. Armies of this size were not that uncommon, either. For much of Rome's history the entirety of the army consisted of about 300,000 legionaries. By the late empire (when Zozimus is writing), it is believed to have tripled. This meant that the Romans could absolutely have brought massive amounts of man power to bear, and since Palmyra was actually able to defeat Rome once, it had to have a sizeable army. For more info on the Roman army at this time, check out Arther Ferrill's book \"The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation\". \nHope this helps!\n\nEdit: I have removed some information which Iphikrates indicated was actually false. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1462051",
"title": "Stoa Poikile",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "There is a contrast between the mythical and historical events portrayed: depictions of Theseus' victory over the Amazonians and the Fall of Troy are juxtaposed sharply with the portrayal of the historic Battle of Oenoe (conjectured to have occurred in the pentecontaetia at Oenoe, Attica on the Thriasian Plain near Eleutherae), the first important Athenian victory over Sparta, and the Battle of Marathon. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82505",
"title": "Battle of Leuctra",
"section": "Section::::The size of the armies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Several ancient writers give figures for one or both of the armies, but, unfortunately, they are contradictory and, in some cases, unbelievable. Modern scholars' estimates have varied from 6,000 to 9,000 for the Boeotian force. For the Spartan side, most modern scholars favor Plutarch's figure of 10,000 in infantry and 1,000 cavalry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1076505",
"title": "Roman art",
"section": "Section::::Sculpture.:Narrative reliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style. Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan, were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first-hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world. This unprecedented achievement, over 650 foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals (over 2,500 of them), but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history – in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture. During the Christian era after 300 AD, the decoration of door panels and sarcophagi continued but full-sized sculpture died out and did not appear to be an important element in early churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25560505",
"title": "Battles BC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Battles BC is a 2009 documentary series looking at key battles in ancient history. The show was known for its very gritty nature, visual effects similar to the film \"300\" and its highly choreographed fight scenes with various weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390045",
"title": "Battle of Kadesh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The battle is generally dated to 1274 BC in the Egyptian chronology, and is the earliest battle in recorded history for which details of tactics and formations are known. It is believed to have been the largest chariot battle ever fought, involving between 5,000 and 6,000 chariots in total.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Initial preparations and movement for battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Historian Adrian Goldsworthy notes that such tentative pre-battle maneuvering was typical of ancient armies as each side sought to gain maximum advantage before the encounter. During this period, some ancient writers paint a picture of meetings between opposing commanders for negotiation or general discussion, as with the famous pre-clash conversation between Hannibal and Scipio at Zama. But whatever the truth of these discussions, or the flowery speeches allegedly made, the only encounter that ultimately mattered was battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78597",
"title": "Amazonomachy",
"section": "Section::::In art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Warfare was a very popular subject in Ancient Greek art, represented in grand sculptural scenes on temples but also countless Greek vases. On the whole fictional and mythical battles were preferred as subjects to the many historical ones available. Along with scenes from Homer and the Gigantomachy, a battle between the race of Giants and the Olympian gods, the Amazonomachy was a popular choice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
196dsv
|
relative to the size of time and space today, how big was the dot of condensed matter before the big bang.
|
[
{
"answer": "First off, \"before\" the big bang is an absurd qualifier. Time, space and possibly causality too, originated at the big bang. Asking what happened \"before\" that is like asking what's north of the north pole - in other words, a statement so absurd that it's [not even wrong](_URL_0_).\n\nBut, to answer your question, currently prevailing theories place all matter-energy in a singularity of infinite density. Its volume would be infinitesimal - which is to say, smaller than anything you care to think of.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was no \"dot\" of condensed matter. This is a common misconception. At the moment of the Big Bang, space was extremely dense, but it was still infinite in size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "During the inflationary epoch about 10 of a second after the Big Bang, the universe suddenly expanded, and its volume increased by a factor of at least 10 (an expansion of distance by a factor of at least 10 in each of the three dimensions), equivalent to expanding an object 1 nanometer (10 m, about half the width of a molecule of DNA) in length to one approximately 10.6 light years (about 10 m or 62 trillion miles) long. A much slower and gradual expansion of space continued after this, until at around 9.8 billion years after the Big Bang (4 billion years ago) it began to gradually expand more quickly, and is still doing so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183593",
"title": "Timeline of epochs in cosmology",
"section": "Section::::The first 20 minutes.:Planck epoch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "BULLET::::- c. 0 seconds (13.799 ± 0.021 Gya): Planck Epoch begins: earliest meaningful time. The Big Bang occurs in which ordinary space and time develop out of a primeval state (possibly a virtual particle or false vacuum) described by a quantum theory of gravity or \"Theory of Everything\". All matter and energy of the entire visible universe is contained in an unimaginably hot, dense point (gravitational singularity), a billionth the size of a nuclear particle. This state has been described as a particle desert. Other than a few scant details, conjecture dominates discussion about the earliest moments of the universe's history since no effective means of testing this far back in space-time is presently available. WIMPS (weakly interacting massive particles) or dark matter and dark energy may have appeared and been the catalyst for the expansion of the singularity. The infant universe cools as it begins expanding outward. It is almost completely smooth, with quantum variations beginning to cause slight variations in density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12229567",
"title": "Westinghouse Sign",
"section": "Section::::Combinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Such a number may be incomprehensibly huge. If the Big Bang is reckoned to have occurred 13.8 billion years ago, there have been \"only\" about 4.35 x 10 seconds since the birth of the universe. It is estimated that the Earth is made up of roughly 5.5 x 10 atoms; the number of atoms in the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 5 x 10, and the number of atoms in the \"universe\" is estimated to be 3.5 x 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167840",
"title": "Chronology of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Very early universe.:Inflationary epoch and the rapid expansion of space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "At this point of the very early universe, the metric that defines distance within space, suddenly and very rapidly changed in scale, leaving the early universe at least 10 times its previous volume (and possibly much more). This is equivalent to a linear increase of at least 10 times in every spatial dimension – equivalent to an object 1 nanometer (10 m, about half the width of a molecule of DNA) in length, expanding to one approximately 10.6 light years (about 62 trillion miles) long in a tiny fraction of a second. This change is known as inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810098",
"title": "Structure formation",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Growth of structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The early universe was dominated by radiation; in this case density fluctuations larger than the cosmic horizon grow proportional to the scale factor, as the gravitational potential fluctuations remain constant. Structures smaller than the horizon remained essentially frozen due to radiation domination impeding growth. As the universe expanded, the density of radiation drops faster than matter (due to redshifting of photon energy); this led to a crossover called matter-radiation equality at ~ 50,000 years after the Big Bang. After this all dark matter ripples could grow freely, forming seeds into which the baryons could later fall. The size of the universe at this epoch forms a turnover in the matter power spectrum which can be measured in large redshift surveys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187750",
"title": "Large numbers",
"section": "Section::::Astronomically large numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Other large numbers, as regards length and time, are found in astronomy and cosmology. For example, the current Big Bang model suggests that the universe is 13.8 billion years (4.355 × 10 seconds) old, and that the observable universe is 93 billion light years across (8.8 × 10 metres), and contains about 5 × 10 stars, organized into around 125 billion (1.25 × 10) galaxies, according to Hubble Space Telescope observations. There are about 10 atoms in the observable universe, by rough estimation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40836275",
"title": "Cosmic age problem",
"section": "Section::::Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Following theoretical developments of the Friedmann equations by Alexander Friedmann and Georges Lemaître in the 1920s, and the discovery of the expanding universe by Edwin Hubble in 1929, it was immediately clear that tracing this expansion backwards in time predicts that the universe had almost zero size at a finite time in the past. This concept, initially known as the \"Primeval Atom\" by Lemaitre, was later elaborated into the modern Big Bang theory. If the universe had expanded at a constant rate in the past, the age of the universe now (i.e. the time since the Big Bang) is simply the inverse of the Hubble constant, often known as the \"Hubble time\". For Big Bang models with zero cosmological constant and positive matter density, the actual age must be somewhat younger than this Hubble time; typically the age would be between 66% and 90% of the Hubble time, depending on the density of matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
76ij08
|
if our body focused on preventing telomere reduction, what changes might our bodies experience?
|
[
{
"answer": "To prevent telomere reduction, your cells have to stop dividing. If you meant regenerating telomeres, I don't have the answer for that",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cancer. Cells continuing to divide with no limit is called cancer.\n\nIf you mean instead \"what would happen to us if our bodies focused on sustaining cells /efficiency as long as possible before natural cell death what would happen?\" Is a much more interesting question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54888",
"title": "Telomere",
"section": "Section::::Nature and function.:Structure, function and evolutionary biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "Telomere shortening in humans can induce replicative senescence, which blocks cell division. This mechanism appears to prevent genomic instability and development of cancer in human aged cells by limiting the number of cell divisions. However, shortened telomeres impair immune function that might also increase cancer susceptibility. If telomeres become too short, they have the potential to unfold from their presumed closed structure. The cell may detect this uncapping as DNA damage and then either stop growing, enter cellular old age (senescence), or begin programmed cell self-destruction (apoptosis) depending on the cell's genetic background (p53 status). Uncapped telomeres also result in chromosomal fusions. Since this damage cannot be repaired in normal somatic cells, the cell may even go into apoptosis. Many aging-related diseases are linked to shortened telomeres. Organs deteriorate as more and more of their cells die off or enter cellular senescence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54888",
"title": "Telomere",
"section": "Section::::Lengthening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "It is becoming apparent that reversing shortening of telomeres through temporary activation of telomerase may be a potent means to slow aging. The reason that this would extend human life is because it would extend the Hayflick limit. Three routes have been proposed to reverse telomere shortening: drugs, gene therapy, or metabolic suppression, so-called, torpor/hibernation. So far these ideas have not been proven in humans, but it has been demonstrated that telomere shortening is reversed in hibernation and aging is slowed (Turbill, et al. 2012 & 2013) and that hibernation prolongs life-span (Lyman et al. 1981). It has also been demonstrated that telomere extension has successfully reversed some signs of aging in laboratory mice and the nematode worm species \"Caenorhabditis elegans\". It has been hypothesized that longer telomeres and especially telomerase activation might cause increased cancer (e.g. Weinstein and Ciszek, 2002). However, longer telomeres might also protect against cancer, because short telomeres are associated with cancer. It has also been suggested that longer telomeres might cause increased energy consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15354795",
"title": "Cellular senescence",
"section": "Section::::Cellular mechanisms.:Role of telomeres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The length of the telomere strand has senescent effects; telomere shortening activates extensive alterations in alternative RNA splicing that produce senescent toxins such as progerin, which degrades the tissue and makes it more prone to failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273854",
"title": "Telomerase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical implications.:Cancer.:Drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The lack of telomerase does not affect cell growth, until the telomeres are short enough to cause cells to “die or undergo growth arrest”. However, inhibiting telomerase alone is not enough to destroy large tumors. It must be combined with surgery, radiation, chemotherapy or immunotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12303321",
"title": "Telomerase reverse transcriptase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Therapeutic potential.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1451,
"text": "If increased telomerase activity is associated with malignancy, then possible cancer treatments could involve inhibiting its catalytic component, hTERT, to reduce the enzyme’s activity and cause cell death. Since normal somatic cells do not express TERT, telomerase inhibition in cancer cells can cause senescence and apoptosis without affecting normal human cells. It has been found that dominant-negative mutants of hTERT could reduce telomerase activity within the cell. This led to apoptosis and cell death in cells with short telomere lengths, a promising result for cancer treatment. Although cells with long telomeres did not experience apoptosis, they developed mortal characteristics and underwent telomere shortening. Telomerase activity has also been found to be inhibited by phytochemicals such as isoprenoids, genistein, curcumin, etc. These chemicals play a role in inhibiting the mTOR pathway via down-regulation of phosphorylation. The mTOR pathway is very important in regulating protein synthesis and it interacts with telomerase to increase its expression. Several other chemicals have been found to inhibit telomerase activity and are currently being tested as potential clinical treatment options such as nucleoside analogues, retinoic acid derivatives, quinolone antibiotics, and catechin derivatives. There are also other molecular genetic-based methods of inhibiting telomerase, such as antisense therapy and RNA interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31596491",
"title": "Gambogic acid",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Effects on telomerase activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Enhanced telomerase activity can be an indicator of abnormal cells. Most normal tissues have inactivated or repressed telomerase activity, but it becomes activated in germ cells and most malignant tumors. Treatment of SPC-A1 cells with gambogic acid resulted in a significant decline in telomerase activity when treated for 48 or 72 hours (detecting 80.7% and 84.9% reduction in activity, respectively). When treated with gambogic acid for only 24 hours, the decrease was only 25.9% which led researchers to believe there are at least two mechanisms responsible for slowing cell growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273854",
"title": "Telomerase",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The existence of a compensatory mechanism for telomere shortening was first found by Soviet biologist Alexey Olovnikov in 1973, who also suggested the telomere hypothesis of aging and the telomere's connections to cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ajce0s
|
what is the difference in propaganda and fake news
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, one thing to be cautious of, is that 'fake news' is thrown around with relative abandon today, even against news that is not, in fact, fake *or* propaganda, merely which contrasts against the viewer's given preference. \n\nSo in some ways, it is simply a slur against the reporting organization. \n\nIn cases where 'fake news' is actually fake news, I would say in some cases it can be synonymous with propaganda. A more precise definition may (but won't necessarily) distinguish propaganda as news with bias, selective reporting, or other techniques to slant the opinions of people reading it, versus fake news making up false information altogether. In other words, distorting the facts, versus making your own. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There isn't a hard line between the two notions.\n\nHowever, propaganda is normally construed to be centrally directed to sell a narrative. Pravda was propaganda because it was the official mouthpiece of the Soviet Communist Party - all of its 'news' stories were written primarily with an eye towards presenting the party in the best possible light.\n\nOn the other hand, 'fake news' is more de-centralized, where the bias of individuals creates a tendency towards selecting and perceiving stories in a certain way that paints a false picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Propaganda is not necessarily false.\n\nIt's normally split into \"white\", \"gray\", and \"black\" propaganda.\n\nWhite propaganda is entirely truthful, although usually selectively truthful.\n\nBlack propaganda is simply false and deceitful.\n\nGray propaganda mixes truthful and deceitful elements.\n\n\"Fake News\" is usually gray propaganda (e.g. Hillary Clinton did cough and hid her pneumonia from the public but she wasn't about to die) or black propaganda (Obama was not born in Kenya).\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23203",
"title": "Propaganda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, companies, religious organizations and the media can also produce propaganda. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15928",
"title": "Journalism",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Propaganda compared with fake news.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The definition of 'fake news' above, could also be applied to the general category of 'Propaganda' when it is applied to the field of political reporting. Because a large part of political journalism involves \"analysis\", and not simple reporting of what is said, or presented, writers and journalists have the opportunity to present specific kinds of analysis which can favor one ideological, or political position over another; it can also be used to represent \"personalities\" in favorable/unfavorable ways. If the definition of propaganda includes misrepresentation of facts, and deliberate distortions of narrative, or applied \"emphasis\" not necessarily contained in the original, then Fake News falls squarely inside the parameters of Propaganda also. It could be argued that true \"objectivity\" is not really possible to produce, when it comes to presenting analysis of political activity, any individual observer and journalist is going to perceive what they experience through the lens of their own political bias, this of course is the case with entire organizations also.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46188299",
"title": "History of propaganda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Propaganda is information that is not impartial and used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively (perhaps lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or using loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information presented. The term propaganda has acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with its most manipulative and jingoistic examples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10744940",
"title": "Propaganda techniques",
"section": "Section::::General Character.:Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Thus, propaganda is a special form of communication, which is studied in communication research, and especially in media impact research, focussing on media manipulation. Propaganda is a particular type of communication characterized by distorting the representation of reality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1649074",
"title": "News propaganda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "News propaganda is a type of propaganda covertly packaged as credible news, but without sufficient transparency concerning the news item's source and the motivation behind its release. Transparency of the source is one parameter critical to distinguish between news propaganda and traditional news press releases and video news releases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23203",
"title": "Propaganda",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Identifying propaganda has always been a problem. The main difficulties have involved differentiating propaganda from other types of persuasion, and avoiding a biased approach. Richard Alan Nelson provides a definition of the term: \"Propaganda is neutrally defined as a systematic form of purposeful persuasion that attempts to influence the emotions, attitudes, opinions, and actions of specified target audiences for ideological, political or commercial purposes through the controlled transmission of one-sided messages (which may or may not be factual) via mass and direct media channels.\" The definition focuses on the communicative process involved – or more precisely, on the purpose of the process, and allow \"propaganda\" to be considered objectively and then interpreted as positive or negative behavior depending on the perspective of the viewer or listener. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4523282",
"title": "Propaganda in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Propaganda in the United States is spread by both government and media entities. Propaganda is information, ideas, or rumors deliberately spread widely to influence opinions, usually to preserve the self-interest of a nation. It is used in advertising, radio, newspaper, posters, books, television and other media and may provide either factual or non-factual information to its audiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bwc53q
|
Did the Strategic Defense Initiative Real aka "Star Wars" really help Bankrupt the Soviet Union ?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. This is a post-Cold War myth, written largely by people who would like to make SDI not appear to be the boondoggle it was, or to make it look like something that had a positive effect on diplomacy, rather than the more easily-documentable negative effect. Pavel Podvig has [written at length about this here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_0_).\n\nAside from being asserted without evidence, I would just note that the fall of the USSR was clearly caused by many factors, most of them internal: Gorbachev's attempts at opening up the system very clearly and directly led to its instability and failure. While the Soviet overexpenditure on arms (in general) no doubt did not help its overall economy, the idea that its collapse can be traced to that, much less to a specific US program which the Soviets did not in fact respond to, is facile.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll shamelessly plug an [answer](_URL_0_) to this very question that I wrote, but basically....what u/restricteddata said.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5332514",
"title": "Les Aspin",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of Defense.:Defense budget and \"bottom-up review\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The SDI program also held important budget implications. In May 1993 Aspin announced \"the end of the Star Wars era,\" explaining that the collapse of the Soviet Union had determined the fate of SDI. He renamed the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and established its priorities as theater and national missile defense and useful follow-on technologies. Aspin's assignment of responsibility for BMDO to the under secretary of defense (acquisition and technology) signified the downgrading of the program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2380807",
"title": "Militarisation of space",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Cold War.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "In 1983, American president Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a space-based system to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear missiles. The plan was ridiculed by some as unrealistic and expensive, and Dr Carol Rosin nicknamed the policy \"Star Wars\", after the popular science-fiction movie franchise. Astronomer Carl Sagan pointed out that in order to defeat SDI, the Soviet Union had only to build more missiles, allowing them to overcome the defence by sheer force of numbers. Proponents of SDI said the strategy of technology would hasten the Soviet Union's downfall. According to this doctrine, Communist leaders were forced to either shift large portions of their GDP to counter SDI, or else watch as their expensive nuclear stockpiles were rendered obsolete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1902721",
"title": "Philip J. Corso",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:\"The Day After Roswell\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "In the book, Corso claims the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), or \"Star Wars\", was meant to achieve the destructive capacity of electronic guidance systems in incoming enemy warheads, as well as the disabling of enemy spacecraft, including those of extraterrestrial origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25433",
"title": "Ronald Reagan",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1981–1989).:First term.:Escalation of the Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a defense project that would have used ground- and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible. There was much disbelief surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub SDI \"Star Wars\" and argue that its technological objective was unattainable. The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have; leader Yuri Andropov said it would put \"the entire world in jeopardy.\" For those reasons, David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, believes that in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350551",
"title": "United States national missile defense",
"section": "Section::::History of national missile defense systems.:Strategic Defense Initiative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "On 23 March 1983, President Ronald Reagan announced a new national missile defense program formally called the Strategic Defense Initiative but soon nicknamed \"Star Wars\" by detractors. President Reagan's stated goal was not just to protect the U.S. and its allies, but to also provide the completed system to the USSR, thus ending the threat of nuclear war for all parties. SDI was technically very ambitious and economically very expensive. It would have included many space-based laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites designed to intercept hostile ICBMs in space, along with very sophisticated command and control systems. Unlike the previous Sentinel program, the goal was to totally defend against a robust, all out nuclear attack by the USSR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5000362",
"title": "Cultural impact of Star Wars",
"section": "Section::::Politics and religion.:Political impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "When Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a system of lasers and missiles meant to intercept incoming ICBMs, the plan was quickly labeled \"Star Wars\", implying that it was science fiction and linking it to Reagan's acting career. According to Frances FitzGerald, Reagan was annoyed by this, but Assistant Secretary of Defense Richard Perle told colleagues that he \"thought the name was not so bad.\"; \"'Why not?' he said. 'It's a good movie. Besides, the good guys won.'\" This gained further resonance when Reagan described the Soviet Union as an \"evil empire\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6824",
"title": "Carl Sagan",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.:Social concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "In March 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative—a multibillion-dollar project to develop a comprehensive defense against attack by nuclear missiles, which was quickly dubbed the \"Star Wars\" program. Sagan spoke out against the project, arguing that it was technically impossible to develop a system with the level of perfection required, and far more expensive to build such a system than it would be for an enemy to defeat it through decoys and other means—and that its construction would seriously destabilize the \"nuclear balance\" between the United States and the Soviet Union, making further progress toward nuclear disarmament impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.