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6hwo5f
|
Why is the domestication of dogs not considered the beginning of the agricultural revolution?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, this question would be worth x-posting to our sister sub, r/AskAnthropology: while there are some specialists in pre-history here, there is a greater focus on early time periods over there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5745363",
"title": "Evolutionary pressure",
"section": "Section::::Humans exerting evolutionary pressure.:Dog domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "Since the domestication of dogs, they have evolved alongside humans due to pressure from humans and the environment. This began by humans and wolves sharing the same area, with a pressure to coexist eventually leading to their domestication. Evolutionary pressure from humans led to many different breeds that paralleled the needs of the time, whether it was a need for protecting livestock or assisting in the hunt. Hunting and herding were a couple of the first reasons for humans artificially selecting for traits they deemed beneficial. This selective breeding does not stop there, but extends to humans selecting for certain traits deemed desirable in their domesticated dogs, such as size and color, even if they are not necessarily beneficial to the human in a tangible way. An unintended consequence of this selection is that domesticated dogs also tend to have heritable diseases depending on what specific breed they encompass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3796953",
"title": "Pastoral dog",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "It is believed that dogs were first used by humans to assist in livestock rearing during the 8th and 7th millennia BC when humans first started to domesticate sheep and goats in Western Asia. These early pastoral dogs were predominantly protected both the flocks and their human masters from wild predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142586",
"title": "Domestication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The dog was the first domesticated vertebrate, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks – including donkeys, horses, New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs – was common. Given its importance to humans and its value as a model of evolutionary and demographic change, domestication has attracted scientists from archaeology, palaeontology, anthropology, botany, zoology, genetics, and the environmental sciences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72660",
"title": "Commensalism",
"section": "Section::::Examples of commensal relationships.:Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The earliest sign of domestication in dogs was the neotonization of skull morphology and the shortening of snout length that results in tooth crowding, reduction in tooth size, and a reduction in the number of teeth, which has been attributed to the strong selection for reduced aggression. This process may have begun during the initial commensal stage of dog domestication, even before humans began to be active partners in the process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5141410",
"title": "Origin of the domestic dog",
"section": "Section::::Dog domestication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The earlier association of dogs with humans may have allowed dogs to have a profound influence on the course of early human history and the development of civilization. However, the timing, geographic locations, and ecological conditions that led to dog domestication are not agreed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2118736",
"title": "Domestication of animals",
"section": "Section::::Impact on humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The domestication of animals began with the wolf (\"Canis lupus\") at least 15,000 years before present (YBP), which then led to a rapid shift in the evolution, ecology, and demography of both humans and numerous species of animals and plants. The sudden appearance of the domestic dog (\"Canis lupus familiaris\") in the archaeological record was followed by livestock and crop domestication, as well as the transition of humans from foraging to farming in different places and times across the planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25160767",
"title": "Livestock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "The dog was domesticated early; dogs appear in Europe and the Far East from about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated in multiple events sometime between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago in Southwest Asia. Pigs were domesticated by 8,500 BC in the Near East and 6,000 BC in China. Domestication of the horse dates to around 4000 BC. Cattle have been domesticated since approximately 10,500 years ago. Chickens and other poultry may have been domesticated around 7000 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zs3z1
|
What's the earliest evidence we have of jokes? What is the oldest one we know? were there jokes as we known them today back when Ancient civilizations stood?
|
[
{
"answer": "To paraphrase:\n\nA man walks over to a slave trader\n\"It's this slave you sold me yesterday. He's died\"\nthe slave trader says\n\"That's odd, he never did that when he was with me\"\n\nThis is an Ancient Greek joke found etched on a stone tablet. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apparently a joke dating back to 1900 BCE was found in Sumeria: \"Something which has never occurred since time immemorial; a young woman did not fart in her husband's lap.\" This Egyptian joke dates back to 1600 BCE: \"How do you entertain a bored pharaoh? You sail a boatload of young women dressed only in fishing nets down the Nile and urge the pharaoh to go catch a fish\" ([Reuters](_URL_0_))",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suggest you pick up a copy of the Táin Bó Cúailnge - early Irish literature. 1 century AD. It has some jokes/humour that should make you laugh.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16267",
"title": "Joke",
"section": "Section::::History of the printed joke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1296,
"text": "Various kinds of jokes have been identified in ancient pre-classical texts. The oldest identified joke is an ancient Sumerian proverb from 1900 BC containing toilet humour: \"Something which has never occurred since time immemorial; a young woman did not fart in her husband’s lap.\" Its records were dated to the Old Babylonian period and the joke may go as far back as 2300 BC. The second oldest joke found, discovered on the Westcar Papyrus and believed to be about Sneferu, was from Ancient Egypt circa 1600 BC: \"How do you entertain a bored pharaoh? You sail a boatload of young women dressed only in fishing nets down the Nile and urge the pharaoh to go catch a fish.\" The tale of the three ox drivers from Adab completes the three known oldest jokes in the world. This is a comic triple dating back to 1200 BC Adab. It concerns three men seeking justice from a king on the matter of ownership over a newborn calf, for whose birth they all consider themselves to be partially responsible. The king seeks advice from a priestess on how to rule the case, and she suggests a series of events involving the men's households and wives. Unfortunately, the final portion of the story (which included the punch line), has not survived intact, though legible fragments suggest it was bawdy in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19872629",
"title": "Roman jokes",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "One of the oldest Roman jokes, which is based on a fictitious story and survived alive to this time, is told by Macrobius in his \"Saturnalia\": (4th century AD, but the joke itself is probably several centuries older):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16267",
"title": "Joke",
"section": "Section::::History of the printed joke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The earliest extant joke book is the \"Philogelos\" (Greek for \"The Laughter-Lover\"), a collection of 265 jokes written in crude ancient Greek dating to the fourth or fifth century AD. The author of the collection is obscure and a number of different authors are attributed to it, including \"Hierokles and Philagros the \"grammatikos\"\", just \"Hierokles\", or, in the \"Suda\", \"Philistion\". British classicist Mary Beard states that the \"Philogelos\" may have been intended as a jokester's handbook of quips to say on the fly, rather than a book meant to be read straight through. Many of the jokes in this collection are surprisingly familiar, even though the typical protagonists are less recognisable to contemporary readers: the absent-minded professor, the eunuch, and people with hernias or bad breath. The \"Philogelos\" even contains a joke similar to Monty Python's \"Dead Parrot Sketch\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20194611",
"title": "Philogelos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Philogelos () is the oldest existing collection of jokes. The collection is written in Greek, and the language used indicates that it may have been written in the fourth century AD, according to William Berg, an American classics professor. It is attributed to Hierocles and Philagrius, about whom little is known. Because the celebration of a thousand years of Rome is mentioned in joke 62, the collection perhaps dates from after that event in 248 AD. Although it is the oldest existing collection of jokes, it is known that it was not the oldest collection, because Athenaeus wrote that Philip II of Macedon paid for a social club in Athens to write down its members' jokes, and at the beginning of the second century BC, Plautus twice has a character mentioning books of jokes. The collection contains 265 jokes categorised into subjects such as teachers and scholars, and eggheads and fools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31956797",
"title": "Wind-up doll joke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "These jokes are among relatively few examples of American folklore recorded by folklorists close to the time of their origination. They started to be transmitted orally in fall 1960 in the Los Angeles area, and in two years they have found their way to major popular periodicals as a new fad. They were variously called \"Living Dolls\", \"Topical Dolls\", but the \"wind-up doll\" was the most common term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19872629",
"title": "Roman jokes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 757,
"text": "Ancient Roman jokes, as described by Cicero and Quintilian, are best employed as a rhetorical device. Many of them are apparently taken from real-life trials conducted by famous advocates, such as Cicero. Jokes were also found scrawled upon washroom walls of Pompeii as graffiti. Romans sought laughter by attending comic plays (such as those of Plautus), and mimes (such as those of Publilius Syrus). Jokes from these sources usually depended on sexual themes. Cicero believe that humour ought to be based upon \"ambiguity, the unexpected, wordplay, understatement, irony, ridicule, silliness, and pratfalls\". Roman jokes also depended on certain stock characters and stereotypes, especially regarding foreigners -- as can be seen within Plautus' Poenulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8804538",
"title": "Bellman joke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The jokes first became popular in the 19th century, and were originally inspired by the life of the poet and composer Carl Michael Bellman. The first known Bellman joke appears in the preface to an 1835 collection of Bellman's works, in which the publisher reprints an 1808 letter from a contemporary of Bellman, containing the following anecdote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zq3x2
|
Civil War literature suggestions?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on how committed you are, but Shelby Foote's *The Civil War: A Narrative* is pretty much the gold standard in Civil War history. It's a three volume work, very long and thorough. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you haven't already, you might consider watching Ken Burns' *Civil War* documentary series. It is available on Netflix, if that's an option for you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27934325",
"title": "William Quigley (artist)",
"section": "Section::::Works.:The Civil War Book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The Civil War Book was the fourth book made by William Quigley. Originally it was intended to be a sketch pad for ideas and information about the American Civil War, yet, it later became an elaborate compliment to the Civil War Paintings and was shown at the Lawrence Gallery in 1996. The book's gritty design incorporates war documentation, random notes, photos and nostalgic battlefield tales illustrating one of the most complex and misunderstood wars in American history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10385908",
"title": "Bibliography of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Maps, photographs, environment.:Bibliographies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 761,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 761,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "BULLET::::- Nagle, Robert. \"Further Readings on Civil War Fiction\". An online annotated bibliography of fiction and literary essays about the Civil War, from the 19th century to the present. First published as an appendix in the ebook \"Soldier Boys: Tales of the Civil War\" by author Jack Matthews, 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30897866",
"title": "Patriotic Gore",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Henry Steele Commager described the book as a \"series of reflections on [Civil War] literature and on the men and women, and the societies, that produced it\"; he characterized it as \"original, skeptical, allusive, penetrating. It is discursive, ranging widely from North to South, and even more widely in time.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44511710",
"title": "Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) is the first book of poetry published by the American author Herman Melville. The volume is dedicated \"To the Memory of the Three Hundred Thousand Who in the War For the Maintenance of the Union Fell Devotedly Under the Flag of Their Country\" and its 72 poems deal with the battles and personalities of the American Civil War and their aftermath. Also included are Notes and a Supplement in prose in which Melville sets forth his thoughts on how the Post-war Reconstruction should be carried out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45211026",
"title": "The Civil War series",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "The Civil War book series () chronicles in great detail the American Civil War. Published by Time Life the series was simultaneously released in the USA and Canada between 1983 and 1987, with subsequent identical reprints in the late 1980s - early 1990s following suit for foreign, though untranslated, dissemination as well. Some titles focused on a specific topic, such as the blockade, and spies, but most volumes concentrated on the battles and campaigns, presented in chronological order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60662478",
"title": "Civil War History",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Civil War History is an academic journal of the American Civil War. It was established in 1955 at the State University of Iowa and is published quarterly by Kent State University Press. Topics covered in this journal include slavery and abolition, antebellum and Reconstruction politics, diplomacy, social and cultural developments, and military history. Notable contributors include Stephen Ambrose, Charles B. Dew, Gary W. Gallagher, James M. McPherson, Mark E. Neely Jr., James I. Robertson Jr., and T. Harry Williams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2875367",
"title": "The Civil War: A Narrative",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The Civil War: A Narrative (1958–1974) is a three volume, 2,968-page, 1.2 million-word history of the American Civil War by Shelby Foote. Although previously known as a novelist, Foote is most famous for this non-fictional narrative history. While it touches on political and social themes, the main thrust of the work is military history. The individual volumes include \"Fort Sumter to Perryville\" (1958), \"Fredericksburg to Meridian\" (1963), and \"Red River to Appomattox\" (1974).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
90667h
|
To what extent was local law allowed in the Roman Empire.
|
[
{
"answer": "Local law was very much allowed in the Roman Empire, as a holdover from Republican days, whether the matter was civil or generally criminal. Governors of provinces generally allowed local courts to handle legal matters, only stepping in when cases were referred to them; at this point, generally the local law would apply to provincials, while Roman law declared by the urban praetor applied to Roman citizens living there (John Richardson's summary article on Roman law in the provinces from the *Cambridge Companion to Roman Law* is a relatively readable summary for an academic text). As Richardson states, local law was eroded as the Empire continued.\n\nHowever, the issue becomes thornier because you're specifically asking about criminal sentencing to death. This power - known as the *ius gladii* - was one reserved for the provincial governor (although this was not widespread in the first years of the Empire, instead remaining with the Emperor himself). However, this is not a totally clear-cut situation, as can be seen in a well known example - the sentencing of Jesus Christ.\n\nJohn 18 states that the Sanhedrin - the Jewish court - go to Pontius Pilate and tell him that they do not have the power to sentence him to death despite him breaking a law that demands it (Leviticus 24 states that blasphemy is a capital offence, punishable by stoning to death). So far, so consistent. However, Pilate tells them to \"take him (yourselves) and crucify him\" and the Jewish historian Josephus recounts other instances of the Sanhedrin issuing and carrying out death sentences at the time. Smallwood's *The Jews Under Roman Rule* hypothesises that an exemption may have been made allowing the Sanhedrin the power of execution in matters of religion, but offers no proof of this, only the examples given above.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Government and military.:Roman law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celtic peoples. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous. The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the \"Codex Gregorianus\" and the \"Codex Hermogenianus\", to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Government and military.:Roman law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures. In general, it was Roman policy to respect the \"mos regionis\" (\"regional tradition\" or \"law of the land\") and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability. The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying \"ius gentium\", the \"law of nations\" or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities. If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final authority to render a decision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2457297",
"title": "Code of law",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "In Europe, Roman law, especially the \"Corpus Juris Civilis\", became the basis of the legal systems of many countries. Roman law was either adopted by legislation (becoming positive law), or through processing by jurists. The accepted Roman law is usually then codified and forms part of the central Code. The codification movement gathered pace after the rise of nation-states after the Treaty of Westphalia. Prominent national civil codes include the Napoleonic Code (\"code civil\") of 1804, the German civil code (\"Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch\") of 1900 and the Swiss codes. The European codifications of the 1800s influenced the codification of Catholic canon law resulting in the 1917 Code of Canon Law which was replaced by the 1983 Code of Canon Law and whose Eastern counterpart is the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9575789",
"title": "The Accusers",
"section": "Section::::Allusions/references to history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "BULLET::::- Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome. The development of Roman law covers more than one thousand years from the law of the twelve tables (from 449 BC) to the Corpus Juris Civilis of Emperor Justinian I (around 530). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes became the basis of legal practice in the \"Byzantine Empire\" and—later—in continental Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1755761",
"title": "Constitutio Antoniniana",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "In the analyses of more recent scholars, the \"Constitutio Antoniniana\" marks a major milestone in the provincialisation of Roman law, meaning that the gap between private law in the provinces and private law in Italy narrowed. This is because, in granting citizenship to all men in the provinces, much private law had to be re-written to conform with the law that applied to Roman citizens in Rome. To these scholars, it therefore also marks the beginning of a process by which imperial constitutions became the primary source of Roman law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corpus Juris Civilis). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26364",
"title": "Roman law",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Today, Roman law is no longer applied in legal practice, even though the legal systems of some countries like South Africa and San Marino are still based on the old \"jus commune\". However, even where the legal practice is based on a code, many rules deriving from Roman law apply: no code completely broke with the Roman tradition. Rather, the provisions of the Roman law were fitted into a more coherent system and expressed in the national language. For this reason, knowledge of the Roman law is indispensable to understand the legal systems of today. Thus, Roman law is often still a mandatory subject for law students in civil law jurisdictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ir7vp
|
why betting the same amount on two boxers to win will not always give a payout due to differing odds.
|
[
{
"answer": "Any real-world bookie is going to adjust the odds and payouts so that they get a cut for themselves (the vig). They're not working for charity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Like any gambling operation, the total of the payouts is always inferior to the total of the bets. That's the way the host makes their money. \n\nIn this case, the bookies would adjust the odds as they take bets in order to make sure that no matter the outcome they don't lose money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the house sets the odds to try and get equal money to come in on both sides not so the winnings are equal on both sides",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The casino needs their cut. It's easier to understand on a point spread bet where both sides are set to -110. If you bet 100 dollars on both, you are guaranteed to lose 9 dollars. The casino is taking the 100 dollars from your losing bet, pulling out 9 to pay themselves, and giving the remaining 91 to you to pay your winning bet. The same thing is happening on a moneyline bet, but it's less obvious with different odds at play. Also with the moneyline bet you aren't guaranteed to lose money if you bet an equal amount of money on both sides if the underdog wins.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Even if not using a bookie that takes a vig (cut of the money), you're still taking a risk. Let's say you bet $1 a piece on two boxers facing each other. One has 1:1 odds and the other has 4:5 odds. So you bet $2 on the fight. \n\nThere are two outcomes:\n\n* The 1:1 fighter wins and you make $2 from the fight. Well, since you sent $2 on both bets, you've broken even.\n* The 4:5 fighter wins and you make $1.80 from the fight. Again, you spent $2 on both bets, so you've lost $0.20.\n\nUnless the odds of one boxer winning are really huge, it isn't economically feasible to bet on both boxers and expect a guaranteed payout. Even if you do have 50:1 odds on a boxer, his opponent is going to have lower than 1:1 odds. If that boxer wins, you lose money by betting on both of them.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4357647",
"title": "Pick 6 (horse racing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Because of the huge number of betting interests involved, bettors will often try to increase their chances of winning by selecting multiple combinations. This can be costly — a bettor who wants to cover two horses in each race must bet on 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 combinations, or 64 combinations, times $2 for each for a total of $128. This method is called \"boxing horses,\" and is also used with other wagers such as a trifecta or superfecta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7401774",
"title": "Even money",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "In professional gambling, even money bets typically do not have odds that are indeed 50–50. Therefore, successful gamblers have to examine any bets they make in light of the odds really being even money. For example, in roulette, betting on red or black is an even money bet. However, the presence of the green 0 and the 00 means that statistically the bettor will lose more than 50% of the time. There are variations of the game that offer \"en prison\" on 37 number tables so if a 0 is rolled, the bettor neither wins or loses but his or her bet rides again on the next roll; if the bet-upon event occurs on the second spin, the even-money wager is returned to the bettor. There still is not a 50-50 chance of winning, but a lot closer, since the house edge is reduced by almost 50%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23538",
"title": "Probability interpretations",
"section": "Section::::Subjectivism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Gambling odds don't reflect the bookies' belief in a likely winner, so much as the other bettors' belief, because the bettors are actually betting against one another. The odds are set based on how many people have bet on a possible winner, so that even if the high odds players always win, the bookies will always make their percentages anyway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228592",
"title": "Lottery",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical analysis.:Probability of winning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The odds of winning can also be reduced by increasing the group from which numbers are drawn. In the SuperEnalotto of Italy, players must match 6 numbers out of 90. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 622,614,630.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2928667",
"title": "Arbitrage betting",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Bonus sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "As well as spending time physically matching odds from various bet sites to exchanges, the other draw back with bonus bagging and arbitrage trading in this sense is that often the free bets are \"non-stake returned\". This effectively reduces the odds, in decimal format, by 1. Therefore, in order to reduce \"losses\" on the free bet, it is necessary to place a bet with high odds, so that the percentage difference of the decrease in odds is minimised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172069",
"title": "Odds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "The gambling and statistical uses of odds are closely interlinked. If a bet is a fair one, then the odds offered to the gamblers will perfectly reflect relative probabilities. A fair bet that a fair die will roll a three will pay the gambler $5 for a $1 wager (and return the bettor his or her wager) in the case of a three and nothing in any other case. The terms of the bet are fair, because on average, five rolls result in something other than a three, at a cost of $5, for every roll that results in a three and a net payout of $5. The profit and the expense exactly offset one another and so there is no advantage to gambling over the long run. If the odds being offered to the gamblers do not correspond to probability in this way then one of the parties to the bet has an advantage over the other. Casinos, for example, offer odds that place themselves at an advantage, which is how they guarantee themselves a profit and survive as businesses. The fairness of a particular gamble is more clear in a game involving relatively pure chance, such as the ping-pong ball method used in state lotteries in the United States. It is much harder to judge the fairness of the odds offered in a wager on a sporting event such as a football match.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8100167",
"title": "Necktie paradox",
"section": "Section::::Statement of paradox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The first man reasons as follows: winning and losing are equally likely. If I lose, then I lose the value of my necktie. But if I win, then I win more than the value of my necktie. Therefore, the wager is to my advantage. The second man can consider the wager in exactly the same way; thus, paradoxically, it seems both men have the advantage in the bet. This is obviously not possible (assuming both prefer the more expensive necktie).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tv8mr
|
I'm diabetic and I want to know about the industrially production of insulin
|
[
{
"answer": "[Wiki](_URL_0_) says this:\n\n > Recombinant human insulin. Thanks to study introduced by Ivan Garelli PhD, recombinant insulin has almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes. A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use.[11] Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into E. coli, which then produces insulin for human use.\n\nIt also appears they've managed to create [plant produced insulin](_URL_1_) as well.\n\n[This](_URL_2_) article also talks about the yeast-derived insulin, as well as some history if you're interested.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends what kind of insulin you are talking about. There are a few different kinds. \n\nYou can usually look up how the insulin is made in the prescribing information (package insert) on the insulin bottle. For example if you look at the [lantus prescribing information](_URL_0_) in section 11 they describe exactly how the insulin is produced. In this case they use a strain of e.coli",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34345090",
"title": "History of diabetes",
"section": "Section::::After the isolation of insulin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "In 1980, U.S. biotech company Genentech developed biosynthetic human insulin. The insulin was isolated from genetically altered bacteria (the bacteria contain the human gene for synthesizing synthetic human insulin), which produce large quantities of insulin. The purified insulin is distributed to pharmacies for use by diabetes patients. Initially, this development was not regarded by the medical profession as a clinically meaningful development. However, by 1996, the advent of insulin analogues which had vastly improved absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) characteristics which were clinically meaningful based on this early biotechnology development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14895",
"title": "Insulin",
"section": "Section::::History of study.:Synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The first genetically engineered, synthetic \"human\" insulin was produced using \"E. coli\" in 1978 by Arthur Riggs and Keiichi Itakura at the Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope in collaboration with Herbert Boyer at Genentech. Genentech, founded by Swanson, Boyer and Eli Lilly and Company, went on in 1982 to sell the first commercially available biosynthetic human insulin under the brand name Humulin. The vast majority of insulin currently used worldwide is now biosynthetic recombinant \"human\" insulin or its analogues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21091725",
"title": "Insulin (medication)",
"section": "Section::::Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Initially, the only way to obtain insulin for clinical use was to extract it from the pancreas of another creature. Animal glands were obtainable as a waste product of the meatpacking industry. Insulin was derived primarily from cows (Eli Lilly and Company) and pigs (Nordisk Insulinlaboratorium). The making of eight ounces of purified insulin could require as much as two tons of pig parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14895",
"title": "Insulin",
"section": "Section::::History of study.:Synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Purified animal-sourced insulin was initially the only type of insulin available to diabetics. The amino acid structure of insulin was characterized in the early 1950s by Frederick Sanger, and the first synthetic insulin was produced simultaneously in the labs of Panayotis Katsoyannis at the University of Pittsburgh and Helmut Zahn at RWTH Aachen University in the early 1960s. Synthetic crystalline bovine insulin was achieved by Chinese researchers in 1965.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41883177",
"title": "List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures",
"section": "Section::::Insulin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "1971 - Insulin (PDB file 1INS) is a hormone central to the metabolism of sugar and fat storage, and important in human diseases such as obesity and diabetes. It is biophysically notable for its Zn binding, its equilibrium between monomer, dimer, and hexamer states, its ability to form crystals in vivo, and its synthesis as a longer \"pro\" form which is then cleaved to fold up as the active 2-chain, SS-linked monomer. Insulin was a success of NASA's crystal-growth program on the space shuttle, producing bulk preparations of very uniform tiny crystals for controlled dosage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24939946",
"title": "Panayotis Katsoyannis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 876,
"text": "Panayotis G. Katsoyannis (January 7, 1924 - May 31, 2019) was an American biochemist who is often credited with being the first to synthesize insulin while leading a team at the University of Pittsburgh in the early 1960s. His results synthesizing insulin were achieved almost simultaneously with that of Helmut Zahn at RWTH Aachen University in Germany. Katsoyannis was also noted for his studies on the synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin. Following his time at the University of Pittsburgh, Katsoyannis served as the Head of the Division of Biochemistry at the Brookhaven National Laboratory and later was appointed as the founding Chairman of the Department of Biochemistry at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in 1967 where he remains. Katsoyannis continues at Mount Sinai as a Distinguished Service Professor and Chair Emeritus in Pharmacologic and Systems Therapeutics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21091725",
"title": "Insulin (medication)",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Insulin is used to treat a number of diseases including diabetes and its acute complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic states. It is also used along with glucose to treat high blood potassium levels. Insulin was formerly used in a psychiatric treatment called insulin shock therapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nel3i
|
Is their a theoretical limit to how much a pound of muscle can do? Is it possible to calculate, knowing a single persons muscle mass, how much they would be able to lift? (this is factoring in a healthy person, with full tanks of energy and no injuries.)
|
[
{
"answer": "This is pretty hackneyed, but I'll post it anyway:\nkonstantin konstantinovs is a super strong Latvian powerlifter. He weights around 268lbs and has maxed out his deadlift at 938lbs. He's pretty lean for a powerlifter, so I'll guess that he's around 10% (26lbs) body fat and take that off his total weight, this leaves 242lbs. Next I'll guess that his bones and organs weigh around 80lbs, so I'll subtract that from his total weight as well, leaving 162lbs of pure muscle. Divide that by his max deadlift and I we can estimate that 1lb of Konstantin's muscle has the ability to lift 5.7lbs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A theoretical limit for a human isn't going to be possible-- how do you define human-- every day we come outwith new models that have never-before-seen genetics and environment. \n\nYou could get something like \"the maximum any animal muscle fiber could ever produce\"-- but then how do you define animal muscle fiber? \n\nThis is a job for measurement, not theory. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is pretty hackneyed, but I'll post it anyway:\nkonstantin konstantinovs is a super strong Latvian powerlifter. He weights around 268lbs and has maxed out his deadlift at 938lbs. He's pretty lean for a powerlifter, so I'll guess that he's around 10% (26lbs) body fat and take that off his total weight, this leaves 242lbs. Next I'll guess that his bones and organs weigh around 80lbs, so I'll subtract that from his total weight as well, leaving 162lbs of pure muscle. Divide that by his max deadlift and I we can estimate that 1lb of Konstantin's muscle has the ability to lift 5.7lbs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A theoretical limit for a human isn't going to be possible-- how do you define human-- every day we come outwith new models that have never-before-seen genetics and environment. \n\nYou could get something like \"the maximum any animal muscle fiber could ever produce\"-- but then how do you define animal muscle fiber? \n\nThis is a job for measurement, not theory. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24699363",
"title": "Nankali's Masticatory Force Systematization",
"section": "Section::::Measuring masticatory force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Dr. Weber worked out that 1 cm cross section surface area of any masticatory muscle can produce approximately 10 kg force. The following average surfaces were found: temporalis - 8 cm, masseter - 7.5 cm, and medial pterygoid - 4 cm which makes a total of 19.5cm. However, this force in some people is measured up to 3900N in combination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10549030",
"title": "Mechanical arm",
"section": "Section::::Modifications and Advancements.:Muscle Tissue for Mechanical Arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The National University of Singapore has started making artificial muscle tissue to be able to be placed in mechanical arms to be able to help people pick up heavy loads. This artificial tissue can pick up to 500 times its own weight. Depending on how much of the tissue engineers place in the mechanical arm, the greater lift strength the arm has. A regular human well-grown adult weighs around 160 to 180 pounds. Now, a person weighing that much could be able to lift an object that weighs around 80,000 pounds. This would make construction sites a lot safer being able to just walk up with the construction supplies instead of using a crane that can collapse due to harsh weather. Soon, utility vehicles for construction may be a thing of the past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Strength.:Physiological strength.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The strength of any given muscle, in terms of force exerted on the skeleton, depends upon length, shortening speed, cross sectional area, pennation, sarcomere length, myosin isoforms, and neural activation of motor units. Significant reductions in muscle strength can indicate underlying pathology, with the chart at right used as a guide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6140080",
"title": "Progressive overload",
"section": "Section::::Scientific principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The loss of 10 pounds of muscle per decade is one consequence of a sedentary lifestyle. The adaptive processes of the human body will only respond if continually called upon to exert greater force to meet higher physiological demands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533150",
"title": "Short ton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The short ton sometimes describes force. One short-ton contains 2,000 pounds-mass, which converted into slugs and multiplied by one standard gravity applies a weight of 2,000 pounds-force as per Newton's second law of motion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Strength.:The \"strongest\" human muscle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "BULLET::::- In ordinary parlance, muscular \"strength\" usually refers to the ability to exert a force on an external object—for example, lifting a weight. By this definition, the masseter or jaw muscle is the strongest. The 1992 Guinness Book of Records records the achievement of a bite strength of for 2 seconds. What distinguishes the masseter is not anything special about the muscle itself, but its advantage in working against a much shorter lever arm than other muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36900213",
"title": "Tablet hardness testing",
"section": "Section::::Units of measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pound (lb) – Technically a unit of force but can also be used for mass under earth gravity. Sometimes used for tablet strength testing in North America, but it is not an SI unit. 1 kilogram = 2.204 pounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rs54w
|
how the fuck is spreading jelly (i.e.vapo rub) on my chest supposed to help congestion?
|
[
{
"answer": "You put it on your chest because you're going to be drawing air in to your lungs from that area. The vapors from the jelly mix with the air you breathe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest cause of congestion is inflamed tubes.\n\nThe goop is full of menthol, which evaporates very readily. As it evaporates (the \"vapo\" in vapo rub), you breath it in. \n\nOne of the reasons that menthol evaporates so readily is because it absorbs heat very well. When the menthol comes into contact with your inner tubes, the cooling helps reduce inflammation. This relieves the congestion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2978936",
"title": "ChestEze",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "ChestEze (or Do-Do ChestEze) is a British over-the-counter pharmaceutical product manufactured by Novartis for \"relief of bronchial cough, wheezing, breathlessness and other symptoms of asthmatic bronchitis and to clear the chest of mucus following upper respiratory tract infection.\" It contains 30 mg caffeine, 18.31 mg ephedrine hydrochloride and 100 mg anhydrous theophylline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194424",
"title": "Wharton's jelly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Wharton's jelly (\"substantia gelatinea funiculi umbilicalis\") is a gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord also present in vitreous humor of the eyeball, largely made up of mucopolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate). It also contains some fibroblasts and macrophages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977221",
"title": "Trabecula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "When crossing fluid-filled spaces, trabeculae may have the function of resisting tension (as in the penis, see for example trabeculae of corpora cavernosa and trabeculae of corpus spongiosum) or providing a cell filter (as in the trabecular meshwork of the eye).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4404875",
"title": "Mucopurulent discharge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Mucopurulent discharge is the emission or secretion of fluid containing mucus and pus (\"muco-\" pertaining to \"mucus\" and \"purulent\" pertaining to \"pus\") from the eye, nose, cervix, vagina or other part of the body due to infection and inflammation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2187254",
"title": "Sclerotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "More recent reports have shown that bubbles from even a small amount of sclerosant foam injected into the veins quickly appear in the heart, lung and brain. The significance of this is not fully understood at this point and large studies show that foam sclerotherapy is safe. Sclerotherapy is fully FDA approved in the USA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619632",
"title": "Transfection",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Nonviral methods.:Non-chemical methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cell squeezing is a method invented in 2012 by Armon Sharei, Robert Langer and Klavs Jensen at MIT. It enables delivery of molecules into cells via cell membrane deformation. It is a high throughput vector-free microfluidic platform for intracellular delivery. It reduces the possibility of toxicity or off-target effects as it does not rely on exogenous materials or electrical fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611030",
"title": "Ejaculation",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Perineum pressing and retrograde ejaculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Perineum pressing results in an ejaculation which is purposefully held back by pressing on either the perineum or the urethra to force the seminal fluid to remain inside. In such a scenario, the seminal fluid stays inside the body and goes to the bladder. Some people do this to avoid making a mess by keeping all the semen inside. As a medical condition, it is called retrograde ejaculation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nuyi8
|
Would World War I be classified as a "World War" if the US never got involved?
|
[
{
"answer": "The first known use of the proper name \"World War\" (as opposed to \"Great War\" or \"European War\") was in 1919, if the *OED* is to be believed. It was used as a general descriptor (\"a world-war\" or the German *Weltkrieg*) for the conflict as early as 1914 so the idea existed well before US entry. So it might--it involved Canada and Japan at the outset, after all--but as with all counterfactuals, we can't say with certainty. The other choice, the Great War, persisted for a longer time especially in Europe, so the US may have been a crucial driver for its general adoption. But usage varied and turned heavily on political perceptions and motivations, so just as we can't say what a Second World War would have looked like without US involvement in 1917-1918, we also can't say what the contours of its naming would have been. But it was *possible*.\n\nFor a discussion of the naming issue in historical context, see David Reynolds, [\"The Origins of the Two 'World Wars': Historical Discourse and International Politics,\" *Journal of Contemporary History* 38, no. 1 (2003): 29-44.](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The classification 'World War' is a technical term that doesn't precisely have an answer. It's simplest, and most commonly accepted definition is a 'War spanning multiple countries and continents, and multiple theatres of war'. \n\nWorld War I featured -\n\n| Allies | Central Powers | Others |\n|:------------------:|:-----------------------------------------:|:------------:|\n| British Empire |Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austria, Hungary, Few Balkan states, Bosnia, Hertzegovnia, Serbia, Part of Montenegro, others) | Albania\n| Belgium (Including Colonial forces) |Bulgaria | Andorra\n|Australia |German Empire| Armenia (1918)\n|BE's Colonies| Ottoman Empire |Bolivia (1917 onwards)\n|Canada||Brazil (1917 Onwards)\n|India||China (1917 Onwards)\n|New Zealand||Costa Rica (1918)\n|Newfoundland||Cuba (1917 Onwards)\n|South Africa|| Czechoslovakia\n|France|| Ecuador (1917 Onwards)\n|Kingdom of Greece (May 1917 onwards)||Guatemala (1918)\n|Kingdom of Italy (1915 onwards)|| Liberia (1917 Onwards)\n|Empire of Japan|| Haiti (1918)\n|Kingdom of Montenegro||Honduras (1918)\n|Portugal (1916 Onwards)||Nicaguara (1918)\n|Kingdom of Romania (1916-1918)||Panama (1917 Onwards)\n|Russian Empire (1914-1917)||Peru (1917 Onwards)\n|Kingdom of Serbia|| San Marino (1915 Onwards)\n|United States of America (1917 Onwards)||Siam (1917 Onwards)\n|||Uruguay (1917 Onwards)\n\n\n-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI suppose with WW1 you can split it into 4 key theatres.\n\n**Western Front**\n\n| Entente | Central Powers |\n|:----------:|:----------:|\n|UKE + Colonies | German Empire|\n|France + Colonies | Austria-Hungary|\n|Italy\n|Belgium\n|USA\n|Portugal\n|Russia\n\n**Eastern Front**\n\n| Entente | Central Powers |\n|:----------:|:----------:|\n|Russian Empire (1914-1917) | German Empire\n|Russian Provisional Government (1917) | Austria-Hungary\n|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1918) | Bulgaria (1916-1917)\n|Romania (1916-1917) | Ottoman Empire (1916-1917)\n\n**Itallian Front**\n\n| Entente | Central Powers |\n|:----------:|:----------:|\n|Italy|Austria-Hungary\n|British Empire|German Empire\n|France\n|Czechoslovak Legions\n|USA\n\n**Galipolli (Not entirely sure if this is a 'front' or a 'Campaign', but it's worth a mention)**\n\n| Entente | Central Powers |\n|:----------:|:----------:|\n|British Empire|Ottoman Empire (With help, GE & AH)\n|France|\n\n\nBasically, Yeah. It was one HELL of a global conflict across Europe and Asia, regardless of US intervention it's a gigantic scale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes.\n\nMen from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and even French African territories fought. I think there were also those from South Africa for the Crown, too.\nThere was also fighting in Turkey and if you've seen *Lawrence of Arabia* you'd know all about the Arabia at the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7069902",
"title": "Roswell, Texas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Outside of North America, other differences between our timeline and this one exist. World War II (known as the \"European War\" in this universe) is still being fought into the late 1940s, without Japanese or American involvement. The United Kingdom has allied with Nazi Germany, with King Edward VIII becoming a puppet ruler. Many European people have emigrated to Texas. The United States have suspended the Bill of Rights. California never joined the Union, becoming an independent state like Texas in the novel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360435",
"title": "Events preceding World War II in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath of World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "World War II is generally viewed as having its roots in the aftermath of World War I, in which the German Empire under Wilhelm II, with its Central Powers, was defeated, chiefly by the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39937022",
"title": "International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)",
"section": "Section::::The Great War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 214,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 214,
"end_character": 1289,
"text": "The First World War was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918. It saw the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary, later joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria), fighting the \"Entente\" or \"Allied\" powers, led by Britain, Russia and France from 1914, who were later joined by Italy in 1915, and other countries such as Romania in 1916. The United States, initially neutral, tried to broker a settlement but in April, 1917, it declared war on Germany. The U.S. cooperated with the Allies but did not formally join them, and it negotiated peace separately. Despite overcoming Romania in 1916 and Russia in March 1918, the Central Powers collapsed in November, 1918; and Germany accepted an \"armistice\" that in practice was a total surrender. Much of the diplomatic efforts of the major powers was oriented toward learning neutral countries into the alliance with promises of rich territorial rewards. Britain, United States and Germany spent large sums funding their allies. Propaganda campaigns to maintain morale at home and undermine morale in the enemy camp, especially among minorities, was a priority for the major powers. They also engaged in subversion, by subsidizing political groups that try to overthrow the enemy regime, as the Bolsheviks did in Russia in 1917.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142735",
"title": "World war",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The term \"World War I\" was coined by \"Time\" magazine on page 28b of its June 12, 1939 issue. In the same article, on page 32, the term \"World War II\" was first used speculatively to describe the upcoming war. The first use for the actual war came in its issue of September 11, 1939. One week earlier, on September 4, the day after France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany, the Danish newspaper \"Kristeligt Dagblad\" used the term on its front page, saying \"The Second World War broke out yesterday at 11 a.m.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2642243",
"title": "Federalist No. 8",
"section": "Section::::Publication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1185,
"text": "In relation to the past, Federalist 8 was relevant just as much as it is today. When the World War I began, no one fought alone since the countries at war had their allies. America decided not to partake in the war, that is until the Germans decided to sink the \"Lusitania\"; an ocean liner that had American civilians on board. Once they declared war on Germany, America and her allies worked in unison to defeat those who meant harm against the two nations. The following was a prime example of how two or more countries to work each other to protect each other. During the time of World War II, the same course of actions took place. America decided not to \"participate\" in the war until the attack on Pearl Harbor. Once they entered the game, they \"partnered\" up with their allies to defeat a common enemy and to protect their people and home. These unions proved beneficial as both parties aided each other in completing a similar objective. United States in the past is another example, especially when it came to the thirteen colonies protecting each other by having each other's backs against any form of opposition, mostly referring to foreign threats, possibly Great Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59746086",
"title": "Global issue",
"section": "Section::::Global issues.:Conflict-related.:Potential for World War III.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been \"the war to end all wars,\" as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the inter-war period between the two world wars, WWI was typically referred to simply as \"The Great War.\" The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already \"outgrown\" the need for such widespread global wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65307",
"title": "World War III",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been \"the war to end all wars,\" as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the interwar period, WWI was typically referred to simply as \"The Great War.\" The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already \"outgrown\" the need for such widespread global wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32pgkz
|
why do people look slimmer in certain colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here's](_URL_0_) an article about how wearing black (or other dark colors) can make you look slimmer: \n\n > If you have a very light T-shirt on, your shape will be noticeable within the fabric. Any curves, bulges, or flat areas will be noticeable beneath the white fabric. If the T-shirt is black however, that will not be the case. All that will be easily noticeable is that there is a field of black. This field will not have bulges or areas that look large unless the T-shirt is very tight. That creates a field that is slimmer and smaller looking than it would be otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31025193",
"title": "Growing Up Today Study",
"section": "Section::::Selected findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "BULLET::::- Girls who see thinness as important to their peers or who try to look like the women they see in TV, movies, and magazines are significantly more likely to exhibit bulimic tendencies (using laxatives or vomiting to control their weight).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33375094",
"title": "Effects of advertising on teen body image",
"section": "Section::::Bad effect.:Effects on young women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Unfortunately thin-idealized bodies are attributed with self control, success and discipline, and therefore proclaimed as being desirable and socially valued. “Being slim means resisting the temptations that surround consumers in countries of overabundance and wealth” (Thompson et al 1995: Halliwell et al 2004).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18280830",
"title": "Dark triad",
"section": "Section::::Perspectives.:Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Several academic studies have found evidence that people with dark triad personalities are judged as slightly better-looking than average on first sight. Two studies have determined that this is because people with dark triad traits put more effort into their appearance, and the difference in attractiveness disappears when \"dressed down\" with bland clothing and without make up. Two more studies found that only narcissistic subjects were judged to be better-looking, but the other dark triad traits of machiavellianism and psychopathy had no correlation with looks. Facial features associated with dark triad traits tend to be rated as less attractive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5183604",
"title": "Sweater design",
"section": "Section::::Choosing colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "a significant visual effect, due to the principle of chiaroscuro; dark shades tend to recede and be smaller, whereas light shades advance and seem larger. For example, vertical stripes with a light color in the middle and dark colors on the sides have a slimming effect. Psychologically, bright colors tend to be associated with straightforward, innocent or extroverted personalities, whereas darker shades are associated with more thoughtful, experienced and introverted personalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462933",
"title": "Body image",
"section": "Section::::The media.:Women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "In most societies, thinness is typically associated with happiness, success, youthfulness, and social acceptability. This ideal is heavily portrayed throughout the mainstream media, whereby women are assumed to be perfect in every way. In addition, the idea that a person can never be too thin or too rich, makes it difficult for females to attain any sort of happiness about their personal appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33912798",
"title": "The Thin Ideal",
"section": "Section::::Media.:Social influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Contents of \"thin-ideal media\" include the portrayal of thinness as a desirable trait, and protagonists in media are thin, exceptionally beautiful, desirable, and successful. According to the sociocultural model of bulimia, eating disorders are a product of the increasing pressures for women in our society to achieve an ultra-slender body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168536",
"title": "Bulimia nervosa",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "There are higher rates of eating disorders in groups involved in activities which idealize a slim physique, such as dance, gymnastics, modeling, cheerleading, running, acting, swimming, diving, rowing and figure skating. Bulimia is thought to be more prevalent among Caucasians; however, a more recent study showed that African-American teenage girls were 50 percent more likely than Caucasian girls to exhibit bulimic behavior, including both binging and purging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
atsgk4
|
why does hand sanitizer feel so cold?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hand sanitizers are made to be spread over the hands and then dry quickly. Usually this is done by dissolving the sanitizing agent in a highly volatile (means evaporates or vaporizes quickly) liquid, usually alchohol.\n\nSo it acts like sweat on steroids, it evaporates so fast, and so much at one time that it basically pulls all the heat from the surface of your hands.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The alcohol quickly evaporates from your skin. Faster than water would. As it does, it grabs a bit of heat from your hand. It’s the same as why water evaporating from your skin cools it off including sweat. Alcohol does it faster so it cools your skin quicker. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heat is atoms bouncing around like pool balls. Higher temperatures are faster balls. Sometimes 2 balls hit 1 ball and kick 2x the amount of energy into the single ball. That ball goes so fast it flies of the table... It evaporates into the air. Since that ball had lots of energy, and it took it with it when it flies away, the pool table with all the balls bouncing around now has less energy overall and gets cooler.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evaporation is an endothermic reaction, and it evaporates so quickly that you easily notice it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "A hand sanitizer or hand antiseptic is a non-water-based hand hygiene agent. In the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century, alcohol rub non-water-based hand hygiene agents (also known as alcohol-based hand rubs, antiseptic hand rubs, or hand sanitizers) began to gain popularity. Most are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulated together with a thickening agent such as Carbomer into a gel, or a humectant such as glycerin into a liquid, or foam for ease of use and to decrease the drying effect of the alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Hand sanitizer is a liquid generally used to decrease infectious agents on the hands. Formulations of the alcohol-based type are preferable to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet. The general use of non-alcohol based versions has no recommendations. Outside the health care setting evidence to support the use of hand sanitizer over hand washing is poor. They are available as liquids, gels, and foams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus or Norwalk type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428502",
"title": "Hand washing",
"section": "Section::::Substances used.:Hand antiseptics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Frequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause dry skin unless emollients and/or skin moisturizers are added to the formula. The drying effect of alcohol can be reduced or eliminated by adding glycerin and/or other emollients to the formula. In clinical trials, alcohol-based hand sanitizers containing emollients caused substantially less skin irritation and dryness than soaps or antimicrobial detergents. Allergic contact dermatitis, contact urticaria syndrome or hypersensitivity to alcohol or additives present in alcohol hand rubs rarely occur. The lower tendency to induce irritant contact dermatitis became an attraction as compared to soap and water hand washing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is more convenient compared to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Disinfectants and antibacterials in home hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The term sanitizer has been used to define substances that both clean and disinfect. More recently this term has been applied to alcohol-based products that disinfect the hands (alcohol hand sanitizers). Alcohol hand sanitizers however are not considered to be effective on soiled hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Research shows that alcohol hand sanitizers do not pose any risk by eliminating beneficial microorganisms that are naturally present on the skin. The body quickly replenishes the beneficial microbes on the hands, often moving them in from just up the arms where there are fewer harmful microorganisms. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2c449l
|
Does lightening ever travel up, above the clouds to interact with planes etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, lightning doesn't care about direction, only about the electric potential. There are plenty of strikes [between or inside clouds](_URL_1_).\n\n[Planes also get struck by lightning all the time](_URL_0_), which is generally harmless since they act as Faraday cages.\n\nThe specific thing you seem to be asking about is whether planes can also get struck by lightning when they're much higher than the clouds. [This seems to say the answer is no](_URL_2_), because the plane isn't an effective ground by itself, and has to be between, inside or below clouds to get hit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, lightning does travel up. The lightning you may typically think of is really affected by electric potential. Arancaytar explains this and the effects. However, there are more interesting types of lightning. These include Elves, Spirits, and Blue Jets. Most of these occur in the upper atmosphere, however these can be explained by this [Wikipedia Article](_URL_0_). I also recommend watching '[The Universe](_URL_1_)' that explains these. Sorry that it's split in 5 parts, however the show is phenomenal so I recommend watching it all anyways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521267",
"title": "Reflection (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Reflection of light.:Retroreflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "When flying over clouds illuminated by sunlight the region seen around the aircraft's shadow will appear brighter, and a similar effect may be seen from dew on grass. This partial retro-reflection is created by the refractive properties of the curved droplet's surface and reflective properties at the backside of the droplet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5636533",
"title": "Balloon-carried light effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "A balloon-carried light effect is a special effect carried by a balloon, which can be fixed with a rope to the ground or free-flying. They are commonly misidentified as \"Unidentified Flying Objects\" by members of public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10679980",
"title": "22° halo",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The ice crystals in the clouds all deviate the light similarly, but only the ones from the specific ring at 22 degrees contribute to the effect for an observer at a set distance. As no light is refracted at angles smaller than 22°, the sky is darker inside the halo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405711",
"title": "Superluminal motion",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "This phenomenon is caused by the jets traveling very near the speed of light towards the observer. The angle is not necessarily very small with the line-of-sight as is commonly asserted. Because the high-velocity jets are emitting light at every point of their path, the light they emit does not approach the observer much more quickly than the jet itself. This causes the light emitted over hundreds of years of the jet's travel to not have hundreds of light-years of distance between its front end (the earliest light emitted) and its back end (the latest light emitted); the complete \"light-train\" thus arrives at the observer over a much smaller time period (ten or twenty years), giving the illusion of faster-than-light travel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207384",
"title": "Microquasar",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "In some cases, blobs or \"knots\" of brighter plasma within the jets appear to be traveling faster than the speed of light, an optical illusion called superluminal motion which is caused by sub-light-speed particles being projected at a small angle relative to the observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917132",
"title": "Shadowgraph",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "In principle, we cannot directly see a difference in temperature, a different gas, or a shock wave in the transparent air. However, all these disturbances refract light rays, so they can cast shadows. The plume of hot air rising from a fire, for example, can be seen by way of its shadow cast upon a nearby surface by the uniform sunlight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25948",
"title": "Refraction",
"section": "Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a heat haze when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature during a sunny day when using high magnification telephoto lenses and is often limiting the image quality in these cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fleis
|
the meaning/significance of all the nazi stuff in pink floyd's the wall.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's about shutting out things that are not like ourselves and withdrawing by being unpleasant to people around us. Pink has been so hurt by all of the things that have happened in his life that he is pushing people away so that they won't hurt him any more.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "His father was killed at Anzio in WW2, so I'm sure that has a little bit to do with the Nazi imagery. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Waters was born in 1943 in the UK devastated by the war that killed his father. The rebuilding would have lasted most of his childhood, and he would have been too young to remember or understand what the Nazi's did, just that they were the reason he didn't have a father and the country was falling apart.\n\nSounds like the perfect boogeyman to build nightmares around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1249468",
"title": "Hans Haacke",
"section": "Section::::Systems work (1970–present).:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In 1993 Haacke shared, with Nam June Paik, the Golden Lion for the German Pavilion at the Venice Biennale. Haacke's installation \"Germania\" made explicit reference to the pavilion's roots in the politics of Nazi Germany. Haacke tore up the floor of the German pavilion as Hitler once had done. In 1993, looking through the doors of the pavilion, past the broken floor, the viewer witnesses the word on the wall: \"Germania\", Hitler's name for Nazi Berlin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21511397",
"title": "Alles wird gut",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The song is about going to the new millennium depicting it intimidating, but promising, with irony though. The fact, that pieces of Berlin Wall (torn down in 1989) became popular souvenirs is referenced in the line \"Mit einem Stein in der Hand als Souvenir von der Mauer in Berlin/Klopfen wir an die Hintertür vom neuen Paradies\" (\"With a stone in the hand as a souvenir from the wall in Berlin/We're knocking on the backdoor of the new paradise\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1539714",
"title": "Pink Floyd – The Wall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Pink Floyd – The Wall is a 1982 British surrealist live-action/animated musical drama film directed by Alan Parker with animated segments by political cartoonist Gerald Scarfe, and is based on the 1979 Pink Floyd album of the same name. The film centers around a solitude rocker named Pink, who, after being driven into insanity by the death of his father and many depressive moments during his lifetime, constructs a metaphorical (and sometimes physical) wall to be protected from the world and emotional situations around him. When this coping mechanism backfires he puts himself on trial and sets himself free. The screenplay was written by Pink Floyd vocalist and bassist Roger Waters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1014514",
"title": "Another Brick in the Wall",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The three parts of \"Another Brick in the Wall\" appear on Pink Floyd's 1979 album \"The Wall,\" a rock opera that explores abandonment and isolation, symbolised by a wall. During \"Part 1\", the protagonist, Pink, begins building a metaphorical wall around himself following the death of his father. In \"Part 2\", traumas including his overprotective mother and abusive schoolteachers become metaphorical bricks in the wall. Following a violent breakdown in \"Part 3\", Pink dismisses everyone he knows as \"just bricks in the wall\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1627112",
"title": "Waldbröl",
"section": "Section::::Places of interest and buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Wall: (aka \"the Hitler Wall\"), a remnant of Robert Ley's megalomaniacal projects during the Nazi era, offering an panoramic view of Waldbröl and a magnificent distant view over the landscape of upper Berg county. It was a part of the projected Adolf Hitler School. In the early 1980s, unknowns painted the slogan \"No more war!\" in huge letters upon the wall. Recently the wall got a complete overhaul and the slogan was re-painted. The wall is now officially approved as a \"Monument To Peace\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149116",
"title": "The Wall",
"section": "Section::::Concept and storyline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1407,
"text": "\"The Wall\" is a rock opera that explores abandonment and isolation, symbolised by a wall. The songs create an approximate storyline of events in the life of the protagonist, Pink (who is introduced in the songs \"In the Flesh?\" and \"The Thin Ice\"), a character based on Syd Barrett as well as Roger Waters, whose father was killed during WWII. Pink's father also dies in a war (\"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 1)\"), which is where Pink starts to build a metaphorical wall around himself. Pink is oppressed by his overprotective mother (\"Mother\") and tormented at school by tyrannical, abusive teachers (\"The Happiest Days of Our Lives\"). All of these traumas become metaphorical \"bricks in the wall\" (\"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)\"). The protagonist eventually becomes a rock star, his relationships marred by infidelity, drug use, and outbursts of violence. He soon marries and is about to complete his \"wall\" (\"Empty Spaces\"). While touring in America, he brings a groupie home after learning of his wife's infidelity. Ruminating on his failed marriage, he trashes his room and scares the groupie away in a violent fit of rage (\"One of My Turns\"). As his marriage crumbles (\"Don't Leave Me Now\"), he dismisses everyone he's known as \"just bricks in the wall\" (\"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 3)\") and finishes building his wall (\"Goodbye Cruel World\"), completing his isolation from human contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242099",
"title": "History of Berlin",
"section": "Section::::West and East Germany (1945–1990).:Berlin Wall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Loshitzky depicts the role of the Berlin Wall as a symbol of the Cold War, détente, and the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. She divides the history of the Wall into six major stages: the erection of the Wall (1961); the period of the \"geography of fear\" from the Cold War; the period of détente; the short period of glasnost and perestroika; the fall of the Wall (1989); and after the Wall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j7m9e
|
[Medicine] Do flu shots really contain only one strain of influenza? If so, how is that one particular strain chosen every year? What are the reasons we cannot inoculate with multiple strains?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most flu vaccines protect against 3 viruses (two influenza A viruses (an H1N1 and an H3N2) and an influenza B virus) with some providing protection against 4 viruses.\n\nThe makeup of each vaccine that will be licensed for use is ultimately up to individual countries but they are strongly influenced by a World Health Organisation panel that is convened twice a year to assess the research and predict what the most common strains will be in the upcoming flu seasons. \n\nYou can read much more about the process [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I did my grad work in one of the labs that develops the annual flu vaccine, and my thesis was on improving viral yield. \n\nIt contains three strains, two of Influenza A, and one of B. Every year in the North Hemisphere spring, the strains that are circulating elsewhere in the world are studied, and the committee chooses the three that are predicted to be most dangerous when the winter flu season comes around next. Samples of these strains are grown in pure culture and sent to labs for development.\n\nThe flu vaccine is grown by inoculating embryonated chicken eggs with the virus, and then harvesting the allantoic fluid several days later, and purifying the amplified virus from that, killing it with formalin, and formulating the vaccine.\nThe difficulty lies in that the strain needed for the vaccine might not grow well in eggs, or might kill the embryo quickly. Therefore, the strain containing the surface antigens (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) are crossed with strains maintained in eggs for decades, and well adapted to high yield in eggs. This is possible because influenza has an 8-segmented genome, and two strains can infect the same cell simultaneously. What we did was inject both strains (vaccine and lab) into the egg, and harvest the progeny. These will contain a mixture of every combination of the genomes from both strains. These are diluted out a great deal, to the point where we are trying to inject < 1 virus per egg, on average, to get pure cultures of the progeny we want. The goal would be to inject ten eggs with the same dilution, and get one with virus in it. This is repeated several times and the progeny are tested to find the ones with the same H and N surface antigens of the wild-type vaccine strain, and the internal genes (Matrix, Nuclear protein, etc..) of the lab strain. These will grow with high yield in eggs, allowing for a faster and more cost effective vaccine production run, and be indistinguishable from the wild-type strain to the immune system. \n\nEdit, Stupid typos from multitasking",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19572217",
"title": "Influenza",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Vaccination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "Due to the high mutation rate of the virus, a particular influenza vaccine usually confers protection for no more than a few years. Each year, the World Health Organization predicts which strains of the virus are most likely to be circulating in the next year (see Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine), allowing pharmaceutical companies to develop vaccines that will provide the best immunity against these strains. The vaccine is reformulated each season for a few specific flu strains but does not include all the strains active in the world during that season. It takes about six months for the manufacturers to formulate and produce the millions of doses required to deal with the seasonal epidemics; occasionally, a new or overlooked strain becomes prominent during that time. It is also possible to get infected just before vaccination and get sick with the strain that the vaccine is supposed to prevent, as the vaccine takes about two weeks to become effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24968742",
"title": "Evolution of influenza",
"section": "Section::::Future impact and prediction strategies.:Phylogenetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "All of these methods using historical data can help to diminish the effects of new influenza virus strains each flu season. By attempting to predict future mutations in HA and NA genes, scientists can choose vaccination strains that are likely to match future viruses, so antibodies can quickly recognize and mount an immune response against the virus. The one setback in this approach is that it is not useful against strains that evolve through antigenic shift (reassortment). It is impossible to predict when and with which strains these events will occur, and the fact that it could happen with strains from different species makes it all the more difficult. Until a method is found to accurately predict what mutations will arise and when they come about, vaccines will continue to be created purely on guesswork with no guarantee that they will provide total protection from influenza.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3344863",
"title": "Childhood immunizations in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Influenza.:Vaccine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 220,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 220,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The influenza vaccine comes in two forms, the inactivated form which is what is typically thought of as the \"flu shot\", and a live but attenuated (weakened) form that is sprayed into the nostrils. it is recommended to get the flu shot each year since it is remade each year to protect against the viruses that are most likely to cause disease that year. Unfortunately there are a vast array of strains of influenza, so a single vaccine can not prevent all of them. The shot prevents 3 or 4 different influenza viruses and it takes about 2 weeks after the injection for protection to develop. This protection lasts from several months to a year. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20938828",
"title": "Viral neuraminidase",
"section": "Section::::Inhibitors.:Neuraminidase inhibition resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "As strains of influenza are continuously mutating, it is essential that scientists quickly and efficiently determine the correct neuraminidase subtype that is responsible for the drug resistance in order to develop medications that will combat specific strains of influenza.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4699451",
"title": "Influenza research",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The Influenza Genome Sequencing Project was initiated in 2004 to create a library of influenza sequences to understand what makes one strain more lethal than another, what genetic determinants most affect immunogenicity, and how the virus evolves over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.:Annual reformulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Each year, three strains are chosen for selection in that year's flu vaccination by the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network. The chosen strains are the H1N1, H3N2, and Type-B strains thought most likely to cause significant human suffering in the coming season. Starting with the 2012–2013 Northern Hemisphere influenza season (coincident with the approval of quadrivalent influenza vaccines), the WHO has also recommended a 2nd B-strain for use in quadrivalent vaccines. The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinates the contents of the vaccine each year to contain the most likely strains of the virus to attack the next year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.:Annual reformulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The Global Influenza Surveillance Network's selection of viruses for the vaccine manufacturing process is based on its best estimate of which strains will predominate the next year, amounting in the end to well-informed but fallible guesswork.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f65ot
|
when a stock market crashes and everyone is desperately 'selling', who is actually willing to 'buy'?
|
[
{
"answer": "Smart people with cash. Buying when the market crashes is a great investment, **IF** you can afford to wait until the market recovers to realize your gains.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fact that not many people are willing to buy is what *causes* the crash. If as many people were buying as selling, the price would stay about the same. The fact people are desperate to sell means there are more sellers than buyers, so the price drops.\n\nThe few people who are buying are either ignorant of the crisis, or buying speculatively thinking that he stocks will rebound at a later date. Shares that crash to near zero will either rebound, or become completely worthless if the company involved goes bankrupt and has no positive assets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many investors have a point at which they think it's always a good time to purchase a stock if it is at or below a certain point. So, yes, even when people are selling, there are going to be people buying.\n\nThe reason is that often, mass selloffs are part of a panic, which is more of an emotional reaction than a financial one. Emotions wear off, but the actual value of the company is not as affected as much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a lot of profit to be had during crises. When industry-wide or even market-wide crashes occur, no company's stock or asset goes untouched. Perfectly healthy company stocks and assets will see their values tumble.\n\nRecessions are the perfect time to purchase assets if you have the liquidity. Emotional sentiment, and sometimes financial necessity, urges people to save money during recessions, but your money is most liquid during recessions. If you properly diversify, you're far more likely to make an immense profit than investing in a rising market.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Brokers and investment institutions are the buyers during a large sell-off.\n\nThe brokers on the floor of the market are responsible for lining up buyers and sellers and arranging a price for shares to change hands (the ask and offer prices). The number of shares sold by private investors seldom equals the number of shares other private investors wish to purchase and the broker on the floor is how this difference is resolved.\n\nThe broker will buy shares from sellers and keep them in a cache until a buyer wishes to purchase the shares (this is why brokers are backed by large investment banks). This can be quite profitable because it's quite risky for the broker. Large investment banks pay for the right to have traders/brokers on the floor and in exchange for that they can make money off the difference between the ask and the offer prices.\n\nPart of the terms of having access to the trading floor is a requirement that the broker must purchase shares that people wish to sell. When a sell off occurs this can be really bad for the broker, or as other people have pointed out, it can be quite good if they expect the stock to rebound from the drop in share price.\n\nTL;DR: Traders on the floor, backed by large investment banks, are required to fulfill market orders even in times of a sell-off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of purchases on Wall Street are made with *leverage*. You essentially borrow money from the brokerage to buy stocks, they go up, you sell them, pay back the loan, and keep the difference. There are a lot of different kinds of leverage, but they all about to risking more to make more.\n\nThis is great when stocks go up, you can make a lot more money that way. But when they go down, even for a short time, you can be in big trouble...the broker can call back the loan, and liquidate your assets to pay it back. You can wind up broke and still owing a ton of money.\n\nSo those are the guys who are frantically selling. The buyers are saying, I can get these stocks at a huge discount, weather the crash, and make a big long term profit.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a good amount of \"short\" selling & covering that goes on during a stock crash. Basically during a short sale you sell securities that you do not own, with the promise that you'll buy them back later to \"cover\" the position. With a short play, you are essentially betting that the stock will go down in value, & profiting on the difference between the sale price & the price you buy it back at.\n\nFor example, lets say after research I believe Lehman Brothers stock will be going down in price in the near future. Right now the stock is at $10.00. I can Short Sell 100 shares of it, which means I will be given $1000 ($10/share x 100 shares). Well, since I sold shares I don't actually own, I have to buy back the same number of shares to cover the position. So, I wait for a while, and as suspected, the Lehman Brothers stock drops to $5/share, so I decide to cover , and buy back the 100 shares I owe. Only, i now can buy them at the lower price of $500, so I just made $500 profit. \n\nDuring a sell-off, people who held short positions on the stock will be buying them back since they're profiting on ability to buy stock at the discounted price. The practice of short selling was actually banned on many financial assets following the crash. \n\nThe practice of \"Naked Shorting\" is thought to have contributed to the instability of the 2008 market crash. This is where you sell securities that were never actually owned or borrowed in the first place. \n\nBesides that, there are large financial institutions known as \"Market Makers\" who always provide liquidity on a stock, and buy/sell even during crashes. They are typically making money through complex trading algorithms regardless of the price of the actual asset.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21932046",
"title": "South Dakota Small Investors Protection Act",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "A common \"stock market\" transaction is a \"short sale\" where, for example, an investor who believes a publicly traded stock is over-priced will borrow that stock from an owner, sell the borrowed stock, and repurchase the stock later at a lower price to repay the loan, thereby making money if the price has fallen. If the price goes up, the investor must repurchase the stock at the higher price to repay the loan, and will lose money. Measure 9 would prohibit short sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163072",
"title": "Closed-end fund",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with open-ended funds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "Also, if there is a market panic, investors may sell a particular stock or segment of stocks en masse. Faced with a wave of sell orders and needing to raise money for redemptions, the manager of an open-ended fund may be forced to sell stocks he would rather keep, and keep stocks he would rather sell, because of liquidity concerns (selling too much of any one stock causes the price to drop disproportionately). Thus it may become overweight in the shares of lower perceived quality or underperforming companies for which there is little demand. But an investor pulling out of a closed-end fund must sell it on the market to another buyer, so the manager need not sell any of the underlying stock. The CEF's price will likely drop more than the market does (severely punishing those who sell during the panic), but it is more likely to make a recovery when/if the stock(s) rebound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26271982",
"title": "Panic selling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Panic selling is a wide-scale selling of an investment which causes a sharp decline in prices. Specifically, an investor wants to get out of an investment with little regard of the price obtained. The selling activity is problematic because the investor is selling in reaction to emotion and fear, rather than evaluating the fundamentals. Most major stock exchanges use trading curbs to throttle panic selling, providing a cooling period for people to digest information related to the selling and restore some degree of normalcy to the market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Selling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Selling stock is procedurally similar to buying stock. Generally, the investor wants to buy low and sell high, if not in that order (short selling); although a number of reasons may induce an investor to sell at a loss, e.g., to avoid further loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2902209",
"title": "Securities fraud",
"section": "Section::::Types of securities fraud.:Internet fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "When the price reaches a certain level, criminals immediately sell off their holdings of those stocks (the \"dump\"), realizing substantial profits before the stock price falls back to its usual low level. Any buyers of the stock who are unaware of the fraud become victims once the price falls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63082",
"title": "Market trend",
"section": "Section::::Causes of market trends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The price of assets such as stocks is set by supply and demand. By definition, the market balances buyers and sellers, so it is impossible to have \"more buyers than sellers\" or vice versa, although that is a common expression. In a surge in demand, the buyers will increase the price they are willing to pay, while the sellers will increase the price they wish to receive. In a surge in supply, the opposite happens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8633347",
"title": "Stockout",
"section": "Section::::Shopper response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1568,
"text": "Stockouts frustrate shoppers and force them to take a number of corrective actions that are beyond the retailer's control. Understanding how consumers respond to stockouts is therefore the starting point for retailers who wish to improve on-shelf availability. When shoppers are unable to find an item that they had intended to purchase, they might switch stores, purchase substitute items (brand switch, size switch, category switch), postpone their purchase or decide not to buy the item at all. Although these responses differ in severity, each entails negative consequences for retailers. Stockouts cause lost sales, dissatisfy shoppers, diminish store loyalty, jeopardize marketing efforts, and obstruct sales planning, because substitution disguises true demand. Moreover, shopper surveys reveal stockouts to currently be the most prevalent annoyance to shoppers. Shoppers spend a considerable amount of time looking for and asking for out-of-stock items. Shopper response to stockouts has been investigated by researchers with respect to cognitive response (e.g. perceived availability), affective response (e.g. store satisfaction), behavioural response (e.g. brand switching) and aggregated response in terms of category sales effects. Studies find shopper response to out-of stocks depends on brand-related antecedents (e.g. brand equity), product and category-related antecedents (hedonic level), store-related antecedents (e.g. service or price-oriented), shopper-related antecedents (e.g. shopper age) and situational antecedents (e.g. purchase urgency).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2n0o0k
|
Is it possible for things we consider to be waves to exhibit particle like behaviours at a quantum level?
|
[
{
"answer": "It works both ways: Quantum objects exhibit the characteristics of both particles and of waves, but are they themselves neither.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If at a quantum level things we consider to be particles are able to exhibit wave like behaviours, is it possible for waves of light to behave in particle like ways? Why or why not?\n\nYes, as /u/AsAChemicalEngineer says, it works both ways. The particle description of light waves is in terms of fundamental particles called photons. You can also describe waves in a material in a particle description as collective excitations that have particle-like behavior, called [phonons](_URL_0_). See [this](_URL_1_) for more examples.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Wave–particle duality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The concept of wave–particle duality says that neither the classical concept of \"particle\" nor of \"wave\" can fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter. Wave–particle duality is an example of the [[complementarity (physics)|principle of complementarity]] in quantum physics. An elegant example of wave–particle duality, the double slit experiment, is discussed in the section below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212490",
"title": "Subatomic particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The idea of a particle underwent serious rethinking when experiments showed that light could behave like a stream of particles (called photons) as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led to the new concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale \"particles\" behave like both particles and waves (they are sometimes described as wavicles to reflect this). Another new concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, cannot be measured exactly. In more recent times, wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to increasingly massive particles as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8603",
"title": "Diffraction",
"section": "Section::::Particle diffraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Quantum theory tells us that every particle exhibits wave properties. In particular, massive particles can interfere and therefore diffract. Diffraction of electrons and neutrons stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics. The wavelength associated with a particle is the de Broglie wavelength\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1530689",
"title": "Complementarity (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "For example, the particle and wave aspects of physical objects are such complementary phenomena. Both concepts are borrowed from classical mechanics, where it is impossible to be a particle and wave at the same time. Therefore, it is impossible to measure the \"full\" properties of the wave and particle at a particular moment. Moreover, Bohr implies that it is not possible to regard objects governed by quantum mechanics as having intrinsic properties independent of determination with a measuring device, a viewpoint supported by the Kochen–Specker theorem. The type of measurement determines which property is shown. However the single and double-slit experiment and other experiments show that \"some\" effects of wave and particle can be measured in one measurement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "452667",
"title": "Wave packet",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "The particle-like nature of the world has been confirmed by experiment over a century, while the wave-like phenomena could be characterized as consequences of the wave packet aspect of quantum particles (see wave-particle duality.) According to the principle of complementarity, the wave-like and particle-like characteristics never manifest themselves at the same time, i.e. in the same experiment; see, however, the Afshar experiment and the lively discussion around it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82728",
"title": "Quantum superposition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "An example of a physically observable manifestation of the wave nature of quantum systems is the interference peaks from an electron beam in a double-slit experiment. The pattern is very similar to the one obtained by diffraction of classical waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291912",
"title": "Introduction to gauge theory",
"section": "Section::::In quantum mechanics.:Aharonov–Bohm experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, a particle such as an electron is also described as a wave. For example, if the double-slit experiment is performed with electrons, then a wave-like interference pattern is observed. The electron has the highest probability of being detected at locations where the parts of the wave passing through the two slits are in phase with one another, resulting in constructive interference. The frequency of the electron \"wave\" is related to the kinetic energy of an individual electron \"particle\" via the quantum-mechanical relation \"E\" = \"hf\". If there are no electric or magnetic fields present in this experiment, then the electron's energy is constant, and, for example, there will be a high probability of detecting the electron along the central axis of the experiment, where by symmetry the two parts of the wave are in phase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ein8rj
|
why is it that lobsters have the possibility to be born with so many rare colorations?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer:\nEach lobster has color pigments (red, blue, yellow), that determine the color of the shell. \n\nSpecific mutations change the amount of pigment and thus the color.\n\nSome mutations that influence (for example) blue pigment naturally appear more often than others, that is why blue lobsters appear more often than yellow ones.\n\n\nSource & cool additional info and more accurate than my short description is here:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46310",
"title": "Lobster",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Coloring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Typically, lobsters are dark colored, either bluish green or greenish brown as to blend in with the ocean floor, but they can be found in a multitude of colors. Lobsters with atypical coloring are extremely rare, accounting for only a few of the millions caught every year, and due to their rarity, they usually aren't eaten, instead released back into the wild or donated to aquariums. Often, in cases of atypical coloring, there is a genetic factor, such as albinism or hermaphroditism. Notably, the New England Aquarium has a collection of such lobsters, called the Lobster Rainbow, on public display. Special coloring doesn't appear to have an effect on the lobster's taste once cooked; with the exception of albinos, all lobsters possess astaxanthin, which is responsible for the bright red color lobsters turn after being cooked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "377397",
"title": "American lobster",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The normal coloration of \"Homarus americanus\" is redder on the body and claws, and greener on the legs. This coloration is produced by mixing yellow, blue, and red pigments that occur naturally in the shell. Despite the rarity of strangely colored lobsters, many more of them are reported being caught. It is unclear as to whether this is an artifact of social media making reporting and sharing more accessible, or if it is due to a drop in predator populations. The lobsters mentioned below usually get media coverage due to their \"rarity\" and eye appeal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36071458",
"title": "Atya gabonensis",
"section": "Section::::In aquaria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Colouring of this species can vary from a creamy white to an almost rusty brown, and also a deep blue. It is believed that the water conditions will affect colouring and harder water causes the blue morph. These shrimp have been known to change colouring several times in the same year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "662851",
"title": "Homarus gammarus",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The exoskeleton is generally blue above, with spots that coalesce, and yellow below. The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking. This occurs because, in life, the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex, but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking, releasing the red pigment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3298595",
"title": "Carcinus maenas",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "The colour of \"C. maenas\" varies greatly, from green to brown, grey, or red. This variation has a genetic component, but is largely due to local environmental factors. In particular, individuals which delay moulting become red-coloured rather than green. Red individuals are stronger and more aggressive, but are less tolerant of environmental stresses, such as low salinity or hypoxia. Juvenile crabs on average display greater patterning than adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46310",
"title": "Lobster",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence of hemocyanin, which contains copper. In contrast, vertebrates and many other animals have red blood from iron-rich hemoglobin. Lobsters possess a green hepatopancreas, called the tomalley by chefs, which functions as the animal's liver and pancreas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47304829",
"title": "Panulirus penicillatus",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Spiny lobsters differ from true lobsters in having large spiny antennae and lacking pincers on their front legs. \"Panulirus penicillatus\" grows to a maximum length of about , but a more normal length is , with males growing to larger sizes than females. There is a group of four strong spines joined at the base, attached to the plate immediately in front of the carapace to which the antennules are attached. The colour of this spiny lobster is variable, ranging from yellowish-green to rusty-brown or bluish-black. There are small white spots on the carapace and abdomen and a pair of larger white spots near the outer edge of the first abdominal segment. The legs are dark green or red with yellow longitudinal stripes. The antennules are not banded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tt92d
|
why doesn't water help with dry skin?
|
[
{
"answer": "You would think that putting water on the skin would moisturize it more, but the opposite is true. Plain water that comes in contact with skin evaporates and takes with it many of the skin's natural oils called natural moisturizing factor (NMF). The more frequently that skin comes into contact with water, the drier it gets -- unless those natural oils are replaced\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "its not water that makes skin stay moist - its oils in the skin. ^edit to be completely clear, the water is still important - the oil just acts to prevent that water from evaporating. \n\nIf you have dry skin, its because your skin's natural oil production is for whatever reason lower than it should be.\n\n\n\nEdit: I'm not a dermatologist, just a lumpy potato that resembles a [scrotum](_URL_4_), so any questions are going to get some less-than-stellar answers. try /r/Dermatology or /r/AskADoctor \n\nDouble edit: Dermatologists/Doctors are there for a reason, if you have a serious skin condition or are worried about your skin, talk to them and see what your options are.\n\nTriple edit: There's got to be a few dermatologists out there somewhere who can help verify answers or answer questions throughout this thread! If anyone viewing knows someone, see if you can ask them and see whats up.\n\nFinal edit; Figures one of my most well-voted comments on ELI5 involves a scrotum joke. Cheers all!\n\n---------------\nUseful Links:\n\n/u/ieatbugs posted [here](_URL_1_) a link to /r/SkincareAddiction on the types off Moisturizers out there that might be of some use to people\n\n/u/steve-s posted [here](_URL_3_) a link to an _URL_2_ article that has some information on natural skin oils\n\nBy request from /u/LgNBullseye , a [selfie](_URL_0_). That is really a potato, I promise :p",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chemical engineer here. Water is a mild solvent, in fact it is frequently called a 'universal' solvent and that is why water doesn't help with dry skin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water does help with dry skin, but you have to drink it first.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The water evaporates quickly without oils to retain it. However, if you are going to apply lotion, hydrate your skin with water first to retain the moisture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah, the water ends up absorbing moisture rather that moisturizing your skin.\n\nAlso, repeated water exposure can quickly dry out and chafe skin. It's why it's better to not lick your lips when they're chapped.\n\nI learned the hard way when I suffered from a case of REALLY bad chapped lips that the only way to get rid of it was to stop licking my lips. The half a gallon of lip balm and Vaseline helped too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Drinking water does help, Hydration internally makes you beautiful externally.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Skin is usually dry due to impaired barrier function, meaning water can be easily evaporated into the atmosphere. It's not dry from lack of a water source. Come to /r/skincareaddiction for scientific and evidence based reasoning on skincare! Here's an explanation of how moisturizers work: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason water doesn't help is because of a protein called Keratin. It's on the top layer of the skin and is also what makes up a fingernail. This protein is tough and also Waterproof. That's why you don't just soak up water immediately. Since water molecules are so small they are able to slip through our skin membranes and eventually you absorb it. But just adding water to dry skin doesn't make it moist. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water is a polar solvent. It's just going to wash oils away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "why is my face greasy, yet dry and flaky? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you drink the water and stay hydrated, it kinda does. Water that you drink circulates throughout your body including in your largest organ (your skin).\n\nBut if you just put water on your skin it doesn't really absorb, it just rinses off the natural oils that your skin secretes to keep itself from drying out. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This epidermis (the outermost layer of skin) is composed of dead skin cells. As we go about our day, millions of these cells flake off and are replaced by new ones, which are constantly being produced from the living layers in the stratum basale (the deepest layer of the skin). The skin also has oil glands and hair follicles spread throughout it. It is the oil that keeps skin \"moist,\" and not water. If water is placed on the skin, it can be absorbed by the dead skin cell layer, but this will only cause them to loosen, stick together and then flake off more easily. You can test this by soaking in a bath for a while, and then scraping your fingernails across the back of your neck. Often times, you will gather a film under your nails comprised almost entirely of dead skin cells. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The natural oils on the surface of your skin repel water. In fact, too much water can wash away these oils, which, in turn, allows the moisture in your skin to escape, causing even drier skin.\n\nFun theory: Your hands and feet wrinkle in the water to provide extra grip. Some scientists believe this is an involuntary reaction by your nervous system. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simple response.\n\nWashing your hands/having your hands exposed to water a lot will strip the oils off your skin, exposing it to the dry air (particularly in winter, which is why I believe you're asking) and causing it to try out and occasionally crack.\n\nAs someone with perennial issues with dry hands in winter, if you wash you hands, follow up with some lotion to protect your hands afterward.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Water has a tendency to evaporate quickly because of heat. So, when you put water on your dry skin it quickly goes away. Oil, such as Vaseline, or that which your body produces, traps the moisture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I asked why people pop pimples in ELI5, and it gets deleted because you can't ask medical advice, yet this makes it to the front page. Well played.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Moisturisation of your skin is all about trapping the water in there. \n\nYou can add as much water as you like either by pouring it onto your skin or by drinking it. If it is not trapped in some way then it is lost (through a process called transepidermal water loss). \n\nThe way that skin naturally traps the water in the skin is by the natural loss of skin cells called keratinocytes. The keratinocytes are produced in the basal layer of the epidermis and move up through their ~28 day life cycle but as they move up through the epidermal layers they flatten out, eventually squeezing their contents out, which is essentially skin oils. This oil layer stops water from your body escaping but also from unwanted things from entering the body.\n\nWhen these oils are lost water can escape and your skin becomes dry so you moisturise. Moisturisers work in two ways. The crude way is to create a greasy layer which prevents water escaping. The clever way is that they contain a chemical which attracts water to the epidermis (both can be executed at the same time).\n\nSource: Was a Senior Scientist in charge of producing and testing on a living skin equivalent at a skin research company and now a research technician in the skin centre of a University.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a dermatologist, but I have studied structures of the hair and skin in beauty school. \nThe pH of our skin is between 4.5 and 5.5. Our skin is slightly acidic. Water is usually around pH 7, meaning in comparison to our skin, it is alkaline. Because of its alkalinity, water strips away oils on the surface of the skin . \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It does help, if you drink it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone here seems to be talking about why oil hydrates the skin and ignoring the question about why water doesn't. Here it is:\n\n**Your skin is supposed to be a two-way barrier to most substances. The outermost layer, the epidermis, is a bunch of tightly packed dead skin cells that are supposed to keep bad things out and good things in. Out of necessity, your skin is not very permeable to water and as such does not absorb it readily. Molecular explanation at the end for those interested.**\n\nMost biological processes are extremely dependent on and sensitive to concentration changes. If water easily absorbed into the epidermis, you would lose a ridiculous amount of water throughout the day as it diffused through your skin and evaporated at the surface. You would lose another important thing this way: nutrients. As the water diffuses through the epidermis, the important vitamins, minerals, proteins, etc. that are all dissolved in it get carried through the tissue as well. Since both water and all the nutrients dissolved in it are essential to life, if your epidermis were highly permeable to these, your body would out of necessity need to expend an incredible amount of energy to actively pump these things back into your body, against their natural flow. Your body already spends LOTS of energy doing this, without constantly leaking water through your skin all day. Your kidneys' primary purpose is to retain water while eliminating waste. While they make up roughly 0.5% of your body's mass, they use about 10% of the oxygen you take in every day in aerobic cellular respiration. In lay terms, that means they use about 20 times as much energy than the average cell in your body JUST to keep water in as they let waste pass through.\n\nAnother consideration in the case of \"what if your skin was permeable to water\" is that your skin protects you from lots and lots of infectious pathogens every day. This is why severe burn victims are placed in isolation in the hospital, in sterile rooms, because they are incredibly susceptible to deadly infections from germs that wouldn't even faze a normal, healthy individual.\n\nThese kinds of things are why dead skin cells consist of alpha keratin. It's a structural protein that is essentially insoluble in water and forms that oh-so-crucial barrier between our insides and our outsides.\n\nIf you want the molecular view from a biochemist, well here it is: the primary structural protein of skin is alpha keratin. This protein consists of several layers of structure, starting with an alpha-helix. Two alpha helices coil around each other to form a coiled coil, two coiled coils twist around each other to form a protofilament, two of these twist to form a protofibril, and four protofibrils twist to make a filament. Think of it as twisting a couple pieces of floss together to make a heavier thread, then twisting a few pieces of this heavier thread to make a light rope, then continuing until you get a really thick piece that is made of lots of these smaller ropes. Even though many of the amino residue R-groups that face the solvent are polar, the elongated structure means that it is, thermodynamically, very costly for water to solvate these. This is due to the increased ordering of the water molecules near the surface of the filament (a decrease in entropy). There are two reasons the filaments do not ball up like globular proteins do (which would make them much more soluble): the noncovalent interactions at the various levels of structure reinforce the filaments and make them resistant to curling (think how easy it is to bend a thin stranded wire but how much harder it gets when the wire is thicker), and lots of filaments near each other easily form tangled messes of protein, where there simply isn't room to curl.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Phone save ignore",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I actually figured this out the other night while tripping... basically I realized how after a shower I was dried out because I scrubbed the oils that keep me moist out. Then I realized the reason the elbows and feet are prone to being dry is because they come in contact with other surfaces the most. Removing essential oils for hydration. Think of a new old wooden railing that's supper smooth and slick from years of people's hands rubbing them.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1887793",
"title": "Diprobase",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Dry skin results from lack of water in the outer layer of skin cells (the stratum corneum). When this layer becomes dehydrated it loses its flexibility and becomes cracked, scaly and sometimes itchy. The stratum corneum contains natural water-holding substances that retain water seeping up from the deeper layers of the skin, and water is also normally retained in the stratum corneum by a surface film of natural oil (sebum) and broken-down skin cells, which slow down evaporation of water from the skin surface. Diprobase works by increasing that layer of oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228845",
"title": "Moisturizer",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Water constantly evaporates from the deeper layers of the skin, an effect known as transepidermal water loss (TEWL). By regulating its water content, skin maintains a dry, easily shed surface as a barrier against pathogens, dirt, or damage, while protecting itself from drying out and becoming brittle and rigid. The ability to retain moisture depends on the lipid bilayer between the corneocytes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46543004",
"title": "Baumann Skin Types",
"section": "Section::::Parameters.:Dry vs oily.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Dry skin is often characterized by rough texture, dull color and tightness, especially after cleansing. Oily skin is characterized by increased sebum production, which often leads to acne. The level of sebaceous gland production of sebum, which contains wax esters, triglycerides, and squalene, may also contribute to dry skin and skin protection. Although diet, stress and hormones play a role in sebum production, there is a significant genetic link.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15455549",
"title": "Ahava",
"section": "Section::::Products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Dead Sea mud, alone or in combination with other ingredients, is believed to have benefits for deep cleansing and stimulation of the skin. Minerals extracted from Dead Sea water such as calcium, magnesium and potassium, are said to improve the metabolism, stimulate circulation and aid in the natural repair of cells. In 2009, Ahava Dermud range of skincare products has been shown to have protective, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that can antagonize biological effects of UVB radiation on skin, reducing skin photodamage and photoaging, and reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in skin pathologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35306610",
"title": "Chafing (skin)",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Staying dry may keep the skin from the developing further chafing, although this can be next to impossible in hot weather and requires avoiding exercise. Certain products such as baby powder, potato flour or antiperspirant may help with keeping the problem areas dry. An alternative to staying dry is lubricating the skin with petroleum jelly or other lubricants in order to reduce the friction and allow the body parts to glide without forming a rash. In many cases, however, especially those involving the upper thighs, clothing is the biggest culprit. Cotton clothes should be avoided as should anything with large seams. Sports focused underwear and clothing made from polyester, nylon or spandex can largely reduce or entirely solve the issue in some cases. Problems caused by salt residue from evaporated sweat can be solved by using wet wipes to clean problem areas before resuming exercise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9040547",
"title": "Human skin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays an important immunity role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue. This is often discolored and depigmented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228836",
"title": "Cleanser",
"section": "Section::::Types of facial cleansers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Cleansers that have active ingredients are more suitable for oily skins to prevent breakouts. But they may overdry and irritate dry skin, this may make the skin appear and feel worse. Very dry skin may require a creamy lotion-type cleanser. These are normally too gentle to be effective on oily or even normal skin, but dry skin requires much less cleansing power. It may be a good idea to select a cleanser that is alcohol-free for use on dry, sensitive, or dehydrated skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10tzg2
|
what a "trust fund baby" is and exactly how a "trust fund" works.
|
[
{
"answer": "Trust funds are basically special savings accounts that pay you an allowance. A young person with an inherited trust fund is called a trust fund baby.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A trust is a specific legal entity that allows someone to separate themselves from an amount of their money. Money placed in the trust is \"safe\" and can not usually be touched except for the express purposes that are outlined in the formation of the trust. A trust fund baby most likely has a trust set up for them that is for the express purpose of funding their well-being, i.e. the baby is the trust's beneficiary. \n\nTrusts typically have executives that are in charge of ensuring that funds taken out of the trust are in accordance with the trust's objective or stated purpose. For example if I made a trust for my son and decided I wanted to take out a few hundred grand to get myself a car, the executor would tell me to buzz off since that is completely unrelated to the purpose of the trust.\n\nA trust can be ordered liquidated by the court in the event that it appears to be illusory, e.g. I make a trust, make myself the executive as well the beneficiary, in that case I am simply trying to hide funds. I would imagine that unless there is abuse of the funds by the parents or executive a trust fund established for a child would be very hard to prove as illusory, I was just including this for completeness.\n\nThat's my understanding of trusts but a lawyer would be able to explain it more thoroughly. In a nutshell, think of it as a special savings account with special protections that can only be used for very specific purposes.\n\nSource: My father is an attorney and has given me a high level summary on how these work in layman's terms. I am not an actual lawyer so I may have some of the minutia wrong, I am pretty confident in the high level functionality though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From a [past post](_URL_0_) included in [\"The Five-Year-Old's Guide to the Galaxy\"](_URL_1_)\n\n > \"It's a essentially a bank account with a babysitter.\n\n > Pretend we have three friends: Al, Bob, and Charlie.\n\n > * Al is rich and his parents give him lots of money.\n > * Bob is poor and his parents can't afford to give him any money.\n > * Charlie is trustworthy; everyone knows Charlie would never steal a dime from his friends.\n\n > Al, being a VERY nice guy, decides he wants to help Bob out. So he decides that he's going to take $50 he's saved up and give it to Bob. However he's worried about Bob. Bob has never had money before and if he gives him the $50 all at once, then Bob might blow it on stuff like candy and soda within a week, when what Bob really needs is lunch money for the rest of the school year. Al is also a little lazy. He doesn't want to bother slowly handing the money out himself, so he decides to give the money to Charlie to dole it out for him.\n\n > This relationship is called a TRUST because Al TRUSTS Charlie to do what has been asked of him and not steal the money. The money is called a TRUST FUND, because it's the whole point of the TRUST. So now everyone benefits: Al gets to be a good Samaritan without all the hard work, Bob gets money as he needs it, and even Charlie benefits because he'll loan the money he hasn't given out yet to other kids and they'll pay him back with interest, which he'll get to keep for himself!\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1198216",
"title": "Estate planning",
"section": "Section::::Devices.:Trusts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "A trust may be used as an estate planning tool, to direct the distribution of assets after the person who creates the trust passes away. Trusts may be used to provide for the distribution of funds for the benefit of minor children or developmentally disabled children. For example, a spendthrift trust may be used to prevent wasteful spending by a spendthrift child, or a special needs trust may be used for developmentally disabled children or adults. Trusts offer a high degree of control over management and disposition of assets. Furthermore, certain types of trust provisions can provide for the management of wealth for several generations past the settlor. Typically referred to as dynasty planning, these types of trust provisions allow for the protection of wealth for several generations after a person's death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1176679",
"title": "Charitable organization",
"section": "Section::::In various countries.:England and Wales.:Definition of a Charity.:Charity structures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "A trust is essentially a relationship among three parties: the donor of some assets, the trustees who hold the assets, and the beneficiaries (those people who are eligible to benefit from the charity). When the trust has charitable purposes, and is a charity, the trust is known as a charitable trust. The governing document is the trust deed or declaration of trust, which comes into operation once it is signed by all the trustees. The main disadvantage of a trust is that, as with an unincorporated association, it does not have a separate legal entity and the trustees must themselves own property and enter into contracts. The trustees are also liable if the charity is sued or incurs liability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2256247",
"title": "Spendthrift trust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "A spendthrift trust is a trust that is created for the benefit of a person (often unable to control his spending) that gives an independent trustee full authority to make decisions as to how the trust funds may be spent for the benefit of the beneficiary. Creditors of the beneficiary generally cannot reach the funds in the trust, and the funds are not actually under the control of the beneficiary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148565",
"title": "Charitable trust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "A charitable trust is an irrevocable trust established for charitable purposes and, in some jurisdictions, a more specific term than \"charitable organization\". A charitable trust enjoys a varying degree of tax benefits in most countries. It also generates good will. Some important terminology in charitable trusts is the term ‘corpus’ (Latin for ‘body’) which refers to the assets with which the trust is funded and the term ‘donor’ which is the person donating assets to a charity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148565",
"title": "Charitable trust",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1402,
"text": "Charitable remainder trusts are irrevocable structures established by a donor to provide an income stream to the income beneficiary, while the public charity or private foundation receives the remainder value when the trust terminates. These \"split interest\" trusts are defined in §664 of the Internal Revenue Code and are normally tax-exempt. A section 664 trust makes its payments, either of a fixed amount (charitable remainder annuity trust) or a percentage of trust principal (charitable remainder unitrust), to either the donor or another named beneficiary. If the trust qualifies under IRS code, the donor may claim a charitable income tax deduction for their donation to the trust. Additionally, the donor may not have to pay an immediate capital gains tax when the trust disposes of the appreciated asset and purchases other income-generating assets to fund the trust. At the end of the trust term, which may be based on either lives or a term of years, the charity receives whatever amount is left in the trust. Charitable remainder unitrusts provide some flexibility in the distribution of income, and may be helpful in retirement planning, while charitable remainder annuity trusts paying a fixed dollar amount are more rigid and usually appeal to much older donors unconcerned about inflation's impact on income distributions who are using cash or marketable securities to fund the trust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14412",
"title": "Hedge fund",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "A hedge fund is an investment vehicle that is most often structured as an offshore corporation, limited partnership, or limited liability company. The fund is managed by an investment manager in the form of an organization or company that is legally and financially distinct from the hedge fund and its portfolio of assets. Many investment managers utilize service providers for operational support. Service providers include prime brokers, banks, administrators, distributors, and accounting firms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "851675",
"title": "Investment trust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "An investment trust is a form of investment fund found mostly in the United Kingdom and Japan. Investment trusts are closed-end funds and are constituted as public limited companies. In many respects, the investment trust was the progenitor of the investment company in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4vgset
|
it is said that children are (almost) immune to motion sickness up to the age of 2. why?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main reason for motion sickness is our body has trouble reconciling the visual cues for no movement with the physical sensation of movement. The difference causes our bod to freak out, and we throw up to expel whatever apparent poison we've consumed.\n\nChildren don't have the history to realize there is a discrepancy yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Toddlers have emerging balance sense. Watch them walk, and you'll see that they don't seem sensitive to the fact that they are about to tip over. That balance sense is what's upset by external accelerations to cause motion sickness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coming not from a biological standpoiny but rather a virtual reality developer's standpoint motion sickness is caused by our perceived movement being different than our actual physical (or expected) movement, so therefor if a child doesn't have those physical expectations of what movement should look/feel like there is no opposing stimuli to make them think anything is different. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Huh. My parents told me that I always got horrible motion sickness in the car when I was a baby. Is this supposed to be true of all babies, or just most?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26534505",
"title": "Panic disorder",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Children differ from adolescents and adults in their interpretation and ability to express their experience. Like adults, children experience physical symptoms including accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling or shaking, shortness of breath, nausea or stomach pain, dizziness or light-headedness. In addition, children also experience cognitive symptoms like fear of dying, feelings of being detached from oneself, feelings of losing control or going crazy, but they are unable to vocalize these higher order manifestations of fear. They simply know that something is going wrong and that they are very afraid. Children can only describe the physical symptoms. They have not yet developed the constructs to put these symptoms together and label them as fear. Parents often feel helpless when they watch a child suffer. They can help children give a name to their experience, and empower them to overcome the fear they are experiencing\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57688",
"title": "Anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Like adults, children can experience anxiety disorders; between 10 and 20 percent of all children will develop a full-fledged anxiety disorder prior to the age of 18, making anxiety the most common mental health issue in young people. Anxiety disorders in children are often more challenging to identify than their adult counterparts owing to the difficulty many parents face in discerning them from normal childhood fears. Likewise, anxiety in children is sometimes misdiagnosed as an attention deficit disorder or, due to the tendency of children to interpret their emotions physically (as stomach aches, head aches, etc.), anxiety disorders may initially be confused with physical ailments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20639871",
"title": "Fear of medical procedures",
"section": "Section::::Fear of doctors and fear of needles.:Fear of doctors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 544,
"text": " People of all ages deal with fear of doctors (iatrophobia). Children often express fear by trying to hide from doctors when their parents take them in for checkups or by trying to avoid going to the doctor by not telling their parents when they don’t feel well. This fear as a child can be easily treated in much the same way that doctors deal with children in surgery. An explanation or example (like seeing the doctor check an older sibling, or a stuffed animal) can help a child feel more comfortable with what the doctor will do for them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12774778",
"title": "Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Children with infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy experience progressive difficulties with movement. Generally they have muscles that are at first weak and \"floppy\" (hypotonic), and then gradually become very stiff (spastic). Eventually, affected children lose the ability to move independently. Lack of muscle strength causes difficulty with feeding and breathing problems that can lead to frequent infections, such as pneumonia. Seizures occur in some affected children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1840468",
"title": "Jacobsen syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Most children with the syndrome have delayed development, including delayed speech, motor disabilities and lack of coordination, which makes simple activities like sitting, standing and walking difficult. Most children eventually start speaking, but in cases with severe intellectual disability language use is highly restricted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24199513",
"title": "Mullingstorp",
"section": "Section::::Childcare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Too many children have psychological problems, which can be attributed largely to parental influence. During the foetal period, birth and early childhood, children are strongly affected by the frame of mind of their parents. Our futures are shaped by experiences during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9298577",
"title": "Fever Dream (short story)",
"section": "Section::::Themes and interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The story also involves childhood fears of isolation and distrust of adults. The doctor continues to scoff at his illness, and Charles's parents do little to help his situation, and perhaps aggravate it. Fear of not being taken seriously by adults is a common worry of children; children in many ways rely on adults to help them, since they are unable to help themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6007xy
|
court mandated community service is like forced labour?
|
[
{
"answer": "Court mandated community service is offered to people who commit a small crime, such as stealing a chocolate bar. The judge or justice of peace may give you an option to show that you are not a bad person by doing something such as community service or even writing an apology letter to the person you had wronged. This is called a diversion. Failure to complete your diversion means you end up in jail for the stated amount of time for the crime, which you would have faced had you not taken a diversion, but it can be worse jail time because you made a promise to do community service yet failed to complete it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it is. Punishments by courts almost always involve someone doing something they'd rather not do.\n\nIf you think the community service is bad, prison is worse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one is \"forcing\" the work. Court mandated community service is considered a far less severe punishment than the alternative fines or jail time. Most people gladly take picking up garbage or volunteering at a church over paying large sums of money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "541048",
"title": "Unfree labour",
"section": "Section::::Forms of Unfree Labour.:Penal labour.:Prison labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Convict or prison labour is another classic form of unfree labour. The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of sympathy, because of the social stigma attached to people regarded as \"common criminals\". In some countries and historical periods, however, prison labour has been forced upon people who have been victims of prejudice, convicted of political crimes, convicted of \"victimless crimes\", or people who committed theft or related offences because they lacked any other means of subsistence—categories of people who typically call for compassion according to current ethical ideas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1607449",
"title": "Human rights in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Convention rights in domestic law.:Freedom from slavery and forced labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The courts have been reluctant to force individuals to work and have declined to enforce contracts of service. Forced labour is however permitted in certain limited circumstances: the Crown can theoretically compel persons to undertake naval service and prisoners can be forced to work whilst serving their sentences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25182132",
"title": "Coroners and Justice Act 2009",
"section": "Section::::Notable events with respect to the act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "In December 2012, owners of a family patio and paving business in Bedford were successfully prosecuted under the provision criminalising the holding of someone in slavery or servitude, or requiring them to perform forced or compulsory labour, between 2010 and 2011. The investigation of forced labour began after the body of one of the family's workers was discovered in 2008. The family found using vulnerable mentally ill, alcoholic, and homeless men for forced labour very profitable, holding some men in servitude for decades and paying them as little as £5 a day (the National Minimum Wage at the time was £5.80 per hour for an adult aged 21 or over).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53257124",
"title": "Women's rights in Myanmar",
"section": "Section::::Ethnic Women’s Rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "A 1998 International Labour Organization (ILO) Commission of Inquiry reported that forced labor is most commonly seen in ethnic minority areas. In these areas forced labor is used a means of enforcing the army’s control over local populations. Women are usually the first in the family to engage in unpaid labor in an attempt to allow male family members to seek wage generating employment. Widows however, are especially vulnerable to forced labor as they are usually unable to pay fees that would exempt them from forced labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534791",
"title": "Constitution of Malaysia",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental Liberties.:Article 6 – No Slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Article 6 provides that no person may be held in slavery. All forms of forced labour are prohibited, but federal law, such as the National Service Act 1952, may provide for compulsory service for national purposes. It is expressly provided that work incidental to serving a sentence of imprisonment imposed by a court of law is not forced labour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44437864",
"title": "Occupational injustice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Occupational injustice derives from the concept of occupational justice, which originated in 1997 with social scientists Anne Wilcock of Australia and Elizabeth Townsend of Canada . As a particular application of social justice, occupational injustice occurs when a person is denied, excluded from or deprived of opportunity to pursue meaningful occupations or when unchosen occupations are imposed upon them thus limiting life satisfaction. The construct of occupational rights stems from human rights but focuses on the inherent right of individuals to participate in occupations, construed as their personally meaningful and goal-directed use of time. Through this participation, occupational rights contribute to fulfillment and self-actualization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31609294",
"title": "Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour",
"section": "Section::::International definitions.:Forms of forced labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "• State-imposed forms of forced labour, such as prison labour when prisoners are forced to work for profit-making private enterprises; military labour when civilians are forced to work for government or the military; or compulsory work on public construction projects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6i531w
|
if the reason most mammals have testicles outside their bodies, what about sea-mammals (seals, whales etc)? how do they get around the issue of high body temperature affecting sperm?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sea mammals keep their testicles in internal pouches surrounded by thick tendon-like tissues that keep the temperature lower than the surrounding muscles.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67193",
"title": "Testicle",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes. Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body, suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67193",
"title": "Testicle",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The early mammals had lower body temperatures and thus their testes worked efficiently within their body. However it is argued that boreotherian mammals have higher body temperatures than the other mammals and had to develop external testes to keep them cool. It is argued that those mammals with internal testes, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, elephants, and rhinoceroses, have a lower core body temperatures than those mammals with external testes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67193",
"title": "Testicle",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:External.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "There are several hypotheses why most boreotherian mammals have external testes which operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature, e.g. that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons, that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67193",
"title": "Testicle",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Location.:Internal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes. The testes of the non-boreotherian mammals, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, and elephants, remain within the abdomen. There are also some marsupials with external testes and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros. Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes. As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18841931",
"title": "Scrotum",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Having the scrotum and testicles situated outside the abdominal cavity may provide additional advantages. The external scrotum is not affected by abdominal pressure. This may prevent the emptying of the testes before the sperm were matured sufficiently for fertilization. Another advantage is it protects the testes from jolts and compressions associated with an active lifestyle. Animals that move at a steady pace – such as elephants, whales, and marsupial moles – have internal testes and no scrotum. Unlike placental mammals, some male marsupials have a scrotum that is anterior to the penis, although there are several marsupial species without an external scrotum. In humans, the scrotum may provide some friction during intercourse, helping to enhance the activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4058774",
"title": "Human reproduction",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Human male.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the testes where sperm are produced, and the penis. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity. Having the testes outside the abdomen facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive about 2-3 °C less than the normal body temperature i.e. 37 °C. In particular, the extraperitoneal location of the testes may result in a 2-fold reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissues compared to tissues at 37 °C. If the testicles remain too close to the body, it is likely that the increase in temperature will harm the spermatozoa formation, making conception more difficult. This is why the testes are carried in an external pouch viz. scrotum rather than within the abdomen; they normally remain slightly cooler than body temperature, facilitating sperm production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36695798",
"title": "Mammalian reproduction",
"section": "Section::::Reproductive system.:Placental mammals.:Male placental mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "The mammalian male reproductive system contains two main divisions, the penis and the testicles, the latter of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity, but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals. For instance, a dog's penis is covered by a penile sheath except when mating. Having the testicles outside the abdomen best facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive. The external location may also cause a reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissue. Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of sexual maturity until death. The produced sperm are stored in the epididymis until ejaculation. The sperm cells are motile and they swim using tail-like flagella to propel themselves towards the ovum. The sperm follows temperature gradients (thermotaxis) and chemical gradients (chemotaxis) to locate the ovum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1r7jb6
|
why are musicians/composers like mozart regarded so highly? if something almost just like it came along now, would it be regarded as highly?
|
[
{
"answer": "W.A. Mozart is considered by most musicians to be one of the most influential composers for a variety of reasons:\n\n(WALL OF TEXT WARNING, I'm on mobile, sorry)\n\n-Prolific composer: He composed over 600 works throughout his lifetime, for a large variety of mediums (symphony, string quartets, trips, duos, woodwind ensembles, solo instruments, etc...). Many of those works are considered pillars of the repertoire.\n\n-Stylistic innovation: During Mozart's early life, the \"stile galant\" was the dominant compositional language. This style was characterized by its overly simple harmonic and rhythmic structures, as well as its apparent superficiality. Composers of galant style were primarily concerned with doing away with the intellectual complexity of the Baroque period (most notably J.S. Bach). Mozart gradually did away with this style, incorporating Baroque style complexity into his compositions while maintaining utmost clarity and expressiveness. He also incorporated the \"sturm und drang\" style (storm and stress) later in life, paving the way, along with Haydn, for the Romantic period, and composers like Ludwig van Beethoven and the such.\n\nA quote by pianist Charles Rosen puts it real nicely:\n\n \"It is only through recognizing the violence and sensuality at the center of Mozart's work that we can make a start towards a comprehension of his structures and an insight into his magnificence. In a paradoxical way, Schumann's superficial characterization of the G minor Symphony can help us to see Mozart's daemon more steadily. In all of Mozart's supreme expressions of suffering and terror, there is something shockingly voluptuous.\"\n\nTL;DR: Mozart changed the musical landscape by bringing back true depth of emotion in music, writing a ton of music, and being a role model for just about all composers after him. And he had the hots for his cousin. And he liked poop and fart jokes. Go figure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20345370",
"title": "Biographies of Mozart",
"section": "Section::::Revisionism in Mozart biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "There is little doubt that successive generations of scholars have been sincere in their views of the composer, each claiming to be more 'objective' than the last, stripping away the veneer of speculation to arrive at 'the real man'. It is sobering to realize that these different opinions about Mozart as a person are all based on a very similar set of data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13817925",
"title": "Mainly Mozart Festival",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The focus was placed on Mozart because he is considered by many to be the greatest composer of all time and because of the variety of his musical genius. Since its inception, Mainly Mozart has added the works of other composers with an emphasis on those of the 18th and 19th centuries. Using the common language of music, Mainly Mozart has served as a regional resource by connecting communities in Southern California and Baja California to Mainly Mozart musicians, classical music, and stories behind the music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18773252",
"title": "Mozart symphonies of spurious or doubtful authenticity",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for misattribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "BULLET::::- Mozart, when a mature composer and performer, would sometimes include the work of another—usually young and struggling—composer in one of his regular symphony concerts. Although he would present the true composer to the audience, the work's tenuous association with Mozart would sometimes lead to a continuing belief that he was the composer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33163",
"title": "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart",
"section": "Section::::Works, musical style, and innovations.:Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Mozart's most famous pupil, whom the Mozarts took into their Vienna home for two years as a child, was probably Johann Nepomuk Hummel, a transitional figure between Classical and Romantic eras. More important is the influence Mozart had on composers of later generations. Ever since the surge in his reputation after his death, studying his scores has been a standard part of classical musicians' training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82991",
"title": "Chamber music",
"section": "Section::::History.:Haydn, Mozart, and the classical style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Mozart's string quartets are considered the pinnacle of the classical art. The six string quartets that he dedicated to Haydn, his friend and mentor, inspired the elder composer to say to Mozart's father, \"I tell you before God as an honest man that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by reputation. He has taste, and, what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55136405",
"title": "Jean-Victor Hocquard",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "From his thesis, he maintained throughout his various studies, the idea that Mozart's specificity resides in a thought of \"intrinsically musical character\", going even went so far as to consider Mozart as an initiatory guide who, through aesthetic ideals, \"would make his music a work of \"truth\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20345370",
"title": "Biographies of Mozart",
"section": "Section::::Adding to the documentary evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Careful contextual readings of [Mozart's] Viennese letters have been few, perhaps because Mozart is such a towering figure that most historians and musicians have tended to see him as the sun around which all else revolved, and they have therefore paid little attention to the mundane contexts in which he lived, composed, and corresponded. Mozart was, of course, a supreme musical genius, ... but he was also a man, living in day-to-day world of traditions, practices, and constraints. ... Thus my readings of his letters and those of his family will often deal with quite mundane contextual matters, such as days of the week, exchange rates, and current events. ... Often enough, we shall find that the implications of such simple matters have been overlooked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fa5sfy
|
why can some women be in labor for more than a day and some give birth in less than an hour?
|
[
{
"answer": "That’s just the way it goes. There will always be a range of time periods. Some babies, especially the second and third births, are more ready and able to make their escape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45460517",
"title": "Prolonged labor",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Prolonged active labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The phase of labor that extends into multiple hours (at least 14). The cervix usually dilates to over 14 cm before active labor occurs. When it first begins, it is encouraged that women stand up, walk around, and eat or drink. If failure to progress extends beyond this point, preventative measures need to be taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83449",
"title": "Childbirth",
"section": "Section::::Vaginal birth.:Second stage: fetal expulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "labours, birth is usually completed within two hours. Labours longer than three hours are associated with declining rates of spontaneous vaginal delivery and increasing rates of infection, perineal tears, and obstetric hemorrhage, as well as the need for intensive care of the neonate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1771587",
"title": "Pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Childbirth.:Childbirth maturity stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Events after 42 weeks are considered postterm. When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks, the risk of complications for both the woman and the fetus increases significantly. Therefore, in an otherwise uncomplicated pregnancy, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2283367",
"title": "Prelabor rupture of membranes",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Both expectant management (watchful waiting) and an induction of labor (artificially stimulating labor) are considered in this case. 90% of women start labor on their own within 24 hours, and therefore it is reasonable to wait for 12–24 hours as long as there is no risk of infection. However, if labor does not begin soon after the PROM, an induction of labor is recommended because it reduces rates of infections, decreases the chances that the baby will require a stay in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and does not increase the rate of caesarean sections. If a woman strongly does not want to be induced, watchful waiting is an acceptable option as long as there is no sign of infection, the fetus is not in distress, and she is aware and accepts the risks of PPROM. There is not enough data to show that the use of prophylactic antibiotics (to prevent infection) is beneficial for mothers or babies at or near term because of the potential side effects and development of antibiotic resistance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45460517",
"title": "Prolonged labor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Prolonged labor is the inability of a woman to proceed with childbirth upon going into labor. Prolonged labor typically lasts over 20 hours for first time mothers, and over 14 hours for women that have already had children. Failure to progress can take place during two different phases; the latent phase and active phase of labor. The latent phase of labor can be emotionally tiring and cause fatigue, but it typically does not result in further issues. The active phase of labor, on the other hand, if prolonged, can result in long term complications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50217755",
"title": "Childbirth in Nepal",
"section": "Section::::Pregnancy behaviors and beliefs.:Preparation for birth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Overall, women do not prepare much for birth. Especially if they are delivering alone, they will not have the time nor the funds to adequately prepare for labor and delivery. They will, however, work right up until the onset of labor. This is mainly due to the deeply entrenched gender roles that women must do household labor. Even if husbands wished to help lighten the workload, they are unable to do so. This constant movement provides added stress and contributes to the already lacking nutritional status of these women, further increasing the risk for poor birth outcomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83449",
"title": "Childbirth",
"section": "Section::::Vaginal birth.:Onset of labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Common signs that labour, commonly spelled as labor, is about to begin may include \"lightening\". Lightening describes the baby moving down from the rib cage with the head of the baby engaging deep in the pelvis. The pregnant woman may then find breathing easier since her lungs have more room for expansion, but pressure on her bladder may cause more frequent need to void (urinate). Lightening may occur a few weeks or a few hours before labour begins, or even not until labour has begun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5kq0ko
|
how do colony based insects, such as ants, decide who to make the queen (or king) and how does that one get so much bigger/different in appearance?
|
[
{
"answer": "The queen ant mates with a male and his sperm is used by her to produce eggs. The fertilized eggs develop into females and the unfertilized eggs develop into males(haplo-diploid sex determination). The workers feed the larvae and on the basis of each ones diet they develop either into workers or queens. The queens then leave the colony to find males and to start new colonies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12131498",
"title": "Queen ant",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:An established colony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "The term \"queen\" is not particularly apt, as the queen ant has very little control over the colony as a whole. She has no known authority or decision-making control; instead, her sole function is to reproduce. Therefore, the queen is best understood as the reproductive element of a colony rather than a leader. Once a colony is established, the worker ants meet the queen's needs such as giving her food and disposing of her waste. Because ant social structure is very complex and individual ants are relatively simple, an ant colony can be thought of as a single organism, and the individual ants as cells or limbs of the organism, as the individuals can rarely survive on their own. In a colony, some ants may be unrelated to the queen(s), such as when a brood is captured in a raid and raised as the colony's own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54808",
"title": "Termite",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Caste system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "The reproductive caste of a mature colony includes a fertile female and male, known as the queen and king. The queen of the colony is responsible for egg production for the colony. Unlike in ants, the king mates with her for life. In some species, the abdomen of the queen swells up dramatically to increase fecundity, a characteristic known as physogastrism. Depending on the species, the queen starts producing reproductive winged alates at a certain time of the year, and huge swarms emerge from the colony when nuptial flight begins. These swarms attract a wide variety of predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43933625",
"title": "Ropalidia fasciata",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Dominance hierarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Colonies have multiple founding females who cooperate and perform different roles. Although dominant behavior is not especially clear as in other social insects, a queen-like individual is determined for the colony. She spends most of her time at the nest and consistently takes an alarm posture when an enemy approaches, guiding the rest of the colony's behavior. This individual can be said to be more dominant than the rest, and the other foundresses take on worker-like roles. Unlike species of related wasps of the genera \"Polistes\" and \"Mischocyttarus\", this queen-like individual does not show obvious aggression or acts of dominance toward others in the nest. Even when actions that are considered dominant in other species are performed, the receiving individual does not adopt a submissive posture. Instead, the individual ignores her and continues its previous activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47872424",
"title": "Pleometrosis",
"section": "Section::::Selection pressures causing pleometrosis in ants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 2525,
"text": "The driving selection pressure that causes ant species to form colonies through Pleometrosis is because of inter-colony competition in high density colony areas. When a queen enters an area in which they want to form a colony if there is a finite amount of resources to fuel the colony there is usually intense competition and territoriality for resources between ant colonies. If the queen were to form a colony on her own then she has a low probability of surviving because other colonies may be able to produce workers faster than her or may already be past the early stages of colony formation. Forming the colony on her own could also cause her to have to forage for food to try and rear the amount of offspring she needs to out-compete other colonies to survive and this foraging behavior puts her at risk of predators. However, if she and multiple queens form a colony through pleometrosis they can produce a larger worker force of ants faster and get to a reproductive stage of colony growth faster thus decreasing the chances of death due to inter-colony competition. It has been observed in ants that form pleometrosis colonies engage in less foraging behavior, thus lowering their chance of predation due to pleometrosis as well. Having multiple queens cuts down on Foraging behavior because each queen uses her own stored energy reserves to feed the brood . By founding the colony pleometrotically ants can form new colonies in high colony density areas and take control of resources in the surrounding area faster. Some Genera of ants such as \"Azteca use\" the additional worker ants early in the colonies formation to monopolize and take control of resources in close proximity of the colony thus stopping other con-specific colonies from acquiring those resources. This strategy allows the plemetrolic colonies to monopolize the area and starve out the other competing colonies. The additional worker force in pleometrolic colonies also allows for bigger and more effective brood raids from con-specific colonies which additionally helps to out-compete colonies. Overall one of the most key aspects of founding a colony in a high density colony area is being able to produce a worker force quickly and efficiently so as to not be starved out or robbed of brood from other colonies causing starvation. By engaging in pleometrosis it increases a queens chance of survival past the early stages of colony formation due to the increased worker force at disposal to take control of resource in the surrounding area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1096688",
"title": "Dominance hierarchy",
"section": "Section::::In eusocial insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "In some species, especially in ants, more than one queen can be found in the same colony, a condition called Polygyny. In this case, another advantage of maintaining a hierarchy is to prolong the colony lifespan. The top ranked individuals may die or lose fertility and \"extra queens\" may benefit of starting a colony in the same site or nest. This advantage is critical in some ecological contexts, such as in situations where nesting sites are limited or dispersal of individuals is risky due to high rates of predation. This polygynous behavior has also been observed in some eusocial bees such as \"Schwarziana quadripunctata\". In this species, multiple queens of varying sizes are present. The larger, physogastric, queens typically control the nest, though a \"dwarf\" queen will take its place in the case of a premature death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42154097",
"title": "Myrmecia nigrocincta",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The colonies of \"M. nigrocincta\" ants are monogyne, i.e. they have only one queen per colony. The queen is semi-claustral, meaning that during the founding of the new colony, the queen has to forage so that she has enough food to raise her brood. Colonies have between 400 and 1200 individuals and are thus considered to be \"large\" colonies. \"M. nigrocinta\" is known to enslave \"Leptomyrmex\" and other species of ants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12550267",
"title": "Crematogaster",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In these ant species, there is also a variation that exists to this mating strategy. There can exist large female workers that are smaller than winged queens yet larger than small workers. They also have many anatomical features that are intermediate to small workers and the queen, including ovary size and composition, and patches. These females can produce unfertilized eggs that can eventually develop into males in colonies that do not have a queen. If these eggs are produced in a colony with a queen, the queen can devour them. Larvae can also devour the eggs. Large workers will normally produce more eggs in ant colonies that are queenless. Large workers can be tended to by small workers in a similar manner to ant queens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fvyxti
|
how is it that some drugs are metabolised through the kidneys and others through the liver?
|
[
{
"answer": "Metabolism of drugs means that a certain chemical in the body, typically an enzyme, does something to the drug. Obviously, those enzymes can't operate anywhere else than where they are; certain enzymes are present in the liver, while others are present in the kidneys. That determines where a drug will be metabolized.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Great question! \n\nDifferent drugs display a variety of metabolic pathways. Some are metabolized by the liver, while others are metabolized in the bloodstream or other tissues. Others are never metabolized at all. The **main factors that determine how a drug is metabolized (and eliminated from the body) are (1) the intrinsic chemical properties of the drug, (2) which enzymes the drug interacts with, and (3) where the drug actually goes**.\n\nWith respect to chemical properties: in broad terms, a drug that is too large, too negatively charged, or too fat-soluble (that is, hydrophobic or with a greater affinity for fatty or nonpolar substances) is difficult for the kidneys to get rid of in the urine. This is because the drug molecule cannot be filtered by the kidney (usually because it's too big or repelled electrostatically by the negatively charged filtering cells in the kidney)—or because, after the drug is filtered by the kidney from the blood, it can simply slip back into the bloodstream by crossing the membranes that line the tubules of the kidney. \n\nHow does the body remedy this? The answer is, in most circumstances, by allowing the drug to be metabolized—which can often make the drug molecule smaller, less fat-soluble, or simply more likely to be eliminated through the bile or the urine. Metabolism also allows certain drugs to become activated or deactivated.\n\nDrugs that are metabolized in the liver are therefore usually too fat-soluble, large, or negatively charged to be eliminated by the kidney. They are also typically drugs that are taken in through the gut (that is, in most cases, you swallow the drug) or otherwise end up circulating in the bloodstream. The liver has specialized enzymes that oxidize (take negatively charged electrons away from), hydrolyze (break down), and conjugate (bind other molecules together with) the drug in the body—and only certain drugs can interact with these enzymes.\n\nOther drugs have a higher affinity for enzymes that are present either in the blood or in other tissues around the body (like nerve or muscle). For example, the commonly used paralytic drug succinylcholine is broken down by the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, which circulates in the bloodstream.\n\nStill other drugs break down by themselves or don't need any metabolism at all. Lithium, which is most commonly used today to stabilize the mood in patients with subtypes of bipolar disorder, enters the body as a lithium salt (which becomes simple ionized lithium after getting dissolved in the blood) and exits the body in the urine as a lithium salt. No metabolism necessary! \n\nAs a final note, remember that many drugs that we use don't (or, rather, shouldn't) fully enter the bloodstream at all. Most creams or ointments applied to the skin, for instance, are not meant to be used in amounts that can actually make it to the rest of the body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1173475",
"title": "Drug metabolism",
"section": "Section::::Sites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Factors responsible for the liver's contribution to drug metabolism include that it is a large organ, that it is the first organ perfused by chemicals absorbed in the gut, and that there are very high concentrations of most drug-metabolizing enzyme systems relative to other organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14902164",
"title": "Hepatic arterial infusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The liver derives its blood supply from two sources – via the hepatic arterial circulation and the portal circulation. Liver metastases get most of their blood supply primarily from the hepatic artery, whereas the normal liver cells get their blood supply from the portal circulation. This allows for chemotherapeutic drugs to be delivered directly to the cancer cells if infused into the hepatic artery. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13885",
"title": "High-density lipoprotein",
"section": "Section::::Structure and function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The cholesterol delivered to the liver is excreted into the bile and, hence, intestine either directly or indirectly after conversion into bile acids. Delivery of HDL cholesterol to adrenals, ovaries, and testes is important for the synthesis of steroid hormones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92512",
"title": "Lipoprotein",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Metabolism.:Endogenous pathway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The liver is the central platform for the handling of lipids: it is able to store glycerols and fats in its cells, the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are also able to create triacylglycerols via de novo synthesis. They also produce the bile from cholesterol. The intestines are responsible for absorbing cholesterol. They transfer it over into the blood stream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17384301",
"title": "Liver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "The liver is an accessory digestive gland that produces bile, an alkaline compound which helps the breakdown of fat. Bile aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids. The gallbladder, a small pouch that sits just under the liver, stores bile produced by the liver which is afterwards moved to the small intestine to complete digestion. The liver's highly specialized tissue consisting of mostly hepatocytes regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions. Estimates regarding the organ's total number of functions vary, but textbooks generally cite it being around 500.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511000",
"title": "Phosphocreatine",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "In the kidneys, the enzyme catalyzes the conversion of two amino acids — arginine and glycine — into guanidinoacetate (also called glycocyamine or GAA), which is then transported in the blood to the liver. A methyl group is added to GAA from the amino acid methionine by the enzyme GAMT, forming non-phosphorylated creatine. This is then released into the blood by the liver where it travels mainly to the muscle cells (95% of the body's creatine is in muscles), and to a lesser extent the brain, heart, and pancreas. Once inside the cells it is transformed into phosphocreatine by the enzyme complex creatine kinase, which makes it able to donate its phosphate group to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This process is an important component of all vertebrates' bioenergetic systems. For instance, while the human body only produces 250g of ATP daily, it recycles its entire body weight in ATP each day through creatine phosphate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31534693",
"title": "Slaframine",
"section": "Section::::Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Liver is the major site of slaframine metabolism where it has been suggested that slaframine is metabolized in the liver by a microsomal flavoprotein oxidase to the ketoimine metabolite consisting of quaternary nitrogen separated from an acetate ester by two carbon atoms (Figure 2).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57eygu
|
How does the revised galaxy count effect Dark Matter?
|
[
{
"answer": "No the gaaxy count does not matter at all for the dark matter hypothesis. In order to be able to explain the scalar power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background you already need to assume something like dark matter. Since the CMB stems from a time before galaxies even formed, the galaxy number must be irrelevant for the necessity of something like dark matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think it makes a difference. The \"missing\" matter was originally postulated as galaxies were rotating faster than they should with the observable matter. Based on their rotational speed and observed mass they should be flinging themselves apart. Hence the need for more mass to gravitationally hold them together. Mass which we can't see. Hence dark matter.\n\nThe fact that there are potentially more galaxies doesn't change this. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "969038",
"title": "Messier 94",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "In 2008 a study was published showing that M94 had very little or no dark matter present. The study analyzed the rotation curves of the galaxy's stars and the density of hydrogen gas and found that ordinary luminous matter appeared to account for all of the galaxy's mass. This result was unusual and somewhat controversial, as current models do not indicate how a galaxy could form without a dark matter halo or how a galaxy could lose its dark matter. Other explanations for galactic rotation curves, such as MOND, also have difficulty explaining this galaxy. This result has yet to be confirmed or accepted by other research groups, however, and has not actually been tested against the predictions of standard galaxy formation models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51424743",
"title": "Dragonfly 44",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "To determine the amount of dark matter in this galaxy, they used the DEIMOS instrument installed on Keck II to measure the velocities of stars for 33.5 hours over a period of six nights so they could determine the galaxy's mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11521028",
"title": "Navarro–Frenk–White profile",
"section": "Section::::Observations of halos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "It is currently debated whether this discrepancy is a consequence of the nature of the dark matter, of the influence of dynamical processes during galaxy formation, or of shortcomings in dynamical modelling of the observational data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6487947",
"title": "Bullet Cluster",
"section": "Section::::Significance to dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "While the Bullet Cluster phenomenon may provide direct evidence for dark matter on large cluster scales, it offers no specific insight into the original galaxy rotation problem. In fact, the observed ratio of dark matter to visible matter in a typical rich galaxy cluster is much lower than predicted. This may indicate that the Lambda-CDM model, the prevailing cosmological model, is insufficient to describe the mass discrepancy on galaxy scales, or that its predictions about the shape of the universe are incorrect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273679",
"title": "Astronomical spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Galaxies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Doppler shift studies of galaxy clusters by Fritz Zwicky in 1937 found that the galaxies in a cluster were moving much faster than seemed to be possible from the mass of the cluster inferred from the visible light. Zwicky hypothesized that there must be a great deal of non-luminous matter in the galaxy clusters, which became known as dark matter. Since his discovery, astronomers have determined that a large portion of galaxies (and most of the universe) is made up of dark matter. In 2003, however, four galaxies (NGC 821, NGC 3379, NGC 4494, and NGC 4697) were found to have little to no dark matter influencing the motion of the stars contained within them; the reason behind the lack of dark matter is unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909881",
"title": "Redshift quantization",
"section": "Section::::Quasar redshifts.:Modern discourse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "A 2006 review by Bajan \"et al.\" discovered weak effects of redshift periodization in data from the Local Group of galaxies and the Hercules Supercluster. They conclude that \"galaxy redshift periodization is an effect which can really exist\", but that the evidence is not well established pending study of larger databases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "630391",
"title": "Fritz Zwicky",
"section": "Section::::Scientific work.:Dark matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "While examining the Coma galaxy cluster in 1933, Zwicky was the first to use the virial theorem to infer the existence of unseen matter, which he referred to as \"dunkle Materie\" 'dark matter'. He calculated the gravitational mass of the galaxies within the cluster and obtained a value at least 400 times greater than expected from their luminosity, which means that most of the matter must be dark. The same calculation today shows a smaller factor, based on greater values for the mass of luminous material; but it is still clear that the great majority of matter was correctly inferred to be dark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1acdlx
|
Are octopuses equally skilled with each arm or do they prefer one or more arms over the others like humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This abstract](_URL_0_) of an article from the *Journal of Comparative Psychology* (J Comp Psychol. 2006 Aug;120(3):198-204.) indicates that researchers did find evidence for octopuses favoring particular limbs.\n\nFull abstract:\n\n > Previous behavioral studies in Octopus vulgaris revealed lateralization of eye use. In this study, the authors expanded the scope to investigate arm preferences. The octopus's generalist hunting lifestyle and the structure of their arms suggest that these animals have no need to designate specific arms for specific tasks. However, octopuses also show behaviors, like exploration, in which only single or small groups of arms are involved. Here the authors show that octopuses had a strong preference for anterior arm use to reach for and explore objects, which points toward a task division between anterior and posterior arms. Four out of 8 subjects also showed a lateral bias. In addition, octopuses had a preference for a specific arm to reach into a T maze to retrieve a food reward. These findings give evidence for limb-specialization in an animal whose 8 arms were believed to be equipotential.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2783568",
"title": "Cephalopod intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Problem-solving ability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The highly sensitive suction cups and prehensile arms of octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish allow them to hold and manipulate objects. However, unlike vertebrates, the motor skills of octopuses do not seem to depend upon mapping their body within their brains, as the ability to organize complex movements is not thought to be linked to particular arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13001588",
"title": "Animal consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Octopuses are highly intelligent, possibly more so than any other order of invertebrates. The level of their intelligence and learning capability are debated, but maze and problem-solving studies show they have both short- and long-term memory. Octopus have a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localized in their brain. Two-thirds of an octopus' neurons are found in the nerve cords of their arms. Octopus arms show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organized in their brain using an internal somatotopic map of their body, instead using a non-somatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates. Some octopuses, such as the mimic octopus, move their arms in ways that emulate the shape and movements of other sea creatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22780",
"title": "Octopus",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to humans.:In science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Octopuses offer many possibilities in biological research, including their ability to regenerate limbs, change the colour of their skin, behave intelligently with a distributed nervous system, and make use of 168 kinds of protocadherins (humans have 58), the proteins that guide the connections neurons make with each other. The California two-spot octopus has had its genome sequenced, allowing exploration of its molecular adaptations. Having independently evolved mammal-like intelligence, octopuses have been compared to hypothetical intelligent extraterrestrials. Their problem-solving skills, along with their mobility and lack of rigid structure enable them to escape from supposedly secure tanks in laboratories and public aquariums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13564973",
"title": "Cephalopod limb",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In the scientific literature, a cephalopod \"arm\" is often treated as distinct from a \"tentacle\", though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, often with the latter acting as an umbrella term for cephalopod limbs. Generally, arms have suckers along most of their length, as opposed to tentacles, which have suckers only near their ends. Barring a few exceptions, octopuses have eight arms and no tentacles, while squid and cuttlefish have eight arms (or two \"legs\" and six \"arms\") and two tentacles. The limbs of nautiluses, which number around 90 and lack suckers altogether, are called tentacles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19166474",
"title": "Hand",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "While the human hand has unique anatomical features, including a longer thumb and fingers that can be controlled individually to a higher degree, the hands of other primates are anatomically similar and the dexterity of the human hand can not be explained solely on anatomical factors. The neural machinery underlying hand movements is a major contributing factor; primates have evolved direct connections between neurons in cortical motor areas and spinal motoneurons, giving the cerebral cortex monosynaptic control over the motoneurons of the hand muscles; placing the hands \"closer\" to the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13564973",
"title": "Cephalopod limb",
"section": "Section::::Abnormalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Many octopus arm anomalies have been recorded, including a 6-armed octopus (nicknamed Henry the Hexapus), a 7-armed octopus, a 10-armed \"Octopus briareus\", one with a forked arm tip, octopuses with double or bilateral hectocotylization, and specimens with up to 96 arm branches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22780",
"title": "Octopus",
"section": "Section::::Relationship to humans.:In science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Some robotics research is exploring biomimicry of octopus features. Octopus arms can move and sense largely autonomously without intervention from the animal's central nervous system. In 2015 a team in Italy built soft-bodied robots able to crawl and swim, requiring only minimal computation. In 2017 a German company made an arm with a soft pneumatically controlled silicone gripper fitted with two rows of suckers. It is able to grasp objects such as a metal tube, a magazine, or a ball, and to fill a glass by pouring water from a bottle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cv7dfh
|
How do stimulants affect your heart rate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Stimulants increase the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. They increase or mimic the action of adrenaline. Basically, there are 3 types of stimulants:\n\n- Releasing agents (like cocaine) release more adrenaline.\n\n- Reuptake inhibitors (like amphetamine) prevent the removal of adrenaline.\n\n- Direct agonists (like ephedrine) directly bind to adrenaline receptors.\n\nThe receptor in the heart muscle in called B1 (beta-1). When adrenaline binds to this receptor, it increases the heart inotropy (contraction force) and chronotropy (contraction speed). Beta-blockers have the opposite effect, since they block the B1-receptor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stimulants can increase the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which secrets more norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline) into the sympathetic nervous systems. The rest is already explained in this discussion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51015431",
"title": "Stimulant use disorder",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The use of stimulants in humans causes rapid weight loss, cardiovascular effects such as an increase in heart rate, respirations and blood pressure, emotional or mental side effects such as paranoia, anxiety, and aggression, as well as a change in the survival pathway known as the reward/reinforcement pathway in our brain. An increase in energy, a reduced appetite, increased alertness and a boost in confidence are all additional side effects of stimulant use when introduced to the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10671710",
"title": "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management",
"section": "Section::::Medications.:Concerns regarding stimulants.:Side effects.:Cardiovascular side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "There is concern that stimulants and atomoxetine, which increase the heart rate and blood pressure, might cause serious cardiovascular problems. Recent extremely large-scale studies by the FDA indicate that, in children, young adults, and adults, there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, myocardial infarction, and stroke) and the medical use of amphetamine, methylphenidate, or other ADHD stimulants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46816121",
"title": "List of designer drugs",
"section": "Section::::Stimulants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Stimulants produce a variety of different kinds of effects by enhancing the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects, which vary depending on the substance and dosage in question, may include enhanced alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, increased arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and the perception of a diminished requirement for food and sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51015431",
"title": "Stimulant use disorder",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Short-term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Even in small doses, stimulants cause a decrease in appetite, an increase in physical activity and alertness, convulsions, an elevated body temperature, increased respiration, irregular heart beat and increased blood pressure; some of which can cause sudden death depending upon the medical history of the user, even among first time users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2276394",
"title": "Phenmetrazine",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In clinical use, phenmetrazine produces less nervousness, hyperexcitability, euphoria and insomnia than drugs of the amphetamine family. It tends not to increase heart rate as much as other stimulants. Due to the relative lack of side effects, one study found it well tolerated in children. In a study of the effectiveness on weight loss between phenmetrazine and dextroamphetamine, phenmetrazine was found to be slightly more effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529870",
"title": "Control of ventilation",
"section": "Section::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Determinants of ventilatory rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Drugs can greatly influence the rate of respiration. Opioids and anesthetics tend to depress ventilation, by decreasing the normal response to raised carbon dioxide levels in the arterial blood. Stimulants such as amphetamines can cause hyperventilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872059",
"title": "Fasciculation",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Other medications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Stimulants can cause fasciculations directly. These include caffeine, pseudoephedrine (Sudafed), amphetamines, and the asthma bronchodilators salbutamol (brand names Proventil, Combivent, Ventolin). Medications used to treat attention deficit disorder (ADHD) often contain stimulants as well, and are common causes of benign fasciculations. Since asthma and ADHD are much more serious than the fasciculations themselves, this side effect may have to be tolerated by the patient after consulting a physician or pharmacist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
703fyj
|
i'm a casual sports watcher. what's the difference between the level of skill/play between the nfl/nba and their ncaa counterparts?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, \"Some of these colleges they literally live and die on their sports programs\" isn't really true. Their educational efforts are perhaps not as splashy, but they are the university's enduring accomplishment.\n\nThe big difference is that there are 347 NCAA Division I teams. That means each team has 1/347^th of the good players. They only get to keep them for 4-5 years, and then the 30 NBA teams pick the best ones. Then the best players play for a decade. So the NBA team has 10X the selectivity over 2X the number of years. One could expect them to be 20 times better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a skill gap, although the top college players are going to be better than the worst pros.\n\nThe biggest difference is skill consistency. Every NFL starter is one of the top 100 players in the **world** at their position. The difference between the best and the worst isn't that great. But in college, a starter the in the top 1000 of people who happened to have been born in a certain 4-5 range, a lot less exclusive. That means every college team is going to have holes in it, and the #1 RB is going to look pretty good running over the #1000 linebacker. The same player is going to face a learning curve facing even #100 in the pros.\n\n > My question is WHY and HOW.\n\nBesides the numbers game:\n\n* physical maturity - males can continue to grow into their early 20's...a 28-year-old is not only done growing, but they have had a few years to get used to their final form\n* physical conditioning - it can take a few years for even a fully mature adult to work their way up to top physical condition\n* mental and emotional maturity - college coaches have to waste a lot of time babysitting teen age boy when the could be making them better football players\n* experience - many college players only see the field of a few years of their eligibility, pros can have many years of experience on top of what they learned in college\n* pracitce - college player are more limited in the amount of time they can be required to practice and study\n* resources - pros make a lot of money, and can afford a home gym and a nutritionist and just about anything else they need to make themselves better",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, \"Some of these colleges they literally live and die on their sports programs\" isn't really true. Their educational efforts are perhaps not as splashy, but they are the university's enduring accomplishment.\n\nThe big difference is that there are 347 NCAA Division I teams. That means each team has 1/347^th of the good players. They only get to keep them for 4-5 years, and then the 30 NBA teams pick the best ones. Then the best players play for a decade. So the NBA team has 10X the selectivity over 2X the number of years. One could expect them to be 20 times better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a skill gap, although the top college players are going to be better than the worst pros.\n\nThe biggest difference is skill consistency. Every NFL starter is one of the top 100 players in the **world** at their position. The difference between the best and the worst isn't that great. But in college, a starter the in the top 1000 of people who happened to have been born in a certain 4-5 range, a lot less exclusive. That means every college team is going to have holes in it, and the #1 RB is going to look pretty good running over the #1000 linebacker. The same player is going to face a learning curve facing even #100 in the pros.\n\n > My question is WHY and HOW.\n\nBesides the numbers game:\n\n* physical maturity - males can continue to grow into their early 20's...a 28-year-old is not only done growing, but they have had a few years to get used to their final form\n* physical conditioning - it can take a few years for even a fully mature adult to work their way up to top physical condition\n* mental and emotional maturity - college coaches have to waste a lot of time babysitting teen age boy when the could be making them better football players\n* experience - many college players only see the field of a few years of their eligibility, pros can have many years of experience on top of what they learned in college\n* pracitce - college player are more limited in the amount of time they can be required to practice and study\n* resources - pros make a lot of money, and can afford a home gym and a nutritionist and just about anything else they need to make themselves better",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54781673",
"title": "Two-way player",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "In sports that require a player to play on offense and defense, such as basketball and ice hockey, a two-way player refers to a player who excels at both. In sports where a player typically specializes on offense or defense, like American football, or on pitching or batting, like baseball, it refers to a player who chooses to do both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31307446",
"title": "Kenny Dalglish Soccer Match",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The skill level is divided into nine levels so that rookies can play against video game veterans. Passing the ball is similar to the \"Kick Off\" series except that it's only possible to make long passes; making quick passing purely a matter of luck. The soccer ball bounces excessively; making it very difficult to shoot on target for less than 30 yards (⅓ of an American football field).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25806331",
"title": "List of professional sports",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "This is a list of professional sports – that is, sports (and, more broadly, non-sport games subject to organized competition) that support one or more systems of professional sports players, sportspeople by \"occupation\". Such sports also have a vibrant community of amateur players, from whom the best rise to become professionals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51349731",
"title": "High performance sport",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "High performance sport overlaps with professional sport but is not the same; for example, the English football league system and Minor League Baseball include lower divisions whose teams' members are full-time professionals. On the other hand, elite competitors at the Olympic Games or World Games in some minority sports may be part-time or rely on government grants. Likewise, student athletes, especially in college sports, are often high performance despite being amateurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398277",
"title": "Professional sports",
"section": "Section::::History.:Basketball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Professional basketball has the advantages of much smaller rosters than other professional sports, allowing the sport to be viable in smaller cities than other sports. Professional basketball leagues of varying caliber can be found around the world, especially in Europe and South America.dld. 7d\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3624882",
"title": "Masque of the Red Death (Ravenloft)",
"section": "Section::::Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Athlete - players can choose a specific sport (golf, hockey, football, American football, etc.) and gain bonus feats depending on the sport they choose. This class has many acrobatic and survival skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26525490",
"title": "List of social activities at Durham University",
"section": "Section::::Sports.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "BULLET::::- There are many college sports teams which allow for participation in sport at a less intense level than the university sports teams. There are leagues or tournaments between colleges in most major sports, with many colleges having multiple teams covering a wide range of ability levels. This is a contributing factor to the high participation in sport at the university.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53qvm7
|
why people see 'waves' of color in the dark.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because there's light, and your visual centers are doing their thing, but without enough information to make sense of it. \n\nYou might enjoy this article: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29150377",
"title": "Empirical theory of perception",
"section": "Section::::Wholly empirical approach to visual perception.:The wholly empirical strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "The wholly empirical approach holds that this experience is the sole determinant of perceptual qualities. The reason percipients see an object as dark or light, the argument goes, is that in both our own past and the past of the species it paid off to see it that particular way. Returning to the bucket analogy, imagine that each of the three hoses pumps out water of a different color: one pumps out black water, one pumps out gray water, and one pumps out clear water. All one sees is the water in the bucket, which can be clear, gray, black, or any shade in between. As expected, it is impossible to perform some calculation on the color of the water in the bucket to find out how much water came out of each hose. Now imagine that it is your job to bet on how much water came out of the gray hose. The output ratios of the hoses are not random, but co-vary in all kinds of complicated ways based on the time of day, how long it takes to fill up the bucket, etc. At first your behavior in response to the color of the bucket might not be so good, but over time this would gradually improve as different shades and behaviors in response became associated by trial and error. The key is that in order to improve you have to know whether or not your behaviors worked by interacting with the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17357470",
"title": "Photographic lighting",
"section": "Section::::Creating surreal lighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Natural and surreal are just different sides of the same cause and effect coin. Understanding what makes lighting seem natural makes it easier to understand how to create other desired reactions. Natural light usually comes from above, so strategies which place the key light below the face will appear to be unusual or unnatural. The brain adapts color perception in a way which makes color balance seem neutral on white clothing and faces. The eyes also adapt to brightness as they scan and usually perceive a full range of detail in most environments. Lighting a scene with a tonal range or color cast which is out of context with what would typically be expected will cause the viewer to notice the environment and make other than normal assumptions about it. It is also possible to create the impression of environmental context where none is seen in the photograph, such the look of a person standing under a streetlight at night by using a gridded flash attached to the ceiling of the studio with no fill source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26248376",
"title": "Color psychology",
"section": "Section::::Light, color, and surroundings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "Light and color can influence how people perceive the area around them. Different light sources affect how the colors of walls and other objects are seen. Specific hues of colors seen under natural sunlight may vary when seen under the light from an incandescent (tungsten) light-bulb: lighter colors may appear to be more orange or \"brownish\" and darker colors may appear even darker. Light and the color of an object can affect how one perceives its positioning. If light or shadow, or the color of the object, masks an object's true contour (outline of a figure) it can appear to be shaped differently from reality. Objects under a uniform light-source will promote better impression of three-dimensional shape. The color of an object may affect whether or not it seems to be in motion. In particular, the trajectories of objects under a light source whose intensity varies with space are more difficult to determine than identical objects under a uniform light source. This could possibly be interpreted as interference between motion and color perception, both of which are more difficult under variable lighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31289501",
"title": "The Magpie (Monet)",
"section": "Section::::Critical analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "After scrutinizing the effects of light and color on forms, the Impressionists concluded that \"local color\"—an object's true color in white light— becomes modified by the quality of the light shining on it, by reflections from other objects, and by the effects juxtaposed colors produce. Shadows do not appear gray or black, as many earlier painters thought, but are composed of colors modified by reflections or other conditions. Using various colors and short choppy brush strokes, Monet was able to catch accurately the vibrating quality of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248581",
"title": "Darkness",
"section": "Section::::Scientific.:Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In terms of physics, an object is said to be dark when it absorbs photons, causing it to appear dim compared to other objects. For example, matte black paint does not reflect much visible light and appears dark, whereas white paint reflects lots of light and appears bright. For more information see color. An object may appear dark, but it may be bright at a frequency that humans cannot perceive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19216955",
"title": "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "§ 2 Doppler observes that colour is a manifestation of the frequency of the light wave, in the eye of the beholder. He describes his principle that a frequency shift occurs when the source or the observer moves. A ship meets waves at a faster rate when sailing against the waves than when sailing along with them. The same goes for sound and light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2022036",
"title": "Closed-eye hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Levels of CEV perception.:Level 1: Visual noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "This can be seen when the eyes are closed and looking at the back of the eyelids. In a bright room, a dark red can be seen, owing to a small amount of light penetrating the eyelids and taking on the color of the blood it has passed through. In a dark room, blackness can be seen or the object can be more colourful. But in either case it is not a flat unchanging redness/blackness. Instead, if actively observed for a few minutes, one becomes aware of an apparent disorganized motion, a random field of lightness/darkness that overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jul65
|
How are gasses commercially produced?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are quite a few ways to make gasses, though once a gas is made and purified it is usually compressed using some type of mechanical pump.\n\n\nLets look at oxygen for example. You could use a cryogenic distillation process or [pressure swing adsorption](_URL_0_) to extract oxygen from the air. There are also selectively permeable membranes that can separate oxygen and nitrogen. Alternatively, you could start with water and produce oxygen (and hydrogen) through electrolysis. The method you use will depend on the desired purity and the cost, which can vary wildly depending on the technique and if the gas is a byproduct of another process.\n\nDifferent gasses will require different methods. Nitrogen could be obtained using most of those air extraction methods above, while we generally make hydrogen through reformation of natural gas. Small hydrocarbons like propane come from oil distillation and natural gas sources, and some others like ethylene might need to use specific cracking processes.\n\nOnce you have the gas in the purity you want you either transfer it to a tank if it already has the desired pressure or you can pass it through a pump to get it to the pressure you need. The type and size of the pump would depend on gas species, input and output pressures and flow capacity. Temperature manipulation can also work to move certain species between liquid and gas phases and deal with them that way, or pressure could be used for the same if applicable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "387268",
"title": "Coal gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The production process is distinct, both physically and chemically, from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas, syngas, hygas, Dowson gas, and producer gas. These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air, oxygen, or steam, to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174822",
"title": "Producer gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as coal, as opposed to natural gas. It can be produced from various fuels by partial combustion with air, usually modified by simultaneous injection of water or steam to maintain a constant temperature and obtain a higher heat content gas by enrichment of air gas with hydrogen. In this respect it is similar to other types of \"manufactured\" gas, such as coal gas, coke oven gas, water gas and carburetted water gas. Producer gas was used primarily as an industrial fuel for iron and steel manufacturing, such as firing coke ovens and blast furnaces, cement and ceramic kilns, or for mechanical power through gas engines. It was characteristically low in heating value but cheap to make, so that large amounts could be made and burned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2861157",
"title": "Industrial gas",
"section": "Section::::Gas distribution.:Gas delivery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Most gases are sold in gas cylinders and some sold as liquid in appropriate containers (e.g. Dewars) or as bulk liquid delivered by truck. The industry originally supplied gases in cylinders to avoid the need for local gas generation; but for large customers such as steelworks or oil refineries, a large gas production plant may be built nearby (typically called an \"on-site\" facility) to avoid using large numbers of cylinders manifolded together. Alternatively, an industrial gas company may supply the plant and equipment to produce the gas rather than the gas itself. An industrial gas company may also offer to act as plant operator under an operations and maintenance contract for a gases facility for a customer, since it usually has the experience of running such facilities for the production or handling of gases for itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "387268",
"title": "Coal gas",
"section": "Section::::Gas for industrial use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Fuel gas for industrial use was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed (commonly coke or coal) in a gas producer. The reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO); this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that adding steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of the fuel gas by enriching it with CO and hydrogen (H) produced by water gas reactions. Producer gas has a very low calorific value of ; because the calorific gases CO/H are diluted with lots of inert nitrogen (from air) and carbon dioxide (CO) (from combustion)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22131",
"title": "Natural gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In petroleum production gas is sometimes burnt as flare gas. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, but not all, must be processed to remove impurities, including water, to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas. The by-products of this processing include: ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide (which may be converted into pure sulfur), carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7097517",
"title": "OPTI Canada",
"section": "Section::::Long Lake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Typically, natural gas is used to generate steam for SAGD extraction. However, using OrCrude-generated fuel significantly reduces the need for natural gas, reducing OPTI's operating costs by approximately $10 per barrel of oil produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "770768",
"title": "Liquid fuel",
"section": "Section::::Petroleums.:Gasoline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation of crude oil. The desirable liquid is separated from the crude oil in refineries. Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly seen may be beam pumps. To create gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c968cw
|
why is the amazon being deforested? is it just for the wood or are there other reasons?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its to provide grazing land for cattle. And also for palm oil farms. \n\nThey cut down the rainforest then plant either grass or lots of just one type of tree.\n\nIts not really for the wood that much at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14434109",
"title": "Deforestation in Brazil",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Before the 1960s, much of the forest remained intact due to restrictions on access to the Amazon beyond partial clearing along the river banks. The poor soil made plantation-based agriculture unprofitable. The key point in deforestation of the Amazon came when colonists established farms in the forest in the 1960s. They farmed based on crop cultivation and used the slash and burn method. The colonists were unable to successfully manage their fields and the crops due weed invasion and loss of soil fertility. Soils in the Amazon are productive for only a very short period of time after the land is cleared, so farmers there must constantly move and clear more and more land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21909754",
"title": "Amazon Watch",
"section": "Section::::Campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Amazon Watch reports that the current rate of deforestation threatens to push the Amazon past a tipping point from which it cannot recover. It says that in the last 30 years, 20 percent of the Amazon has been deforested and another 20 percent degraded – all fueled by clearing land for agriculture and large-scale industrial projects such as oil and gas pipelines, dams and roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19732090",
"title": "Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest",
"section": "Section::::Causes of deforestation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest can be attributed to many different factors at local, national, and international levels. The rainforest is seen as a resource for cattle pasture, valuable hardwoods, housing space, farming space (especially for soybeans), road works (such as highways and smaller roads), medicines and human gain. Trees are usually cut down illegally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3631",
"title": "Geography of Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Environmental issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; there is a lucrative illegal wildlife trade; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities; wetland degradation; severe oil spills\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6946102",
"title": "Vegetarianism by country",
"section": "Section::::South America.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Marly Winckler claims that the central reasons for the deforestation of the Amazon are expansive livestock raising (mainly cattle) and soybean crops, most of it for use as animal feed, and a minor percentage for edible oil processing (being direct human consumption for use as food nearly negligible), claims that are widely known to have a basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24207238",
"title": "Conservation in Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Deforestation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The Amazon rainforest has been under direct threat of deforestation since the 1970s because of rapid economic and demographic expansion. Extensive legal and illegal logging destroy forests the size of a small country per year, and with it a diverse series of species through habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation. Since 1970, over of the Amazon Rainforest have been cleared by logging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48139",
"title": "Amazon rainforest",
"section": "Section::::Deforestation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas. The main sources of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlement and development of the land. In 2018, about 17% of the Amazon rainforest was already destroyed. Research suggests that upon reaching about 20%-25% (hence 3% - 8% more), the tipping point to flip it into a non-forest ecosystems -degraded savannah- (in eastern, southern and central Amazonia) will be reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dgj12
|
At what point could you escape a planet's gravity by jumping?
|
[
{
"answer": "Jump. Measure how high you jump in meters. Call this height \"h\". sqroot(2\\*h\\*9.81) should be your initial velocity. We want this to be equal to escape velocity, which is sqroot(2gr), where g is the surface gravity and r is the radius of the object. Simplify everything, and you get g=9.81(h/r)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others here wrote, the escape velocity is what's most interesting. However, jumping is not the best way to escape from a planet. You can reach far higher speeds running, so the best way to escape the gravitational field of a planet is to run very fast, not to jump",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18420982",
"title": "Artificial gravity in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Field generators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "In the video game \"Dead Space\", artificial gravity plates are used to simulate an Earth-like environment in outer space. In several levels, gravity plating is off and the player has to navigate in weightlessness using 'Zero-Gravity Boots', similar to magnetic boots. Defective gravity plates are also encountered sometimes, which push objects upward rather than downward with great force, killing the player or enemies instantly if they step on them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4977577",
"title": "Alien Olympics 2044 AD",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Lighter gravity allows the athletes to perform better than they would on the planet Earth. The list of possible events include: 100 Qbits Sprint, Laser Leaping, Big Bounce, Laser Skeet, 200 Qbits Splurge, Lunge Leap Splat, Toxophilly, Flob Flop, Sabre Sling, Survival, Alien Hurl, Laser Skeet 2, Jetpack Tag, Lizard Leap, and Wall Jumping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206330",
"title": "BattleTech",
"section": "Section::::Universe.:Technology.:Space travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Jumps are normally made to and from points far above a solar system's ecliptic, usually where the gravitational influence in the system is most stable; however, so-called \"pirate points\" exist where local gravitational pull is stable enough to use; though quicker, using such points is also more dangerous due to the random appearance of so-called \"Lagrange points\". Jumping requires copious amounts of energy, usually gathered from the nearby star over the course of approximately a week by large solar collectors similar to solar sails and stored in giant capacitors. A quicker but less common technique is to draw the energy from a fusion reactor, or to take advantage of recharge stations in the vicinity of major jump points. Jump failures can result from charging the drive too quickly, poor drive maintenance, or spatial anomalies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightless and reduced weight environments.:Weightlessness in a spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "In typical free-fall, the acceleration of gravity acts along the direction of an object's velocity, linearly increasing its speed as it falls toward the Earth, or slowing it down if it is moving away from the Earth. In the case of an orbiting spacecraft, which has a velocity vector largely \"perpendicular\" to the force of gravity, gravitational acceleration does not produce a net change in the object's speed, but instead acts centripetally, to constantly \"turn\" the spacecraft's velocity as it moves around the Earth. Because the acceleration vector turns along with the velocity vector, they remain perpendicular to each other. Without this change in the direction of its velocity vector, the spacecraft would move in a straight line, leaving the Earth altogether.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24757547",
"title": "AaAaAA!!! – A Reckless Disregard for Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "\"AaAaAA!!! - A Reckless Disregard for Gravity\" is a game where players BASE jump headfirst from the top of the highest building downwards. The game is viewed in a 3D first-person perspective. Players score points by flying near objects on the way down, smashing through various colored glass plates, landing via parachute on a designated drop zone, and not ending up as a sack of broken bones. Players also receive points for \"kissing\" (flying very close to) buildings or other airborne obstacles, and for \"hugging\" (remaining in close proximity to) these obstacles as they fall. Players receive bonus points for \"threading the needle\", spraying paint on buildings, giving a thumbs-up to fans and making rude gestures to protestors. Hitting a bird is also worth quite some points. Hugs and kisses are the main way to increase score. Structures, obstacles, and objects vary amongst levels. Some levels feature mountain slopes, floating and/or moving structures, birds, and abstract art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Weightlessness and proper acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "A body in free fall (which by definition entails no aerodynamic forces) near the surface of the earth has an acceleration approximately equal to 9.8 m s with respect to a coordinate frame tied to the earth. If the body is in a freely falling lift and subject to no pushes or pulls from the lift or its contents, the acceleration with respect to the lift would be zero. If on the other hand, the body is subject to forces exerted by other bodies within the lift, it will have an acceleration with respect to the freely falling lift. This acceleration which is not due to gravity is called \"proper acceleration\". On this approach, weightlessness holds when proper acceleration is zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34664",
"title": "1960",
"section": "Section::::Events.:August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "BULLET::::- Joseph Kittinger parachutes from a balloon over New Mexico at an altitude of about 102,800 feet (31,333 meters). Kittinger sets world records for: high-altitude jump; free-fall by falling 16.0 miles (25.7 kilometers) before opening his parachute; first space dive, and fastest speed attained by a human being without mechanical or chemical assistance, about 982 k.p.h (614 m.p.h.). Kittinger survives more or less uninjured. He is also the first man to make a solo crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in a gas balloon, and the first man fully to witness the spherical curvature of the Earth. (Felix Baumgartner breaks his space diving record in 2012.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a41luk
|
how does the weather get reported by each town to the weather app on my phone?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are organizations (large groups of people) who have satellites (giant cameras and sensors in outer space) which send the information they find to weather apps.\n\nThe satellites along with local meteorologists (weather analysts) provide information to weather apps, which show you the information they have and their predictions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Meteorologists, either local and or national gather weather data to show the current weather and predict future weather for each town. Your phone then uses your location to find which town your in and pull the weather report for that town. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53234879",
"title": "Weather (Apple)",
"section": "Section::::Functionality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The app allows the user to see the weather of a number of selected cities. Locations can be added by pressing the list icon and the plus icon which allows the user to type in the city's name, ZIP Code or postal code or airport code. Locations can be removed by tapping the list icon and swiping left on the location that the user wants to delete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1179449",
"title": "The Weather Network",
"section": "Section::::Web and mobile services.:The Weather Network Mobile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The Weather Network Mobile (formerly WeatherEye Mobile) is an app available on most smartphones. The Weather Network Mobile is currently available on iPhone, BlackBerry, Windows Phone, and Android smartphones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185041",
"title": "MSN",
"section": "Section::::Apps.:Weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "MSN Weather (originally named Bing Weather) shows weather from a user's current location or any other location worldwide, and it allows users to define their favorite places, which will synchronize back to the web portal and across devices. Users can pin Weather tiles to the Start menu to see local weather conditions from multiple locations at a glance. It also offers satellite maps and has information regarding ski resorts. The app receives its weather conditions and forecasts from a variety of sources internationally. Weather uses weather conditions as the background, making it the only app that does not have a light/dark switch in Windows 10. Weather is not available for iOS; however, it comes preinstalled on the Nokia 215 phone from Microsoft Mobile that runs Series 30+; it is currently the only feature phone to have the app built-in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1179449",
"title": "The Weather Network",
"section": "Section::::Programming.:Local forecast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "A notable feature of The Weather Network is its local forecast. On cable providers, a report for the nearest weather station to the cable headend is given, from current conditions to two-week forecasts. The local forecast occurs on the 10's (analogous to The Weather Channel's \"Local on the 8's\"). The segment is well known by frequent viewers for its background music. In January 2010, an online poll was held that allowed viewers to vote for their favorite Local Forecast music, which would play during the morning hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77832",
"title": "The Weather Channel",
"section": "Section::::Related services.:Online services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "It also provided WAP access for mobile phone users, desktop widgets for quick reference by computer users, and customized weather feeds for individual websites. Cell phone customers could also receive local forecasts from TWC sent to their mobile handsets via SMS by sending a text message with their ZIP code to 42278 (which spells \"4cast\"). The Weather Channel also provided weather forecasts for other online services including Yahoo!.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1179449",
"title": "The Weather Network",
"section": "Section::::Web and mobile services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "In addition to its website, The Weather Network runs an e-mail and text messaging service called WeatherDirect, that sends weather forecasts via e-mail. There is also an e-mail service for pollen conditions and road conditions. The Weather Network also operates a Twitter and Facebook account, which include Severe Weather alerts and Weather News. As of October 16, 2016 The Weather Network App still does not work on Mac OS Sierra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155542",
"title": "Weatherzone",
"section": "Section::::Services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Weatherzones Apple iOS app includes iPhone, iPad and WatchOS apps, enabling users to view 7-day forecasts, rain radar and BOM warnings at a glance. The iOS apps also include WeatherPulse, a daily video magazine. The app offers both a free ad funded version and a paid for subscription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
444p8e
|
if we keep raising the minimum wage then won't it just decrease the value of a dollar and cause to prices to rise because of inflation?
|
[
{
"answer": "It does cause inflation, but minimum wage proponents don't see it that way. Yet uf you look at countries where minimum wage is high, the price of goods is higher as well.\n\nThe reason people want to raise minimum wage is because they feel better about earning more. But usually they just circle back to where they were before.\n\nThere are much better solutions to improving people's welfare, and happiness, where there isn't an adverse effect on purchasing power. A universal healthcare system for example, or public transportation, caps on real estate prices, government run educational institutes, etc. But these are harder to plan, and implement, so politicians tend to just do the easiest thing to placate people, which is not raise wages, but outlaw wages below a certain amount, which is what minimum wage really is. It doesn't mean you make more moeny, it just means that employers can't pay you below that specific amount.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the way businesses look at things is \"if people can afford it, then charge what you can get\" so even though some math can show that you just need to raise the cost of certain goods by around $.30 per [dollar](_URL_2_). the thing is that business people will not say \"what is the minimum we can charge to get by\" they say \"what is the absolute maximum we can charge and still keep growth\"\n\nso the short answer is: it doesn't necessarily cause inflation but it makes everyone want to charge more. thing is, minimum wage has not been keeping pace with inflation anyway, purchasing power of the dollar has already been going down. what will really happen is [job loss](_URL_1_) \n\nedit: and another thing, all of this is up for debate, here is the government saying that raising minimum wage won't increase unemployment _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Increasing the minimum wage does cause inflation, but not at the same rate as the increase. \n\nThe thing to keep in mind is that inflation happens anyway. Not raising the minimum wage is actually decreasing the wage by decreasing buying power. The status quo hurts more people than it helps. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have it backwards. Increasing minimum wage will do two inflationary things:\n\n1) Cost-push inflation. Employers have to pay more, so costs go up. Low wage employees generally make up a fairly small part of costs for most companies, so this effect is pretty small (eg: a 10% minimum wage increase might produce a 0.5% increase in prices, numbers pulled out of my butt).\n\n2) Demand-pull inflation. Because people have more money, demand goes up. This is a small effect because not everyone is near minimum wage, and demand doesn't really increase inflation much unless the economy is already at full capacity. If a market was already at full capacity, people would be being paid significantly more than minimum wage anyway.\n\nSo, yes, it causes a slight increase in inflation, but nowhere near enough to offset the minimum wage increase. Furthermore, it also stimulates economic growth by getting more money circulating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18862",
"title": "Minimum wage",
"section": "Section::::Debate over consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The dollar value of the minimum wage loses purchasing power over time due to inflation. Minimum wage laws, for instance proposals to index the minimum wage to average wages, have the potential to keep the dollar value of the minimum wage relevant and predictable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11477230",
"title": "Minimum wage in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Commentary.:Economists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low-wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said \"the weight\" of economic research shows higher pay doesn't lead to fewer jobs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "934386",
"title": "Real wages",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "If the figures shown are real wages, then wages have increased by 2% after inflation has been taken into account. In effect, an individual making this wage actually has more ability to buy goods and services than the previous year. However, if the figures shown are nominal wages then real wages are not increasing at all. In absolute dollar amounts, an individual is bringing home more money each year, but the increases in inflation actually zeroes out the increases in their salary. Given that inflation is increasing at the same pace as wages, an individual cannot actually afford to increase their consumption in such a scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37567233",
"title": "Minimum Wages Act 1948",
"section": "Section::::Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "BULLET::::- Less protection against inflation: Real minimum wage rates may decline in the face of accelerating inflation for three main reasons. Firstly, wages are not revised as frequently as prescribed in the norms i.e. not more than five years. In fact it is believed that revision every three years and even alternate years not only to help workers from increasing costs of living but also to improve supervision of the act. Secondly, many states do not provide for dearness allowance, a safeguard against inflation and finally minimum wages are not linked to a cost of living index.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "570703",
"title": "Natural rate of unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Phillips curve.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Milton Friedman argued that a natural rate of inflation followed from the Phillips curve. This showed wages tend to rise when unemployment is low. Friedman argued that inflation was the same as wage rises, and built his argument upon a widely believed idea, that a stable negative relation between inflation and unemployment existed. This belief had the policy implication that unemployment could be permanently reduced by expansive demand policy and thus higher inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2035730",
"title": "Progressivism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Progressivism in the 21st century.:Minimum wage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "Adjusted for inflation, the minimum wage peaked in 1968 at $8.54 (in 2014 dollars). Progressives believe that stagnating wages perpetuate income inequality and that raising the minimum wage is a necessary step to combat inequality. If the minimum wage grew at the rate of productivity growth in the United States, it would be $21.72 an hour, nearly three times as much as the current $7.25 an hour. Popular progressives, such as Senator Bernie Sanders and Rep. Keith Ellison, have endorsed a federally mandated wage increase to $15 an hour. The movement has already seen success with its implementation in California with the passing of bill to raise the minimum wage $1 every year until reaching $15 an hour in 2021. New York workers are lobbying for similar legislation as many continue to rally for a minimum wage increase as part of the Fight for $15 movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25935860",
"title": "Inflationism",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary advocacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Inflation decreases the real value of wages, in the absence of corresponding wage rises. In the theory of wage stickiness, a cause of unemployment in recessions and depressions is the failure of workers to take pay cuts, to decrease real labor costs. It is observed that wages are nominally sticky downwards, even in the long term (it is difficult to reduce nominal pay rates), and thus that inflation provides useful erosion of real costs wages without requiring nominal wage cuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tzj1c
|
is there a laser color stronger than the others? if so, why?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blue is the strongest colour that we can see because it has the highest frequency of visible light. That means that there is more energy per second being delivered by a blue laser than a red laser. A UV laser would be stronger, and an X-ray laser stronger still.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no 'stronger colour'.\n\nPhotons with a shorter wavelength (and therefore higher frequency) have a higher energy per photon.\n\nA source of light that emits a higher frequency (closer to UV) doesn't produce a higher intensity of light than one that emits infra red, it emits the same intensity but using fewer photons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll just chime in here. Generally, when you talk about light, there's no real technical definition of 'strength'. When compare lasers, generally we refer to the 'power' of a laser, or how much energy it outputs per second. And if it's power we're talking about, then /u/Lazy_Pea is incorrect, and /u/robiwill is right. The power of a laser depends on the method from which the laser is generated, and it does not have a strong dependence on the color.\n\nFor the record, the strongest lasers that exist are chemical lasers, and those are all in the infra-red (lower-wavelength than red) region.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1442115",
"title": "Laser pointer",
"section": "Section::::Colors and wavelengths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The apparent brightness of a spot from a laser beam depends on the optical power of the laser, the reflectivity of the surface, and the chromatic response of the human eye. For the same optical power, green laser light will seem brighter than other colors because the human eye is most sensitive at low light levels in the green region of the spectrum (wavelength 520–570 nm). Sensitivity decreases for longer (redder) and shorter (bluer) wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227877",
"title": "Mode-locking",
"section": "Section::::Laser cavity modes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Although laser light is perhaps the purest form of light, it is not of a single, pure frequency or wavelength. All lasers produce light over some natural bandwidth or range of frequencies. A laser's bandwidth of operation is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172997",
"title": "Airsoft",
"section": "Section::::Airsoft guns.:Customization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Even though in certain countries lasers are illegal, they are popular attachments in the U.S. and Europe. Laser sights are more for their appearance than any practical effect, largely because they must be weak enough not to carry a risk of damaging another player's eyesight, which rules out using any laser powerful enough to produce a visible dot on the target in sunlight (although lasers can be useful for night games).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:Lasers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Red's wavelength has been an important factor in laser technologies; red lasers, used in early compact disc technologies, are being replaced by blue lasers, as red's longer wavelength causes the laser's recordings to take up more space on the disc than would blue-laser recordings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18145",
"title": "List of laser applications",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Firearms.:Laser sight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In 2007, LaserMax, a company specializing in manufacturing lasers for military and police firearms, introduced the first mass-production green laser available for small arms. This laser mounts to the underside of a handgun or long arm on the accessory rail. The green laser is supposed to be more visible than the red laser in bright lighting conditions because, for the same wattage, green light appears brighter than red light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1442115",
"title": "Laser pointer",
"section": "Section::::Colors and wavelengths.:Blue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Blue lasers can also be fabricated directly with InGaN semiconductors, which produce blue light without frequency doubling. 450 nm (447 nm plus/minus 5 nm) blue laser diodes are currently available on the open market. Some blue diodes are capable of very high power; such as Nichia's NDB7K75 diode, which can continuously output over 5 watts of energy if overdriven. The devices are brighter for the same power than 405 nm violet laser diodes, since the longer wavelength is closer to the peak sensitivity of the human eye. Mass production of laser diodes for commercial devices like laser projectors have driven down prices. Recent popularity of the high-power version of these 447 nm pointers, which also have improved optics for better collimation and lower divergence, rivals the hazards associated with the use of these portable devices by persons of questionable intention and cost has diminished to be competitive with DPSS green lasers wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1442115",
"title": "Laser pointer",
"section": "Section::::Colors and wavelengths.:Green.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Because even a low-powered green laser is visible at night through Rayleigh scattering from air molecules, this type of pointer is used by astronomers to easily point out stars and constellations. Green laser pointers can come in a variety of different output powers. The 5 mW green laser pointers (classes II and IIIa) are the safest to use, and anything more powerful is usually not necessary for pointing purposes, since the beam is still visible in dark lighting conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bz3b8q
|
Altitude Sickness? How sudden can it take effect, what can happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cabin altitude of most airliners when in the cruise is about 8000ft. For most healthy people being suddenly raised to 8000ft pressure altitude and spending many hours there is a complete non-issue. There are plenty of long haul flights over twelve hours and 17 hours is the longest scheduled service I’m aware of - I’m not hearing of any cases of altitude sickness amongst healthy people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "77485",
"title": "Altitude sickness",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Severe symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 917,
"text": "The most serious symptoms of altitude sickness arise from edema (fluid accumulation in the tissues of the body). At very high altitude, humans can get either high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE). The physiological cause of altitude-induced edema is not conclusively established. It is currently believed, however, that HACE is caused by local vasodilation of cerebral blood vessels in response to hypoxia, resulting in greater blood flow and, consequently, greater capillary pressures. On the other hand, HAPE may be due to general vasoconstriction in the pulmonary circulation (normally a response to regional ventilation-perfusion mismatches) which, with constant or increased cardiac output, also leads to increases in capillary pressures. For those suffering HACE, dexamethasone may provide temporary relief from symptoms in order to keep descending under their own power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34663491",
"title": "Decompression (altitude)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness (AMS), altitude illness, hypobaropathy, the altitude bends, or soroche, is a pathological effect of high altitude on humans, caused by acute exposure to low partial pressure of oxygen and blood alkalosis arising from the low partial pressure of carbon dioxide at high altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77485",
"title": "Altitude sickness",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Altitude sickness can first occur at 1,500 metres, with the effects becoming severe at extreme altitudes (greater than 5,500 metres). Only brief trips above 6,000 metres are possible and supplemental oxygen is needed to avert sickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77485",
"title": "Altitude sickness",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "People have different susceptibilities to altitude sickness; for some otherwise healthy people, acute altitude sickness can begin to appear at around above sea level, such as at many mountain ski resorts, equivalent to a pressure of . This is the most frequent type of altitude sickness encountered. Symptoms often manifest themselves six to ten hours after ascent and generally subside in one to two days, but they occasionally develop into the more serious conditions. Symptoms include headache, fatigue, stomach illness, dizziness, and sleep disturbance. Exertion aggravates the symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77485",
"title": "Altitude sickness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Altitude sickness typically occurs only above , though some are affected at lower altitudes. Risk factors include a prior episode of altitude sickness, a high degree of activity, and a rapid increase in elevation. Diagnosis is based on symptoms and is supported in those who have more than a minor reduction in activities. It is recommended that at high-altitude any symptoms of headache, nausea, shortness of breath, or vomiting be assumed to be altitude sickness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61048",
"title": "Decompression sickness",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Ascent to altitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The most common health risk on ascent to altitude is not decompression sickness but altitude sickness, or acute mountain sickness (AMS), which has an entirely different and unrelated set of causes and symptoms. AMS results not from the formation of bubbles from dissolved gasses in the body but from exposure to a low partial pressure of oxygen and alkalosis. However, passengers in unpressurized aircraft at high altitude may also be at some risk of DCS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77485",
"title": "Altitude sickness",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "People with high-altitude sickness generally have reduced hyperventilator response, impaired gas exchange, fluid retention or increased sympathetic drive. There is thought to be an increase in cerebral venous volume because of an increase in cerebral blood flow and hypocapnic cerebral vasoconstriction causing oedema.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cc674h
|
octonions - what exactly are they?
|
[
{
"answer": "The complex numbers are a sort of two-dimensional extension of the real number line, with an imaginary axis (i, 2i, 3i, ...) along with the ordinary real axis (1, 2, 3, ...). It turns out that you can extend this idea even farther to have four distinct axes (\"quaternions\"), or eight (\"octonions\"), or sixteen (\"sedenions\"), and so on for any power of 2. While a real number might just look like 3, and a complex number might look like 3+2i, a quaternion could look like 3+2i+4j+6k, where i, j, and k are distinct values with the property that i^2 = j^2 = k^2 = -1. Octonions would then have eight distinct components, one \"real\" component and seven distinct \"imaginary\" components.\n\nThe farther you go with this, the more nice properties about numbers you lose. When you go from the real numbers to the complex numbers, you lose the fact that numbers have a neat linear ordering. When you move from the complex numbers to the quaternions, you lose the fact that multiplication is commutative: for quaternions, it need not be the case that x\\*y = y\\*x. When you move from the quaternions to the octonions, you lose the fact that multiplication is associative: for octonions you aren't even guaranteed to have x\\*(y\\*z) = (x\\*y)\\*z.\n\nDespite the fact that the octonions are both rather abstract and lack many of the properties we expect number systems to have, they show up occasionally in theoretical physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51436",
"title": "Octonion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "In mathematics, the octonions are a normed division algebra over the real numbers, meaning it is a hypercomplex number system; Octonions are usually represented by the capital letter O, using boldface O or blackboard bold formula_1. Octonions have eight dimensions; twice the number of dimensions of the quaternions, of which they are an extension. They are noncommutative and nonassociative, but satisfy a weaker form of associativity; namely, they are alternative. They are also power associative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25555117",
"title": "Eight-dimensional space",
"section": "Section::::Octonions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The octonions are a normed division algebra over the real numbers, the largest such algebra. Mathematically they can be specified by 8-tuplets of real numbers, so form an 8-dimensional vector space over the reals, with addition of vectors being the addition in the algebra. A normed algebra is one with a product that satisfies \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51436",
"title": "Octonion",
"section": "Section::::Integral octonions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "There are several natural ways to choose an integral form of the octonions. The simplest is just to take the octonions whose coordinates are integers. This gives a nonassociative algebra over the integers called the Gravesian octonions. However it is not a maximal order (in the sense of ring theory); there are exactly 7 maximal orders containing it. These 7 maximal orders are all equivalent under automorphisms. The phrase \"integral octonions\" usually refers to a fixed choice of one of these seven orders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51436",
"title": "Octonion",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The octonions do satisfy a weaker form of associativity: they are alternative. This means that the subalgebra generated by any two elements is associative. Actually, one can show that the subalgebra generated by any two elements of O is isomorphic to R, C, or H, all of which are associative. Because of their non-associativity, octonions do not have matrix representations, unlike quaternions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51436",
"title": "Octonion",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Isotopies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The isotopy group of the octonions is the group Spin(R), with \"a\", \"b\", and \"c\" acting as the three 8-dimensional representations. The subgroup of elements where \"c\" fixes the identity is the subgroup Spin(R), and the subgroup where \"a\", \"b\", and \"c\" all fix the identity is the automorphism group \"G\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22458",
"title": "Octahedron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In geometry, an octahedron (plural: octahedra) is a polyhedron with eight faces, twelve edges, and six vertices. The term is most commonly used to refer to the regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3861649",
"title": "Split-octonion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In mathematics, the split-octonions are an 8-dimensional nonassociative algebra over the real numbers. Unlike the standard octonions, they contain non-zero elements which are non-invertible. Also the signatures of their quadratic forms differ: the split-octonions have a split-signature (4,4) whereas the octonions have a positive-definite signature (8,0).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fxamy
|
why does yeast in bread-making not produce alcohol like yeast in brewing?
|
[
{
"answer": "It does, a little. But the amount produced is very small - bread rises for a matter of a day or two, brewing can take weeks or months.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can make drinkable alcohol using baking yeast (and great bread using brewers yeast).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Both bread yeast and brewers yeast are generally the same species. Brewers yeast however has been selected for positive atributes that it provides to the finished beverage, wheather that be certain flavors or a certain ability to ferment. Brewers yeast is also used through the entire process post boil for imparting flavors. Bakers yeast is killed off by the baking process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36656943",
"title": "Microbial food cultures",
"section": "Section::::Function of microbial food cultures in food.:Yeasts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Several different yeasts are used in brewing beer, where they ferment the sugars present in malted barley to produce alcohol. One of the most common is \"S. cerevisiae\". The same strain of \"S. cerevisiae\" which can also be used in breadmaking is used to make ale-type beers. It is known as a top-fermenting yeast because it creates a foam on the top of the brew. Bottom-fermenting yeasts, such as \"S. pastorianus\", are more commonly used to make lagers. They ferment more of the sugars in the mixture than top-fermenting yeasts, which gives a cleaner taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31356226",
"title": "Cofactor engineering",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Modifying Metabolite Flux with Cofactor Equilibrium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1958,
"text": "Yeast are commonly used in the beer and wine industry because they are capable of efficiently producing ethanol through the metabolic pathway fermentation in the absence of oxygen. Fermentation requires the enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) which depends on the cofactor NADH. This pathway involves the conversion of glucose to both ethanol and glycerol, both of which use NADH as a cofactor. Scientists engineered \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" to overproduce GPDH, which shifted the cells metabolic flux away from ethanol and toward glycerol, by limiting NADH availability in the ethanol production portion of the pathway. The opposite effect was achieved by influencing a separate pathway in the cell, the Glutamate Synthesis pathway. Inactivating the expression of the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase, which is NADPH dependent, and over expressing the enzymes glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthetase, which rely on NADH as a cofactor shifted the cofactor balance in glutamate synthesis pathway. The pathway is now dependent on NADH rather than NADPH, which decreases NADH availability in the fermentation pathway. This in turn causes increased ethanol production and decreased glycerol production. This method of manipulating metabolic fluxes could be visualized much like global fuel markets, where the increased production of ethanol for use in the automotive industry would decrease its availability in the food industry. Essentially, producing more engines which run on ethanol could result in decreased consumption of processed sweets, which contain high fructose corn syrup. This engineering of cofactors is applicable to the beer and wine industry since it allows for the regulation of ethanol levels in alcoholic beverages. Advancements in the wine industry have caused a steady increase in ethanol content, so winemakers in particular would be interested in the possibility of reducing the ethanol levels of some of their wines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48981",
"title": "Ascomycota",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Beneficial effects for humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "BULLET::::- Baker's Yeast (\"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\") is used to make bread, beer and wine, during which process sugars such as glucose or sucrose are fermented to make ethanol and carbon dioxide. Bakers use the yeast for carbon dioxide production, causing the bread to rise, with the ethanol boiling off during cooking. Most vintners use it for ethanol production, with the carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere during fermentation. Brewers and traditional producers of sparkling wine use both, with a primary fermentation for the alcohol and a secondary one to produce the carbon dioxide bubbles that provide the drinks with \"sparkling\" texture in the case of wine and the desirable foam in the case of beer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "881426",
"title": "Federweisser",
"section": "Section::::Fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Once yeast has been added, grapes begin to ferment rapidly. The sugar contained in the grapes is broken down into alcohol and carbon dioxide (glycolysis). As soon as an alcohol content of four percent has been reached, Federweißer may be sold. It continues to ferment until all the sugar has been broken down and an alcohol content of about ten percent has been reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1942410",
"title": "Degassing",
"section": "Section::::Degassing wine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Yeast uses sugar to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. In winemaking, carbon dioxide is an undesired by-product for most wines. If the wine is bottled quickly after fermentation, it is important to degas the wine before bottling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34385",
"title": "Yeast",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Alcoholic beverages.:Wine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Yeast is used in winemaking, where it converts the sugars present (glucose and fructose) in grape juice (must) into ethanol. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins. Fermentation can be done with this endogenous \"wild yeast\", but this procedure gives unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must; this yeast quickly dominates the fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5697855",
"title": "Beer bread",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Beer bread can be a simple quick bread or a yeast bread flavored with beer. Beer and bread have a common creation process: yeast is used to turn sugars into carbon dioxide and alcohol. In the case of bread, a great percentage of the alcohol evaporates during the baking process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2weikj
|
it is a famous brag that England was never successfully invaded after 1066. So why doesn't the Dutch Army lead by William of Orange count?
|
[
{
"answer": "This isn't my area of expertise, so someone else might be able to provide a better answer or more references, but as I understand it there are two issues here, one to do with the particular circumstances of William's 'invasion,' and one to do with British conceptions of our own 'history'.\n\nThe simple/traditional answer - ie. the argument that allows one to maintain that England has never been invaded, is that William and Mary were 'invited' to depose the Catholic James II/VII by a group of English peers on behalf of a population which was 'dissatisfied with the present conduct of the government in relation to their religion, liberties and properties.' On this basis, the Dutch army can be seen as only part of what was mainly a civil conflict, and thus it doesn't really 'count' as an invasion.\n\nHowever, to an extent you have already answered the question yourself - the idea that England has never been successfully invaded is a brag, and isn't actually based in much fact; there are plenty of further examples of successful foreign invasions of England, unless one uses an extremely strict definition of invasion. Throughout the middle ages, for example, numerous Scottish armies successfully fought campaigns in England with control over border regions changing hands repeatedly until around 1482, when the English last conquered Berwick-upon-Tweed. Even if we insist on an invasion requiring a change of government, there are further obvious examples. The future Henry IV, for example, took the throne from his cousin Richard II after being exiled to France and making an alliance with the Duke of Orléans, who controlled the French court. Similarly, Henry Tudor had barely even visited England before he left France with a fleet of English exiles and French and Scottish soldiers to take the throne and end the wars of the roses. \n\nThe Tudor example in particular once led my venerable old medieval history tutor to use some less than elegant words to describe the 'little Englanders who maintain that our fair isle has never been sullied by foreign boots'. At the time, I mostly found this amusing because lol teachers swearing, but actually the fact that this myth has developed is interesting in itself. Alas, I have no idea where it came from, so would be interested to hear if anyone else knows.\n\n*Sources*\n\nThe 1688 letter of invasion to William of Orange is in Browning, *English Historical Documents, 1660-1714*\n\n*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* entries on Henry IV and Henry VII are very good for basic info on their rise to the throne\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37211",
"title": "William I of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::King of the Netherlands.:Revolt of the Southern Provinces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "The next year, William sent his sons William, the Prince of Orange, and Prince Frederick to invade the new state. Although initially victorious in this Ten Days' Campaign, the Dutch army was forced to retreat after the threat of French intervention. Some support for the Orange dynasty (chiefly among Flemings) persisted for years but the Dutch never regained control over Belgium. William nevertheless continued the war for eight years. His economic successes became overshadowed by a perceived mismanagement of the war effort. High costs of the war came to burden the Dutch economy, fueling public resentment. In 1839, William was forced to end the war. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was dissolved by the Treaty of London (1839) and the northern part continued as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was not renamed, however, as the \"United\"-prefix had never been part of its official name, but rather was retrospectively added by historians for descriptive purposes (cf. Weimar Republic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "47387",
"title": "William III of England",
"section": "Section::::Becoming stadtholder.:\"Disaster year\": 1672.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "William continued to fight against the invaders from England and France, allying himself with Spain and Brandenburg. In November 1672, he took his army to Maastricht to threaten the French supply lines. By 1673, the Dutch situation further improved. Although Louis took Maastricht and William's attack against Charleroi failed, Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter defeated the Anglo-French fleet three times, forcing Charles to end England's involvement by the Treaty of Westminster; after 1673, France slowly withdrew from Dutch territory (with the exception of Maastricht), while making gains elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46684",
"title": "Anne, Queen of Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Glorious Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1468,
"text": "William of Orange invaded England on 5 November 1688 in an action, known as the Glorious Revolution, which ultimately deposed King James. Forbidden by James to pay Mary a projected visit in the spring of 1687, Anne corresponded with her and was aware of the plans to invade. On the advice of the Churchills, she refused to side with James after William landed and instead wrote to William on 18 November declaring her approval of his action. Churchill abandoned the unpopular King James on the 24th. Prince George followed suit that night, and in the evening of the following day James issued orders to place Sarah Churchill under house arrest at St James's Palace. Anne and Sarah fled from Whitehall by a back staircase, putting themselves under the care of Bishop Compton. They spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived at Nottingham on 1 December. Two weeks later and escorted by a large company, Anne arrived at Oxford, where she met Prince George in triumph. \"God help me!\", lamented James on discovering the desertion of his daughter on 26 November, \"Even my children have forsaken me.\" On 19 December, Anne returned to London, where she was at once visited by William. James fled to France on the 23rd. Anne showed no concern at the news of her father's flight, and instead merely asked for her usual game of cards. She justified herself by saying that she \"was used to play and never loved to do anything that looked like an affected constraint\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57549417",
"title": "Battle of Le Quesnoy (1568)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "In October 1568, William of Orange had invaded the Spanish Netherlands with a considerable army. Despite capturing some fortified towns, he did not manage to face the Spanish Army under the Duke of Alva in a decisive battle. Manoeuvering to meet up with a French Huguenot army, Orange lost his rear-guard at the Battle of Jodoigne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4602123",
"title": "Military history of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::The Belgian revolution (1830–1839).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "August 2 to August 12, 1831, the Dutch army, headed by the Dutch princes, invaded Belgium, in the so-called \"Ten Days' Campaign\", and defeated Belgian forces near Hasselt and Leuven. Only the appearance of a French army under Marshal Gérard caused the Dutch to retreat. The victorious initial campaign gave the Dutch an advantageous position in subsequent negotiations. William stubbornly pursued the war, bungled, ineffectual and expensive as its desultory campaigns were, until 1839.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39006265",
"title": "King's Dutch Brigade",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1656,
"text": "After the debacle of the Flanders Campaign of 1793–95 and the collapse of the Allied resistance against French revolutionary armies in early 1795, while the Batavian Republic overthrew the Dutch Republic and stadtholder William V fled to England, together with his family and his sons, the Hereditary Prince and Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau, who had both commanded Dutch troops during the campaign, remnants of the States Army covered the retreat of the British and Hanoverian troops. These Dutch troops afterwards crossed into neutral Prussian territory, where they were disbanded. Meanwhile, Prince Frederick travelled to Osnabrück, where he attempted to form a force for an invasion of the Batavian Republic from Prussian territory. Many former officers and other ranks from the States Army joined him there in the spring of 1795 (though 21 battalions of the former States army, out of 96, were reformed to the nucleus of the new Batavian army). A list of officers of the States Army, who went to Osnabrück, numbers 839 names (how many non-commissioned officers and other ranks were present is not known). However, the King of Prussia prohibited further recruitment in the summer of 1795 declaring that the \"Rassemblement\" was in contravention of the Convention of Basel, which had declared the neutralisation of North Germany. As a consequence, the infantry was posted to Hanover. Many of the troops he had recruited went into British service at that time, as the British had been recruiting troops for service in the West Indies. The British offered half-pay to the former States Army officers who had assembled in Prussia after 12 January 1796.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12466",
"title": "Glorious Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Dutch intervention.:Prelude: 1685 to June 1688.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "James wanted to avoid war on either side, but since it was felt the Dutch could not resist a combined Anglo-French attack, this obliged them to rely on English neutrality. After a clash between Dutch and French ships in July 1686, William began to fear neutrality was not enough and that active participation by the Royal Navy was essential against French naval power. Mutual suspicion between the two leaders and their advisors made it hard to establish a working relationship. Those around William were largely English and Scots exiles, the latter with strong links to their co-religionists in Ireland, who felt threatened by Tyrconnell's reforms. James relied on an ever smaller circle of counsellors, chiefly the Earl of Sunderland and Catholic zealots like Melfort and Perth. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xl9kn
|
what is the ultimate luminosity? how many photons can we fit in a unit of 3d space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Interesting question. My first response is an infinite number. Quantum field theory puts no limit on the number of photons that can be in the same place. But quantum field theory doesn't account for the gravity of the photons.\n\nAt some point, you'll have so many photons in one place and so much energy in one place, they'll collapse to form a black hole. The number of photons required for this will depend on their energy and how spread out they are, but it will be an absurdly huge number.\n\nThis would never happen in nature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "**TL;DR** infinitely many.\n\nThere are many ways to group particles. One way is whether that particle is a Boson or a Fermion. For example, electrons are Fermions and photons are Bosons. 2 Fermions cannot be in the same space at the same time. But 2 Bosons can. Bosons can literally overlap each other in space. You need special conditions for that to happen, but it can happen, so you can have infinitely many photons in one spot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4236510",
"title": "Holographic data storage",
"section": "Section::::Technical aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Holograms can theoretically store one bit per cubic block the size of the wavelength of light in writing. For example, light from a helium–neon laser is red, 632.8 nm wavelength light. Using light of this wavelength, perfect holographic storage could store 500 megabytes per cubic millimeter. At the extreme end of the laser spectrum, fluorine excimer laser at 157 nm could store 30 gigabytes per cubic millimeter. In practice, the data density would be much lower, for at least four reasons:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191123",
"title": "Planck's law",
"section": "Section::::Derivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "For every vector with integer components larger than or equal to zero, there are two photon states. This means that the number of photon states in a certain region of -space is twice the volume of that region. An energy range of corresponds to shell of thickness in -space. Because the components of have to be positive, this shell spans an octant of a sphere. The number of photon states , in an energy range , is thus given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4643304",
"title": "Lightest Supersymmetric Particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "In particle physics, the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) is the generic name given to the lightest of the additional hypothetical particles found in supersymmetric models. In models with R-parity conservation, the LSP is stable; in other words, the LSP cannot decay into any Standard Model particle, since all SM particles have the opposite R-parity. There is extensive observational evidence for an additional component of the matter density in the Universe that goes under the name dark matter. The LSP of supersymmetric models is a dark matter candidate and is a weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58267671",
"title": "Half flux diameter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "The half flux diameter or HFD is a definition used by astronomers to define the star size in an astronomical image. Mainly due to the seeing, stars are not imaged as a dot but spread out like a Gaussian shape. The half flux diameter defines the diameter of a circle around the bright center in which half of the star flux or energy is contained. The other half of the flux is outside this circle. The half flux diameter unit is pixels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26262",
"title": "Redshift",
"section": "Section::::Redshift formulae.:Expansion of space.:Mathematical derivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "with the critical density demarcating a universe that eventually crunches from one that simply expands. This density is about three hydrogen atoms per cubic meter of space. At large redshifts one finds:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573880",
"title": "Fine-tuned Universe",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Lambda\" (Λ), commonly known as the cosmological constant, describes the ratio of the density of dark energy to the critical energy density of the universe, given certain reasonable assumptions such as positing that dark energy density is a constant. In terms of Planck units, and as a natural dimensionless value, the cosmological constant, Λ, is on the order of 10. This is so small that it has no significant effect on cosmic structures that are smaller than a billion light-years across. If the cosmological constant were not extremely small, stars and other astronomical structures would not be able to form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22486",
"title": "Olbers' paradox",
"section": "Section::::Other factors.:Fractal star distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The function of luminosity from a given distance \"L\"(\"r\")\"N\"(\"r\") determines whether the light received is finite or infinite. For any luminosity from a given distance proportional to \"r\", formula_3 is infinite for \"a\" ≥ −1 but finite for \"a\" < −1. So if is proportional to \"r\", then for formula_3 to be finite, must be proportional to \"r\", where \"b\" < 1. For \"b\" = 1, the numbers of stars at a given radius is proportional to that radius. When integrated over the radius, this implies that for \"b\" = 1, the \"total\" number of stars is proportional to \"r\". This would correspond to a fractal dimension of 2. Thus the fractal dimension of the universe would need to be less than 2 for this explanation to work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c9ud11
|
after a natural disaster, what is the benefit of declaring state of emergency?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not sure about insurance. But declaring a state of emergency will activate funds that have been set aside for clean up, repairs, and other needed things for after a disaster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know this is pretty far fetched since you're probably wondering about the US scenario, but here in the Philippines (Which is legally patterned after the US anyway) certain insurance clauses and budgetary releases are contingent on the government unit declaring a state of emergency. Specifically, 10% of the annual budget is set aside for use during and after a calamity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are specific emergency funds that both the State and Federal Governments set aside that legally can only be accessed when a state of emergency has been declared.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If a state of emergency is declared, shops cannot increase prices and capitalize off of those who are desperate. IE, It makes it illegal for Wal-Mart to gouge the price of a pack of water from $8.50 to $20.\n\nFun Fact: It also applies to sales. So if Home Depot had generators marked down from $500 to $350 for a random sale, they can’t mark them back up if a SOE is put into effect. Bitches gonna be out there getting their hurricane party on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Budget: state and federal budgets have funds set aside for emergencies. \n\nLegal: certain rights of citizens can be suspended to help manage the crisis (force people out of homes, implement curfews). Decision making gets much more streamlined, allowing the governor to make certain decisions without going to the state congressional member's for approval. \n\nMilitary: for states, this would be the national guard. Without a state of emergency what they are allowed to do is very limited. \n\nMostly; it is allows leadership to sidestep potentially cumbersome oversight to quickly respond to a disaster. This is often abused, as you will see states of emergencies that are still on going after 40 years....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "298608",
"title": "State of emergency",
"section": "Section::::Law in selected countries.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In regards to Emergency Management, regions (usually on a local government area basis) that have been affected by a natural disaster are the responsibility of the state, until that state declares a State of Emergency where access to the Federal Emergency Fund becomes available to help respond to and recover from natural disasters. A State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73797",
"title": "Federal Emergency Management Agency",
"section": "Section::::Federalism and FEMA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Many states have disaster relief agencies of their own. In the event of a disaster outside of a state's operating capacity, the director of said agency will advise the Governor whether or not to proclaim a state of emergency. Declaring a state of emergency, upon Presidential approval, entitles a state to federal assistance. It is important to note that proclaiming a state of emergency does not guarantee federal assistance. States also rely on mutual aid agreements, such as the Civil Defense and Disaster Compact. A mutual aid agreement can be between neighboring states, cities, counties and cities, states and cities or an entire region. These agreements allow agencies to share resources so they are better prepared for emergencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1392564",
"title": "Home repair",
"section": "Section::::Emergency repairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Emergencies can happen at any time so it is important to know how to quickly and efficiently fix the problem. From natural disasters, power loss, appliance failure and no water, emergency repairs tend to be one of the most important repairs to be comfortable and confident with. In most cases, the repairs are DIY or fixable with whatever is around the house. Common repairs would be fixing a leak, broken window, flooding, frozen pipes or clogged toilet. Each problem can have a relatively simple fix, a leaky roof and broken window can be patched, flood can be pumped out, pipes can be thawed and repaired and toilets can be unclogged with a chemical. For the most part, emergency repairs are not permanent. They are what you can do fast to stop the problem then have a professional come in to permanently fix it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298608",
"title": "State of emergency",
"section": "Section::::Law in selected countries.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "A state governor or local mayor may declare a state of emergency within his or her jurisdiction. This is common at the state level in response to natural disasters. The Federal Emergency Management Agency maintains a system of assets, personnel and training to respond to such incidents. For example, on December 10, 2015, Washington state Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency due to flooding and landslides caused by heavy rains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46414474",
"title": "1979 Coyote Lake earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "While none of the affected counties or cities declared a state of emergency following the event, the Small Business Administration approved a request by the Office of Emergency Services for a disaster declaration in late September. This formality paved the way for low interest loans for commercial or residential properties that suffered damage, but only about 50 claims were expected. Local authorities had trained for disasters on a regular basis, and the response to the light damage was considered smooth, though some officials sought room for improvement. Discussions followed the event, with local governments focusing on telecommunication problems, emergency power systems, and seismic safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51312557",
"title": "2016 Louisiana floods",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Economic impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Because of the large number of homeowners without flood insurance that were affected, the federal government is providing disaster aid through the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The flood has been called the worst US natural disaster since Hurricane Sandy in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2645255",
"title": "Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act",
"section": "Section::::Titles.:Title IV: Major Disaster Assistance Programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The procedures for declaring a major disaster are to be made by the governor of the state. When a disaster occurs, the governor executes the state's emergency plan. If the Governor then decides that the disaster is of such severity that the state and affected local governments cannot possibly handle the effects of the disaster, the Governor will make a request to the President explaining the amount of resources they currently have available and commit to the cost-sharing requirements in the Stafford Act. The President can then declare a major disaster or emergency in the affected area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ert10
|
When was the ironclad warship firs proposed?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to say when the first ironclad warship was proposed, as many people came up with the idea of putting iron plating on warships at many different times. For example, the \"atakebune\" warships of the 16th century Japanese warlord Oda Nobunaga allegedly had some form of iron plating on their superstructure. During the early 19th century different people talked about the idea of iron-plated warships, but there was little impetus put into their creation until the Crimean War showed the strength of a type of naval artillery called the Paixhans gun.\n\nDeveloped by French artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans, the Paixhans gun was the first naval cannon to utilize explosive shells. Shells had been used by land artillery for quite some time, but due to the inherently dangerous nature of shells (they are essentially bombs, after all), they had been limited to use in howitzers and mortars. Howitzers and mortars are designed to lob their shots or shells at a high trajectory, and don't need to fire at as high of a velocity as the sort of low-trajectory cannons that were used in ships at the time. Using shells in high velocity cannons was rather risky. Paixhans was able to develop a new fuse mechanism and cannon that made it safe to use explosive shells on naval ships.\n\nThe Paixhans gun was developed in the 1820s and installed on French ships by the 30s, but its first use against enemy ships occurred during the Crimean War. At the naval Battle of Sinop during November 1853, which was the engagement that properly started the war, Russian ships with Paixhans were able to destroy their Ottoman counterparts with ease. Sinop made it clear that wood vessels had no real way to counter these shells, which would lodge themselves in their targets before exploding.\n\nFrance and Britain declared war on Russia after the Battle of Sinop. The French Emperor Napoleon III, who did not want to risk seeing his ships go the way of those Ottoman ships when attacking Russian coastal fortifications (witch also had Paixhans), ordered the construction of armoured floating batteries, assigning the task to the inspector general of naval construction Garnier, a naval engineer named Guieysse, and Commander Favé, an artillery officer. A floating battery is a vessel with very limited mobility (they might be able to move at a few knots in calm seas and were often towed by other ships) but heavy armament. Floating batteries had been used before, but Napoleon III specified that these were to be designed to be able to deal with enemy shell-fire. He proposed that they use chests full of shot (the solid round projectiles fired out of muskets or cannons), but experiments conducted proved that iron plates backed by wood to be superior to cases of shot when dealing with both shells and shot. The French shared their plans with the British admiralty, and in 1855 the ironclad coastal batteries *Lave*, *Tonnante*, and *Dévastation* helped destroy Russian forts at the Battle of Kinburn with minimal causalities. Britain's ironclad batteries arrived too late to see any action.\n\nDuring the 1850s the French sought to build up their navy with the construction of many steamships of all classes, but due to improvements in naval guns and the lessons of the Crimean War, the naval commission tasked with this naval construction decided to halt work on wooden ships-of-the-line and instead try to design ironclad seagoing warships (a process that would require lots and lots of men and experimentation). This culminated in the *Glorie*, designed by the naval architect Henri Dupuy de Lôme and his staff.\n\nRather than crediting one individual, I'd say that the main driving force behind the ironclad was the French Navy as a whole. Given his heavy involvement in the process, though, I suppose one could say that Emperor Napoleon III deserves a fair bit of the credit.\n\nI can't say that I know much about the history of ironclads in the Royal Navy or other navies besides that of the French. If someone does, feel free to elaborate.\n\nSource:\n\n[Baxster, James P. *The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship.* Naval Institute Press, 1933.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28788188",
"title": "List of ironclads of the Royal Navy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "This is a list of ironclads of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom. An ironclad was a steam-propelled warship in the early part of the second half of the 19th century, protected by iron or steel armour plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41402787",
"title": "Forester-class gunboat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The \"Forester\"-class gunboat was a class of 4-gun composite gunboats built for the Royal Navy between 1874 and 1877. Although half had been sold by 1890, the rest survived into the 20th century as coal hulks, base vessels and other secondary uses. \"Foxhound\" survived as a hulk on the Blackwall Reach of the Thames until 1975, when she was broken up. They were built of composite construction, that is, with iron keel, stem and stern posts, and iron framing, but planked with wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235841",
"title": "USS Dunderberg",
"section": "Section::::Design, description and construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "On 11 April 1862, William H. Webb, arguably the premier wooden shipbuilder in the country, sent a model of a large wooden-hulled, casemate ironclad with a displacement of about to the US Navy Department. Webb signed a contract on 3 July with the Navy's Bureau of Yards and Docks for a ship that had an overall length of , a beam of at least and a draft of no more than . His ship was required to make in still water and she was to be armed with four Dahlgren guns in two gun turrets, each protected by of armor, and eight 11-inch Dahlgren guns in a casemate. The ship was to be completed in 15 months at a cost of $1,250,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41102437",
"title": "Gloire-class ironclad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The \"Gloire\"-class ironclads were a group of three wooden-hulled armored frigates built for the French Navy in the late 1850s and early 1860s. , the lead ship of the class, was the first ocean-going ironclad warship to be built by any country. The ships of the \"Gloire\" class were classified as armoured frigates because they only had a single gun deck and their traditional disposition of guns arrayed along the length of the hull also meant that they were broadside ironclads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32298",
"title": "USS Constitution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "USS \"Constitution, also known as Old Ironsides\", is a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy named by President George Washington after the United States Constitution. She is the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel still afloat. She was launched in 1797, one of six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794 and the third constructed. Joshua Humphreys designed the frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so \"Constitution\" and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. She was built at Edmund Hartt's shipyard in the North End of Boston, Massachusetts. Her first duties were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi-War with France and to defeat the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147",
"title": "Armour",
"section": "Section::::Vehicle.:History.:Ships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251489",
"title": "Ironclad warship",
"section": "Section::::Armament and tactics.:Positioning of armament.:Broadside ironclads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "A significant number of broadside ironclads was built in the 1860s, principally in Britain and France, but in smaller numbers by other powers including Italy, Austria, Russia and the United States. The advantages of mounting guns on both broadsides was that the ship could engage more than one adversary at a time, and the rigging did not impede the field of fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7cgn2s
|
what holds fingernails in place? how far under the skin do they go?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your fingernails and toenails are made up of cells that form into a hard surface called keratin. Keratin is also what makes up your hair and other parts of animals, like horse hooves and rhino horns. Underneath your fingernail is a soft surface called the nail bed. This is what produces the cells that harden and turn into keratin. The nail grows because it works kind of like the plates that make up the Earth’s crust: The nail bed forms new cells, which push on the older ones and make them grow outward. The whole structure inside your finger doesn’t extend much past the bottom of your visible fingernail. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to this why don't fingernails hurt when they grow? Shouldn't they tug on the skin underneath? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The nail is generated (grows from) the germinal matrix and grows over the sterile matrix (nail bed).\n\nIf the nail is crushed, injured, or removed, the germinal matrix and nail bed need to be protected . A defect to those structures can cause permanent nail deformities. \n\nSo after a crush injury, it's standard practice to remove the nail and inspect those structures. We use a freer elevator to gently lift it off. Once any repairs are made, the nail is slid back into place and sutured back to hold it as a splint. The nail regrows and pushes the old nail off. \n\nIf there is a nail deformity, we can either remove the nail and attempt to address the deformity, or remove the nail bed and matrix to eliminate the nail regrowth entirely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1568048",
"title": "Eponychium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "In human anatomy, the eponychium, or cuticle, is the thickened layer of skin surrounding fingernails and toenails. It can also be called the medial or proximal nail fold. Its function is to protect the area between the nail and epidermis from exposure to bacteria. The vascularization pattern is similar to that of perionychium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3690642",
"title": "Nail file",
"section": "Section::::Materials.:Emery board.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The nail can be smoothed and shaped accurately by taking light, even strokes in one direction across the top of the nail. Twenty to thirty easy strokes can typically shorten excessively long fingernails, while five to ten strokes are sufficient for shaping the nails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43292313",
"title": "Tavaborole",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacokinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Tavaborole, when prepared with a 1:1 mixture of ethyl acetate and propylene glycol, has the ability to fully penetrate through the human nail. In studies with cadaver fingernails, a 5% solution of tavaborole penetrated the nail an average of 524.7 mcg/cm after two weeks of daily use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9611617",
"title": "Landslide mitigation",
"section": "Section::::Soil slopes.:Reinforcement measures.:Insertion of reinforcement elements into the ground.:Nailing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Another nailing system is the soil nail and root technology (SNART). Here, steel nails are inserted very rapidly into a slope by percussion, vibration or screw methods. Grid spacing is typically 0.8 to 1.5 m, nails are 25 to 50 mm in diameter and may be as long as 20 m. Nails are installed perpendicular to and through the failure plane, and are designed to resist bending and shear (rather than tension) using geotechnical engineering principles. Potential failure surfaces less than 2 m deep normally require the nails to be wider near the top, which may be achieved with steel plates fastened at the nail heads. Plant roots often form an effective and aesthetic facing to prevent soil loss between the nails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59660",
"title": "Integumentary system",
"section": "Section::::Skin.:Epidermis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails grow from a thin area called the nail matrix at an average of 1 mm per week. The lunula is the crescent-shape area at the base of the nail, lighter in color as it mixes with the matrix cells. Also, the stratum corneum is the top part of the epidermis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13224821",
"title": "Women in the United States Navy",
"section": "Section::::Grooming standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fingernails: Fingernails for women shall not exceed 1/4 inch beyond the end of the finger. They shall be kept clean. Nail polish may be worn, but colors shall be conservative and complement the skin tone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "397986",
"title": "Nail (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Parts of the nail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The hyponychium (informally known as the \"quick\") is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the free edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4sz7lr
|
Why wasn't LVT's used at D-day beach landings?
|
[
{
"answer": "At the time, there was not enough LVTs for use in both the European and Pacific theaters. The initial stages of Operation Forager (the invasion of the Mariana and Palau islands) underwent preparation and execution at about the same time as D-Day, and few of the vehicles could be spared. Redeployment and retraining of amphibian tractor and amphibian tank battalions from the Pacific to European Theaters would have been another issue; drawing these units away could reduce the potential of troops in the Pacific to conduct landings. If LVTs were used on D-Day, it is presumed that only Army units would have been involved. In the first half of 1944, only a single Army amphibian tank battalion existed, the 708th. Activation and training of new units would also take time, up to a year.\n\nThe vast majority of LVT types were not armored at all, having only a thin steel hull.\n\nVersion|Armor|Notes\n:--|:--|:--\nLVT-1|None (9 mm plates added to some vehicles' cabs before Tarawa)|No rear ramp: capacity 18 passengers\nLVT-2|None|No rear ramp; capacity 24 passengers\nLVT(A)-2|6.5 mm on hull, 12.7 mm on cab|Armored version of the LVT-2; no rear ramp; capacity 24 passengers\nLVT(A)-3|Presumably 6.5 mm on hull, 12.7 mm on cab|Proposed armored version of the LVT-4; not produced\nLVT-4|None|Rear ramp; capacity 30 passengers\nLVT(A)-1|6.5 mm on hull, 12.7 mm on cab, turret with armor characteristics of M3A1 light tank|Crew: 6\nLVT(A)-4|6.5 mm on hull, 12.7 mm on cab, turret with armor characteristic of M8 Howitzer Motor Carriage|Crew: 6\n\nAnother consideration is their personnel capacity; early LVTs (LVT-1, LVT-2, LVT(A)-2) could carry only 18 to 24 troops, and they had to jump over the side owing to the fact that there was no rear ramp, slowing their exit from the vehicle. Using these vehicles would have forced a reorganization of the agreed-upon assault infantry battalion structure (6 assault boats per rifle company and 5 support boats for the heavy weapons company, plus a command boat, each of 30 men) More waves of smaller-capacity vehicles slows the execution of the landing \n\nThe LVT-4, capable of carrying 30 men and having a rear ramp, only began production in December 1943. It is doubtful that the logistical priority for the new vehicle would have been given to the European Theater, as LVT-type vehicles were needed and had proved themselves for the frequent invasions of Japanese-held islands in the Pacific Theater.\n\nThe following is purely conjecture, since we do not have any idea how the LVT would have performed in the choppy, currented seas of Normandy. Landings in the Pacific were undertaken only in calm(er) conditions, in which the LVT performed fine. The LVT had quite low freeboard, in comparison to the LCVP and LCM, which were purely boats.\n\nIn combat, the LVT probably would have struggled against heavy German antitank and artillery fire. They probably would have performed a role similar to the LCVP or LCM, dropping off troops at the water's edge and retreating to pick up more. Transport versions of the LVT used this tactic in the Pacific, and generally did not advance beyond the beach, except to move cargo or retrieve wounded when combat had already moved inland. Advancing up the beach with a full load of troops in the rear compartment would have been suicidal; there was no overhead protection, and the installation of an armored roof was only theoretically possible on the (new) LVT-4. In places, they also would have been unable to progress beyond the \"shingle\", a slope of small slippery stones some distance up the beach, that was impossible for tracked vehicles to climb.\n\nSources:\n\n*Amtracs: US Amphibious Assault Vehicles*, by Steven J. Zaloga\n\n[LVT(A)-1](_URL_1_)\n\n[LVT(A)-4](_URL_0_)\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129756",
"title": "Landing Vehicle Tracked",
"section": "Section::::Combat history.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "LVTs were used in the Normandy landings, but their use by the United States was limited as the US Army doctrine in Europe viewed the Sherman DD as the answer to assault on heavily defended beaches. LVT-2s were used to help unload supplies after the landings on Utah Beach, from the cargo ships off the coast to the beach and through the nearby swamps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "628969",
"title": "Landing zone",
"section": "Section::::Vietnam War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The United States used LZs to a greater extent in the Vietnam War than in other wars because of the widespread use of helicopters, which provided increased mobility and rapid transportation of forces in Vietnam. In turn, this resulted in extensive use of landing zones in this conflict. LZs could be temporary, being little more than a clearing in the jungle or a clearing made using special munitions, such as commando vault bombs, which cleared everything in a diameter of 150 feet. Other LZs were permanent or semi-permanent built with more deliberate construction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129756",
"title": "Landing Vehicle Tracked",
"section": "Section::::Development.:The LVT-1 design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The LVT-1 could carry 18 fully equipped men or 4,500 pounds (2,041 kg) of cargo. Originally intended to carry replenishment from ships to shore, they lacked armor protection and their tracks and suspension were unreliable when used on hard terrain. However, the Marines soon recognized the potential of the LVT as an assault vehicle. A battalion of LVTs was ready for 1st Marine Division by 16 February 1942. The LVTs saw their first operational use in Guadalcanal, where they were used exclusively for landing supplies. About 128 LVTs were available for the landings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "901674",
"title": "Landing Ship, Tank",
"section": "Section::::Service in World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Thirty-eight LSTs were converted to serve as small hospital ships and designated LSTH. They supplemented the many standard LSTs, which removed casualties from the beach after landing tanks and vehicles. LSTs had brought 41,035 wounded men back across the English Channel from Normandy by D-Day+114 (28 September 1944). Other LSTs, provided with extra cranes and handling gear, were used exclusively for replenishing ammunition. They possessed a special advantage in this role, as their size permitted two or three LSTs to go simultaneously alongside an anchored battleship or cruiser to accomplish replenishment more rapidly than standard ammunition ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1129756",
"title": "Landing Vehicle Tracked",
"section": "Section::::Combat history.:Leyte.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The largest use of LVTs was in the Leyte landing in October 1944, with nine US Army amtrac and two amtank battalions deployed by US Army 6th Army. These US Army LVTs were later used in other Philippine islands landings. 54 LVT(4) tracked amphibious assault vehicles of the 672nd Amphibian Tractor Battalion as part of the raiding force on 23 February 1945 forged across Laguna de Bay and crashed the gates during the liberation of Los Baños Internment Camp. They ferried the weakened liberated civilians back behind the lines during the contested withdrawal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252164",
"title": "Operation Totalize",
"section": "Section::::Canadian plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Some Canadian and British infantry divisions had been temporarily equipped with M7 Priest self-propelled guns for the D-Day landings, which had been replaced by towed 25-Pounder field guns. Simonds had the Priests converted into Kangaroo Armoured Personnel Carriers, which would allow infantry to follow the tanks closely on any terrain. Permission was first requested from the Americans, from whom the M7s had been borrowed, to convert them into APCs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1740818",
"title": "DD tank",
"section": "Section::::\"T-6 Device\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "An alternative to the DD was the \"T-6 Device\", developed by the US Army. Limited numbers of the \"T-6 Device\" were used by the US Army and Marines during the landings on Okinawa. The \"T-6 Device\" kit consisted of a structure of box-like, pressed-steel floats (pontoons) mounted on the front, rear and sides of a Sherman. No propellers were fitted – propulsion was provided by the rotation of the tracks. The front and rear floats were discarded on the beach, some in the water. Explosive bolts were used. Side floats were removed from the tanks on shore when the tactical situation permitted. In an oral interview with former Pvt. Maurice Dean Derby 37699146, Browning Automatic Rifleman, Co. A, 17th Infantry Regiment, 7th Infantry Division, he related that \"On the night of the landing (Okinawa, 1 April 1945) we were kept awake all night because the Tank Crews were beating on the pontoons with sledgehammers to remove them from the Tanks.\" The tanks were Co. B, 711 Tank Battalion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mpcso
|
from newborn onesies to blouses, shirts and pants... why do men's and women's clothing fasten in opposite directions?
|
[
{
"answer": "Men's jackets were made to be unbuttoned with their right hand so they could take it off with a cane in one hand. Women were dressed by other people so it's made to be easy for right-handed maids to button them up. Then the tradition stuck ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Back in the day wealthy women had numerous cumbersome layers to put on, so they had maids to help them get dressed. As 90% of people are right handed they put the buttons/zippers/whatever on the side easiest for them to work with. Mens clothing wasn't as complicated so their stuff got put on the other side. That has just become a defacto standard in the fashion industry despite the fact that it is no longer relevant. (At least that's what I've been told.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2492374",
"title": "Kosovorotka",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The men's garment was worn loose and was not tucked into the trousers, but instead belted either with a conventional belt, a rope, or a rope-like tie. The tails of the garment hung over the trousers. Women's shirts were tucked into the skirt or worn under the sarafan, and the button line of women's shirts tended to be in the middle, rather than off at the side. Children's shirts were often too long for those who wore them, and was the only piece of clothing on little boys and girls in the ancient times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16819687",
"title": "Maternity clothing",
"section": "Section::::Cultural trends in maternity wear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Culturally in the US today, a few popular clothing brands have made everyday wear for pregnant women both fashionable and accessible. As the body is changing shape and therefore levels of comfort, most maternity clothing is made with Lycra and elastic for stretch and growth. For pants, the waistband is usually a thick layer of stretchy material that can be hidden by a shirt to give the pants a normal look. Depending on style and activity, tops often billow out to leave room for the belly and are made of varying cottons and elastic materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2046889",
"title": "Infant bodysuit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "An infant bodysuit is a garment designed to be worn by infants much like a T-shirt; they are distinguished from T-shirts by an extension below the waist, with snaps or Velcro that allow it to be closed over the crotch. The purpose of the opening at the crotch is to facilitate access to the infant's diaper. Like T-shirts, infant bodysuits come in a wide variety of designs and may be worn as undergarments or as outer shirts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55615",
"title": "School uniform",
"section": "Section::::Social implications of school uniforms on gender.:Sexualization of girls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Uniforms often start to increase in popularity around middle or junior school, when students begin going through puberty. Uniforms can be seen as a way to restrict the sexualization of girls (rules on hems of skirts, no shoulders). Uniforms take the focus away from sexuality and focus it on academics in a school setting for girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "309519",
"title": "Bodysuit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "A bodysuit is normally worn with trousers or a skirt. The top, torso part may act as a top for the smooth line it gives or because it cannot become untucked from trousers or skirt. They may also be worn generally by women as underwear, activewear, or foundation garments. Unlike a leotard, a bodysuit is not usually considered a form of athletic wear. Onesies (or snapsuits) are bodysuits for younger children, toddlers and some adults which help keep diapers (or nappies) in place. The purpose of the opening at the crotch is to facilitate access to a baby's diaper, or for a visit to the toilet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3622454",
"title": "1750–1775 in Western fashion",
"section": "Section::::Children's fashion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "During most of this period, the clothes worn by middle- and upper-class children older than toddlers continued to be similar to the clothes worn by adults, with the exception that girls wore back-fastening bodices and petticoats rather than open-fronted robes. Boys wore dresses until they were breeched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10117762",
"title": "Clothing in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Children and adolescents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Roman infants were usually swaddled. Apart from those few, typically formal garments reserved for adults, most children wore a scaled-down version of what their parents wore. Girls often wore a long tunic that reached the foot or instep, belted at the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. Outdoors, they might wear another tunic over it. Boys' tunics were shorter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2eg14v
|
how do these child sex allegations get proven 30+ years later if there is no pictures/videos? e.g cliff richards atm
|
[
{
"answer": "Rape cases are very difficult to prove especially with no physical evidence.\n\nNot sure who Cliff Richards is, but like when Sandusky got convicted. There were so many people that all told similar stories. It's a he said she said thing, but when so many people are all telling the same story the jury tends to believe the majority of people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60234867",
"title": "National Petition of South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Answers.:Answers 31–40.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In the 33rd petition, the problem was a video clip showing a man having continuous sex with his seven-year-old daughter. Min Kap-ryong said the video was a pornographic piece produced, and promised a swift investigation, although it is difficult to relate to sexual abuse of children. He apologized for the delay in the police investigation and the lack of support for the investigation as the site where the video was uploaded has a server in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55651638",
"title": "Alissa Bjerkhoel",
"section": "Section::::CIP work.:Prominent cases.:Brian Banks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "After his release on probation, he arranged for a meeting with his accuser, Wanetta Gibson (who had contacted him through Facebook), at which she admitted on video that there had been no rape or kidnapping in 2002, and that their encounter had been completely consensual. The video evidence was not admissible in court, because the video had been made without Gibson's knowledge or consent and was not accompanied by a signed confession from the young woman. However, CIP was instrumental in putting together additional evidence supporting Banks' story, which led the district attorney to dismiss all charges against him and release him from sex-offender status, allowing him to resume his aborted sports career. Bjerkhoel was present in the courtroom with Banks on May 24, 2012, the day that his conviction was finally dismissed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24369186",
"title": "Shaggy defense",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "According to Josh Levin of \"Slate\", \"As Kelly's lawyers mentioned multiple times, the alleged victim in this case—now a 23-year-old woman—told a grand jury that it wasn't her. While 15 friends and relatives testified that the girl in question was indeed on the video, neither the alleged victim nor her parents showed up in court to testify for either side.\" The prosecution witness Lisa Van Allen was easily impeached as a witness due to her clearly sordid history with R. Kelly, others, and even soliciting a bribe from an investigator in the case. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21316894",
"title": "Keith Farnham",
"section": "Section::::Criminal case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "On April 28, 2014, Farnham was charged. After receiving a tip that a Yahoo! e-mail address was being used to trade child pornography, investigators found chat logs from June 2013 to January 2014, in which the user bragged in detail about a sexual encounter with a 6-year-old girl and said that \"12 is about as old as i can handle.\" The account's use was traced back to Farnham's home Comcast Internet service. At least two videos of child pornography were found on Farnham's Elgin legislative office computer. In addition to two videos showing victims as young as 2 or 3, investigators found over 2,750 images of child pornography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24198869",
"title": "Bodene Thompson",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "On September 11 2017, Thompson’s former partner Belinda Medlyn alleged she had group sex sessions with Thompson and his teammates. The allegations came to public knowledge after a dispute over finances to raise their child became apparent. Thompson accused Medlyn of threatening to expose the story unless he gave her $50,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2783285",
"title": "Jack Gordon (entertainment manager)",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Management and marriage to La Toya Jackson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1472,
"text": "In December 1993, Gordon hastily arranged a press conference in Tel Aviv where he had Jackson read a statement that she believed sex abuse allegations against her younger brother Michael were true. She stated, \"I cannot and will not be a silent collaborator in his crimes against young children... Forget about the superstar, forget about the icon. If he was any other 35-year-old man who was sleeping with little boys, you wouldn't like this guy\". Gordon claimed La Toya had proof which she was prepared to disclose for a fee of $500,000. A bidding war between US and UK tabloids began, but fell through when they realized that her revelations were not what she had claimed them to be. According to La Toya, Gordon threatened to have siblings Michael and Janet killed if she didn't follow his orders. Under Gordon's management, Jackson's career declined, as he booked her disreputable jobs such as spokesperson for the Psychic Friends Network. Due to Gordon's steady stream of publicity stunts Jackson had become a hate figure of sorts. In 1996, Gordon attempted to force Jackson to dance at a Reading PA strip club. She refused to do so and in return, was booed and heckled by the predominantly male crowd. When Jackson became aware that Gordon was planning to feature her in a pornographic film, she decided that she had enough. Jackson phoned her brother Randy, who flew to New York City to help her escape while Gordon was out. Days later, La Toya filed for divorce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39077938",
"title": "Suicide of Rehtaeh Parsons",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "A year following the alleged rape, the RCMP concluded an investigation stating, \"[an] investigation into an earlier sexual assault was completed, and in consultation with the Crown, there was insufficient evidence to lay charges\". According to the family, the boys were not questioned and their phones were not reviewed for the photograph of the rape in progress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3nwj4q
|
Why were the Swedish armies in the 17th and early 18th century so effective/had high morale?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a great previous answer here that should answer your question:\n[How Carolean army was set up and what made it work](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8475835",
"title": "Allotment system",
"section": "Section::::Military impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The Swedish military had a unique position in Northern Europe at the time of the new system, being the only army that did not rely only on enlisted soldiers, mercenaries or conscripted soldiers. In relation to population size, the Swedish army was also the largest in Europe. Because of the allotment system, mobilization was quick. It took time, weeks and months, to enlist, equip, train and organize a unit of mercenaries, while the Swedish croft soldiers gathered at the company meeting place in a couple of days, and then at the regimental meeting place in around a week. The soldiers were already trained and equipped, and knew their precise spot in the formation. Marching routes to the borders or to harbours had already been prepared, and supplies had been gathered at important places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21173183",
"title": "Swedish Empire",
"section": "Section::::Military history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1598,
"text": "A major reason why Sweden could be so successful in wars with such a scarce number of soldiers was its advanced military tactics. Sweden was able to reform its military tactics continuously throughout the period. Prior to Gustav II Adolf's reforms, both his father, Charles IX, and his uncle Erik XIV had tried to reform the army but had effectively failed to do so. Charles IX, like most other rulers, had tried to implement the Dutch system into the army but with limited success. The lack of a strict organisation in the infantry caused the proportion of pikemen to musketeers to be far lower than the preferred ratio of 1 to 1. This, combined with the lack of funds to provide the soldiers with armour, caused the Swedish infantry to be dangerously lightly equipped and unable to deal with cavalry or heavier infantry in open terrain. Charles IX was, however, able to implement the Dutch system for fighting in caracole among the cavalry, with unfortunate results. His partially reformed army suffered a disastrous defeat at Kircholm against a Polish-Lithuanian army led by Jan Karol Chodkiewicz. The Hussaria were the last shock cavalry in Europe still fighting with lances, yet they proved with terrifying effect the superiority of aggressive charging compared to the more defensive caracole used in the rest of Europe. In the end, Charles IX's revolt against his nephew Sigismund (king of Sweden and Poland, grand duke of Lithuania) and subsequent rise to the throne of Sweden caused a dynastic struggle for the throne of Sweden that would not finally end until the treaty of Oliva in 1660.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8475835",
"title": "Allotment system",
"section": "Section::::Civil impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "During the time of the old allotment system, Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War and the Northern Wars did not have a very large impact on the population in general. The armies of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus and later Charles X had relatively large success due to the superior tactics used, and foreign mercenaries comprised large parts of the armies. Gustavus Adolphus had, when he entered the Thirty Years' War, an army of 14,500 Swedish and Finnish conscripts and more than 20,000 enlisted foreigners, and deaths in the latter group did not affect the Swedish population. Charles XI's new allotment system did not have to see use in the first 20 years of its existence, which was also the longest time of peace Sweden had seen since its independence. Thus, the population continued to grow at a steady rate between 1620 and 1700.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294731",
"title": "Musketeer",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Thanks to the reforms of Gustav II Adolf, the Swedish Army brought to maturity the new style of fighting that made Sweden into a great power in the 17th century. This style of fighting became the new standard throughout Europe and its colonies in the latter stages of musket dominated warfare. Manuals based on Gustav's own revolutionised the training and tactics of western armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38071020",
"title": "Military of the Swedish Empire",
"section": "Section::::Military of Gustav II Adolf.:Invading the Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "Sweden's limited manpower meant that from early on, the army had to rely on a majority of foreign soldiers, mainly from Germany, but also from Scotland or England (at least until the beginning of the English civil war). In 1648, the Swedish army in Germany (commanded by Carl Gustaf Wrangel) nominally comprised 62,950 men of which 45,206 were Germans and 17,744 Swedes. In spite of this composition, the Swedish army was a coherent fighting force, well-disciplined and trained, and strictly led. Many foreign officers could attain high ranks, such as marshal Alexander Leslie, William of Saxe-Weimar, Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, Hans von Königsmarck or, later Otto von Könisgmarck and Bernhard of Baden-Durlach. During the thirty years war, as the Imperial army had defeated many Protestant states from 1618 to 1629, German Protestants increasingly looked to the king of Sweden as their main protector and many enlisted in his army. The Swedes could also easily pay foreign troops thanks to French subsidies. This policy continued in later wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30578143",
"title": "Dano-Swedish War of 1808–09",
"section": "Section::::Armies.:The Swedish army.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The Swedish army was fairly well equipped and the soldiers were well trained, but under the pressure from two fronts the Swedes had been forced to retain the ability to send troops wherever they were needed the most. The main theater of war was in the east, where the Russian invasion threatened the Swedish rule in Finland, but the threat from Denmark–Norway and France was taken seriously. The Swedish western army was divided into two wings, the right wing was led by Armfeldt himself, and the left wing was led by Major General Vegesack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1721475",
"title": "Caroleans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Caroleans () were soldiers of the Swedish kings Charles XI and Charles XII. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, in order to compensate for its lack of manpower and resources, Sweden strove for innovative ways to make a more effective army. The tactics of Caroleans differed from those of Western European soldiers in their greater reliance upon pikes, rapiers, bayonets, and offensive strategy, which helped them to be victorious, even when greatly outnumbered, in many important Swedish battles. The Carolean army is regarded as one of the most effective military forces of their time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8sqhlk
|
Is Earth losing oxygen?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sort of. Most oxygen production on earth happens in the oceans (algae), so loss of forests, while impactful in many ways, isnt going to cause us to suffocate. Increase in CO2 does remove oxygen from the atmosphere through combustion, and we have increase CO2 concentrations substantially, but its still a negligble loss. The Earths atmosphere is ~21% oxygen, and 400 ppm (thats 0.04% of the atmosphere) of CO2. This is up from about 280 ppm pre-industrialization. Even if it got up to 1000 ppm (climate change to the point of palm trees at the poles) it would still not hugely impact the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere as this would reduce it from 21% to 20.99%. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9813",
"title": "Extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Most widely supported explanations.:Future biosphere extinction/sterilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. Eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. When the Sun becomes 10% brighter in about a billion years, Earth will suffer a moist greenhouse effect resulting in its oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core cools due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down. In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of ~420 K (147 °C, 296 °F) in 2.8 billion years, causing the last remaining life on Earth to die out. This is the most extreme instance of a climate-caused extinction event. Since this will only happen late in the Sun's life, such will cause the final mass extinction in Earth's history (albeit a very long extinction event).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58694096",
"title": "SbtB protein",
"section": "Section::::Carbon concentrating mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "Currently, most of the oxygen on planet earth derives from oxygenic photosynthesis. Some phototrophic prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria developed the ability to carry out oxygenic photosynthesis around 2.7 billion years ago. Moreover, 2 billion years ago planet earth was struck with \"The Great Oxygenation event\" also known as the oxygen crisis. Rising levels of atmospheric , mainly due to oxygenic photosynthesis carried out by cyanobacteria nearly caused the mass death of anaerobic organisms. Having to face the evolutionary pressure of dropping ambient levels, cyanobacteria coped by evolving carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCM). Thus, these carbon concentrating mechanisms, also known as \"DIC-pumps\", are found in most photosynthetic microorganisms, such as unicellular green algea and cyanobacteria. These environmental adaptations vastly improve photosynthetic performance and survival. Indeed, this is achieved by accumulating intracellular inorganic carbon (Ci) providing elevated levels around the primary fixing enzyme, Rubisco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23645",
"title": "Precambrian",
"section": "Section::::Planetary environment and the oxygen catastrophe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "At present, it is still believed that molecular oxygen was not a significant fraction of Earth's atmosphere until after photosynthetic life forms evolved and began to produce it in large quantities as a byproduct of their metabolism. This radical shift from a chemically inert to an oxidizing atmosphere caused an ecological crisis, sometimes called the oxygen catastrophe. At first, oxygen would have quickly combined with other elements in Earth's crust, primarily iron, removing it from the atmosphere. After the supply of oxidizable surfaces ran out, oxygen would have begun to accumulate in the atmosphere, and the modern high-oxygen atmosphere would have developed. Evidence for this lies in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations that were laid down as iron oxides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18687743",
"title": "End-Botomian mass extinction",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "There several hypotheses for the causes of these extinctions. There is evidence that major changes in the carbon cycle and sea level occurred during this time . Evidence also exists for the development of anoxia (a loss of oxygen) in some environments in the oceans .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46219227",
"title": "Evolution of metal ions in biological systems",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The Earth began as an iron aquatic world with low oxygen. The Great Oxygenation Event occurred approximately 2.4 Ga (billion years ago) as cyanobacteria and photosynthetic life induced the presence of dioxygen in the planet's atmosphere. Iron became insoluble (as did other metals) and scarce while other metals became soluble. Sulfur was a very important element during this time. Once oxygen was released into the environment, sulfates made metals more soluble and released those metals into the environment; especially into the water. Incorporation of metals perhaps combatted oxidative stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Proterozoic Eon.:Oxygen revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Photosynthesis had another major impact. Oxygen was toxic; much life on Earth probably died out as its levels rose in what is known as the \"oxygen catastrophe\". Resistant forms survived and thrived, and some developed the ability to use oxygen to increase their metabolism and obtain more energy from the same food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "129618",
"title": "Cyanobacteria",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "By producing and releasing oxygen (as a byproduct of photosynthesis), cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the early oxygen-poor, reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing one, causing the Great Oxygenation Event and the \"rusting of the Earth\", which dramatically changed the composition of the Earth's life forms and led to the near-extinction of anaerobic organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fh5jjw
|
normal "system" memory versus graphics memory
|
[
{
"answer": "Graphics memory is designed for ludicrous throughput and custom applications. Graphics cards need access to massive memory bandwidth to do their job, a single 4K frame is ~25 MB and the GPU will be expected to generate at least 60 of them per second requiring a minimum of 12 Gbps of memory bandwidth to achieve 60 FPS at 4k. If you want to run 8x FSAA(full scene anti-aliasing) then you need to generate each frame at 8x the resolution or 32K equivalent and then down sample it. This gives you 1.6 GB **per frame** and 768 Gbps of required memory bandwidth. The Graphics RAM on a GPU serves as its input buffer storing textures that it needs to reference during rendering and storing the finally rendered scene.\n\nBecause of this insane bandwidth requirement, GPUs often talk to several chips in parallel so they can have up to 512 bit wide memory buses so each clock edge can give them 512 bits of data and then they run at quite high frequencies. An nVidia 2080 TI has a memory bandwidth of 4,928 Gbps.\n\nStandard memory is designed to be compatible with every system, as such it has an agreed upon bus width (64 bits) and frequency set. While it will sometimes have lower latency than graphics ram and is generally significantly cheaper per GB, even the fastest stick of DDR4 can only give you 200 Gbps, but this is more than enough because your CPU isn't handling huge quantities of data generally. Its restricted on doing math on what it can fit in its L1 and L2 cache, everything else is a longggg wait for a CPU.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4052704",
"title": "Shared graphics memory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "In computer architecture, shared graphics memory refers to a design where the graphics chip does not have its own dedicated memory, and instead shares the main system RAM with the CPU and other components. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3301619",
"title": "Graphics hardware",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Graphics Cards.:Parts of a Graphics Card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Video Memory is built in RAM installed on the video card that provides the graphics card with its own RAM and allows it to run smoothly without having to take resources from the computer. However, if one uses an integrated graphics card, the chip will take resources from the computer as it does not have its own built in memory. That is how it is made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32354",
"title": "Virtual memory",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Virtual memory is an integral part of a modern computer architecture; implementations usually require hardware support, typically in the form of a memory management unit built into the CPU. While not necessary, emulators and virtual machines can employ hardware support to increase performance of their virtual memory implementations. Consequently, older operating systems, such as those for the mainframes of the 1960s, and those for personal computers of the early to mid-1980s (e.g., DOS), generally have no virtual memory functionality, though notable exceptions for mainframes of the 1960s include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42310144",
"title": "Pascal (microarchitecture)",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- Unified memory — a memory architecture, where the CPU and GPU can access both main system memory and memory on the graphics card with the help of a technology called \"Page Migration Engine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148742",
"title": "GeForce",
"section": "Section::::Graphics processor generations.:GeForce 10 series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "BULLET::::- Unified memory A memory architecture, where the CPU and GPU can access both main system memory and memory on the graphics card with the help of a technology called \"Page Migration Engine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "399520",
"title": "List of interface bit rates",
"section": "Section::::Bandwidths.:Graphics processing units' RAM.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "RAM memory modules are also utilised by graphics processing units; however, memory modules for those differ somewhat from standard computer memory, particularly with lower power requirements, and are specialised to serve GPUs: for example, GDDR3 was fundamentally based on DDR2. Every graphics memory chip is directly connected to the GPU (point-to-point). The total GPU memory bus width varies with the number of memory chips and the number of lanes per chip. For example, GDDR5 specifies either 16 or 32 lanes per \"device\" (chip), while GDDR5X specifies 64 lanes per chip. Over the years, bus widths rose from 64-bit to 512-bit and beyond: e.g. HBM is 1024 bits wide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390214",
"title": "Graphics processing unit",
"section": "Section::::GPU forms.:Integrated graphics processing unit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "\"Integrated graphics processing unit\" (IGPU), \"Integrated graphics\", \"shared graphics solutions\", \"integrated graphics processors\" (IGP) or \"unified memory architecture\" (UMA) utilize a portion of a computer's system RAM rather than dedicated graphics memory. IGPs can be integrated onto the motherboard as part of the chipset, or on the same die with the CPU (like AMD APU or Intel HD Graphics). On certain motherboards AMD's IGPs can use dedicated sideport memory. This is a separate fixed block of high performance memory that is dedicated for use by the GPU. In early 2007, computers with integrated graphics account for about 90% of all PC shipments. They are less costly to implement than dedicated graphics processing, but tend to be less capable. Historically, integrated processing was often considered unfit to play 3D games or run graphically intensive programs but could run less intensive programs such as Adobe Flash. Examples of such IGPs would be offerings from SiS and VIA circa 2004. However, modern integrated graphics processors such as AMD Accelerated Processing Unit and Intel HD Graphics are more than capable of handling 2D graphics or low stress 3D graphics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
8wir82
|
Why did exotic exploration seem quite popular around the turn of the century?
|
[
{
"answer": "[1/2]\n\nUnlike the so-called \"Age of Exploration,\" this period doesn’t have a codified name, in part because I don’t think that it has as large a place in our popular narrative of \"history of Western civilization\" the way that earlier explorers like Columbus, Magellan, and others do. However, that doesn’t make that we can’t talk about it. My answer here is going to focus on Britain and the British Empire specifically, both because that’s where my area of expertise lies and because they were all over the globe and had an intense interest in exploration and the \"adventures\" of these explorers and the knowledge they gained permeated British popular culture. However, the British weren’t alone in this endeavor, and French, Americans, and other nationalities took part. This topic is just too broad for me to go into detail in all times and in all places, so I’m going to try and zero in on a few specific examples that I think are illuminating and also talk some about the popular culture aspect. \n\nAs you hinted at when you said that India was at the height of colonial rule, all of this exploration was a facet of imperialism. While the British and other Europeans set out to conquer the globe, they wanted information about the places they were colonizing—clear definition of borders, knowledge of the local geography, and a catalogue of potentially-exploitable resources.\n\nHowever, this white European incursion (particularly into the African interior) wasn’t just driven by practical considerations that would assist the running of empires. The Victorians in particular had a huge appetite for knowledge and a desire to describe and classify the world. \n\nI’m going to pause here with a disclaimer because this answer is going to be discussing \"knowledge\" and \"science\" a lot, and I want to be clear that I’m talking about white European knowledge and ways of knowing. Obviously, the indigenous people who lived in the places being systematically explored for the first time by white Europeans knew their own landscapes and environments, and European exploration pretty much always relied on local guides and porters. \n\nThat said, this drive to increase European knowledge was an outgrowth of what the Victorians believed to be a rational, scientific mindset that would add to the huge knowledge-base of British civilization. I’m going to quote a passage from Joseph Conrad's 1899 novella *Heart of Darkness*, both because it’s exactly the time period you’re asking about and because I think it’s instructive: \n\n > Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for maps. I would look for hours at South America, or Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the glories of exploration. At that time there were many blank spaces on the earth, and when I saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger on it and say, 'When I grow up I will go there.' The North Pole was one of these places, I remember. Well, I haven't been there yet, and shall not try now. The glamour's off. Other places were scattered about the hemispheres. I have been in some of them, and... well, we won't talk about that. But there was one yet—the biggest, the most blank, so to speak—that I had a hankering after.\n\nThe speaker, Marlow, then goes on to describe the Congo River and eventually goes there, where most of the book is set. We can see in this passage that as a young boy, Marlow wanted to fill in all the blank spaces on the map. Marlow is, of course, a fictional character created by Conrad, but Marlow wasn’t a weird child but rather emblematic of his culture in nineteenth century British—part of the British imperial project was indeed filling in the maps (preferably with red or pink, the color used to denote British imperial holdings). This is all to say that geography, scientific knowledge, and empire are all enmeshed with each other such that you can’t really untangle them. Added onto this was an ideology of \"civilization,\" in which imperialists also believed they were spreading their superior civilization by making contact with indigenous peoples (and in some cases converting them to Christianity). \n\nThe case of Dr. David Livingstone seems instructive here. The phrase \"Dr. Livingstone, I presume?\" is still famous, but most people don’t know why. Livingstone was a Scottish doctor and Congregationalist missionary who spent extensive time in Africa. Livingstone represents the complicated admixture of imperialism, humanitarianism, and science that often underpinned these explorations. Livingstone began his career as a missionary intending to convert Africans to Christianity and eventually led scientific expeditions mapping the African interior. He was the first known European to see Victoria Falls and did much work mapping the Zambezi River (through much of what is today Zambia) with the backing of the British government. \n\nThese expeditions made Livingstone a hero in the eyes of the British public. He represented, to them, the best of Victorian society, a missionary with a sharp scientific mind making discoveries for the good of the nation. Livingstone used his fame to oppose the Arab slave trade in East Africa. \n\nIn 1866, Livingstone returned to Africa with the intention of locating the source of the Nile River. Keeping in mind that this was before technology like satellites and GPS that aid in mapping and that much of the interior of the African continent was still unknown to Europeans, this was a topic of debate amongst explorers and geographers. The source of the Nile had been identified by John Hanning Speke and Richard Francis Burton (other explorers who both could be subjects of their own posts entirely) as Lake Victoria, but Livingstone disagreed and set out to prove them wrong. (Speke and Burton were more or less correct, by the way, but even a quick perusal of the Wikipedia page on the source of the Nile will give you an idea of why there was so much confusion; several other rivers feed into Lake Victoria itself.) Livingstone was soon in the African interior without contact with the British, and as the years wore on without his return, the public began to worry about him. \n\nEnter Henry Morton Stanley, a Welsh-American whom the *New York Herald* paid to look for Livingstone while sending dispatches about his journey. Stanley's dispatches were a sensation in the press, and he eventually found Livingstone in the town of Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika, hence \"Dr. Livingstone, I presume?\" (Since Livingstone was the only white guy around, it wasn’t hard to figure out who he was.) Livingstone chose to stay in Africa, continuing to search for the source of the Nile, and eventually died there. Stanley returned to tell his story and became an explorer in his own right, though his reputation is considerably darker than Livingstone's, despite some attempts to rehabilitate him by biographers such as Tim Jeal. When you help King Leopold of Belgium establish the Belgian Congo, one of the most brutal of imperial regimes, history doesn’t look kindly on you. He also had something of a reputation for personal cruelty to his African workers, which doesn’t help. ",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "31642145",
"title": "European and American voyages of scientific exploration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The era of European and American voyages of scientific exploration followed the Age of Discovery and were inspired by a new confidence in science and reason that arose in the Age of Enlightenment. Maritime expeditions in the Age of Discovery were a means of expanding colonial empires, establishing new trade routes and extending diplomatic and trade relations to new territories, but with the Enlightenment scientific curiosity became a new motive for exploration to add to the commercial and political ambitions of the past. See also List of Arctic expeditions and List of Antarctic expeditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16743222",
"title": "Turquerie",
"section": "Section::::History of the movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "In the wake of the Age of Exploration, roughly between the 15th and 18th centuries, there was an explosion in the number of commodities and availability of products. People were using newly created cartography and using these maps to explore the world on paper. There was an accumulation of more objects and a desire for more acquisitions. Coupling this, there was the value of exoticism, valuing things that came from a great distance. Europeans and Ottomans alike were developing a consciousness of themselves in relation to the broader world. At the same time the Ottomans were slowly ceasing to be regarded as a serious military threat to Western Europe, despite their continuing occupation of the Balkans, and campaigns such as that ended by the Battle of Vienna as late as 1683.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "602808",
"title": "History of Svalbard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Exploration was initially conducted to find new whaling grounds, but from the 18th century some scientific expeditions took place. These were initially large scale, but from the late 19th century they became smaller and increasingly focused on the interior. The most important scientific explorers were\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219878",
"title": "Exploration",
"section": "Section::::History and notable periods of human exploration.:The Modern Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "There were still significant explorations which occurred well into the modern age. This includes the Lewis and Clark expedition (1804-1806), an overland expedition dispatched by President Thomas Jefferson to explore the newly-acquired Louisiana Purchase and to find an interior aquatic route to the Pacific Ocean, along with other objectives to examine the flora and fauna of the continent. The United States Exploring Expedition (1838-1842) was an expedition sent by President Andrew Jackson, in order to survey the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8430768",
"title": "Globalization and disease",
"section": "Section::::Travel patterns and globalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "The Age of Exploration generally refers to the period between the 15th and 17th centuries. During this time, technological advances in shipbuilding and navigation made it easier for nations to explore outside previous boundaries. Globalization has had many benefits, for example, new products to Europeans were discovered, such as tea, silk and sugar when Europeans developed new trade routes around Africa to India and the Spice Islands, Asia, and eventually running to the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2327352",
"title": "Exoticism",
"section": "Section::::History of exoticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The influences of Exoticism can be seen through numerous genres of this period, notably in music, painting, and decorative art. In music, exoticism is a genre in which the rhythms, melodies, or instrumentation are designed to evoke the atmosphere of far-off lands or ancient times (e.g., Ravel's \"Daphnis et Chloé\" and \"Tzigane for Violin and Orchestra\", Debussy's \"Syrinx for Flute Solo\" or Rimsky-Korsakov's \"Capriccio espagnol\"). Like orientalist subjects in 19th-century painting, exoticism in the decorative arts and interior decoration was associated with fantasies of opulence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42609",
"title": "Around the World in Eighty Days",
"section": "Section::::Background and analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The technological innovations of the 19th century had opened the possibility of rapid circumnavigation and the prospect fascinated Verne and his readership. In particular, three technological breakthroughs occurred in 1869–70 that made a tourist-like around-the-world journey possible for the first time: the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in America (1869), the linking of the Indian railways across the sub-continent (1870), and the opening of the Suez Canal (1869). It was another notable mark in the end of an age of exploration and the start of an age of fully global tourism that could be enjoyed in relative comfort and safety. It sparked the imagination that anyone could sit down, draw up a schedule, buy tickets and travel around the world, a feat previously reserved for only the most heroic and hardy of adventurers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d2yrf
|
If photons are Massless bundles of concentrated electromagnetic energy, why is there an interaction with electrons and light? Why don't photons just pass straight through objects instead of reflecting off of them?
|
[
{
"answer": "What holds human-size objects together is electromagnetic forces (electric, mostly) and quantum effects. It's not mass. Solid objects are solid due to molecular forces, which are electric in nature (built on a quantum scaffolding).\n\nSo photons have plenty of stuff to interact with.\n\nAlso, about that \"massless\" thing - photons only lack *rest* mass. They do have energy just like any other particle, and \"energy\" is just another way of saying \"mass\".\n\nThe rest mass is just a number. Any particle has variable amounts of energy (mass), depending on how quickly it moves relative to you. They move faster - they have more energy (or mass). They move slower, they have less. When particles are sitting still relative to you, their energy (or mass) is at a minimum, and it's called rest mass (or rest energy).\n\nPhotons can't sit still. They can only move. Therefore, the rest mass concept does not apply here. That's all.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If photons are Massless bundles of concentrated electromagnetic energy ...\n\nFirstly, it should be said that photons are *not* \"bundles of concentrated electromagnetic energy\" really. Energy does not have a tangible existance that can be \"bundled;\" energy is just a *property* that systems have -- a property that happens to be conserved when two systems interact.\n\nPhotons have other properties *besides* energy, including spin and momentum, among others. So, it is wrong to think of photons as if they were just \"pure energy packets.\"\n\nNow, on to your question ...\n\n > why is there an interaction with electrons and light?\n\nBecause electrons are charged, and light interacts with anything that is electrically charged.\n\nMoving charges disrupt the electromagnetic field. Photons *are* those propagating disturbances in the field.\n\n > Why don't photons just pass straight through objects instead of reflecting off of them?\n\nThis *does* happen for neutral objects. For *perfectly* neutral particles such as neutrinos, there is no interaction *at all*, and photons would pass straight through any number of neutrinos.\n\nFor *mostly* neutral particles such as neutrons or neutral atoms/molecules (which are made up of charged particles, but the charges cancel out), there can be interaction with one of the parts, but the rate and strength of those interactions depends on the various properties of those atoms. Light passes pretty much straight through air, but in a semiconductor light will interact with electrons and cause them to displace, creating a current. Some molecules such as water are also electrically polar, which complicates things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43709",
"title": "Radiation pressure",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Radiation pressure in terms of photons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed in terms of particles rather than waves; these particles are known as photons. Photons do not have a rest-mass; however, photons are never at rest (they move at the speed of light) and acquire a momentum nonetheless which is given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1267762",
"title": "Variable speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Various other VSL occurrences.:Varying photon speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "The photon, the particle of light which mediates the electromagnetic force is believed to be massless. The so-called Proca action describes a theory of a massive photon. Classically, it is possible to have a photon which is extremely light but nonetheless has a tiny mass, like the neutrino. These photons would propagate at less than the speed of light defined by special relativity and have three directions of polarization. However, in quantum field theory, the photon mass is not consistent with gauge invariance or renormalizability and so is usually ignored. However, a quantum theory of the massive photon can be considered in the Wilsonian effective field theory approach to quantum field theory, where, depending on whether the photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism or is inserted in an ad hoc way in the Proca Lagrangian, the limits implied by various observations/experiments may be different. So, therefore, the speed of light is not constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20431",
"title": "Momentum",
"section": "Section::::Quantum mechanical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, ultraviolet light, and radio waves) is carried by photons. Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This leads to applications such as the solar sail. The calculation of the momentum of light within dielectric media is somewhat controversial (see Abraham–Minkowski controversy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236439",
"title": "Scharnhorst effect",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "A prediction made by this assertion is that the speed of a photon will be increased if it travels between two Casimir plates. Because of the limited amount of space between the two plates, some virtual particles present in vacuum fluctuations will have wavelengths that are too large to fit between the plates. This causes the effective density of virtual particles between the plates to be lower than that outside the plates. Therefore, a photon that travels between these plates will spend less time interacting with virtual particles because there are fewer of them to slow it down. The ultimate effect would be to increase the apparent speed of that photon. The closer the plates are, the lower the virtual particle density, and the higher the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::Meanings of the strict formula.:Massless particles contribute rest mass and invariant mass to systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "If the photons are formed by the collision of a particle and an antiparticle, the invariant mass is the same as the total energy of the particle and antiparticle (their rest energy plus the kinetic energy), in the center of mass frame, where they automatically move in equal and opposite directions (since they have equal momentum in this frame). If the photons are formed by the disintegration of a \"single\" particle with a well-defined rest mass, like the neutral pion, the invariant mass of the photons is equal to rest mass of the pion. In this case, the center of mass frame for the pion is just the frame where the pion is at rest, and the center of mass does not change after it disintegrates into two photons. After the two photons are formed, their center of mass is still moving the same way the pion did, and their total energy in this frame adds up to the mass energy of the pion. Thus, by calculating the invariant mass of pairs of photons in a particle detector, pairs can be identified that were probably produced by pion disintegration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Experimental checks on photon mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "If a photon did have non-zero mass, there would be other effects as well. Coulomb's law would be modified and the electromagnetic field would have an extra physical degree of freedom. These effects yield more sensitive experimental probes of the photon mass than the frequency dependence of the speed of light. If Coulomb's law is not exactly valid, then that would allow the presence of an electric field to exist within a hollow conductor when it is subjected to an external electric field. This thus allows one to test Coulomb's law to very high precision. A null result of such an experiment has set a limit of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
49hkaa
|
if you're not supposed to eat or drink before midnight before a surgery, what about emergency surgeries?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a regular surgery, the idea is to make the procedure as uncomplicated as possible, hence the restrictions.\n\nIn emergency surgery, the concern is keeping people alive. As such, there may be extra complications in the surgery that may be due to something they have drank/eaten, but it usually pales in comparison to the complications that require you to have emergency surgery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In an emergency you do what you have to do, you're already dealing with an operation that's being performed under suboptimal conditions. Planned or elective surgery is different, you can take precautions to minimize risks. The concern generally is in case the patient vomits while under general anesthesia, the airways and lungs could be blocked.\n\nTake an extreme example, someone comes in from dinner, and needs a coronary artery bypass because they're suffering a heart attack, or maybe an industrial accident and someone's got a major injury. If they waited until the food passed the stomach, the patient would be dead and there would be no need to operate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The concern is vomiting during anesthesia, and the chance that since most of your body's normal reflexes have been shut down, some of that vomit may be inhaled into the lungs. During emergency surgery, they take extra measures to deal with this if and when it happens, but this adds risk to the surgery. \n & nbsp; \nThe reason that this extra risk is acceptable, but only in emergencies and not in voluntary, pre-scheduled surgeries, is that in an emergency situation, the overall risk to the health of the patient if the surgery would be performed is much greater than the risk from accepting there's a chance the patient may vomit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60612248",
"title": "Coblation tonsillectomy",
"section": "Section::::Surgery.:Before the procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Before the surgery begins, the surgeon will take multiple blood test, physically examine the patient, and the surgeon will also check the past medical records of the patient to make sure it is safe to conduct the surgical procedure. On top of that, the surgeon doctor will ask about the types of medications that have been taken by the patient in the last 10 days following up to the surgery because certain medications can increase the chances of bleeding during the surgical procedure, such as aspirin and naproxen. Furthermore, the patient will be required to stop the consumption of any food and drinks for several hours before the procedure begins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42047",
"title": "Mastectomy",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Before surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Before the surgery the patient will have time to ask any questions regarding the procedure at this time and after everything is addressed a consent form is signed. Information about not eating or drinking anything beforehand will be gone over as well. The person will also meet with the anesthesiologist or the health professional who is going to be giving the anesthesia the day of the operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70980",
"title": "Appendicitis",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Surgery.:After surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "After surgery, the patient will be transferred to a postanesthesia care unit so his or her vital signs can be closely monitored to detect anesthesia- or surgery-related complications. Pain medication may be administered if necessary. After patients are completely awake, they are moved to a hospital room to recover. Most individuals will be offered clear liquids the day after the surgery, then progress to a regular diet when the intestines start to function properly. Patients are recommended to sit up on the edge of the bed and walk short distances several times a day. Moving is mandatory and pain medication may be given if necessary. Full recovery from appendectomies takes about four to six weeks but can be prolonged to up to eight weeks if the appendix had ruptured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5477817",
"title": "Caesarean delivery on maternal request",
"section": "Section::::Maternal request.:Routine hospital practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "In this context, it is worth remembering many studies have shown operations performed out-of-hours tend to have more complications (both surgical and anaesthetic). For this reason, if a Caesarean is anticipated to be likely to be needed for a woman, it may be preferable to perform this electively (or pre-emptively) during daylight operating hours, rather than wait for it to become an emergency with the increased risk of surgical and anaesthetic complications that can follow from emergency surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324482",
"title": "Colonoscopy",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "After the procedure, some recovery time is usually allowed to let the sedative wear off. Outpatient recovery time can take an estimated 30–60 minutes. Most facilities require that patients have a person with them to help them home afterwards (depending on the sedation method used).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398561",
"title": "General anaesthesia",
"section": "Section::::Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (usually within 1 to 30 minutes, depending on the duration of surgery).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47677297",
"title": "Cosmetic surgery in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Smoking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Most surgeons will suggest to patients electing to undergo cosmetic surgery to cease smoking for a period before and after their alterations. Generally a period of four weeks pre-operative and post operative, to aid in the recovery time and the healing of the wound. Just like other surgeries, cosmetic surgery may require incisions to be made to the skin, in one or more places of the body. These wounds will be required to heal post operation, therefore leaving the patient at risk of poor wound healing which may be due to numerous causes such as infection requiring antibiotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15beye
|
Do black holes have "layers" of light around them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. It is called the [photon sphere](_URL_0_) (two of them actually...see link). Basically this is an area where light orbits the black hole instead of falling in or flying away.\n\nHowever, it is a very precarious balance to get a photon to do that so they will rarely make more than a few orbits before either falling in to the black hole or flying away.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "420275",
"title": "Bulge (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Central compact mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "which is traditionally assumed to be a supermassive black hole. Such black holes by definition can not be observed directly (light cannot escape them), but various pieces of evidence suggest their existence, both in the bulges of spiral galaxies and in the centers of ellipticals. The masses of the black holes correlate tightly with bulge properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44364",
"title": "Black body",
"section": "Section::::Realizations.:Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "A black hole is a region of spacetime from which nothing escapes. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, making it almost an ideal black body (radiation with a wavelength equal to or larger than the radius of the hole may not be absorbed, so black holes are not perfect black bodies). Physicists believe that to an outside observer, black holes have a non-zero temperature and emit radiation with a nearly perfect black-body spectrum, ultimately evaporating. The mechanism for this emission is related to vacuum fluctuations in which a virtual pair of particles is separated by the gravity of the hole, one member being sucked into the hole, and the other being emitted. The energy distribution of emission is described by Planck's law with a temperature \"T\":\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2270963",
"title": "NGC 1999",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "It was previously believed that the black patch was a dense cloud of dust and gas which blocked light that would normally pass through, called a dark nebula. Analysis of this patch by the infrared telescope Herschel (October 9, 2009), which has the capability of penetrating such dense cloud material, resulted in continued black space. This led to the belief that either the cloud material was immensely dense or that an unexplained phenomenon had been detected. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27470863",
"title": "Transformation optics",
"section": "Section::::Mimicking celestial mechanics.:Producing black holes with metamaterials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Matter propagating in a curved spacetime is similar to the electromagnetic wave propagation in a curved space and in an in homogeneous metamaterial, as stated in the previous section. Hence a black hole can possibly be simulated using electromagnetic fields and metamaterials. In July 2009 a metamaterial structure forming an effective black hole was theorized, and numerical simulations showed a highly efficient light absorption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240972",
"title": "White hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime which cannot be entered from the outside, although matter and light can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole which can only be entered from the outside and from which matter and light cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. However, this region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, nor are there any known physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Although information and evidence regarding white holes remains inconclusive, the 2006 GRB 060614 has been proposed as the first documented occurrence of a white hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44364",
"title": "Black body",
"section": "Section::::Idealizations.:Cavity with a hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "A widely used model of a black surface is a small hole in a cavity with walls that are opaque to radiation. Radiation incident on the hole will pass into the cavity, and is very unlikely to be re-emitted if the cavity is large. The hole is not quite a perfect black surface — in particular, if the wavelength of the incident radiation is longer than the diameter of the hole, part will be reflected. Similarly, even in perfect thermal equilibrium, the radiation inside a finite-sized cavity will not have an ideal Planck spectrum for wavelengths comparable to or larger than the size of the cavity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34508316",
"title": "Tendex line",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Both of these types of lines can be used to visualise black holes, and the ways in which spacetime warps around them. They may also help to explain phenomena such as the 'kicks' observed in simulations of merging black holes as they are flung away from their host galaxies, and may also help in the search for gravitational waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pypo0
|
Why is nitrogen fixation evolutionarily beneficial?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's beneficial because it allows the organisms to survive in the absence of oxygen. In that case, they use nitrogen as the final electron acceptor (instead of O2). Keep in mind that the enzymes regulating nitrogen fixation are O2 sensitive, and genes that produce those enzymes are inhibited in the presence of oxygen. So when it is present, they will use it as the electron acceptor, if not, then the nitrogen fixation genes are turned on and allow the usage of nitrogen as the electron acceptor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21989",
"title": "Nitrogen fixation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Nitrogen fixation is essential to life because fixed inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing organic compounds, such as amino acids and proteins, nucleoside triphosphates and nucleic acids. As part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also, indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that contain nitrogen, which includes explosives, most pharmaceuticals, and dyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157885",
"title": "Nitrogen deficiency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Nitrogen deficiency can be prevented in the short term by using grass mowings as a mulch, or foliar feeding with manure, and in the longer term by building up levels of organic matter in the soil. Sowing green manure crops such as grazing rye to cover soil over the winter will help to prevent nitrogen leaching, while leguminous green manures such as winter tares will fix additional nitrogen from the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5330368",
"title": "Microbial metabolism",
"section": "Section::::Nitrogen fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Nitrogen fixation can be found distributed throughout nearly all bacterial lineages and physiological classes but is not a universal property. Because the enzyme nitrogenase, responsible for nitrogen fixation, is very sensitive to oxygen which will inhibit it irreversibly, all nitrogen-fixing organisms must possess some mechanism to keep the concentration of oxygen low. Examples include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52831885",
"title": "Tris(trimethylsilyl)amine",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Tris(trimethylsilyl)amine intermediate in chemical nitrogen fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The technical nitrogen fixation was made possible by the Haber-Bosch process, in which nitrogen is converted into ammonia by reductive protonation in the presence of iron catalysts under high pressures ( 150 bar) and temperatures ( 400 °C). In chemical nitrogen fixation (i.e., the transformation of atmospheric nitrogen under normal conditions into reactive starting materials for chemical syntheses, usually also ammonia), tris(trimethylsilyl)amine plays an important role in the so-called reductive silylation, since it is hydrolyzed with water to ammonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13144376",
"title": "Rhizobacteria",
"section": "Section::::Nitrogen fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Nitrogen fixation is one of the most beneficial processes performed by rhizobacteria. Nitrogen is a vital nutrient to plants and gaseous nitrogen (N) is not available to them due to the high energy required to break the triple bonds between the two atoms. Rhizobacteria, through nitrogen fixation, are able to convert gaseous nitrogen (N) to ammonia (NH) making it an available nutrient to the host plant which can support and enhance plant growth. The host plant provides the bacteria with amino acids so they do not need to assimilate ammonia. The amino acids are then shuttled back to the plant with newly fixed nitrogen. Nitrogenase is an enzyme involved in nitrogen fixation and requires anaerobic conditions. Membranes within root nodules are able to provide these conditions. The rhizobacteria require oxygen to metabolize, so oxygen is provided by a hemoglobin protein called leghemoglobin which is produced within the nodules. Legumes are well-known nitrogen-fixing crops and have been used for centuries in crop rotation to maintain the health of the soil. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "410783",
"title": "Cover crop",
"section": "Section::::Soil fertility management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "Prior to the advent of the Haber-Bosch process, an energy-intensive method developed to carry out industrial nitrogen fixation and create chemical nitrogen fertilizer, most nitrogen introduced to ecosystems arose through biological nitrogen fixation. Some scientists believe that widespread biological nitrogen fixation, achieved mainly through the use of cover crops, is the only alternative to industrial nitrogen fixation in the effort to maintain or increase future food production levels. Industrial nitrogen fixation has been criticized as an unsustainable source of nitrogen for food production due to its reliance on fossil fuel energy and the environmental impacts associated with chemical nitrogen fertilizer use in agriculture. Such widespread environmental impacts include nitrogen fertilizer losses into waterways, which can lead to eutrophication (nutrient loading) and ensuing hypoxia (oxygen depletion) of large bodies of water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1028836",
"title": "Root nodule",
"section": "Section::::Symbiosis.:Non-leguminous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The ability to fix nitrogen is far from universally present in these families. For instance, of 122 genera in the Rosaceae, only 4 genera are capable of fixing nitrogen. All these families belong to the orders Cucurbitales, Fagales, and Rosales, which together with the Fabales form a clade of eurosids. In this clade, Fabales were the first lineage to branch off; thus, the ability to fix nitrogen may be plesiomorphic and subsequently lost in most descendants of the original nitrogen-fixing plant; however, it may be that the basic genetic and physiological requirements were present in an incipient state in the last common ancestors of all these plants, but only evolved to full function in some of them:\n",
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eda6a0
|
Has there been a higher peak than Mt. Everest on Earth throughout its history?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is one of the most asked questions in the Earth Sciences category on this sub, for example, here are a variety of answers to this question (or flavors of this question): [1](_URL_13_), [2](_URL_14_), [3](_URL_6_), [4](_URL_12_), [5](_URL_15_), [6](_URL_9_), [7](_URL_1_), [8](_URL_8_), [9](_URL_2_), [10](_URL_16_), [11](_URL_7_), [12](_URL_0_), [13](_URL_3_), [14](_URL_10_), [15](_URL_11_), and more that I got tired of linking.\n\nIn short (and without rehashing all of these answers or parsing out the spurious ones), there are a variety of mechanisms / properties that impose limits on the height of mountain ranges on average and the height of individual peaks within those ranges. These limits are not precise (despite what some comments in the various links above suggest) and depend a lot on the details, many of which are hard to estimate for extant mountain ranges let alone past mountain ranges. With that uncertainty in mind, we generally think that the Himalaya represent something near the limit of the absolute height mountain ranges can reach. In terms of quantitatively estimating the height of past mountain ranges, there are techniques that allow us to make rough estimates (e.g. [paleoaltimetry](_URL_4_), [geothermobarometry](_URL_5_), etc), but in general these would only tell us about the average elevation of a range (and with pretty large uncertainties again), not the height of individual peaks. Thus, **the question isn't really answerable**.",
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"answer": "At the equator there are like 10 peaks that are further from earths center than Everest.Because of the equatorial bulge, the summit of Mount Chimborazo in the Andes is the point on the Earth that is farthest from the center, and is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from the Earth's center than the summit of Everest.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It's not even the highest peak right now.\n\nMeasured from the center of the Earth, Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador is taller. That's because of it's location, near the equator. It benefits from the equatorial bulge to get a few extra KM.\n\nMeasured from the base, Mauna Kea in Hawaii is taller. But 6 KM of Mauna Kea is located below sea level.\n\nMount Everest is the tallest mountain measured from sea level, although K2 (also in the Himalayas) is only a little over 200 meters shorter.\n\nThe tallest mountain in the universe (that we know of so far) is Olympus Mons on Mars, which is about 2.5 times taller than Everest. You can stack 2 Everests on top of each other and still not be taller than Olympus Mons. Olympus Mons is so tall that the weight of it pushing down on itself has curled up the edge, even in Mars's reduced gravity.",
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"answer": "Since no one can answer your question, I thought I could answer a question you didn't ask. You're welcome. I saw a documentary that showed the exact inverse to your query. Apparently the Mediterranean Sea used to be a valley before the ocean broke way at the Strait of Gibraltar. That used to be the lowest spot on Earth, and also the hottest. The documentary was called Earth 4D I believe.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You should check out plateaus too. The Tibetan Plateau is the biggest. Plateaus also move up and down like mountains, but with other factors involved. Bouyancy is involved and the plates can move up and down or side to side. It's pretty cool. The Grand Canyon is an elevated Plateau too.",
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"answer": "Questions about peaks are nice and all, but I'm interested in all the rest. Looking at animations of historical continental drift, I noticed that way back in the day, the planet was basically entirely aquatic. Which makes sense; over time, volcanoes and lava flows accumulated and linked up into continents, creating steadily more \"high ground\" that poked out above the seas. It seems that, at least in the past, volcanoes can make dry land faster than it gets subducted back into the mantle or eroded onto the sea floor, so the amount of dry land has steadily increased.\n\nBut the flip side of this process was that Earth's water, the amount of which has stayed more or less the same, got forced into smaller and correspondingly deeper oceans. An all-ocean Earth would have an average ocean depth of about 2.6 km, compared to today's 3.7 km.\n\nHow far can this continue? How much of the Earth's surface can be land, and how deep, on average, can the oceans get? Or have we already reached some kind of steady state, where any extra land raises the oceans to cover a matching amount of low-lying land?",
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"answer": "Short answer: Yes\n\nLong answer: Yes, but...\n\nwe most likely can't give examples (at least I cannot).\nMt. Everest exists because the Indian subcontinent is pushing north against Asia. So at some point Mt. Everest didn't exist, and for a long time wasn't as big as it is now.\n\nDuring most of that time there would have been mountains larger than Mt. Everest.\n\n\nNow, if you are asking \"Was there ever a mountain larger than Mt. Everest is now?\" then I highly doubt there is a certain answer. First of all, the only way to fairly measure that, would be by measuring from the centre of the Earth, while adjusting for the equatorial bulge.\n\nThere *are* some remnants of very old mountain ranges that have eroded down to being practically unnoticeable. Those ranges are so old there is no telling how tall they really were.",
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"answer": "I read somewhere that the very, very old Appalachian mountains In the eastern US COULD have been higher at some ancient time, but it's nearly impossible to tell for sure.\n\nThey are a very old and massive range that has been eroded for as long as they have been around. They haven't seen any new uplift in just about as long. \n\nBut that is all a guess until we get a hold of Bill and Ted's time Machine... or if someone fixes up their old DeLorean",
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"answer": "Statistically speaking...probably, yeah. The Earth has been around for a while, mountains come and go over spans of some millions of years, and it would be pretty surprising if none of them had ever been taller than Everest.\n\nBut there's probably never been a mountain *much* taller than Everest. The strength of the Earth's crust and the effects of gravity set limits on how tall a mountain can get before it just pushes down into the mantle and stops getting any taller, and as far as we can tell, those limits are pretty close to the current height of Everest. Everest extends to a little under 9000 meters above sea level; quite likely 10000 meters is possible, but 15000 meters isn't, to give ballpark figures. (The conditions that have produced Everest are also close to ideal for mountain formation, which is why pretty much all the world's tallest mountains are in the Himalayas. But there have been some great conditions in the past too, such as when Pangaea was forming some hundreds of millions of years ago.)\n\nThis leaves open the question of whether the Earth has been changing geologically in ways that have increased or decreased the limits on mountain height over time. There are certainly changes that have been going on, but their effect on the limits of mountain height are tough to pin down. Some of them would contribute to greater mountain heights (the Earth's interior being hotter means tectonic plates might have been moving faster, creating greater forces to push mountains up; and the contraction of the Earth as it cools, combined with impacts from interplanetary debris, have also increased its surface gravity slightly over time). Others would contribute to lower mountain heights (the Moon was closer, causing stronger tidal effects in the Earth's crust, which would tend to pull down mountains faster; and the crust being slightly thinner means it would be less effective at supporting the weight of tall mountains).",
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"answer": "Everest is likely the highest peak ever, solely because high altitude formations are limited by gravity. It’s just simply to extreme past 29,000 feet to have rocks that don’t just simply get weathered away. In fact Everest is on this perfect balance of weathering and isoststic rebound lifting the mountain. \n\nI’m a geomorphologist, not a paleo geologist but this is my understanding \n\nAlso fun fact: when Everest was first surveyed by the brits, they used trig and estimated it to be 29,000 feet exactly but figured no one would believe them so they tacked on 31 feet, just two feet higher than the actual height.",
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},
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"answer": "When the Earth was still conglomerating out of the protoplanetary material of the solar system, more than 4 billion years ago, there were likely extreme collisions with enormous objects that produced very dramatic “mountain” features, some perhaps hundreds of miles high. One example would be [the likely collision event that created the Earth’s moon](_URL_0_), which is theorized to have involved an object roughly the size of Mars striking our pre-Earth at an angle. The aftermath of such a collision would have enormous divergences from the shape of the spherical home we know today. But all of these would be very short-lived, for the same reasons discussed elsewhere in this thread - perhaps projecting for “just” a few million years before being pulled back down by gravity and geological processes. Until then, though, the Earth may have looked similar to some celestial bodies we know that have much lower gravity, like some asteroids - shapes like [these](_URL_1_), if scaled up to a body the size of Earth, would imply some very tall mountains indeed!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19219339",
"title": "World altitude record (mountaineering)",
"section": "Section::::1950s and ascent of Everest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
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"text": "Mount Everest was climbed the following year. On 26 May, three days before the successful attempt, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans reached the South Summit before turning back due to malfunctioning oxygen apparatus. Their height of 8,760 m (28,750 ft) represented a new, short lived, altitude record, and can be seen as a summit record if this is taken to include minor tops as well as genuine mountains. Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay finally reached the 8,848 m (29,029 ft) true summit on 29 May 1953, marking the final chapter in the history of the mountaineering altitude record. While the exact height of Everest's summit is subject to minor variation due to the level of snow cover and the gradual upthrust of the Himalaya, significant changes to the world altitude record are now impossible.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "643654",
"title": "Nanda Devi",
"section": "Section::::Exploration and climbing history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1085,
"text": "When the mountain was later climbed in 1936 by a British-American expedition, it became the highest peak climbed by man until the 1950 ascent of Annapurna, . (However higher non-summit elevations had already been reached by the British on Mount Everest in the 1920s, and it is possible that George Mallory reached Everest's summit in 1924.) It also involved steeper and more sustained terrain than had been previously attempted at such a high altitude. The expedition climbed the south ridge, also known as the Coxcomb Ridge, which leads relatively directly to the main summit. The summit pair were H. W. Tilman and Noel Odell; Charles Houston was to be in place of Tilman, but he contracted severe food poisoning. Noted mountaineer and mountain writer H. Adams Carter was also on the expedition, which was notable for its small scale and lightweight ethic: it included only seven climbers, and used no fixed ropes, nor any Sherpa support above . Eric Shipton, who was not involved in the climb itself, called it \"the finest mountaineering achievement ever performed in the Himalaya.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "35491",
"title": "1856",
"section": "Section::::Events.:January–March.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India officially gives 'Peak XV' (later to be named Mount Everest) the height of . 'Peak IX' (Kangchenjunga), previously thought to be the world's highest, is confirmed as .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8791701",
"title": "Amne Machin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "However, the massif remained unclimbed until 1960. The Amne Machin mountains had been overflown by a few American pilots who overestimated the elevation to 30,000 feet (9,100 m). A 1930 article of the National Geographic estimated the peak elevation to 28,000 feet [8,500 m] according to the report of Joseph Rock, an American botanist and explorer who, despite death threats from the Golog Tibetans, had ventured to within 80 km of the mountain. For a while, the mountains were considered as a possible place for a peak higher than Mount Everest. While Rock only downgraded his estimate publicly in 1956 to \"not much more than 21,000 feet\", he did give a detailed description of the peaks: By 1980 Anyi Machen had been resurveyed at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14454240",
"title": "Andrzej Zawada",
"section": "Section::::Expeditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- In February 1980 Krzysztof Wielicki and Leszek Cichy made the first winter ascent of Mount Everest (8848 m), the highest mountain on Earth. Zawada led the expedition. It was the first ascent in winter of a peak above 8,000 m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "40561226",
"title": "List of media related to Mount Everest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "List of media related to Mount Everest is a collection of content related to Mount Everest, the Earth mountain with the highest elevation above sea level. It was identified as such in the 19th century as a result of survey by the British Empire who were taking measurements of India. A century later it was climbed, after some infamous attempts in the preceding decades. In the 20th and 21st century the notoriety of Mount Everest increased and it became a common subject of novels and films, often focusing on a certain expedition or event at the mountain. For example, the 1998 film \"Everest\" was the highest grossing IMAx film up to that time, and some novels in the genre have sold in the millions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "355435",
"title": "Cho Oyu",
"section": "Section::::Climbing history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The mountain was first climbed on October 19, 1954, via the north-west ridge by Herbert Tichy, Joseph Jöchler and Sherpa Pasang Dawa Lama of an Austrian expedition. Cho Oyu was the fifth 8000 metre peak to be climbed, after Annapurna in June 1950, Mount Everest in May 1953, Nanga Parbat in July 1953 and K2 in July 1954. Until the ascent of Mount Everest by Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler in 1978, this was the highest peak climbed without supplemental oxygen.\n",
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] | null |
7jqvkr
|
Why and when did we start bombing civilians in World War II?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, that is not true. In the \"Weisung Nr. 17 für die Führung des Luft- und Seekrieges gegen England\" ^[1] from August 2, 1940 Hitler already ordered the Luftwaffe to prioritise the carpet bombing of cities over air-to-air combat and specificially included \"Terrorangriffe\" against civilians. Germany had also used similar tactics in Poland, in the very first months of the war.\n\nThe british strategic bombing campaign that included \"morale bombing\", i.e. deliberately bombing cities to damage the morale of the German population started in 1942, after the so-called \"dehousing paper\", written by Frederick Lindemann, was sent to Churchill on March 31 and then discussed and ultimately ratified by the parliament.\n\nThe idea that Germany was only reacting to british morale bombing is a myth spread by Hitler himself on numerous occasions. A famous example is the accidental bombing of Freiburg in May 1940 by German bombers that Hitler used as \"proof\" of \"terrorist\" attacks started by Churchill^[3].\n\n\n[1] Walther Hubatsch: Hitlers Weisungen für die Kriegführung 1939–1945\n\n[2] Norman Longmate: The Bombers. The RAF offensive against Germany 1939-1945\n\n[3] Freiburger Zeitung, December 11, 1940 (_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The first year of the war saw what Richard Overy puts rather well as \"the slow erosion of any relative moral constraints that might have acted to limit the damage to civilian targets\" (*The Bombing War: Europe, 1939-1945*, very well worth picking up on both Allied and German bombing offensives and the military and civil defence responses).\n\nIn September 1939 there was great caution in the use of British bombers. Leo Amery, an early proponent of bombing Germany, recorded in his diary that: \"... our Air Force are still not allowed to bomb Essen or even set fire to German forests. In the coffee room I tackled Kinglsey Wood [Secretary of State for Air] on this. He was very stuffy and evidently has been responsible for all this\". A later, possibly apocryphal, account has Wood responding to the question of why the Black Forest wasn't being bombed with \"Are you aware that it is private property?\" Bomber Command was restricted to German naval targets, but still not even permitted to bomb ships in dock for fear of missing and hitting civilians.\n\nMay 1940 saw Chamberlain, who had always opposed bombing urban targets, replaced with Churchill, historically a supporter of independent strategic bombing; Churchill's deputy Clement Attlee was also strongly in favour of raids on Germany. On 15th May the Cabinet approved strategic bombing of German targets where civilians *might* be casualties as long as the objective was military.\n\nThe early employment of the Luftwaffe was fundamentally operational, against targets in connection with land forces, but there were heavy civilian casualties in Warsaw and Rotterdam in 1939 and 1940, both bombed while under siege. There is debate over whether civilians were intentionally targeted to affect morale, or if civilian casualties were an inadvertent but inevitable result of the inaccuracy of bombing at the time (see, for example, Bas von Benda-Beckmann's *A German Catastrophe? German historians and the Allied bombings, 1945-2010* that includes accounts of historians arguing the legality of Luftwaffe operations compared to the RAF). Likewise the Blitz of 1940-41 against London and other industrial cities was primarily aimed at military and economic targets, but with large volumes of incendiary bombs and proximity of workers housing to docks and factories heavy civilian casualties were again inevitable, easily perceived as the objective of the attacks.\n\nBomber Command, meanwhile, had much greater problems with accuracy; never mind distinguishing between factories and nearby housing, with much longer ranges to cover and fewer navigational aids just getting within five miles of a target was a rarity (a famous report of 1941 found that, over Germany, three out of four bombers failed to find their targets; on moonless or hazy nights fourteen out of fifteen). Although, in theory, they were aiming at military and industrial targets, from the German perspective they were indeed indiscriminate attacks on \"residential quarters and farms and villages\" (or more often open countryside); the first attack on Berlin on the night of 25th/26th August destroyed a wooden summer house in a suburban garden and slightly injured two people, more bombs fell in surrounding farms leading Berliners to joke \"Now they are trying to starve us out.\"\n\nBoth sides framed their own efforts as precision attacks on purely military targets and enemy action as indiscriminate terror bombing of civilians, backed up by historical precedent (in Britain the long-range bomber and Zeppelin attacks of the First World War, the actions of the Condor Legion in the Spanish Civil War, and Warsaw and Rotterdam; in Germany the naval blockade of the First World War and seemingly random bomber attacks). Bomber Command steadily widened the definition of military and military-economic targets; in September 1940 they suspended the policy of returning to base or jettisoning bombs if a primary target could not be hit in favour of bombing any target of opportunity, finally in October with the Blitz in full swing Bomber Command were authorised to attack, in addition to military-industrial targets, \"enemy morale\" through \"heavy material destruction in large towns\", though they were scarcely in a position to undertake such an effort until 1942 as they learned from Luftwaffe attacks and started to use heavy concentrations of aircraft, large high explosive bombs and substantial quantities of incendiaries. German efforts against Britain almost completely tailed off after the Blitz, later attacks were more efforts at retaliation for the ever-heavier Allied attacks (tip-and-run fighter-bomber attacks on the south coast, the 'Baedeker Blitz' of 1942, V-weapons from 1944). \n\nMarch 1941 saw Bomber Command diverted to focus on naval targets, with the Battle of the Atlantic at a crucial period, until July when they were were allowed to return to what they saw as their main task, attacking the German transportation system and the morale of the civil population. *The Bomber Command War Diaries* has the target of the 14th/15th Hanover mission as \"a rubber factory and the city centre\". The 30th/31st mission to Cologne was in bad weather, thunderstorms and icing were encountered, Cologne was \"believed hit\"; German records show 6 buildings were damaged, no casualties.\n\nIt's a little lightweight (and entirely neglects other aircraft in favour of the Lancaster) but the BBC did a documentary a few years back, *[Bomber Boys] (_URL_0_)*, with the McGregor brothers where (as I recall) Ewan acted as a navigator, if that might be of interest, it might be available on YouTube.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "730658",
"title": "Strategic bombing during World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "During World War II, it was believed by many military strategists of air power that major victories could be won by attacking industrial and political infrastructure, rather than purely military targets. Strategic bombing often involved bombing areas inhabited by civilians and some campaigns were deliberately designed to target civilian populations in order to terrorize and disrupt their usual activities. International law at the outset of World War II did not specifically forbid aerial bombardment of cities despite the prior occurrence of such bombing during World War I, the Spanish Civil War, and the Second Sino-Japanese War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "768600",
"title": "Aviation in World War I",
"section": "Section::::Strategic bombing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1192,
"text": "The first aerial bombardment of civilians occurred during World War I. In the opening weeks of the war Zeppelins bombed Liege, Antwerp and Warsaw, and other cities including Paris and Bucharest were targeted. And in January 1915 the Germans began a bombing campaign against England that was to last until 1918, initially using airships. There were 19 raids in 1915, in which 37 tons of bombs were dropped, killing 181 people and injuring 455. Raids continued in 1916. London was accidentally bombed in May, and in July, the Kaiser allowed directed raids against urban centres. There were 23 airship raids in 1916 in which 125 tons of ordnance were dropped, killing 293 people and injuring 691. Gradually British air defenses improved. In 1917 and 1918 there were only eleven Zeppelin raids against England, and the final raid occurred on 5 August 1918, resulting in the death of Peter Strasser, commander of the German Naval Airship Department. By the end of the war, 54 airship raids had been undertaken, in which 557 people were killed and 1,358 injured. Of the 80 airships used by the Germans in World War I, 34 were shot down and further 33 were destroyed by accidents. 389 crewmen died.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "30762896",
"title": "Strategic bombing during World War I",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 577,
"text": "Strategic bombing during World War I (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918) was principally carried out by the United Kingdom and France for the Entente Powers and Germany for the Central Powers. All the belligerents of World War I eventually engaged in strategic bombing, and, excepting Rome and Washington, the capital city of each major belligerent was targeted. A multi-national air force to strike at Germany was planned but never materialized. The aerial bombing of cities, intended to destroy the enemy's morale, was introduced by the Germans in the opening days of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "262713",
"title": "Aerial bombing of cities",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The aerial bombing of cities in warfare is an optional element of strategic bombing which became widespread during World War I. The bombing of cities grew to a vast scale in World War II, and is still practiced today. The development of aerial bombardment marked an increased capacity of armed forces to deliver ordnance from the air against combatants, military bases, and factories, with a greatly reduced risk to its ground forces. Civilian and non-combatant casualties in bombed cities have variously been a purposeful result of the bombings, or unavoidable collateral damage depending on intent and technology. A number of multilateral efforts have been made to restrict the use of aerial bombardment so as to protect non-combatants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "94247",
"title": "Poplar, London",
"section": "Section::::Wartime bombings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Although many people associate wartime bombing with The Blitz during World War II, the first airborne terror campaign in Britain took place during the First World War. Air raids in World War I caused significant damage and took many lives. German raids on Britain, for example, caused 1,413 deaths and 3,409 injuries. Air raids provided an unprecedented means of striking at resources vital to an enemy's war effort. Many of the novel features of the war in the air between 1914 and 1918—the lighting restrictions and blackouts, the air raid warnings and the improvised shelters—became central aspects of the Second World War less than 30 years later. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "715876",
"title": "History of aerial warfare",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Strategic bombing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Strategic bombing of civilian targets from the air was first proposed by the Italian theorist General Giulio Douhet. In his book \"The Command of the Air\" (1921), Douhet argued future military leaders could avoid falling into bloody World War I–style trench stalemates by using aviation to strike past the enemy's forces directly at their vulnerable civilian populations. Douhet believed such strikes would cause these populations to force their governments to surrender.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "151961",
"title": "Air Raid Precautions in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "During the First World War Britain was bombed by Zeppelins and Gotha bombers and it was predicted that large-scale aerial bombing of the civilian population would feature prominently in any future war. In 1924, the Committee of Imperial Defence set up a subcommittee to look at what measure could be taken to protect the civil population from aerial attack. The new committee, known as Air Raid Precautions, was headed by the then Lord Privy Seal, Sir John Anderson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
408xe5
|
Was Ho Chi Minh Really A Tyrant?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ho Chi Minh is a difficult figure to analyze because he deliberately cultivated at least two different personalities. The first was of the kindly, elder nationalist and father to the nation. But he also was a committed communist internationalist. He was both. Not one or the either. But, this is precisely why the Indochinese Communist Party chose him as their leader. Men like [Tran Phu](_URL_2_) and [Truong Chinh](_URL_0_), (‘Long March') were committed internationalists that would alienate potential non-communist allies.\n\nThe debate about Ho Chi Minh is tied up in the politics of the war. In the late 1960s-70s scholars opposed to the Vietnam War, consciously and subconsciously, used their scholarship on Vietnam as a means to oppose American policies in Indochina. Following the orientalist work of a French scholar Paul Mus, Frances Fitzgerald wrote *Fire in the Lake*. This became the ‘Orthodox' view of the war. Ho Chi Minh represented the only authentic nationalism in Vietnam, combining nationalism with Confucian values. He and other Vietnamese had adopted communism only as a means to liberate their country. But they were *not really* communists. All Vietnamese understood this, and therefore the artificial South Vietnamese regime and US were fighting against the course of history. At the same time, there were writers like Douglas Pike producing much more critical studies of Vietnamese communism that supported US policies. More recently, a ‘Revisionist’ group of writers, most well known in Mark Moyar’s *Triumph Forsaken*, that argues that Washington had it right all along. Their policies in Vietnam were wrong, only in that they gave up too soon. Ho was just a brutal autocrat.\n\nBoth views are inadequate. Frances Fitzgerald and the Orthodox view is orientalist and simplistic. It’s rather insulting to Ho and other Vietnamese. They were intelligent, rational, and believed in socialist modernity -- to say they chose communism because it was their only choice is false and insulting. And the Revisionist view of Ho as communist Asian despot is just as simplistic and problematic.\n\nBefore I get to Ho’s actions, I want to note that during the period you reference in your question, the American period of Vietnam’s civil war from ~1965-1972, Ho Chi Minh was only a figurehead. He held no real power. It was a man from southern Vietnam named Le Duan who held control. Le Duan was transparently aggressive both in escalating the Vietnam war, and domestically against opponents in the communist Vietnamese Workers Party that opposed his war in South Vietnam. Ho at this time was limited to making public trips to visit allies like Mao, Kim Il-Sung, etc, serving as the regime’s kind public face, and little else. But he chose to continue on as the figure head.\n\nHowever, Ho was never all powerful, not even in the 1940s. He faced strong domestic pressure from the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) members who wanted a more communist regime from the start. Ho’s ambassador to France, Tran Ngoc Danh, even defected to the Soviet bloc and wrote scathing reports to the USSR citing Ho’s lack of commitment to communism. There were factions inside Vietnam opposed to Ho’s attempts to form a united front that could attract non-communists as well.\n\nThis would soon change after 1949. But first, I want to note that the Viet Minh front group, run by the ICP, was indeed brutal towards its opponents. From the moment the Vietnamese civil war began in 1945, before the French returned, the ICP was killing Vietnamese rivals (and some of their rivals were killing ICP and Viet Minh). Many were executed in the first weeks, and fighting between the Viet Minh and rival religious and political groups persisted. Ho was complicit in this, but certainly was not deeply involved, and in some cases would have opposed it. Local ICP leaders were often running their own show. While Ho was in Paris negotiating in 1946, Vo Nguyen Giap attacked the armed forces of non-communist revolutionary groups (with the complicity of the French army). After that point, there was no real opposition to the ICP within the revolutionary Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) government.\n\nThe other main charge against Ho comes from the bloody land reform that took place in 1953-54. After 1949, China began supplying the DRV with weapons and advisors. Not long after China and the USSR formally recognized Ho’s government. No longer needing the support of the non-communists in the countryside, the ICP came back into the open as the Vietnam Workers Party (VWP) and began instituting communist policies. Much control was ceded to the Chinese ‘experts', who guided the VWP’s policies and held ultimate control. But the VWP was also an enthusiastic participant, eager to embark on its path to modernization.\n\nThe land reform was a vicious affair. Based on the Chinese land reform model, a set percentage of the Vietnamese population was determined to be exploitative landowners. Cadres went into the countryside and met this quota. They incited the population to denounce landowners, coached their opinions. After this a [staged trial](_URL_1_\n ) took place under portraits of Stalin, Mao, and Ho. The cadres then carried out a death sentence on behalf of the people. The method varied, sometimes employing a sword or gun, in some cases people were burned alive. Even revolutionary figures who had owned land were targeted. A woman named Nguyen Thi Nam was one of the first executions — the intended message that even if you supported the revolution, it would not absolve your class crimes. The toll of this is unknown. Based on research in Vietnamese archives, it’s likely at least 20,000 were killed. It could be higher toward 50,000. We won’t know unless the current regime falls and we have access to all the records.\n\nWhere is Ho in all of this? Well we know very little about decision-making in the government. For ‘Orthodox' writers favorable to Ho in their critiques of US policy, the tendency is to downplay these abuses, eliminate their ideological character, and and say that Ho was powerless at this time. I should note that these are often Americanists who do not know much about Vietnam and haven’t researched there. Perhaps representative, in his Pulitzer winning book *Embers of War*, Fredrik Logevall writes that land reform was to end food shortages, and Ho was powerless, overtaken by extreme elements (no mention of the Chinese advisors), and opposed Nguyen Thi Nam’s execution. Yet another historian Alex-Thai Vo, has shown that Ho Chi Minh published a vicious denunciation of Nguyen Thi Nam that approved of her execution. He may have even attended the trial. \n\nDid Ho full-hearted approve of this, or was he simply falling in line? Much like the assassinations of non-communist rivals, perhaps he was not enthusiastic about these things. But nevertheless he participated and lent his support. The same can be said of the DRV/North Vietnam’s suppression of academic freedom. In an infamous incident called the Nhan Van Giai Pham affair, the regime arrested or ostracized some of the country’s most prominent writers and intellectuals because they had called for freedom of expression or mild reforms in 1955-56.\n\nWas the DRV an oppressive police state? Yes. It remained so after the war, though much less so than the 1940s-80s. Was American involvement driven by that rationale? No. It had much more to do with geopolitics. And while the government of South Vietnam was a freer society than its northern counterpart, it still committed its fair share of abuses and arrested opponents for nothing more than speaking against it. That however did not dissuade the US from supporting South Vietnam.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7496348",
"title": "Son Ngoc Minh",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Minh remained a senior figure in the Party, albeit largely operating from Hanoi in North Vietnam, until 1972, when at the request of Ieng Sary he was sent to hospital in Beijing to be treated for high blood pressure. Minh died in Beijing on 22 December. His death further lessened the influence of the Hanoi-trained communists on the Khmer Rouge, correspondingly increasing the power of the hardline Party 'Centre' led by Pol Pot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1110104",
"title": "Trường Chinh",
"section": "Section::::Political roles and ideology.:The First Secretary of the Communist Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1227,
"text": "Trường Chinh played a significant role in the Communist Party during the critical time in building and strengthening the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) power. Besides Hồ Chí Minh, he was a central figure of the ICP in the independence formation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). In the 1940s, during the time that Nguyễn Aí Quốc (Hồ Chí Minh's name) came back to Vietnam, Trường Chinh was already well known among the cadres of the Communist Party. He was portrayed as the radical leader and the Pro-Chinese faction while defines Hồ Chí Minh as the Pro-Soviet faction. During the Second World War, in the 1940s, Trường Chinh became the famous Communist leader in the north. He served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party during a crisis when the French eliminated the leaders of the anti-French movement. In 1941, Trường Chinh was elected as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Indochina. He was the party's second ranking leader after Hồ Chí Minh. He was chaired of Party's National Conference in northern Tuyên Quang Province, launching an uprising to seize power from the French and Japanese. In the following years, the party fought a war for independence against the French colonists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "60916712",
"title": "Socialism in Vietnam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1048,
"text": "Ho Chi Minh was a Vietnamese Communist revolutionary leader who was Chairman and First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam. He was also Prime Minister (1945–1955) and President (1945–1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key figure in the foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 at the Ba Dinh Square in Hanoi as well as the People's Army of Vietnam and the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. According to Ho Chi Minh thoughts, \"Socialism is about making people rich and powerful... Socialism is to bring the people with freedom, prosperity, happiness, and chances of education, medical care, and good accommodation. Under socialism, children will be nurtured, and the elderly will be cared for.” Ho Chi Minh also indicated that socialism is not a complete model but a constant formula, so building socialism must be practical, consistent with objective conditions, must uphold the Law and must know how to apply rules in a creative way, avoiding literal dogma, stereotypes, and other things.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67377",
"title": "Ho Chi Minh",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Publications about Hồ Chí Minh's non-celibate life are banned in Vietnam because the party maintains the fiction that he had no romantic relationship with anyone during his lifetime in order to promote a puritanical image of him to the Vietnamese public and advance the image of him as \"the father of the [Communist] revolution\" and a \"celibate married only to the cause of revolution\". William Duiker's \"Ho Chi Minh: A Life\" (2000) presents much information on Ho's relationships. The government requested that substantial cuts be made in the official Vietnamese translation of Duiker's book, but its request was refused. In 2002, the Vietnamese government suppressed a review of Duiker's book in the \"Far Eastern Economic Review\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80092",
"title": "Ngô Đình Nhu",
"section": "Section::::Early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "After the August Revolution of 1945, when Hồ Chí Minh's communist Viet Minh declared independence, various groups as well as the French colonialists jockeyed for political control. Nhu became more politically active, especially in helping his brothers to establish a political base among Vietnamese Catholics. By this time, Khôi had been assassinated by the communists, so Diệm became the leading political figure in the family. Diệm had little success in the late 1940s and went into exile in 1950 to campaign from abroad after the communists sentenced him to death in absentia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12108646",
"title": "Hoang Van Chi",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Rejection of communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "During this time, Hoàng Văn Chí had many comrades who were idealistic, nationalist fighters who shared his goals of fighting for a Vietnam with freedom, democracy, with respect for human rights and civil rights. Most of them later became writers and poets for the \"Nhân Văn\" and \"Giai Phẩm\" papers which in 1956 were suppressed by the Vietnamese Communist Party. They were all either killed or imprisoned for criticizing communism, especially after \"Cải Cách Ruộng Đất\" (Land reform in Vietnam). Their cases later were made known to an international audience in his book, \"The Nhân Văn Affair\". Hoàng came to the conclusion that communism was the wrong choice for Vietnam. He vowed to leave the Việt Minh immediately after the defeat of French colonialism. In 1954, after the Geneva Agreements, together with another almost 900,000 North Vietnamese, Hoàng left North Vietnam for the South.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10699695",
"title": "1964 South Vietnamese coup",
"section": "Section::::Khánh's consolidation of power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "For his part, Minh resented that he had been deposed by a younger officer whom he viewed as an unscrupulous upstart. Minh was also upset with the detention of his fellow generals and around 30 of his junior officers. The latter group was set free when Minh made this a condition for his serving as the figurehead chief of state. Khánh attempted to avoid the issue of substantiating the alleged neutralist plot for as long as he could, and then tried to revive it by claiming that French agents were attempting to assassinate him and to enforce neutralism. Khánh offered no evidence, only claiming that the French had paid a hitman US$1300 to kill him, before later inflating the supposed reward for his assassination. American intelligence officials in Vietnam privately said that they were not aware of any such threat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
3yihsu
|
Why is the factorial of 1/2 equal to sqrt(Pi)/2 but the factorial of both 1 and 0 is equal to 1?
|
[
{
"answer": "The way to extend a function from a smaller domain to a larger one is to find some kind of formula that has the function in it that, in some way, suggests what the function should be at values outside of it's original domain.\n\nLet's say that we want to know what x^(-n) has to be, assuming we only know that x^(n)=x multiplied by itself n times and that x^(0)=1. We know that that x^(a+b)=x^(a)x^(b). This suggests that x^(n)x^(-n)=x^(0)=1. So we have the formula x^(n)x^(-n)=1 and the only thing that is not defined in this is x^(-n). So we can solve for it and arrive at the formula x^(-n)=1/x^(n) and we have successfully defined negative powers in a natural way by using an extension formula. This happens all the time in math.\n\n-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nSo if we want to extend the factorial function to include positive half-integers, then we can do so without imposing any Gamma Function magic. This is done by relating the volume of n-dimensional sphere to factorials. Let's have V(n)=Volume of the n-dimensional sphere of radius 1. So V(1)=2 (this is just the interval [-1,1]) and V(2)=pi, V(3)=4pi/3 etc. Can we find a general formula for this in terms of just n?\n\nIt turns out that [we can show that](_URL_1_)\n\n* V(2k) = pi^(k)/k!\n\n* V(2k+1) = 2(k!)(4pi)^(k)/(2k+1)!\n\nThe formula for the even-dimension case is really nice, but the dimension for the odd dimensional case is really ugly, and the fact that they are split like this kinda sucks. Is there a better way that we can write this that doesn't distinguish between these cases so that I can just write \"V(n)=...\"? \n\nIf n is even, then I can rewrite the even case as V(n)=pi^(n/2)/(n/2)! and this is okay because n/2 is still an integer. This formula is nice. I want it to work for all cases. Since (n/2)! is not defined when n is odd, I'm free to assign to it whatever number I want. So I'm going to define (n/2)! to be whatever number it needs to be so that V(n)=pi^(n/2)/(n/2)! for *any* n.\n\nThis means that when n is odd, I need\n\n2((n-1)/2)!(4pi)^([n-1]/2)/n! = pi^(n/2)/(n/2)!\n\nThe fact that n is odd means that everything on the left side of this equation is defined. In fact, the only thing that is *not* defined in this equation is (n/2)!, so we can solve for it to see what it has to equal. Doing this gives\n\n(n/2)! = sqrt(pi)n!/(2^(n)((n-1)/2)!)\n\nThis formula for half-integer factorials is made so that V(n)=pi^(n/2)/(n/2)! for all integers n. Plugging in various odd n gives\n\n* (1/2)! = sqrt(pi)/2\n\n* (3/2)! = 3sqrt(pi)/4\n\n* (5/2)! = 15sqrt(pi)/8\n\nObviously, the values of (n/2)! do not tell us how sets of size n/2 can be ordered, because no such sets exist. But the appearance of factorials in the formulas for the volume are connected to orderings of sets, so we're essentially finding a formula for how many ways a set of size n/2 *would* be ordered if it did exist. Generally, anytime you see a factorial, you're counting permutations of sets somehow, for instance [Here's why they are in Taylor Series](_URL_3_). Similarly, whenever you see pi in a formula then you're doing something with circles. Through this method, it's clear why there has to be a pi in the formula for (n/2)!, because we're using the formulas for volumes of sphere to do it!\n\n----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThis method of extending the factorials is obviously limited to only half-integer factorials. But it's more naturally motivated than just pasting the expression for the Gamma Function and just saying \"Plug in x=3/2\" and it tells us how pi naturally gets involved. The resulting formula is something that is motivated, and not just handed down from Euler, our Lord and Savior. \n\nBut we *can* use the Gamma Function to extend all of this even further, it gives us a factorial for every complex number except the negative integers. In fact, there is a theorem saying that the Gamma Function is the only way to extend the factorial to the complex plane in a \"nice enough way\". But many of these kinds of results, values of familiar functions at unfamiliar values having unintuitive values, can be done without appealing to modern tools. Our modern tools are super powerful and were developed to find answers to very hard questions, like the [Prime Number Theorem](_URL_0_) or the [Riemann Hypothesis](_URL_2_). They weren't invented to evaluate the factorial function at non-integer values, they just need to be consistent with other, easier methods that do this, but they offer no cool math-tricks or insights. Just plug-and-chug.\n\nI also find it weird that people are okay with the formula (1/2)!=sqrt(pi)/2 and not okay with the formula 1+2+3+4+...=-1/12. To me there's no philosophical difference, both are extending previous notions to where they are undefined by finding some extension relation, yet people get antagonistic about 1+2+3+4+.. and not (1/2)!.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "13263",
"title": "Hexadecimal",
"section": "Section::::Real numbers.:Rational numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "For any base, 0.1 (or \"1/10\") is always equivalent to one divided by the representation of that base value in its own number system. Thus, whether dividing one by two for binary or dividing one by sixteen for hexadecimal, both of these fractions are written as codice_49. Because the radix 16 is a perfect square (4), fractions expressed in hexadecimal have an odd period much more often than decimal ones, and there are no cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits). Recurring digits are exhibited when the denominator in lowest terms has a prime factor not found in the radix; thus, when using hexadecimal notation, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two result in an infinite string of recurring digits (such as thirds and fifths). This makes hexadecimal (and binary) less convenient than decimal for representing rational numbers since a larger proportion lie outside its range of finite representation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1113108",
"title": "Factorial number system",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "From this it follows that the rightmost digit is always 0, the second can be 0 or 1, the third 0, 1 or 2, and so on . The factorial number system is sometimes defined with the 0! place omitted because it is always zero .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153299",
"title": "Root-finding algorithm",
"section": "Section::::Roots of polynomials.:Finding multiple roots of polynomials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The square-free factorization of a polynomial \"p\" is a factorization formula_11 where each formula_12 is either 1 or a polynomial without multiple roots, and two different formula_12 do not have any common root.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239699",
"title": "Quater-imaginary base",
"section": "Section::::Addition and subtraction.:Example: Addition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "In the second example we first add 3+1, giving 4; 4 is greater than 3, so we subtract 4 (giving 0) and carry −1 into the third column (the \"−4s column\"). Then we add 2+0 in the second column, giving 2. In the third column, we have 0+0+(−1), because of the carry; −1 is less than 0, so we add 4 (giving 3 as the result in the third column) and \"borrow\" +1 into the fifth column. In the fourth column, 1+1 is 2; and the carry in the fifth column gives 1, for a result of formula_30.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97168",
"title": "Proofs of Fermat's little theorem",
"section": "Section::::Proof using modular arithmetic.:The rearrangement property.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "To start with, none of the terms , , ..., can be congruent to zero modulo , since if is one of the numbers , then is relatively prime with , and so is , so Euclid's lemma tells us that shares no factor with . Therefore, at least we know that the numbers , , ..., , when reduced modulo , must be found among the numbers .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "341682",
"title": "Square root of 2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The square root of 2, or the (1/2)th power of 2, written in mathematics as or , is the positive algebraic number that, when multiplied by itself, gives the number 2. Technically, it is called the principal square root of 2, to distinguish it from the negative number with the same property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "269036",
"title": "Cent (music)",
"section": "Section::::Piecewise linear approximation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "As \"x\" increases from 0 to , the function 2 increases almost linearly from to . The exponential cent scale can therefore be accurately approximated as a piecewise linear function that is numerically correct at semitones. That is, \"n\" cents for \"n\" from 0 to 100 may be approximated as 1 + \"n\" instead of 2. The rounded error is zero when \"n\" is 0 or 100, and is about 0.72 cents high when \"n\" is 50, where the correct value of 2 = is approximated by 1 + × 50 = 1.02973. This error is well below anything humanly audible, making this piecewise linear approximation adequate for most practical purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
du5eqr
|
Why does food lose some vitamins when baking or frying, compared to steaming or boiling?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you expose things to heat, things change in them. You have seen this before--imagine you have a pumpkin. It's pretty hard--if you put it in boiling water for a while, it will get softer, will change color, and will change flavor. This is because when exposed to heat, many of the components change into other chemicals. The same thing happens with the nutritional elements in food--you put them in heat too long, and they break down and are no longer so nutritious.\n\nBoiling is a little worse than other methods, though. You see, much of the nutritional substances can dissolve into the water--when you pour the water out, you pour them out too.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Heating characteristics.:Effects on food and nutrients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature. Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires. Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B from an active to inactive form; the amount of conversion depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "Section::::Diet.:Food preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease with time in proportion to the temperature at which they are stored and cooking can reduce the vitamin C content of vegetables by around 60% possibly partly due to increased enzymatic destruction as it may be more significant at sub-boiling temperatures. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which catalyse the decomposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "596383",
"title": "Slow cooker",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Some vitamins and other trace nutrients are lost, particularly from vegetables, partially by enzyme action during cooking and partially due to heat degradation. When vegetables are cooked at higher temperatures these enzymes are rapidly denatured and have less time to act during cooking. Since slow cookers work at temperatures well below boiling point and do not rapidly denature enzymes, vegetables tend to lose trace nutrients. Blanched vegetables, having been exposed to very hot water, have already had these enzymes rendered largely ineffective, so a blanching or sauteing pre-cook stage leaves more vitamins intact. This is often a smaller nutrient loss than over-boiling and can be lessened to an extent by not removing the lid until the food is done.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32512",
"title": "Vitamin",
"section": "Section::::Intake.:Effects of cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more \"bio-available\" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52996",
"title": "Steaming",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "A 2007 USDA comparison between steaming and boiling vegetables shows the most affected nutrients are folic acid and vitamin C. When compared to raw consumption, steaming reduces folic acid by 15%, and boiling reduces it by 35%. Steaming reduces vitamin C by 15%, and boiling reduces it by 25%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5355",
"title": "Cooking",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Effects on nutritional content of food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13655249",
"title": "Frozen vegetables",
"section": "Section::::Health benefits and risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "In general, boiling vegetables can cause them to lose vitamins. Thus, the process of blanching does have deleterious effects on some nutrients. In particular, vitamin C and folic acid are susceptible to loss during the commercial process, and canned or frozen broccoli for instance loses the entirety of its most valuable nutrient. In addition, studies have shown that thawing frozen vegetables before cooking can accelerate the loss of vitamin C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
708u85
|
what is happening in the brain when you are not paying attention to someone saying something and you hear what they said inside your head some minutes after they've said it?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are different levels of consciousness layered on top of each other that make up your reality. Some you are very aware of/in control of, others are kind of like \"auto pilots\" that let you do stuff like drive a car without really thinking about it, or wake up on time even though your alarm didn't go off, or hear someone say your name even though you weren't consciously listening to their conversation.\n\n What I think is happening here, is basically your \"subconscious\" is paying attention even when your \"primary conscious\" is not, and when your conscious mind is no longer focusing on a thing at hand, sometimes your subconscious is nice enough to be like \"hey a thing happened while you weren't paying attention, here it is\". I don't really experience the thing you're talking about, but I get a thing a lot where I will just be looking around not focusing on anything in particular, and all of a sudden word pops up in my head as if I had just read it, although I didn't consciously read it. If I examine my environment again, I often find that word somewhere, and obviously my brain read it extremely quickly while I wasn't even trying to read, then helpfully handed me the information moments later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53466077",
"title": "Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "It is found that when the brain of an individual is activated by a piece of information of an event in which he/she has taken part, the brain of the individual will respond differently from that of a person who has received the same information from secondary sources (non-experiential).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6331719",
"title": "Mind-wandering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Mind-wandering (sometimes referred to as task unrelated thought, or, colloquially, autopilot) is the experience of thoughts not remaining on a single topic for a long period of time, particularly when people are engaged in an attention-demanding task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28090107",
"title": "Thought blocking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Thought blocking (also known as ), a phenomenon that occurs in people with psychiatric illnesses (usually schizophrenia), occurs when a person's speech is suddenly interrupted by silences that may last a few seconds to a minute or longer. When the person begins speaking again, after the block, they will often speak about a subject unrelated to what was being discussed when blocking occurred. It is described as being experienced as an unanticipated, quick and total emptying of the mind. People with schizophrenia commonly experience thought blocking and may comprehend the experience in peculiar ways. For example a person with schizophrenia might remark that another person has removed their thoughts from their brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44509314",
"title": "Sensory dysfunction disorder",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Visual system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "- Researched information for article through internet and medical booksde\"/ They become unresponsive to any disciplinary actions that may typically be used. Their brain reaches a state of sensory overload and any new information, such as conversation to alter their current state of mind, becomes ineffective. They need to calm themselves and let their brains slow down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2917198",
"title": "Neuropsychopharmacology",
"section": "Section::::Neurotransmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "So far as we know, everything we perceive, feel, think, know, and do are a result of neurons firing and resetting. When a cell in the brain fires, small chemical and electrical swings called the action potential may affect the firing of as many as a thousand other neurons in a process called neurotransmission. In this way signals are generated and carried through networks of neurons, the bulk electrical effect of which can be measured directly on the scalp by an EEG device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1530482",
"title": "Anacoenosis",
"section": "Section::::Discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "If I am in an audience and the speaker uses anacoenosis and I do not agree yet do not speak up, then I may suffer cognitive dissonance between my thoughts and actions. As a result, I am likely to shift my thinking toward the speaker's views in order to reduce this tension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1626279",
"title": "Anne Treisman",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "William James discussed the connection between attention and mental processes, \"Millions of items…are present to my senses which never properly enter my experience. Why? Because they have no interest for me. My experience is what I agree to attend to…Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought…. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c7zmgx
|
Why didn't Abrahmic religions gain as much ground in Japan as in Korea did during the 1900s?
|
[
{
"answer": "Short answer: Buddhism was indigenized in Japan by the 1900s, with a history extending back *centuries* and so was only a \"foreign\" religion by a technicality, but not in any practical term. That said, Buddhism in Japanese society had a very *very* high place, oftentimes intertwined with government, politics, and daily ritual. Korean Buddhism, since 1392, by design, was removed from society, and was a political pawn (emphasis on the *pawn* part). When Korea was annexed into the Japanese Empire in 1910, Japanese Buddhism was rich, diverse, and influential. Korean Buddhism was poor, decrepit, and seen as a corrupt and ultimately traitorous organization. Buddhism became more or less discredited in Korean society, and was seen as a backwards and ultra-traditionalist perspective that bore little relation to the modern Capitalist economy, of which Christianity seemed to be a part. In Japan, where Christianity did not accompany the modernity of the Meiji Resoration, it was proved that a nation could be developed, modern, and capitalist without mass conversion to Christianity. \n\nLong answer: There was a similar question asked a few months ago which you can read my answer to [here](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4251353",
"title": "Religion in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::History.:Before 1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "During the absorption of Korea into the Japanese Empire (1910–1945) the already formed link of Christianity with Korean nationalism was strengthened, as the Japanese tried to impose State Shinto and Christians refused to take part in Shinto rituals. At the same time, numerous religious movements that since the 19th century had been trying to reform the Korean indigenous religion, notably Chondoism, flourished. Christianity became widespread especially in the north of the peninsula, as did Chondoism which aimed to counter Christian influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23747240",
"title": "Religion in South Korea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1535,
"text": "Korea entered the 20th century with an already ingrained Christian presence and a vast majority of the population practicing native religion (Sindo). The latter never gained the high status of a national religious culture comparable to Chinese folk religion and Japan's Shinto; this weakness of Korean Sindo was among the reasons that left a free hand to an early and thorough rooting of Christianity. The population also took part in Confucianising rites and held private ancestor worship. Organised religions and philosophies belonged to the ruling elites and the long patronage exerted by the Chinese empire led these elites to embrace a particularly strict Confucianism (i.e. Korean Confucianism). Korean Buddhism, despite an erstwhile rich tradition, at the dawn of the 20th century was virtually extinct as a religious institution, after 500 years of suppression under the Joseon kingdom. Christianity had antecedents in the Korean peninsula as early as the 18th century, when the philosophical school of \"Seohak\" supported the religion. With the fall of the Joseon in the last decades of the 19th century, Koreans largely embraced Christianity, since the monarchy itself and the intellectuals looked to Western models to modernise the country and endorsed the work of Catholic and Protestant missionaries. During Japanese colonisation in the first half of the 20th century, the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism was further strengthened, as the Japanese tried to merge native Sindo with their State Shinto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23747240",
"title": "Religion in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::History.:Before 1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "During the absorption of Korea into the Japanese Empire (1910–1945) the already formed link of Christianity with Korean nationalism was strengthened, as the Japanese tried to impose State Shinto, co-opting within it native Korean Sindo, and Christians refused to take part in Shinto rituals. At the same time, numerous religious movements that since the 19th century had been trying to reform the Korean indigenous religion, notably Cheondoism, flourished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "430052",
"title": "Christianity in Korea",
"section": "Section::::Growth of Christianity.:Korean nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "One of the most important factors leading to widespread acceptance of Christianity in Korea was the identification that many Christians forged with the cause of Korean nationalism during the Japanese occupation (1910–1945). During this period, Japan undertook a systematic campaign of cultural assimilation. There was an emphasis on Showa, so the Koreans would revere the Japanese emperor. In 1938, Japan prohibited the use of the Korean language in government, schools and businesses and even at home. The distinctly Korean nature of the church was reinforced during those years by the allegiance to the nation that was demonstrated by many Christians. While South Korea's constitution guarantees freedom of religion and separation of church and state, the government has been sympathetic to Christianity. It considers the religion to provide some ideological protection against their Communist neighbor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48605",
"title": "History of Korea",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:Religion and ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Protestant Christian missionary efforts in Asia were quite successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. They served as medical and educational missionaries, establishing schools and hospitals in numerous cities. In the years when Korea was under Japanese control, some Koreans adopted Christianity as an expression of nationalism in opposition to the Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23747240",
"title": "Religion in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Indigenous religions.:Korean shamanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "In the 1890s, the last decades of the Joseon kingdom, Protestant missionaries gained significant influence, and led a demonisation of native religion through the press, and even carried out campaigns of physical suppression of local cults. The Protestant discourse would have had an influence on all further attempts to uproot native religion. The \"movement to destroy Sindo\" carried out in South Korea in the 1970s and 1980s, destroyed much of the physical heritage of Korean religion (temples and shrines), especially during the regime of President Park Chung-hee. There has been of a revival of shamanism in South Korea in most recent times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10370",
"title": "Evangelicalism",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:South Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "Protestant missionary activity in Asia was most successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. Between 1910 and 1945, when Korea was a Japanese colony, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934, the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Since the Korean War (1950–53), many Korean Christians have migrated to the U.S., while those who remained behind have risen sharply in social and economic status. Most Korean Protestant churches in the 21st century emphasize their Evangelical heritage. Korean Protestantism is characterized by theological conservatism coupled with an emotional revivalistic style. Most churches sponsor revival meetings once or twice a year. Missionary work is a high priority, with 13,000 men and women serving in missions across the world, putting Korea in second place just behind the US.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4zozmt
|
What did it really mean to be released from a Gulag? Where would one be "dropped off" after serving their time in a camp?
|
[
{
"answer": "The gulag was a massive system over a large period of time, so it's difficult to talk about it just as one thing. In fact, it was incredibly variable - that might have been its most defining feature in the end. So let's look at one particularly instructive moment - the 1945 amnesty. There is an absolutely fantastic article on this topic that I will mention at the outset, from which much of the following comes. I'll just throw the citation up here at the beginning so people can go find it if they want:\n\nGolfo Alexopoulos. \"Amnesty 1945: The Revolving Door of Stalin's Gulag.\" *Slavic Review* Vol. 64, No. 2. (Summer 2005), 274-306.\n\nIndeed, the very premise of Alexopoulos article is as follows:\n\n > Stalin's labor camps and colonies formed a dynamic , variable, and unstable system in which a majority of prisoners came and went, and the 1945 amnesty reveals the movement and tension of this revolving door. (275)\n\nSo it is not that the 1945 amnesty was typical, but rather than it was such a massive moment when it came to people departing the Gulag that it reveals that variation and dynamism. \n\nSo, in 1945 you about one million gulag prisoners either released or having their sentences reduced more or less all at once. It was a very controlled and measured process.\n\n\nAlexopoulos explains: \n\n > No only did they *[Officials in the labor camps -TMH]* manage the issuance of passports, provide transportation from the camp or colony to the prisoner's new location, and issue (or not) material goods and food for the journey, but more importantly, Gulag authorities decided the destination of each ex-prisoner. According to the Gulag leadership, the issue of where to settle amnestied prisoners 'had to be approached with care' in order to provide maximum assurance that the former inmates would 'return to an honest life.' (292)\n\nOne specific treatment an inmate received was largely dependent on who they were, what the crime had been, and what the leadership thought was their best chance at avoiding the person returning to a criminal life. Leaving aside for the moment the \"true\" criminality of various things - the Gulag did, after all, hold many political prisoners - there were still many different kinds of people who had to be integrated back into Soviet society. Destinations could include ones family or place or origins in the best case scenario, or communities designed explicitly for the rehabilitation of prisoners that were nonetheless distinct from the Gulag system and where they might be working in heavy industry. Others faced exile that meant they weren't imprisoned, but were neither free to return to many parts of the Soviet Union that were likely more desirable. (293-294) Keep in mind that the freedom of movement throughout the Soviet Union was in many cases highly restricted, so simply being out of the Gulag didn't mean you could go just anywhere even after you arrived at your destination. In some extreme scenarios, prisoners were technically released from their prison term and marked in the system as having served their time, but were nonetheless required by law to continue working the same job they had worked in the labor camp as 'civilian laborers'. \n\nAssuming the best case scenario, you still had to integrate yourself back into the society and economy with a criminal record, which was no easy task. Alexopoulous cites 100s of documents he found in GARF (the largest archive in Russia), of former prisoners appealing to be given a clean record after release to help them integrate back into the economy more easily. Remember that when the economy is state run, that criminal record is going to follow you literally everywhere and a lot of jobs simply won't be available to you.\n\nAlthough the amnesty in 1945 provides us with a major data point, for lack of a better term it actually quite a bit to expose the extent to which the system was incredibly variable. The Gulag wasn't just a place you got thrown in and rotted, although that did happen. People were constantly entering and leaving the system. Still, the experience could be arbitrary. Sentences were extended without warning. The conditions were terrible, and even if and when you did get out, your life wasn't necessarily just going to go back to normal. The high turnover in the Gulag also exposes another feature though - that it permeated Soviet society. With so many people coming and going, many ordinary Soviet people would have had contact with people who had some experience of the Gulag, which meant that it was a very present system in the minds of Soviet people. It wasn't some far away place, but paradoxically close to home despite the often remote locations of the camps. This kind of thinking, thanks in large part to Alexopoulos' article is becoming more the norm in studies of the Gulag. \n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I want to learn more about the Gulag system would the \"Gulag Archipelago\" be a reliable and accurate source? Sorry for off topic.^^^modshavemercy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3498598",
"title": "Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Amnesty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "After the in 1953, partial amnesty was granted for some labor camp inmates on 27 March 1953 with the end of the Gulag system, then extended it on 17 September 1955. Some specific political crimes were omitted from amnesty: people convicted under Section 58.1(c) of the Criminal Code, stipulating that in the event of a military man escaping Russia, every adult member of his family who abetted the escape or who knew of it would be subject to five to ten years' imprisonment; every dependent who did not know of the escape would be subject to five years' Siberian exile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1158404",
"title": "Joseph Grew",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Under Secretary of State (1944–1945).:Forcible return of Soviet POWs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Unlike the German prisoners, who were looking forward to release at war's end, the Soviet prisoners urgently requested asylum in the United States, or at least repatriation to a country not under Soviet occupation, as they knew they would be shot by Joseph Stalin as traitors for being captured (under Soviet law, one only had to surrender to earn the death penalty).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52319892",
"title": "Blood Road",
"section": "Section::::Shutdown and repatriation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The Russian prisoners that were released were either executed upon arrival in Murmansk, or were sent to filtration camps because under the Soviet penal code they supposed to be traitors for having allowed themselves to be taken prisoner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12980",
"title": "Gulag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "The Gulag (, ; , , acronym of Main Administration of Camps) was the government agency in charge of the Soviet forced-labour camp-system that was set up under Vladimir Lenin and reached its peak during Joseph Stalin's rule from the 1930s to the early 1950s. English-language speakers also use the word \"gulag\" to refer to any forced-labor camp in the Soviet Union, including camps which existed in post-Stalin times. The camps housed a wide range of convicts, from petty criminals to political prisoners. Large numbers were convicted by simplified procedures, such as by NKVD troikas or by other instruments of extrajudicial punishment. The Gulag is recognized by many as a major instrument of political repression in the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15888794",
"title": "Forced labor in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::The Soviet Gulag System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 3210,
"text": "Gulags or Glavnoye Upravleniye Lagerejare, are described as labor camps which were a police-run system of colonies and special settlements. The myth surrounding the Gulag was that these forced labor camps would reforge the Soviet citizen who could then become a foundation of the Soviet Society. The real function of the Soviet Gulag was the exploitation of human beings, which occurred by working the people to death or near death before discarding them. Approximately 20% of the prisoners would be freed each year from the Gulags, but these were not rehabilitated criminals, they were usually prisoners who were too weak to perform duties any longer or were suffering from incurable diseases. The types of prisoners ranged from petty criminals to political prisoners. A 1993 study of the soviet archives revealed that between 14 and 18 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps from 1929 to 1953. A further 10 - 11 million people were either deported or were already in the penal system at the time There are no accurate or official archive records prior to 1929. The Gulag penal system was isolated to the point where there was little or no communication allowed between the different camps, and no mention of the camps were discussed in the wider Soviet society. This institution was a separate society with its own culture and its own rules. At the beginning there was rampant brutality and death, but later they began to normalize and operate like any other normal societal town or city. In most cases the camp commandant would act more like the mayor of the city and would even advocate for better conditions and increased supplies for the people under his control. But conditions remained deadly:In 1953, 1954, it was awful conditions in concentration camps. It is hard to explain how bad it was. . . . [S]uch bad food that when I came to the concentration camp, I have seen prisoners which have only bones and skin. Each day in our conentration camp, I do not remember a day when it was less than 20, 25 people--less than 35--which died from starvation.Different categories with the Gulags: The Gulag system consisted of over 30,000 camps which were broken down into three different categories dependent upon the number of prisoners held at that camp. A large camp normally held more than 25,000 prisoners each, a medium size camp held from 5,000 to 25,000 and the smallest camps held less than 5,000 prisoners each. These small camps were the most numerous of the labor camps. Within the penal system there were different types of camps: prisons, special prisons, special camps, corrective labor colonies, and special purpose camps such as the scientific prison institutes (sharashka), filtration camps and prisoner of war (POW) camps.Deaths within the Gulag system: Now that the Soviet archives are available for study, it has been determined that there were between 15 and 18 million people held prisoner under Stalin. There are no reliable records prior to this period. It is estimated that 1.6 million died within the Gulags, approximately 800,000 killed by the Soviet Secret Police, and another 1 million dying during the exile process after they had been released from the Gulag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32927",
"title": "World War II",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The Soviet Gulag became a \"de facto\" system of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs. By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and a significant part of them were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12980",
"title": "Gulag",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary word usage and other terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Even more broadly, \"Gulag\" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the \"meat-grinder\": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
449m7b
|
Did Protestants, after the Reformation, use large-scale violence to convert differing groups in a manner similar to The Crusades?
|
[
{
"answer": "A reply to /u/teaandabook \n\nI'm not sure the context of your question. Are you aware of the religious wars in France and Germany, also known as the Thirty Years' War, that saw widespread destruction and violence by all sides of the conflict? Or the Dutch rebellion, known as the Eighty Years' War?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "566888",
"title": "Christian terrorism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Once a particular Christian sect or creed gained state backing religious violence increased. This took the form of persecuting adherents to rival Christian beliefs and other religions. In Europe during the Middle Ages Christian antisemitism increased and both the Reformation and Counter-Reformation led to an increase in interdenominational violence. As with modern examples it is debated as to what extent these acts were religious as opposed to ethnic or political in nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14117",
"title": "History of Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Reformation and Counter-Reformation.:Protestant Reformation (1521–1610).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Churches with Reformation confessions of faith spread almost entirely within the confines of Northern Europe, but this was checked by the Catholic response to the Reformation. This is known as the Counter-Reformation. Although Protestants were excommunicated in an attempt to reduce their influence within the Catholic Church, at the same time they were also persecuted during the Counter-Reformation, prompting some to live as crypto-Protestants (also termed Nicodemites, against the urging of John Calvin who urged them to live their faith openly. Crypto-Protestants were documented as late as the 19th century in Latin America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9410290",
"title": "Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation",
"section": "Section::::Art and the Reformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement \"created a North-South split in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2002715",
"title": "Anti-Protestantism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Reformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The Reformation led to a long period of warfare and communal violence between Catholic and Protestant factions, leading to massacres and forced suppression of the alternative views by the dominant faction in much of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52521944",
"title": "Düsseldorf Cow War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "The rapid spread of the Lutheran and Calvinist doctrines following the Protestant Reformation was followed by a period of Catholic resurgence known as the Counter-Reformation. Interdenominational conflicts such as the Cologne War and Strasbourg Bishops' War prompted the creation of the Catholic League and the Protestant Union, with the intention of safeguarding the interests of the Holy Roman Empire's Catholic and Protestant nobility respectively. These alliances entered their first conflict in 1609, when a succession crisis in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg sparked the War of the Jülich Succession. The territories in question covered an area of , having both geopolitical importance due to their proximity to the Spanish Road and a booming economy, fueled by refugees from the lands ravaged by the Eighty Years' War. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13906453",
"title": "Abrahamic religions",
"section": "Section::::Violent conflicts.:Between branches of the same Abrahamic religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 211,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 211,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Christian Reformation of the 16th century CE was an attempt to institute religious reforms within the Catholic Christian Church which failed and resulted in a series of Religious Wars which were waged between Catholic and emerging Reformist]]/Protestant Christian forces throughout Western Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries CE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27765521",
"title": "Reformation in Italy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The Protestant Reformation began in 1520s in the Italian states, although forms of pre-Protestantism were already present before the 16th century (including the Waldensians, Arnoldists, Girolamo Savonarola, etc.). The Reformation in Italy collapsed quickly at the beginning of the 17th century. Its development was hindered by the Inquisition and also popular disdain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w26ki
|
the difference between a thc pill and smoking marijuana for medicinal purposes.
|
[
{
"answer": "There IS a drug on the market (Dronabinol) that contains the main THC in marijuana. However marijuana has a lot more cannabinoids (the class of substances that THC belongs to) and when smoked have a much quicker effect than ingesting a pill.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Cannabis contains, among other things; cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) (Source: Wikipedia, I was lazy).\n\nThere are many more active ingredients in cannabis over 400 (according to Wikipedia also). The problem with pills is that they like to only put a few ingredients in them. THC is the main drug in cannabis, but the others I listed have a major impact in the effects of smoked or eaten cannabis and all the many others create nuance between different strains of cannabis.\n\nTHC on its own will not give you a high like cannabis, it will give you a high but its not the same.\n\nThe reason many doctors don't like people smoking cannabis as medicine is because of the number of chemicals in it. Scientists test one drug at a time, they might study the interaction between two different drugs but they cant gather conclusive data on the interaction between so many different substances.\n",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "A pill also has to go through the digestive tract, and you lose some of the active ingredient during this process. It's known as the \"first pass effect\". You have to swallow the pill, then it goes to your stomach, blah blah blah, then to your liver where some of it will be metabolized and excreted. \n\nWhen you smoke, you inhale and the particles enter your lungs then go directly into your blood stream. So not only does inhalation deliver a faster onset of the drug, but you also get more of it, since inhalation doesn't have the first pass effect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very surprised nobody mentioned that the other cannabinoids in weed are also medicinal. \n\nAlso thc on it's own gives a very unpleasant effect. Tends to trigger anxiety attacks. The reason for this is that there are compoundss in cannabis that make you relaxed and sleepy, and counteract the stimulating, and mildly psychedelic THC.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60695593",
"title": "Tell Your Children: The Truth About Marijuana, Mental Illness and Violence",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "In an article in \"The Nation\", the author notes that Berenson seems to fail to understand or admit that marijuana contains both THC and CBD (which has been approved by the FDA in the form of Epidiolex to treat some kinds of epilepsy), and that medical marijuana products generally contain low THC and high CBD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8596369",
"title": "Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Arguments in support of reform.:Potential medical benefits of marijuana.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Marijuana (cannabis) is an herb drug, which contains a very active component delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). For thousands of years, it was used for medical purposes in many different parts of the world. Recent studies also agreed that THC had great potential benefits for medical purposes. A number of patients who have HIV, multiple sclerosis (MS), neuropathic chronic pain, and cancer were under medical marijuana treatment. The treatments could either be smoke on cannabis or oral preparations, which were synthetic THC and synthetic equivalent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1232145",
"title": "Tetrahydrocannabivarin",
"section": "Section::::Legal status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "It is not scheduled by Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In the United States, THCV is not specifically listed as a Schedule I drug, but \"Marijuana Extract\" is. THCV could be considered an analog of THC, in which case, sales or possession intended for human consumption could be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60920",
"title": "Tetrahydrocannabinol",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "THC is an active ingredient in Nabiximols, a specific extract of \"Cannabis\" that was approved as a botanical drug in the United Kingdom in 2010 as a mouth spray for people with multiple sclerosis to alleviate neuropathic pain, spasticity, overactive bladder, and other symptoms. Nabiximols (as Sativex) is available as a prescription drug in Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25905247",
"title": "Long-term effects of cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Mental health.:Chronic psychosis.:Schizophrenia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Cannabis with a high THC to CBD ratio produces a higher incidence of psychological effects. CBD may show antipsychotic and neuroprotective properties, acting as an antagonist to some of the effects of THC. Studies examining this effect have used high ratios of CBD to THC, and it is unclear to what extent these laboratory studies translate to the types of cannabis used by real life users. Research has shown that CBD can safely prevent psychosis in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481886",
"title": "Cannabis (drug)",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.:Detection in body fluids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking. Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17283752",
"title": "11-Nor-9-carboxy-THC",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "While 11-COOH-THC does not have any psychoactive effects in its own right, it may still have a role in the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of cannabis, and has also been shown to moderate the effects of THC itself which may help explain the difference in subjective effects seen between occasional and regular users of cannabis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kjx31
|
Is it possible to know what color a material will be without actually seeing it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. Color is determined by the band gap of materials. Band gaps between 3-5 eV correspond to visible light (color). We can roughly calculate these electronic levels for a given material computationally (though imprecisely), but know it easily through experiment. Thus, if you have information on these band gaps, you could determine the color the material will be (since energy corresponds exactly to frequency regardless of media).\n\nMore laymen discussion easily found at _URL_0_",
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"answer": "Just to add to what u/Funtimepancakehero said.\n\nYou can also have nanomaterial effects that define color. The classic example is looking at a [butterfly's wing](_URL_0_) up close. These very small structures can actually trap in light of certain wavelengths, causing a shift in our perceived color of that material (basically determining what colors can bounce off of it). This is distinct from a substance's color as dictated by it's bandgap. In both cases however, I believe there are theoretical methods for predicting the color of the resulting material. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "179505",
"title": "Physical property",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "It may be difficult to determine whether a given property is a material property or not. Color, for example, can be seen and measured; however, what one perceives as color is really an interpretation of the reflective properties of a surface and the light used to illuminate it. In this sense, many ostensibly physical properties are called supervenient. A supervenient property is one which is actual, but is secondary to some underlying reality. This is similar to the way in which objects are supervenient on atomic structure. A cup might have the physical properties of mass, shape, color, temperature, etc., but these properties are supervenient on the underlying atomic structure, which may in turn be supervenient on an underlying quantum structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679294",
"title": "Diffuse reflection",
"section": "Section::::Colored objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Up to this point white objects have been discussed, which do not absorb light. But the above scheme continues to be valid in the case that the material is absorbent. In this case, diffused rays will lose some wavelengths during their walk in the material, and will emerge colored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "Section::::Physics of color.:Color of objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "To summarize, the color of an object is a complex result of its surface properties, its transmission properties, and its emission properties, all of which contribute to the mix of wavelengths in the light leaving the surface of the object. The perceived color is then further conditioned by the nature of the ambient illumination, and by the color properties of other objects nearby, and via other characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11397063",
"title": "Resurs-DK No.1",
"section": "Section::::Spectral Resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "It is not possible to represent an image in true-color because there is no blue band (0.4 - 0.5 µm). However, it is possible to combine red, green and near IR in such way that the appearance of the displayed image resembles a visible colour photograph, i.e. vegetation in green, water in blue, soil in brown. This is not always possible because two similarly coloured objects can have completely different reactions to near IR light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1813838",
"title": "White point",
"section": "Section::::White point conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "If the color of an object is recorded under one illuminant, then it is possible to estimate the color of that object under another illuminant, given only the white points of the two illuminants. If the image is \"uncalibrated\" (the illuminant's white point unknown), the white point has to be estimated. However, if one merely wants to white balance (make neutral objects appear neutral in the recording), this may not be necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4611830",
"title": "Fingerprint powder",
"section": "Section::::Factor influencing fingerprint powder quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "As these various qualities are not normally all present in any one material, compositions of various materials are generally used. For example, lampblack is particularly black in color, absorbing around 98% of incident visible light, but other materials may have greater adhesion, or flow more effectively, producing a better overall powder than either alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "351077",
"title": "Transparency and translucency",
"section": "Section::::Absorption of light in solids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Materials which do not allow the transmission of any light wave frequencies are called opaque. Such substances may have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Most materials are composed of materials which are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. Thus they absorb only certain portions of the visible spectrum. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical observation. In the visible portion of the spectrum, this is what gives rise to color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ai835
|
How "French" were the Franks? (plus some bonus questions)
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't answer your question because I don't know enough about the time period, but I did want to address your use of names as evidence. Charlemagne was actually called \"Carolus Magnus,\" it was just 'french-ified' to Charlemagne. Germans call him Karl. In the same manner, Louis is called Ludwig by Germans. It isn't really fair to say that they have French names given that they also have German names. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "hi! on Charlemagne and the Franks v French, you might get something out of this section of the FAQ\n\n* [Frankish and French](_URL_0_)\n\nif you have followup questions on locked posts, ask them here & include the user's username so they'll get autonotified",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Well, some never made the switch - there's still a community of Franconian speakers in Lorraine ;). The French territory has always been majority Romance-speaking, even under the Franks, who only made up about 5% of the population of the Carolingian Empire. The commoners spoke one of the Romance-based 700 languages spoken in France. Frankish was still spoken by kings and the aristocracy into the 10th century, and Hugues Capet was the first king who only spoke a Romance dialect. The use of the dialect gradually spread among the aristocracy and became dominant among the ruling class by the 13th century and later evolved into French. (Interestingly enough, the lower classes continued speaking other dialects and only about 1 in 10 French people even spoke or understood French until the late 18th century).\n\nAnd as others have commented, (mostly retroactive) adaptation of the names of important historical figures is really common and not an indicator of national identity - Hugues Capet is known as Hugh Capet in English and Hugo Capetius in Latin, for example.\n\nReferences: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Dear fellow CKII player,\n\nHis name wasn't Clovis: his name was better rendered as Chlodovech or, even more precisely, as *Hlōdowig, as /u/dsmid says. Clovis' wife was not named Clotilde: her name was something more like Chrotechildis. You're forgetting that some historical figures are so ancient that their names have undergone latinisation, anglicisation, francisation, germanisation, etc, over the centuries or millenia. That Chlothar fellow you mention? I often see his name written as Clotaire or even Lothar. The name used in a particular text by a particular author in a particular century is insufficient to determine the extent to which the individual himself/herself was either 'Frankish' or 'French'. See [this online resource](_URL_0_) for a slightly more accurate and consistent list of Merovingian names with a handful of alternates.\n\nAs for the extent to which the Franks were French, what you're really asking is \"when did vulgar Latin in Gaul transition into Old French?\". So, naturally, some of the Franks will be quite Germanic, some quite Roman, and some quite French, all depending on the century we're talking about. The earliest written example of Old French to survive to the present day dates to 842 with the Oaths of Strasbourg of Charles the Bald. But the process that began this transition began as early as the 3rd Century. That's all I'll say about it, though.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Info provided in the link that /u/Searocksandtrees shared is very helpful here. I'll add some info too, with the bonus questions in mind, since I have knowledge of the Visigoths as well (I am less knowledgeable about the situation in Italy so I'll leave that to someone else)...\n\nThe semantics of the word \"Franks\" is important to answering your question, just as the semantics of the word \"Visigoths\" is important to answering your bonus question. The Franks were, at least at first, a Germanic tribe residing just east of the Rhine (as described [here](_URL_2_) at Encyclopedia Brittanica). In the twilight years of the Western Roman Empire, they were one of many tribes, Germanic and otherwise, to participate in the Great Migrations of the period—huge contingents of Frankish people headed West into what was Roman Gaul, and settled there. At the time, those Frankish people spoke a Germanic language (Frankish). They ultimately displaced the leadership structure in the former Roman province of Gaul and Frankish nobles installed themselves as the ruling elite, with some semblance of Latin blessing due to the fact that the Frankish king Clovis converted to Christianity.\n\nMeanwhile, at (very) roughly the same time, Germanic peoples were settling in the Iberian Peninsula and doing basically the same thing, displacing the Roman power structure. The two dominant powers in the Iberian Peninsula at the time were the [Suebi](_URL_0_) and the [Visigoths](_URL_3_) (who had themselves essentially been driven Westward by the expansionist Franks). The Visigoths swallowed up the Suebi before long and established the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoth elite spoke Gothic, a Germanic language, and brought Germanic culture into the Iberian Peninsula with them.\n\nBy 600, what we now call France was part of the \"Kingdom of the Franks.\" What we now call Spain and Portugal was part of the \"Kingdom of the Visigoths.\" Here's where semantics come into play. The Kingdom of the Franks (aka Francia), despite being named for the ruling elite, was not just a kingdom of the Frankish ethnic group. Although Clovis and his relatives had taken control of the power structure in the former Roman province of Gaul, they didn't get rid of the people who lived there already, a population of Gallo-Romans who spoke a local form of [Vulgar Latin](_URL_1_), inflected with the Gallic influences of the previous Celtic power structure. The same thing was true in Iberia—the \"Kingdom of the Visigoths,\" though named for the Gothic people in the leadership positions, was made up of Ibero-Romans, who spoke a local form of Vulgar Latin, inflected with the Celtiberian influences of the area.\n\nOver time, most of the Franks and basically the entirety of the Visigoths adopted the local languages and many parts of the local culture, though they maintained many parts of their own cultures as well. In both instances, the legal codes of the respective kingdoms were Germanic in origin (since the ruling elites were themselves Germanic in origin). In terms of language, though, the Germanic influence faded rather quickly—for instance, by the 700s, very few people in the Iberian Peninsula spoke the Germanic Gothic language. The switch was not instantaneous; it was a gradual cultural shift where the initial \"Franks\" and the initial \"Visigoths\" would have seemed very Germanic in language and customs, with their descendants becoming more and more assimilated with the local cultures. In the year 450, the Frankish elite would have spoken an entirely different language from what we now know as French. By the year 900, the ruling elite in the area was speaking the predecessor to modern French. Clovis, whom you mention, was very much a Germanic Frank nobleman. His descendant Charles the Bald would have been culturally much closer to the kings of medieval France (and the modern \"French\") than Clovis ever was.\n\nSo if you are talking about the ethnic group \"the Franks,\" they were very much a Germanic tribe at first, who ultimately assimilated with the already existing Gallo-Roman culture in the area they settled. But if you are talking about the Kingdom of the Franks, it was always a multiethnic society where Germanic Franks held leadership positions over a largely Gallo-Roman populace. So if you were to say \"the Franks fought in the Battle of Tours,\" you would probably be referring to a multiethnic group of soldiers representing the Frankish kingdom. The cultures of this multiethnic nation state would all coalesce to become the \"French\" culture you think of today (in that sense, the \"Franks,\" the Kingdom of the Franks, was the basis for \"French\" culture). On the other hand, the powerful Germanic Franks (the ethnic group) were just one of the ethnic groups in the pot, who became increasingly assimilated with the local culture over time.\n\nThe story was much the same in the Iberian Peninsula in terms of the melting pot of cultures, except that the another major ethno-linguistic group arrived in Spain (the Arab/Berber \"Moors\" of the Umayyad Caliphate) in the 700s and almost completely displaced the Visigoths, except for a small pocket that remained independent of Muslim rule in Northern Spain. That pocket would grow over time and eventually form multiple kingdoms that would expand, mostly southward and westward. Most of those kingdoms would unify under the Crown of Castile, and the Vulgar Latin spoken there would eventually grow into Castilian (Spanish). One of those successor states would stay independent of Castilian hegemony and grow into the Kingdom of Portugal, where the Vulgar Latin evolved into modern Portuguese. \n\nAs a note, the Catalan language grow out of the Vulgar Latin in a different pocket of non-Muslim areas in the Eastern Iberian Peninsula. That area was essentially dominated by Frankish-ruled or Frankish-allied marcher states in the foothills of the Pyrenees that would ultimately gain more and more independence, expand southward, and then unify under the Crown of Aragon, a preeminent power in the Western Mediterranean that would eventually link with the Crown of Castile via the marriage of King Ferdinand (of Aragon) and Queen Isabella (of Castile) to form what we now call Spain. That Frankish influence in the origins of the Crown of Aragon is a big part of why the Catalan language sounds a lot like a mixing bowl of Spanish and French.\n\nAs another note, I said \"most\" of the Franks assimilated with Romano-Gallic culture because the Frankish culture/language remained strong in the northern reaches of the Frankish Empire in the modern day Low Countries, which were variously more or less independent from the centralized authority of the kingdom of France as the Middle Ages progressed, and ultimately the language spoken there would grow into modern Dutch.",
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"answer": "I've done quite a bit of work reconstructing Germanic names from the earlier parts of those periods, so hopefully I can offer some insight. Clovis is a great name for giving us some idea of when Frankish gave way to Old French among Frankish nobility, and I'm been collecting Gothic names well past the fall of the Visigothic Kingdom.\n\n\nClovis and Louis are the same name. In early Frankish, the name would have looked something like *Hlodo-vech or *Hlodo-wech or *Hlodo-wig. The first element is related to our word 'loud', in this case meaning 'famous' or 'well-known'. The second element is usually taken to mean 'warrior' or 'man'.\n\n\nMost of our documents regarding the various Clovises are in Latin, and tend to render the initial H as Ch, and attach the Latin nominative -us ending. So we get Chlodovechus.\n\n\nOur first document in Old French is from 842, the Oaths of Strasbourg. We see the name rendered in Latin as Lodhuvicus and Lodhuwicus, and in Old French as Lodhuuigs. The -s ending is dropped in the oblique case, so we also have 'contra Lodhuuuig'.\n\n\nI'm not sure when we would start seeing the form Clovis, but it seems that the -s remained from the Old French nominative, while the aspirated -ch- or -g- was dropped. Even later, the initial Ch- is dropped, and we get Louis. \n\n\nCharlemagne would have likely pronounced his own name as Karl, as he spoke a very late dialect of Frankish, and also Latin. In Latin, he would have added the inflectional endings, giving us Carolus in the nominative. Though he was alive before we have records of Old French, we know that the Gallo-Roman population would not have pronounced Charles as we do today, in either English or French. Old French 'ch' was pronounced like more like English's 'cheer' than 'sheer'. The word final 's' would have been pronounced. I don't know when the word initial 'c' would have become 'ch', but it would have happened sometime in the Old French period, either before or after Charlemagne's time. But we can look at the Strasbourg Oaths- and we see Karolus in Latin and Carlus and Karlus in Old French. So I doubt anyone was saying anything other than a straight up voiceless velar stop (k) during his lifetime, except perhaps in some more progressive dialect.\n\n\nI generally think of Charlemagne as the last of the Frankish Franks and the beginning of the French, but that's just me. Charlemagne's children would have been educated in Latin and we have little evidence of Frankish in use in France. I don't think his successors would have used it as much as Latin, and their successors would have used even less (except for the rulers of Eastern Frankia). Frankish names are still recognizably Germanic in origin, but become more and more disguised as they're rendered in Medieval Latin and Old French orthography. Of course, Franks in German speaking areas would have continued to use Frankish, and their dialects would have merged with what we think of as German. Old Dutch is also called Old Low Franconian, and its some of the most substantial records of Frankish that we have.\n\n\nOk, the Visigoths. Members of the Gothic-L list on Yahoo have debated the language of the Visigoths ad infinitum, and they failed to come to a conclusion about how long the Visigoths spoke Gothic, or maintained an ethnic identity separate from the Roman population of Hispania/Western France. If you're interested in this in more depth, check out the 'Goths and Romans' chapter of Hillgarth's The Visigoths in History and Legend. \n\n\nPeter Heather sees the Visigothic kingdom as becoming somewhat ethnically integrated by about 700. We see less and less Roman names and more and more Gothic ones, suggesting that the Hispano-Roman population was taking Gothic names. At the time of the initial settlement, most Visigoths would have been born in or lived most of their lives within the borders of the Roman Empire, so it's likely that they had a decent command of Latin. Gothic would have been in use in the Arian church, so the most significant differences between Goths and Hispano-Romans would have been names and religion. With Hispano-Romans taking Gothic names, only religion would remain. After Reccared abandoned Arianism in 587 and crushed any Arian rebels, the distinction between goth and roman became even thinner, and mostly legal, with the Visigothic laws treating each people as separate classes. We might want to think of goth as meaning 'noble' and roman as meaning 'peasant' in the later Visigothic period.\n\n\nTowards the end of the Visigothic period, Franks begin intermarrying with Visigothic nobility and sometimes it's difficult to tell Gothic names from Frankish ones, especially near the borders. We still see Gothic names in use among the nobility, especially in the Kingdom of the Asturias and Leon, but there are fewer Gothic names on the dynastic lists. Like later Frankish names, they're getting corrupted quite a bit by the 800s or so. The name Fruela or Froila is easily reconstructed as Fraujila. Alfonso would have been something like *Alafuns in Gothic. The queen Adosinda would have been *Audaswintha. Fernando and Ferdinand are variants of *Frithunanths. Those stand out to me, but others leave me scratching my head. Favila looks Gothic, but I have no idea what the first element is. Leonese monarchs start getting names that look weird to me. By weird, I mean not Gothic. \n\n\nI'm less familiar with the Lombards, but you would have seen a similar process of integration, where the Lombards formed an elite that governed the Latin speaking population of the regions where they settled. Over time, as a minority, the adopted the language of the majority they were ruling and the ethnic distinctions faded away. As nobility, their naming conventions stuck, even after their language died out. So we see plenty of Germanic names in use among Italian speakers. Though some regions in northern Italy still speaks dialects of German, and Lombard settlers in those regions probably never lost their Longobardic. Instead, it just converged with what we think of as German, becoming yet another dialect in the German sprachbund, but happening to be within the borders of what is currently Italy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19985174",
"title": "Dutch language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Frankish (3rd–5th century).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "The Franks emerged in the southern Netherlands (Salian Franks) and central Germany (Ripuarian Franks), and later descended into Gaul. The name of their kingdom survives in that of France. Although they ruled the Gallo-Romans for nearly 300 years, their language, Frankish, became extinct in most of France and was replaced by later forms of the language throughout Luxembourg and Germany in around the 7th century. It was replaced in France by Old French (a Romance language with a considerable Old Frankish influence). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "962731",
"title": "French people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Frankish Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture: the Franks, from which the word \"French\" derives. The Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as \"laeti\" during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands and Germany between the 3rd and 7th centuries. Initially, they served in the Roman army and obtained important commands. Their language is still spoken as a kind of Dutch (Flemish - Low Frankish) in northern France (Westhoek) and Frankish (Central Franconian) in German speaking Lorraine. The Alamans, another Germanic people immigrated to Alsace, hence the Alemannic German now spoken there. The Alamans were competitors of the Franks, and their name is the origin of the French word for \"German\": \"Allemand\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "683036",
"title": "Basque Country (greater region)",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Non-Basque minorities.:Historical minorities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "In the Middle Ages, many Franks settled along the Way of Saint James in Navarre and Gipuzkoa and to a lesser extent in Bizkaia. This process also happened in Northern Castile. They were all collectively called Franks because most of them came from French regions (Normans, Bretons, Burgundians, Aquitanians etc.) but an important minority of them were in fact of German, Dutch, Italian, English and Swiss stock. Some were also from even more distant lands such as Poland or Denmark. Due to this migration, Gascon was spoken in the centre of Donostia-San Sebastián, until the beginning of the 20th century. Navarre also held Jewish and Muslim minorities but these were expelled or forced to assimilate after the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. One of the outstanding members of such minorities was Benjamin of Tudela.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1210359",
"title": "Frankish language",
"section": "Section::::Area.:Austrasia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "During the expansion into France and Germany, many Frankish people remained in the original core Frankish territories in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders, a small part of northern France and the adjoining area in Germany centred on Cologne). The Franks united as a single group under Salian Frank leadership around 500 AD. Politically, the Ripuarian Franks existed as a separate group only until about 500 AD, after which they were subsumed into the Salian Franks. The Franks were united, but the various Frankish groups must have continued to live in the same areas, and speak the same dialects, although as a part of the growing Frankish Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1656551",
"title": "Dutch people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Emergence.:Specific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "However, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part (i.e. the Rhineland, the Low Countries and Northern France) of the Empire. Eventually, the Franks in Northern France were assimilated by the general Gallo-Roman population, and took over their dialects (which became French), whereas the Franks in the Low Countries retained their language, which would evolve into Dutch. The current Dutch-French language border has (with the exception of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais in France and Brussels and the surrounding municipalities in Belgium) remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicization among the Franks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13289",
"title": "History of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Roman era (57 BC – 410 AD).:Emergence of the Franks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The Franks eventually were divided into two groups: the Ripuarian Franks (Latin: Ripuari), who were the Franks that lived along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era, and the Salian Franks, who were the Franks that originated in the area of the Netherlands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2966062",
"title": "Name of France",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Francia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "In a tradition going back to the 7th-century Chronicle of Fredegar, the name of the Franks itself is taken from \"Francio\", one of the Germanic kings of Sicambri, c. 61 BCE, whose dominion extended all along those lands immediately joining the west-bank of the Rhine River, as far as Strasbourg and Belgium. This nation is also explicitly mentioned by Julius Caesar in his \"Notebooks on the Gallic War\" (\"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
abj0jz
|
how are broken bones in non-castable areas fixed?
|
[
{
"answer": "The cast is mostly to prevent further damage. It is not strictly necessary but is more comfortable. It is possible to cast a larger area in order to protect the fracture site from further injury but this will likely be less comfortable then just not putting on a cast. It is mostly the extremities that need extra protection during the healing process as this is where it is easiest to get damaged. So it is not as necessary to protect the core body. So if you for example go the the emergency room with a broken rib there is nothing the doctors can do except make sure there is nothing more serious. After the examinations and x-rays you just get sent home with orders to take it easy. However if the fracture is more serious they can operate and insert rods to join the bone back together again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, if you break the neck of the femur, they drill a hole and install a screw bracket through the femur and into the head of the femur to hold it in place while it fuses back together. You can't put weight on that leg for 6-8 weeks. Then you get to learn how to walk again, as the muscles have all atrophied. If all that sounds incredibly painful, it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fingers for example are taped or splinted and taped.\n\nPersonal experience more then once.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many many ways. Depends on the fracture.\n\nThe function of a cast is to stop movement of the bone while it heals. There are other ways to do this if a cast won’t work.\n\nFor example: if the fracture isn’t that bad then the patient might be simply asked to not do ‘x’ movement for ‘x’ amount of time.\n\nOther examples: Slings can be used to minimize movement for collar bone fractures. External fixations which are like cages around the broken bones, can be used for more complicated fractures. Sometimes pins are put in place to keep a bone together while it heals and removed later like with certain finger fractures. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9213410",
"title": "Hematoma block",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "When a bone is fractured as a result of an injury, the two fragments may be displaced relative to each other. If they are not, usually no treatment is required other than immobilisation in an appropriate cast. If displacement does occur, then the space separating the fragments fills with blood shed by the damaged blood vessels within the bone. This collection, or pool, of blood is known as a hematoma. Injection of a suitable local anesthetic by needle and syringe through the skin into this hematoma produces relief of the pain caused by the fracture, allowing the bones to be painlessly manipulated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24358244",
"title": "Child bone fracture",
"section": "Section::::Types of fractures.:Less common fractures.:Displaced fracture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "A fracture where the bone cracks completely in two or more pieces, and the pieces move out of alignment (this type of fracture might require surgery to make sure the pieces are aligned before casting).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19857818",
"title": "Mandibular fracture",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Open reduction with direct skeletal fixation allows the bones to be directly mandibulated through an incision so that the fractured ends meet, then they can be secured together either rigidly (with screws or plates and screws) or non-rigidly (with transosseous wires). There are a multitude of various plate and screw combinations including compression plates, non-compression plates, lag-screws, mini-plates and biodegradable plates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42862717",
"title": "Garden classification",
"section": "Section::::Clinical relevance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Surgeons may treat these types of fracture by replacing the fractured bone with a prosthesis arthroplasty. Alternatively the treatment is to reduce the fracture (manipulate the fragments back into a good position) and fix them in place with metal screws. Common practice is to repair Garden 1 and 2 fractures with screws, and to replace Garden 3 and 4 fractures with arthroplasty, except in young patients in whom screw repair is attempted first, followed by arthroplasty if necessary. This is done in an effort to conserve the natural joint since prosthetic joints ultimately wear out and have to be replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19857818",
"title": "Mandibular fracture",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:General considerations.:Fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "External fixation, which can be used with either open or closed reduction uses a pin system, where long screws are passed through the skin and into either side of a fracture segment (typically 2 pins per side) then secured in place using an external fixator. This is a more common approach when the bone is heavily comminuted (shattered into small pieces, for instance in a bullet wound) and when the bone is infected (osteomyelitis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3853380",
"title": "Stem-cell therapy",
"section": "Section::::Veterinary medicine.:Bone repair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Bone has a unique and well documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with mesenchymal stem cells and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved. Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544756",
"title": "Acetabular fracture",
"section": "Section::::Principles of management.:Surgical management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Innominate bone is a flat bone with many curves. In most part the bone is thick enough and has broad surfaces that are amenable to primary fixation using lag screw(s) and to neutralize forces across the bone one needs to add plate(s) on the surface of the fractured fragments for it to heal without deformity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2m7dap
|
Why is Cyprus not part of Greece?
|
[
{
"answer": "Greece was under Ottoman control and revolted in the 1830s while Cyprus was under British control and gained independence from them in the 1960s. Cyprus maintained its independence but there were those that wanted it to be apart of Greece, both in Athens and on the island. A Greek sponsored coup in 1974 ousting President Makarios III led to Turkey invading and controlling a third of the island. Now the island is divided between Turkish and Greek halves.\n\nDoes that help?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15226",
"title": "Irredentism",
"section": "Section::::Other irredentism.:Europe.:Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Another concern of the Greeks is the incorporation of Cyprus which was ceded by the Ottomans to the British. As a result of the Cyprus Emergency the island gained independence as the Republic of Cyprus in 1960. The failed incorporation by Greece through coup d'état and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 led to the formation of the mostly unrecognized Northern Cyprus and has culminated into the present-day Cyprus issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20469619",
"title": "Cyprus–Greece relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "Cyprus–Greece relations are the bilateral relations between the Republic of Cyprus and the Hellenic Republic. Cyprus has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki. Greece has an embassy in Nicosia. Both countries are full members of the European Union, Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Relations between the two countries have been exceptionally close since antiquity. The Greek Cypriot majority in Cyprus and the ethnic Greek population of Greece share a common ethnicity, heritage, language, and religion, leading to an exceptionally close relationship between the two countries. Traditionally, Greece has been the major export and import partner of Cyprus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3831309",
"title": "United Nations Regional Groups",
"section": "Section::::The regional groups.:Special cases.:Cyprus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Cyprus, an EU member state , is neither a member of WEOG or the Eastern European Group. Due to its geographical location and the close ties with Russia, Cyprus decided to remain neutral between the two European Groups and thus is a member of the Asia and the Pacific Group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17751345",
"title": "History of the European Union (1993–2004)",
"section": "Section::::Enlargement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "It was hoped that Cyprus would join as a unified island. However, northern Cyprus has remained outside the control of the internationally recognised government of the Republic of Cyprus since the Turkish invasion of 1974. The Annan Plan for the resolution of the Cyprus dispute was rejected by Greek Cypriots in a 2004 referendum. The accession treaties were signed on 16 April 2003 in Athens, admitting Malta, Cyprus, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Romania and Bulgaria were not among the 10 chosen to accede in 2004.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7638862",
"title": "Greek nationality law",
"section": "Section::::Citizenship of the European Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Because Greece forms part of the European Union, Greek citizens are also citizens of the European Union under European Union law and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament. When in a non-EU country where there is no Greek embassy, Greek citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country. Greek citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1455366",
"title": "History of Cyprus since 1878",
"section": "Section::::British Cyprus.:British Cyprus (1914–60).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Greek Cypriots believed the circumstances were right to demand union of the island with Greece (\"enosis\"), as many of the Aegean and Ionian islands had done following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. In the years that followed, Greek Cypriots' demands for \"enosis\" (union with Greece), which the British opposed, developed rapidly during the 1930s, leading to the destruction of the Government House in Nicosia, which was burnt down in the 1931 Cyprus Revolt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43891649",
"title": "British Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::History.:Proposed union with Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "King Paul of Greece declared that Cyprus desired union with Greece in 1948. A referendum was presented by the Orthodox Church of Cyprus in 1950, according to which around 97% of the Greek Cypriot population wanted the union. The Greek petition and enosis became an international issue when it was accepted by the United Nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fztgox
|
why your feet tingle after you almost slip or sometimes when something slips from your hand
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a small spike of adrenaline. When you're about to slip or drop something, your adrenal glands start pumping in case you need to respond quickly with power, strength, or heightened reflexes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234828",
"title": "Tickling",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "When touched upon the soles of the feet, for example, it feels in addition to the common sensation of touch a sensation on which we have imposed a special name, \"tickling.\" This sensation belongs to us and not to the hand... A piece of paper or a feather drawn lightly over any part of our bodies performs intrinsically the same operations of moving and touching, but by touching the eye, the nose, or the upper lip it excites in us an almost intolerable titillation, even though elsewhere it is scarcely felt. This titillation belongs entirely to us and not to the feather; if the live and sensitive body were removed it would remain no more than a mere word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40715397",
"title": "Motor disorder",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Tremor is the uncontrollable shaking of an arm or a leg. Twitches or jerks of body parts may occur due to a startling sound or unexpected, sudden pain. Spasms and contractions are temporary abnormal resting positions of hands or feet. Spasms are temporary while contractions could be permanent. Gait problems are problems with the way one walks or runs. This can mean an unsteady pace or dragging of the feet along with other possible irregularities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4020563",
"title": "Foot drop",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Patients with painful disorders of sensation (dysesthesia) of the soles of the feet may have a similar gait but do not have foot drop. Because of the extreme pain evoked by even the slightest pressure on the feet, the patient walks as if walking barefoot on hot sand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244113",
"title": "Lyme disease",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Late disseminated infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Chronic neurologic symptoms occur in up to 5% of untreated people. A peripheral neuropathy or polyneuropathy may develop, causing abnormal sensations such as numbness, tingling or burning starting at the feet or hands and over time possibly moving up the limbs. A test may show reduced sensation of vibrations in the feet. An affected person may feel as if wearing a stocking or glove without actually doing so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1553625",
"title": "Moritz Heinrich Romberg",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "He described what is now universally recognised as \"Romberg's sign\" in his original account of tabes dorsalis (a disease caused by syphilis damaging the back of the spinal cord). He related early symptoms as: \"\"The feet feel numbed in standing, walking or lying down, and the patient has the sensation as if they were covered in fur; the resistance of the ground is not felt...\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320349",
"title": "Padre Pio",
"section": "Section::::Alleged paranormal phenomena.:Stigmata.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7845",
"title": "Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Loss of touch sensation in the feet, ankles, and legs, as well as in the hands, wrists, and arms occurs with various types of the disease. Early- and late-onset forms occur with 'on and off' painful spasmodic muscular contractions that can be disabling when the disease activates. High-arched feet (pes cavus) or flat-arched feet (pes planus) are classically associated with the disorder. Sensory and proprioceptive nerves in the hands and feet are often damaged, while unmyelinated pain nerves are left intact. Overuse of an affected hand or limb can activate symptoms including numbness, spasm, and painful cramping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45g6by
|
most americans i've met are very smart, sensible people who generally seem to have been educated far better than i; how is it that there's such a prevalent cultural stereotype of the dumb american?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the same vain that \"the squeaky wheel gets the grease\", our dumbest are generally are our loudest. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think about the context you've met them in. Was it traveling? Was it through work? I highly doubt you've a representative sample of Americans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same reason that -\n\nAll Germans are either closet nazis or robots\n\nAll French people are cheese eating surrender monkeys\n\nAll English people drink tea and speak Cockney\n\nAll Japanese people are one failure away from seppeku\n\n... on so on.\n\nStereotypes are over simplifications to help people put everyone into their \"box\". America has plenty of really ignorant people... but also more than our share of geniuses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most stereotypes are portrayed via the media, and lots of the shows that have come out of the US are ones like the Jersey Shore, Kardashians, and basically MTV. \n\nAt the same time, in some regards, the stereotype is true. Americans are actually very bad at subjects like history, geography, reading/writing, and other backgrounds.\n\nSo when it come to the international realm and Americans are placed outside the US the whole 'Americans are Dumb' comes from people not knowing the differences between Paris, France, and Europe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "America receives a lot of international attention, and heavily influences the world. Most people have encountered American tourists, and tourist stereotypes aren't positive anywhere. National news agencies often report on local American news stories that are strange, including the sort of thing you find on /r/FloridaMan, while equivalent news stories rarely filter back to America (except perhaps the strange things ascribed to the Chinese).\n\nThe second big factor would be that America has a more domestic focus culturally. It only makes sense--if your international neighbors are an hour's journey away, you have to interact with them more and be more knowledgeable about them. Meanwhile people around the world get to know America through its vast cultural output. The fact that many Americans are less knowledgeable about other countries gives the wrong impression. Of course, if you poll people abroad about the finer points of American geography or politics, they will probably not succeed either, but they're familiar with the broad strokes because America is so large and influential.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd point to a few things when you're thinking about this:\n\n1. Americans travel A LOT. You'll meet a lot of americans pretty much anywhere in europe that you live. You'll see them. No one is more dumb than a person who is traveling. They get uncomfortable and they start talking about what they have back home that doesn't exist in the place they are traveling. Only the most seasoned and sophisticated travelers escape the \"defend your home\" talk that people have when you travel. Since americans have often been the ones traveling, so it goes that they have this reputation.\n\n2. It's been hard for Americans to cross major cultural lines. Experiencing other cultures is easy for a spaniard - you drive less than the distance from my house to the next STATE to get to an entirely different culture. This means that we're often having a new experience being out of our cultural comfort zone. In this regard americans genuinely are more ignorant, at least they often are.\n\n3. Power. People talk about America because of its significant. Talk alot + being \"the other\" will often have some dimention of \"stupid\". This is a bit like how we always make fun of the famous, or the president or whatever. Because we can do so without a sense of pity!\n\n4. Media. If you'd spent your entire life seeing american media products and that formed your sense of american culture you'd probably think we were dumb too!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Assuming you're a pretty typical European, you're mostly going to be running into Americans whose careers or personal tastes are leading them to travel around the world. These people are going to be unusually well-educated by anyone's standards, they'll most likely be better educated than a typical European, and if *you're* typical they'll seem very well-educated to you.\n\nThe \"dumb American\" stereotype primarily comes from the period of roughly 1880-1980, when growing American wealth created a social mismatch where an American who was of relatively low socioeconomic status compared to other Americans would be wealthier than Europeans of a much higher socioeconomic status. This played out at all levels of the social pyramid, from American industrialists marrying into the British aristocracy, to middle class Americans going on tourist trips that would only be affordable to upper class Europeans, to backwoods GIs socializing with the European middle class. By 1990 or so European incomes had mostly caught up and the mismatch ended.\n\nThere's a lot more to say than that, of course... but this ELI5 so I'll leave it at the explanation of 90% of the phenomenon. If I kept going, would I ever stop?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One think I think is unique or uncommon to the United States is that we are far more frank and forthright than others. We are raised to say what we mean and mean what we say, we are taught that it's OK to say 'I don't know,' and so we do. (Canadian comedian Russell Peters has a great bit about people making up directions to places when they didn't know during a trip he took to the Middle East, for comparison.)\n\nSo we take that value when we go abroad, because wherever we go, there we are. We're far more likely to admit ignorance, so the 'ignorant' label sticks. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60117472",
"title": "America Against the World",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Walter Russell Mead wrote about the book, Kohut and Stokes create enduring problems as long as the most individualistic people are against most American people. Most American tend to be more effective than most people about their ability to shape their own lives and like to using government action to solve social problems on the planet and it makes the USA face ugly in world, Walter believed. Also Walter said, Kohut and Stokes make an understandable data center for their book, and the results of their global surveys make their book interesting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849214",
"title": "Achieved status",
"section": "Section::::Cultural capital.:Employment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "According to sociologist Rodney Stark, few Americans believe coming from a wealthy family or having political connections is necessary to get ahead. In contrast, many people in other industrialized nations think these factors are necessary for advancement. Americans are more likely than the people in these nations to rate “hard work” as very important for getting ahead. While most nations value hard work, the Italians, for example, are hardly more likely to rate it as very important than they are to think one needs political connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3118828",
"title": "Whitaker and Baxter",
"section": "Section::::Strategy.:Precepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "4. \"The average American doesn't want to be educated; he doesn't want to improve his mind; he doesn't even want to work, consciously, at being a good citizen. [But] most every American likes to be entertained. He likes the movies; he likes the mysteries; he likes the fireworks and parades…so if you can't fight, put on a show!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53776847",
"title": "A Study of British Genius",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1304,
"text": "There was a comparison showing that people who were regarded as significantly intelligent were educated in the UK, Scotland, Ireland, and were at the most notable universities. Ellis pointed out that his studies were not the only ones to include these universities and regions in their results. He did suggest that this wasn't a sweeping generalization that did not take exceptions into account, however, he insisted that it was instead more of a predisposition. Those who went to college or attained some sort of level of higher education were far more likely than others to be intelligent, prominent people of society. Marriage was not seen in most of the prominent men that he studied. However, he pressed the idea that men who did not marry, did not necessarily do so because of intellectual absorption. Many of the men had actually considered marriage, or did not live to the age where they would be likely to marry, or had certain life issues that stood in their way. He is very careful to show that this category was not quite so clear. For those who did marry, they married at much later ages than the rest of the men Ellis had studied, and they married even later than their fathers, who Ellis also thought married much later than other men. This later year was an average of 31.1 years of age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6269066",
"title": "Stereotypes of Americans",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes with negative use.:Workaholic culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "While the stereotype of hard-working Americans is often a positive one, the United States has also been criticized in recent years as a workaholic culture. In \"The Huffington Post\", Tijana Milosevic, a Serbian who had traveled to Washington, D.C. for a degree, wrote, \"In fact my family and friends had observed that I shouldn’t have chosen America, since I would probably feel better in Western Europe — where life is not as fast paced as in the US and capitalism still has a 'human face.'\" She noted that \"Americans still work nine full weeks (350 hours) longer than West Europeans do and paid vacation days across Western Europe are well above the US threshold.\" Researchers at Oxford Economics hired by the US Travel Association estimated that in 2014 \"about 169m [vacation] days, equivalent to $52.4bn in lost benefits\", went unused by American workers. Professor Gary L. Cooper argued Americans \"have a great deal to learn from Europeans about getting better balance between work and life\" and wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6269066",
"title": "Stereotypes of Americans",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes with negative use.:Arrogance and nationalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Americans may be seen as arrogant people. They are frequently depicted in foreign media as obsessively nationalistic and obnoxiously patriotic, referring to the U.S. as \"the greatest country in the world\" and patronising people from other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15909956",
"title": "Individualism Old and New",
"section": "Section::::Chapters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The American pecuniary culture hinders the growth of reason and the social nature of man in three ways: mentally, because of the formative effect of turning people into mindless parts of a machine in their work; Materially, because of inadequate distribution of wealth; and by corrupting education, because education too often directed only towards obtaining a job and not learning for the sake of learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cf89tq
|
how the hell do deep fakes work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Without going into the details of that actual technology - Computers have advanced to the point where we can create very realistic looking images using existing material. That has extended to speech as well, so for someone who is particularly well covered (like a politician) it isn't particularly surprising that a computer can create an image of them saying basically anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You take a picture of person A and you put it in a photo of person B. If you do this naively, just by copying the pixels, the image is discontinuous at the seam. This makes the fake obvious. So, to make a better fake you use a machine learning program to reprocess the pixels near the seam, to make the seam invisible. One such program, as far back as 1997, was called Video Rewrite. The most popular \"brand\" of these better fakes is called \"deep fake\", so named because or a reddit user names \"deepfakes\" who produced and distributed some high quality examples.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Honestly, I know it's probably against the rules of ELI5, but I would recommend Corridor's Crew video on their Keanu Reeves deepfake to fully understand everything that's behind this.\n\nIn short, you basically have to get an actor to play the body of the subject of deepfake, and train an algorithm to match the face of that celebrity you want in the scene to the body of the duble, you need to track the face of the celebrity trough interviews and movies though",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Get lots and lots of pictures from different angles of someone, get some fancy AI that stitches those pictures onto the video depending on the angle of the face replacing it with the ones in the picture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How Deep Fakes are generated is a system of machine learning called \"Generative Adversarial Networking\". It's a system which involves two networks that play a sort of \"information game\" against each other with a \"generator\" network and a \"discriminator\" network. The Generator Network is the one that maps out data patterns drawing from an information source (like drawing from a bunch of pictures of human faces and mapping the data to assemble a realistic human face of a person who does not exist) while the Discriminator network looks at the newly assembled data and attempts to figure out what it does right and wrong against the information source. It grades the Generator's attempt against the source and sends it back with new recommendations for it to incorporate into its next generative attempt. The Discriminator learns what a bad picture looks like and learns how to spot differences in order to offer better critique to the next generative attempt. The cycle continues until the discriminator network makes a certain percentage of error that it believes that the data is genuine and uniform (in other words, when the Generator \"fools\" the Discriminator enough to make it believe what it is seeing is a real image of a real person)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The algorithm takes an image of face(with added algorithm to identify face in question), and transforms it into some bit string basically(it's not quite that but it's close enough and I can't think of a way to explain the proper way easily. It's close enough anyway). The model is trained so that it builds this bit string representation and then undoes it. Like, you get face, turn it into bit string, and then try to build face from that bit string again.\n\nTo give an idea of how this training works, you basically score this result, and then change the algorithm so that it scores a little bit better next time. Which in this case is simple, because you just check if the result looks the same as the original image of the face. You can for example count how many pixels are the same.\n\nSo far so good. But now, we split this algorithm into three parts. First, the part A that takes face, and turns it into a bit string. This is called encoder. Next one that takes bit string and turns it back into face is called decoder. We use two separate decoders. Say you want to change face of Keanu into face of Nicholas Cage. You use one decoder, B, for Keanu, and decoder C for Nicholas. \n\nWe train it by taking A + B and feed it images of Keanu. We score results and tweak both A and B. We also use A + C and feed it images of Nicholas and tweak both A and C. As a result, A becomes capable of taking either Nicholas or Keanu face, and turn it into a bit string. B then is able to take that bit string and turn the bit string into Keanu face, and C would take that bit string and turn it into Nicholas face.\n\nSo now we take image of Keanu, and feed it to encoder A to get a bit string, and then use decoder C to turn that bit string into a face of Nicholas Cage.\n\nThis alone doesn't quite work that well, but we can use some mathematical trickery during training to force A to ignore all traits of faces it can see, if it can trust B or C can fill in the blanks. This works by adding extra scoring term during training, which gets kinda complicated, but the gist of it is simple, we want to make A not give B or C details of the face it sees that they should know just because they know the face belongs to Keanu(or Nicholas in case of C). Like, A shouldn't tell B how big a nose the face has, B should already know how big a nose Keanu has. What is the eye color of Nicholas? That's not information bit string should contain, because C learns that just by knowing who Nicholas Cage is.\n\nWith that, you get bit string that contains only things like, which way face is facing, what's the facial expression, where are they looking, etc, and B and C paint their own actors based on these details. So that makes it possible to get this algorithm take one face and replace it with another with pretty much the same position, orientation, expression etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56641018",
"title": "Deepfake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Deepfake (a portmanteau of \"deep learning\" and \"fake\") is a technique for human image synthesis based on artificial intelligence. It is used to combine and superimpose existing images and videos onto source images or videos using a machine learning technique known as generative adversarial network. The phrase \"deepfake\" was coined in 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60595691",
"title": "Digital cloning",
"section": "Section::::Concerns.:Personal use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Another reason deepfakes can be used maliciously is for one to sabotage another on a personal level. With the increased accessibility of technologies to create deepfakes, blackmailers and thieves are able to easily extract personal information for financial gains and other reasons by creating videos of loved ones of the victim asking for help. Furthermore, voice cloning can be used maliciously for criminals to make fake phone calls to victims. The phone calls will have the exact voice and mannerism as the individual, which can trick the victim into giving private information to the criminal without knowing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60595691",
"title": "Digital cloning",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Deepfakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "As described earlier, deepfakes is a form of video manipulation where one can change the people present by feeding various images of a specific person they want. Furthermore, one can also change the voice and words the person in the video says by simply submitting series of voice recordings of the new person lasting about one or two minutes long. In 2018, a new app called FakeApp was released, allowing the public to easily access this technology to create videos. This app was also used to create the Buzzfeed video of former President Barack Obama. With deepfakes, industries can cut the cost of hiring actors or models for films and advertisements by creating videos and film efficiently at a low cost just by collecting a series of photos and audio recordings with the consent of the individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54095619",
"title": "Fake You Out",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1337,
"text": "\"Fake You Out\" is a synth-pop and indie rock song with a length of three minutes and fifty-one seconds. Joseph composed the track in F-sharp, the first note he learned to play on piano while using the black keys, because he considered it easier than the C note.The song has a tempo of 115 beats per minute. Joseph stated that he was excited while writing the track, since he implemented on it many elements that he had not heard on music before. During the verses, he sings in falsetto; regarding this, he called this part one of his favorite melodies because he wanted to write a song that had verses as infectious as the chorus: \"I feel like writers slack on verses when it comes to melody... I've always felt like why not have the verses—the melody of the verses be just as infectious as the chorus? So I'm proud of this song in that way\". The vocalist also expressed that he tried to implement many musical genres in the song; he elaborated: \"Also, it does the whole mash-up genre thing that everyone is freaking out about. Truly, I just didn't know that there were rules to songwriting and, you know, so I just worked on transitioning from one genre to the next. I wanted to hear a song that did that. I've never heard a song do that before, I wanna hear that, so I made that\". Concerning the meaning of the lyrics, Joseph stated: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53254445",
"title": "Bogus (Ruby)",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Fakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Fakes are lightweight objects that mock actual objects' interface. In order to test a class in isolation, usually some test doubles or anonymous objects are used in place of integrated classes with required methods stubbed in it. But there is a problem with this approach, If the class is changed in between, those changes are not reflected in mock objects and tests run without any integration exceptions. Fakes resolve this problem as they will have exact interface of real collaborator and will raise an exception whenever the actual class is modified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60595691",
"title": "Digital cloning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Modern artificial intelligence, has allowed for the creation of deepfakes. This involves manipulation of a video to the point where the person depicted in the video is saying or performing actions he or she may not have consented to. In April 2018, BuzzFeed released a deepfake video of Jordan Peele, which was manipulated to depict former President, Barack Obama, making statements he has previously not made in public to warn the public against the potential dangers of deepfakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56641018",
"title": "Deepfake",
"section": "Section::::History.:Amateur development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "The term deepfakes originated around the end of 2017 from a Reddit user named \"deepfakes\". He, as well as others in the Reddit community r/deepfakes, shared deepfakes they created; many videos involved celebrities’ faces swapped onto the bodies of actresses in pornographic videos, while non-pornographic content included many videos with actor Nicolas Cage’s face swapped into various movies. In December 2017, Samantha Cole published an article about r/deepfakes in \"Vice\" that drew the first mainstream attention to deepfakes being shared in online communities. Six weeks later, Cole wrote in a follow-up article about the large increase in AI-assisted fake pornography. In February 2018, r/deepfakes was banned by Reddit for sharing involuntary pornography, and other websites have also banned the use of deepfakes for involuntary pornography, including the social media platform Twitter and the pornography site Pornhub.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11lz0j
|
why do people say we aren't recovering from the recession?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are still no jobs. The health of the stock market means absolutely nothing to people who have no jobs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think anybody says the economy *isn't recovering.* At least, I don't think anybody *seriously* says that.\n\nWhat some people say is that the economy isn't recovering *as fast as it could.* Everybody agrees that the economy is gradually climbing back out of the hole it dug for itself in the mid-late 2000s, but not everybody agrees that that recovering is going well, or that it's being brought about in the right way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25382",
"title": "Recession",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Economists usually teach that to some degree recession is unavoidable, and its causes are not well understood. Consequently, modern government administrations attempt to take steps, also not agreed upon, to soften a recession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24590229",
"title": "Recession-proof job",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "When a recession occurs, many people, especially those who have lost their jobs, those whose jobs have been threatened, or those who fear losing their jobs are motivated to seek education to be able to obtain recession-proof employment in their future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2878852",
"title": "Financial crisis",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Wider economic crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Some economists argue that many recessions have been caused in large part by financial crises. One important example is the Great Depression, which was preceded in many countries by bank runs and stock market crashes. The subprime mortgage crisis and the bursting of other real estate bubbles around the world also led to recession in the U.S. and a number of other countries in late 2008 and 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4310360",
"title": "Forced saving",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The problem of having a recession can occur through forced savings through the use of investment. Some investments can result in being funded from the ‘forced’ savings which can cause problems. Over time, these investments will be seen to be errors and the liquidation process that occurs is what will in turn lead to a recession and a boom bust period cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "926945",
"title": "Nouriel Roubini",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Economic forecast.:U.S. economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 901,
"text": "In his opinion, much of the current recession's cause is due to \"boom-and-bust cycles,\" and he feels the U.S. economy needs to find a different growth path in the future. \"We've been growing through a period of time of repeated big bubbles,\" he said. \"We've had a model of 'growth' based on overconsumption and lack of savings. And now that model has broken down because we borrowed too much.\" He feels that too much human capital went into financing the \"most unproductive form of capital, meaning housing\" and would like to see America create a model of growth in more-productive activities. He feels that \"sustainable growth may mean investing slowly in infrastructures for the future, and rebuilding our human capital,\" by investing in renewable resources. \"We don't know what it's going to be,\" he says, \"but it's going to be a challenge to find a new growth model. It's not going to be simple.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337279",
"title": "Great Recession",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Robert Kuttner argues, \"'The Great Recession,' is a misnomer. We should stop using it. Recessions are mild dips in the business cycle that are either self-correcting or soon cured by modest fiscal or monetary stimulus. Because of the continuing deflationary trap, it would be more accurate to call this decade's stagnant economy The Lesser Depression or The Great Deflation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2714483",
"title": "Corporate behaviour",
"section": "Section::::Influential factors.:Economic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Recession is an example of an economic factor. If the economy were to be in a recession, businesses may find they have to reduce jobs. This would affect Corporate behaviour as business teams would be short of skills and ideas in order to operate effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1uevra
|
Is the reach of gravity infinite?
|
[
{
"answer": "I just wanted to drop by with some numbers. If you had an empty and infinite universe and placed two hydrogen atoms one million light years apart, a nonrelativistic calculation says that they will collide in 7*10^43 years. That's a 7 followed by 43 zeroes. To give some perspective, the accepted age of the universe is around 10^10 years. That's 0.0000000000000000000000000000000001% of our number.\n\nIf instead of hydrogen atoms you put two people, the time would go down to about 7*10^29 years. Now it's just 100000000000000000000 times the age of the universe.\n\nNote: the nonrelativistic approximation breaks down when the distance between the atoms is about 1% of the original 1 million light years, but the bulk of the time is spent going slow so it shouldn't matter a whole lot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31086430",
"title": "Wonders of the Universe",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:3. \"Falling\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "This episode documents how gravity has a profound effect across the universe, and Cox seeks out a non-space zero-gravity experience to highlight his point. From the formation of galaxies and stars to the patterns of uplift and erosion seen on Earth, gravity is centrally important. Examples are given, such as the tidal force that captured and locked our moon over time, or more massively in the projected collision between the Andromeda and Milky Way Galaxies. Cox then enters a high-G training centrifuge to show how on Earth, gravity is a relatively weak force, but elsewhere in the Universe it is significantly stronger. In Chaco Culture National Historical Park he refers to Carl Sagan's Cosmos, and its link to a 3-week long supernova in 1054. The almost unimaginable crushing gravitational power of the Crab Pulsar is then contrasted to the distance of an atom's nucleus to its orbiting electrons. Finally, there is a look back at how Einstein's research on gravity has enabled us to better understand how gravity actually works within both \"the falling valley\" of spacetime and the \"event horizon\" of black holes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39094",
"title": "Extension (metaphysics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The history of thinking about \"extension\" can be traced back at least to Archytas' spear analogy for the infinity of space. How far can one's hand or spear stretch out until it reaches the edge of reality? “If I arrived at the outermost edge of the heaven, could I extend my hand or staff into what is outside or not? It would be paradoxical [given our normal assumptions about the nature of space] not to be able to extend it.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58764",
"title": "Timeline of classical mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Early mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1121 - Al-Khazini publishes \"The Book of the Balance of Wisdom\", in which he develops the concepts of gravity at-a-distance. He suggests that the gravity varies depending on its distance from the center of the universe, namely Earth\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25881839",
"title": "Entropic gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Entropic gravity provides the underlying framework to explain Modified Newtonian Dynamics, or MOND, which holds that at a gravitational acceleration threshold of approximately , gravitational strength begins to vary \"inversely\" (linearly) with distance from a mass rather than the normal inverse-square law of the distance. This is an exceedingly low threshold, measuring only 12 trillionths gravity's strength at earth's surface; an object dropped from a height of one meter would fall for 36 hours were earth's gravity this weak. It is also 3,000 times less than exists at the point where crossed our solar system's heliopause and entered interstellar space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3038470",
"title": "Massive gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Massive gravity has a long and winding history, dating back to the 1930s when Wolfgang Pauli and Markus Fierz first developed a theory of a massive spin-2 field propagating on a flat spacetime background. It was later realized in the 1970s that theories of a massive graviton suffered from dangerous pathologies, including a ghost mode and a discontinuity with general relativity in the limit where the graviton mass goes to zero. While solutions to these problems had existed for some time in three spacetime dimensions, they were not solved in four dimensions and higher until the work of Claudia de Rham, Gregory Gabadadze, and Andrew Tolley in 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2348110",
"title": "Attributes of God in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Enumeration.:Infinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The infinity of God includes both his \"eternity\" and his \"immensity\". says that \"Yahweh is the everlasting God,\" while Solomon acknowledges in that \"the heavens, even the highest heaven, cannot contain you\". Infinity permeates all other attributes of God: his goodness, love, power, etc. are all considered to be infinite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41241707",
"title": "June 1965",
"section": "Section::::June 8, 1965 (Tuesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "BULLET::::- Physicists at Johns Hopkins University reported that the mythical \"four corners of the Earth\" actually existed, in the form of giant bulges on the Earth's surface, confirmed by satellite radar measurements of the pull of gravity. The locations of the four sites where the pull of gravity was 0.002% greater than expected were in an area centered on Ireland; one centered in the Pacific Ocean between New Guinea and Japan; an area between Africa and Antarctica; and a fourth corner off the coast of Peru.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
viinf
|
A question about optics....
|
[
{
"answer": "If this indeed happened then the only reasonable explanation I can think of is that it was a semi-transparent skirt to begin with and looked more opaque due to [ polarized specular reflections. ](_URL_0_) When his glasses partially filtered out the reflected light, the skirt appeared more transparent. Or he was messing with you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22688097",
"title": "Branches of physics",
"section": "Section::::Optics, and atomic, molecular, and optical physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Optics is the study of light, and the instruments created to use or detect it (i.e. telescopes, spectrometers, etc.). Atomic physics, molecular physics, and optical physics are each individual sub-fields of AMO that study the physical properties of the atom, molecules, and light, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272065",
"title": "Al-Kindi",
"section": "Section::::Accomplishments.:Optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Two major theories of optics appear in the writings of al-Kindi; Aristotelian and Euclidean. Aristotle had believed that in order for the eye to perceive an object, both the eye and the object must be in contact with a transparent medium (such as air) that is filled with light. When these criteria are met, the \"sensible form\" of the object is transmitted through the medium to the eye. On the other hand, Euclid proposed that vision occurred in straight lines when \"rays\" from the eye reached an illuminated object and were reflected back. As with his theories on Astrology, the dichotomy of contact and distance is present in al-Kindi's writings on this subject as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical electromagnetic description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice. Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces. Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344933",
"title": "Index of optics articles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153783",
"title": "Crystal optics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Crystal optics is the branch of optics that describes the behaviour of light in \"anisotropic media\", that is, media (such as crystals) in which light behaves differently depending on which direction the light is propagating. The index of refraction depends on both composition and crystal structure and can be calculated using the Gladstone–Dale relation. Crystals are often naturally anisotropic, and in some media (such as liquid crystals) it is possible to induce anisotropy by applying an external electric field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "Section::::Classical optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Geometrical optics can be viewed as an approximation of physical optics that applies when the wavelength of the light used is much smaller than the size of the optical elements in the system being modelled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4z9jyg
|
Why are significant figures so stressed in chemistry, yet unimportant in physics?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure where you've heard that significant figures are not important in physics, but that's absolutely not true. Significant figures are important in every field of science that works with measurements and experimental data.\n\nMany mathematical operations cause the outcome to have more digits than the inputs. If you give the unmodified outcome, you make it appear as though your outcome is more precise than it actually is.\n\nFor example, if you measure a distance of 52 meters and a time of 17 seconds, you can calculate the velocity and end up with 3.0588235... (etc...) meters per second. If you then state that the outcome of the experiment is a velocity of 3.0588235 m/s, you're making it appear as though your experiment was extremely accurate, while in reality you only measured distance and time to 2 significant figures.\n\nIn reality, the distance might've been close to 52.38271 meters and the time closer to 16.6891 seconds, but the limited accuracy of your measurement system is unable to catch that level of detail.\n\nSo in order to accurately represent the precision of your measurements, you should give the final outcome with just 2 significant figures (when dividing, use the lowest number of significant figures of the two input values, which is 2 in this case as both numbers have 2 significant figures). And that's 3.1 m/s.\n\nIt doesn't really matter which field of science you're in, you can't \"gain accuracy\" by taking measurements with limited precision and applying mathematical operations to them. Therefore, you should be aware of the precision of your original measurements and what that means for the precision of your final answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "810102",
"title": "List of important publications in chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Environmental chemistry.:Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorine atom-catalysed destruction of ozone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Importance: Influence, as described in the presentation speech for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995: “The findings presented by this year's laureates in chemistry have had an enormous political and industrial impact. This was because they clearly identified unacceptable environmental hazards in a large, economically important sector.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697155",
"title": "Hierarchy problem",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "A second answer is that perhaps there is a deeper understanding of physics, which, if we discovered and understood it, would make clear these aren't really fundamental parameters and there is a good reason why they have the exact values we have found, because they all derive from other more fundamental parameters that are not so unbalanced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4597640",
"title": "Naturalness (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "A second answer is that perhaps there is a deeper understanding of physics, which, if we discovered and understood it, would make clear these aren't really fundamental parameters and there is a good reason why they have the exact values we have found, because they all derive from other more fundamental parameters that are not so unbalanced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1403587",
"title": "Philosophy of chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Foundations of chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "One of the most topical issues is determining to what extent physics, specifically, quantum mechanics, explains chemical phenomena. Can chemistry, in fact, be reduced to physics as has been assumed by many, or are there inexplicable gaps? Some authors, for example, Roald Hoffmann, have recently suggested that a number of difficulties exist in the reductionist program with concepts like aromaticity, pH, reactivity, nucleophilicity, for example. The noted philosopher of science, Karl Popper, among others, predicted as much.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1403587",
"title": "Philosophy of chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Foundations of chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Major philosophical questions arise as soon as one attempts to define chemistry and what it studies. Atoms and molecules are often assumed to be the fundamental units of chemical theory, but traditional descriptions of molecular structure and chemical bonding fail to account for the properties of many substances, including metals and metal complexes and aromaticity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22939",
"title": "Physics",
"section": "Section::::Current research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 \"Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics\", Horace Lamb said:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14246598",
"title": "History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China",
"section": "Section::::Historical development of science and technology policy.:Tensions in the 1950s to 1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The effects of the extreme emphasis on short-term problems and the deprecation of theory were noted by Western scientists who visited China in the mid and late 1970s. For example, work in research institutes affiliated with the petrochemical industry was described as excessively characterized by trial and error. In one case, large numbers of substances were tried as catalysts or modifiers of the wax crystals in crude oil, and little attention was given to the underlying chemical properties of the catalytic or modifying agents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15x5mz
|
my co-pay is $20, but without insurance it's thousands of dollars. how does the insurance company make any money?
|
[
{
"answer": "In part, because the insurance company doesn't actually pay that \"uninsured rate\": because they are a huge customer, they negotiate much better rates for the drugs/services. You will never see what they pay: they get an invoice for the face amount, and then get a discount off that.\n\nIt's somewhat the same for car dealers. There's an \"invoice\" with a price, but they don't actually pay that price. The manufacturer gives them all kinds of discounts and credits based on complex rules, like if they meet an overall sales goal they get an extra 5% off.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actuary here. In general, it's simply because certain risks (health being one of them) are diversifiable in aggregated quantities. As you aggregate individuals, the general health (and thus health care utilization) of the population tends to approach the mean of the popuation (i.e. the variance tends toward zero). Not all risks do this naturally. For example, interest rate risk is not really diversifiable (although there are some modern financial instruments that attempt to hedge interest risk), because no matter how large of a fund you aggregate, you earn the same interest on all the cash. The same isn't true of things like expected future lifetime or expected health care utilization.\n\nThat said, other factors come into play such as network discounts (which really affect the premium side about equally as the claims side, so it is somewhat arbitrary (i.e. insurers price different regions differently due to the discounts, so it is passed on to consumers)). Rate setting is based on historical data and trends, so all that is accounted for in the rate setting based on your demographics, which are priced in order to turn a profit on aggregate pools of risk.\n\nBut the basic reason it works is simply that large groups of people can have health risk diversified in the population and tend toward some average that makes sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "490201",
"title": "Health insurance",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "BULLET::::- Coinsurance: Instead of, or in addition to, paying a fixed amount up front (a co-payment), the co-insurance is a percentage of the total cost that insured person may also pay. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery over and above a co-payment, while the insurance company pays the other 80%. If there is an upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder could end up owing very little, or a great deal, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6029842",
"title": "Axa XL",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In 2016, the company wrote $13.890 billion in gross premiums, of which 69% was insurance, 29% was reinsurance, and 2% was other. Of the company's gross insurance premiums, 19% was for professional liability insurance, 32% was for casualty insurance, 25% was to the energy sector, and 24% was for specialty insurance such as pollution insurance, aviation and satellite, marine, product recall, political risks, equine, and fine art insurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871938",
"title": "With-profits policy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The premiums paid by with-profits and non-profit policyholders are pooled within the insurance company's life fund (Commonwealth) or general account (USA). The company uses the pooled assets to pay out claims. A large part of the life fund is invested in equities, bonds, and property to aim to achieve a high overall return.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31576870",
"title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Coverage generally.:Insurance providers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "In the United States in 2017, the largest private passenger vehicle insurance providers in terms of market share were State Farm (18.1%), GEICO (12.8%), Progressive Corporation (9.8%), Allstate (9.3%), and USAA (5.7%). Insurance is secured either by working with an independent insurance agent or with an insurance broker who is authorized to sell insurance policies. Some can represent from several agencies, or a growing number of online brokers who provide policy purchases through online sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16307767",
"title": "Insurance in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Insurance in the United States refers to the market for risk in the United States, the world's largest insurance market by premium volume. Of the $4.640 trillion of gross premiums written worldwide in 2013, $1.274 trillion (27%) were written in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8393684",
"title": "Quota share",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Also there are quota share insurance programs. Where the benefit and the premiums are divided proportionally among the insured. For example, three companies take out a $1,000,000 fire insurance policy on a quota share basis with company A assuming 50% ($500,000), company B 30% ($300,000), and company C 20% ($200,000). If the annual premium was $5,000, company A would receive $2,500 in premium, B would receive $1,500, and C would receive $1,000. Company A would pay 50% of any one claim, Company B would pay 30% of any one claim, and Company C would pay 20% of any one claim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105341",
"title": "Ex gratia",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "BULLET::::- An insurance company may make an ex gratia payment to customers if a claim does not meet the terms and conditions but the company chooses to make a voluntary payment out of kindness or compassion, without recognizing any obligation to make such a payment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5bfkym
|
why do we sweat and tear up when we vomit?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you vomit you are emptying your stomach. It is surrounded by large and strong muscle fibers that are responsible for \"chewing\" the food using your stomach walls as \"teeth\". Vomiting implies those muscle fibers to suddenly contract: the food goes up and exits using your mouth. Also, there is a lot of blood going in and out near your stomach. This process is similar to a sprint run: if you run for ten seconds at full throttle you will end very tired. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a result of activation of multiple branches of what is known as the \"autonomic nervous system.\" This is a system of the brain and spinal cord that activates a swath of reflexes often centered around getting you out of threatening situations. I can't comment on the purpose of sweating / heart rate changes, but to comment on the mechanism I would relate it to \"dialing 911\" for the body. A lot of different reasons to mobilize body result in the same non-specific responses. I can go into more detail, but when you get down to the brass tacks of the brain circuit mechanism, it's not understood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8507183",
"title": "Vomiting",
"section": "Section::::Complications.:Mallory–Weiss tear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Repeated or profuse vomiting may cause erosions to the esophagus or small tears in the esophageal mucosa (Mallory–Weiss tear). This may become apparent if fresh red blood is mixed with vomit after several episodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36896310",
"title": "Banana Sprite challenge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "While the vomit response is commonly assumed to be a chemical reaction between the two foods, the reaction may also occur due simply to the large amount of food and drink ingested within a short period. Dietitian Heather Boline observes that the human stomach can only hold around two cups, saying \"Too much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit.\" Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8507183",
"title": "Vomiting",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The content of the vomitus (vomit) may be of medical interest. Fresh blood in the vomit is termed hematemesis (\"blood vomiting\"). Altered blood bears resemblance to coffee grounds (as the iron in the blood is oxidized) and, when this matter is identified, the term coffee-ground vomiting is used. Bile can enter the vomit during subsequent heaves due to duodenal contraction if the vomiting is severe. Fecal vomiting is often a consequence of intestinal obstruction or a gastrocolic fistula and is treated as a warning sign of this potentially serious problem (\"signum mali ominis\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "540226",
"title": "Coffee ground vomiting",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "When bright red blood is vomited, it is termed hematemesis. Hematemesis, in contrast to coffee ground vomitus, suggests that upper gastrointestinal bleeding is more acute or more severe, for example due to Mallory–Weiss tear, gastric ulcer or Dieulafoy's lesion, or esophageal varices. This condition may be a medical emergency and urgent care may be required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8507183",
"title": "Vomiting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Vomiting can be caused by a wide variety of conditions; it may present as a specific response to ailments like gastritis or poisoning, or as a non-specific sequela ranging from brain tumors and elevated intracranial pressure to overexposure to ionizing radiation. The feeling that one is about to vomit is called nausea; it often precedes, but does not always lead to, vomiting. Antiemetics are sometimes necessary to suppress nausea and vomiting. In severe cases, where dehydration develops, intravenous fluid may be required. Self-induced vomiting can be a component of an eating disorder such as bulimia, and is itself now an eating disorder on its own, purging disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531611",
"title": "Foodborne illness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Symptoms often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Bouts of vomiting can be repeated with an extended delay in between, because even if infected food was eliminated from the stomach in the first bout, microbes, like bacteria, (if applicable) can pass through the stomach into the intestine and begin to multiply. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade deeper body tissues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34254",
"title": "Yellow fever",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "In 15% of cases, though, people enter a second, toxic phase of the disease with recurring fever, this time accompanied by jaundice due to liver damage, as well as abdominal pain. Bleeding in the mouth, the eyes, and the gastrointestinal tract cause vomit containing blood, hence the Spanish name for yellow fever, \"vómito negro\" (\"black vomit\"). There may also be kidney failure, hiccups, and delirium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10q6c5
|
What has to happen to grapes(or any fruit for that matter) for them to become seedless?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm a horticulturist that specializes in food, but I'm only on my phone and many of my sources are books that I have. However, I hope someone can help me verify what I'm about to talk about and tell me if I have something wrong. \n\nThe answer to your question is pretty long though, although a short form would be, \"It varies.\" \n\nThere are many ways seedless fruits are produced, and I'd like to start with talking about what a seed is and how it affects the fruit. A seed is a a method of sexual reproduction, which means that male and female gametes, each with half of the genetic data of their parents, fuse together to create a new organism. It is a way for plants to exchange genetic material to create new combinations of genes that hopefully have a better chance of surviving to maturity and reproducing. For this reason, there are often many consequences to disrupting the seed production, with the most common being fruit abortion, because most plants' final goal is to produce a seed. For example, seedless watermelons are always personal sized for a reason, and it's because the production of the seed triggers the synthesis of gibberelins, which are a class of plant hormone associated with many plant physiology, including the elongation and dormancy of plants. In some cases, plants can also be treated with gibberelins to induce fruit formation and seed abortion, which is how some seedless fruits are made. However, the disruption of seed formation can be a result of human manipulation or mother nature, and in some cases, the seed is simply aborted as a mutation, which would have been the end of the road for most plants. However, someone was fortunate enough to have noticed this and propagate the plant vegetatively to retain the genetic traits. \n\nIn some cases, like bananas, the seeds are sterile due to genetic incompatability. I mentioned earlier that gametes carry half of the genetic material of the parents. However, in some cases, plants can gain extra sets of genetic data, and as a result, one gamete might have some extra DNA, then the two gametes cannot fuse because they need to have the same amount of genetic data to match up and fuse. The explanation for this occurence has to do with ploidy number and meiosis, which I'm sure a wiki article or someone else can explain in better way than me. \n\nThere are other types too, and I'll continue to add more information as I peruse through my hort books. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In general, female plants or the female limbs of hermaphroditic plants produce fruit. To produce seedless fruits you ensure that they are not fertilized by male pollen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2405677",
"title": "Uncinula necator",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The disease affects grapes worldwide, leaving all agricultural grape businesses at risk of \"Uncinula necator\". Powdery mildew of grape affects the size of the vines, the total yield of fruit, as well as affecting the taste of wine produced from infected grapes. The disease can also cause the blossoms to fall and result in failure to produce fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29405266",
"title": "Trianthema portulacastrum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "[Seed dispersal] occurs in a number of ways. One seed may be carried on the detached cap of the fruit, which floats on water. Other seeds may fall out of the remaining part of the fruit or remain on the plant after it dies and withers, resprouting the following season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11683722",
"title": "Elsinoë ampelina",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Wild grape varieties in proximity to cultivated grapes should be removed. The wild species can host grape anthracnose and are a source of primary inoculum. Because the conidia are spread by water splashing, it is not crucial to eliminate all wild grapes, just the ones near the cultivated grapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2684796",
"title": "Stenospermocarpy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The fruit of seedless grapes is smaller than normal because seeds produce the plant hormone gibberellin, which causes fruit enlargement. Most commercial seedless grapes are sprayed with gibberellin to increase the size of the fruit and also to make the fruit clusters less tightly packed. A new cultivar, 'Melissa', has naturally larger fruit so does not require gibberellin sprays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "413408",
"title": "Vitis vinifera",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Seedless grape varieties were developed to appeal to consumers, but researchers are now discovering that many of the healthful properties of grapes may actually come from the seeds themselves, thanks to their enriched phytochemical content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51756916",
"title": "Terminalia amazonia",
"section": "Section::::Propagation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Seed trees should be located in stands and have a diameter of at least 40 to 70 cm. The fruit must be ripe since seeds of unripe fruit does not germinate. Once the seeds are harvested, they should be transported with cloth bags and allowed to dry in the sun for two days of three to four hours. Seeds are orthodox and should be kept in airtight containers or 4 °C with moisture content of 6 to 8%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25539883",
"title": "Ripeness in viticulture",
"section": "Section::::Factors influencing when ripeness occurs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Even if climate and vineyard management has been ideal, other factors may prevent full and even ripeness. Among the clusters of a grapevine, individual berries may not all ripen at the same pace. This problem, commonly known as millerandage, could occur because of poor weather during the flowering period of the grape but can also be caused by soil deficient in various nutrients such as boron, an attack of various grapevine ailments such as the grapevine fanleaf virus or a number of other factors that may contribute to incomplete plant fertilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dy9fm
|
Why is the Byzantine Empire purple?
|
[
{
"answer": "The real question, in my eyes, is \"Why did the Romans like purple so much?\"\n\nJust ctrl+F this article for \"purple\"\n_URL_0_\n\nPurple had a \"regal\" [sic] context to it even in times of the republic. The Byzantines piggybacked on that to some degree. Everyone likes to relive the \"former glory\" of Rome, such as the Axis of WWII adopting the Roman military salute and the \"Third Reich\" moniker.\n\nWhy? Because it was expensive. Purple is darker than other colors, and looks cheap if it is not dark. As such, it's tough to make a good puple dye. Because of that, it was rare. Like gold, purple dye is valued because of its rarity. Because it was valued, it was used as a status symbol.\n\nEdit: See also- this article on expensive purple dye.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\"The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in Byzantium and was subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of imperial silks,[2] so that a child born to a reigning emperor was porphyrogenitos, \"born in the purple\", although this term may also refer to the fact that the imperial birthing apartment was walled in the purple-red rock known as porphyry.\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Purple, specifically Tyrian purple, was considered the color of nobles and kings long before the Byzantines, probably because it was very expensive and hard to manufacture. Since the Byzantine empire was claiming to the continuation of the Roman empire, they used the same color scheme as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Purple was a very expensive dye to get a hold of. Roman senators worsee a purple stripe on their togas as a symbol of being rich and powerful. When Rome got an emperor, he wore purple. \"The purple\" became a phrase referring to something imperial. During the dominate period after the crisis of the 3rd century, the power of the emperor became more absolute than it had been before. In the eastern empire which survived the fall of the west, the emperor was an absolute monarch, with power even over the Eastern Orthodox Church (Caesaropapism). So, purple eventually came to symbolize the Roman empire in the medieval period, which we now call the Byzantine empire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing no-one has mentioned is that Byzantine Emperors were not just selected on the basis of royal blood; a true Byzantine Emperor had to have been \"born in the purple\" - this was a special bedroom in the Imperial Palace at Constantinople that was reserved specifically for the occasion of a royal birth. And, of course, it was covered in purple drapery. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37948",
"title": "Purple",
"section": "Section::::In art, history and fashion.:Purple in the Byzantine Empire and Carolingian Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Through the early Christian era, the rulers of the Byzantine Empire continued the use of purple as the imperial color, for diplomatic gifts, and even for imperial documents and the pages of the Bible. Gospel manuscripts were written in gold lettering on parchment that was colored Tyrian purple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19842539",
"title": "Born in the purple",
"section": "Section::::Porphyrogennetos.:Origin of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Imperial purple was a luxury dye obtained from sea snails, used to colour cloth. Its production was extremely expensive, so the dye was used as a status symbol by the Ancient Romans e.g. a purple stripe on the togas of Roman magistrates. By the Byzantine period the colour had become associated with the emperors, and sumptuary laws restricted its use by anyone except the imperial household. Purple was thus seen as an imperial colour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42361734",
"title": "Greek dress",
"section": "Section::::Byzantine period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "As for the colour, purple and tyrian purple (\"porphyra\") was reserved for the imperial dynasties; other colours in various contexts conveyed information as to class and clerical or government rank. Lower-class people wore simple tunics but still had the preference for bright colours found in all Byzantine fashions. The Byzantine love for colour had its sinister side. The races in the Hippodrome used four teams: red, white, blue and green; and the supporters of these became political factions, taking sides on the great theological issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4543",
"title": "Blue",
"section": "Section::::History.:In the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Dark blue was widely used in the decoration of churches in the Byzantine Empire. In Byzantine art Christ and the Virgin Mary usually wore dark blue or purple. Blue was used as a background colour representing the sky in the magnificent mosaics which decorated Byzantine churches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22488293",
"title": "Byzantium (color)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The color Byzantium is a particular dark tone of purple. It originates in modern times, and, despite its name, it should not be confused with Tyrian purple (hue rendering), the color historically used by Roman and Byzantine emperors. The latter, often also referred to as \"Tyrian red\", is more reddish in hue, and is in fact often depicted as closer to crimson than purple. The first recorded use of \"byzantium\" as a color name in English was in 1926.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "647630",
"title": "Byzantine art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Byzantine art refers to the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of Rome and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985263",
"title": "History of art",
"section": "Section::::European.:Medieval.:Byzantine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Byzantine art refers to the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from Rome's decline and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2p0xbt
|
how can there be updates on disc games?
|
[
{
"answer": "They store the updates on the hard drive. All files have to be loaded into RAM before they're used anyway. When the game goes to load a file, it checks the hard drive to see if there's an updated version. It doesn't actually update the disk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13503628",
"title": "Wii system software",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Several game discs, both first-party and third-party games, have included system software updates so that players who are not connected to the Internet can still update their system. Additionally this can force an upgrade by requiring the player to perform the update, without which the new game cannot be played. Some online games (such as Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Mario Kart Wii) have come with specific extra updates, such as being able to receive posts from game-specific addresses, so, regardless of the version of the installed software, it will install an update.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10604196",
"title": "Xbox Live Arcade Unplugged",
"section": "Section::::Xbox Live Arcade Unplugged Vol. 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The disc works by inserting it into the system just like any other game. However, rather than directly launching any of the titles, it brings you to the game menu in the Xbox home where you see extra games that are playable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7004765",
"title": "Wii Menu",
"section": "Section::::Pre-installed channels.:Disc Channel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "Each Wii game disc includes a system update partition, which includes the latest Wii software from the time the game was released. If a disc is inserted that contains newer software than installed on the console, installing the new software will be required to play the game. This allows users without an internet connection to still receive system updates. When loaded into the disc slot, an icon on the Disc Channel that says \"Wii System Update\" appears. After selecting the channel, the Wii will automatically update. If these updates are not installed, the game will remain unplayable until the update is installed, as each time the channel is loaded with the game inserted, the update prompt will appear, and declining the update will return the player to the Wii Menu instead of starting the game. (Note: This is the only channel that cannot be moved across the Wii Menu without the use of third party tools.) The games which display \"Wii System Update\" can still be played without updating using homebrew software, such as Gecko OS or a USB loader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11587090",
"title": "Optical media preservation",
"section": "Section::::Repair and reclamation of data from optical discs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Also, the disc itself can be repaired. There are various machines that will repair discs by polishing, buffing or grinding the playable surface. Usually the disc will appear like new and most importantly the data can once again be read by the laser. Some game shops, pawnbrokers and supermarkets provide a disc repair service. However, since this is an ablative process in which a layer of the substrate is removed, it is only safe to do a few times before risking the loss of the whole disc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10604196",
"title": "Xbox Live Arcade Unplugged",
"section": "Section::::Xbox Live Arcade Game Pack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The disc works by inserting it into the system just like any other game. However, rather than directly launching any of the titles, it adds three items to the Xbox Live Arcade menu with a small disc icon next to each name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10604196",
"title": "Xbox Live Arcade Unplugged",
"section": "Section::::Xbox Live Arcade Compilation Disc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The disc works by inserting it into the system just like any other game. However, rather than directly launching any of the titles, it adds five items to the Xbox Live Arcade menu with a small disc icon next to each name. A double pack featuring this game and Sega Superstars Tennis was also packaged with some Xbox units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41181813",
"title": "Xbox One system software",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Backward compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Unlike Xbox 360's emulation of the original Xbox, games do not have to be specifically patched but need to be repackaged in the Xbox One format. Users' digitally-purchased games will automatically appear in their library for download once available. Games on physical media are not executed directly from disc; inserting the disc initiates a download of a repackaged version. As with Xbox One titles, the disc must be inserted during play for validation purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10onro
|
Were any of the U.S. founding fathers alive during The American Civil War? If so what did they think about it? Or did they speak/write publicly about it at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "None were alive. By greatly stretching the definition of founding father, you can get to 1848 with JQA. But Generally Madison, Marshall and one other guy who can't recall at the moment are considered the last living founders, and they died well before the start of the war.\n\nEdit: Of course Madison was alive to see the Nullification Crisis, and the rise of sectionalism he spoke on both of these points multiple times. Judging by comments I am nearly 100% sure he would have looked at the Civil War with abject horror. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Founding generation, not just the father's, were almost if not completely gone by the time of the Civil War. In fact, some historians have argued (correctly, I believe) that the Civil War was largely a product of the subsequent generation attempting to protect the legacy of the Revolution in the way they thought best. With no one around anymore to say how it actually was, the next generation was forced to begin interpreting the Constitution and the intentions of the Founders. Much of Northern and Southern sectionalism stems from different interpretations of the American mentality and how the Constitution related to it.\n\nIf anyone has access online to journals through JSTOR or similar, feel free to check out Michael Morrison. “American Reaction to European Revolutions, 1848–1852: Sectionalism, Memory, and the Revolutionary Heritage,” *Civil War History* Vol. 49, Issue 2 (June 2003), as it's a great article on the subject.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33072512",
"title": "Historiography of the Gaspee affair",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "For four decades leading up to the American Civil War, American historians and Revolutionary Era popularizers agonized over whether their generation was worthy of the founders’ sacrifices. While their sectional divisiveness tore the fragile nation apart, Northerners and Southerners competed to assert possession of the founders’ dream. Massachusetts’ conservative leaders carefully crafted and published American histories that prominently featured New Englanders as the \"true\" founders of the entire North American republic. Theirs was an attempt to define the national identity of the young republic through sectional concerns and anxieties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2413595",
"title": "Scottish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Historical contributions.:Patriots and Loyalists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "While John Witherspoon was the only Scot to sign the Declaration of Independence, several other signers had ancestors there. Other founding fathers like James Madison had no ancestral connection but were imbued with ideas drawn from Scottish moral philosophy. Scottish Americans who made major contributions to the revolutionary war included Commodore John Paul Jones, the \"Father of the American Navy\", and Generals Henry Knox and William Alexander. Another person of note was a personal friend of George Washington, General Hugh Mercer, who fought for Charles Edward Stuart at the Battle of Culloden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5854522",
"title": "Andrew Adams (congressman)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Andrew Adams (January 7, 1736 – November 26, 1797) was an American lawyer, jurist, and political leader in Litchfield, Connecticut, during the American Revolutionary War. He was a delegate for Connecticut to the Continental Congress and later Chief Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court. He is considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560336",
"title": "Daniel Carroll",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Daniel Carroll (July 22, 1730May 7, 1796) was an American politician and plantation owner from Maryland, considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He supported the American Revolution, served in the Confederation Congress, was a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 which wrote the Constitution, and was a U.S. Representative in the First Congress. Daniel Carroll was one of five men to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. He was one of the very few Roman Catholics among the Founders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9640240",
"title": "James Madison (bishop)",
"section": "Section::::Heritage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Although he is not generally regarded as one of the founding fathers of the United States, his role in successfully helping restructure and lead both the College of William and Mary and the Church of England in the United States during and after the American Revolution was a major contribution to the new country. In modern times, the Bishop James Madison Society, a secret society which was founded in 1812 immediately after his death, is named for him. Also named in his honor is a residence hall at William and Mary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42357363",
"title": "Leroy J. Halsey",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Although he was living in Chicago during the American Civil War of 1861-1865, he was directly affected by the war through his direct family. Indeed, in a letter addressed to Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), who served as the 17th President of the United States from 1865 to 1869, sent on September 26, 1865, Presbyterian minister David Xavier Junkin (1808-1880) explained that Leroy's brother, Henry F. Halsey (1815-1887), had been ruined by Union troops, who took over his factory in Alabama. As a result, Leroy was the only one left to support his brother's family in the vanquished South. Junkin asked Johnson to have the factory returned to Henry Halsey, making it possible for him to earn his livelihood again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19027722",
"title": "William Henry Tibbs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "William Henry Tibbs (June 10, 1816 – October 18, 1906) was a Tennessee attorney and politician who served in the Confederate States Congress during the American Civil War. He was noted as a firebrand States' Rights advocate and Southern secessionist as well as being the last surviving member of the Confederate Congress till his passing in 1906.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2thm3o
|
why do polar bears live at the northern pole and penguins at the southern?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'd assume they could survive in either places. But neither animal would travel the length of the globe without human assistance. And they exist in those places for the same reasons that gorillas live in Africa and kangaroos live in Australia. They evolved there, they're specially adapted to that particular environment and have had no reason to migrate to other places of the world ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bears swim, but primarily prefer land- they basically 'came up' from relatively close places like Russia or Canada. Penguins rook on land but have a really impressive swimming range. And they'd kind of *have* to, given how far away even the closest (and, sfaik, all bear free) land to Antarctica is.\n\nThe niche penguins would have at the North Pole is filled by the Puffin. I have heard of early researchers trying to transplant Emperor penguins to the North Pole, but it's not a very happy story. \n\n(The transplanters didn't take into account exactly how many penguins it takes to make up the 'mass huddle' that penguins do against extreme cold. And ISTR at least one wandered up to the home of someone who didn't know what a penguin was and killed it in a panic).\n\nGiven how dangerous polar bears can be (thus hard to transport) and how screwed the fauna of Antarctica would be if they took off, I couldn't see anyone trying a transplant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* why are polar bears only in the north pole - if I had to guess, I'd say because millions of years ago, a normal bear (generally speaking) was able to get further and further north because there's more ice between the north pole and the nearest land (Russia and Canada). There's no ice, as far as I know, between the southern most land in South America and Antarctica.\n* why are there penguins only in the south pole - again guessing, but I'd say because millions of years ago they were able to fly there. They went further south and found somewhere (Antarctica) they could land. There would have been nowhere similar for them to land year-round in the north (as the ice melts). Once they landed, they settled, then evolved to swim instead of fly.\n* I think polar bears would be able to survive along the coasts of Antarctica. They're certainly adapted to the cold. Their main food is seals, of which there are plenty (they feed on the penguins). The problem is (and this is also a problem for penguins going north): it's not their natural habitat. They could devastate the ecosystem. Polar bears would find an easy meal in penguins (being slow/clumsy on land, and not able to get away in water either since polar bears are great swimmers). In turn that would cause the seal population to decline, and so on.\n* I don't think penguins would thrive at the north pole. There's no land there year round, just ice. There are many predators along the northern land masses that would feed on them and their eggs that aren't present in Antarctica.\n* being on separate sides of the planet is a good enough reason. Only birds, humans and large sea creatures travel those kinds of distances regularly, and humans only do it because technology enables us to. A few hundred years ago, most humans never traveled further than 20 miles from where they were born.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Penguins live in the southern hemisphere, not south pole. A few live in Antarctica, but theres Penguins in Australia that Don't live in polar environments at all. Sydney is more tropical and has penguins. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24408",
"title": "Polar bear",
"section": "Section::::Population and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to the absence of human development in its remote habitat, it retains more of its original range than any other extant carnivore. While they are rare north of 88°, there is evidence that they range all the way across the Arctic, and as far south as James Bay in Canada. Their southernmost range is near the boundary between the subarctic and humid continental climate zones. They can occasionally drift widely with the sea ice, and there have been anecdotal sightings as far south as Berlevåg on the Norwegian mainland and the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is difficult to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20–25,000 or 22–31,000 polar bears worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23878",
"title": "Penguin",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. Several species live in the temperate zone; one, the Galápagos penguin, lives as far north as the Galápagos Islands, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic Humboldt Current that flows around these islands. Also, though the climate of North Pole and South Pole is similar, there are no penguins found in the North Pole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24408",
"title": "Polar bear",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "Compared with its closest relative, the brown bear, the polar bear has a more elongated body build and a longer skull and nose. As predicted by Allen's rule for a northerly animal, the legs are stocky and the ears and tail are small. However, the feet are very large to distribute load when walking on snow or thin ice and to provide propulsion when swimming; they may measure across in an adult. The pads of the paws are covered with small, soft papillae (dermal bumps), which provide traction on the ice. The polar bear's claws are short and stocky compared to those of the brown bear, perhaps to serve the former's need to grip heavy prey and ice. The claws are deeply scooped on the underside to assist in digging in the ice of the natural habitat. Research of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. Unlike the brown bear, polar bears in captivity are rarely overweight or particularly large, possibly as a reaction to the warm conditions of most zoos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22145800",
"title": "Galapagos penguin",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Predators and threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Because of the Galápagos penguin's small size, it has many predators. On land, the penguins may fall prey to crabs, snakes, rice rats, cats, Galapagos hawks, and short-eared owls. While in the water they are preyed on by sharks, fur seals, and sea lions. They also face the hazards of unreliable food resources and volcanic activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21836",
"title": "North Pole",
"section": "Section::::Flora and fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Polar bears are believed to travel rarely beyond about 82° North owing to the scarcity of food, though tracks have been seen in the vicinity of the North Pole, and a 2006 expedition reported sighting a polar bear just from the Pole. The ringed seal has also been seen at the Pole, and Arctic foxes have been observed less than away at 89°40′ N.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "223204",
"title": "Emperor penguin",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The emperor penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the 66° and 77° south latitudes. It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to offshore. Breeding colonies are usually in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs provide some protection from the wind. Three land colonies have been reported: one (now disappeared) on a shingle spit at the Dion Islands on the Antarctic Peninsula, one on a headland at Taylor Glacier in Victoria Land, and most recently one at Amundsen Bay. Since 2009, a number of colonies have been reported on shelf ice rather than sea ice, in some cases moving to the shelf in years when sea ice forms late.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21836",
"title": "North Pole",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The North Pole is substantially warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude on a continental land mass. Despite being an ice cap, it shares some characteristics with a tundra climate (\"ETf\") due to the July and August temperatures peaking just above freezing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fqkrm6
|
what are they doing in those numbered free mason lodges?
|
[
{
"answer": "Networking, it's mostly small business owners being part of a fraternity. They help each other out and also do a lot of charity work. They are secretive, but that's just part of being a brotherhood. There is nothing sinister about Masonic Lodges.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Freemasonry is an ancient system of teaching morality. The numbers on our lodges refer to the order in which the lodge was opened in their country. What we do is recite different moral allegories that we have spent all month (or all year sometimes) memorizing, for the dual purposes of; teaching each other (and ourselves) a strict moral code for living life in a way that has a positive impact on the world around us and ourselves; and keeping these ancient words and lessons alive.\n\nIf you know a mason (I'm sure you do) I hope you have a positive view of him as a man, and if you want to be a mason, simply ask a mason.\n\nWe are not scary. We are not elitist. We are the quiet, unassuming men in your community with have a strong view of community and charity. We might be plumbers or doctors, construction workers or bankers, and we only want to make good men better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "r/Freemasonry knows better. You might want to ask them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4547227",
"title": "Masonic bodies",
"section": "Section::::Overview of relationships between masonic organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "In some countries, notably the United States of America, there are also organizations affiliated with Freemasonry which admit both Master Masons and non-Masons who have some relation to a Master Mason, such as the Order of the Eastern Star, International Order of Job's Daughters (Job's Daughters International) and the Order of the Amaranth. Still other affiliated organizations like the Order of DeMolay and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls admit non-Masons and have no requirement that an applicant be related to a Master Mason. These associated organisations for non-masons are only rarely encountered in European Freemasonry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55873",
"title": "Masonic lodge",
"section": "Section::::Membership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Many Grand Lodges permit Master Masons to be \"plural affiliates,\" or members of more than one Lodge simultaneously. In some jurisdictions plural affiliates are prohibited from serving as an elected officer of more than one Lodge at any given time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55873",
"title": "Masonic lodge",
"section": "Section::::Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Lodges are governed by national, state or provincial authorities, usually called Grand Lodges or Grand Orients, whose published constitutions define the structure of freemasonry under their authority, and which appoint Grand Officers from their senior masons. Provincial Grand Lodges (which in England generally correspond to historic counties) exercise an intermediate authority, and also appoint Provincial Grand Officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "388752",
"title": "Regular Masonic jurisdiction",
"section": "Section::::Regularity and its origins.:History.:Ancients and Moderns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "BULLET::::- If any Set or Number of Masons shall take upon themselves to form a Lodge without the Grand-Master’s Warrant, the regular Lodges are not to countenance them, or own them as fair Brethren and duly form’d, nor approve of their Acts and Deeds; but must treat them as Rebels, until they humble themselves, as the Grand-Master shall in his Prudence direct, and until he approve of them by his Warrant, which must be signify’d to the other Lodges, as the Custom is when a new Lodge is to be register’d in the List of Lodges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55873",
"title": "Masonic lodge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "A Masonic lodge, often termed a private lodge or constituent lodge, is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. It is also commonly used as a term for a building in which such a unit meets. Every new lodge must be warranted or chartered by a Grand Lodge, but is subject to its direction only in enforcing the published constitution of the jurisdiction. By exception the three surviving lodges that formed the world's first known grand lodge in London (now merged into the United Grand Lodge of England) have the unique privilege to operate as \"time immemorial\", i.e., without such warrant; only one other lodge operates without a warrant – the Grand Stewards' Lodge in London, although it is not also entitled to the \"time immemorial\" title. A Freemason is generally entitled to visit any lodge in any jurisdiction (i.e., under any Grand Lodge) in amity with his own. In some jurisdictions this privilege is restricted to Master Masons (that is, Freemasons who have attained the Order's third degree). He is first usually required to check, and certify, the regularity of the relationship of the Lodge – and be able to satisfy that Lodge of his regularity of membership. Freemasons gather together as a Lodge to work the three basic Degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master Mason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55873",
"title": "Masonic lodge",
"section": "Section::::Membership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "A Master Mason is considered a full lifetime member of the Lodge where he received his degrees. He can demit (resign) if he so desires but only if he is in good standing and his dues paid. A Mason might demit for personal reasons or to join another Lodge in those jurisdictions where multiple membership is not permitted. After demitting, he continues to be regarded as a Mason in absentia and may rejoin through a new application, but he and his family have no rights, privileges or claims on Freemasonry. Some sources (Mackey) claim that leaving the lodge does not exempt him from his obligations nor the wholesome control of the Order over his moral conduct. A Mason may be expelled from his Lodge and Freemasonry in general if convicted of particularly serious violations of Civil or Masonic law. Expulsion from all of Freemasonry can only occur from a Grand Lodge while lesser chapters can expel members from their specific lodges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2700031",
"title": "Grand Lodge",
"section": "Section::::In Freemasonry.:Relation to other Masonic bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Other organisations which only accept Master Masons, such as Scottish Rite and the Shriners, have their own governing bodies, not called Grand Lodges, which are not directly accountable to the Grand Lodge in the jurisdiction in which they operate. Other Masonically-affiliated orders, such as the OES and DeMolay, are also independent. However, these organisations' governing bodies, as a rule, defer to their Grand Lodges as the essential authority over Masonry in their regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6pks7y
|
king solomon and his temple
|
[
{
"answer": "According to the Bible, Solomon was the son of King David, and the third ruler of the Kingdom of Israel. He is supposed to have been the one who commissioned the construction of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem, which became the place of worship for what is now the Jewish religion. In the year 586 BCE, the Temple was destroyed by the Babylonian empire. Later on, a second Temple was built on the same spot (the spot currently occupied by the Dome of the Rock), which was renovated by King Herod, and then destroyed during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. As an aside, both Temples were destroyed on the same date of the Hebrew calendar, which is coming up next Tuesday. Anyway, a lot of the conspiracy theories surrounding Solomon's Temple have to do with two groups. First, the Knights Templar, who, during the Crusades, set up their base on the site of the Temple. They went on to be the subject of approximately a metric fuckton of rumors, legends, and theories, including what they may have found on the Temple Mount. The second group is the Freemasons. Masons trace their traditions back to the artisans employed by Solomon to build the Temple, and they are very popular targets for conspiracy theories. To further complicate things, there is very little in the way of written extra-bibilical records of the time period in which Solomon would have lived (not to mention the fact that archaeologists are not in agreement as to when exactly that time period was) *and* the fact that the site of the two Temples is unavailable for excavation, and so much of the archaeological record has already been destroyed during construction and repair work on the two Muslim holy sites currently located there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28329",
"title": "Solomon",
"section": "Section::::Jewish scriptures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "King Solomon is one of the central biblical figures in Jewish heritage that have lasting religious, national and political aspects. As the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem and last ruler of the united Kingdom of Israel before its division into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah, Solomon is associated with the peak \"golden age\" of the independent Kingdom of Israel as well as a source of judicial and religious wisdom. According to Jewish tradition, King Solomon wrote three books of the Bible:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28163575",
"title": "Solomon's Temple",
"section": "Section::::Spiritual legacy.:Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Solomon's Temple appears in \"Solomon and Sheba\" (1959) and in the novel \"King Solomon's Mines\" (1885). It also appears in the video game \"Assassin's Creed\" where the main character Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad deal with Robert de Sablé. It appears too on \"Assassin's Creed Unity\" (2014) where the Knight Templar Jacques de Molay is burned and died.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20533786",
"title": "Siebenberg House",
"section": "Section::::History.:First Temple Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "According to the Bible Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple, was the Holy Temple (Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ: Bet HaMikdash) in ancient Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount (also known as Mount Zion). Before its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BCE. There is no archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomon's Temple, and no mention of it in the surviving contemporary extra-biblical literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29463753",
"title": "Outline of Judaism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Monarchic period.:United monarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- Solomon's Temple – the First Temple, was the main temple in ancient Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount (also known as Mount Zion), before its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BCE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20286371",
"title": "Ain Dara (archaeological site)",
"section": "Section::::Similarities with Solomon's Temple.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "There are many features in common with Solomon's Temple as described in the Book of Kings. The layout of Dara is similar to that of the Biblical temple, which was also of a long room plan with the three room configuration of a portico at the entrance followed by the main chamber with the shrine. The difference is in the antechamber, which is an add-on in the Ain Dara temple. The size of the Solomon temple was by while that of the Ain Dara is long by wide without side chambers. Other similarities include: location on a high raised site overlooking a city; erected on a raised platform, with a narrow portico and a roof supported on pillars flanked by reliefs on the walls, and carvings of similar motifs; and the raised podium. In brief, 33 of the architectural elements found in Ain Dara are tallied with 65 of the features mentioned in the Biblical description of Solomon's Temple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28329",
"title": "Solomon",
"section": "Section::::Biblical account.:Construction projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Solomon's throne is said to have been a spectacle, seeing that it was one of the earliest mechanical devices built by man. Solomon also constructed great works for the purpose of securing a plentiful supply of water for the city, and the Millo (Septuagint, \"Acra\") for the defense of the city. However, excavations of Jerusalem have shown a distinct lack of monumental architecture from the era, and remains of neither the Temple nor Solomon's palace have been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19029669",
"title": "Masonic ritual and symbolism",
"section": "Section::::Symbols in ritual.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Solomon's Temple is a central symbol of Freemasonry which holds that the first three Grand Masters were King Solomon, King Hiram I of Tyre, and Hiram Abiff—the craftsman/architect who built the temple. Masonic initiation rites include the reenactment of a scene set on the Temple Mount while it was under construction. Every Masonic Lodge, therefore, is symbolically the Temple for the duration of the degree and possesses ritual objects representing the architecture of the Temple. These may either be built into the hall or be portable. Among the most prominent are replicas of the pillars Boaz and Jachin through which every initiate has to pass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e5khlo
|
I have heard plenty of times that the communist system in the Soviet Union is not what Karl Marx intended.
|
[
{
"answer": "It was quite far away, for a multitude of reasons. There are many different factors, but this is a very broad summary of why the Soviet Union was never “real” communism.\n\nFirst off, the communism Marx intended for was mainly for advanced industrialized western European countries such as England, France, Germany. This is because the more advanced and industrialized the country, the more distinct class distinction was, with more worker manipulation taking place by the owners of the means of production. This is because with industrialization, the need for a lot of workers decreases, so there was more and more competition for the jobs remaining. This leads to worsening conditions and wages because the workers fighting for jobs left are willing to work for cheaper and longer because they’ll do anything really just to have a job. Marx thought that as this progressed, the workers, or the proletariat, could reach a class consciousness of what was going on and could take the means of production from the bourgeoisie (ruling class) in a revolution. Marx thought that the conditions of the workers in relation to the owners would be so bad that they would reach class consciousness inevitably, and all it would take is for someone like Marx himself to point out the worker manipulation taking place. \n\nWhat Marx envisioned happening was that once the workers took the means of production, there would be a TEMPORARY socialist government which helped the transition to a communist society. Engels created the term “withering of the state”, which was Marx’s idea of socialism in which the temporary socialist government would slowly wither away as the workers would eventually be able to self govern without the need for a state, which would lead to a communist society. Essentially, a communist society would have 0 government or state, with the people collectively owning the means of production to produce the needs of the society. Each person would contribute what they can in terms of work and skills, but ultimately be free to hunt, fish, write, partake in the arts, as they please, without anyone in particular owning any private property, because private property is what leads to state formation, capitalistic society, manipulation of workers, etc. To get rid of private property, there has to be means of production available where any need by the people such as food and shelter can be met collectively.\n\nBut, eastern Europe and its regimes were nowhere close to being an advanced industrialized society, and class divisions were nowhere nearly as prominent. The means of production were quite weak due to the lack of industrialization. Most of the USSR (Tsarist Russia before) was essentially peasants, with a very small ruling class, but not to the degree as western Europe. So, Lenin, inspired by Marx, decided that an elite revolutionary class must bring revolution to the region despite the lack of industrialization, along with class consciousness not being reached by the working class, because the working class itself was not as clear as it was in more advanced countries. His justification for speeding up the process and bringing revolution to a place in Marx’s eyes not ready was because he believed there was no time to wait for industrialization, and that basically it would take too long. Many argue his primary motivation was mainly egotistical, and his opportunistic attitude altered what Marx was after. So, when the bolsheviks took over and the previous Tsar left, the ideally socialist transitionary government took power, but because of unclear class divisions, there was a lot of different groups aiming for power. Along with that, World war 1 was going on at the time with Russia fighting both other countries and internal fighting between the previous regime and the many different factions within Tsarist Russia, such as the Bolsheviks, which essentially destroyed the countries economy. When the Bolshevicks and Lenin took power, the country was in such shambles that it was very evident they weren’t even close to being able to self govern because of the lack of means of production of food, etc. Once Lenin died, Stalin took over the party, and the civil unrest of starvation and poor living conditions led to both the strengthening of Stalin’s regime, along with the millions of deaths as a result of the totalitarianism and need to maintain power. \n\nSo, to sum up your question, the brutal dictatorship that arose in the Soviet Union was completely different then Marx’s communism because in Marx’s vision a communist society had no government. The socialism described by Marx and Engles was meant to be very temporary and help ease the transition post revolution to a self governing society, but in the soviet union that transition phase never withered away and the political party in power stayed in power. Essentially, the USSR never reached communism, and no country ever has reached communism. Every country gets stuck when opportunistic people or political parties take power post revolution and never leave. Yet, many modern day marxists say that because the Soviet Union, or any “communist” country was not and hasn’t yet reached the “end stage” capitalism, had very little clear cut class divisions, and essentially no wide spread working population had real class consciousness about their manipulation by the ruling class, that it may still be possible for a communist society to form. They claim that as capitalism continues to advance in today’s society, with the wealth gap between the owners of the means of production and the working class continuing to rise, wages continually lowering, and competition within the working class rising to the tipping point that a revolution of the working class will be inevitable, as Marx predicted. But, a counter argument to modern day Marxism would be that capitalism always seems to find a way to adapt, and things like union formation, universal basic income, are all adaptations to keep workers from reaching any form of unified class consciousness. A good argument regarding modern day marxism could be whether or not this adaptation has an end point. And of course, one can easily play the human nature card if they wanted to, as a strong argument can be made that humans may very well be incapable of such an endeavor even in proper conditions, because we simply are too dangerous to self govern. Many argue power to be extremely easily corrupt-able, so any attempt at communism will fall short due to the difficulty of the transition state ever actually withering away as Marx and Engels had idealized.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21437278",
"title": "Marxism and Freedom: From 1776 Until Today",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Among those who argued for separating Marx into two distinct thinkers - one young and idealistic and the other mature and scientific - were Soviet theoreticians. Dunayevskaya believed the Communist state turned Marxism into its opposite - the totalitarian theory and practice of the Stalinist and post-Stalin USSR - and signaled a new stage of world 'state-capitalism'. \"Marxism and Freedom\" presented an analysis of the USSR's economy as state-capitalist - rather than socialist, bureaucratic collectivist, or a 'degenerated workers' state' - based on Marx's economic categories and official Soviet statistics. She pointed to the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany and the 1956 Hungarian Revolution as more than revolts against Communism, because they based themselves on Marx's Humanism. Later editions added critical analyses of Mao Zedong and his Cultural Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1354420",
"title": "Politics of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "Karl Marx made no detailed proposals for the structure of a socialist or communist government and society other than the replacement of capitalism with socialism and eventually communism by the victorious working class. Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolsheviks, had developed the theory that a communist party should serve as the vanguard of the proletariat and ruling in their name and interest, but like Marx had not developed a detailed economic or political program. The new communist government of the Soviet Union faced alarming problems, such as extending practical control beyond the major cities, combatting counter-revolution and opposing political parties, coping with the continuing war and setting up a new economic and political system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40949353",
"title": "Workers' self-management",
"section": "Section::::Economic theory.:Soviet-type economies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The Soviet-type economic model as practiced in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc is criticized by socialists for its lack of widespread self-management and management input on the part of workers in enterprises. However, according to both the Bolshevik view and Marx's own perspective a full transformation of the work process can only occur after technical progress has eliminated dreary and repetitive work, a state of affairs that had not yet been achieved even in the advanced Western economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38443689",
"title": "Communist society",
"section": "Section::::In Soviet ideology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "In Soviet ideology, Marx's concepts of the \"lower and higher phases of communism\" articulated in the \"Critique of the Gotha Program\" were reformulated as the stages of \"socialism\" and \"communism\". The Soviet state claimed to have begun the phase of \"socialist construction\" during the implementation of the first Five-Year Plans during the 1930s, which introduced a centrally planned, nationalized/collectivized economy. The 1962 Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, published under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev, claimed that socialism had been firmly established in the USSR, and that the state would now progress to the \"full-scale construction of communism\", although this may be understood to refer to the \"technical foundations\" of communism more so than the withering away of the state and the division of labor per se. However, even in the final edition of its program before the party's dissolution, the CPSU did not claim to have fully established communism, instead claiming that the society was undergoing a very slow and gradual process of transition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38443689",
"title": "Communist society",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.:Politics, law and governance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Marx and Engels maintained that a communist society would have no need for the state as it exists in contemporary capitalist society. The capitalist state mainly exists to enforce hierarchical economic relations, to enforce the exclusive control of property, and to regulate capitalistic economic activities—all of which would be non-applicable to a communist system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29665",
"title": "State capitalism",
"section": "Section::::Use of the term by the left.:Use by later left communists and council communists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The left communist/council communist traditions outside Russia consider the Soviet system as state capitalist. Otto Rühle, a major German left communist, developed this idea from the 1920s and it was later articulated by Dutch council communist Anton Pannekoek, for instance in \"State Capitalism and Dictatorship\" (1936).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42823988",
"title": "Degenerated workers' state",
"section": "Section::::The Soviet experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "After the death of Lenin in 1924, the ruling stratum of the Soviet Union, consolidated around Stalin, was held to be a bureaucratic caste, and not a new ruling class, because its political control did not also extend to economic ownership. The theory that the Soviet Union was a degenerated workers' state is closely connected to Trotsky's call for a political revolution in the USSR, as well as Trotsky's call for defense of the USSR against capitalist restoration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qm5o1
|
with all of our technological advancements, why haven't we been able to recover the titanic yet?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is possible, but to what ends and who would finance it. It would be outrageously expensive and they would be bringing up nothing but nearly rotten metal. But it can be done, check this [link](_URL_0_)\n*edit for spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its expensive, and people arent willing to spend that much money to recover a rusted hulk that big. besides whats the point?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an enormous engineering feat which, while possible, would be very expensive. Also, there are many moral/legal objections owing to the wreckage being considered a mass gravesite (though I doube they'd have the abilitiy to actually stop an ernest effort). Additionally, keep in mind that the Titanic is not in perfect shape down there, so you're not going to raise it in one go. It's not structurally stable. \n\nThat said, they have raised parts of it, and scavenged many, many artifacts from it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19285924",
"title": "RMS Titanic",
"section": "Section::::Wreck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Since its initial discovery, the wreck of \"Titanic\" has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron-eating bacteria on the hull. In 2006, it was estimated that within 50 years the hull and structure of \"Titanic\" would eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32968259",
"title": "Wreck of the RMS Titanic",
"section": "Section::::Salvaging \"Titanic\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1423,
"text": "Almost immediately after \"Titanic\" sank on 15 April 1912, proposals were advanced to salvage her from her resting place in the North Atlantic Ocean, despite her exact location and condition being unknown. The families of several wealthy victims of the disaster – the Guggenheims, Astors, and Wideners – formed a consortium and contracted the Merritt and Chapman Derrick and Wrecking Company to raise \"Titanic\". The project was soon abandoned as impractical as the divers could not even reach a significant fraction of the necessary depth, where the pressure is over . The lack of submarine technology at the time as well as the outbreak of World War I also put off such a project. The company considered dropping dynamite on the wreck to dislodge bodies which would float to the surface, but finally gave up after oceanographers suggested that the extreme pressure would have compressed the bodies into gelatinous lumps. In fact, this was incorrect. Whale falls, a phenomenon not discovered until 1987—coincidentally, by the same submersible used for the first manned expedition to \"Titanic\" the year before—demonstrate that water-filled corpses, in this case cetaceans, can sink to the bottom essentially intact. The high pressure and cold temperature of the water would have prevented significant quantities of gas forming during decomposition, preventing the bodies of \"Titanic\" victims from rising back to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2142052",
"title": "International Mercantile Marine Co.",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "However, the sinking of the \"Titanic\" did not bring about the end of the IMM. Although theoretically powerful due to its continued influence with some of the top American, British, and German shipping companies, the overseeing company never managed to overcome its own financial problems, nor dominate the bulk of the North Atlantic shipping trade, and was therefore not as successful as expected. The company went into receivership in 1915 and was placed in the hands of Franklin, who managed to save it. In the late 1920s, he received grants from the government to American ships (built in the United States or flying the flag) and in 1926 it sold the White Star Line to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. for £7 million, of which £2.35 million was still unpaid when the Royal Mail Group, which was overleveraged and undercapitalized, collapsed in the early 1930s. In 1930, IMM possessed 30 vessels. There were 19 in 1933 and only 11 by 1935.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29302884",
"title": "Replica Titanic",
"section": "Section::::Sarel Gous project (1998–2006).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In 2006 the Replica \"Titanic\" project was scrapped due to high costs and a low amount of support for the project. The last \"Titanic\" survivor, Millvina Dean, had expressed her opposition to the project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32968259",
"title": "Wreck of the RMS Titanic",
"section": "Section::::Condition and deterioration of the wreck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Analysis by Henrietta Mann and Bhavleen Kaur, both of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in conjunction with other scientists and researchers of the University of Seville in Spain, has determined that the wreck of \"Titanic\" will not exist by 2037 and that preservation of \"Titanic\" is impossible. \"Unfortunately, because Titanic is 2.3 miles down, it is very difficult or impossible to preserve. It is film which will preserve it for history now,\" says Mann. \"It has already lasted for 100 years, but eventually there will be nothing left but a rust stain on the bottom of the Atlantic... I think Titanic has maybe 15 or 20 years left. I don't think it will have too much longer than that.\" Other scientists have estimated that \"Titanic\" will last no longer than 14 years, as of 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53591031",
"title": "Titanic replica (Sichuan)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "In 2006 the Replica \"Titanic\" project was scrapped due to high costs and a low amount of support for the project. The last \"Titanic\" survivor to pass away, Millvina Dean, had expressed her opposition to the project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32968259",
"title": "Wreck of the RMS Titanic",
"section": "Section::::Condition and deterioration of the wreck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1449,
"text": "Many scientists, including Robert Ballard, are concerned that visits by tourists in submersibles and the recovery of artefacts are causing the wreck to decay faster. Underwater bacteria have been eating away at \"Titanic\"s steel and transformed it into rust since the ship sank, but because of the extra damage caused by visitors, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that \"the hull and structure of the ship may collapse to the ocean floor within the next 50 years.\" The promenade deck has deteriorated significantly in recent years, partly because of damage caused by submersibles landing on the ship. The mast has almost completely deteriorated and has been stripped of its bell and brass light. Other damage includes a gash on the bow section where block letters once spelled \"Titanic\", part of the brass telemotor which once held the ship's wooden wheel is now twisted and the crow's nest has completely deteriorated. The Canadian director James Cameron is responsible for some of the more significant damage during his expedition to the ship in 1995 to acquire footage for his film \"Titanic\" two years later. One of the MIR submersibles used on the expedition collided with the hull, damaging both and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. Captain Smith's quarters were heavily damaged by the collapse of the external bulkhead, which exposed the cabin's interior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57mzju
|
is it possible to convert ocean (salt) water into drinking water? or is there some inherent property preventing this?
|
[
{
"answer": "Generally, the basic concept is evaporating the water (which leaves the salt behind) and re-condensing it into purified water. The big drawback is that this takes a lot of energy, so it usually makes it more expensive than finding existing sources of freshwater.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes it is possible. The inherent property that makes it difficult is salt. \n\nThere are two basic ways to convert it. \n\n1) Distill the water by boiling it and catching the steam. This takes a massive amount of energy and cannot really be done at a high enough volume to supply a community with water. \n\n2) Filter water. The filter plants are complex and hard to build so they are cost prohibitive, take years to build, and they do take a fair bit of energy to run, but several plants can provide water for a town or even a small city. Those however are not likely to be able to afford to pay for its construction or operation and the technology is not sufficient to provide for large cities yet. \n\nThe US, Australia, and a few other countries are putting significant effort in developing better technology that is cheaper and can filter higher volumes but that tech is years or decades out. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "156787",
"title": "Desalination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Saltwater is desalinated to produce water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. One by-product of desalination is salt. Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37615833",
"title": "2013 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:June.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 430,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 430,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- US and German scientists develop a simple and efficient new method for desalinating seawater, using a small electric field to separate salt from water without needing complex filter membranes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4599275",
"title": "Human overpopulation",
"section": "Section::::Dangers and effects.:Depletion and destruction of resources.:Fresh water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Fresh water can be obtained from salt water by desalination. For example, Malta derives two thirds of its freshwater by desalination. A number of nuclear powered desalination plants exist; however, the high costs of desalination, especially for poor countries, makes the transport of large amounts of desalinated seawater to interiors of large countries impractical. The cost of desalination varies; Israel is now desalinating water for a cost of 53 cents per cubic meter, Singapore at 49 cents per cubic meter. In the United States, the cost is 81 cents per cubic meter ($3.06 for 1,000 gallons).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555251",
"title": "History of salt",
"section": "Section::::Salt production.:Solar evaporation of seawater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "In the correct climate (one for which the ratio of evaporation to rainfall is suitably high) it is possible to use solar evaporation of sea water to produce salt. Brine is evaporated in a linked set of ponds until the solution is sufficiently concentrated by the final pond so that the salt crystallizes on the pond's floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11717197",
"title": "Surface water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Non-saline surface water uses is replenished by precipitation and by recruitment from ground-water. It is lost through evaporation, seepage into the ground where it becomes ground-water, used by plants for transpiration, extracted by mankind for agriculture, living, industry etc. or discharged to the sea where it becomes saline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21161137",
"title": "Water security",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26985",
"title": "Salinity",
"section": "Section::::Environmental considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Salt is expensive to remove from water, and salt content is an important factor in water use (such as potability). Increases in salinity have been observed in lakes and rivers in the United States, due to common road salt and other salt de-icers in runoff.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ew8p9
|
Has there ever been an event similar to the Arab spring?
|
[
{
"answer": "The term 'Arab Spring' in itself is a call back to the 1848 Springtime of Nations, when a wave of revolutions beginning in France spread across all of Europe. Unfortunately I can't give you any information beyond that and so this is quite a poor answer, but if you're interested you should look into 1848.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. One of the best examples of such a thing was the [European Revolutions of 1848](_URL_1_). This was a period of numerous revolutions which sprouted from nationalistic sentiment and agitation.\n\nIt largely spawned from the rapidly changing nature of society in the 1800s. Industrialisation was changing the role of the working class from n agrarian to manufacturing society, particularly in western European cities. This resulted in greater social collections of people within manufacturing districts. Technological advances that happened along side this promoted a popular press amongst the working masses, and allowed them to become increasingly politically aware. As Benedict Anderson (briefly) mentions in his work 'Imagined Communities', this happened at a time when socialist and nationalist goals were becoming far more prevalent, and being exchanged amongst the masses.\n\nIt has been argued (though contentiously, I might add) the feelings of the developing middle class largely fell in line with these nationalist goals that were being thrown around. I would argue that it was less that their interests were the same, and more that both working and middle classes were anti-aristocracy, especially after the experiences of [Enlightened Absolutism](_URL_0_) in the 1700s, and of course the overthrow of monarchical authority during the French Revolution. \n\nThe spark was provided in Italy, with a small scale revolt in Sicily. The real wave of revolutionary fervour was started by the 1848 French Revolution, with numerous other western nations riding the wave of revolutionary fervour, much as like happened with the Northern African and Arab countries in 2011. Revolution reached as far as Western Ukraine, and arguably reached a global scale in South America, though I again see this as a tenuous link to draw. Even the peace in Britain during this period was broken (albeit peacefully) by Chartist agitation, which resulted in mass rallies calling for the repeal of the Corn Laws, which effectively prohibited foreign trade of corn. Its original intention 30 years earlier was to help struggling farmers in a time of high wages and prices, but in a rapidly expanding and increasingly commercialised world, this became ineffective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59157381",
"title": "Operation Active Fence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The Arab Spring was a wave of uprisings and protests in North Africa and the Middle East. The first disturbances were in December 2010 in Tunisia. However, in March 2011, when the Arab Spring reached Syria, the Syrian Civil war broke out. This led to tensions with its northern neighbor of Turkey. The Turkish government, as a member of NATO, asked the alliance for help to protect its airspace from possible missile attacks from Syria, thus causing a possible wider war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8122995",
"title": "Mass mobilization",
"section": "Section::::Mass mobilization in social media.:Examples.:Arab Spring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The Arab Spring is a revolutionary wave of demonstrations and protests occurring in the Arab world that began on Saturday, 18 December 2010. To date, rulers have been forced from power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen; civil uprisings have erupted in Bahrain and Syria; major protests have broken out in Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Oman; and minor protests have occurred in Lebanon, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Western Sahara. Clashes at the borders of Israel in May 2011, as well as protests by Arab minority in Iranian Khuzestan, have also been inspired by the regional Arab Spring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21347657",
"title": "Authoritarianism",
"section": "Section::::Historical trends.:Anti-authoritarianism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "In late 2010, the \"Arab Spring\" arose in response to unrest over economic stagnation but also in opposition to oppressive authoritarian regimes, first in Tunisia and spreading to Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria and Bahrain, and elsewhere. Regimes were toppled in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, and partially in Yemen, and other countries saw riots, civil wars or insurgencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42387437",
"title": "Saving Hope (book)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The Arab Spring was a wave of protests, uprisings and revolutions that erupted at the end of 2010 and beginning of 2011. Starting from the Tunisian city of Sidi Bouzid and spreading throughout the country, the Tunisian Revolution began in mid-December 2010 and was soon faced with government repression. On 14 January 2011, President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali fled to Saudi Arabia. Inspired by the events, the Egyptians organized similar protests on 25 January, which also swelled and spread all over the country. After several failed attempts to stop the movement, President Hosni Mubarak announced his resignation and transferred power to the army on 11 February. These events \"jolted the rest of the region\" and several other Arab countries were quick to follow suit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53816082",
"title": "Arabic media",
"section": "Section::::Political sphere.:The Arab Spring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The Arab Spring was a revolution of both peaceful and violent protests in 2011, with most of the action confined to Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, Libya, Syria, and Bahrain. The protests were in response to mass citizen dissatisfaction of authoritative governments, as well as the lack of freedom of the press, information, and democratic values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10280220",
"title": "Civil resistance",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "BULLET::::- the Arab Spring uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa, starting in Tunisia in December 2010, and resulting, in 2011, in the fall of rulers in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen. In some countries the movements were followed by war (e.g. Syrian Civil War and War in Yemen) or by a return to military rule, as in Egypt in 2013 following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30655949",
"title": "Arab Spring",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "The Arab Spring (Arabic: الربيع العربي) was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread across North Africa and the Middle East in the early 2010s. It began in response to oppressive regimes and a low standard of living, starting with protests in Tunisia (Noueihed, 2011; Maleki, 2011). In the news, social media has been heralded as the driving force behind the swift spread of revolution throughout the world, as new protests appear in response to success stories shared from those taking place in other countries (see Howard, 2011). In many countries, the governments have also recognized the importance of social media for organizing and have shut down certain sites or blocked Internet service entirely, especially in the times preceding a major rally (see The Telegraph, 2011). Governments have also scrutinized or suppressed discussion in those forums through accusing content creators of unrelated crimes or shutting down communication on specific sites or groups, such as through Facebook (Solomon, 2011; Seyid, 2011).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lnyj5
|
why do people still vouch for supply-side economics?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is an answer I gave this in r/asksocialscience about a month ago _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is an answer I gave this in r/asksocialscience about a month ago _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23650449",
"title": "Laffer curve",
"section": "Section::::In US political discourse.:Use in supply-side economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Supply-side economics is a school of macroeconomic thought that argues that overall economic well-being is maximized by lowering the barriers to producing goods and services (the \"Supply Side\" of the economy). By lowering such barriers, consumers are thought to benefit from a greater supply of goods and services at lower prices. Typical supply-side policy would advocate generally lower income tax and capital gains tax rates (to increase the supply of labor and capital), smaller government and a lower regulatory burden on enterprises (to lower costs). Although tax policy is often mentioned in relation to supply-side economics, supply-side economists are concerned with all impediments to the supply of goods and services and not just taxation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31741",
"title": "Unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Controlling or reducing unemployment.:Supply-side solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Advocates of supply-side policies believe those policies can solve this by making the labour market more flexible. These include removing the minimum wage and reducing the power of unions. Supply-siders argue the reforms increase long-term growth by reducing labour costs. This increased supply of goods and services requires more workers, increasing employment. It is argued that supply-side policies, which include cutting taxes on businesses and reducing regulation, create jobs, reduce unemployment and decrease labour's share of national income. Other supply-side policies include education to make workers more attractive to employers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29136076",
"title": "Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought",
"section": "Section::::Supply-side economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Supply-side economics is a school of macroeconomic thought that argues that economic growth can be most effectively created by lowering barriers for people to produce (supply) goods and services, such as adjusting income tax and capital gains tax rates and by allowing greater flexibility by reducing regulation. Consumers will then benefit from a greater supply of goods and services at lower prices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18819",
"title": "Microeconomics",
"section": "Section::::Assumptions and definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive. This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them have the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services. In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers have the ability to influence prices. Quite often, a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good model. However, the theory works well in situations meeting these assumptions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174607",
"title": "Supply-side economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Supply-side economics is a macroeconomic theory arguing that economic growth can be most effectively created by lowering taxes and decreasing regulation, by which it is directly opposed to demand-side economics. According to supply-side economics, consumers will then benefit from a greater supply of goods and services at lower prices and employment will increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29136076",
"title": "Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Supply-side economics developed during the 1970s in response to Keynesian economic policy and in particular the failure of demand management to stabilize Western economies during the stagflation of the 1970s in the wake of the oil crisis in 1973. It drew on a range of non-Keynesian economic thought, particularly Austrian School thinking on entrepreneurship and new classical macroeconomics. The intellectual roots of supply-side economics have also been traced back to various early economic thinkers such as Ibn Khaldun, Jonathan Swift, David Hume, Adam Smith and Alexander Hamilton. Typical policy recommendations of supply-side economics are lower marginal tax rates and less regulation. Maximum benefits from taxation policy are achieved by optimizing the marginal tax rates to spur growth, although it is a common misunderstanding that supply side economics is concerned only with taxation policy when it is about removing barriers to production more generally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40624374",
"title": "Transformation in economics",
"section": "Section::::Relocalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Because there is no new productive sector to emerge, the market system seeks to reinstate its new balance through new modes of doing business. Deglobalization is taking place, supply chains are turning into demand chains, large economies are focusing on their internal markets, outsourcing is followed by “backsourcing”, returning activities back to the countries and locations of their origin. The original slogan of “Think globally, act locally,” is being re-interpreted as exploiting global information and knowledge in local action, under local conditions and contexts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fgx0ft
|
Do satellites maintain the same velocity forever?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm going to answer your question, but just because somebody will \"correct\" me if I don't touch on it first: in an elliptical orbit, the velocity does change, because the speed and direction of the satellite's motion is changing throughout the orbit. But of course I understand what you mean - whether an orbit loses energy, or whether it can keep on going on forever.\n\nIn practical terms, yes, orbits can and do lose energy. In particular, this happens in low Earth orbit, because there's still a very thin amount of atmosphere up there. This produces a weak drag force, which has to be countered. The International Space Station actually has to have little boosts now and again, or else it will start to slow down and fall to the Earth.\n\nSatellites and the Earth are also not perfect spheres, and there are also other gravitating bodies in the solar system. These effects can produce mild torques on satellite orbits that can cause their orbits to precess. If things are aligned right, this can sometimes add up to quite a significant effect.\n\nBut even in an idealised universe where you can ignore all of those effects, the system will still radiate gravitational waves, which means that the system is *extremely* slowly losing energy, and the satellite could theoretically slow down and plummet to Earth. But in reality, for anything but the most massive objects, this is absurdly slow. Real satellites would be affected more by space gas or the Moon or Jupiter than by gravitational waves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10261692",
"title": "Ground track",
"section": "Section::::Satellite ground tracks.:Effect of orbital period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "As the orbital period of a satellite increases, approaching the rotational period of the Earth (in other words, as its average orbital speed slows towards the rotational speed of the Earth), its sinusoidal ground track will become compressed longitudinally, meaning that the \"nodes\" (the points at which it crosses the equator) will become closer together, until at geosynchronous orbit they lie directly on top of each other. For orbital periods \"longer\" than the Earth's rotational period, an increase in orbital period corresponds to a longitudinal stretching out of the (apparent retrograde) ground track.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10261692",
"title": "Ground track",
"section": "Section::::Satellite ground tracks.:Effect of orbital period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "A satellite whose orbital period is an integer fraction of a day (e.g., 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours, etc.) will follow roughly the same ground track every day. This ground track is shifted east or west depending on the longitude of the ascending node, which can vary over time due to perturbations of the orbit. If the period of the satellite is slightly longer than an integer fraction of a day, the ground track will shift west over time; if it is slightly shorter, the ground track will shift east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177602",
"title": "Outer space",
"section": "Section::::Earth orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "To achieve an orbit, a spacecraft must travel faster than a sub-orbital spaceflight. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of is about 36 MJ/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. Spacecraft with a perigee below about are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to , it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere. The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8724",
"title": "Doppler effect",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Satellite communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground station. The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature. Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a signal is changed progressively during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65927",
"title": "Angular velocity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "For example, a geostationary satellite completes one orbit per day above the equator, or 360 degrees per 24 hours, and has angular velocity \"ω\" = 360 / 24 = 15 degrees per hour, or 2π / 24 ≈ 0.26 radians per hour. If angle is measured in radians, the linear velocity is the radius times the angular velocity, formula_1. With orbital radius 42,000 km from the earth's center, the satellite's speed through space is thus \"v\" = 42,000 × 0.26 ≈ 11,000 km/hr. The angular velocity is positive since the satellite travels eastward with the Earth's rotation (counter-clockwise from above the north pole.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568972",
"title": "Geocentric orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Spacecraft with a perigee below about are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to , it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere. The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "909019",
"title": "Sun-synchronous orbit",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "If one wants a satellite to fly over some given spot on Earth every day at the same hour, it can do between 7 and 16 orbits per day, as shown in the following table. (The table has been calculated assuming the periods given. The orbital period that should be used is actually slightly longer. For instance, a retrograde equatorial orbit that passes over the same spot after 24 hours has a true period about ≈ 1.0027 times longer than the time between overpasses. For non-equatorial orbits the factor is closer to 1.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p4mwt
|
What is the trick to making a Rupert's drop?
|
[
{
"answer": "When I did it in my materials science lab as an undergrad we used a bunsen burner to melt glass stirring rods and let it drop into a bucket of ice water. How are you doing it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Prince Rupert's drops are produced by dropping molten glass drops into cold water. The water rapidly cools and solidifies the glass from the outside inward. This thermal quenching may be described using a simplified model of a rapidly cooled sphere. Prince Rupert's drops have remained a scientific curiosity for nearly 400 years due to two unusual mechanical properties: when the tail is snipped, the drop disintegrates explosively into powder, whereas the bulbous head can withstand compressive forces of up to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Prince Rupert's drops (also known as Dutch or Batavian tears) are toughened glass beads created by dripping molten glass into cold water, which causes it to solidify into a tadpole-shaped droplet with a long, thin tail. These droplets are characterized internally by very high residual stresses, which give rise to counter-intuitive properties, such as the ability to withstand a blow from a hammer or a bullet on the bulbous end without breaking, while exhibiting explosive disintegration if the tail end is even slightly damaged. In nature, similar structures are produced under certain conditions in volcanic lava and are known as Pele's tears.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1888838",
"title": "Drop swindle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The drop swindle was a confidence trick commonly used during the 19th and 20th centuries. Employing a variety of techniques the con usually consists of the \"dropper\", who purposely drops a wallet containing counterfeit money near a potential victim. As the victim goes to pick it up the \"dropper\" turns to pick it up at the same moment pretending to have found the wallet as well. Acting as if he is in a hurry the \"dropper\" offers to give the wallet to the victim in exchange for money while the victim can claim the reward from the owner. One of the leading practitioners of this confidence trick was \"Kid Dropper\" Nathan Kaplan, an early twentieth century gangster. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2916022",
"title": "French drop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The French drop, also known as \"\"Le Tourniquet\"\", is a sleight of hand method used by magicians to vanish a small object such as a coin. It is one of the oldest methods of vanishing, however it is still effective when properly executed. Although the method is known as a vanish, it can also be used as a switch or transformation, giving rise to numerous possibilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19973365",
"title": "Blue Moon Rising (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Rupert's quest is to slay a dragon, proving his worth to the kingdom; however Rupert knows he has been sent to die. He stubbornly refuses to run away and proceeds with the undertaking. Rupert seeks out the notorious Night Witch who, upon finding out he is the grandson of her long dead lover provides him with a map to find a dragon. To get to his destination Rupert must pass through the Darkwood, an area in the forest where no light ever penetrates, where nothing lives except demons. Passing through the endless night Rupert is attacked by countless demons which appear to be hunting in packs though demons have never hunted in packs before.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1574904",
"title": "Prince Rupert's drop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "A scholarly account of the early history of Prince Rupert's drops is given in the \"Notes and Records\" of the Royal Society of London. Most of the early scientific study of the drops was performed at the Royal Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27567472",
"title": "Rupert and the Ice Castle",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Rupert has a number of magic ice pills which will revive his friends. He must find and give each of them an ice pill in order to set them back to their hometown Nutwood. However Jenny has set some traps for Rupert. Each time Rupert is hit by a toy he will lose one ice pill. If he is left with no pills he will freeze himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
brb4t7
|
how do all these different fruit and plant seeds form?
|
[
{
"answer": "There wasn't an identifiable first apple or orange seed. They would have evolved from some preceding plant species slowly over time. So over thousands of generations the preceding plant becomes more and more like an apple or orange tree until eventually it matches what we would recognize as an apple or orange tree but there wasn't a single point where you could say one generation wasn't an apple or orange tree and the next was. Think of it like a person aging. Any given day they won't look any different than the day before but look at two pictures taken 20 years apart and you will see how they aged.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37694",
"title": "Seed",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Many structures commonly referred to as \"seeds\" are actually dry fruits. Plants producing berries are called baccate. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach) have a hardened fruit layer (the endocarp) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30686855",
"title": "Zeltnera namophila",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The fruit is a capsule containing about 50 seeds, and each plant can produce many capsules. It is thought to be a ruderal species, producing many tiny seeds that spread about and sprout up in disturbed habitat in a weedlike manner. The seeds probably also persist for a long time in the soil seed bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1509558",
"title": "Onopordum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "These plants propagate only by seed. The seed heads mature in mid-summer, releasing their seeds. The fruit is a glabrous achene, 4–6 mm long and with 4-50 ribs. The pappus consists of many rows of simple, fine to minutely rough hairs, united in a circular base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59039",
"title": "Melaleuca",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The fruit are woody, cup-shaped, barrel-shaped, or almost spherical capsules, often arranged in clusters along the stems. The seeds are sometimes retained in the fruit for many years, only opening when the plant, or part of it, dies or is heated in a bushfire. In tropical areas, seeds are released annually in the wet season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53089250",
"title": "Nuphar carlquistii",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Seeds are also found preserved individually and as groupings or masses of seeds ranging between and . One of the specimens has several hundred seeds grouped closely together and enclosed in a thick matrix, thought to be the preserved jelly like matrix that the seeds first dispersed from the fruit in. Other masses show lesser amounts of matrix, and the ones showing little to no matrix are less grouped together. The individual seeds range between long with an oval to barrel shape and an operculum at one end. Each seed has a distinct raphe ridge running vertically down it from the base to the slightly asymmetrical operculum. While most of the seed coat structure is not preserved enough to identify, the outer cell layer is distinct, showing small pentagon shaped cells with straight walls, a feature seen in fossil and living \"Nuphar\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54198474",
"title": "Lathraea clandestina",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Mature fruits can project their 4 to 5 large seeds some distance into the surrounding area. The plant then disappears from the surface until the following spring. Seedlings grown from seed will take about ten years to produce their first flowers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10843",
"title": "Fruit",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Multiple fruits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an \"inflorescence\"). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4xxrsj
|
What significance did the shape of the bomb dropped in Nagasaki have?
|
[
{
"answer": "The \"active\" part of the Nagasaki bomb was an immensely heavy egg-shaped collection of high explosives, uranium metal, a plutonium core, and a lot of complicated electronics. The casing was developed to hold all that together and keep it from rolling violently (which could damage the electronics) and more or less have predictable aerodynamic properties (it was not ideal, but it worked). \n\nIf you could see it in an X-ray it [would look like this](_URL_0_) — a very snug fit. (This is taken from a declassified manual regarding the electronics system maintenance of these kinds of bombs.) [This visualization](_URL_1_) gives you an indication of the different parts on display there.\n\nIt is entirely functional — there is not really any \"aesthetics\" or \"symbolism\" to it, just aerodynamics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The atomic bomb cloud over Nagasaki, Japan was described in \"The Times\" of London of 13 August 1945 as a \"huge mushroom of smoke and dust\". On 9 September 1945, \"The New York Times\" published an eyewitness account of the Nagasaki bombing, written by William L. Laurence, the official newspaper correspondent of the Manhattan Project, who accompanied one of the three aircraft that made the bombing run. He wrote of the bomb producing a \"pillar of purple fire\", out of the top of which came \"a giant mushroom that increased the height of the pillar to a total of 45,000 feet\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20018206",
"title": "First Into Nagasaki",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Photographs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Photographs of Nagasaki had already been printed September 1, 1945. Caption: \"Nagasaki Today - Japanese workers (foreground) carry away debris in a devastated area of atom-bombed Nagasaki. Smokestacks and a lone building stand in the background. This picture is from Domei, official Jap news agency.\" Transmission credit is to Associated Press Wirephoto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21790",
"title": "Nagasaki",
"section": "Section::::History.:Atomic bombing of Nagasaki during World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "For 12 months prior to the nuclear attack, Nagasaki had experienced five small-scale air attacks by an aggregate of 136 U.S. planes which dropped a total of 270 tons of high explosive, 53 tons of incendiary, and 20 tons of fragmentation bombs. Of these, a raid of August 1, 1945, was most effective, with a few of the bombs hitting the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, several hitting the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, and six bombs landing at the Nagasaki Medical School and Hospital, with three direct hits on buildings there. While the damage from these few bombs was relatively small, it created considerable concern in Nagasaki and a number of people, principally school children, were evacuated to rural areas for safety, thus reducing the population in the city at the time of the atomic attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6123373",
"title": "Full House (aircraft)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Assigned to the 393d Bomb Squadron, 509th Composite Group, it was used as a weather reconnaissance plane and flew to the city of Nagasaki, designated a \"tertiary target\", before the final bombing to determine if conditions were favorable for an attack. The aircraft also flew as a spare aircraft during the mission to bomb Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, but landed at Iwo Jima when the B-29 Bockscar was able to complete the mission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20018206",
"title": "First Into Nagasaki",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:pre-atomic raids on Nagasaki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "On, August 10, 1944 Nagasaki had been bombed by B-29s \"launched from China against Nagasaki's urban area. The twenty-four attacking bombers unloaded 4 tons of fragmentation bombs and 77 tons of incendiaries on the primary. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3170141",
"title": "USS Van Valkenburgh (DD-656)",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Final operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "On 15 September, as \"Van Valkenburgh\" steamed into Nagasaki harbor, every available vantage point topside was occupied by men silently taking in the incredible devastation wrought by the atomic bomb dropped on the city over a month before. During her week there, \"Van Valkenburgh\" stood by as Allied prisoners of war were taken on board the hospital ship which lay moored at the port's principal dock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1791662",
"title": "William Penney, Baron Penney",
"section": "Section::::The Manhattan Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "Along with RAF Group Captain Leonard Cheshire, he accompanied the American Team to Tinian Island from which the Hiroshima and Nagasaki missions were flown. On 9 August 1945 he witnessed the bombing of Nagasaki. The US authorities had controversially stopped them seeing the Hiroshima detonation, but at the last minute Penney and Cheshire were granted permission to fly in the B-29 \"Big Stink\", one of the observation planes that accompanied the Nagasaki weapon delivery bomber \"Bockscar\". Due to the belated permission, \"Big Stink\" missed its rendezvous with the bomber at Nagasaki. They saw the Nagasaki detonation from the air at a distance. As the leading expert on the effects of nuclear weapons, Penney was a member of the team of scientists and military analysts who entered Hiroshima and Nagasaki following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945 to assess the effects of nuclear weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
erfec8
|
how is that alcohol 70% is better than alcohol 90% as disinfectant ?
|
[
{
"answer": "70% alcohol has 30% water, and that water is necessary for the alcohol to interact at all with the cells it’s killing.\n\nIt’s like cooking pancakes. You know how when your pan is really hot and you put in pancake batter, it cooks the outside really fast? And then you can flip it, but it does the same thing to the other side and the middle doesn’t cook very well? 90% alcohol is like that. It doesn’t penetrate well into cells or clumps of microbes because it just fries everything it touches on the outside. The 70% alcohol is like cooking on medium heat with a moderately hot pan. It contacts the outside, too, but the water helps it penetrate to cook the inside (denature proteins deeper) as well. \n\nFrom _URL_2_\n\n > The presence of water is a crucial factor in destroying or inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms with isopropyl alcohol. Water acts as a catalyst and plays a key role in denaturing the proteins of vegetative cell membranes. 70% IPA solutions penetrate the cell wall more completely which permeates the entire cell, coagulates all proteins, and therefore the microorganism dies. Extra water content slows evaporation, therefore increasing surface contact time and enhancing effectiveness. Isopropyl alcohol concentrations over 91% coagulate proteins instantly. Consequently, a protective layer is created which protects other proteins from further coagulation.\n\n > Solutions > 91% IPA may kill some bacteria, but require longer contact times for disinfection, and enable spores to lie in a dormant state without being killed. A 50% isopropyl alcohol solution kills Staphylococcus Aureus in less than 10 seconds (pg. 238), yet a 90% solution with a contact time of over two hours is ineffective.\n\nEdit: Because there’s been some confusion, I’d like to add two points. First, higher concentrations of alcohol solutions (specifically isopropyl) may still be superior as solvents, for use on things like electronics for cleaning, because water is generally bad for electronics. Second, what we’re talking about above you should think of as referring only to ethanol and isopropyl alcohol (which is not safe to consume). There are other alcohols but we’re just sticking to the ones commonly used.\n\nEdit 2: Some people have questioned the source, which is good and part of science. The source offered a decent write-up of what numerous PhD mentors have taught me, and it’s consistent with the science. At the risk of making this too long, here’s what the CDC has to say, from _URL_0_ \n\nAdding water enhances effectiveness of isopropyl and ethyl alcohols: \n\n > The most feasible explanation for the antimicrobial action of alcohol is denaturation of proteins. This mechanism is supported by the observation that absolute ethyl alcohol, a dehydrating agent, is less bactericidal than mixtures of alcohol and water because proteins are denatured more quickly in the presence of water \n\nIsopropanol and ethanol effective bactericides\n\n > The bactericidal activity of various concentrations of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) was examined against a variety of microorganisms in exposure periods ranging from 10 seconds to 1 hour 483. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was killed in 10 seconds by all concentrations of ethanol from 30% to 100% (v/v), and Serratia marcescens, E, coli and Salmonella typhosa were killed in 10 seconds by all concentrations of ethanol from 40% to 100%. The gram-positive organisms Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes were slightly more resistant, being killed in 10 seconds by ethyl alcohol concentrations of 60%–95%. Isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) was slightly more bactericidal than ethyl alcohol for E. coli and S. aureus 489.\n\nKills viruses at these concentrations \n > Ethyl alcohol, at concentrations of 60%–80%, is a potent virucidal agent inactivating all of the lipophilic viruses (e.g., herpes, vaccinia, and influenza virus) and many hydrophilic viruses (e.g., adenovirus, enterovirus, rhinovirus, and rotaviruses but not hepatitis A virus (HAV) 58 or poliovirus) 49. \n\nIsopropanol similar to chlorhexidine\n_URL_1_",
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"answer": "When you put high concentrations of alcohol on a microbe, it immediately goes into defense mode. For some bacteria this means turning into spores. Then they wait until the offending agent is gone, and re-emerge from their spores. However, the lower concentrations aren’t recognized as quickly by the bacteria, giving it more time to kill the bacteria before it had the opportunity to raise its defenses.",
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"answer": "As a pharmaceutical production technician,I use 70% Isopropyl alcohol daily. The 30% sterilized water allows it time to spread the alcohol over the surface without evaporating too fast. I believe it takes about 15 seconds of contact time for it to disinfect, but at 90% it would only last 5 seconds so not enough time to fully kill even half the bacteria/spores. \nPlus 70% IPA smells good as hell.",
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},
{
"answer": "Kind of a follow up question. Which one should you use for evaporating water out of your ears?\n\nWhen I was a kid we would use 90% if we had stubborn water that we couldn't shake out but if you got to western with the alcohol it would hurt.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "There are many responses already about 70% being a better disinfectant, but it's important to keep in mind that this is about being a disinfectant only. For instance, for cleaning residue off like if you want to prep a surface for glue application or any coating where you want a clean surface, 99% IPA may be better because it quickly evaporates. There's more more chance of dust and residue from slower evaporating products like 70% IPA, as well as water reacting with stuff (e.g. electronics), which is why I stick to using 90% or 99% IPA in those cases.",
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{
"answer": "I didn't know it was better as a disinfectant. It's definitely not better as a detergent. Mixing salt and alcohol makes the most effective cleaning solution I am aware of, and 90% is absolutely better than 70% for that.\n\nInteresting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to OP, why does alcohol this strong kill microbes yet humans can literally drink 70% ethanol and be fine? Why can we use it to clean our pores and oily skin without much harm but it seemingly instantly kills microbes?",
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},
{
"answer": "It has to do with evaporation but to be clear alcohol isn't a very good disinfectant in the first place. It's more of a germicide.\n\nYou need a large contact time, if it evaporates you're not soaking. Soaking tools in it works well. In soaking you find the strongest stuff you can find (we use denatured alcohol so 100%) With surfaces it's almost always recommended to use bleach as a disinfectant, (which can still have a soak time of 10-15 min) and alcohol as the noncorrosive, sterile cleaner to wipe up the bleach residue.\n\nO and for most phenolic disinfectants like lysol, they need to dry on the surface. If you don't let them dry you're reducing their effectiveness. \n\nMy whole family is in this world. I work in medical device manufacturing where everything has to be kept sterile (we make alcohol swabs and we have to sterilize the alcohol tanks), my sister is the environmental and health manager for a hospital (she is directly responsible for any hospital born pathogens), my father managers the water treatment and supply for our town. \n\nAlso people at all your major colleges say the same thing. \n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "I for one use it for athletes foot and jock itch.\nIt’s the only thing that really works.\nThis is all good info I didn’t know before.",
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{
"answer": "The alcohol works by denaturing proteins and disrupting membranes. In order to do a good job of this it needs enough contact time to propagate along transmembrane proteins through to the other side, before it evaporates.\n\nFor proteins, it is disrupting the hydration shell of water and changing the shape of the protein, often making it clump together.\n\nFor membranes, it is disrupting a phospholipid bilayer so that the cell can't keep its insides inside or its outsides outside.\n\nBoth of these processes require a bit of time, which the water content of 70% isopropanol provides.\n\nEdit: I will add that laboratory testing confirms that 70% isopropanol is in fact better at killing bacteria than 90% isopropanol.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've heard that if you take that 70% alcohol disinfectant and dilute it with 1 part 70% alchohol and 9 parts of water, then take one part of the resulting mixture and dilute it in another 9 parts of water and repeat this process a lot of times eventually you'll end up with a disinfectant that is so strong it will kill you on contact.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So should I clean my bong with 70% or 90%?",
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},
{
"answer": "One of these things I learned on reddit a while ago.\n\nPS, Tip: Because I can only get 96% alcohol here:\n\n182ml alcohol (96%) + 68ml distilled (!) Water = 70% Alcohol.\n\nSo I am always mixing a batch of \"good\" alcohol. But the 96% I use like it is for cleaning stuff, electronics etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The water kills the cell barriers, and the water getting in is what kills the cells. +90% also evaporates too fast, which means the alcohol has less time to work.\n\n70% for disinfecting, 90% for cleaning PC parts (because of the lack of water content and how fast it evaporates).",
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{
"answer": "70% alcohol “tricks” bacteria/microorganisms into thinking that it’s water, so the bacteria will open up its spores to take it in, which ends up killing it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Similar-ish thing is observed in case of salt as well. Till 4% conc, salt actually helps bacteria to grow. Further increasing conc will kill them.\n(For most of the bacteria, not all of them)",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "478185",
"title": "Disinfectant",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Alcohols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Alcohol and alcohol plus Quaternary ammonium cation based compounds comprise a class of proven surface sanitizers and disinfectants approved by the EPA and the Centers for Disease Control for use as a hospital grade disinfectant. Alcohols are most effective when combined with distilled water to facilitate diffusion through the cell membrane; 100% alcohol typically denatures only external membrane proteins. A mixture of 70% ethanol or isopropanol diluted in water is effective against a wide spectrum of bacteria, though higher concentrations are often needed to disinfect wet surfaces. Additionally, high-concentration mixtures (such as 80% ethanol + 5% isopropanol) are required to effectively inactivate lipid-enveloped viruses (such as HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52835581",
"title": "Alcohol (medicine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Side effects of alcohols include skin irritation. Care should be taken with electrocautery as ethanol is flammable. Types of alcohol used include ethanol, denatured ethanol, 1-propanol, and isopropyl alcohol. It is effective against a range of microorganisms though does not inactivate spores. Concentrations of 60 to 90% work best.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "52835581",
"title": "Alcohol (medicine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Alcohol has been used as an antiseptic as early as 1363 with evidence to support its use becoming available in the late 1800s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$1.80–9.50 per litre of 70% denatured ethanol. In the United Kingdom it costs the NHS about 3.90 GBP per liter of 99% denatured alcohol. Commercial formulations of alcohol based hand rub or with other agents such as chlorhexidine are available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18653559",
"title": "Surrogate alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Dangers to health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Besides alcohol, there are many other toxic substances in surrogate alcohol such as hydrogen peroxide, antiseptics, ketones, as well as alcohols other than ethanol (drinking alcohol) such as isopropanol and methanol. Methanol, and, to a far lesser extent isopropanol, is a poison. The effect of other chemicals on health has not been adequately studied, and so the health risks, while assumed, are unclear. However, observations in countries with high consumption of surrogate alcohols, such as Russia, indicate that the impurities in the consumed drink lead to high mortality rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5498149",
"title": "Non-alcoholic drink",
"section": "Section::::Scientific definition.:Low-alcoholic drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "However alcoholic drinks cannot be further purified to 0.00% alcohol by volume by distillation. In fact, most drinks labeled non-alcoholic contain 0.5% ABV as it is more profitable than distilling it to 0.05% ABV often found in products sold by companies specializing in non-alcoholic drinks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11651736",
"title": "Alcohol powder",
"section": "Section::::Public health concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Powdered alcohol would generally share the health risks that are associated with traditional liquid alcohol consumption, although there may be some differences in its effects related to differences in consumption potency, differences in characteristics for storage, concealability, and portability, lack of familiarity, and potentially novel delivery methods. Excessive consumption of alcohol can result in acute overdose, intoxication-related accidental injury, compromised judgment, and longer-term negative health consequences including liver disease, cancer, and physiologic dependence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829190",
"title": "Hand sanitizer",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "For health care settings like hospitals and clinics, optimum alcohol concentration to kill bacteria is 70% to 95%. Products with alcohol concentrations as low as 40% are available in American stores, according to researchers at East Tennessee State University.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
4d7sa0
|
Why is mathematics so applicable to all the phenomena we can observe and describe in the universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why is painting so good at reproducing the way the universe looks? Because we invented painting in order to be good at reproducing the way the universe works. Why is math so good at describing the things we observe in the universe? Because we invented math to be good at describing the things that we observe in the universe.\n\nEvolutionary it seems to be advantageous to create patterns. Patterns are things we see and then use to infer what will happen to things that we can't see. Patterns are not of the universe, but are created by us (see optical illusions for some clearly artificial patterns). At some time in the past, we needed to be able to communicate patterns between ourselves and so language was created. But as our patterns became more sophisticated, we needed a more exact way to communicate them, and numbers were invented. Since numbers were invented to communicate sophisticated patterns, they're really good at helping us create new patterns. Eventually, people enjoyed it so much that it evolved from being a language into being an art for it's own sake.\n\nIt is totally reasonable and expected that math would be effective in the physical sciences. We invented it to be really good at making patterns, so we shouldn't worship it or ascribe any nontrivial metaphysical properties to it when it does what it was created to do. Math is very sophisticated and most people who use it in practice, applied to the real world, are not trained in it's sophistication. They know enough to do their job. Because they haven't studied it in detail or at the level of abstraction it was meant to be at, they don't understand how it can be so good at finding patterns and some infer that it must be mystical. But, as has been seen many times in the past, a lack of understanding does not justify metaphysical conclusions. \n\n\nMath doesn't explain everything, it's just that the things that can be explained by math are patterns and math does patterns really well.\n\nIt should be noted that this is philosophical question with no actual answer, this is my interpretation and arguments. I also have a bigger spiel about it, you can find more [here](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You might be interested in this famous paper by Nobel laureate Eugene Wigner: [The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "One thing to bear in mind is that in the vast majority of cases those neat, tidy closed-form expressions that we see as describing physical phenomena are only close approximations—even in theory. Especially so with the formulae we study up to, say, post-graduate physics. It's only since the second half of the 20th century that we have been able to routinely work with, for example, strong enough electric fields to have to worry about—and make use of—the non-linear terms that always were there, but were waved away as negligible…which for a very long time they were.\n\nYou pose an essentially philosophical question and many people quite legitimately question the application of real numbers and continuous functions between sets of them to describe the physical world. Are there open intervals in nature? What would such a thing look like? If there are not, how are we justified in a using the apparatus of mathematical analysis on measurements?\n\n/u/functor7 has it right—mathematics does so well (but still has substantial areas of weakness) in describing the world because that's what we invented it for: surveying land, understanding the rise and fall of the water in a river, knowing when the seasons will turn. But we are pattern finding, and making, machines so we've taken our description of the patterns we found in nature and made more patterns from those, and more from those, and so on.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "373299",
"title": "Language of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::The meanings of mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
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"text": "BULLET::::- Mathematics describes the real world: many areas of mathematics originated with attempts to describe and solve real world phenomena - from measuring farms (geometry) to falling apples (calculus) to gambling (probability). Mathematics is widely used in modern physics and engineering, and has been hugely successful in helping us to understand more about the universe around us from its largest scales (physical cosmology) to its smallest (quantum mechanics). Indeed, the very success of mathematics in this respect has been a source of puzzlement for some philosophers (see The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences by Eugene Wigner).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "11283",
"title": "Falsifiability",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 687,
"text": "Like all formal sciences, mathematics is not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the empirical world, but rather, mathematics is occupied with the theoretical, abstract study of such topics as quantity, structure, space and change. Methods of the mathematical sciences are, however, applied in constructing and testing scientific models dealing with observable reality. Albert Einstein wrote, \"One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "175456",
"title": "Mind–body dualism",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for dualism.:Special sciences argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Physics is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. On the other hand, the study of meteorological weather patterns or human behavior is only of interest to humans themselves. The point is that having a perspective on the world is a psychological state. Therefore, the special sciences presuppose the existence of minds which can have these states. If one is to avoid ontological dualism, then the mind that \"has\" a perspective must be part of the physical reality to which it \"applies\" its perspective. If this is the case, then in order to perceive the physical world as psychological, the mind must have a perspective on the physical. This, in turn, presupposes the existence of mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18831",
"title": "Mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Mathematics arises from many different kinds of problems. At first these were found in commerce, land measurement, architecture and later astronomy; today, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory, a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18974136",
"title": "Mathematical beauty",
"section": "Section::::Beauty and philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "These mathematicians believe that the detailed and precise results of mathematics may be reasonably taken to be true without any dependence on the universe in which we live. For example, they would argue that the theory of the natural numbers is fundamentally valid, in a way that does not require any specific context. Some mathematicians have extrapolated this viewpoint that mathematical beauty is truth further, in some cases becoming mysticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 599,
"text": "Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure. Eugene Wigner's paper, \"The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences\", is a very well known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well known mathematicians such as Gregory Chaitin, and others such as Lakoff and Núñez) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "171377",
"title": "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences",
"section": "Section::::Responses to Wigner's original paper.:Max Tegmark.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
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"text": "A different response, advocated by physicist Max Tegmark, is that physics is so successfully described by mathematics because the physical world \"is\" completely mathematical, isomorphic to a mathematical structure, and that we are simply uncovering this bit by bit. The same interpretation had been advanced some years previously by Peter Atkins. In this interpretation, the various approximations that constitute our current physics theories are successful because simple mathematical structures can provide good approximations of certain aspects of more complex mathematical structures. In other words, our successful theories are not mathematics approximating physics, but mathematics approximating mathematics.\n",
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] | null |
5hc3og
|
please explain how the current wage gap in america works.
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no wage gap. At least not in how you likely think. \n\nThe 75% number often thrown around for women is based on all jobs for women averaged and compared to all jobs for men averaged. That gives you false information. Men hold a larger percentage of the top paying jobs. This is often because they work more overtime, take fewer sick days, and do not take time off to have/raise children often. This means that they will get promotions more often because they have done more work. It is also due to the fact that women tend to gravitate toward lower paying jobs such as Nurse, teacher, and lots of jobs in the humanities. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "33421387",
"title": "Racial wage gap in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Specific groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Wage gaps have been identified for many races within the United States; however, research has found that the size and causes of the wage gap differs by race. For instance, the median black male worker earns 74 percent as much as the median white male worker, while the median Hispanic male worker earns only 63 percent as much. To understand more fully and accurately the subject of the racial wage gap in the United States, it is useful to look at different races individually to understand the causes and outcomes that are unique to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39426115",
"title": "Gender pay gap",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.:Industry sector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "A study of the US labor force in the 1990s suggested that gender differences in occupation, industry and union status explain an estimated 53% of the wage gap. A 2017 study in the \"American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics\" found that the growing importance of the services sector has played a role in reducing the gender gap in pay and hours. In 1998, adjusting for both differences in human capital and in industry, occupation, and unionism increases the size of American women's average earnings from 80% of American men's to 91%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3349493",
"title": "Gender pay gap in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Explaining the gender pay gap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Any given raw wage gap can be dissected into an \"explained\" part, due to differences in characteristics such as education, hours worked, work experience, and occupation, and/or an \"unexplained\" part, which is typically attributed to discrimination, differences not controlled for, individual choices, or a greater value placed on fringe benefits. This may be further explained when America takes into account that men are more likely to negotiate for higher pay. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon, when negotiating pay, 83% of men negotiated for a higher wage compared to the 58% of women who asked for more. Researchers say that women who do request either a raise or a higher starting salary are more likely than men to be penalized for those actions. Cornell University economists Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn stated that while the overall size of the wage gap has decreased somewhat over time, the proportion of the gap that is unexplained by human capital variables is increasing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "60912600",
"title": "Wage Growth",
"section": "Section::::Trends.:The United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1014,
"text": "Although minimum wage law has been applied in many states to increase wage growth, this has not been an effective solution to improve the growth due to the increasing living costs. Also, the unequal wage growth in the income distributions is identified as one of the major reasons of the weak wage growth in the United States. Despite a slight rise in real wage amongst low-income earners due to the minimum wage law, the wage growth is mostly contributed to the high income-earners. Since 2000, 3 per cent of wage growth identified in the lowest tenth of the income distribution compared to the 15.7 per cent in the top tenth. Other factors that contribute to the current sluggish weak wage growth include the decline of labor unions, poor educational attainment and lack of competitiveness in the labour market. The decline of labour unions and the emergence of big corporations made difficulties for workers to negotiate for a higher wage. This created a lower productivity growth causing the weak wage growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33637428",
"title": "Structural inequality",
"section": "Section::::Employment.:Education level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Finally, weak labor market policies since the 70’s and 80’s have failed to address the income inequalities that those who are employed at lower income levels have to face. Namely, the union movement began to shrink, decreasing the power for employees to negotiate employment terms, and the minimum wage was prevented from increasing alongside inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18862",
"title": "Minimum wage",
"section": "Section::::Surveys of economists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Surveys of labor economists have found a sharp split on the minimum wage. Fuchs et al. (1998) polled labor economists at the top 40 research universities in the United States on a variety of questions in the summer of 1996. Their 65 respondents were nearly evenly divided when asked if the minimum wage should be increased. They argued that the different policy views were not related to views on whether raising the minimum wage would reduce teen employment (the median economist said there would be a reduction of 1%), but on value differences such as income redistribution. Daniel B. Klein and Stewart Dompe conclude, on the basis of previous surveys, \"the average level of support for the minimum wage is somewhat higher among labor economists than among AEA members.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "39425949",
"title": "Gender inequality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current issues for women.:Workplace Inequality.:Pay gap.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "With regards to the gender pay gap in the United States, International Labour Organization notes as of 2010 women in the United States earned about 81% of what their male counterparts did. While the gender pay gap has been narrowing since the passage of the Equal Pay Act, the convergence began to slow down in the 1990s. In addition, overall wage inequality has been increasing since the 1980s as middle-wage jobs are decreasing replaced by larger percentages of both high-paying and low-paying jobs, creating a highly polarized environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1l2xh0
|
I heard that diamonds do not show up on x-rays. Is this true and if so, why?
|
[
{
"answer": "All matter absorbs X-rays depending on the atomic density: the higher the density, and the heavier the element, the more X-rays are absorbed. Since carbon is about as lightweight an element as you can get, X-rays can pass through diamonds without being absorbed (meaning they \"don't show up\" in a conventional radiography).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1570741",
"title": "Diamond clarity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Most inclusions present in gem-quality diamonds do not affect the diamonds' performance or structural integrity and are not visible to the naked eyes. However, large clouds can affect a diamond's ability to transmit and scatter light. Large cracks close to or breaking the surface may reduce a diamond's resistance to fracture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20036754",
"title": "Star of the South",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "At the time of discovery, the diamond had a rhombic dodecahedral form with obtuse angles and twenty four facets. There was a deep depression in one of the facets, indicating that it had accommodated another octahedral crystal. A few black specks were also present, caused by titanic iron or volcanic sand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17855617",
"title": "Diamond flaw",
"section": "Section::::Internal flaws.:Needles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Diamond crystals in a diamond can also be present in the form of long and thin needles. These may not be visible to the naked eye, unless the needle inclusion is of a noticeable color or has a noticeable presence. Some needle inclusions are also known to give diamonds a special look.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26436970",
"title": "ImaGem Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Breakthroughs and technological advances.:Fluorescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "The most frequent color of fluorescence in diamonds is blue, but it occurs in many other colors. Fluorescence may be exhibited at both short-wave and long-wave UV. The strength of fluorescence also varies from slight to high. The value of a diamond may be affected by the presence and strength of fluorescence in a diamond. As a matter of personal taste, some people prefer a diamond with fluorescence. Although some may disagree, it is generally thought that fluorescence may influence perception of body color in a diamond and hence, its color grade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53610128",
"title": "Red diamond",
"section": "Section::::Properties determining value.:Fluorescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Most red diamonds display fluorescence when placed under UV light. In the case of colorless diamonds, the presence of fluorescence is generally considered to lower a diamond's value. This is in fact completely arbitrary, as the blue glow may or may not appeal to a buyer, but it certainly has no bearing on the composition, durability or beauty of a diamond. However, it is a generally accepted notion in the diamond assessment world that the presence of fluorescence will lower a diamond's value. Just like with clarity, in the case of fancy color diamonds, this is not a detracting characteristic if it is present. If anything, its presence ensures the buyer that the diamond is genuine, as fluorescence is not recreated in lab grown diamonds. If a red diamond has fluorescence, it will not add or detract from its value or resale value in any way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8082",
"title": "Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:In space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Although diamonds on Earth are rare, they are very common in space. In meteorites, about three percent of the carbon is in the form of nanodiamonds, having diameters of a few nanometers. Sufficiently small diamonds can form in the cold of space because their lower surface energy makes them more stable than graphite. The isotopic signatures of some nanodiamonds indicate they were formed outside the Solar System in stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17855617",
"title": "Diamond flaw",
"section": "Section::::Internal flaws.:Pinpoint inclusions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "As the name implies, these inclusions are minute crystals usually white in color present inside the diamond. These resemble a small point of light and are, by far, the most common of all flaws found in diamonds. Most pinpoint inclusions do not affect the clarity of a diamond and are not visible to the naked eye and are usually not indicated on the plotting diagrams of diamond reports. Comments such as \"pinpoints not shown\" may be listed in the comments section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5wwq9m
|
Did Napoleon and Wellington ever meet face-to-face?
|
[
{
"answer": "No they never met face to face. Though they faced each across the battlefield at Waterloo Napoleon fled for Paris after his defeat and eventually surrendered to the British at Rochefort. At no time despite his captivity in British custody did he and Wellington ever meet face to face.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "659044",
"title": "The Yellow Admiral",
"section": "Section::::Allusion to real events and persons in history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Napoleon was losing and winning battles on the ground in 1813 and early 1814, but his western flank was weak, and Wellington's army had crossed Portugal and Spain, in April taken Toulouse on its way to Paris. Napoleon agreed to exile on the isle of Elba in April 1814, as its emperor. He slipped off the island about ten months later on 26 February 1815, landing on the coast of France a few days later. He was met by the Fifth Regiment of France south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815; they chose to join forces with him as he marched to Paris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38622517",
"title": "Battle of San Millan-Osma",
"section": "Section::::Allied offensive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "After the various subtractions of strength, Joseph had only 33,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 100 guns to face Wellington. Napoleon assured his brother Joseph that the British general was too cautious to take advantage of the situation, and in any case could only deploy 30,000 British and 20,000 Portuguese soldiers. In fact, Wellington was on the march with 52,000 British, 28,000 Portuguese, and 25,000 Spanish troops. The three-division right wing under Rowland Hill was ordered to advance northeast to Salamanca while the six-division left wing led by Thomas Graham crossed to the north bank of the Douro River inside Portugal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8474",
"title": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington",
"section": "Section::::Military career.:Waterloo campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4356",
"title": "Battle of Waterloo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Upon learning that the Prussian army was able to support him, Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment across the Brussels road. Here he withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon of the 18th, aided by the progressively arriving Prussians. In the evening, Napoleon committed his last reserves, the senior battalions of the French Imperial Guard infantry. The desperate final attack of the Guard was narrowly beaten back. With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank, Wellington's Anglo-allied army counter-attacked in the centre, and the French army was routed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7107749",
"title": "Denis Decrès",
"section": "Section::::Consulate and First Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Attacked by three British ships as he was trying to break the blockade of Malta on 30 March 1800, with 200 sick and 1000 soldiers aboard, he surrendered early next day, after a defence of nearly eight hours, after disabling two of his opponents, and with half of his crew killed or wounded. He was exchanged in August 1800, and returned to France, where the First Consul personally gave him an honour sabre - a grant of the \"Arms of Honour\" which Napoleon had introduced as a decoration before instituting the Légion d'honneur - and appointed him as maritime prefect at Lorient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53134366",
"title": "Henry Percy (British Army officer)",
"section": "Section::::Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "When Napoleon returned in 1815, Major Percy served as ADC to the Duke of Wellington and was present at the battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo. Having been the only one of Wellington's ADC to survive the Waterloo unscathed, he was assigned the task of carrying to London and the two French Imperial Eagles captured in the battle. Leaving immediately after the battle, he crossed the channel on board the sloop HMS Peruvian, having rowed some of the way. Arriving at Downing Street on 21 June at 10 PM he informed foreign secretary, Earl Bathurst about the victory, thereafter he delivered the dispatch and captured eagles to the Prince Regent at St James's Square. He was promoted to brevet Lieutenant Colonel as a reward for his service. He retired in 1821 and died in 1825.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69880",
"title": "Napoleon",
"section": "Section::::Ruler of France.:French Empire.:Hundred Days.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Napoleon's forces fought two Coalition armies, commanded by the British Duke of Wellington and the Prussian Prince Blücher, at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks by the French and drove them from the field while the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon's right flank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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